m ,1 • I Jiltbrarg THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL, SCIENTIFIC AND RAILWAY GAZETTE, VOLUME YII.-1844. LONDON: R. GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW; J, WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORN; WILEY & PUTNAM, NEW YORK GALIGNANI, PARIS. rRINTKD AND PLBLISHED, BV THE rROPKIETOR, WILLIAM LAXTON, AT THE OFFICE OF THE CIVIL ENGINEER ANO ARCHITECT'S JODRNAL, 10, FLUDYER STREET, WHITEHALL. INDEX. Academv of Scib.nces. Paris, 70. Academy, Roval, 6, 18, 301, 344, 345, 376. Architectural exhibitions, 183, 223. Architectural prizes, 6, 184. Lectures by Prof. Cockerell, 23, 25. >V Act, Building, 133, 374,410, 411. Actinic, 195, 250. Aerated sea water, 223. Aerial locomotion. Moat's, 61. Aerometer, Hutchison's, 197. Agricultural CiiEMiSTRy, Profes- sor Brande's lectures on, 11, 71, 87, 109, 147, 193. Charcoal, 99. Improvement, Ireland, 101. Agriculture and engineering, 20. Aher, D. 69. Aitkin's atmospheric railway, 318. Albano, B., C. E., on flax mills, 69. Cannabic composition, 86, 152. Altar, 6, 179,440. Analysis of soils, 110. Annealing telescope specula, 45. ANTiauiTiEs, see Architecture, Ec- clesiastical Buildings. Arbroath Abbey, 85. Arch, 82, 93, 128, 247. Athens, 14, 247. Canals, 1. Central America, 92. Cherchell, 96. Delos, 248. Donanwerth, 22. Drontheim, 100. Egypt, 1, 79, 85, 181, 247. Gallo-Roman town, 92. Holyrood House, 85. Khorsabad, 411. Lvcia, 92, 143. Mycenas, 181, 247. Orchomenus, 247. Orleansville, 22. Parma, 411. Parthenon, 14. Pompeii, 181. Pyramids, Egypt, 79, 181, 247. Mexico, 92. Rome, 248. Rosetta stone, 85. St. Stephen, Bristol, 251. Sybil's Grotto, 92. Teocalli, 93. Thebes, 247. Vatican Grotto, 92. Xanthus, 143. Apparatus, feeding, Grafton's, 30. Arago, Notice of the discoveries of Laplace, 333. on the Observatory at Paris, 380. Arch, see Bridge, 82, 93, 128, 147, 181,247. Egyptian, 82, 181. Fulton's observations on, 181. Nicholson's diagram, 297. strength of, 431. Archaeology, Lectures on, 22. Architects. — Alexander, 223. AUom, T., 223, 266. Bardwell, W. 266. Barry, 23, 43, 64, 141, 183, 216, 217, 245, 254. Baseve, G. 43. Batson, 223. Beazlev, 184. Brandon, R. 184, 223, 254, 266. Blore, 64. Brecksbeare, 245, 266. Burton, D. 44. Chambers, Sir \V. 97. Cockerell, 22, 183. - Competency of, 47, 317. Derrick, 439. Donaldson, Prof. 317. Donthorn, 184. Duff, 9. Duront, 24. Foster, 413. Foulstone, 5. Gandv, 44. GranvUle, W. L. 240. Grove, 18. Gwilt, Josepb, 44. 47, 99, 141, 147, 182, 254, 374. Habershon, M. 383. Hardwick, P. 31, 64, 216, 253, 304. Hopper, T. 184. Hosking, Prof. 44, 181, 184, 254. Incompetency of, 47, 317. Janson, 47. Kendall, H. E. 223. Ladrone, 24. Lamb, E. B. 184, 223, 303, 399. Leeds, W. H. 140. Little, T. 223, 244. Montferron, 24. Morrison, Sir R. 254, 271. Nash, 64. Newman, 47. Architects. Observations on, by Dr. Fulton, 18, 26,65, 97, 139, 181. 216, 254, 294, 344, 384, 413. Perrault, 380. Pugin, 21, 373. Robinson, J. C. 105. Scoles, J. J. 223. Shaw, 25. Smirke, Sir R. 5,44,64, 141, 183, 245, 266. Smith, G. 216. Soane, Sir J. 83. Stevens, 223. Stieler, 32. Svduey, 10, 43, 305. Tite, 9, 216. Turner, 26, 184. Vitruvius, 23, 172, 240, 414. Von Gartner, 10. Wilkins, 44, 216. Wyatt, 184, 254. Architects, Royal Institute of, British, 18, 34, 47, 79, 86, 92, 100, 126, 176,206,241, 248. Ireland, 97, 271. German union, meeting of, 84,412. Architectural. — Authorship, 99, 123. Camdenism and Paganism, 182, 213, 289, 343. Collection, 303. Colouring, 294. Composition, 294, 343. Drawings, 5, 183. Education, 23, 254, 271. Exhibition, 65, 183, 223. Gallery, 303, 399. Geology, 55, 206, 248. Museum, 303, 399. Nomenclature, 25, 126, 172. Policy, 147. Prizes, 6. Publications, 5, 294, 414. Societies, 24. Society, Bristol, 33. Camden, 6, 24, 182, 213, 266, 289, 400, 439. Exeter, 289. Oxford, 289. Study, 24. Taste, 24, 254, 271. Architecture, see Building, Can- didas, Competition, Decoration, Ecclesiastical. Architecture. altar, 6. altar pieces, 179. altar rails, 6. altar screens, 179, 440. arcades, 305. arch, 82, 93, 181, 247, 297. bed mouldings, 194. buttresses, 214. Byzantine, 25, 32. cable moulding, 93. capitals, 15. chairs, 6. china, 44. church, 6, 25, 34, 179. clubs, 43, 98, 140. colleges for, 23. colouring, 294. columns, 15, 16, 24, 98, 139, 241. commandment tables, 179. composition, 294, 343. cross, 214. decorative, 29. doors, 93. Dublin, 8, 18, 97. ecclesiastical, 25, 34, 179, 441. Egyptian, 24, 79, 93, 181, 247. entablature, 242. entasis, 47, 105. exhibition. Royal Academv, 183. facades, 294, 343. fashions, 24. fluting, 15, 241. frontage, 294. gallerv, 219, gothic, 173, 213, 343. arch, 297. Greek, 240. halls, 219. Indian, 24. intercolumniation, 139. Ireland, 8, 18, 271. iron, 10, 134. Italian, 139, 171. landings, 219,221. lectures on, 23, 271. lighting, 219. Liverpool, 331. massing 294, 343 metopes 17, 140 Mexican 92 mouldings 94, 172 Newark 47 Norman 57 Northamptonshire 47 "/ o! 5 g- / INDEX. Architecture. observations on, by Dr. Fulton 18, 26, 65, 97, 139, 181, 216, 254, 294, 344, 384, 413 opistbodome 15, 16 orders 374 painting 16 Partbenon 14 pediment 139, 172, 413 pews 6 pointed 173 arcb 181 polychromic 16, 306 porticos 16, 23 prayer desks 440 pronaos 15 pulpits 6 pyramids, Egypt 79 Mexican 92 roodloft 180,441 roodscreen 441 Royal Academy 6, 183, 184, 223. rustication 139 screens 179, 253,440 shops 343 skylights 219 staircase 219, 221 •tairs 219 stalls 440 steps 219 styiobate 16 symbolism 34, 214 triglyphs 15, 140 triptychs 179 volutes 5 vfindows98, 139, 173 areas of cuttings and embankments, 263, 400 an blister, the 415 artesian well, Southampton 293 Calais 32 Naples 61, 92 Arts, Society of, proceedings 26, 30, 59, 76, 129, 401 Arts, Scotish Society of, proceed- ings 7, 9, 19, 48, 55, 84, 127, 249 ashlar, cost of 298 asphalte, experiments on 53 France 355 joinings 11 pipes 355, 411 Trafalgar Square 71 waterproof 355 Astronomical observations 78 clocks 249 dipleidoscope 260 discoveries of Laplace 333 observajpries, list of, 390 Paris observatory 380 telescope. Lord Rosse's 48, 332, 371, 404 Athens 14 atmosphere 110, 364 Mmospheric railway, Aitken's system 368 Chameroy's system 389 Hallette's system 435 Leonard's report on 349 ■ Stephenson's report on 20S, 207 ■ engine 240 .lutnmaton calculator 70 axles. Brigg's 154 Rowan's 198 barrages mobiles 387 Bardwell, W., on St. Margaret's church 266, 347 Harlow, W. H., railway keys, 369, 400 Harry, Mr., the Lords and the Houses of Parliament 217 report on New Houses of Parliament 329 harytes, sulphate of 125 batlii, Bagneres 22 —— Euiiiburgli 32 beacon, Bullock's 348 Goodwin Sands 252, 348 iron 252 whistling 96 wrought iron 67 Beale's rotary engine 206 beams, flexure of 264, 430 bearings for locomotives 10 Belfast Nat. History Society 45 bells, cast steel 412 belts, endless 323 bevelling instrument, joiner's 21 Biography and Anecdotes. — Aher, D. 69 architectural 204 Barry, James 23, 345 Beaumont, Sir G. 437 Bonnington 377 Bouvard 299 Briggs, J. P. 28 Brougham, Lord 437 Buddie, J. 69 Canonica 118 Coleridge 436 Cotman, J. S. 399 Deurer, F. 46 Fuseli 345, 437 Havdon, B. R. 26, 301, 345, 377, 417,436. .Tessop, W. 28 Lepere 390 Loudon, J. C. 70 Maddox, G. 118 Nicholson, P. 425. Northcote, J. 376 Paginini, C. 390 Palmer, H. R. 371 Penn, J. 69 Piloty 46 Poissant 299 Ranson, R. G. 09 Reynolds, Sir J. 25, 20, 28, 301, 378,416,437,438 Smith, \V. 391 Vandyck 436 Varley, J. 378, 379 Wallace, Prof. 68 Wheelwright, Capt. 27, 125 Wilkie, Sir David 301, 345, 378, 436 Bishop's wood paving 238 bitumen, experiments on 53 France 355 joints 11 pipes 355, 411 Trafalgar Square 7 1 waterproof 355 bListing, submarine 251 blister, the art, by Timon 415 blocks, Lenox's 408 blowing off 409 Bodmer's furnaces 153 bond, iron hooping for 363 boilers, Bodmers 152 brass tubes 91 brickwork 108 clothing 62 Collier's 152 feeding apparatus for 30, 101 . 275 ■ feed pipes 62, 276 • furnaces 91 Collier's 152 ■ Johnstone's 321 Jones' 155 ■ marine salinonieter 7 • Napier's improvements 61 - priming 7, 61 • rivetting 108 • supplv of water to 101, 108 • tubulkr 02, 90, 130. Booker's improvement in iron 76 Booth's patent rotary engine 35 bottle oork^ 112 improved 114 Boulton and Watt's directions for the use of the steam engine 106, 150, 273 new safety valve 117 Borrie's patent engine, 113, 155 Brande, Professor, lectures on agri- cultural chemistry 11, 71, 87, 109, 147, 193 brasses, rubbing impressions 47 breakwater, malleable iron 28 brewing refrigerator 323 Bricklayers' Arms Station 177 bricks, drying 153 Egyptian 81 experiments on 53 Hodgson's 409 Bridges : — Aire 90, 120, 128, 246 arch 90, 126, 128, 247 Allantara 247 Athlone 444 Boston 126 Boverie V^S, 248 Brioude 247 Carrington 90, 120 Carrouse 357 Centres 246 Chester 247 Clisson47 Cologne 332 Cubzac 357 Dee 247 Dublin and Drogheda 10 Gloster 24 7 Hampton Court 126 High Level 32, 128 iron 90, 240 Gena 247 Lattice 10 Leeds 90, 126 London 24 7 Llanrwyst 247 Lyon 357 Mantes 247 Melon 247 Mersey 412 Molda'u 84 Narni 247 Neuilly 246 Newcastle 32, 128 Pont de Boverie, 128, 248 Portumna 245 Prague 84 Rhine 332 Rhone 357 Royal Canal 10 Seine 247 Severn 247 Shannon 245, 444 St. Maxence 247 Suspension 412 Swivel 246 Thames 126, 130, 183,412 theorv of 247 Tvne"32, 128 Wellington 128, 246 Vielle Brioude 247 Waterloo 247 Westminster 130, 183, 412 Whitadder 127 wood 84 brine apparatus 239, 409 Bristol and West England Architec- tural Society 33 Bristol, Queen Elizabeth's School 413 British Association for the Advance- ment of Science 401 Broadmeadon's iron process, 405 bronze, on the preparation of 34 Brown's improved chain cable 112 tiling 429 Brunei's propeller 36 Brydell's metallic roofs 35 Buck, G. W. on locomotive engine tubes 104 Budd's calcining metals 284 Building Act 133, 371,410, 411 Building, notes on, see Arch, Archi- tectural, Beam, Brick, Cement, Chimney, Materials, Roof, Stone, Tile, Window, Wood. arch 90, 126, 128, 247, 248, 297 ashlar 298 barn 23 beams, flexure of 264 bond 363 bricks 409 centres 246 chimneys 153, 265 coflTerdara 84, 238, 246 concrete 84 cottages 127 engine house 107 fire-proof roof 285, 321, 348 flooring 321, 423 flexure of beams 204 freestone 298 flues 153 foundations on sand 119, 238, 29S gate hinge 300 girder 128 Greek 240 gritstone 298 iron 85, 249, 363 joists, metallic 35 landings 219, 221 latches 320 lighting 219 locks 320 materials, experiments on 53 plain work 298 roofs, fire-proof 285,321 metallic 35, 177, 397 slate 423 timber, of midrlle ages 137 sand 119, 238 sashes 26, 111 sea-walls, floating stones 12S sewers 201 shutters 111 skylights 219 slate 423 specifications 298 staircase 22, 219 stairs 219 steps 219 stone, cost of 298 tiles 409 warehouses 348 windows 20, HI wood 423 Byrne, Prof, on the magnitude of the earth 178 original solution of an im- on terrestrial refraction, 262 portant problem 295 Cable improved, 112. Canal : — American, 282. Ashmin — erroman, 1. boats, 252, 292. Canadian, 283. Casey on, 282. Cornwall, 283. Coventry, 332. Egyptian, 1 English, 283. Erie, 283. Grand Junction, 332. Forth and Clyde, '^32. Kennel and Avon, 332. Lehigh, 238. Lockgate, Erie, 283. Galbraitb's, 24?. Thenard's, 387. Mersev and Irwell, 19. Middlesex, 283. Ohio, 282. propelling boats, 252, 292. Red Sea, 1. Rochdale, 332. Schuvlkill, 283. INDEX. Canals — (contimied), Severn improvement, 85. screw propellers on, 292. ship, I. Suez, 1. Thenard's loekgates, 387. tracking boats, 252, 292, 408. Union, 292, 332. United States, 283. Warwick and Birmingham, 332. Welland, 327. wier, Thenard's, 387. Wilts and Berks, 332. Worster and Birmingham, 332. calculating machines, 70. calculator, automaton, 70. Camden Societv, 6, 24, 182, 213, 266, 289,400,439. Camdenism and Paganism, 182, 213. camera obscura, Newton's, 286. caoutchouc impermeable to gas, 428. casting iron in France, 357. Candidas, a few plain words to the Camdenists, 213. Candidus's Note Book — Fasciculus I.V. to LX., pp. 4, 98, 294, 343, 373, 413. Cannabic composition, 86, 152, 266. Carrington bridge, Nottingham, 90. Carron, supply of water to boilers, 103 Casey, W. R., C.E., on causes of failures of canals in America, 2S2. casting telescope specula, 45. Castor's improved, 114. cathedral of Drontheira, 100. cements, Bertram, 160. Egyptian, 80. Keene's, 153. lime, 12. magnesian, 12. Roman, 53. cemeteries, on laying nut, 41. cemetery, Nunhead, 244,265. chain cable improved, 112. Chameroy's atmospheric railway, 380. Chapel, see Ecelesiastical Building. Chatsworth, 149, 403. Chemistry, see Electricity, Magne- tism. acetic acid. 193. actinic, 195, 250. agricultural, Professor Brande's lectures on, 11, 13, 71, 87, 109, 147, 193. air, 319. alumina 14, 72 ammonia, purification of 38. 318 analysis 110 barytes 125 boiling, 235, 318 Brande's 'ectures 11, 13, 71,8", 109,147,193 carbonate of lime 11 { carbonic acid, condensation of, 38 properties of, 148, 195, ' 318 1 combustion 110, 234, 385 : conduction 288 congelation 289 cyanogen, production of, 38 properties of, 318, 443 electric decomposition 207 evaporation 318 expansion 235 Faiaday's lectures 234,289, 318, 358,385 fire 234 flame 385 fluids 318 gases 236, 319 gluten 193 gum 193 gypsum 13, 88, 103 heat 234,288,318, 358, 385 hydrocyanic acid 38 hydrogen 234, 310 Chemistry — {continued). ice 289 Laming's process 38 latent heat 289 lectures on II, 13, 71, 87,109, 147, 193, 234, 289, 318, 358, 385 light 234 lime 11, 72, 73 magnesia 72, 73 mercury 319 monochromatic lamp 385 oxide of iron 73, 189 oxygen 234, 319 phosphate of lime 13 phospheric acid 109, 385 phosphorus 234 potassium 87 prussic acid 38 pyrophorus 234 radiation 358 silica 14, 72 solidification 289 specific heat 319, 404 starch 193 steam 318 sulistitution of elements 100, 104 sugar 193 sulphate of lime 13 soda 289 sulphuric acid 87 sulphuretted hydrogen 87 vaporization 319 water 147,289,318 Cheverton's wood-sawing process 286 chimney flues 153 Boyd's 419 construction of 265 St. Rollox 414 choristers school, Oxford 439 | church architecture 25 [ Church, see Ecclesiastical Building ' church buildine in Ireland 8 church furniture altar 6 altar pieces 179, 184, 350 altar rails 6 aHar screens 170, 440 hells 412 carving 175 commandment tables 170 cross 211 hangings 440 painted glass 21, 171, 200, 321 pews 6 pulpits 6 prayer desks 440 rood loft 180, 441 rood screen 441 screens 179, 253, 440 stalls 440 stained glass 21, 174, 200, 321 Church yards, policy of il.seeCeme. teries Civil Engineers, see Engineers Civil Engineers, Institution of 22, 33, 09, 84, 86,94, 127, 176, 186,245, 444 Clarke, Hvde, C.E., on embanking, 270 clay, Brande on 14 chemistry of 14, 110 'London 120, 129, 270 t-lockwork 96 astronomical 249 chib architecture 43, 98, 140 conservative 43 dimensions of 43 Gresham 98 coal breaking machines 291 . Chilian 27 France 355 parrot 48 Scotch 48 statistics of 32, 355 ■ Welsh 27 Cockerell's, Professor, lectures on architecture 23 Collier's boiler furnaces 152 Colour, see Decoration Commission on the Fine Arts, choice of subjects 353 Competition: — anecdotes of 65 cemetery, Nunhead 244, 265 choristers school 430 Dr. Fulton on 65 compensating pendulum 328 composition cannabic 86, 152 compressed air engine 411 Conservative club 43 contract, government for steamers 02,05 coppering, electro 75 copying machine, Newton's 286 corks, bottle 112 Cornish engines 306, 355 cost of water 308 cottons, waterproofing 324 crane, Woolwich 17 Croll's gas apparatus 390 Crosby hall 130 Croydon palace 138 cubic standard, Parker on 20 cuttings, areas of 263, 400 Daouerrf.otype 50, 252, 3.i2 Davies's propellers 367 Decoration. — altars 179, 351 architectural 294 Baden 60 Barry's report 329 Brown's tiling 429 cannabic composition 86, 152 carving 175 castings 1 75 Chinese paper hangings 386 churches 179 colour 397 Eastlake 350 encaustic 350 Exeter Change 306 exhibition, houses of parliament 174, 206,330 flooring 175, 239, 363 foreign (juackery IHO form. Hay on 307 geometric design 168 glass 175, 180, 206, 321 Greece 16 Hay, D. R. 163, ISO, 249, 307 houses of parlianiput 174, 2.")(i, 329 iron, France 357 lectures on 22 mosaic 175, 409 mural decoration 350 ornamental glass 321 painting in architecture 16 paper hangings 385 quackery 180 Kaffaelesque 83 remarks on 20 Sang 180 stained glass 21, 174, 20G, 321 stalls 440 tapestry paper 386 tempera 350 terra cotta church 321 tiles 175, 400,429 Yaile's flooring 239 York minster 10 Decorative Art Society 385 Dee, river, lighthouse 29? delineator, profile 237 Dent's dipleidoscope 260 Denton's level 424 Derby sewage 261 Design. — autographic instrument 127 Bessemer's pigment 285 camera obscura 286 colour, 285, 304 Design — [continued). copying busts 23 machine 28fi daguerreotype 59, 252, 332 elliptograph 249 energiatype 280 grandeur 304 Newton's copying machine 286 paint 285, 304 pigment 285 profile delineator 237 volutes 6 Design, School of 59 geometric 168 Dickens, epistie to 374 dikes of Holland 271 dilatations of iron 34 metals 235 dipleidoscope, Dent's 260 direct action engine 9 1 Docks, see Canal. — Bristol 292 Grangemouth 9 dockgates 9 doors 63 Dover harbour 410 drainage 20, 3l5 geology of 393 lliggins on 50 Ireland 101 report on 277, 278 Watson's improvements on, 40, 66 drains, barrel 315 brick 3|5 pipe 316 tile 279, 315 Drawing, see Design. — drawing volutes 6 dredging, Aitken's 408 Drontheim cathedral 100 Dublin, architecture 8, 18,07 Durhatii monument 259, 373 dve, black 88 - — fur 323 Earthen-ware Mains U Boote's 154 East Indian steam navigation 242 Eastlake, C. E. on mural decorations 350 Ecclesiastical Buildings. — Aix la Chapelle 25 Antioch 25 Arbroath abbey 85 Armagh cathedral 9 Basingchurch 137 Berlin 22, 32 Bristol cathedral 3jj!2 Byzantine 25 Casan cathedral 44 Cathedra', Aix la Chapelle 25 Armagh 9 Berlin 32 Drontheira 100 ■ Dublin 9 Milan 45 Newry 9 Rome 44 York 10 circular 25 Croydon palace 137 Dorchester church 290 Drontheim cathedral 100 Dublin cathedral 0 Dundalk 9 Duomo, Milan 45 form of 25 Gedling church 105 Harrow church 41. Holywell church 290 Hoorn church 10 iron 10, 34 Kettering 47 King's College chapel 137 Madeleine 23 Market Weston church 332 fv licclesiastical Buildings— (ton/raMrf) Minchinhanipton church 47 Munich Basilica 371 Ecclesiologist 25, 440 economy of jackets for steam engines 265 Edge's water meter 129 Egyptian canals 288 pyramids 79, 189, 247 railway 287 electric blasting 251 decomposition 207 magnetic motive power, 94, 199 magnetism, progress of, 166 metallurgy, ',i, 239 phenomena 235 sparks in powder mills 332 telegraph 175 elliptograph 249 Eltham palace 137 emhanking 20, 120, 269, 279 ■ Musselburgh 128 INDEX. embankments, areas of 263, 400 embankment, Thames, report and plans 158 energiatype 250 engraving, daguerreotype 59, 332 entasis, gothic 47, 105 epistle to Charles Dickens 374 evaporation, Ador's plan 390 Exchange, Royal 22, 173, 212, 414, 432 exhibition, King Street 174,206 national, of arts and manu- factures 383, 428 Royal Academy 183 Westminster Hall 256,362 expansion, theory of 235 expansively, working 92 experiments on building materials 53 flexure of beams 265 i Irish stones'58 locomotive tubes 104 supply of water at fires 86 explosion of hardened steel 400 explosion on board the Gipsey Queen 442 explosive powei, Warner's 291, 371 Exposition, French, 1844, 324, 355 extinguisher, fire 285 Failure of an Embankment 282 a mill at Oldham 429 a quay wall 86 a Westminster sewer 312 the Gipsey Queen 442 the Pont de Boverie 128,248 Fairbairn's propeller 370 Faraday's electric discoveries 166 lectures on heat 235 silvering looking glasses 248 fastenings, Higginson's 236 feeding apparatus, Grafton's 30 filters, water 281, 306 Fleet river 312, 314 Forrester's new marine engine 120 Fulton, Dr. observations on architects and architecture 18, 26, 65,97, 139 181, 216, 254, 294, 344, ,■584, 413 observations on Gwilt 44 letter to Candidus 384 Galloway's Painting Surface 423 Suez railway 287 Gas see Light gates, dock 9 lock 19, 85 park 300 Geological Society, Ireland 56 Geology. — Ansted's 120, 391 Buckland 13 Calais 32 classification 391 coal 32 desert formations 39 engineering 120, 391 Geology — (continued.) fossils 13, 146 in connexion with architecture 56 submarine researches 124 volcanoes 32, 70 gilding, electro 75 Gipsey Queen explosion 442 girder, improved 128 Gladstone's shears 284 glass, composition of 14 flattening 35 improvements in 198 mains 11 ornamenting 321 painting 186, 206, 348 silvering 206 glue, marine 291 Goldsmith's Hall 253, 304 Goodwin Sands beacon, 252, 348 reclaiming 269 gothic arches, Nicholson's diagram 297 Grafton's feeding apparatus 30 Gianville, W. L., masonry of the Greeks 240 Great Britain steamer 132, 186, 411 Green's patent rigging 35 Gresham College 79 Grimsley's roof 285 gun metal 190 Haddan's, J. C, Papier Machf. 198 hall. Goldsmith's 253, 304 Lincoln's Inn 31 Harbour. — Dover 410 Pulteney-town 128 Red Sea 1 Seaham 32 Harrison's iron casting 370 Hartley's patent glass 35 Haydon, B. R., on Sur Joshua Rey- nolds 26,417 epitaph on an Academician 361 lectures on painting 436 Higginson's ship fastenings 236 Higgins, W. M., ou draining 50 Hodgson's propellers 319 Houses of Parliament, New 54, 174, 183, 206, 217, 219, 256, 290, 330, 397 Hutchison's stone-cutting machine 37 Hydraulic Engineering see Canal, Dock, Harbour, Pier, River, Tun- nel, Turbine, Water, Well, Weir. Ice Trade 332 Institution of Civil Engineers, Transactions of 22, 33, 69, 84, 86, 94,127,176,186,245,444 Ireland, agricultural improvement in 101 architecture in 8, 10, 18, 271 Johnstone's Boilers 321 Joinville's, Prince, note on the naval power of France 224 Jones's boilers 155 pendant gas lamp 419 Kebble's Propellers 196 knife cleaner 89 Lamb, E. B., Suggestions for a Na- tional Collection of Architecture 302, 399 Laming's ammonia process 38 Leach's rotary engine 198 Leonard, J., report on the atmospheric railway 349 Liddle's safety valves 367 Lighthouse. — Air 293 Dee 208, 293 Gravesend 343 iron 208, 293 lights 70 light, influence of, on plants 401 Pelletan's U5 production of 339 lightning conductors 71 Lincoln's Inn hall and library 31 Lipscombe's hydraulic engine 114 Liverpool public works 331 warehouses 348 locks, Fletcher's 320 Tann's 237 Locomotive see Railway looking glasses, silvering 248 Losh's wire chains 323 low pressure steam 244 Machinery, Copying busts by, 9, 84 Maddox on drawing volutes 6 magnetic motive power 199 magnetism, progress of 166, 199 manufactures, national exhibition of 383, 428 Mathematical Instruments. — aerometer 197 compensating pendulum 328 Denton's level 424 dipleidoscope 260 dynamometer 127 electro-magnet 200 levels 84, 411, 424 marine salinometer 7 micrometer 402 speculum 45, 405 spirit level 84 telescope 45, 332, 371, 404 theodolite 48 tide gauge 127 Mathematics. — areas of cuttings 263, 400 altitudes 295 Buck, G. W., on locomotive engine tubes 104 Byrne, Prof, on magnitude of the earth 178 solution of an important problem 295 - terrestrial refraction 262 flexure of beams 264 gothic arches 297 locomotive tubes 104 Nicholson, Peter, gothic arches 297 rotary engines, principle of 255 solution of important problem 295 terrestrial refraction 262 water, contraction of 264 Maudslay's propellers 37 Maxton's long slide valve 103 measures, on the preference of a cubic standard 29 Melville's railway improvements 421 metallic cloth 70 meter, gas, Hutchison's 197 water, Carmichael's 70 Edge's 128 Mitchell's 55 metropolitan improvements 63 railway station 287 mill at Oldham 429 millstones, French 328, 348 mining, asphalte 355 chains 323 coal 27, 355 France 355 iron 355 lighting by gas 423 mercury 70 palladium 332 pumps 192 refining ores 236 silver 108 Talca-huano 27 Mitchell's screw pile 68 water meter 55 Moat's areial locomotion 61 Mordaunt's profile dehneator 237 Muntz's metal sheathing 89 Napier's Boiler Improvements 61 naphtha lamp 127 Nash's girder 128 Neville's gas power 61 Newton's camera obscura 286 Nicholson, Peter, biography 425 Nicholson, Peter, diagram for drawing gothic arches 247 Nuuhead Cemetery 244, 265 Ordnance Estimate for Town Surveys 363 Ordnance survey, Scotland 9 ores, dressing, Vivian's patent 237 overland communication with India 286 Pacific Steam Navigation 27 Painting, in architecture 16 State and Prospects of 346, 378,417 surfaces for, Gallowav's 423 palladium, mining 332 Panama, isthmus of 125 Paris Observatory 380 Parker, T. N., on culiic standard 29 on gate hinges 300 Parkyn's direct action engine 91 Parliament, New Houses of 54, 174, 183, 2UC, 217, 219, 250, 298, 330, 397 Parsons' patent roof 36 Parthenon 14, 23, 240 Patents, American 405 law of 102 list of 48, 96, 133, 176, 212, 252, 292, 332, 372, 412, 444 register of specifications of new 35, 60, 89, 111, 152, 190, 230, 284,319,307,407,421 Patterson, A. H., on decoration 30 Pecksniff, 375 penny post 207 philosophy of desert formations 39, 7 7 volcanic action 115 terra firma 144 pier. Terrace, Gravesend 63, 34 1 piles, hydraulic, Potts's 238 pipes, asphalte 355, 411 draining, Watson's 51, 06 earthenware 11 glass 11 plaster of Paris 13 Poole's steam engines 371 pottery, Boote's 154 power, aerial 61, 240 atmospheric, 208 electro-magnetic 94, 199 gas 61, 240 steam 208 propeller, Borrie's 113 Brown's 84 Brunet's 36 canal 292 Cave's 85, 189 Davies's 367 Ericson's 94, 9C, 1S9 Fairbairn's 370 history of 187 Hodgson's 319 Kebble's 196 Maudslay's 37 Napoleon 188 new 136 Perkins's 189 Rennie's 187 Sauvage's 32, 84 screw 32, 84, 85, 94, 186, 292 - slip of 187 - Smith's 84, 187 • Woodcroft's 187 322 provisions, preserving 88 pump valves 84, 94, 190 Darlington's 191 Harvey and West's 191 Hosking's 190 ^ Palmer and Perkins's 191 I Simpson's 191 I pyramids of Egypt 79, 181, 247 I Central America 92 Queen Elizabeth's School, Bris- I TOL413 INDEX. Radiation of Hfat 358 rails, Barlow's keys 369, 400 Charlieu's 407 manufacture of 357 Railway nee Axle, Locomotive. — administration 169 atmospheric 59, 180, 209, 267, 349, 364, 389 Blackball 203, 267 cost of power 210, 364 Croydon 175, 177, 203 distress signal 92 Dublin and Drogheda 10 Dublin and Kingstown 209, 267 Eastern Counties 46 German 32 Great Western 128, 203 Hallette's 435 hydraulic 366 laying out 394 rope traction •:64 select committee 91 signal, Dockray's 362 Silesian 94 South Eastern 71, 174, 203 South Western 175, 203 standing orders 126 stationary engines 210, 364 station. Bricklayer's Arms 177 London Bridge 36 metropolitan 287 Suez 287 switch, new 128 trains, resistance to 403 traverse table 128, 149 Versailles 402 viaducts 174 Vienna 180 wagons, tilting 19 Red Sea canal 1 report on atmospheric railway 208, 267, 349 health of towns 277, 306, 363 • Houses of Parliament 290 Barry's 329 reverheratory furnace 405 Reviews of Books. — analysis of architecture 328 ancient and modern architecture 14, 205 Anderson's observations on the Red Sea 1 Ansted's geology 120,361,395 artizan steam engine 268 baptismal fonts 123, 361, 395 Canina Ricerche 171 Clarkson's Suez canal 1 companion to the almanac 439 Crosby Place illustrated 268 Durande's Parallele 40 exempla ornamentorum 396 experiments on building materials geology, Ansted's 120, 361, 391 Haydon's lectures 436 Hay's geometrical designs 168, 205, 268 Heideloff's architectural ornaments 268 Hutchinson on building materials 53 instructions for use of Seyssel as- phalte 396 Loudon on cemeteries 41 Macqueen's Reply 51 Nagler's lexicon 204 Noari's lectures on electricity 160, 199 Owen's fossil mammalia 120 Papworth's Italian decorations 83 pictorial history of England 82 polygraphia curiosa 268 Quested's land surveying 84 railway administration 1G9 report on interment in towns 41 Review of Books — (continued.) Shaw's electro-metallurgy 268 Simms's tunnelling 359 Tattersall's building act 361 Tredgold on the steam engine 268 Veitch's steam navigation 1, 269 Weale's quarterly papers on engi- neering 28, 269, 396 Wheelwright's Pacific steam navi- gation 27 Willis's architectural nomenclature 172 Wilme's handbook of drawing 124^ year book of facts 83 rigging, patent 35 rivetting machine 366 Roberts, S. W., area of cuttings and embankments 263, 400 Robinson, J., atmospheric engines 240 Robinson, J. C, on entasis 105 rope traction, cost of 210, 207, 363 roof, Bricklayer's Arms station 177 fire-proof 283 Grirasley's 285 portable 36 premium for 401 timber roofs of the middle ages 137 Rossc, Lord, telescope 45, 332, 371, 404 rotary engine, Beale's 206 Booth's 35 Borrie's 155 principles of 255 Walther's 197 Roval Academy 6, 23, 25, 181, 183, i84, 223, 301, 345, 376 Roval Exchange 22, 173, 212, 414, 432 royal mail steam packet company 51 Safety Valve, Boulton and Watt's 117 Bourdon's 320 Liddle's 367 Samuda's marine engine 37, 252, 442 school, Queen Elizabeth's, Bristol 413 screw, multi-threaded 236 propulsion 32, 84,85,94,186, 292, 322 canals 292 ■ pile batteries 68 • — Mitchell's 68 sewers, churchvards 41 Derby '261 form of 313 Holborn 279, 313 refuse 280 report on 278, 313 surveyor's examination of 47 Westminster 312 shells, Warner 291, 371 signal. Hay's 237 whistling 96 silvering, electro- 75 hjokiiig glasses 248 slate, covering 155, 423 — — - experiments on 54 . French 327 . Martin's 423 slips, earth 120, 128, 129, 170 sluices 317 Soane museum 18 Southall's steel process 321 spire, entasis 47, 105 iron 34, 130 specifications for engines 62, 93 stone work 298 Stngg's metal purifying 196 stationary power, cost of 210, 305 station, railway. Bricklayer's Arms 177 Euston Square 216 London Bridge 26 steam, chemistry of 319 heating by 403 rivetting machine 366 steel, explosion of 400 steel plating 412 Southall's process 321 Stephenson, R., C. E., report on the atmospheric railway 209 Steam Boat see Boiler, Furnace, Marine engine. Ship building. American 243 Archimede 230 Archimedes 186 Ardent 230 Bee 186 Brown's propellers 84 Burhampooter 243 Cameleon 230 City of London 291 Comet 243 contract, government 62, 75 cost 232 Danube 32 Diana 243 Dwarf 186 East Indian 242 Empire 411 Empress 32 Enterprize 243 Firebrand 231 Firefly 243 French 224, 233 fuel 232 Gipsey Queen 37, 252, 442 Gladiator 411 government contract 62, 95 Great Britain 132, 186, 411 Great Northern 186 Hecate 187 Her Majesty 372 Hooghly 243 iron. City of London 291 Danube 32 Duke 212 Gipsey Queen 37, 252, 442 Great Britain 132 Pasha 372 Prince 331 Queen 95, 331 Trident 332, 410 Vulcan 32 -Water lily 411 -Wonder 410 Janus 85 Leander 126 Liverpool Screw 84, 94, 186 Medea 231 Mermaid 187 Meteor 212, 230 Napoleon 188 Nun 95 outfit 233 Pasha 372 Penelope 126, 232 Perkins's propeller 189 Pluton 230 premium for 401 Prince 331 Albert 91 of Wales 36,410 Princess Alice 292 Mary 240 Royal 186 Princeton 94, 96, 189 Prometheus 85, 95, 126 Queen 95, 331 Rattler 85, 95, 186, 410 Retribution 292 Rhine 371 Royal Consort 372 Severn 53, 175 Shannon 126, 410 Tagus 292 Teviot 53 Trident 332, 410 Vulcan 32 Vulture 126 Waterman 292 Wonder 410 Steam Engines, eee Boiler, Locomo- tive, Machine, Marine engine, Valve. air pump 91, 152, 275 beam 107, 276 blowing off 409 boiling over 30 Boulton and Watt's directions 100, 150,273 brine pumps 409 buckets 275 condenser cistern 108, 274, 276 Cornish 306, 355 evaporation 390 experiments on 70 feeding apparatus 30, 275 gauge pipes 108, 273 generator, Bennett's 113 jackets, economy of 265 piston, packing 273 Wharton's 370 pumping 306 revolving, Borrie's 155 Walther's 197 rotary, Beale's 206 Leach's 198 safety valve, new 117, 326, 327 salinometer 7 stuffing box 152 valves, Call and Derosne's 227 Darlington's 191 Easton's 92 Farcot's 326 Harvey and West's 191 Hosking's 190 Maxton's 103 Palmer and Perkins'^ 191 Simpson's 191 slide 103 working, directions for 1 74 steam navigation, India 242 Ocean 52 U. States 402 stone, choice of 56 experiments on 53 French 327 Irish 10 magnesian 12, 206, 248 sawing machinery 37, 88 Stevelley's steam engine 308 submarine blasting 251 Suez railway 286 ship canal 1 surveyors, qualifications of 47 switch, railway, new 128 Sylvester's brine apparatus 239 Tann's Locks 237 Thames embankment, report on 158 history of 159 water'l2, 190 works on 12, 126, 130, 183, 343, 412 Thenard's lock gates 387 Thomson's water meter 55 timber, experiments on 53 roofs of the middle ages 137 viaducts 174 Timon on the Royal Academy 301, 345,376 the art blister 415 Townsend, J., lectures on the fine arts 184 traction on railways 364 canals 252, 293, 408 Trafalgar Square fountains 46, 71 statues 10, 65, 175, 208 tubing, drawn 358 tunnel, Wear 32 tunnelling, practice of 359, 415 turbine, Fourneyron's 325 history of 325 improved 85 Koechlin's 325 Passot's 325 Turner, Mr., on London Bridge sta- tion 26 INDEX. Vaii.f.'s Flooring, 2;i9. Valve, Cail ami Dernsne's, 327. Darlington's, 191. Kaston's, 92. Farcop's, 326. Harvey and West's, 191. Hoskint;'s, 190. Maxton's. 103. Palmer and Perkins's. 191. Pomp, 94. .Safely, Boulion and Watt's, 117. Bourdin'.«, ?2G. Liddle'.s, .327. Simpson's, 191. A'alve Slide, 103. Veins in Water, Contraciinn of, 264. Ventilation, Report on, 280. of Sewers, 317. Versailles Railway Accident, 402. Viadnct, Clisson, 47 South Eastern, 174, Timber, 174. Vibration, Etiecis of. on Iron. 404. Vitrification, Furnace for, 403 Vivian's Process for Dres-^in^^ Ures.236. Volutes, New Mode of Drawinir. 6. Walker's Naii. M.ichinerv. 370. Walther's Steam Engine, 197. Warehouses, Fireproof. 348. - Water-closets, Austin's, 60. pioofinR cottons, 324. Watson's Drain Tubes, .51, 65. Well, Artesian, Calais, 32. Naples. 61, 92. Southampton, 293. Wells. 'lestini? of, 13. Kflect of Churcliyard, 41. We5tmin.sier Hall, 137. Impressions on Visitin;;, 362. School, 138. Wharton's Steam Engine, 370. Wheelwright's Pacific Sleam Naviga- tion, 27. Windows. 21.98, 111. 1.-9. 173 Winterton, Wilhelm de, 346, 378,417, 428. Wollaston's .Stone-cutting Macliine. 88 Woo 1 -cutting, Parsons'lmprovemcnts, 197. Paving. Bishop's, 238. Patents, 2i0. Sawing, Cheverton's ditto, 286. Seasoning, 422. Xanthian Marbles. 143. ZiNKiNG, Graham's Process, 75, 199, LIST OF iLLU.STRATIONS. Aerial locomotive. 61. Aiiken's almobplienc railway, 368. Amus's valves 9cuts. 90 Aninm House, Dublin, 97 Arch. Drawing, 5 cuts. 297. Gcbelel Birkel, 181. Meroe, 181. Pyramids. 181. Thebes, 181. Apr*™tt's. gas, 61. Archimedes propeller, 2 cuts, 177. Archileclural volutes. 6. Aik nson's wheels, 369. .\tmospheric railway, 365. Aitken's ditto, 368 Axles, Rowan's. 2 cuts, 199. Basing church, 137. Beams at Oldham, 4 cuts, 432. Hennet's steam engine, 2 cuts, 113. Bevelling instrument, 21. Boiler, Salinoraeter, 75. Feeding apparatus, 2 cuts, 30, 1C3. .Tones', 3 cu's, 155 Johnston's. 2 cuts, 321. Boolh's rotary steam engine, 3 cuts, 36 Burrie's propeller. 2 cuis. 113. engine. 3 cuts, 157. Bouchon's millstoni .s, 2 cuts, 348. lioidton and Watt's safety vaKe, 3 culs, 117 Steam engine, 150. Bricklayer's Arms Station, 10 culs, 177. Bridge, Carrington, 17 culs. 90. Bioadmeadow's furnace, 2 cuts, 405. Brown's stoves, 408. tiles, 19 culs, 429. Budd's metal process, 2 cuts, 284. Cail and Derosne's valves, 8 cuts, 293 Camera obscura, 286. Canal to the Red oe >, 3- Carrington bridge, 17 cuts, 90. Chain cable, 6 cuts, 112. Chimney Hues, 2 cuts, 153. valves and luniiels, 5 cuts, 419. Columns, Greek. 6 cuts, 213, Conway Castle. 137. Coventry school, 137. Croydon palace, 137. Crosby Hall, 137. Cuttings, rail" ay, 400. Denton's level. 3 cuts, 424. Dent's Dipleidoscope, 3 cuts, 260. Deposition of metals. 239. Electro-magneiism, 21 culs, 168, 199. metallurgy. 3 cuts. 7(1. Elevation. Antrim House. 97. Female Training School, 18. Conservative Club. 13. Goldsmiths' Hall, 2 engravings, 253. Gravesend Terrace Pier, 333. Lincoln's Inn Hall, 31. Eltham Palace, 137. Engine, electro-magnetic, 201. Exeter Change, 305 Explosion of steel, 400. Feeding apparatus, 2 culs. 30, 103. Female Training School, 18. Fire-proof, Fox's. 2 cuts. 3^2. Fletcher's locks, 4 cms. 320. Foundations on sao'l. 3 cuts, 119. Galvanic batteries, 3 cuts, 74. Gate hinge, 2 cuts, 3C'0. Gas apparatus, Neville's, 01. Gedling church spire. 105. Gipsy Queen explosion, 5 cuts, 442 Gladstone's shears, 2 cuts, 284. Gre^ham College, 79. Hall, Crosby, 137. Hampton Court. 37. Lincoln's Inn, 2 cuts, 31. Hay's percussion signals 2 cuts, 237. Higginson's ship fastenings. 6cuts,236 Iron furnaces, 3 cuts, 405, 406. Joiners bevelling inslrumeni, 21. Jones's pendant gas laaip, 10 cuts, 120. King's College Chapel. 137. Lambeth guard room, 1.S7. Leach's rotary engine, 3 cuts. 198. Life preserver, 407. Lighthouse, River Dee. 3 c Is. 239 Lincoln's Inn Hall, 2 engravlng^, 31. Lockgates, 10 cuts, 373. Locomotive engine tubes. 3 cuts, 105. Maddens knil'e cleaner, 89. Magnitude of the earth, diagram, 178. Marine salinometer, 2 cuts, 5. Engine, Borrie's, 3 cuts, 113. Forrester's, 3 cuts, 97. Marine engine Parkyn's. 8 cuts, 91. S.imuda's 37, 442. Tubular, 4cu>s. 91. Masonry greek, 6 figures, 213. .Mathematical diagrams, 295, 297. Maudslay's propeller, 2 culs, 38. Maxton's valve, 3 cuts, 10k Melville's railway wheel. 422. Millstones, Bouchon's, 2 cuts, 348. Mordaunt's profile delineator, 2 cuts, Newton's, camera obscura. 286. Nurstead Court, Kent, 137 Parkyn's direct action engine. 91. Parsons' woodcuitiiu macbme, 197. Parthenon columns, 213. ("endulum, com[«nsaiing, 328 triangular, 400. Pier, Gravesend terrace, 5 cuts, 333, 341. Plan, Bricklayers Arms Station, 177. Goldsmuhs' Hall, 253. Gravesend terrace pier, 333. Lincoln's Inn ball, 31. New E\eier Change, 305 Pott's hydraulic pile, 5 culs. 238. Propellers, ArcbimeUes. 2 cul^, 177. Borrie's, 2 cuts, 113. Davies'>, 5 cuts, 366. Ericson's, 2 cuts. 177. Hodgson's, 6 cuts, 319. Maudslay's. 2 culs, 38. Napoleon. 2 cuts, 177. Rennie's, 2 cuts. 177. Wooilcroti's, 4 cuts, 177, 322. Pyramids, arches in. 3 cuts, 181. Hallway Atkins's, 368. Atmuspheric, 365. Cuttings, diagrams, 263. Hyilraulic, 366. Keys, 5 cuts. 369, 400. Suez map, 253- wagons, 4 engravings, 19. Red .Sea Canal. 3. Kefrigeraiiir, Masterman's, 3'23. Rennie's propeller, 2 culs, 1 17. Riveitiug machine, Schneider's, 5 cuts, 366. Roofs, ancient, 14 engravings, 137. Bricklay t is' Arms, felatioii,lU cuts. 177. Grimsley'i, 4 cuts, 285. Rotary engine, 3 cuts. Z6. Leach's. 3 culs, 198. Principle of, 255. Safety valve, Boulton and Walt's, 3 culs, 117. Darenne's. 326. Liddell's. 368. Salinometer, 2 cuts, 8. .Samuda's marine engine, 57, 442. Sash suspender, 2 cuts, 26. School training, ftuiale, 18. Coventry. I.i7. Westminster, 137. Sewage, Derby, 5 cuts, 261. Forms, 3 cuts, 313. South Wraxhall. 137. _ Sleam engine. Rennet's, 2 cuts, 113. Booth's, 3 cuts, 36. Boulion and Walt's, 150. Rotary, 3 cuts. 198. Revolving, Borrie's, 3 cutt, 157. Samuda's, 37. Teriestrial refraction. 3 diagrams. 263.. Thames Embankmeni, 4 cuts, 137. Thomson's lilting ^apparatus, 4 en- gravings, 19. Water meter, 55. Tiinnellins', 4 culs, 361. Turbine, Koschlin s 3 culs. 293. Passoi's, 4 cuts, "293. 325. Valves, Amos s. 9 cuts, 90. Call and Derosne's. 8 cuts, 293. Farcop's, 4 cuis, 293- Hoskings. 2 cuts. 177. Maxton's, 3 cuts. 104. Simpson's, 177. Water. 309. Viaduct, Suuih Eastern Rallviay, 2 cuts, 174. Volutes, drawing. 6. Walker's nail machinery. 570. 'iv'ater closets, Austin's, 60. Water meter. Edge's, 2 culs, 129. Tank, 317. Watson's drainirg, 4 cuts, 49, fi5. Westminster Hall, 137. Wharton's pistons, 2 cuts, 371. Wier and lockgates, 10 cuts, 373. Window shutters. 3 cuts. HI. Wire chains, 4 culs, 323. DIRECTIONS TO BINDER- Plate 1,— Elevation of the Conservative Club, in St. James's Street . . 2.— Carrington Bridge, Nottingham, Elevation and Details .. 3. — Marine Engine, Tubular Boiler ; Parkyn's Direct Action Engine; Amoi's Valves for Working Expansively . . 4.— Forsier High Pressure Marine Engine . . 5. — Roofsof WesIminslerHall, Nurstead Court, Hampton Court, Old Basing Church, Coventry .School. Croyilon Palace, King's College Chapel. South Wrax- hall, Eltham Palace, Wesiminsier School, Crosby Hall, Lambeih Guard Room. Conway Castle .. 6— Thames Embankment, Plans and Details . . 7. — Roof of ihe Bricklayers' Arms Station, with Details opposite page 43 •• 90 91 120 137 158 177 Plate 8. — Propellers — Archimedes, Smith's, Rennie's, Napoleon, Woodcrolt's, Ericson's. Valves — Simpson's, Hosking's . . 9. — Greek Masonry and Quarries— Selinuntum, Parthenon, Segesta .. 10. — Goldsmiths' Hall, Elevations of Norih Front and West Frnnt 11. Goldsmiths' Hall, Ground Plan 12. — Map of the .Suez Railway 13. — Turbines — Koechtin's, Passnt's. Sleam Valves — Cail and Derosne's, Farcop's 14. — Plan and Elevations of Gravesend Ter- race Pier 15. — Improved Wiers with Flood-gates, and the Details of the Ci nstruction 16. — Queen Elizabeth's School, Bristol Page. 186 240 253 2.53 286 324 341 387 413 The leaves of the Journal in the two first Monthly Parts which contain Advertisements, are to be omitted in the binding up. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. SHIP CANAL COMMUNICATION ACROSS THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. Inquiry into the means of establishing Steam Navigation. By James Vetch, Capt. R.K., F.R.S. Pelham Richardson, Cornhill. The Sues Navigable Canal for accelerated commxmication with India. By JIr. Clarkson. British and Foreign Agency Office, 57, Lincoln's Ina Fields. Observations on the Red Sea and Mediterranean. By Arthur Anderson. Smith, Elder & Co., Cornhill. The attenlion of the scientific world has, for many years past, been directed to the design first sketched out by Napoleon Buonaparte, of connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean, by means of a navi- gable canal, and many endeavours have been used to influence the Pasha of Egypt to undertake the task single-handed : but engaged in protracted and expensive wars, which had the effect of desolating many of the most fertile provinces of his dominions, and the crippled stale of his finances, have precluded the possibility of his engagiiig in this magnificent undertaking, however really desirous he may have been to compass this ambitious project. Since the cessation of war, with the loss of Syria, his sources of revenue have suffered a still further diminution, being now barely £4,000,000 sterling per annum; and we are therefore not surprised to hear, that within this few weeks past, he has wholly abandoned all ideas of carrying it out in person: but, at the same time, expresses his wish that the project should be taken up by European capitalists, who, provided his interests are duly consi- dered, will receive from him all the necessary assistance and protec- tion. Urged on by this consideration, the desire to shorten the dis- tance between Great Britain and her immense territorial possessions in the East, and to facilitate commerce, several projects have from time to time been put forward with a view of engaging the attention of the British Government and of the monied classes, emulous to employ their capital in all important undertakings of acknowledged utility and likely to prove profitable. A very excellent article in the Foreign and Quarterly Reiiew, has been followed by two able pamphlets just published, one of them by Mr. Anderson, the other by Captain James Vetch. It is not our intention, however, to follow either of these writers through their several statements, but merely to remove some erroneous impressions entertained by all of them, and to give a general idea of the question under consideration, with our own opinions thereon. Pelusium, from whence it is proposed to conduct the canal, lays a little to the east of the Pelusiac branch, and, according to Strabo, about two and a half miles from the sea; its circumference mea- sured the same distance, and it was guarded not only by massive walls, but also by extensive morasses on every side ; being situ- ated in the midst of a naked level, between the sand desert pass- ing into Syria, the sea, and the morasses, which now form a part of the lake Mansaleh. Its ruins may now be seen about two miles from No. 77.— Januaby, 1841. the sea, the land having gained seven miles and a half upon the Medi- terranean since that period. The Pelusian branch, which was of con- siderable magnitude in those days, is little more than a wide stream of mud as it crosses the arid plain fr.'m the lake Mansaleh to the sea. On Its banks stands the fortress of Tineh, built by the Turks, and said to be a place of considerable strength. This branch of the Nile is now known as the Canal of Abu Manejji ; it is the second branch issuing from the Damietta arm, which it leaves at about six miles below Cairo: it then passes by Bibers and Tell Bastah (Bubastes) and at length enters the sea, much contracted in width, and almost choked up with mud. The lake El Mansaleh is formed in the low lands near the sea, which extend from the Pelusiac branch nearly to the Rosetta branch. It receives the Canal of Ashmin-erromman, which formerly passed through the territory of El Mansaleh, and then branched out into two divisions, one of which ran northward, and the other, making a bend, flowed into the lake of Tennis: this canal, from its uniform depth, is thought to be the Mendesian arm of the Nile ; and the lake Boheireto el-zar has been considered the Taiiitic branch. "This lake," says Sic.ird, " begins half-league to the eastward of Damietta, and ends at the castle of Tineh, anciently Pelusium. It is twenty-twe leagues in length from east to west, and five or broad from north to south. Its bottom is muddy and full of weeds. It is seldom more than five feet deep, and is separated from the sea by a strip of sand, at most a league in width; it communicates with the sea by three mouths, that of Tineh the easternmost, Omm-ne-ferrej, and Dibeh. In summer, during the inundation, its waters are sweet, during the rest of the year they are salt. This lake contains many islands, most of them uncultivated, those of Matareyyeh near El Mansaleh are the most populous: two others are covered with the ruins of ancient cities. The bed of this lake is several feet below the level of bcth seas, the depth of mud and sand being very considerable; the original bed on which they rest being compact gravel, and calcareous matter, similar to the general formations of Egypt. The Pelusiac branch was considered the most important one, being denominated the ktxj and strength of Egypt. Nechos, the son of Psammetichus, and the Pharaoh Necho of Scrip- ture, was the first who attempted to open a communication between the Nile and the Red Sea, which Darius, Ki:ig of Persia, after- wards continued to the bitter lakes, from thence it is said to have been carried to the Red Sea by Ptolemy Philadelphus; it commenced from the Pelusiac branch, and extended as far as Arsinoe, now called Aggeroud, or Ajeroud : the length of this canal, says Herodotus, is equal to four days' voyage, and it is wide enough to admit four tirenies abreast: the water enters it from the Nile, a little above the city Bubastes ; it terminated in the Red Sea, not far from Patumos, an Arabian town. In the prosecution of this work under Nechus, it is said that one hundred thousand Egyptians perished, nor is this to be wondered at, when we consider the baneful and pestilential marshes through which it had to be carried, and the inevitable long exposure to the nightly dews, and burning heat by day, to which the workmen were alternately subjected: this writer says, "Darius carried ou the 2 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Jan. 6, undertaking (began by Nechos) but desisted from finishing it, on the false opinion tliat, as the Red Sea is higher than Egypt, the cutting of the isthmus between them would necessarily lay the country under wafer. The Ptolemies disproved this error, and bv means of weirs or locks, rendered the canal navigable to the sea, without obstruction or inconvenience." Diodorus contirms this account. Pliny tells us that Ptolemy of Egypt, the second of that name, continued the canal to the bitter fountains; at this point the work was interrupted, for it was found that the Red Sea lay higher than the land of Egypt by three cubits (44 ft. or Sft.) : he denies that the canal was ever completed to the Red Sea, but speaks of the river called Ptolemausthat passes by Arsinoe. With all due deference to learned commentators on this subject, we are inclined to believe, with Pliny, that the canal was never carried beyond the bitter fountains, and ihat the river he mentions was the natural channel from this series of lakes to the Red Sea. through which the waters of the Red Sea flowed towards the Mediterranean: that in the days of Nechos the communication from sea to sea was continuous, that it continued so long after his days, and even to the time of the Ptolemy in question : that the waters of the Red Sea con- tinuing to retire beyond their ancient limits, the channel from the bitter lakes to the sea dwindled down from a broad expanse of waters above the present head of the Red Sea, to a narrow channel or river, and vi'ere eventually cut off. In confirmation of this, we find through- out this depressed portion of the isthmus, a series of sea beaches, heaps and ridges of accumulated sea shells, and reefs of coral, of pre- cisely the same species as now belong to the Red Sea, but not to the Mediterranean : these deposits are found in the bitter lakes at a very slight depression below the present level of the Red Sea, and from thence a series of depressions takes place throughout the whole chain of communication. It would appear, also, that as the communication was gradually cut oft', the labours of man were called into requisition to remedy the mischief, artificial channels being made from the head of the sea, much above where it now is, to the bitter lakes ; or, as Pliny terms it, the Lacus Jmari, and thence from lake to lake. M. Linant's report tells us, that at the bottom of the two gulfs of Suez and Akaba the sea has advanced; this is positively ridiculous, and dis- proved by facts: the great salt plain at the head of the sea of Suez gives decisive evidence of its oceanic origin, and of having been in remote periods a part of the Red Sea, and Arsinoe, once a sea-port town, is now six or seven miles distant from the sea: even modern Suez is removed far from the ancient site. This head of the sea is not merely filling up by sands, but its formation is analagous to that of deeper waters, and common to the sea, and of such is the isthmus, showing throughout a gradual decrease iu the volume of waters, and not merely a displacement of them. Granted that the remains of a town may be found under water, this merely proves that points of land, subject to the incessant motion of the waves, often give way, and be- come submerged: Yambo is built on a recent reef. Most of the large towns on the Arabian coast have become so barricadoed by the reel's and consolidated rocks as to be unapproachable for miles ; and even Macullah, at the eastern mouth of the Red Sea, is built on a recent reef: the original boundaries of the Red Sea are on both sides of it, numerous and strongly defined, and in some places embrace desert plains many leagues in extent. .^ All the natural phenomena of the isthmus demonstrate that the com- munication of the two seas was kept up by a current always flowing from the Red Sea to the Jlediterranean, through the valleys or de- pressions constituting the chain of lakes, that the hard gravel, marl and sand forming the desert is such as represents the bed of the sea at Suez, the whole of the extensive plain passing into Syria was at this remote period covered by the sea, and formed part of the Mediterra- nean. Hence it is evident that no danger is to be apprehended from again opening this line of communication, eitlier of its overflowing the fertile vaUeys of Egypt, or causing a rise in the Mediterranean Sea. It is not on historical record that this line of communication was made available to the fleets of the ancients, nor does it appear to have been the desire of the Egyptians to maintain a passage for the ocean waters, the sea passage being prevented by a solid dyke or wall con- structed across the channel near its entrance to the gulf; on the other hand, their chief aim appears to have been to make all the cultivat- able portions of the land of Egypt available to its then dense population ; thus the canal from Bubastis passed through the fertile Wadi, the Goshen of the Israelites, to Thaubastum, where it entered the Bitter iLikes, which were the natural reservoirs of both the ocean and river waters, and lest the salt waters should flow over the cultivated tracks, or the channel between the two seas, shuuld receive too great an im- petus from the overflow of the Nile, large mounds were thrown across the Wadis. Proceeding to the consideration of the several proposals for re- opening the communication between the two seas by means of a ship canal or channel, we shall notice Mr. Anderson's pamphlet. This gentleman after a preliminary condemnation of all previous statements and speculations as superficial, crude, and erroneous, enters upon his subject bv giving a somewhat lengthy extract from what he is pleased to term the report of M. Linant, a French civil engineer, in the employ of the Pasha of Egypt, which he obtained for a consideration : in this we suspect he has bought a bargain, forthe report in question is copied almost literally from the one drawn up for the French engineers, and published in 1798, " Descriptiond' Ei/ijpt ." in fact, in the extract in question, M. Linant observes "by many repeated observations made during my numerous journeys through the Isthmus of Suez, as well as from the levellings which were taken with great care during the occu- pation of Egypt by the French army. I assume that the level of the Red Sea is higher than that of the Mediterranean, and that it has once covered the Isthmus :" there is not the most remote reason to suppose that any triginometrical survey has been taken by him, or that he is acquainted with the country east of the chain of lakes. In the words of the French engineers M. Linant observes: — "The topographical position of the place shows, that from the Red Sea to a distance of 22,000 metres (nearly 14 miles), the spot where the ancient canal was re-dug by Amrou, or where the canal of the Prince of the Faithful still exists, it is only necessary to dig this canal to a depth of 290 metres (9 ft. G in.) when there would be at once established a current of water towards the Mediterranean; because, at the end of this distance, you enter the bed of the bitter lakes, now dry, which are there about 5 metres (16 ft. 4 in.) lower than the Red Sea. From thence the ground becomes lower and lower, as far as the point which separates the bitter lakes from the lake Themsah, where the ground for a distance of about 6,000 metres (6,560 yards) is at its greatest elevation 0-50 (19^ in.) above the level of the sea; the soil is here sandy. Next comes the basin of the lake Themsah, much lower than the Red Sea, and which is covered by the waters of the Nile during the inundations. The distance between this lake and the low marshy swamps of El Karish, is, at the most, onlv 3,001t metres (3.280 yards), and the land is not more than 1 metre (3 ft. 3 in.) higher than the Red Sea ; this ground is also sandv. Leaving the basins of the lake Theinsab, and passing behind thehill of Chek Amedek, near which the ancient canal must have passed, we find the ground is nearly everywhere on a level with the Red Sea as far as El-Karesh. From thence to Dus-el Cassah, and afterwards in a direction towards Bir-el-Divietor, we follow the traces of the ancient canal, in a direct line from the one sea to the other, the ground being all sandy, and much lower than the Red Sea. From thence to the ground which is imuidated during the floods of the Nile, by the waters of the lake jMansaleh, there is again found a bed or sort of excavation, or sandy valley, which may probably have been the ancient canal. From thence to the entrance of Tioeh, passing between Faramah and the ruins of Pelusium, the land is 9 metres lower than the Red Sea." He proposes to begin at or near the remains of the ancient jetty, made at the entrance of the canal at Suez, making two embankments or piers, leaving between each an opening, which should form the section of a canal to be dug: the excavation to be carried on to the bitter lakes, a distance of 13.J miles, 130 ft. in breadth, and 9 ft. 9 in. in depth : to clear out the land between the lake Themsah and El- Karesh, a distance of 3j miles, leaving only a width of 32 ft. 6 in., a dyke being run across westward of the lake to prevent the waters spreading over the cultivated portions of Egypt: at the Das-el-Ballah, and also the inundated lands about Pelusium, similar dykes are to be constructed. He assumes that from the difference of level, the water being once let in this superficial bed, and flowing with the velocity of about four miles per hour, that the stream would soon scoop itself a channel to any required depth. He would supply the want of a port in the Pelusiac coast by a breakwater or pier, to be placed on the bar, which would be naturally formed at the embouchure of the canal, and concludes with estimating the expenses of excavation, embankments, masonry, and pier, or breakwater, at £150,000. It is true that the estimate made about 50 years ago was much less, but both are equally absurd, when we come to consider the mag- nitude of the works required, independent of the canal. To com- mence the canal at the head of the sea would have been all very well in the days of Nechos, but no engineer practically acquainted with the nature of the sea above Suez, would ever recommend a plan which would entail the necessity either of the deepening the whole upper portion of the gulf, a work of vast magnitude and expense, or other- wise of carrviiig the canal through the very midst of it to deep water, a mode almost equally expensive. The whole head of the sea is ex- tremely shallow, its bottom consisting not only of mud and sand, as we are generally led to believe, but also the same kind of clay, marl, and limestone formation which distinguishes this portion of the coast. Again, we very much doubt his obtaining a current oj four miles per 1844.-] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL hour by the small depth of excavation he proposes : and granting that it is to be obtained, we doubt its efficacy in scooping out a channel to the requisite depth, believing, as we do, that the Red Sea, once flow- ing through these narrow valleys with a fall as great as in the present day, was unable, in its own strength, to preserve a passage, so that art was obliged to come to the aid of nature in order to preserve this pas- sage for a more extended period of time than otherwise would have been the case. The estimate of the French engineers, embracing both branches, was £691,000. Captain James Vetch, R.E., proposes to open the communication between the two seas by the shortest possible line : observing "that the shortest line would give the greatest velocity and scouring pro- perty to the stream ; and, under equal circumstances, would cost least money. A straight line would also be most controllable, and with the least expense ; for as soon as bends and angles are introduced to the channel of a large body of running water, an action immediately and inevitably commences on the banks, which would have to be provided against by a heavy expenditure in strengthening them !o resist the erosion of the water; but with no reasonable expense could the banks be rendered secure, if the bends were considerable and numerous ; for if thpy gave way in one place, the whole current might be changed . and numerous breaches ensue, requiring equal expenditure of time and money to repair." These objections cannot, however, apply to the communication viathe chain of lakes, which are the natural boundaries of the sea communication : the only points vulnerable to erosion are the communications between the lakes and the lower plains towards the Mediterranean. An important point appears not to have had due consideration, and which must have weight in all plans put forward for connecting the two seas. For about 3U0 days in the year the winds and breezes set in towards the Red Sea ; but during the period of the Kamsetn they blow towards the Mediterranean : thus vessels will be enabled to sail one way and come down by the current on the other. This peculiarity of the atmospheric currents favours the passage by the chain of lakes, rather than by a straight narrow channel ; these fine expanses of water enabling the mariner, in the passage to and fro, to avail himself of every capful of wind : again, by the circuitous route, the pressure of the waters of the Mediterannean upon the waters of the canal would, in some measure, regulate their height and velocity. The velocity of the current should be so apportioned as to enable sailing vessels to bear up against it ; steam tugs might also, if necessary, be employed ; tracking or warping would be of no service whatever. Pursuing the circuitous route by way of the lakes, the only artificial excavations required are those which exist between them and also be- tween them and the respective seas : in additional to the westward embankments proposed by M. Linant, we are of opinion that through the levels towards the Mediterranean the channel ought to be em- banked on both sides, thus permitting the waters to be above the plains, preserving uniformity in the currents and height of waters, and protecting them on the one side from drifting sands, which, passing from the desert situate on the Eastern side, may otherwise in a few hours fiU up local portions of the bed ; and, on the other side, from the inundations of the Nile. In some places this precaution will be absolutely necessary, inasmuch as the morasses are below the level of either sea. Captain Vetch, in proposing a new line directly across the desert, candidly states that he has no knowledge of the nature of the soil over which he proposes the canal to pass, and even to those who have traversed those plains, it is very problematical whether the possibility exists of forming a canal by a direct route : he errs in sup- posing that the land above the head of Suez is wholly composed of drift sand. Again the greatest velocity is not wanting, for not only must this canal, if direct, be lined throughout, but it must also be protected by high and strong enbankments, otherwise it would be in continual danger of filling up in localities by sudden drifts : he proposes to con- struct a basin at its issue from the Red Sea, which he, with great propriety, proposes to be between three and four miles below Suez, where there is already four fathom water, regulating the issue of wa- ter by means of several parallel channels, constructed of masonry, and each capable of taking the largest class of ships navigating the'canal, and capable of being closed on occasions of necessity, the several channels uniting at a little distance north of the basin; he would obtain a current of i-lo miles per hour as the most likely to be elii^ctive for scourage, and yet nut difficult to navigate against, 'and in these latter points we fully concur : his estimate of the expence of excavation, masonry, piers, basin, &c., for the direct line proposed by him, is £:;, 10-2,000, reckoning the total length of the canal at 76 mdes, or 132,000 yuids : the total quantitv of excavation being 42,504,000 yards; _ presuming the canal to be 21 ft.' deep, 9iJ ft. wide at bottom, and 'iSO ft. wide at top at water line. The actual cost for excavating and em- bankment must depend upon the people employed, for if Egyptians supplied by the Pasha of Egypt, wages are not more than 2rf. per diem, if the labourers are to be brought from other places, greater expenees would necessarily be incurred. Further particulars of plans laid down by the French engineers have been so long before the public, that it is needless to notice them more than by saying that they proposed to preserve the level of the water in their canal at Ras el Moyeh equal to the low water level at Suez, and to throw all the remainder of the fall '2G-(54 English feet on the remaining distance of 30 English miles; and by so doing they con- ceived that energy would be given to the current of the canal to clear its bed from drift sand, and to hollow out and maintain a chanel in the shallow muddy bottom of the bay, so as to alFord the requisite depth of water at Tineh. The plan of Mr. Clarkson, who gives an extended review of the history of the ancient canal, embraces the same idea as Captain Vetch, in carrying the canal in a direct line from Suez to the Mediterranean near Tineh ; he also considers that the descent of about five inches per mile is amply sufficient to secure the commimication : he vfould carry the two lateral walls of the canal into the Mediterranean sea for six or seven miles into deep water; this eight miles he conceives would be no large addition to the extended labour and expence; we differ widely from him in this; the watery base is much deeper than he imagines, and embankments to run this length into the open sea, must of necessity be attended with very great expense, and require great engineering skill to execute ; the Mediterranean is no fishpond in stormy weather. Refekences.— T. Tineh ; P. Pelusmm; S. B. Lake Siibaket-Bardoil ; P. B. Pelusiac branch ; T. B. Tumetic branch ; Bu. Bubates ; B. Be;heis. ^ The several routes proposed are marked on the accompanying map. j^ 1. The line called by Captain Vetch the Bir Makdal line. : 2. The Thaubastum line. 3. The Ras el Moych line as proposed by bin self. 4. The French line as marked out by M. Linai.t. 5. The lin?s proposed by us. I'l. The interior French line. 7. Ancient canal. S. Waghorn's present route. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Jan. 6, ThP time consnmpd bv ihe present route through Egypt is four days, the flislance travelletl over being 346 miles: the time required by the canal route would not exceed 3 or 4 hours— this is important in a political, commercial, and pecuniary view: but even this is as nothing compared to the vast advantage of having a route independent of any power, and so long as British greatness exists, of being able to secure it, whatever events and fluctuations take place in Egvpt, or whatever disagreements take place among European states. The way of Egvpt is at present by courtesy alone, and might be put a stop to to-morrow, and very prohablv will'be jeopardized on the death of the Pasha. Besides the plans already laid before the public, there is another route we have marked out in the accompanying map, the possibility of which is based on the authority of an experienced and scientific man. Starting from the Red Sea below Suez, the canal passes into the beds of the bitter lakes, and from the head of these lakes to Cateih, passing by which, and entering the Mediterranean Sea through the great lake Subaket Bardoil, or King Baldwin's lake i this route is by the wav Hebrash, Assebbie, Hassivon, Masinak and Bucaria, a dis- tance of about eiglitv-three miles from the lakes. Should this route be thought too circuitous, let the line be direct from the head of the Red Sea below Suez, to Subaket Bardoil, following the base of the elevated plains of the desert towards the east. The advantages of this route ■we conceive will more than compensate for the increased distance : we avoid all I he possibly cultivatable soil of Egypt, and form a natural boundary to that country : we avoid all the land periodically overflowed by the vvaters of the Nile from lake Mansaleh : we secure a much better outlet to the Mediterranean, and a fine capacious basin in the lake itself: we pass eastward of the sand hills through a firm soil of gravel and marl, which, from its elevated position is seldom incommoded with shifting sands at any time. Tbe lake communicates with the sea by a wide mouth, from whence a salt water river passes into Arabia. With all due deference to the opinions of Mr. Anderson, we believe that previous to any measures being taken by English or other Euro- pean capitalists for carrying any one of these plans into effect, full security must be obtained from "the Pasha of Egypt, guaranteed by the great European ])owers, that those who speculate in it shall have the fullest protection, enjoying, unmolested by any power, the fruits of their labours. A canal'suited to the spirit, wealth, and enterprise of the present day, should be a magnificent one, open to all nations, and under the influence of none: it should be large enough to admit ships of the largest burthen: its tolls should be settled by the cabinets of Europe; wholly independent of the Pasha, who should have no power of interference beyond that of a member of the associated proprietary : nor should the joint body have the power of shutting their gates against any country or community. To accomplish this object the first important movement is, to obtain by grant or purchase a certain width of land across the Isthmus, which should embrace the proposed line of route: the western side of the canal throughout being considered the boundary towards Egypt, the eastern-side advanc- ing, say, 10 miles in breadth from sea to sea: this tract of land should be erected into an inferior Pashalisk, tributary to a small amount to the ruling powers of Egypt or Turkey, but otherwise ■wholly independent of them. The corporative body should have power to erect forts at each entrance, sufficiently strong to defend their rights and enforce their tolls: they should also have on payment for the same, all the facilities of labourers and material which Egypt can furnish, food, pay, and accommodation being provided for the Pasha's subjects employed by the company. Is this, we ask, to be obtained? for otherwise capitalists will hardly be found to carry out this truly universal project, and incur enormous expenses, that the Pasha may reap the benefit by receiving the tolls, the only mode for re-payment for the outlay : the avarice of the Pasha is well known, against this no security can be given; and even, during his life, secured from imposition and consequent loss, who can foretell the issue of events under his successor ? This, therefore, is the first preliminary step to any company being formed, to any capital being expended. It does not appear that Mahommed All would be averse to it, and even if so, whether, from pecuniary considerations, he might not be induced to consent toil: £150,000 or £200,0U0 would be well dis- posed of this way, and ultimately saved to the speculators in the hiie of Egyptian labourers. It is impossible that the right of tolls, as Mr. Anderson assumes to be necessary, should be vested in his family : the Pasha loses nothing but a strip of desert, he gains a means of communication to various parts of Egypt, exemption from toll, if he desires it, for himself and his Egyptian subjects, a passage to his dominions on the borders of the Red Sea, and an annual sum of money. The Pacha's and the Sultan's consent being obtained, then, and then only, are vre called upon to consider the most eligible route or a canal, for, of the physical practicability of making one, not the least shadow of a doubt exists. If the Pasha undertakes it himself, there is no more to be said on the subject : other than this, that his tolls be regulated according to the wishes of those who would avail themselves of it. It is barely reasonable to calculate on a union of European powers to effect an object in which England has so pre- ponderating an interest, as consolidating our power in the East : it is true that all the nations bordering the Mediterranean will benefit largely by it, but in a vastly inferior degree. Austria might not be altogether averse to it, but Russia would be decidedly hostile, and France would look with jealousy upon a plan which, after all that can be said, is to increase the commercial greatness of this country. The question, therefore, should be confined to a company in which the Pacha will be a shareholder, such company having powers like that of the Honourable East India Company, and to be amenable only to appointed trustees and regulators of the ioUs. "Political con- siderations," says Mr. Clarkson, " are foreign to this incjuiry;" but the question resolves itself into a political one: the British flag must then float in perpetuity upon the plains of Egypt, who shall tell the result of it. "The expense of cuttings, embankments, piers, &c., must of necessity depend upon the extent of operations carried on: the canal in size must be suited to the object, and great outlay conse- quently be incurred in forming harbours in the respective seas ; the estimates laid before us vary from £175,000 to £2,500,000: our opinion is, that to be judiciously completed, the minimum of expense will be £1,500,000, which, to pay 5/. per cent, per annum requires an annual revenue of £75,000 per annum, independent of incidental charges. We therefore say, with tbe Foreign Quarterly iJewew, that, "The expense, compared with the magnificent result, is so trifling, that the wonder is that it has not been carried into effect before now, either by a company having the support of Mahommed Pacha, or by the Pacha on his own account." The advantages to a body of share- holders are undoubtedly great, for independant of the great trade which would be carried through it, independent of its opening Abys- sina, and the whole of the interior of Africa to the arts, civilization and religion of European n'ltions, the Red Sea abounds with natural riches, and the fishermen of the Mediterranean would resort there in numbers, for its pearl and pearl shell, tortoise-shell, sponge the finest in the world, coral of commerce, and for domestic ornament, oils from black fish, besides sharks, dolphins, bonatas, and other numerous varieties, subservient to the wants and purposes of man. For other numerous and important particulars, we must refer our readers to the pamphlets in question, as well as to other statements which have been already laid before the public We cannot, however, conclude this notice without calling the attention of our readers to another pam- phlet from the indefatigable Mr. Waghorn, in which he strenuously urges the propriety of forwarding mails fortnightly instead of monthly, in which desirable object we most heartily concur. CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK. FASCICULUS LV. " I must have liberty Withal, as large a charter as the winds, To blow on whom I please." I. It is a thousand pities that Buckingham Palace, and not that alone, but several other buildings, cannot be sent to keep company with the model of the British Museum, and like that, be discreetly secluded from the impertinence of public gaze. Instead of being further exposed to view, the south side of the Palace ought to be completely shut out from view ; for it will now look more pitiful than ever— a mere higgledy-piggledy collection of architectural scraps and patches, more especially since the accession of— the little knick-knack- eries lately added. Royal taste is, of course— royal taste, and, per- haps, ought to be exempt from vulgar criticism; but I suspect that the new chapel would be too much for even the loyalty of Camdenists to stomach. Not much of symbolism there!— on the contrary, it is most unutterably heterodox in that respect. Well! symbolism is not at all in favour in' court : that's pretty evident; so neither is precedent, though the lynx-eyed in such matters cannot detect heterodoxy there. What a comfort it is to be occasionally purblind! II. Although some of them are a degree or two better than those in the Regent's Park, the " Pimlico Palaces," as Professor Donaldson wickedly styles them, are very much akin to them, and partake of a similar littleness of manner. Intended to be imposing, they neverthe- less do not impose, but, on the contrary, they generally tell their own tale very indiscreetly. Instead of being made, as they might be, to look like distinct mansions upon a noble scale, by only two or three 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. houses being comprised within one design, the same general elevation is frequently continued along the entire side of a street or square, consequently, while uniformity is pushed to monotony, the impression of greatness aimed at is lost, it being evident at the very first glance, that such a facade consists merely of a row of houses put into uni- form, therefore, of "speculation" houses— not such as are erected for their own residences by wealthy proprietors. As far as the builder is concerned, such system is convenient enough: a single elevation will serve for the whole job. Its pattern once set, a Pecksniff " ter- race " or " place" may be stretched out as long as — a Chancery suit, and be the external design ever so bad in point of taste, that gives the occupiers of the houses no concern, because they are comparatively but birds of passage. HI. It is to be regretted that a little more public spirit and liberality of feeling in the cause of architecture is not shown by those among the noble and opulent, who possess magnificent mansions, worthy of being made known to all, yet are kept, in a manner, almost under lock and key. It is to be presumed that Chatsworth, for instance, and more especially that portion of it which was added by Sir Jeff"ry Wyatville, must contain a very great deal not only worth seeing but worth studying— and between the two the difference is considerable; nevertheless, there is nothing to inform us what it really is, neither are we likely to have anything, although it would be a mere bagatelle to such a man as the Duke of Devonshire — perhaps not the cost of a iiingle fete — were he to employ the best artists of the day to make drawings and engravings that should completely illustrate the whole of the edifice. Very probably his Grace would not refuse the privi- lege of making drawings for such purpose to any one who might apply for if, and miglit even promise him subscribers, yet that kind of liberality does not go far — certainly not far enough for the purpose. It is almost in vain to look to the enferprize of trading speculation, whether on the part of publishers or artists, for works of that class, requiring a very great outlay, and promising but a very limited and a very slow sale. They ought not to be left for others to take up — or rather to the mere chance of its being done, but should be engaged in con amore, and with no more idea of profit than a man has when he gives a sumptuous banquet. As little would it matter though the world should set it down to vanity and ostentation: where there are so many other vanities besides, one more or less makes little differ- ence in the sum total of them: neither would such kind of vanity be the wnptiest of all. IV. As this is the age of surprising discoveries of all kinds, we need not be particularly astonished at some one's having just di3Co- vered a "bright halo" irradiating the character of Sir Rohert Smirke as a man and an architect, and claiming distinction for him on account of his "noble and generous nature!" With his private character the public have nothing to do, more especially as he is nut one of tliose who are perpetually thrusting themselves forward into nutice, and who advertise themselves and their doings in newspaper puffs; on the contrary. Sir Robert invariably "keeps himself quite to iiiniself," as the saying is, and is no doubt fully entiiled to the praise of being in his private station a very gentlemanly and highly respectable indi- vidual. Yet there are many others such — at least, so it is to be hoped, many truly excellent and worthy persons, who nevertheless are not on that account paraded before the public. It is in his professional ca- pacity alone that Sir Robert stands exposed to notice, and his personal character belongs not to criticism but to biography. However justly such character may be claimed for him, his " noble and generous na- ture" does not discover itself by any overt acts: on the contrary, lie shows himself to be of a very reserved and cold — not to call it a churlish disposition — not tliat he is on that account to be singled out for reproach, since even that is merely a negative defect, and one which does not at all concern the public. When, however, a man is officiously extolled for qualities which he does not appear to possess, it is but lair that the world should make some inquiry. To call upon us to admire the high character, and the noble, and generous nature of Sir Robert, is, however intended, not a little indiscreet: most as- suredly his professional character fur talent does not stand veiy high, among those at all capable of appreciating it, since, considering tlie numerous and ample opportunities which have been afforded him, no one in the profession has done less, or has manifested less of artist-like ability and feeling. So far from displaying any sort of invention or fertility of mind, his buildings present merely a few obvious and common-place ideas, hashed up over and over again; and are one and all most lame and insipid — even to poverty, in their detail. To talk of fancy and Siuirke in the same breath would be preposterous ; his Grecian designs and composition are purely mechanical, such as any one may attain to, merely by literally copying the llissus Ionic on all occasions, and sticking its columns against fronts which belong not to a columnar but -d/ejieslrated style. Therefore even his so much cried up purity, is, after all, only impurity — mongrelism of the'very worst kind, exhibiting in marked contrast to each other, two opposite styles, without any attempt to reconcile them, and thereby bring them in some degree into assthetie harmony. All that Smirke has done has been quite as well done — in some instances, better, by others of the same school. Foulstone was quite equal to Smirke, and the buildings of the one might very well be mistaken for those of the other; there- fore, it is hard for poor Foulstone — the late "Plymouth Vitruvius," and rather puzzling that he should be so little thought of by those who admire his duplicate. Possibly it is because he lacked the talis- manic prefix of Sir to his name. Putting Foulstone, however, out of the question, it does not say much for the superior talent of Smirke, or for the heartiness of his admirers, that none of the latter — even those who consider him to have been unfuirly treated, should have attempted to vindicate him, by directly pointing out in his works some of those excellences for which they so largely give him credit. In- stead of so doing, they adopt the more cautious yet far less satisfac- tory mode of speaking of them in the lump, without particularizing any one of his buildings or its peculiar merits. Alas ; for his classical taste shown by such a maudlin affair — such a jumble of Grecian and anti-Grecian, as the hall of the Post Office ; or such another specimen of his, as is the church in Wyndham Place, or in the Mint on Tower Hill, or the Long-room of the Custom House, or his buildings in the Temple, or those of Serjeants' Inn, or King's College, or the College of Physicians and Union Club House, or the Conservative in Pall Mall. Is it for all — for every one, or for any one of these that our admiration is demanded? if so, and justly so, then has Sir Robert Smirke been, notwithstanding all his success, one of the most unfor- tunate gentlemen in his profession, for they are all sent to Coventry — are never referred to, spoken of, or mentioned in any way — most cer- tainly not for admiration. As to his "noble and generous nature," the proofs of that are not more striking than are the beauties of his ar- chitecture. Is it his generous feelinu; which withholds him from ever joining the exhibitors in the architectural room of the Royal Aca- demy ? Are his ideas too precious to be there submitted to vulgar gaze, or would his designs so entirely absorb attention that everything else would be passed by unheeded, and they are therefore kept away out of compassion to others? His enthusiasm for art — supposing it to exist at all, must be of a particularly quiet kind, for never does it burst out on any occasion. Externally he wears u.uch more that looks like indifference for art, and haughty contempt for public opinion. Most assuredly it is a very strange sort of generosity which deter- mines him not to allow the public to view the Museum model, not- withstanding clamours and remonstrances. In that matter we may give him credit for discretion, but hardly for generosity of any kind, or for the warm leeling of a genuine artist who looks to pulilic approval as his most prized reward. Very rarely, if, indeed, ever, has Sir Robert Smirke's name appeared in connexion with any scheme or plan for furthering the interests of art generally, or those of his own profes- sion. He encourages no one, nor any thing: of course he is at perfect liberty so to act, without being responsible to any one for his conduct; but then let him not be held up as a pattern cliar.icter ; let us not be told of his noble and generous nature. If Sir Rubert chooses to let the world misunderstand him — to veil the feelings of a warm-hearted and enthusiastic mind beneath the garb of a frigid and repulsive in- difference, he must take his account accordingly, nor will he at least be surprised or disappointed at finding himself judged of from ap- pearance. However, his hypocrisy, if such it be, is not of a very dangerous kind, lor very few will be tempted by his example, to dis- semble their virtues, and completely disguise all signs of "a noble and generous nature." V. Singular paucity of invention is displayed by the surveyors of private fetes — a greater disregard of money on the part of those who order, than of ingenuity and contrivance on that of those who havethe management of thrin. One stock conceit — and one that would seem to be a piece of etiquette on such occasions — is lo lumber up vestibule and staircase with such a prolusion of evergreens and plants, that one might fancy Covent Garden market had been invited to the party, and was making its way up stairs before him ; or else that he has mistaken the house, and has got into that of some horticultural and florist society. If there be ample space for them, and they are introduced sparingly, and just where an artist would place them for effect, plants and flowers — N. B. artificial ones would answer the pur- pose just as well and even better, besides being cheaper in the end — ■ are admissible as embellishments on such occasions: but to have a mere crowd and mob of such things does not argue the most elegant taste. What is squandered away by some persons in a season or two, in temporary and trumpery decorations, would enable them to decorate their staircases and rooms in a style of superior and permanent beauty. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Jan. 6, SYSTEM OF DRAWING VOLUTES. By Mr. Maddos. c 6 A The size of (lie volute being first determined, tlie deptli A B is di- vided into 12 equal parts; from tlie seventli part draw tlie right line E F, as shown in diagram; tiien number li parts at the top of the volute from A, and draw a line at right angles with E F, which will give the eye of the Volute. Lines are to be drawn (dotted in the figure) from C to E, E to D, and from D to F, and -so throughout the vulute, each square diminishing to the centre, as shown above, taking care to have them exactly parallel to the opposite ones. Quadrants of circles are struck from the diagonal lines G H (45"^), which quadrants of circles all terminate where the dotted lines cut the lines C D E F. The first centre will be on the diagonal line H at 1, the second centre on the line G at 2 ; in going through the second time for the inside line the centres will be a trifle nearer the eve of the volute. The diagonal lines only are to be used fur the centres. When tlie vulute is on a larger scale, a small thin piece of transparent horn or ivory is gene- rally used to avoid the unsightly punctures in the paper. CONTROVERSIES ON CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. Sir — It is not long since there appeared in the 7Vnies newspaper two interesting letters, signed " C. S.," on the state of the church, describing " the discrepancies of condition, feeling, and opinion amongst the clergy," and dwelling on the " depressing and perplexing eftects on the young clergyman." Take pitv, Sir, on another class who hardly suffer less from these "discrepancies," and with your valuable advice enlighten the path of the ecclesiastical architect. In the last number but one of the Cambridge Ecckswlogial, there are the following sen- tences on the proprieties of church architecture: — "A stone altar may be provided in two ways; either make it plain, a solid mass of ma- sonry ; the slab of block granite or marble projecting beyond the ma- sonry, and marktd ivilhjin crosses, or let the slab be supported on plain massy brackets fixed in the eastern wall." " U^e aasitme the absence of altar rails and chairs." It is as easv to " assu7ne," as Liston argued it was to sa;/ " read ;" and very easy for critics of the Pugin school, who know nothing, and allow nothing, for all the difficulties engendered by this "discrepancy of feeling and opinion," to hurl their thurxier at the unhappy architect employed by clergymen opposed to their " con- troversial arrangements," or who are so far "heretics" as to disallow the "dicta" of the Camden Society. Suppose the architect employed alternately by members of the " go-a-head," and bv those of the "things as they are" school. In tlie former case he finds the clergy- man originating the building or restoration, anxious to have " a stone altar," sedilia, lettern, faldstool, and perhaps, in painted glass, the re- presentation of the saint or saints to whom the Church may be dedi- cated. On such instructions he prepares his plans ; the work com- mences, and is perhaps completed, before the bishop of the diocese (an alarmist) becomes aware of the full extent of these " inno- vations," and objects to their introduction. The work is suspended ; the plans and arrangement have to be altered, and the original spirit and feeling of the design become lost. This is no imaginary difficulty! In two cases within my own knowledge the churches were finished ; in one, an Archbishop refuses to consecrate because the " solid stone altar" is introduced ; in the other, a bishop threatens tlie same course if figures of saints (already painted) are introduced in the east window. Suppose the architect employed by one of the latter class, the advo- cate of " things as they are." He is cautioned against these " modern innovations," these "shadows of coming Popery," and is required to embody in these plans the box pew, the twin preaching and pravintir pulpit, ground glass, and arm chairs! and if the employer in this case be a utilitarian, an advocate of the least accommodation for the greatest number principle, you have the monstrosities of galleries round the church (the east end perhaps excepted). This preaching house is finished and ready for consecration ; the bishop of this diocese (not an alarmist) condemns its coldness and poverty; and in the next number of the Ecclesiologist, the production is criticised, its arrangements held to be "totally indefensible," "very objectionable," in fact, "one of the worst things they ever saw," "a perfect disgrace to the parties responsible for it." Now, Sir, it is this very responsibility I want to have defined. How, in the absence of all uniformity as to church pro- prieties, or church arrangement, is the unhappy architect to act? The question of surplice or academic gown is not more perplexing to the young clergyman, than the form and aspect of the reading desk, the pew or open seat to the architect (young or old). His province it cannot be to determine whether these novelties or "trifles" (as the Bishop of Rochester calls them) have "positive danger in them," whether " they indicate more than appears on the surface, or whether, considering the temper of the times, and the present unsettled state of the Church, they are calculated to irritate and vex the minds of con- gregations, and to become the badges of party distinction." Nor should he be called upon to justify and perpetuate what he believes to be inconsistency and slovenliness in worship. To refuse employment in those cases where the character of these arrangements is not in ac- cordance with his own " private judgment," will not facilitate his children's support ; and " There is no end to eating ! legs of mutton Are vanquished daily by this little host." To accept it when he knows that the result will inevitably draw down on his devoted head, the flagellations of these ready-made critics ("for a man ninst serve his time to every trade save censure"), is an act of heroism and self-devotion worthy so good a cause. Forgive this long story from a constant reader of your iournal, and An Unhappy Church Architect. December, 1843. ROYAL ACADEMY. Sir — Not finding in the last number of the Journal any remarks upon the architectural drawings, beyond the mere notice of the suc- cessful competitors for the prize medals offered by the Royal Academy to the students, I beg leave to submit a few remarks which occurred to me in the course of a rapid glance of these drawings, taken after the distribution of the medals. There were six sets of designs sent in for the gold medal, amounting to thirtv-two drawings, consisting of plans, geometrical and perspec- tive elevations and sections. This, I understand, is the largest number which has been sent in for some years. For the silver medal there was but one set of drawings, this is the smallest number received for some years. The subject tor thegold medal was a Metropolitan Music Hall, and Royal Academy of Music. I was struck with the general appearance of inattention to the purposes of the building exhibited in the plans and other drawings, excepting in those of Mr. Garling, to whom the medal was awarded. I say, excepting Mr. Garling's, be- cause he, unlike the rest (from each room being assigned to some pur- pose described, and from a short sketch and description sent with the drawings), appeared to have studied well the arrangement of his building. As in almost all designs where outlay is not thought of, columns, pediments, statues, &c., were in great abundance; in- deed it appears to be the idea of many young architects, as well as some old ones, that the more of these, they can crowd together, the greater the grandeur and beauty of the edifice. In some of the de- signs the Music Academy appeared to be lost sight of; a large central hall, surrounded by a suite of galleries, nearly a fourth part of which were appropriated as royal entrances, &c. In others they introduced court-yards, but still having no rooms, properly so called, for the aca- demical department. One of the perspective views looked like a large temple on the top of a hill, the base of which was hidden by 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. a crowd of small low biiildins;s with domes, pediments, &c. In another, from the number of columns introduced, and from the point of view chosen, not a single window or door was to be seen, and it therefore looked like a tomb or some such building. Altiiough having spoken so much in dispraise, I must acknowledge that all the drawings exhibited great care in the drawing, and, I might almost say, beauty of colouring; but the most of tliem departed from the printed direc- tions of the Academy, namely, that no colour but sepia should be used, for in some I noticed red, blue, yellow, brown, &c. And, again, in the introduction in the perspective drawings of figures, such as soldiers, horses, stalls, with their attendant old women, boys, &c., which, in ray opinion, instead of adding to the beauty of the design, turned it into a pretty picture, and no more. I fear from some little pieces of bad perspective, also introduced, that some one had been employed to put in that which certainly did not add to the beauty of the archi- tectural design. The drawings for the silver medal, sent in by Mr. G. Perry, of the West Wing of Greenwich Hospital, from actual admeasurement, ex- liibited great care, both in the drawing and colouring. The Academy reserving the power of withholding the medal, in a case like the [.re- sent where only one competitor sent in, have signified that they con- sidered the drawings of Mr. Perry worthy of the prize. Although these drawings did not exhibit the artistic handling shown in the gold med.il drawings, they give promise of superior abilities. A student informed me that the probable cause of there being no other drawings in this class was owing to the council's description of the part required to be drawn, being very unintelligible, and that he bad no doubt the students were afraid of commencing any drawings, as (hey might turn out after all to be of a wrong part. But why did not they make inquiries? I apprehend that either the Keeper of the Academy, or some other member, would hare set the student right. Yours, truly, January 3, 1844. Q. A MARINE SALINOMETER. For the purpose of indicating the Density of Brine in the Boilers of Marine Steam- Engines. Invented by J. Scott Uussell,M.A.,F.R.S.E., F.R.S.S.A., Civil Engineer. Bead before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, 28th February 1842, the Honorary Silver Medal of the Society awarded, and reported in their Transactions. It was very early in the history of steam navigation that the inconvenience of raising steam from salt water was experienced. When the Come/ descended below Port Glasgow in 1812, the boiler was found to boil over, or prime, as it is technically called by engineers, wlien part of the water of forced up so vio- lently, along with the steam, as to pass over into the cylinder of the engine — a circumstance always detrimental, and sometimes destructive to tbe engines. This arises from the thickening of the water, its density being increased by the retention of the soUd substances which compose sea water, and which re- main and accumulate in the boiler, while the fresh portion of the water is passing off in the shape of steam. This process of accumulation of solid matter in the marhie boiler is by no means slow. The whole of the water which a marine boiler usually contains is evaporated in three or four hours, leaving the solid substances in the cubic content of boiler behind it, and being replaced by salt water, with an equal quantity of depositary matter, accumulating as rapidly as before; and since it is known the solid matter amounts to as mucli as ^^ of the whole mass of water, it would follow, if the process of ebullition could continue so long as 150 hours, there would be deposited in the boiler a quantity of solid matter equal to the number of tons of water in tbe whole content of the boiler. Long, however, before this degree of solidification can take place, evils of a different description intervene to impair and put an end to the functions of the boiler. The solid constituents of salt water which arc left behind do not diffuse themselves uniformly over the whole liquid mass, so as to consti- tute a homogeneous brine ; on the contrary, tbe new supplies of sea water, as they enter the boiler, remain secluded from the former more saturated brine, rise by their less specific gravity into an upper stratum, while the denser lirine ferms a bed in the lower part of the boiler, and surrounds the fire box and heater flues occupying the water spaces and legs, which are usually at a high temperature, and which, in double tiered boilers, are gene- rally the most intensely heated. The intense heat of the metal expels the water from the brine in contact with it most rapidly in the hottest places, and salt is deposited on the hottest parts of the furnaces and flues, extending rapidly to those less heated, and so not only diminishing the evaporative power of the boiler, but injuring its substance, and endangering its existence. Tbe remedy for these evils was very early invented. But I have not been able to discover the inventor of the cleansing process commonly called " blowing down," or " blowing off." It is almost universal, and is performed in the following way : — There is forced into the boiler, at each stroke, rather more water than is required for the supply of steam, so that the boiler be- comes too full. Openings are then suddenly made at the bottom of the boiler, and the brine at the bottom being violently ejected, carries with it any solid substances that may have accumulated near the bottom — the boiler is thus cleansed ; and before the water has got too low, the openings are again closed, and tlie boiler continues to be fed as formerly. Another remedy, pretty generally adopted, is the brine pump, by which, for every portion of water supplied to the boiler, about one-fourth part of that quantity of brine is withdrawn from it. This process does not so tborougldy carry off all the impurities as the former; but it is attended with a saving of fuel by a con- trivance for giving to the feed-water entering the boiler a portion of the heat of the discharged brine. Tne recent introduction of this process is due to Messrs. Maudslay & Field of London. In whatever way the saturation of the water with solid matter may be remedied, it is essential to the accomplishment of tliis object, that some simple apparatus should be contrived for tlie purpose of showing when the cleansing process is required, and whether it is successfully applied. If this be not ob- tained, the usual consequence of acting on wrong data are sure to follow. A contrivance was patented, whicli was thought promising, hut was found liable to he mechanically out of order when most wanted : — a ball of greater specific gravity than salt water was connected with an external index, bv which there was indicated on the outside, the fact of the brine becoming sufficiently saturated to float this ball. Another was to place in the glass gauge of the boiler a glass hydrometer head, which would float when the brine became saturated to a given point, and fall to the bottom in the ordi- nary state of the boiler. But this fails entirely of accuracy, although very elegant; for the brine of which we wish to indicate the density is in the lower stratum, not the upper one, where the usual glass gauge is ]daced, and irretrievable mischief might be done before the indication would show any change. I have lately employed, in some large ships destined for transatlantic voyages, a species of brine gauge, or index of saturation, which is found to possess every advantage, and which I therefore desire to communicate to the public through this society. The drawings sent are such as may enable any engineer to construct them for himself. The details of the arrangement of the apparatus were made under the direction of Mr. James Laurie, formerly one of my assistants; and he also has obliged me by writing out the annexed description of the operation of using the index. The principle I have used is the well-known law, " that the heights of equiponderant columns of liquids vary inversely as the densities of those liquids." If I take open glass tubes bent in the form of the letter U, and pour one fluid into one of the sides, and another fluid into the opposite side (taking care to use the heavier liquid before the other); the one being mercury, and the other water, they will stand at tbe height of 1 in. and 13 in. respectively. If I use alcohol and water, they will stand at the height of 10 in. and 8 in. respectively, tbe height of the one fluid being always greater than that of the other, in the proportion in which its weight, density, or specific gravity is less. In like manner fresh water and salt water will stand at heights of 40 in. and 41 in., showing a ditt'erence of 1 in. Tlie use which I make of this principle is as follows : — I reckon the best scale of saltness of a boiler to be that which takes the common sea water as a standard. Sea water contains -^ of saline matter. When the water has been evaporated, so as to leave only half tbe quantity of distilled water to the same quantity of saline matter, I call that two degrees of salt, or brine of the strength of two, and such brine would show, in fig. 3. the columns 40 and 42, or double the saltness of sea water, indicated by a difference of 2 in. A farther saturation would be indicated by a difference of 3, 4, 5, and 6 in. between tlie columns, and so indicate 3, 4, 5, 6, and any further degrees of saltness — a range which may be made to any degree of minuteness by the subdivision of the scale of inches. This scale is that which appears to mc most simply applicable here — and it is that which I adopt for marine boilers. The mechanical apparatus which I liave employed to give this indication is perfectly simple, and has the advantage of being such as the engineer already perfectly understands. To the marine boiler I apply two water gauges of glass, instead of one as at present used; they both serve the pur- pose of the present glass gauges, and the pair would be valuable for this, if for no other reason, that there would always be a duplicate when one is broken, an accident not unfrequcnt. To these gauges I simply attach small copper pipes, so that one of them may be placed in communication only with the salt brine in the lower part of the boiler, and tbe other with tbe feed- water which is entering the boiler ; the one then holds a column of brine, and the other of pure sea water, and each inch of difference shows the degree of saturation. Without the use of any attached scale, the engineer, by a little practice, comes to know in bis particular vessel, what diflFerence in inches can be ad- mitted without danger, and at what difference of lieight it is imperative to blow off. But it is convenient to have an attached scale. It may be satis- factory to state, that the practical range of scale in an ordinary boiler in the ordinary working, is G in. to 10 in., a difference sufficiently great to be easily oliserved. The rule of working them is nearly this : — Continue the operation of blowing off until, if possible, tbe difference of the columns is less than an inch; it will be unnecessary to blow ofi' again until the dift'erence is at least 0 in. As a practical rule, I find that it is necessary to blow off when ths brine at the bottom has about three degrees of saltness. But this will vary exceedingly, according as the construction of the boilers is more or less judi- cious. When the heat is greatest in the lowest portion of the boiler, and the flues return above, they will be most liable to salt, and require the most fre- quent cleansing. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Jan. 6, The following is Mr. Laurie's description of the in- strument. The drawings give the details of the appa- ratus.— J. S. R. The fact that the specific gravity of salt water !s greater tlian that of fresh, and that it increases with the degree of saturation, is what the operation of this instrument depends on ; by its means two columns of water, the one feed and the other brine, are poised against each other, so as that any difference of weight betwixt these columns immediately becouies apparent by the lighter of the two requiring an accession in quantity to resist the upward pressure to which both columns are subjected. This is accomplished by having two common glass gauge-tubes close together, each of which is connected with a separate tube; that inside the boiler descends to the level of the water, the spe- cific gravity of which is to he measured, and having either or both of these tubes so connected with the feed-pipe of the boiler, that by opening a cock one of the pipes will be filled with feed-water, while the other remains filled with brine, which cock being shut, the tubes remain so filled ; but inasmuch bs feed-water is of less specific gravity than brine, it will be forced up and stand in the glass tube at a higher level than the brine, which dift'erence of levels increases with the saturation — and hence the index to judge of the salt- ness. Fig. 1 and 2, A, B, are the two glass gauge tubes ; C, one of the tubes forming the connexion betwixt one of these glass gauge tubes and its tube D, that descends inside of the boiler to near the bottom ; E, the tube forming the connexion betwixt the upper ends of these tubes and the inside or the boiler and ascends to near the top; F, G, two cocks so made, as shown in the drawing, that by their means each of the tubes inside of the boiler may be shut off from the glass tubes, and also may be connected with the tube II, leading from the feed-pipe of the boiler; I, a cock affording the means of shutting offthe tube E from the glass tubes, and also of connecting either of these glass tubes with the tube K, leading to the bilge of the vessel ; each of these cocks has a handle, and when the instrument is indicat- ing, the three handles hang perpendicularly downwards. To bring the instrument into operation, the three handles must first be put in the position j j which has the effect of allowing the brine to flow right up the t'lass tube A, and out through the tube K, into the bilge of the vessel ; this having been done for so long a lime as that A and its tube inside the boiler be thoroughly cleansed and filled with brine, the handles are then to be put in the position j ;, which, in like manner, cleanses and fills B and its tube inside of the boiler with brine; finally, bring the handle of the top cock into its original position, and put either of the lower handles horizontal, which forming a connexion of the feed-pipe with one of the tubes inside of the boiler, fills that tube with feed-water ; thus there are in the two tubes inside of the boiler two columns of water of different specific gravities, the one being brine, the specific gravity of which is to be measured, and the other feed- water, the specific gravity of which is pretty nearly constant, so long as the temperature of condensation is the same, and does not vary much, let the temperature of condensation be what it may ; but, inasmuch as these columns of water are of different specific gravities, the pressure on the bottoms of them will force the lighter up the glass tube, until such a quantity of brine has followed it as makes it of equal weight with the other ; and hence, in the two glass tubes, the water stands at different heights, the magnitude of which difference becomes known by means of the scale fixed betwixt the glass tubes, and therefore also the degree of saturation of the brine. The use of this instrument, which might be called a Salinometer, is not confined to this one subject, for it answers thoroughly all the purposes of the common glass gauge, the position of the surface of water in the boiler being midway betwixt the surfaces of water in the tubes. When either or both of the glass tubes is broken, put the handles in the position ! ! , and nothing can escape from the boiler. T. W. L. CHURCH BUILDING IN IRELAND. It at all times affords us much pleasure to notice the works that are in progress in Ireland, particularly when we have to record buildings of a public character, such as the one we are about to describe; for the description, to- gether with the preceding remarks, which are slightly abridged, we are indebted to the Newrii Examiner. The architect is .Mr. Duff, whose eccle- siastical works we have before noticed in this Journal. We hear of continual comparisons between England and Ireland, in which the relative prosperity and poverty, civilization and crime, learning and igno. ranee of these two countries, are descanted upon with no small share of skill. There is, however, one prominent part which these balances of national cha- racteristics have, either through inattention, or incompetence to do justice to the subject, left almost unalluded to. This is the more to be regretted, as nothing more tends to introduce good feeling between countries, and a sense of emulation, than judiciously pointing out to the less improved country the causes and consequences whereby the more cultivated has arisen in "emi- nence. England has been remarkable for the richness of its churches since imme- diately after the conquest, when William, the Conqueror, with arms, intro- duced arts, and when the simple strength of Saxon edifices was supplanted by the more stately splendour of Norman towers. The temperament of these hardy Normans must have been more than tinctured with piety. They must have been essentially devout, for, whilst we find the castles of their nobles uf comparative plainness, in no instance does aught beneath grandeur suffice them when they erected temples of religious worship. This may he accounted for by the prevalence then in repute of joining the priestly functions and ar- chitectural duties in the one person. The churches of England are almost all constructed after the designs of bishops and priests, and, perhaps, never again may the world expect to behold Gothic architecture carried to such perfection as when such men as William of Wykehani, though wearing the sacred purple, deemed them sanctified duties to resign, with compass and square, inspect stone-hewers, leain the relative bearing uf timbers, and, in a word, all but became artisans, by spreading out the protecting span of roofs, and by sheltering civilised society. Unfortunately for Ireland, its distracted state of society, ever in a turmoil between the invader and the invaded, aflTorded no shelter for arts to thrive. Hence its almost total want of magnificent churches ; and Christ's and St. Patrick's in Dublin, and Armagh Cathedral, may be said to constitute the only pious preserves of ancient days. Better times are upon us now, and church building, within these last twenty-five years, durably marks the vast spread of civilization, learning and religion, which have come, as it were, in well regulated abundance upon the people. More Catholic churches have been built in Ireland within that period than were for the preceding two cen- turies ; yet few of them are in the Ecclesiastical or Gothic style of architec- ture. Dublin has been especially blameahle in this respect, and out of the hundreds of thousands sterUng, its citizens dedicated to erect houses of wor- ship these last ten or fifteen years, we look in vain for a Gothic building. 1844.J THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 9 The Metropolitan Cathedral is Grecian, and, though grand, is less striking m appparance than a Gothic pile of equal magnitude. The church of Saint Xavier is the paragon of prettiness, and its panelled ceiling and vestibule are extraordinarilv beautiful in their way, nor is its portico deficient in symmetry and iustness of proportion. Much of the beauty of Saint Paul's church is lost from its propinquity to the river, its portico, tower, and dome, are woithy of a better situation, but the interior greatly disappoints the eye that looks even for a small portion of effect. The churches of Saints Michan, Michael, and John, though externallf Gothic, retain little of the style in the interior except the altars. St. Audeon's is still too far removed from completion to form any competent judgment upon its probable effect ; yet if «e might hazard ail idea, we opine meagreness shall be its characteristic. The Church of Saint Nicholas is also unfinished, but the magnificence of its ceihng and altar is unparalleled in this kingdom. The altar is a noble arrangcnicnt of columns and pilasters worthv the best designs of Claude Perault. The Church of Saint Francis is a spacious building, but in nothing remarkable for either elegance or judicious arrangement. The Church of Saint Andrew is the largest and least to be praised of any ; its vastness is unrelieved by one soh- tary attempt at grandeur, or even taste in detail. Throughout all these reli- gious edifices we seek in vain for the dim religious light found in Gothic buildings ; and, whether to blame the architects or building committees, it is not here to determine. ,.,,,„ ^, i <• *i, Ulster however, has to boast that it did not follow the example of the metropolis, and the new Cathedrals of Armagh and Newry, and the church of Dundalk, designed, erected, and erecting under the superintendence of Mr Duff, of this town, are enduring monuments of the Gothic style. Newry first set the example, and its Catholic Church is a splendid edifice. Dundalk followed, and, with that independent tone of rivalry or emulation for which the people of Louth are celebrated in secular, as well as political aftairs, the building committee of the town appointed Mr. Duff their architect, who suc- ceeded in adding another triumph to the resuscitation of Gothic architecture. He was the only professional gentleman in the kingdom who ha.l attempted to overcome the difticulties that lay in the way of arousing the hierarchy and the clergv to a just appreciation of the glories qf the old, neglected, ecclesi- astical style. Nor was he unsuccessful ; and it must be confessed the people of Dundalk actively co operated to carry out his extensive designs. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, DUNDAIK. This church is built entirely of fine hewn granite stone, and in the pointed stvle of architecture which prevailed during the early part of the fourteenth eenturv. It contains a nave and side aisles, the north-west constituting the principal front, which apparently consists of three divisions, the central being separated from the lateral aisles by graceful turrets, octagonal in form, appro- priately buttressed, panelled, and crowned by crocketted pinnacles. The upper stage of these turrets is composed of perforated panel-work, possessing peculiar lightness and beauty. The centre division, which projects consi- derably beyond the aisles, has a majestic doorway, leading to the interior porch and 'body of the ci.urch. This doorway is of ample dimensions, deeply recessed ; and enriched with small pdlars and hollow mouldings, with a lofty pointed arch, with rich tracery panel-work, and a bold label, enclosing carved spandrils, of a tasteful and elaborate design. On either side of the doorway are handsome tabernacle niches, for the reception of statues. Over the grand entrance rises a magnificent window, of lofty proportions, of six lights, and subdivided by a transom. The heads of these lights, with the pointed arch above, are filled in with varied tracery, of a beautiful descrip- tion, the jambs are recessed and moulded, with a large hood moulding sus- tained at the springing, by beautifully carved corbelled heads. In the upper part of the pointed gable appears a circular opening, for ventilation of the roof, octofoil, moulded, and cusped ; above which, an enriched cornice later- ally sustains an open parapet of panel-work, capped and embattled. On the apex rises an appropriate pedestal, supporting a large ornamental cross. The angles of the side aisles are bounded by graduated buttresses, terminated by lofty pinnacles and finials. The principal entrance to the aisles are on the front, with moulded jambs, painted arches and carved spandrils, and hood mouldings. On a large cornice over the doorways, are windows of three lights, the heads filled with tracery of perpendicular arrangement, and cor- responding in dimensions with those of the aisles — the inclined gables of the roof being finished with panelled parapets, capped and embraznred. The nest portion of the church claiming attention is the south-east end, which, like the front, projects considerably beyond the termination of aisles, and flanked with turrets containing circular stairs which lead to the leads of the roofs. These turrets are of plainer character than the principal front ; but the upper stages, when finished, will correspond, in every respect, with those already completed. The great window which lights the choir is fifteen feet wide by thirty-eight feet high, divided and subdivided by moulded transoms, into fifteen lights, wliich are designed to contain appropriate subjects in stained glass. The tracery of the pointed arch is beautifully varied. The aisles are embraznred, and sustained by buttresses and pinnacles, and lighted by eight lofty windows of three divisions, divided by a transom, the heads of each window having perpendicular tracery work. The nave, or clerestory, which rises high above the aisles, displays a similar arrangement, having win- dows, buttresses, pinnacles, and embattled parapets. The dimensions of the building are as follow :— Length of the nave, taken on the walls . . . . 179 feet. Breadth between the pillars . . . . . . 33 do. Length of the aisles, including porches . . . . 140 do. Breadth of the nave and aisles, including walls . . 78 do. Height of the nave from base of pillars to apex of roof 62 do. Altitude of front to top of cross .. .. •• 78 do. Height of the octagon towers . . . . ■ • 86 do. The interior is not yet entirely completed, hut much is executed to arrest and gratify the attention. It is divided by two ranges of granite stone pil- lars, having moulded bases and capitals, sustaining pointed arches of various appropriate mouldings, over which, upon a horizontal cornice, rests tlie cleres- tory windows tliat light tlie body of the house. Between the windows, slender shafts rise from the pillars'below that support angel brackets; from these spring the ribs of groins forming the roofs, having bosses and exquisite foliage at the points of intersection. The ceiling is truly grand, and reminds us of those beautiful remains of olden time. The sanctuary is very spacious, in which are the three splendid altars, composed of elegant tabernacle-work, and executed in white marble. The altar screen is to be of a most elaborate design, which is to separate the sacristy from this portion of the church. ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS— SESSION 1843-4. This Society held its Annual General Meeting on Monday, 13/A Novemlier, 1843.— James L'Amy, Esq., F.R.S.E., in the Chair. 1. The meetings for this session were opened by an interesting exposition of the construction and management of light-houses, given at the special re- quest of the Council of the Society, by David Stevenson, civil-engmeer. After alluding to the great importance of the subject, and giving a brief out- line of the early history of light-houses, from which it appeared that the open coal fires, formerly employed in lighting our coasts, were superseded by a more perfect system only towards the ;close of last century, Mr. Stevenson proceeded to explain— RrsC, The systems at present in use for producing signal-lights, by means of the catoptric, or reflecting, and the dioptric, or refracting apparatus, and also by the combination of these two, to which the term of catadioptric is applied ;" Second, The means employed for varying the characteristic appearances of tlie lights, describing the seven methods at present in use on the coast of Scotland ; Third, The construction of the erections from which those lights are exhibited, viz., the ordinary lighthouse stations which occur on the coast, those erected on sunken or isolated rocks —such as the Eddvstone, Bell-rock, and Skerryvore— the floating light, screw-pile light, &c. &c. ; and, Fovrth, The construction of beacons and buoys, adopted in situations where light-houses cannot be erected. Mr. Ste- venson concluded by offering a few remarks on the management of light- houses generally. The exposition was illustrated by a variety of models and drawings, together with specimens of the different kinds of apparatus em- ployed, the use of which was granted by the Commissioners of the Northern Lighthouses. Thanks were voted to the Hon. the Commissioners of the Northern Lighthouses for the use of the models, and to Mr. David Steven, son for the exposition, which were given to him from the Chair. The report of the committee appointed to award prizes for communications read and exhibited during the last session was read, by which it appears that not less than 21 prizes were awarded. The office bearers for the current year were elected ; when 1 rof. Ihomas Traill, M.D., F.R.S.E., was announced the President for the year ensuing. Novemlier 27. — Prof. Trail in the chair. The President, on taking the chair, addressed the Society, thanking the Fellows for the honour thev had done him in placing him by the chair. He stated that he took a great interest in the proceedings of the Society, and that it should be his earnest endeavour to promote the prosperity of the So- ciety, and to forward its laudable object, the encouragement of the useful arts. . , Several communications were made and referred to committee tor con- sideration. . . ■ ■ J Sir Geo S. Mackenzie, Bart., exhibited a beautiful specimen in ivory, copied by Chevcrton, by machinery, from the " Clytie," or (according to Flaxman) the " Isis," one of the finest antique busts in the British Museum. A motion bv James Thompson, Esq., F.R.S.E., civil engineer, " That the Society shall memorialize Government or petition both Houses of Parliament on the present neglected state of the Ordnance Survey of Scotland, and urging that it be resumed and prosecuted with vigour," was unanimously adopted, and a remit made to a Committee to prepare a draft and to report. December 11.— George Buchanan, Esa., F.R.S.E., in the Chair. The following communications were made : — "1. Description of the new Dock Gates at Grangemouth, on the Forth.' By James Thomson, Esq. C.E. Glasgow. Mr. Thomson exhibited a model and drawings of the dock gates recently constructed at Grangemouth, where the entrance lock, upon which are four pair of gates, is 250 it. long, 55ft. wide, with a depth of 25ft. water over the sill into the new wet docks. The gates, which are wholly built of timber consist of a double framework, the front framing, or that next the sill, being straight, and the back curved, both, of course, uniting together in the heel and meter posts. The back or curved framing is formed with arched ribs, composed of plank in three thicknesses of four inches, firmly bolted together, 10 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [Jan. 6, and to the corresponding front ribs; this double framework, being braced togctlier with horizontal and diagonal tension rods of iron, is planked on botli sides, and made perfectly water-tight. The gates constructed in this manner are extremely liglit and buoyant ; and by the admission of more or less water, with additional balance weights, the buoyancy of the gate is so adjusted that its whole weight is borne by the water, and, consequently, very litile power required for opening and shutting, besides the great saving in tear and wear thus reduced to a minimum ; in proof of which it was stated, that iiistead of from ten to twelve minutes, with four men, the time and power usually required for opening or shutting gates of similar dimensions, these gates, by means of improved crab gearing, are opened or shut in three and a lialf minutes, with only two men ; and with a longer allowance of time, cicn one man is able to work them. Thanks voted, and given from the chair. 2. " Observations iipon Iron Lattice Bridges." By the same. Mr. Thomson illustrated his observations with numerous drawings and models of several lattice bridges already completed, or at present carrying into execution, by Mr. MacneiU and himself. The principle of lattice bridges, applied in timber, has for some time back been in use in Ame. rica ; but the adaptation of the principle to iron bridges, as now so success- fully applied by Mr. Macneil and Mr. Thomson, is likely to supersede, in a great degree, the use of timber, antl will supply a desideratum hitherto felt in establishing internal lines of communication, &c., where the expense of stone bridges not unfrequently precludes their being carried into etiect, while the objection to wooden structures on the score of dmability is obviated by the substitution of iron. The first bridge of this kind, recently completed by Mr. Macneil on the line of the Dublin and Drogheda Railway, and of which drawings were exhibited, is 85 ft. in span, consisting of two lattice-work frames or beams, one on each side, resting upon stone abutments ; the lattice- work beams are composed of small bars of malleable iron, about 12 ft. long, and only a quarter of an inch thick, placed so as to cross each other at right angles, and forming a net or lattice-work, rivetted at every intersection ; the lattice frames, so constructed, and stiffened with angle iron, support the roadway by means of light transverse beams, also of malleable iron, secured to the lattice-work at each end. This bridge, which altogether weighs only fourteen tons, sustained a load across its centre of twenty-four tons, under ■which the deflection amounted only to 3-lOths of an inch. A viaduct 230 ft. in length, with a central span of 140 ft., is now being constructed by Mr. Macneil, over the Royal Canal in Ireland, for heavy locomotive traffic. This viaduct, ofwhieb Mr. Thomson exhibited drawings, has a third lattice-frame in the centre, and is composed of malleal)le iron bars half an inch thick. Mr. Tiiomson described a very useful ajiplieafion of this principle to the widening of the roadways of existing bridges ; and exhibited a pretty constructed model of one of the arches of a stone bridge, aliout 400 ft. long, with the aildition of footpaths on each side, as at present executing under his direction, the old width of roadway being only seventeen feet, while, with the new footpaths, supported by iron lattice-work, the width will be increased to thirty feet. The appearance of these bridges, which may be either perfectly straight or slightly curved, as circumstances require, is light and graceful, combining as they do great strength with the least possible quantity of materials, and seem 10 be admirably adapted for crossing wide and deep valleys, rivers, &c. at a tmall expense, as also for ornamental bridges in parks, or approaches to gentlemen's seats, &c. The expense of construction, Mr. Thomson estimates at less than half the cost of stone ; but he stated that he was at present making an investigation into their principle, with experiments upon a different arrangement of the lattice-bars, which be hoped would lead to a considerable i-aving both in the quantity of material and workmanship. NOTES OF THE M'EEK. Thu sculptural decoration of the metropolis seems to be a great attraction just now. The statue of Nelson has been elevated to the top of the pole in 'Irafalgar Square, where it has produced such an effect, although a merito- lious work of art, that we question whether any more monostylar monu- ments, supporting nothing, will be erected for some time. We must say that ilie present is a luckless specimen; we have beard of midshipmen being mastheaded, but we never saw an admiral mastheaded before. It seems that discontent and disgust have even afflicted the committee ; they are going to have the cable at the feet of the Admiral altered, so as to give greater so- 1 dity to the statue. We wisli while tlie statue is up, that they would knock ( ff the cocked liat, which is too great an attraction, catching the eye from every point. The statue of George IV., by Chartrey, is also mounted on the liedestal near St. Martin's Church. It seems, on a cursory view, to be a good hkeness of the King, and the horse, which is a powerful charger, planted on his four feet, with his head slightly turned, is a fine one. We must, how- ever, see more of it. George HI. is, it seems, to come from Pall Mall to the T\orth West pedestal opposite the College of .Musicians. We hope the pigtail of Ibis statue will also be cut off. The statue of William IV., by Nixon, is nearly ready. It is to be placed at the junctions of King William-street and Giaceehurch-street. We hope the artist has not, agreeably to the practice of modern art, represented the Sailor-King with a doodeen in his mouth, or seme other attribute of the ruling habit of the living man ; the statue, of Devon granite, is fourteen feet hign, and cost £2,200, voted by the Corpora- lion of London. What inconvenience would it be to the Corporation of London to vote a similar sum every year, for a statue of some man of genius horn in London, and who has a right to such honours at the hands of its municipal authorities. M'e can give some names to keep them going for a few years, and tell them where to put them. Milton, Bread-street, Cheap- side ; Pope, Lombard-street ; De Foe, Cripplegate, (or Fiusbury Pavement). Mr. Nixnn has finished the series of the Four Seasons for Goldsmiths' Hall. The last statue is that of Autumn. He has in hand a statue of Mr. Carpenter, the founder of the City of London school, to be placed in the vestibule of the school ; and also of Sir John Crosby, for Crosby Hall. It has been noticed, as in some degree singular, that statues are now being erected to two con- temporaries and near neighbours — Wliittington and John Carpenter. Mr. Bailey, R.A., has in hand a marble statue of that excellent statesman. Sir Charles Metcalfe, to be !) ft high, and cost .t'3,000, to be placed opposite the Senate House, Kingston, Jamaica. A bust is also to be sent to Calcutta. He is also occupied with the statue of Sir Astley Cooper, for St. Paul's, which will soon be placed on its pedestal. Some noise is being made about cheap imitations of bronzes in zinc, but we have not seen any of them. As an example of the increased attention paid to decorations, we are glad to instance the three new doors just completed for York Minster, from the designs of Sydney Smirke. The three doors are alike of the decorated style, 16 ft. high, and 64 ft. broad. The tracery in the upper part is very rich, sup- ported by slender Gothic columns. The hood mouldings spring from the tops of the capitals, and terminate in rich tinials and crocketting. Three trefoils, bearing shields, occupy the centre of the arches, and the lower part of the door is divided into six decorated compartments. The work is exe- cuted by Mr. Wallace and Mr. Scott, of Newcastle. Mr. Kigby has taken the contract for the erection of the new Marine Bar- racks at Wouhiicb, for .i)70,000. The works have been commenced. The barracks are to accommodate a thousand men. The Woods and Forests have begun pulling down the Rookery and neigh- bourhood, to make way for the new road from Buckingham Palace to the Vauxhall Road. The embankment of the Thames is also to be proceeded with. The Glasgow and Ship Bank, at Glasgow, has been completed. Six em- blematical statues, by Mr. Mossman, jun., occupy the pedestal. They are, Britannia, the City of Glasgow, Wealth, Justice, Peace and Industry; each seven feet high. Hess, of Munich, the painter, has finished his grand painting of the Battle of the Borodino, or the Moskowa, for the Emperor Nicholas. It is looked upon as something grand in the great way. The splendid gallery of Cardinal Hescli is at last to be sold, at Rome, and is the object of much attraction, from the value and intrinsic merit of the collection. It contains good specimens of nearly every school. St. Stephen's, Coleraan-street, has got a new altar window, of painted glass. It is well executed, but the subject is ill chosen, being Ruben's De- scent from the Cross. Ml imitations of historical pictures arc bad. Barbarism is not, as some have surmised, a pure English quality. Even German artists go the length of destroying rival works, by stiUettoing fres- cos in public places. A triumphal arch is to be erected in the Ludwig Strasse, at Munich, by Von Gartner, the sculpture to be by Wagner. The Commune of Hornu, near Brussels, intends to erect a church, the interior of which, it is said, will be entirely of iron. It is announced that the British and Foreign Institute has now reached to nearly 1000 members. The Institute will, therefore, be opened on the 15th instant ; the lectures and the soirees on the assembling of parliament. The literary department is to be under the direction of Mr. Buckingham ; and besides the attractions of the reading-room and library, with the public journals of various countries, there will be engravings, pictures, and works of art and vertu, to be collected for the inspection of visitors, it is also intended to introduce occasional music, vocal and instrumental. It is determined also to divest these entertainments, as much as possible, of the formality of a public occasion, and make them resemble, in every particular, an evening party, conducted with all the ease of a private assemblage in the best cir- cles. The hotel department, for which a separate mansion has been taken, will be under the direction of Mr. Whitmarsh. Patent Bearings for Locomotives. — At the Liverpool Polytechnic Sd- ciety, Mr. Dewrance (superintendent of the engine building department of the Liverpool and Manchester Railivay) exbibiled some very perfectly cast and beautiful specimens of the '• Patent. Metallic Bearings, or Steps, for Locomu- tiees," Hhich had been found to be superior in practice to those previously used, and whicli. the metal being soft, considerably diminished the friction, by working more smoothly, while, at the same time, they lasted much longer than was anlicipated. One engine had run with them a distance of 4,480 miles without requiring renewal or repair, and another (the identical bearings of which were produced) had run 1,000 miles, without additional giving or vibration. The substances for the part in which the axles worked, which he had combined in one instance, and found to be effective, were, six parts of tin, eight of antimony, and four of copper, forming (as we understood him) a solder. Mr. Deivrauce also pointed out various plaus of giving an equal supply of oil. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. II GLASS, WATER AND GAS MAINS. (Translated for the Civil Engineer and Archilect's Journal from the Bulletin du Miisee de I' Industrie.) The subject of glass mains is attracting some attention in France. Earth- enware pipes have also been used on a small scale ; they must not, however, be subjected to a pressure of two or three atmospheres, as the joints being difficult to lute, give way, whatever cement may be used. For luting, some gas companies have used Roman cement, but the gas escapes by impercep- tible fissures at the joints, and they have been found so objectionable, on account of the frequent escapes and disturbance of the pavements for repairs, that the local authorities have objected to the use of earthenware mains in such situations. The glass mains, manufactured by Messrs. Bergeron of Rive de Gier, are luted with bitumen, and may be screwed together. The weiglit is about a third of that of cast iron, and the cost laid down about 7s. Crf. per yard run for a 4Hn. bore. The process at present will not pro- duce pipes of more than 8 in. bore. Of course, in England, with the low price of cast iron and the duty on glass, glass pipes are out of the question on economical grounds. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. Report of two Lectures delivered by Professor Brande, F.R.S., to the members of the Royal Agricultural .Association of England, at the Royal Institution, Albemarle-sireet, on Wednesday and Thursday the Gth and 7th December, 184.3. (Specially reported for this Journal.) Lecture I. In compliance with the request of your noble President, I have the liomuir to deliver to you two lectures upon subjects connected with agricultural Iiis- tory. The subjects which I hnve chosen are those of lime and clay ; ami I have fi.^ed upon these for reasons which I shall presently describe to )'ou more at length. I think you will agree with me that under existing circum- stances, the union of practice witli theory in the subject that is engaging our attention is more than ever desirable; and that the important bearings of chemical science upon agriculture become daily more and more evident. Why cAcm/ra; science ? Because e.vpetience teaches us that that sort of su- perficial knowledge wh'.cli may enable a man to make rough analyses uf soils, to discover theirleading constituents, and to ascertain their relative pro- portions, is far from being sufficient to satisfy the demands which the scien- tific agriculturist thinks it right to make upon the practical chemist; much more than this must be expected from the chemist — information, indeed, wliich can only be furnished by the experienced analyst. It was long ago shown by Sir Humphrey Davy, and the celebrated Liebig has proved more recently, that the fertility of a soil, as relates to the produc- tion of particular crops, may depend upon the presence, or absence, of very minute and almost imperceptible portions of inorganic substances — alkalis, for instance, and the sails of metals — substances which, a few years av.u, were either entirely overlooked, or thought nut worth looking after or men- tioning it discovered; the necessity, for example, of sulphate of lime to clovers, silica to grasses, phosphorus to wheat, and so on, was quite disre- garded. But now these matters are beginning to attract notice, and to open up new fields of chemical inquiry, wliich can only be successftdly cultivated by the joint labour of the farmer and the chemist ; hence every one inter- ested in the welfare of chemistry — and what rightly constituted person is not so ? — must see with unlimited satisfaction, and with a happy anticipation of the future, the good feeling that is beginning to dawn between practice and theory — between the agriculturist and the chemist. We are beginning to " scent the morning air," as it were, of a better order of things, and it is with great satisfaction that I myself see, that you, gentlemen, impressed with the importance of this union, have associated an eminent chemist w iih your body, and that many valuable papers are beginning to appear in your useful Journal. .Soils are made up of organic and inorganic constituents. AV'e are now to confine ourselves to the latter, and these we class under two heads ; first, those which constitute the bulk of the soil, and on the mechanical texture of which the growing crops depend, such as clay, sand, and lime ; and se- condly, those particular substances involving the fitness of a soil for parti- cular crops, such as sulphate and phosphate of lime, soda, ammonia, mag- nesia, &c. Lime is an article no doubt of great importance to agriculture, and some of some of its salts perform such important, though often obscure, functions, that I propose first to consider it, and then to call your attention to sihcious and aluminous substances as existing in soils, which constitute clays. Firs!, I may ask, what is lime? The chemist will tell you it la a com- pound of a metal and oxygen, being w hat he calls a metallic oxide, consisting of 20 parts by weight of calcium and 8 of oxygen. I cannot show you this metal, calcium ; but I can show you the counterpart of it. It has hitherto b.'en obtained in very minute ipiantities. It is one of those extraordinary metals discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy which is most difficult to procure, in consequence of its high affinity for oxygen. The moment it is olitained and exposed to the air, it passes into lime. At the instant when deprived of oxygen, we see it as a brilliant metal, but the moment the air is admitted it passes into lime. I will now show you, as its counterpart, the metal potassium, which is a white brilliant metal, resembling silver or lead in appearance, and distin- guished by its strong affinity for oxygen, and by burning when put into water. If it is thrown into water, it will take fire, dissolve, and produce a solution of metallic oxide — so also with the metal calcium, the base of lime. I'here is another ch.iracter belonging to this solution, which likew ise belongs to i:me, and that is, that it is what chemists call an alkali ; and the test of an alkali is that it reddens blue litmus paper, and browns paper tinged with yellow. Lime does not exist in a native state— small quantities have been found in some of the lakes of Tuscany, but it may be said not generally to exist in a native state. What then arc its sources ? The best known is carbonate of lime, which is very abundant, and which recommends itself especially as a source of lime, in consequence of the facility with which it admits of decom- position. Carbonic aciil has a weak affinity for other bodies, and can there- fore be easily got rid of. But I must stop here, to tell you that carbonic acid is a substance which combines with lime, and exists with lime in all its natural spars. It is composed of charcoal and oxygen. Lime, as was just told you, is composed of a metal and oxygen, and on the one hand we have a compouml of oxygen and a metal producing an alkali, and on the other hand carbon and oxygen producing carbonic acid. (The learned Profi-ssor then proceeded to illustrate by experiment the formation of carbonic acid from carbon and oxygen, and for this purpose he inserted a piece of burning charcoal into a glass jar containing oxygen gas;) he then observed, there is charcoal introduced into oxygen gas burning vehemently — doing, in fact, what it does in the commim air, where it burns by virtue of the oxy- gen which the air contains. If the charcoal be allowed to continue burning as long as it will, we shall find that a large quantity of it has disappeared ; the oxygen has lost all its original qualities, has combined with the carton, and become carbonic acid, and that acid combining witii lime, proowder, and this pow- der is slaked lime. Every 28 parts of lime combine with 9 of water; so that 37 parts of slaked lime are equivalent to 28 of quick or caustic lime. Now having slaked the lime, if you expose it to the air it gradually absorbs carbonic acid, it parts with water, and ultimately passes back to the state of chalk. If to slaked lime you add excess of water, you will obtain a solution of lime called " lime water." About 700 parts of water are required to dis- solve 1 part of lime ; and from this you may obtain a notion of the strong alkaline power of lime, for this solution, ihough it contains only 1 part of lime in 700 of water, has a nauseous bitter taste, and by applying the common tests, it will be founil to be a powerful alkali. No.v if you expose this to the air it will become turbid, as lime water does if added to carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is derived from various sources, amongst others from our lungs, and if I blow into lime water, you will see that the air from my lungs precipitates the carbonate of lime. Or if you take some air from a candle, you will find that that is pure carbonic acid. So if we go to a brewer's vat and collect Ihe gas escaping in fermentation, fhat is carbonic acid. If you burn charcoal and oxygen you obtain carbonic acid. If you burn dung in oxygen you obtain carbonic acid. If you burn plumbago, or black lead, you get carbonic acid — that, therefore, is another carbon. If I take some spring water, and test it by lime water, I shall find carbonic acid there— it becomes turbid. In Thames water there is an immense quantity of carbonic acid. I do not point these out as so many isolated facts, having no particular bearing, for they have all their agricultural uses. Waters, in many instances, are im- portant as containing carbonic acid, for water readily permeates the soil, and finds it way to the roots of plants. Air also contains a little carbonic acid, in the proportion of about I in 1000. As regards the uses of lime, it may be stated, first, that its alkaline pro- perty makes it a powerful destroyer of worms. If mixed with dead leaves or turf it tends gradually to decompose them, and converts them into mould. Another property is, that it neutralizes acids. Another and most important property is, that it decomposes the salts of iron. Water containing a salt of iron dees a vast deal of mischief to the soil it permeates. This will be cor- rected by lime. If to ferruginous water slaked lime be added, you will see it decompose, the iron is precipitated, anil haf become oxide of iron. Lime also decomposes aluminous compounds. It has also an important action upon animal matter. If a little quick lime be mi.xed with almost any animal matter, ammonia will be the result. If bone dust be added to quick lime, am- monia will be produced : there is, however, no ammonia in bone, and none in lirne, but there are the elements of ammonia in bone. Another effect is that after ammonia has been formed, if there be certain substances in the soil the ammonia passes into nitric acid ; and if it contains potass or soda, nitrate of potass or nitrate of soda is formed. It is probable that the lighter soils of India and America derive their fertility from ammonia. Here the elements of ammonia, mixed with air, produce nitrate of ammonia. Felspar mixed with lime, and exposed to the action of water and air, re- acts, and potass becomes evolved with a certain portion of silica. In this state it is thought particularly favourable to the growth of grasses and wheat, width require silica in connexion with potass. With regard to the general tests for lime, the one most commonly used by chemists is oxalic acid. There are other tests, but this is the best. If you take a precipitate of oxalate of lime and heat it, you can convert it into carbonate of lime ; and thus you can come at the quantity of lime in any soil. When lime has passed again into a state of chalk, it becomes a valuable ingredient in the soil. It is the same as broken limestone of another kind, but it has this advantage, that it crumbles down into an impalpable powder ; and ihough you may mix ground limestone with the soil, it is never so efiective as when it has been reduced from the state ot quick lime to car- bonate of lime by slaking, when it comes much more readily into contact wilh the roots of vegetables. I will not go into this subject now, but I may say that roots of plants appear to be capable of secreting certain acids. There are peculiarities derived from the presence of magnesia in certain limestones. M hen it exists in limestone, which is burnt into lime; such lime will remain caustic, and resist the action of the air and water for a long time. If mixed, therefore, with the soil, it will be found to retain its causticity long alter the common lime has become inert. The presence of magnesia may be ascertained by applying nitric acid, which will not dissolve the magnesia. Some limestones contain argil, or clay ; others, oxide of iron, and they derive certain peculiar properties from tlie presence of ihose substances. The other salts of lime which claim the agriculturists atleniion, are the sulphate and phosphate of lime, of Hhich 1 shall speak in the next lecture. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. U AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. Lecture II. Br Professor Branue, F.R.S. (Speciallij reported for this Journal.) The history of lime and its salts, which we commenced in the preceding lecture, necessarily leads us to speak upon that important article, sulphate of lime, or gypsum, which is a compound of sulphuric acid and lime ; and as I have called your attention to the ultimate elements of lime, so must I do with regard to sulphate of lime, which is to he regarded as containing the metallic base of lime, united with sulphur and oxygen. Sulphuric acid is a compound of sulphur and o.xygen. Lime is a compound of calcium and oxy- gen ; therefore, the lUtimate components of sulphate of lime are sulphur, cal- cium, and oxygen. Now I will proceed to build up this substance ; and for this purpose I will first make sulphuric acid, which 1 do by burning sulphur in oxygen, as I previously made carbonic acid by burning cai,'j00 ; and one of his most illustrious fellow-country- men. Lord Byron, seeing his name engraved on the Parthenon, wrote underneath. Quod non fecerunt Goth, iScotus fecit. It is nevertheless true that Lord Elgin has acquired a celebrity that Erostrates might have envied. Very different was the conduct of the French ambassador, M. Choiseul Gouffier, who caused all the plaster-casts, now in the Museum of the Louvre, to be taken, and only brought away a single metope, which had long been detached. This is the metope that was pur- cliased for the Royal Museum for the sum of 25,000 f. (£1,000) in 1818, after the death of M. de Choiseul. Fourteen metopes still remain in their places. .Some fragments have been found in clearing away the rubbish round the Parthenon, which operation was superintended by M. Pittiikis; 16 metopes have been taken away, 15 of which are in London and one in Paris: the others have been destroyed by time, or the explosion of 1687, and the only traces left of them are in Carrey's drawings. The metopes of London and Paris all belong to the southern side, which was the least injured, and they represent episodes in the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithse ; but other subjects were treated in those which remain or have disappeared. The metopes of the Parthenon have been pub- lished several times, especially by Stuart, Legrand, and Brbnsted. The most considerable fragment of sculpture now remaining is a part of the frieze placed under the soffit or ceiling of the peripteron, about 10 ft. from the ground. This frieze is 4 ft. 8 in. high, and was originally 524 ft. in length. M. Bronsted estimates the number of figures it contained to be 320, the varied groups of which represented the procession of the grand quinquennial festival of the Panathenea. These sculptures were in very low relief, which was admirably cal- culated to allow them to be seen from below, without drawing back, as their position under a rather narrow portico absolutely required. Stuart and Revett sketched a considerable part of what existed in their time (1751 — 53). A fragment, containing seven figures, was re- moved by M. de Choiseul, and is now in the Louvre. Lord Elgin, in his turn, took down a length of about 250 ft., and carried it to London. In this frieze the harness of the horse was of metal, and the holes in the stone, made by the cramps that fastened iton, are still perceptible. The frieze has been published several times, wholly or in part, by the same authors that we have already quoted for the metopes. We must now return to the great masterpiece of Phidias — the famous statue of Minerva, which stood in the sanctuary, and of which unfortunately we know nothing but what we can learn from the de- scriptions given in Greek and Latin authors. This statue, which, ac- cording to Pliny's statement, was 26 cubits high (35 ft.), including the pedestal perhaps, was made of gold and ivory, and the gold ornaments were equal in weight to 44 talents (£120,000). This statue was raised in the temple in the first year of the 87th Olympiad (A.C. 430). After being pillaged of the gold by the tyrant Lycbares, who stripped off its golden mantle, and put on a cloth one, saying that it would keep the goddess warmer, it appears to have been finally destroyed by the Goths under the command of Alario. Such was the temple which has been justly reckoned the masterpiece of architecture by both ancients and moderns. ONE OF THE CRAFT. A singularly blustering address has been issued by the new Editor of a contemporary journal, wherein, not content with vaunting of what he himself intends to do — and he certainly has a very largp field for improvement before him — he gives his readers to understand that until now, when he has taken it up, " the periodical literature of ar- chitecturi'" has been marked not only by deficiency of talent, but also by "lowness of style, coarseness of diction, and a kind of any- thing-arian conscience," What the last expression may be levelled at, it is not very easy to guess, bpcausp, whether they be upon matters of fact, or on matters of taste and critical opinion, architectural topics do not touch upon moral or religious questions. Some, indeed, have thought proper to mix up a good deal both of aanctimoniouanesa and of religious party spirit — that, too, of the most intolerant kind, when thev have handlpd the subject of ecclesiastical architecture, or h ive denounced the Grecian, Roman and Italian styles as Pagan and anti-Christian ; but then they have not so much addressed themselves to professional and architectural readers properly so called, as they have sought to ingratiate themselves with their own particular sect or coterie. We certainly were not before aware that the periodical literature of architecture was at all more open to the charge of looseness of principle than periodical literature generally, or even by many de- grees so much so. At the same time, it must be allowed that a change has of late years come over architectural discussion and criticism; but it is both a natural and an advantageous one. It is but natural that a greatly extended circle of readers should have caused this species of literature to assume a more popular tone, and this in turn has helped to extend that circle still more. If, therefore, this is what is meant by the reproachful term " lowness of style," we can only say that it is to the full as good as the serving up stale truisms and namby- pamby remarks in inflated pomposity of verbiage. At all events it tvould seem that the offensiveness complained of is confined to diction and style, for had the matter also of such writing been considered poor, puerile, and absurd, that defect would have been dwelt upon mure forcibly than the other. Our contemporary is pleased to talk somewhat mysteriously of "scandal in thi- literature of architecture ;" and no doubt there hiis been something of the kind, and, strange to say, it has most shown itself where it was least of all to be expected — in the publications of some professional writers who have aspersed nearly all their archi» tectural brethren as a body, accusing them now of want of even or- dinary talent, and now again of want of principle and honesty. To no one are the profession less obliged for what has been said of them, than to Messrs. Pugin, Gwilt, and Bartholomew— and to the last, per- haps, the least. However, from henceforth, we presume such scandals are to be put a stop to. After no little bouncing, and some vapouring, too, about "the ba- lance of justice hanging conspicuously over his columns," our contem- porary takes up the submissive strain, imploring favours from authors and publishers, no doubt in order that they may be thrown into the said balance as "make-weight" on their side. It seems, therefore, after all, that his lofty independence may occasionally be jeoparded; and also that he trusts to the chapter of accidents, for being more fortunate than was his predecessor in obtaining the voluntary assist- ance of " high talent." However, he has shown himself discreet enough in one respect, since he hxs forborne complimenting that pre- decessor, or in any way referring to the p;ist as satisfactory earnest for the future. His own style is by far more figurative than luminous; in fact, he sometimes wraps up bis meaning in such very odd guise, that few will be able to make it out at all, for instance, where he talks of "baken-meats seiisoned by a few gridirons! I " By "baken-meats," we suppose he means /)!e8; but never before did we hear of "grid- irons " being used as seasoning either for pies or anything else. Pos- sibly this queer stuff may be intended as a specimen of " loftiness" of style ; but then it soars so loftily that meaning is lost in the clouds. However, it is, at all events, funny and droll; and we therefore leave the "Swathed Horus " — as he chooses to call himself, "Infant of athletic promise," to do his doings as featly, and, above all, as " clean- ly " as he can : only advising him to be more cautious for the future, and not to betray so much malevolence and arrogance towards all others who are engaged in the same cause as himself. RoTAL Aesexal, Woolwich. — Several powerful cranes are in progress of erection at this e.\tensive department, made on the most approved principles, by Napier, the celebrated engineer. One capable of supporting 10 tons has Iwen erected in the foundcry, and the ottiers on the trharf wall, for landing and embarking large guna shot and shells. ^ 1 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Jan. 13, OBSERVATIONS ON ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURE, By Henry Fulton, M.D. No. 5. FEMALE TnAINING SCHOOL, TALBOT STREET, DLRLIN. Scale20ft. to theinch. The introduction of the Italian stj'le is a novelty in llie architecture of Ireland. It might be called the Farnese style, which as far as a bold unbroken cornice goes, is excellent. The edifice, ot' which a view is given, is newly finished; it is the design of Mr. Owen, the architect of the Board of Works, (the Woods and Forests of Ireland,) and does him considerable credit, and is intended for a model school. The unbroken cornice is very bold, perliaps a little too much so, as seen from immediately beneath ; this is not the fault of the cornice, but of the site, as the building requires a larger space and wider street in front. I presume tiie architect was obliged to group the windows, and hence the necessity for the unmeaning tatooed pilasters which in- tervene. There is a kind of overlapping scale ornament, such as may be seen on the lately finished front of the London and Dublin Bank, ir Dame Street, which would have had a better effect ; and the ta- tooed quoins might also have been dispensed with. Botli on account of appearance and utility, it is desirable not to ))!ace chimneys at the ends of an edifice; any heat which is obtained from them might be serviceable in the centre, but here it is lost. The windows of the ground-lloor might have had circular heads to make them correspond with the arches of the porch ; still on the whole, we congratulate Mr. Owen on the production; and admire the omission of pediments and shoulders to the mouldings of the windows, an example uf good taste which we hope to see followed. IF. In the last monthly immber of this Journal, page 445, there is a very alile article on the state of architecture ; it goes at once to the root of the evil which impedes the progress of improvement. Were I a great potentate with plenary power, I would compel every architect in niv dominions to read it; and if Mr. Gwilt were under niv control, I would force him nokm roleiis to read it aloud in public : but alas, (for the nonce,) my authority is not so extensive, and I can only re- commend its perusal. The part of the paper I wish to call attention to, is that which treats of " the public and the profession," and the jealousy with which some, I am happy to say only su/ne, of the latter (amongst whom Mr. Gwilt takes the lead) show in sneering at amateurs. I believe there is talent enough and taste enough, although it be latent in the profession to work out great tilings, aud place the science where it ought to be, but where it is not, at the head of the fine arts; this will never he the case until such a pressure is applied from without as shall force the latent talent to show itself in practice; tliat is, until the public, who are the judges, shall be able to judge and re- quire its development. If the public were well informed, I do not mean as to the mechanical part, hut had their tastes and judgments improved aud informed, would many of the edifices which have been erected in our day ever have had existence? Sir William Chiiinhers appeals to have written his treatise in order to put down the "^iislu gacu" aud give force in its stead to the gustv Paltadw. Sir William was successful in his day. but )iis works shall not again be esteemed until the gutlo greco shall again have been extinguished. I believe Mr. Hosking was the first to assert his want of faith in the infallibility of Palladio, and no disciple has come to the rescue. Even in Ireland, where Palladio reigned supreme, not a voice is now heard in his defence, although the Royal Institute of the architects of Ireland, in the inaugural address on the formation of the society, extolled the art as that which " Vitruvius taught and Palladio adorned," and we were even threatened with a course of lectures which were actually prepared, and were well known to be orations in praise of Palladio and his school, such as would have delighted Mr. Gwilt himself; but although these lectures and the drawings to illustrate them were all ready, they were not, and for aught I know, never will be delivered. The truth is, the star of Vincenza is on the wane. III. Something must be done to raise up another and a better school. One naturally turns to the British Institute in expectation that they may be induced to do that some- thing. Now, although I may come under the lasli of Mr. Gwilt's pen, as "one of those idlers who had better mind their own business," yet I would wish in all Iminility, to give a few hints to the Institute on a subject of so much importance. First, then, sue for a divorce from the Royal Academy, not indeed out of disrespect to the sister arts of painting and sculp- ture, or because you and I love them less, but because we love architecture more ; and because the brilliant colouring of the one sister, and the poetic form of the other, quite throw the exhibition of architectural drawings into the shade, even if the hanging committee were disposed to give the best place in the rooms, and the consequence is, that few of the great body of the profession send drawings to the exhibition — few of those sent are exhibited — few of those exhibited are looked at — and still fewer are understood by the few who do see them. And, after all, although both Mr. Gwiit and myself might be able to see the beauty of an architectural drawing, and to realize in the mind's eye the efi'ect which would be produced when constructed, yet many can- not, and others will not be at the trouble of giving it a thought at anv time, and still less so when the eye is dazzled with the bright anil varied hues of painting. I shall endeavour to point out a remedy for this in the third division. Secondly, the Institute must get up an exhibition on their own account. Thirdly, it is well known that the public in general are most pro- foundly ignorant of the nature of architectural drawings, and even of the subject itself, yet there is a method to teach them in spite of them- selves, aye, and to instil into them a love of the art without their being aware of the why or the wherefore ; it is by models, and when they fail the patient may be given up to the hopeless contemplation of such edifices as the palace at Whitehall, or the sentry box at the Horse- guards, or any other military post. But of models, such as are to be desired, I have seen very few, and never a pleasing model of a modern edifice, nor indeed do I know any material out of which such a model can be formed, so as to give as good an idea of a perfect building as cork-wood does, of one which bears marks of the hand of time. I cannot speak of Sir John Soane's humbug collection, said to be given to the public, I mean humbug as far as the admission, or rather non-admission, of the public is con- cerned, for I never could get a peep at it. The models in cork which are in the Adelaide Gallery, in the Strand, are not well executed, nor do they appear to be on a scale. There is an artist at Rome, and an- other at Marseilles, who execute models of this description most beau- tifully, but they are worthless, except as toys, from being out of all due proportion, and as studies they would tend to corrupt, rather than improve, the taste. There is, or was some years ago, a collection of models in plaster to be seen in the Institute at Paris, but they are not worth the trouble of finding out the room in which they are ke[it. In the Museum at Naples there are some models in cork of part of the excavations at Pompeii, but as they are necessarily on a very small scale, they look more like toys than architectural works. What I would propose is, that the British Institute of Architects should form a museum of moilels well executed, and all on the same scale, of all the buildings of antiquity of which we have accurate deli- neations, and also of all the modern ones of merit. As all the antiques are more or less dilapidated, cork-wood will answer admirably as a material: for the modern or restored works a premium should be ottered for the discovery of a suitable material: or, perhaps, papier mai lit-, to which the colour of Portland stone was given, might pro- bably answer the purpose. 'J'lie effect of wood painted is bad : the wood with which the Dutch, German, and Swiss toys are made would 1S44.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 19 be macli better, as it bas something of the tone required. Siicb a col- lection, besides furnishing useful objects of study for the young archi- tects, aye, and for the old ones too, would add to the interest of the annual exhibition of drawings, and tend with them to direct public taste into a proper channel. By such means, and the aid of this independent Journal, whose end is, to hold as 'twere the mirror up to art, to sherv beauty her own feature, deformity her own image, and the very age and body of the time his form ajj(i;;nsswr(r, something may be done. The advantage of iiaving an inde|)endent Journal as the reciprocal means of communication between the profession and the public is great, and I trust that the profession, so far from thinking themselves injured by contact with the public, may see that by having Iheir own acquirements and the wants of the public reflected in such a mirror, they shall derive most benefit in pro- portion to the extent which the public may advance to in learning to form a correct judgment on the merits or demerits of an architectural design. THOMSON'S TILTING APPARATUS FOR RAILWAY WAGONS. For emptying Wagons at the termini of Railways, Shipping-places, iic., as used at tlie Magheramorne Lime-works, Ireland. By James Thomson, Esq., F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., F.R.S.S.A., Civil Enginser, Glasgow. (Read before the Royal Scottisli Society of Arts, the Honorary Silver Medal awarded, and reported in their Transactions.) The apparatus may be generally described as consisting of three parts, viz. : — 1st, The cast-iron brackets or quadrants for supporting the machine, a a a. 2d, The tilting-frame upon which the wagon is placed, b b. And, 3d, The malleable iron-swings for supporting the frame to the brackets, c c. Fis. 3. The supporting brackets a a a, are bolted to the wooden frame d d, of a moveable shipping platform, by means of which the apparatus is advanced at pfeasure, and made to project beyond the wharf so as to discharge tlie wagon immediately over the hold of a vessel. The tilting-frame is formed of two cast-iron cheeks or sides, as shown in fig. 4, having in each two \:^ slots or grooves for attach- ing to the swings, and for adjustment of the appara- ratus. These sides of the frame are connected together by two flat malleable iron-stays e e, as represented in fig. 3, with two bolts in each end, and a light round iron- stay/, at the curved ends. The swings are attached to the frame by means of snubs g g, which are bolted vertically to the lower ends of the swings, and horizontally to the sides of the l^rame, the bolts passing through the grooves or slots already mentioned, in which they are moveable — the upper ends of the swings work upon malleable iron journals fastened in the top of the cast-iron brackets. When the ap- paratus is properly adjusted (which is done by moving the tilting- frame forward or backward upon the swings by means of the adjusting slots), the wagon, on taking its position, should be so placed that its centre of gravity may be slightly in adrance of the point of suspension. The rails to the tilting-frame" are laid with a gentle declivity, so that the wagon may be brought upon it with a slight impetus just suffi- cient to set the frame in motion— the wagon will then immediately fall into a position ready to discharge, as shown in fig. 2, when by a simple contrivance, which may be eftected in various ways, the door of the wagon is opened from behind by a handle and connecting-rod communicating with the door latch, and the load discharged. While loaded, the position of the wagon will of itself remain the same, being in equilibrio ; but immediately after it is discharged, and consequently the centre of gravity thrown behind the point of suspension, the tendency of the wagon is then to resume the horizontal position, which, how- ever, it is prevented from doing, by means of the spur h, until com- pletely emptied— the spur is then disengaged, and the wagon resumes its level position ready to be removed. The whole operation of discharging a wagon (of whatever weight) is eftected with perfect safety and facility in a few seconds, and one very important desideratum is supplied by this apparatus, viz. :— the practicability of discharging wagons of different dimensions and dif- ferent sized wheels upon the same tilting-frame. The advantages of the apparatus have been fully tested at the Mag- heramorne lime-works in Ireland, where they were first applied, and have since been in constant operation for the last three years, dis- charging wagons of three tons with 24-inch wheels, and wagons of only 2U cwt. and 20-inch wheels, with perfect facility and expedition —the cost of each apparatus not exceediog from 10/. to 1 U. complete. Fig. 2. The Mersey and Irwell NA\nGATioN.— Late on Thursday, the 28th ult, or early on Friday morninR, the lock on the river Irwell, at Barton, a little on Ihis side of the place where the aqueduct on the Bridgewater canal is car- ried over the river, fell in. The lock is from 65 to 7U feet in length and a great part of oneside-«aU near the top gate lell in, while about hall the wall on the other side gave way. The top gate was entirely destroyed. The lock is an ol.l one, and lor the last two or three months has exhibited symp- toms of giving way. The cause is said to be an unsafe foundation- The consequence of this accident, which fortunately was not attended with per- sonal injury to any one. no vessel being in or near the lock at the time, will be the stoppage of the traffic on the navigation for a week or a fortnight. It is rather a curious circumstance that this should occur within three days of the time fixed for the transfer of the property in the entire navigation to Lord Francis Egerton, who, as we have already stated, is to take possession of the Mersey and Irwell Navigation on Monday the 1st of nuary.— Mancliester Guardian. 20 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Jan. 13, AGRICULTURE AND ENGINEERING. It has been well observed, that it is difficult to limit the range of professional studies, or the applications of professional knowledge. The ancients admitted this truth in all their paedagogic treatises. If Cicero and Quintilian laid down rules for the education of an orator, they urged the necessity for universal attainments, or a never ending pursuit of knowledge; if Vitruvius wished to produce a perfect archi- tect, he laid down a category of studies and qualifications which men in these degenerate days would look at and fear to recognise. With- out, however, requiring that a pleader should be a perfect mathema- tician, or an architect a good dancer and musician, we are not disin- clined to recommend an ardent prosecution of study, and particularly of those sciences accessory to the practice of a profession, which widen the range of its application, and bring it in contact and- harmony with other pursuits. We do not think the resident engineer of a railway the worse for being a good geologist, or the superintendent of an iron furnace for proficiency in chemisty ; we believe, on the contrary, that thev may find many useful occasions for the applications of such know- ledge. It is with these views that we have looked with interest on the present position of agricultural science, the desire for a more efficient system of drainage, and the strong recommendations of a pro- per study of geology and chemistry ; and here we pause and ask whether these are not circumstances which interest the engineer. Employed in the survey of an extensive estate, who so naturally would be the individual, not merely to ascertain its territorial limits but the nature and capabilities of its soils, subsoils, and mineral productions ; to suggest the best system of drainage, of the supply of water, and of irrigation ; to point out the best position for farm-steads, the most improved mode of construction, ventilation, and warming of the several buildings, the best means of preparing chemical manures, and the course to be adopted for the amelioration of the communications, means of conveyance, and implements ; in fact, to make a report upon an estate and its capabilities. When landowners come to consider what engineers have been al- ready able to do for the improvement of estates, and of the country generallv, we think there will be a natural disposition for their em- ployment. All the great operations for the drainage of the country in the fens of Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire, &c., have been executed under the direction of engineers, through whose means hundreds of thousands of acres have been rescued from the waste, and converted into corn-fields and pasture. Immense districts, moreover, have been reclaimed from the domains of the sea, or of rivers, by which the productive power of the country has been greatly increased. Such works as the embankment of the Nene, and others in the neigh- bourhood of the Wash, show what can be effected by well-conducted operations, and there are numbers and numbers of places on our coasts and on our river shores, where large additions might be made to the productive soil. Look at the estuaries on the Essex coast, the lagoons in the neighbourhood of Portsmouth, and on the Dorsetshire coast, the estuaries of the Dee, the Mersey, the Ribble, the Duddon, Morecambe Bay, and the Solway, not to speak of many equally favourable localities, but less known, and many of minor importance, but affording oppor- tunities for profitable enterprise. All operations for the recovery of land, moreover must necessarily be attended with improvements of the drainage, of the water-courses, water communications, and places of shipment. The Lough Swilly and Lough Foyle embankments, now near complete, are very favourable examples of what may be done in the way of land recovery, and it is to be observed that in most cases land so recovered from the sea or from rivers is extremely produc- tive, not being, as is vulgarly imagined, so much sand, but a fine allu- vion. Partial engineering surveys of estates aie common for mining purposes, but the greatest benefit would accrue from a general examination by well-informed engineers. The Dukes of Buccleuch and Sutherland, the Marquis of Bute, Eurl of Burlington, and many other large proprietors avail themselves extensively of engineering science for thedovelopmeut of the capabilities of their estates, therein worthily following the example of the Great Duke of Bridgewatcr, for it is clear that the money spent under Brindley's direction in the improvement of the water communication, had of itself, at the same time, largely increased the mineral and agricultural value of the estates. The Duke of Buccleuch has laid out large sums on the im- provement of the quarries and harbours on his estates, of which Granton pier is a splendid example. The Duke of Sutherland has for years been occupied in the systematic exploitation of his estates by the formation of adequate roads and harbours. The Marquis of Bute by his improvements at Cardiff, created a fine harbour, and immensely improved the value of his Welsh estates. In Inverness, the Earl of Burlington has for some years employed a gentleman of high scientific attainments, Mr. Jopling, the author of "Isometrical Perspective," as the superintendent of his slate and mineral works, who has greatly improved the roads and increased the produce of the property. How many proprietors possess large estates, the resources of which are either unknown, or not adequately developed, where an improved road would bring a stone or slate quarry into work, where the finest brick or porcelain earth might be made available, where attention to the water courses would afford good mill sites, increase the produce of the estate by irrigation, improve its drainage, or perhaps, by very simple arrangements, convert a turbulent stream into anavigable river, enabling produce to be conveyed cheaply, and timber, materials, and manures to be introduced, and improving the access to markets. A simple bridge in a convenient place, may greatly facilitate communica- tion between one farm and another, save time and labour of men and horses, and give better means for removing the produce. The devia- tion of roads, to avoid a hill or a vale, the most economical modes of constructing them all devolve on the engineer. In many cases the surface water is unfavourable to human or animal health, or insufficient for the uses of an establishment where the boring of an artesian-well may render the greatest benefit, and be the means of much pecuniary advantage. In fact, the opportunities are numerous in which a good engineering adviser can render important service to landed proprietors, and be the means of permanently improving his estates, and affording employment to the large numbers of the working classes dependent upon them, and for whom they may be unable to provide. In many Ciises where the means of improvement do not exist on the spot, the engineer will be able to find out in the neighbourhood, the course to be followed for adequate drainage, for improving the roads, or where the necessary mineral manures are to be found essential for the due deve- lopment of an imperfect soil. We believe, that in this respect, great scope exists, and it only wants the exertions of intelligent individuals to make this sphere of employment extensively available. While recommending this field of exertion, we must, at the same time observe, that a practical difficulty exists with regard to the uncertain nature of professional remuneration. It is too frequently the case that young members of the profession being called in, make charges after the rate of three, five, and seven guineas per day, being the charge of men in first-rate practice, a cir- cumstance which has a material influence in deterring persons from calling in professional aid, or in inducing them, if they are to pay first rate fees, to make up their minds to have first-rate men, by which the junior practitioner is excluded. We would not in any way derogate from the dignity or adequate remuneration of the profession, but on every ground of propriety and policy we advocate moderate charges on the part of junior members. If experience be sought on the subject — what is the case with the bar and the medical profession? — the junior barrister gets a junior's fee, and works his way up to an independent practice. In the medical profession, however, there is a dignified scale of professional charges, on the guinea and half-guinea system, and every one who from professional standing cannot exact these charges, must submit to the derogatory and mischievous practice of sending in and charging medicines, or he must starve, or become an assistant for some years, which is much about the same thing ; indeed, such is the mischievous system of remuneration in the medical profession, in con- sequence of young men not being allowed by etiquette to make mode- rate charges for visits, that a large part of the population are converted into medical paupers, as dispensary patients, &c., whereby we may fairly calculate that not less than a million a year is lost to the medical profession, being the sum which might be received from one million beads of families, small tradesmen, mechanics, and labourers. This sum would be adequate for the independent maintenance of five thou- sand junior medical men, and an efficient system would greatly raise the moral standard of the working classes, and get rid of the stain of medical pauperism, frequently the incipient stage of a demoralized career. Portrait painters have a wholesome system of political eco- nomy forced upon them, they know that it is of no use for John Scratchley to ask the terms of Sir Thomas Lawrence, but he must get up gradually as Sir Thomas Lawrence did. Lawrence, we believe, began at a shilling or half a crown ; then his practice increased so much he was obliged to raise it to a crown, then half a guinea, a guinea, five guineas, till at last he did nothing under 250 guineas, and had more commissions than he could execute. People pay Sir William FoUett a hundred guinea fee to induce him to give up a fifty guinea brief in their favour and such is the natural process, if a man be rising the public will raise his fees in the competition to ensure his assistance. We say again, then, let junior engineers, be moderate in their expecta- tions, let them cultivate agricultural chemistry, geology of soils, and the practice of drainage, and there is a wide field open for their em- ployment and exertion. At any rate we think we shall do good in 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 21 directing attention this way, and we have, accordingly, not only made these few nmarks, but in furtherance of the subject, published else- where the lectures by Professor Brande, on agricultural chemistry. BEVELLING INSTRUMENT FOR JOINERS. The Silver Isis Medal was presented to Mr. Thomas Quarm, 32, Wood Street, Princes Road, Lambeth, for a Bevelling Instru- ment/or Joiners, (Reported in the Transactions o/ the Society of Jirts, London.) Mr. Quarm in his extensive practice in the finer parts of joinery, oft-times required a tool to answer the many purposes to which the one here explained may be applied. It will be found a valuable ac- quisition where any two angles when applied together are to form right angles. In a shop door the margins below the middle rail are at all times different from those above, which are required to form the sash. This causes the shoulder of the rail to be at a bevel, to meet the stile in the angle on the upper and lower edges of the rail, the angles on the reverse side of the door always varying to some extent ; therefore, the angle of the shoulder would require to be dif- ferent, as the case may require. By fixing the blade to the given angle, and by applying the reverse leg of the tool to the other piece, the line to cut to would be immediately given, so that, when applied together, they would be at right angles to each other as required, and, in the same way, the angles of the other side of the door would be given, therefore working with it with as much certainty as though the shoulders were square. Again, as all mitre squares hitherto con- structed are subject to the change of atmosphere, and never correct, it would be a very unhandy tool if the blade were made of any length, answering only to one angle, if constructed with one leg only, how- ever inaccurate the tool might be, the error would be increased two- fold when applied together. Both pieces would be fitted to the one leg in the present tool by moving the blade round to 45"^, being so far as it will go; the fitting of one piece to one leg, and the other piece to the other leg, would, with certainty, form right angles when applied together; for, whatever might be the deficiency on the one side, would be made up on the other, if any. Again, by moving the blade in a straight line with the one leg, it will form right angles with the other, and may be used as a square in case of necessity. It will be found a very useful appendage to the drawing-board, to draw any given line to a certain angle required, without the assistance of a sector or scale; also as a bevel in isometrical and other perspective. The graduation beyond 45° is not continued, as any greater angle may be obtained on the reverse leg by going from right to left, instead of from left to right. Description. — Fig. 1 shows a front view, and Fig. 2 a side view of the instrument, on quarter the original size, by the aid of which any two angular pieces of fram- ing required to form a right angle may be accurately put to- gether. A is the stock, composed of brass or gun-metal, to prevent the action of the atmosphere on it, so as to preserve its shape accurately ; B, the blade, turning on the centre-pin C, altogether about 24 in. in length ; D, a set screw, working in a groove E E, to allow of the blade being fixed at any given angle. Fixed mitre-bevels, when made with one leg only, frequently vary from the angle of 45°, or half a right angle, so that when two pieces which have been set out by such a tool are applied together, their in- correctness is increased two-fold; whereas, in Mr. Quarra's tool, that difficulty is obviated by the use of the short end of the blade ; for when the long end thereof is fixed at about 45°, whatever mav be the variation in the angle set out by the longer portion of the blade, the two pieces when applied togctlier will form a right angle. It will also be found accurate in setting out the shoulders of the diminished rail of sash-doors, and will likewise answer for a square, a common bevel, and a true mitre-bevel. NEW ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, " ST. GEORGE," AT LAMBETH. This building, which is situated in Westminster bridge road, opposite the Blind Asylum and Betlilehem Hospital, is rapidly approaching completion. The foundation stone was laid in April, 1840, on which occasion the church was dedicated to St. George, the tutelar saint of England. It is the largest ecclesiastical edifice devoted to the Roman Catholic worship that has been constructed since the Reformation, when Henry VIII. destroyed and reduced the majority of the Catholic establishments. lU external dimensions are 250 ft. long by 84 ft. broad. The height of the tower at the west end at present is 60 ft., but when completed its extreme elevation will he 330 ft. above the ground level. The style of architecture throughout the liiilding is the decorated Gothic. The tower is most substantially built with C:;en stone dressings, its wails averaging nine feet in thickness. It contains a helfry with room for a peal of eight bells. On each side of the tower are duable belfry windows, decorated with mitres, parapets, pinnacles, &c., and when funds shall admit, it is intended to ornament the walls with 100 statues of saints and martyrs. The tower will be surmounted by a steeple, built after the pattern of the magnificent spire of Salisbury Cathedral, and will be ter- minated by a large cross. The interior height of the churcli, from floor to ceiUng, is 57 ft. The length of the nave in the clear is 100 ft., by 72 ft. broad; the chancel is 40 ft. long, by 20 ft broad. Over the entrance to the chancel is a richly carved oak screen, and a rood loft in the form of a cross, on eacli side of which will be placed statues of the blessed virgin and St. John. From either side of the rood loft ascends a spiral staircase, terminating exter- nally in two turrets decorated with crockets, figures, and other ornamental work. Each turret is elevated 40 ft. above the ceiling. A carved stone pul- pit will be placed at a short distance from the chancel screen. Adjoining the chancel, on each side, are two small chapels for altars, over which are to be placed stained glass windows. The chancel window is very large, measuring 30 ft. I)y 18 ft. ; the mullions are of stone, with rich foliage ; the interstices will be filled with stained glass of various colours, the subject is the root of Jesse, or genealogy of our Lord. It is the gift of the Earl of Shrewsbury, and will cost i"500. Underneath will be placed the principal altar, which will be decorated with statues of saints and bishops. Another large window is placed iu the tower opposite the chancel window, and is considered a fine specimen of the decorated style of architecture. The church contains in all 28 windows. The roof is constructed of carved stained timber, which will be stencilled in various colours and devices. The mode in which the roof has been built is a modification of the manner anciently observed in the building of large edifices. Instead of covering the rafters of the ceiling with lath and plaster, to form a basis on which to construct the decorative work, as is usually done in modern buildings, the rafters themselves subserve ornamental purposes, by which means considerable expense is avoided, and beauty is combined with utility. The roof is supported by two rows of fluted stone pillars, consisting of eight in each row. The pillars are 18 ft. in height, and will be finished by capitals elaborately wrought in fine stone, carved in rich foliage, and con- nected one with anotlier by small intercolumniations, in the form of arches, rising from the capitals to the rafters. The floor of the nave and aisles will be covered with red and blue Staffordshire tiles, each tile measuring six inches in the square. The chancel and side chapels are to be paved with en- caustic tiles east iu different shapes and of various colours. At the south- west corner of the south aisle will be placed the large and richly ornamented baptismal font carved in Caen stone. The interior of the church is not ob- structed by galleries ; the only projections are the organ-loft and two small galleries for the choir over the two side doorways at the east end. No pews or closed seats will be allowed, but open benches will be placed down the aisles, constructed with low backs, so as to afford an unobstructed view of the interior. The seats will yield ample accommodation for 7,000 persons. The bare cost of erecting the building will be jE20,000, but it is expected that a sum of £40,000 will be necessary to complete all the contemplated embelUshments and improvements, including the tower and spire. At the east end of the church is a large sacristy, and adjoining at the north east corner are cloisters, which connect the edifice with a presbytery, con- taining a spacious dining-room, and affording accommodation for several priests. Abutting on this is a convent for the Sisters of Mercy, and a school for 300 children. The convent is fitted up with kitchens, refectory, dormi- tories, a small chapel with a belfry, and will furnish an abode for 13 Sisters of Mercy ; whose charity and kind oftices will be distributed indiscriminately among the members of all religious deaou^iaatious who may need asiistance. 22 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Jan. 13, Tliecnment, with its accompanying l)uil(iings, will cost £7,000. The archi- tecture displayed in its construction is of a similar style to that used in the building of tlie church, only more subdued, and of a less expensive descrip- tion. Several little turrets and spires are erected in various purts, which give it a very pleasing eiTect. The church and nunnery together stand upon an acre of ground, measuring 42,000 so.uare feet. The entire edifice is built from the design of Mr. Pugin, and huilt by Mr. Myers, who, during the last ten vears has been engaged in the construction of 37 churches. Tiie cathedral will be consecrated and opened for public worship in the autumn of the present year ; but a considerable time must necessarily elapse before the great tower and spire shall be completed. The subscriptions to- wards this gigantic undertaking have, for the most part, been raised in the provinces through the exertions of the Kev. Mr. Doyle, who is the principal officiating priest. The Earl of Shrewsbury and the late Mr. Benjamin George Hodges have been the principal contributors. A considerable sum has also been subscribed by the poorer classes inhabiting the parish of St. George. The names of the King of Sardinia, the King of Bohemia, and other foreign potentates also figure largely in the list of contributors. A liberal donation is expected from Louis Philippe, who, during his stay in England, was a re- sident of St. George's parish. The Roman Catholic chapel in the London- road, as soon as the building is finished, will be converted into an hospital f.ir the cure of cancer. The church is the largest structure in Great Bri- tain that has been erected by voluntary subscriptions. NOTES OF THE WEEK. Strong and urgent representations are being made to obtain a clear space at the east end of the Royal Exchange, efforts which we sincerely hope will succeed. If the houses on both sides of Finch-lane were removed, and those on the east side rebuilt as City offices, we believe no loss would be sustained by the corporation, while great public accommodation would be afforded. It would indeed be a shame that a public building of such im- portance should be spoiled for a trifle. It is an item worth consideration in the progress of the age, that the lec- tures at the Royal Institution are to be considerably extended after Easter, so as to include a course on the Arts and M.inufactures by Professor Cowper, and on Fresco and Decorative Painting, by Mr. Wilson, Director of the School of Design. It is by these compliances v.itb the spirit of public im- provement that the Royal Institution will maintain its high standing and achieve a position of permanent utility as a superior school of the useful and ornamental arts. The exertions to make it a school of scientific agriculture are equally commendable, but do not so properly come within the sphere of our observation. The improvements at Eton College exhibit a commendable spirit of im- provement, the attention to the sanatory arrangements is very laudable, inas- much as it is very necessary. The drainage and ventilation are carefully looked to in all the arrangements, and a sanatorium for the sole use of the students has been established at Eton Wick, a mile off. Among the new buildings is a range of three large houses in the Elizabethan style, two of which are completed, opposite to the principal entrance of the college. A large hexagonal hall for a mathematical sciiool and lectures is also nearly completed. The new lodge and gateway at the end of the Long Walk Wall is the subject of some criticism, but with its small octagon turret makes a handsome addition. At OrleansviUe, in Algiers, a beautiful antique marble bust in fine preser- vation, has been discovered. Other excavations are going on there. The bronze statue of Moliere was this week placed on its marble pedestal on the fountain at the end of the Rue de Richelieu, at Paris. — Tlie Council Genera! of the Seine has determined on publishing the ancient works, manu- scripts, accounts, &c., which it possesses relative to the customs of Paris, particularly the curious book of Trades of Boyleau.- — M. Marochetti has just finished his equestrian statue of Napoleon. It is said that it will surpass all his former works. — The hotel rontall)a, next to the English Embassy, ami one of the most magnificent private residences in Paris, has just been com- pleted, it is by M. Visconti in the style of the interior court of the Louvre, constructed by Perrault. A new hospital of 600 beds is to be erected at Paris, for the northern districts, in the CIos St. Lazare, the plans are by M. Gauthier. The church of St. Severin, at Paris, one of the finest, is being completely restored, and in particular its curious tower. Some new sculpture is much admired, and particularly a Descent from the Cross. The new church of St. Vincent de Paul, at Paris, is making much progress, and will be com- pleted by the 15th June. The whole of the external works are completed. We are sorry to learn that the Hotel of the Minister of Foreign Affairs at Athens has been burned, and that an attempt was made to set fire to the Hall of the National Assembly, which fortunately did not succeed. The jiostmasters on the Orleans, Rouen and Strasburg roads have sent in a complaint to the French ministry of the losses they have sustained from the railways, and the impossibility of carrying on their contracts. The ministry have promised them some relief in the ensuing session. It is again reported that the Upper Siiesian Railway is to be connected with the Austrian lines, and that the necessary arrangements have been made by the two governments. In some excavations on the Augsburg and Sonauwerth Railway worki, a most interesting discovery has been made of tombs of the first four centuries of our era, belonging to the Celts, Romans and Germans. A house has been built at Lyons in the Edinburgh style of twelve stories on the side of a hill. It is looked upon as a kind of giant. A new church is to be built at Berlin, by voluntary contributions, in the Exercier Platz. A new bath is to be erected at Bagneres de Luchon, by the town council, at a cost of i'lS,000. It is to be worthy of comparison with the buildings at the German Brunnen. On the archa;ology of public monuments a course has been opened in the military school of St. Cyr. This might be well imitated in England, but we have nothing of the kind, not even in our Royal Academy of Arts. INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.— Session 1844, January 9. — The President in the Chair. The first meeting of the season was held on Tuesday evening 9th instant. During the recess several alterations have been made in the rooms of the Society : along the sides of the gallery have been placed some handsome cast iron open work shelves, and brackets cast and presented by Messrs. Ransome and May of Ipswich, for supporting a series of busts of eminent engineers, and scientific men. The theatre which was formerly oppressively hot, and but dimly lighted, has now two gas lights placed near the ceiling which throw a powerful light into all parts of the room. The products of combus- tion are carried off by the open-jointed telescopic tubes which have been ap- plied by Professor Faraday to lighthouse lanterns, and were described by him at a meeting of the Institution last year. This system of lighting and ven- tilation, which was, we understand designed by Mr. Manby, the secretary, appeared to be perfectly under control, and was very satisfactory in its eft'ects. The following papers were read. 1. By Mr. John Storey, descriptive of a comlination of Cast and Wrought Iron tised in some Bridges on the line of the Bishop Auckland ^- Weardale Railway. A general review of the usual construction and expense of occu- pation bridges of brick, stone, timber, and lait iron was given, showing their defects. In order to obviate these objections the author has introduced combined trussed beams of cast and wrought iron, which he contended might be advantageously adopted, and that bridges could be thus constructed at a less cost than those of stone, brick, or even of timber. The structure de- scribed consisted of longitudinal segmental girders of cast iron, resting on masonry abutments : a system of wrought iron tie trussing was applied, and struts were placed where requisite, to receive tlie pressure : when more than one principal truss was necessary, they were connected by transverse braces, and distance pieces of cast iron ; sockets being cast upon the girders to re- ceive the timber joists upon which Dantzic timber planking was spiked. The communication was accompanied by five drawings, illustrating in detail the various modes of construction treated of, with estimates of the expense as compared with ordmary bridges of similar spans, whence it appeared that the cost of the former was much less than that of the latter. 2. By Captain W. S. Moorsom, Assoc. Inst. C.E., descriptive of a Cast Iron Bridge over the Avon, near Tewki-sburgt on the line of the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway, The principal novelty of this work, whicli was proposed, and its execution superintended by Mr. Ward of Fabnouth, is the mode of constructing the two piers, which were externally of cast iron in the form of caissons, each weighing about 28 tons; the plates composing each caisson were put together on a platform erected upon piles over the site of the pier, the bottom of the river being levelled by a scoop dredger, the caisson was lowered, and some clay being thrown around the exterior, a joint was formed so nearly water-tight, that two small pumps drained it in six hours. The foundation being thus excavated to the requisite depth, the caisson, which sank as the excavation proceeded, was filled with concrete and masonry; cap plates were then fixed for supporting eight pillars with an entablature, to which was attached one end of the segmental arches 57 ft. span, with a versed sine of 5 ft. 2 in. There were three of these arches, each formed of six ribs of cast iron, and two such piers as have been de- scribed, the land abutments being of stone-work joining the embankment of the railway. It was stated that this mode of construction was found to be more economical in that peculiar situation than the usual method of fixing timber coffer-dams, and building the piers within them ; the total cost of the bridge being only £10,192, and the navigation of the river was not inter- rupted during the progress of the work. The paper was illustrated by eighteen remarkably well-executed drawings by Mr. llutterton. 3. A paper by Mr. G. W. Hemans, Grad. Inst. C.E., descriptive of a Wrought Iron Lattice Bridge erected across the tine of tlic Dublin and Drogheda Railway was then read. This bridge, which in construction is similar to the wooden lattice bridges of America,' only substituting wrought iron for timber, is situated about three miles from Dublin over an excavation of 30 feet in depth; its span is 84 feet in the clear, and the two lattice beams are set parallel to each other, resting at either end on plain stone ' [The original inventor of the lattice bridge, was the late Mr. Smart, of Westminster Bridge M'liarf, Lambeth, who many years since took out letters patent lor the principls.— Editok,] 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 23 abutments built in the slope. These beams are 10 ft. in depth, and are formed by a series of flat iron bars 2J in. wide by J in. thick crossing one another at an angle of 45^; at 5 ft. 6 in. above the bottom edge, transverse bearers of angle iron are fixed similar to those now used for supporting tlie decks of iron steam vessels, and upon those the planking for the roadway is fastened. The account of the mode of construction, and of the raising and fi-^iing the lattice beams, by Messrs. Perry of Dublin the contractors, was given in detail, and the author stated that, although it was expected that considerable deflec- tion would occur, which was provided for by forming the beams with a curve of 12 in. in the centre, they did not sink at all even when heavy weights passed over them. The total cost of the structure, including the masonry of the abutments was £510. It was stated that this bridge had been erected by Mr. Macneill, JI .Inst. C. E. in order to test the soumlness of this kind of structure before he applied it in a bridge of 240 ft. span to carry the Dublin and Drogbcda Railway over a canal. The meeting adjourned to January 16th instant, when it was announced that the Annual Meeting would be held for the election of the council and officers. ARCHITECTURE. Report of a Course of Lectures delivered by Professor Cockekkll, at the Royal Academy. (Specially reported for this Journal.) Lecture I. Mr. President — The fine arts, whether they are regarded as an intel- lectual gratification intimately connected with mental advancement, or as the noblest recreation of which our nature is capable, should always be a subject of the highest importance amongst a polished and civilized community ; and the Professor, however arduous and responsible his duties may be, will hail with satisfaction the returning season of his labours as a pulilic and private benefit, so far as he may have it in his power, to illustrate his art by sound argument and profitable suggestions : and, as a true lover of his art, will re- joice in a candid discussion of its principles, regarding such discussion as a whetstone, whereby truth may be elicited and maintained. But the art es- pecially which I so badly represent, demands, as a peculiarly learned art, the guidance of that experience which may point out the sources of its consti- tution, call into exercise the reasoning faculties, and engender a deep inte- rest in its behalf. Under the blessings of peace, architecture assumes peculiar interest. We may daily see the happy effects arising from the encouraging sentiment of emulation ; expressions of regard for architecture have become almost uni- versal ; and we can scarcely look into the public prints without discovering some evidence of this fact ; parliament for the first time has promoted such works, and has given a stimulus to them, which only patronage can give to the higher works of art. The saying of the painter Barry, that he lived a century too soon, appears to be verified in the success which has crowned the exertions of his able successor in name ; and the lambent flame which this academy has kept alive through good and evil report, seems now to shine forth with greater lustre. How great then should be our endeavours to qualify ourselves for this improved state of things ! The study of the fine arts is, as has been truly stated, the study of the " true and beautiful in nature." This science engaged the attention of Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, and the ancient philosophers ; the fine arts have long been studied in the universities on the Continent ; and it is now, 1 trust, becoming general in this country. The London University has already com- menced ; and Oxford and Cambridge will no doubt follow. An illustrious member of Oxford, (Mr. Gracewell,) in a remarkable paper published a few weeks ago, recommends a union between literature and the fine arts, and remarks that the fine arts being founded on the unchanging moral and intel- lectual nature of man, admit of being taught as dogmatically as the prin- ciples of any other science. In this respect they are unlike the useful arts ; but when the useful arts have procured us the necessaries of life, the fine arts are found equally essential to enjoyment. Apollo and the Muses are only gifts to such a state of society, whilst they tend to check the progress of avarice, pride, and the other vices which follow in their train. The arts will hail the proposition of Mr. Gracewell. Such a system, and in the hands of scholars, will go far to establish a respect for those branches of learning, and by thus uniting the elegancies of literature with those of art, each will illustrate the other ; and by this means employment and amusement will be found for a large portion of society, who but for such a unity would regard the arts as toUs. The union of literature is obviously essential to the fine arts, and it has been ever so since the days of Socrates. The Grecian arts excelled through this circumstance. Many of Jocko's inventions were taken from the sug- gestions of the poet ; so with Raphael and Reynolds and others, iu whose works the suggestions of the poet may clearly be traced. Reynolds no doubt derived many ideas from conversation with Burke, Johnson, and other literari of the day. But whilst we leave to far more accomplished scholars the discussion of the fine arts, we have practical studies which we must en- deavour to obtain and understand as the means of acquiring that greatctt of all blessings, sound judgment. We know, that like good taste and virtue, sound judgment depends not upon argument, syllogism, or sophistry, but must be cultivated by a beautiful and dispassionate revision of the best specimens of art. Philosophical dis- cussions upon the sublime and beautiful will always be valuable as one of the means of instruction ; but the subject is so subtle that it is not to be circumscribed by language, however logical. It is after all to genius we must look for the exact adjustment of those qualities on which the beautiful depend. The artist may lay down incontrovertibly his principles of art, but their adoption in particular proportions may not always succeed. To the practical student only belong the scruples and the grains of proportion, and it is in labour only combined with genius that the phdosopher's stone is to be found by the artist. (The Professor here referred to some works of art by Palladio and Peruzzi, to show that where to apply the great principle of order was peculiarly the province of the man of genius, and was only to be decided by him.) The speculative part of the fine arts, without the assistance of manual operation, can never attain perfection. Each department of art is of suffi- cient importance to occupy the whole attention of one man, but it is essen- tial in an art where so many details are involved, that the student should occasionally be awakened to an enlarged view of the subject, and it is for this purpose that I have in former lectures taken extended views of the his- tory of our art, and directed your attention to the magnitude of its extent; for to know what has been done, is to know what can be done. Charles V. said well that a man who possessed many languages, became, in fact, multi« plied into many individuals, and enjoyed in an increased degree the privilege of existence. And the same remark might be applied to the architectural historian, whose experience teaches him the peculiarities of different nations, and points out to him the propriety or otherwise of peculiar appUcations to particular circumstances. We are thus led to consider the practice of the fine arts, as but another language by which the moral and political subjects of the day are modelled and expressed -. and as the literature and language of one period are not api)li- cable to another age, so is it with the practice of the fine arts. For instance, imagine the republication of the Nnremburg Chronicle of 1492, as the journal of science of the present day ; or of the works of Gore, Spenser or Chaucer, for the entertainment of the readers at the West-end of the pre- sent day. To follow the same principle in the fine arts would be equally preposterous. When Edward III was engaged in his palace at Westminster, he granted a precept to — it might be the president of that day — compelling him to press all the painters throughout the country to go and assist at Id. a day. Now let us suppose an officer despatched by Her Majesty on a similar expe- dition— to procure painters at \d. a day; what an amusing exhibition should we not have ! What complaints ! What paragraphs in the newspapers ! What petitions to the Commons House of Parliament I Thus we find the practice ever varying, though the principles remain the same. We admire the works of Chaucer, Gore, and Spenser, but it is the intrinsic beauty of their poetry that we admire, and not the language in which it is dressed : so we should be as glad to receive a commission now as in King Edward's time, but it is the compulsion at \d. a day that we should not like. I have also in preceding lectures recommended the study of those reper- tories of the experiments of past ages, which whilst they improved the un- derstanding, proved the consistency of those great principles on which our art is built. Through the means of literature we may discuss the utility of popular conceits, and we thus arrive at those things that have received the praise of succeeding ages. When we consider, for instance, that Vitruvius composed his rules upon the science of the Greeks, good sense would seem to inculcate a respect to such rules ; but such respect has not been awarded to them : for myself, however, I can only say, that my daily experience en- forces upon me the greatest respect for his authority. The Pantheon at Rome is a systylc ; now M. Souplot has presumed to depart from the practice, and has made his portico merely diastyle, and the conse- quence of this startling diversion is, that the portico is meagre and unsatis- factory. I cite this instance only as proving my position, that respect should be paid to the theories and precepts of great masters if they are found to coincide with common sense and good practice. Last year, when the Parthenon was cleared of the ruins, and some of the columns were exposed, it was found that there was a gradual rising of the columns of the central flank, so that the flank formed the arc of a large circle, and not a straight line from east to west. And this is in accordance witli the principles laid down by Vitruvius, for, he says, if they he set out level they wUl appear to have sunk. This rule, however, has not been followed out at the important national work of the church of La Madeleine at Paris, and elsewhere. Let us inquire now of experienced builders, and we shall find 500 who know not so much as the name of Vitruvius, who will tell you when you build a barn, " be sure to make the roof hog-backed, for if you set it out level, it will look as if it had fallen." So says Mr. Harvey, a most respectable builder of Ipswich, and indeed I have heard it from my youth upwards ; and thus we find that theory and experience agree. The professor in every art, is well justified in repeating to his students, the advice he has given to them to follow the principles and precepts of great masters without hesitation ; if the practice appear strange, still, hesitate not ; when you have tested the principles by practice, you will find their advantage, and will learn from time the reverence they deserve. In enforcing this principle, Pope beautifully observes : — 34 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Jan, 13, " Yoii then whose jiulgment the right course would steer, Know well each ancients' proper character ; His tabic, siibjecls, scope in ev'ry page, Religion, country, genius of his age." " Tlience form your judgment, thence your maxims bring, And trace the Muses upwards to their spring." " When first young Maro in his boundless mind, A work to outlast immortal Rome design'd. Perhaps be seem'd above the city's law , And but from nature's fountains seem'd to draw : 15ut when t' examine ev'ry part he came. Nature and Homer, were, he found, the same ; Couvinc'd, amaz'd, he checks the bold design, S And rules as strict his lalwur'd work confine, >- As if the Stagirite o'er-look'd each line. J Learn hence for ancient rules a just esteem. To copy Nature, is to copy tliem." By literature then, the student will discover the consistency of great prin- ciples in art, and the conformity evinced by all the best authorities, whilst he wdl detect the fallacies of many pretenders, and the filchings and borr'owings of ambitious authors. In my last course, I invited you to consider this matter attentively, and, above all, I enjoined you to avail yourselves of e»ery opportunity of seeking the best works, and of recording your opinion of them, always under the con- viction that success must depend upon yourselvae. I have referred to those preceding lectures : 1st. Because ihey apply only to the practice of the fine arts as they present themselves to the eye and the understanding, in which department these studies are essential. 2nd. Because the mathematical principles of an art form but a part of our consideration, and 3rd. Because the limitation of these lectures prevents our going over those grounds again, and requires that we should take a new Hne every year to fill up the measure of their utility. But I must remind you that though the lectures of this institution are unavoidably limited, that deficiency is greatly diminished by the liberality of other institutions. I refer more particularly to the London University and King's College, where the accomplished Professors give lec- tures almost weekly upon all the arts and sciences. You must be led to practice these arts before experience can be gained. Genius is a gift ; and invention, nature only can bestow on us ; but, be it remembered, that taste is the offspring of learning and a just education, and ia always more or less within our power. Let us now consider for a moment the present state of our art, and what is going on in this country. The actual state of architectural taste in Europe is remarkable. Since the revival of learning in tlie 15th century, the supre- macy of Greece and Rome was readily admitted. Dryden and Pope had pro- mulgated those laws which weie regarded as the standard of good taste, all seemed settled, and no one ventured to doubt the prevailing sentiments, and the pursuit of taste in the best circles had acquired the utmost popularity. This was sustained by the writers of the middle and last century, but gradu- ally lost its ascendancy before the great convulsions and political struggles which disturbed the empire at the end of the last century. Universal seep- ticism was raised upon all heretofore received doctrines ; the test of reason was applied to every pursuit, and some artists whose critical works have had an effect upon our art, applied the doctrines of Bentham and the utihtarians. M. Duront, a respectable lecturer for many years at the Polytechnic Institu. tion at Paris, refers all the problems of architecture to utility. He says there are no absurd rules of proportion that can be generally applied, because everv building must differ in its wants; all features of which the use is not apparent, he proscribes. He abandons the base of a column as superfluous, when a column is budt upon a column ; for says he " has it not been proved that the base is not necessary for strength ; " he proscribes all ornament in the structure, and recommends nothing that is not required to produce con- venience, solidity, salubrity, regularity, and simplicity. Such were the doc- trines that affected our art, as well as the political and social world during thote years, which brought us to that startling simphcity from which we have now happily revolted. Heresies and latitudiuarian views are as dangerous as the utilitarian doctrines. The student doubts if there be any fixed prin- ciples, and sighs for something which may satisfy that inborn desire of the mind fur some standard of excellence to which he may refer. It was extremely natural, on the recovery of Europe from the desolation of war in 1814, that we should deplore our sad departure from the rides of the fine arts, which were formerly in general acceptation. Long unused to that refined criticism, which experience can only arrive at, no wonder that we should fail to distinguish the good from the bad in former models, and should seize all that was presented to us. Like the youthful appetite, which swallows voraciously whatever has the semblance of nourishment, the artistic mind of Europe, during the last 30 years, has been wholly occupied in di- gesting those materials, and there is scarcely a school which has not been canvassed, criticised, and reproduced. This is on the wane, and Europe's mind is bent on asserting its own right to think and act for itself. To study departed excellence too intimately only extinguishes natural genius, and we become copyists, sinking under the errors of those we copy. We become man- nerists instead of originalists. If there be no originality there can be no improvement ; if no deviation from existing models, there can he no progres- sion : whilst, to be original, is to escape from bondage, and at least to ac- quire the possibility of being superior. To these reflections may follow the inquiry, " But if we cease to follow existing models, how shall we find that txceediiis skill wbicb we do find.''! Tiu3 >s 3 question I cannot pretend to answer, other than by saying that when you have a work to invent, you should put away all former notions ; be animated only by the wants and require- ments of the building, the materials to be procured, and the genus loci. Then let your invention proceed upon a natural view of these elements, without servility to any existing model. Pedantry and ignorance are the two great enemies to the progress of our work. The pedantry of this age in architecture, arises from a small idea of the importance of the art itself. It has not been deemed of that essential importance to the character of the state, in which it was formerly held. Be- fore the all-engrossing importance of war, or other vast operations affecting society, pedantry takes flight. We must qualify ourselves for our profession by study and experience. These courses once gone through, we must exercise our own genius. The great captain of our day has no doubt studied every military tactic from Se- sostris to Vauban, but he never for a moment thought of resorting to any of those tactics in the achievement of his glorious victories; his only thought was how to suit his means to the necessity, his materials to the case, and the l/mus loci — and then his operations proceeded. On his side, your Professor has felt all the importance of his duty, in the deep conviction that, however humble the seed he may sow in good soil, it may grow into a great tree, whose branches may extend to distant lands. He must bear in mind that he is acting amongst the richest and most powerful people in the world; that England's sons cover not only this land, but the continents of America and Asia, with their works, which do homage to the superior education and skill of Britain. Often we may see the most magni- ficent works in those countries raised from some office in this metropohs — some individual who may have derived his instruction from Sir John Soane or Peter Nicholson, and have carried his experience, and the superior learn- ing of this country, into the presence of the autocrats and potentates of foreign countries ; thus verifying the words of the prophet, " Seest thou a man who delighteth in business, he shall stand before kings." England, in- deed, is like a great hive, from which the bees swarm, and carry honey into other lands. Two remarkable instances occur to me of this fact. Mr. La- drone, a pupil of my father's, sent me, some years ago, the plans of the capitol of Washington, which was built by him. M. Montferron, at that time a young man of no repute in Paris, is now architect to the Emperor of Rus- sia, and is engaged in building the church of St. Isaac. This is a magnificent structure ; the section of the portico is like St. Paul's, but it is made of iron, and is contracted for by Mr. Baird. Your Professor, then, considering the great importance of his duties in this respect, must omit nothing which his own, or the experience of others, has taught him. To interest you, therefore, he endeavours to acquaint him- self with the movements in those nations which are before us in the fine arts. It is on this account that he visited our neighbours in Paris last year, and those on the Rhine this year, because, with the nature of their habits, they are more addicted to follow the tine arts than ourselves. With the blessing of peace greater public works have been accomplished there than here, and there the most liberal patronage is bestowed upon all the followers of the tine arts, whUst this country laljuurs under the incubus of a national debt. I purpose, in the present course, to direct your attention to the fashionable architecture of the day, and to refer to the much discussed subject of church budding. These fashionable buildings in a country arise from many remote causes, which it is difficidt to recognize — such as the moral condition of the people, their habits and government, the poetical vein of thought which prevails, politics, religion, iSic. And the fashions change greatly with the age. When 1 first entered the profession, the Egyptian architecture was esteemed the most beautiful. We are not so susceptible of mode here, as our Gallic neighbours ; but in France there was not a chimney of that day that was not covered with hieroglyphics, or shaped like a mummy. After that the Indian architecture prevailed, and George IV. adopted it in his pa- viUon at Brighton. And so on. Such fashions will ever prevail, and certain deference must be paid to them, hut in this fashion, as in dress, the weakest will take the extremes, whilst the prudent will only show a certahi degree of conformity to it. I would suggest to the students that it is always necessary to refer to what may be called the tributary streams of an, for aid and assistance — especially to our Universities. The example of the accomplished Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, has been followed by a society not inferior in zeal, and it has taken the science of church building under its especial protection, on which subject it promulgates laws from head-quarters with the greatest con- fidence ; and we can have no stronger proof of the favour in which our art is held, than the success which has marked the progress of the Camden Society. These gentlemen have limited their views to one style of architecture, and admit none other worthy to be used in a Christian church. They shut out all the rest of the world from their privileges, and adopt the architecture of the 13th century as the best adapted to this holy subject of church building. We admire the singleness of these gentlemen, so far as it goes, and shall endeavour to revive this subject in order to give a fair view of the matter, but not for the purpose of retahating on those gentlemen terms which have already driven from the society the Bishop of London, the Bishop of Armagh, Pro- fessor Willis, Professor Sedgwick, the Master of Trinity, and others; and the students will find in this renunciation of the doctrines of the Camden Societ}', the danger of relying on such authority. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 25 ARCHITECTURE. Lkctdre II. By Professor Cockerell. (Specially reported for this Journal.) The Professor, who intimated in his last lecture that it was his intention to refer more particularly to church architecture commenced by remarking that the intimate connexion of religion with their art, threw, as it were, a veil of sanctity over all their proceedings. The most illustrious professors of the art were remarkable for their piety; they were wont to have solemn masses, and to offer up prayers upon the commencement of any great undertaking. " Unless the Lord build the house," said they, "we labour but in vain." That Sir Christopher Wren was fully conscious of the sanctity of the undertaking in which he was engaged when building St. Paul's Cathedral, was clearly evinced by an order which he had exhibited over the building, prohibiting the use of oaths amongst the workmen upon pain of instant dismissal. It was indeed a fact, that whilst an acquaintance with many branches of learning induced to scepticism, the study of the true and beautiful led to piety. It had unfortunately happened that hitherto we had had no original style of architecture suited to the ritual and formularies of the Protestant church. In the 16th century our churches were made copies of the then existing Popish churches, and these forms had been perpetuated up to this very day. The time, however, would shortly come when Protestant churches should have a style of their own more suited to their worship, and more lovely than the mother whence they sprung. " Mater pulchra,fitia pulchrior." The commissioners appointed in the reign of Queen Anne to inquire into the matter of church architecture had succeeded in leaving some beautiful specimens of their taste, but they spent upon eleven churches what was meant to serve fifty, and otherwise did not perform their duty as could have been wished. Such an enormous outlay and such a departure from duty thereby involved could not have occurred in France, where the government took such matters under their special cognizance and protection, for tlie Institute would at once have been consulted, who would have reported to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners the course most proper for them to pur- sue. In our country it was a most melancholy fact that whilst other sub- jects of far less importance constantly received the supervision of the state, such matters as these were entirely left to chance — to the accident of learned men, or otherwise, who might preside at the time. The consequence of such a system was the perpetuation of enormous heresies in art. Since the 16th century then, the form of the papal temple had been re- tained, and the basilica of the western world had been retained with it; and how deeply rooted was the feeling in favour of the basilica, might be imagined from the fact that almost all the churches of the present day were in that form. The Camden Society had decided upon the pointed style of architecture of the 13th and 15th centuries, as the best adapted to Christian churches. That that style exceeded many others in boldness of design, it was not to be denied, but that it excelled in suitableness to the ritual, was a very questionable point which it would be desirable to discuss ; and, in doing so hereafter, he should direct the attention of the students to the plan and distribu- tion rather than to the elevation ; to the fundamental system of the struc- ture appealing to the understanding, rather than to superficial forms appeal- ing only to the eye. The Camden Society seemed to catch at that which was gratifying to the eye, whilst they passed over the more important details which recommended themselves to the understanding. The amateur gene- rally, indeed, understood by architecture, the elevation only, but the intelli- gent architect regarded the disposition and the plan as the two bases of his work. The forms of churches employed by Constantlne were four. I, The ba- silica; 2, The circular ; 3, The octagonal ; 4, The square or oblong. There were 18 basilicas in Rome, and St. Augustine introduced that form into this country in the year 596. The second form was employed by St. Helena, the mother of Constantine, who was a native of York. That form was probably adopted from the tomb which she built at the holy sepulchre, and was in pretty general use until the dissolution, in 1312, of the Knights Templars' body, who employed that form in imitation of [the sepulchre of Christ, which they were appointed to guard. The octagonal form was also employed by Constantine, in Anlioch, of which the church in Aix-la-Cbapelle, by Charlemagne, was no doubt a copy ; and this form was admirably adapted for the purpose of separating the male and female worshippers, as was then customary. Its adaptation to our ritual was well exemplified in the church of St. Dunstan, in Fleet Street, by Mr. Shaw. The Fourth form, a square, like the basilica, was divided into three parts, having a nave and two aisles, and the centre of the nave was surmounted by a dome. This form was called indronicd forma. It was remarkably well suited to the protestant ritual. It was still employed in the Greek church, sometimes tetrastyle, and there were also a great many of that form in Germany. The four columns supporting the dome were, accord- ing to some writers, symbolical of the four evangelists. It was custo- mary to run up these domes to a very great height ; Eusebius says of Con- stantine, " ad summam altitudinem, erejcit, S(c." Two principal types now contended for the pre-eminence, the Basilica, and the Byzantine, or vertical type. The Byzantine appeared best suited to us : as in the Byzantine style, ■m required galleries ; but our ritual did not require the long nave and aisles through which the Roman Catholic was accustomed to view the Host, Pil- lars were an obstruction to the ritual of our church, and the fewer the pillars the better. With regard to the exterior, in his opinion, a large dome on the centre of the church, with smaller domes clustered around, afforded a very beautiful view. Our own church of St. Stephen, Walbrook, was a remarkable specimen of the beautiful grouping of domes, but it was unfortunately almost entirely hid from the gaze by the buildings with which it was surrounded. The fact of the Russian churches being generally built after the Byzantine type furnished another reason in favour of that form, for the Russians were early converted to Christianity by missionaries from Constantinople, where the Byzantine form prevailed. A glorious opportunity was offered by the Fire of London for suiting the temples of Christians to the uses and rubrics of our church. The matter was entrusted to the learned Archbishop Sancroft and Bishop Compton, — than whom, perhaps, no better qualified persons could have been found, — and aided by the immortal Wren, they left some beautiful models, as a living tes- timony of the genius with which they were inspired. One great reproach, which must adhere to Wren, was his modesty, which prevented his giving publicity to the principles by which he was guided in the execution of his works ; had he left behind him any principles upon which he himself acted, they would must assuredly be regarded as canons by the students of the pre- sent day. The learned Professor concluded his lecture by referring to church nomen- clature. He thought that the cardinal virtues and graces might well be ap- plied as the names of churches. The ccclesiologist appeared to be hard pushed for names, when he recommended such a one as St. John Pantiana, which, says the Ecclesiologist, " Though an uncommon, is a very beautiful name." if euphony were all that was cared for, it would be easy enough to find plenty of pretty names; but he thought something more should be aimed at than a mere pleasing sound. [We had hoped to have afforded our readers much gratification by pub- lishing the lectures of Professor Cockerell on this highly interesting subject at full length, as we did in our last number with his first lecture. Professor Cockerell has, however, intimated to our reporter that it is not his desire tu have his lecture fully reported, and has given him to understand, that an at- tempt at a verbatim report in future would cause his exclusion altogether from the course. We are consequently enabled this week to do no more than present our readers with a very faint outline of the Professor's second lecture ; and as that gentleman does not object to the publication of a brief abstract, we shall, with his kind permission, publish his remaining lectures in that form. We very much regret that we shall thus be precluded from presenting to the public his very admirable expositions of the art which be 10 ably represents. — Ed. C. E. & A. Jodr.] ILAM HALL. Sir — There should be no occasion for making this inquiry, as the infor- mation should have been supplied by the account which induces me to seek further particulars relative to what appears to be a superior specimen of its kind. Ham Hall, Derbyshire, the seat of .Mr. Watts Russell, is said to have been erected " a few years ago," and to be remarkable for the " happy unison of both exterior and interior magnificence " displayed in it j the entrance hall and armoury being " finished off" in oriental magnificence. Nevertheless, there is nothing further said to bear out such character, nor are we told who was the architect of so superior a work, although his name might very well have been mentioned, notwithstanding the " want of space," which seems to be the never failing excuse for withholding matters of posi- tive information, perhaps at the very same time that the writer is evidently ekeing out his paragraphs with more twaddle or fustian — as is the case when we are told that " what renders the charm still greater, is the perfect feeling of domestic comfort which remains unsullied by the grandeur which sur- rounds us." The idea of being " unsullied by grandeur," is certainly a new one. What description there is of the mansion is given only in a coarse and vilely drawn lithograph, which, however, serves to show that the structure is chiefly in the Elizabethan style, unusually picturesque in outline and in the grouping of its parts. Beyond this, nothing is to be made out, all besides being left to the imagination — to be shaped out for themselves by those who can perceive what beauties of detail and execution such a subject is capable of. I would, therefore, fain elicit from some one of your readers, should any of them have visited the building — or from the architect himself, should this meet his eye, a more satisfactory and intelligible account of it. For anony- mousness in architecture no reasonable motive of any kind can be assigned; certainly not, where a building would reflect credit upon the name of its author. Even the paltry lithograph view above-mentioned has the name of the artist boldly stuck at one corner of it ; therefore, he is evidently neither ashamed of his handy-work, nor at all loth to receive whatever fame it may bring him. I remain, Yours, &c., iNaCIBEB. 26 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Jan. 20, THE JOINT RAILWAY TERMINUS, LONDON BRIDGE. Sir — Observing a paragraph in page 454 of the Journal for January, professing to correct the statement in the Journal for December last, de- scribing tlie works of the new joint railway station at London Bridge, the object of which appears to be to produce the impression that the design for the fa9ade building did not emanate from the writer, I rely on your high sense of justice and impartiality for the insertion of the following particulars, which will explain the circumstances under which the design was produced, and remove any misconception wuich might arise from the ambiguous word- ing of the paragraph I allude to. Soon after the commencement of the proceedings, Mr. Roberts became seriously indisposed, and was laid up for several weeks, just at a time when it was extremely important that the plan and elevation of the fa9ade build- ing should be definitely settled, in order that the substructure works then executing by the Greenwich company should not be delayed, and should be adapted to receive that portion of the superstructure of the facade building, hereafter to be raised upon it ; and on this account it was, as well as on ac- count of the deficiency of accommodation in Mr. Robert's original plan, that I was directed in the preparation of an entirely new plan, laid out on the principle of providing distinct waiting rooms for first and second class passengers, which of course involved the necessity for a new elevation for the fafade, which I was also directed to prepare, in composing which, how- ever, 1 was left entirely free as to the choice of style and mode of treatment, being confined only as to the height of the building by an agreement previ- ously existing with St. Thomas's Hospital. It was considered desirable that the design should also comprise the new booking offices of the Greenwich Kailway company, so as to form when completed one uniform elevation, and on presenting it to Mr. George Smith, ^the architect to that company,) it was readily adopted by him as to its distinctive features, and subsequently with the addition of the campanile, designed by me, and a slight increase in the height of the principal building, (which it was afterwards discovered could be obtained,) the design was finally approved by the boards of the joint station committee, and of the Greenwich Railway company; and it was not until some time after this that Mr. Roberts was sufficiently recovered to resume his official duties. With respect to the details, which it is stated in page 454 "were left more immediately under the direction of Mr. Roberts," it is true that by his par- ticular desire the fret in the lower frieze was introduced, square balusters used instead of round, the centre console under the balconies, and the vases upon them left out, and rustic quoin stones added to the south angle of the parcels office ; with these exceptions every detail has been executed as origi- nally designed by me. Under the circumstances it was to be expected that opportunities for alteration woidd be sought for ; whether these alterations are also improvements may perhaps admit of question, and I have mentioned them that your readers may form a correct opinion as to their extent and value ; but if the original conception of an architectural design, and of its details as actually executed, can confer a propriety in it, I think there can be but one opinion as to whom that propriety in the present instance rightfully belongs. I am. Sir, Your very obedient servant, 13, Judd Place East, New Road, Thomas Tvrner. January Uth, 1844. SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS. Sir — On the 26th of December, it was asserted by the Times, in a review of Sir David Wilkie's life, " That Edmund Burke touched up, if he did not write, the best of Sir Joshua's Academy discourses." I knew the folly of this exploded suspicion, and I wrote a temperate letter to the Times stating the origin of the injustice, and the reasons to conclude there was no founda- tion for it. The Times announced " they saw no reason for publithmy Mr. Haydon's letter." Now there was every reason for doing so, because it was an unjust accusation, and it was the duty of the editor to pubUsh the reasons against it. Ovting entirely to the ignorance of the nation as to the degree of intellect required to be a great painter at the time this calumny was first started, do I principally attribute that it was so innocently believed, for what was the foundation of it .' The insinuation that Reynolds was imperfectly educated and could not have written so well. It is well known there existed about 50 or 60 years ago, a writer, under the anonymous name of Antony Pasquin, who used to obtain money by threatening disclosures : he got hold of two or three letters of Reynolds', which he asserted Sir Joshua wrote to a lady from Minor^.a, during his Toyage to Italy, and that the spelling was bad : on this discovery the suspi- cion is founded, not considering that if the letters were genuine, spelling badly was no evidence of not being able to think originally, for many of the greatest men of the last century were very bad spellers. Sir Joshua can- didly alluded to the suspicion of being helped by his friends, but he denied it positively, yet acknowledging he had benefitted by their conversation, for says be in his papers published by Malone, " the observations they make on poetry and philosophy I applied to our art, with what success I leave you to conclude." Reynolds' love of truth was proverbial, and if this had not been the real fact lie would have scorned the affirmation. Malone says he was asked " if the discourses were not found in the hand-writing of other people after Sir Joshua's death;" he replies, " none whatever," and four he found warm from the brain in his own hand. Malone concludes, *' I am as fully persuaded the discourses were wholly composed by Sir Joshua, as I am certain at this moment 1 am employing my pen in vindication of his fame." Reynolds affirms he wrote his own discourses. Pasquin insinuates he did not. The evidence then rests on the relative credibility of two men, and which ought the world to believe? Pasquin, who was hunted from society, as a literary assassin, and died from a beating he got from an exasperated man of honour, or Reynolds, whose whole life was devoted to integrity and a virtuous em. ployment, whose word was his bond, who died regretted by society, and was followed to the grave by the most distinguished men of the day ! The question must not be asked, it is an insult. " Few eminent artists have written well," says the critic ; this is not justly stated — few artists have written at all : but those who have, have written well, viz., Apelles and Euphranor, Michael Angelo and Leonardo, Rubens and Reynolds, were all eminent, and have all written well. To conclude, it is not too much to say, Burke could not have written the discourse, the style is so pure, nor could Johnson. The style is an emblem of Reynolds' own nature, modest, calm, unafl'ected, and beautiful; they were the deductions of his own mind, and written by his own hand, and it was not just of the Times so to assault the illustrious dead and then refuse his justification. B, R. Hatdon. London, Jan. Wth, 1844. SASH-SUSPENDER. For which the Silver Isis Medal of the Society of Arts, London, was presented to Mr. Jabez Osborn, and reported in their Transactions. Mp^ The ordinary mode of hanging window-sashes is by nailing the suspension ropes to the sides of the sash, which practice is very inconvenient when it becomes necessary to remove the sash from its frame, either for the purpose of repairing or cleaning it; both the woodwork of the sash and the line itself are destroyed by the nails, if the sash is frequently removed for either purpose. Mr. Os- born's plan entirely obviates these objections. Fig. 1 is a section of part of a sash A A and frame B B, in which it slides as usual. Fig. 2 is a side view of the sash. When the sash is in use, the line D C is attached to it by a knot in the end of the line being inserted in a hole slop- ing upwards, as at E, but when it is required to move the sash from its frame, the line D C is let info a groove in the frame, and the knob placed in an aperture F (fig. 1) similar to the aperture in the sash. THE CONCILIATION HALL, DUBLIN. Sir — Having read the " Observations on Architects and Architecture," by Dr. Fulton, in the Journal for the present month, I beg to correct an error relative to the above fabric into which he has fallen. Although I am quite ready to hear testimony to the justice of the strictures be has passed on the " offspring of a Martin," still 1 wonder how a person of such good taste as the Doctor, could commence without nausea to operate on so illegitimate a subject for dissection : or waste his time analysing a mass of incongruities such as every one was prepared for who had heard of the undertaker to whom the tayijig out of the body, and the construction and decoration of the shell were entrusted. There was not any competition invited, and consequently no "committee of selection " appointed to decide on the merits of a design, or the fairness of an estimate, (the contractor in this case being the architect,) the Mecic- nases of the Corn Exchange deeming such things unimportant, when neg. lected genius was to be mcouraged, and one of the fraternity advanced; such 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 27 noble minded disinterestedness is worthy of the men who aspire to create a " national school of art," however the policy of insulting the whole profes- sion may be questioned. For myself, I had every hope that the contractor and architect for the Conciliation Hall would prove worthy of his patrons, and fully realise the expectations they had formed of his abilities, and no doubt when the union is repealed, they will find in the veteran undertaker t person every way qualified to undertake the high office of " Surveyor-General of Public Works for the Kingdom of Ireland." G. D. Milford, Jan. \Zth, 1844. PACIFIC STEAM NAVIGATION. Mr. Wheelwright's Report on S/eam Navigation in the Pacijlc, nith an Account of the Coal Mines of Chile and Panama. — 1843. Ir a proof were wanting of the extended nature of our steam navi- gation and commercial interests, it would readily be found in the pro- minent subjects of discussion at this moment, in connexion with trans- atlantic and West Indian steam navigation, and the communication with the Red Sea, India, the Brazilian coasts, and the Pacific. At the same time that our operations are tlius extended, it is to be regretted that they are not equally profitable, from circumstances which we shall perhaps, ourselves, be called upon to discuss and consider on a sub- sequent occasion. It is further to be regretted, at the same time, that it presents a curious feature in the history of the subject, that a violent and injurious paper warfare is going on between the projectors and the companies. As if it were not sufficient to have a contest between Mr. MacQueen and the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, Mr. Waghorn and the Peninsular and Oriental, Mr. Heathorn and the Bahia, we have a new element of discord in the controversy between Mr. Wheelwright and the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, of ■which the pamphlet now under consideration is the opening protocol. We need scarcely say that we view such a combination of disturbing circumstances with sincere pain for the result; on whichever side the victory may be, it is sure to be to the injury of both combatants. Wars of all kinds are active processes of destruction, whether fought on the reeking battle field, or with the less sanguinary but atrabilarious weapons of pen and ink, and, under present circumstances, property is depre- ciated to a fearful extent. Of the four companies named, the shares of all are miserably below their real value, and nearly unsaleable, while a general distrust as to investment id tliis class of property is being gradually diffused. The casus belli, in the present instance, is a simple one, and re- quires but tu be stated to be thoroughly understood, and, in succinctly stating it, we believe we shall be doing much more good than if we recapitulated the invectives and inuendoes with which Mr. Wheel- wright's book is charged. Mr. Wheelwright is a fine specimen of the merchant captain, of that class to whose energies, to whose industry, and to whose researches this country is largely indebted for the exten- sion of its commerce and naval supremacy — employed for many years in the Pacific, the desire of introducing steam navigation on the coasts of the Spanish American countries, and of establishmg an active commu- nication with this country, took strong possession of him. For a long while he laboured assiduously in this cause, and by dint of great ex- ertion, he succeeded in obtaining from the various governments exten- sive and valuable privileges conditional on his carrying his plan into effect. This preliminary step taken, of preparing the local interest, Mr. Wheelwright came to this country at a most unfavourable period for such a mission, every class of enterprise and industry suffering under the severest and apparently most hopeless depression. Ulti- mately, however, Mr. Wheelwright succeeded in inducing some of the influential merchants connected with the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, and with South American commerce, to take up the plan, and, in lb38, a Board of Directors was formed. At the same time, among Mr. Wheelwright's own connexion in Liverpool and Glasgow, a large number of shares was taken. After various delays in October, 1839, a contract was entered into for two steamers to be built in Lon- don, and to be named the Chile and Peru. In 1840 a royal charter was obtained limiting the responsibility of the shareholders to the amount of the shares. By this time (the end of 1S40) the period was ap- proaching, at which the privileges granted by tlie local governments would have expired, and it became necessary to send Mr. Wheel- wright to the Pacific to obtain their renewal, and prepare for the recr|)tion of the steamers. In this mission he succeeded, and before the end of 1S4U, the two steamers arrived at their destinations. Here two new difficulties arose, the Royal Mail Steam Company's vessel was removed from the Ch.igres station, so that the Panama traflfic was virtually cut off, while from the hurried manner in which the Peru and Chile were sent out, adequate measures could not be taken for the supply of coals. One cargo of 600 tons of new Welsh coal, turned out a complete failure, and injured the machinery considerably. Cap- tain Wheelwright was here again thrown upon his resources, and set about obtaining coal from the coast. After vainly trying the rivers Maule, Laraquita, and Valdiera, Mr. Wheelwright began working the mines of Talcahuano, which he had already explored in 1834. Of these mines he obtained a lease, and soon raised large supplies of ser- viceable coal, of which nearly .5000 tons have since been taken at an expense of about 15s. per ton, while " shafts have been sunk to the depth of more than 100 ft.; machinery for raising the coal has been made, workshops built, coal screens and coal carts provided ; a mole 300ft. long constructed; a railroad formed from the working shaft to the end of the mole ; a breakwater erected for the protection of the mines; launches built to convey the coal on board; in fact, all the conveniences and material provided for the effectual keeping up and working the mines. And all these important advantages have been secured at an expense of only £2194, and under judicious arrange- ments a full and ample supply of coal may alwavs be provided." Having effected this, Mr. Wheelwright remained in superintendence of the affairs in the Pacific till the end of 1842, when, at the request of the Directors, he returned to England, in his way exploring the Isthmus of Panama, and the supply of coal there. Now, however, we come to the tragic part of the performance. Hitherto we have had to laud Mr. Wheelwright's energy, industry and enterprise, the skill with which he combated obstacles and provided resources for the conduct of the undertaking. No men, however, are faultless, still less projectors, and Mr. Wheelwright, like too many of his brethren, had early in the enterprise involved himself in disputation. The school in which his energy and enterprise had been best cultivated, the mer- chant navy, is but a poor school for discipline, things are carried out upon too small a scale, and the relations are too simple to suggest the artificial expedients requisite in large undertakings, and where many individuals are concerned. Captain Wheelwright, while acting as superintendent of the company's affairs in the Pacific, thought only of the services he had performed in the suggestion of the undertaking and the formation of tlie company, and of the large stake he and his friends held in it. He felt a deep interest in it both personal and pe- cuniary, and while he assumed a high degree of authority to himself, he freely expressed his sentiments on the acts of the executive at home. He forgot that as superintendent he ceased to be a partner, and that instead of having to deal with mercantile co-partners, he was under the official superiority, not of Messrs. George Brown, J. R. Tem- pleman, J. N. Daniel, &c., but of an abstract body, the Directors of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, and on several occasions he in- dulged himself not only in insubordinate strictures on the conduct of the Directors in his correspondence with them, but also in his communica- tions with his co-officials and third parties at home, shareholders in the company. No board, whether they had acted rightly or wrongly, could either consistently with their own dignity or with the interests of the company which they represented, submit to this, and they firmly but courteously called Mr. Wheelwright's attention to the subject, at the same time that they showed every confidence in Mr. Wheelwright's proceedings, and every disposition to allow him the legitimate exer- cise of his own discretion and responsibility, (p. 43, 40, &c.) A course like that pursued by Mr. Wheelwright was bad enough when carried on at a distance, but still worse when he came into personal contact with those over whom he seemed to consider that he rather held the superio- rity, than that he was bound to recognise it in them. He seems to have been totally incapable to discriminate between A & B and C & D, as pri- vate individuals and as abstract personages engaged in the manage- ment of the affairs of the company. Being at the same time totally ignorant of the mode of conducting public business, he was ever led into fresh difficulties, and ready to give and to take umbrage on the most trivial occasions. Thus it is one of his grievances, as stated by a partizan, that he was always politely requested to leave the board- room while the directors were engaged in discussion, a course of pro- ceeding which is well known to every one who has had experience in committee business, and at which it could be supposed that few offi- cers of a company could take umbrage, and still fewer expose them- selves by making it a ground of public complaint. However, Mr. Wheelwright's grievances did not end here, he brought plenty of others about his ears, which forced on the directors his dismissal. As to Mr. Wheelwright's charges against the directors, they have been fully considered by them, and are not worth going into, neither should we do good by engaging in a controversy of the kind. We think Mr. Wheelwright and everybody else miiy very quietly dismiss them. We have every respect for Mr. Wheelwright's public ser- vices, and we have every wish for the success of Ihe enterprise, and we have only alluded to the subject of this pamphlet in the hopes that some attention may be paid to the earnest expression of our de- 28 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Jan. 20, sire that this crimination and recrimination may cease on each aide. Mr. Wheelwright's services are great and ought to be remunerated, at the same time by liis own act he has precluded his re-instatement in the active superintendence of the company's affairs. He cannot hope that he can succeed in displacing the London directors, sup- ported as they are by so many influential capitalists and large holders, neither can they expect that Mr. Wheelwright can remain in opposi- tion without great detriment to the credit of the company, and with- out a serious depreciation of the value of its shares. Let Mr. Wheel- wright have compensation, either in the shape of an annuity for a short term of years, or of a per centage on the profits, when a certain dividend has been paids let the bye laws excluding proxies be re- scinded and two Liverpool directors elected on the board, and we be- lieve a permanent settlement of all differences will be made, of the most beneOcial result to all parties. Having got rid of the controversial portions, we will now proceed to other points of more interest to our readers. Mr. Wheelwright, with great judgment and foresight, urged on the directors at an early period that the, steamers should be built of iron, and the boilers of copper, and he gives satisfactory reasons for his recommendations. These were not at that time acceded to, for the merits of iron steam- ers on a large scale were not so firmly established as they are now; neither was the alleged superiority of copper boilers admitted. The directors were not therefore to blame in rejecting what they consi- dered an experiment, in favour of the ordinary and established modes of construction; but we hope on future occasions they will profit by the arguments which Mr. Wheelwright so ably adduces in his reports. He also well observes, " Nothing can be more desirable for the complete success of this company than the extension of the line to Panama. Our steam ope- rations would then embrace a continuous coast from the latitude of 9° north, to the latitude of 37° south, a distance, including the sinuosi- ties of the coast, of 35U0 miles. To secure these necessary and •vitally important advantages, two more steamers are required, one to make a monthly voyage between Lima and Panama, and the other to take the i^lace of either steamer when repairs are necessary ; it is utterly impossible to carry on economical steaming except by nursing the steamers and not over- working them; the old adage of "a stitc/i in time" is no where more applicable than to steam: procrastinating repairs is absolute ruin ; however great may be our advantages in the mildness of the Pacific, and the very slight wear and tear to which we are exposed, unless these advantages can be sustained by having a steamer to take the place of either when necessary, it would be much better to abandon the enterprise altogether; any interruption of the line is a most serious evil to the inhabitants and ruinous in its conse- quences to the Company." We can only regret that Mr. Wheelwright's partisans should have been those who at the recent meeting prevented the extension being carried into effect. A point, with regard to which Mr. Wheelwright justly expresses great anxiety, is as to the pass.ige of the isthmus at Panama, which he has surveyed, and the practicability of the route over which he has fully established, having on his return to England from Chagres, occupied only 24 hours in travelling by land and water from the At- lantic to the Pacific Ocean. We sincerely hope that this matter will not be lost sight of, but that it will be seriously taken up, and obtain every assistance from the government and the interests concerned. This has become the more necessary, since we learn from recent Paris advices that M. Parella has been promoted to the rank of mining engineer, and ^ippoinled by the French government to sail immediately from Brest for the purpose of examining the isthmus of Panama, and ascertaining the practicability of a communication, by canal or other- wise, to Chagres. WEALE'S QUARTERLY PAPERS. Wealds Quarterly Papers on Engineering. Christmas, 1843. PartlL London, Weale, 1843. The first volume of Mr. Weale's work is now completed, and we can sincerely say that not only does this fact give us great pleasure, but that we wish the series may be as extensive as it promises to be useful. The work supplies a desideratum in engineering literature, inasmuch as it affords provision for many valuable memoirs of great length, which could not otherwise be submitted to the public gaze, being in a Procrustean condition, as too long for our columns, and too short to admit of separate publication. Such is the treatise on the Dredging Machine, which would have been a hazardous experiment to have published separately, and yet here we have a laborious dis- sertation, with no less than ten copper-plates describing the minutest details. The first article of the present part is by Mr. F. W. Simros, C.E., on setting out the widths of ground for the works of a railway or canal. The next is a memoir by Mr. S. Hughes, C.E., of William Jessop, the engineer, being in continuation of the series, commenced in the fir^t number, with memoirs of Brindley and Chapman. Thus engineer- ing biography, a subject of considerable interest at the present moment, when the profession is rising in public estimation, is likely to receive great accessions, and to be put on a respectable footing. William Jessop, the son of one of Smeaton's assistants, was born at Plymouth, in 1745. At the age of sixteen, his father having died, he was left un- der the guardianship of Smeaton, whose pupil he became, and with whom he remained ten vears. He was from that time (1772) employed on the improvements of the rivers Aire, Calder, Hebble, and TrenU About 1792 he was engaged on the Cranford Canal, the Nottingham Canal, the Loughborough & Leicester Canal, the Barnsley, and the Horn- castle navigation, and the Ouse navigation. His great work, however, was the Grand Junction Canal. This was succeeded by the Grantham Canal, the Barnsley Canal, and the Great Ellesmere Canal. He was also employed on the Grand Canal, and other government works in Ireland. About the commencement of the present century, Jessop was called upon to take part in the dock establishments, and com- pleted the City Ship Canal, and West India Docks, the first in London, and the Bristol Harbour improvements. It is curious, also, that at this time his attention was closely directed to the railway system, and which, under the form of tramroads, he had been much employed in extending to the mining districts of Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and Not- tinghamshire. The Croydon and Wandsworth Surrey Tramway, the first in the metropolitan district, was also Jessop's work. With the Caledonian Canal Jessop was connected as consulting engineer. This great engineer died in 1814, after severe sufferings from paralysis. We should observe, that some controversy exists as to the engineer- ship of the Ellesmere Canal ; Telford, who acted as Jessop's assistcint, having subsequently claimed for himself the sole merit. Mr. Hughes has entered into this question, and, we think, dune justice to Jessop s claims. We are sorry to learn that in the compilation of this memoir, Mr. Hughes has received no assistance from the Messrs. Jessop, which is, we think, far from creditable to gentlemen of their high public standing. ... ,■ ,- j The third paper is on the Dredging machine, in continuation and conclusion of an article published in the first part. It is as we have already said, copiously illustrated with copper-plate engravings. The fourth paper is by Captain Vetch of the Royal Engineers, on the advantages of employing a framework of malleable iron iii the con- struction of jetties and breakwaters. We shall leave the gallant cap- tain to explain his system in his own words, but he has not certainly said enough to satisfy us as to the practicability of his plans. " The mode of construction upon this project consists essentially in the application of upright rods of malleable iron, steadied and fixed in their places bv passing them through apertures in two parallel and horizontal frames of flat iron, provided with corresponding orifices to receive them ; the lower frames being placed about three feet above the low-water mark and the upper frame about tnree feet above the high-water mark, or at such other convenient distances apart as the circumstances of the case may de- mand. The horizontal frames may be conveniently constructed in short lenRths, say of four feet each, and an additional piece of frame may be con- nected with the preceding one by round bolts passing through loops forming 80 many moveable joints, that the frames may be the more easily raised, lowered, or adjusted to the required level, if from the settlement of the up- right rods, they have swerved from their original horizontal position, the new lengths of frames having been bolted to the preceding ones, and re- tained in a horizontal position by diagonal stays, are ready to receive the up- right rods, which are then to be dropped separately through the correspond. inK apertures of the frames, and each allowed to take its bearmg separately bv its own gravity, or by such farther pressure as may be deemed proper. When the rods have taken their bearing and settlement, a row of slopmg rods have to be added to each side of the jetty, inclining inwards one foot in ten or twelve, to give lateral support ; and at this state of the operation, it is proposed to key on to the rods the iron collars for the permanent sup- port of the horizontal frames and the platform." OBiTn^RY.— We have to announce, with regret, the demise of Mr. John P. Brii!-s R A., which look place on ihe 18tb insi., about 5 o clock, at his Mouse m foutun Street. Mr. Brij^ss was lon^ a sh,ni..8 ornament to the profesMon of the fine arts, and bis deilh will be esteemed a great loss by all he lovers of Kenius. Mr. Bnggs bad not been in town aUove a formight, at er a tour of six month, on thi Continent. He has left two children of a tender age to lament his loss. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 39 ON THE PREFERENCE DUE TO CUBICAL STANDARD MEASURES OF CAPACITY. By T. N. Parker, Esq. A.M. The pains which have been taken by Parliament, from time to time, to establish a uniformity of measures of capacity throughout the kingdom, have hitherto failed of producing the desired etfect, and the greater the labour lost, the more unwillingness is shown for resuming the subject. I have long entertained a belief, that a cubical standard measure might be advantageously substituted for the cylindrical, as the test of capacity; while cylindrical or vessels of any other form, should be continued, as at present, for common use: but a difficulty occurs in regard to the contents of a measure, which is to be multiplied and divided, into quarts, gallons, &c., without having to deal with any smaller parts than a cubical inch, and at the same time to preserve as nearly as possible, the like quantity in a gallon, bushel, &c. which has been customarily understood to be represented by such denominations. I, at length, luckily hit upon a cube of 4 inches for a quart, which is so near to the customary quantity as to be deserving of much con- sideration; it is remarkable that it did not sooner present itself, being so obvious, incapable of improvement or modiBcation, as it must be entirely accepted, or entirely rejected. The Winchester measure, 13 Will. 3, c. 5. Gallon in cubical inches Ale .. .. .. ..282 Wine .. .. .. ..231 Grain, &c. .. .. .. 268 8 tenths. 3) 781 8 tenths. Average . . 260 6 tenths. Bv the 5 Geo. 4, c. 74, the imperial gallon is adopted, and described as containing 277 cubic inches, and a fraction of 274 parts in 1,000: but so repulsive is the task of approaching the mathematical impossi- bility of squaring a circle, that the following inaccuracies were found to exist in the Winchester standard measures in the Exchequer : — Cubic inches. The gallon contained .. .. 2704 If deiived from the bushel .. .. 266-1 If derived from the quart .. .. 2793 If derived from the pint .. .. 276-9' 4) 1092-7 Average . . 273-1 tenth of an inch. I shall next examine the difference between the Winchester and the Imperial measures, and I find that the Imperial bushel of 32 quarts contains 33 quarts of the Winchester, and an insignificant fraction of a cubical inch. The increase in the imperial measure, as compared with the Win- chester measure, is equal to li farthing in every shilling, or 3J per cent. And the decrease between the Winchester measure, and the proposed cubical measure, is 2i farthings in every shilling, or 4-i-j per cent. ; the cubical measure being that much smaller than the Win- chester. But I contend, that the facility of ascertaining the accuracy of the cubical measures by a common rule of a few inches in length would be a very great advantage to all consumers, and more particu- larly to the poorer and less educated classes. Lastly, I will endeavour further to explain the advantages of the proposed cubical standard measures. sides. depths, contents, shapes, in. in. in. cub. in. Quarter pint ..2x2x2= 8 cube. Half pint ..4x2x2= 16 double cube. Pint .. ..4x4x2= 32 half cube. Quart .. ..4x4x4= 64 cube. Half gallon ..8x4x4= 128 double cube. Gallon .. ..8x8x4= 256 half cube. Peck .. ..8x8x8= 512 cube. Half bushel .. 16 x 8 x 8 = 1024 double cube. Bushel .. .. 16 X 16 X 8 = 2048 half cube. Double bushel ..16 x IG x 16 = 4096 cube. If a cylindrical vessel be required, equal to a given cube or square figure, multiply !• 1283791 by the side of the cube or square : take a cubical quart for instance ; I-12837 95.32 Norfal (H. C.) .1975 Bath Stone .3512 Portland ditto .... 2.157 Painswick(H.C.).. 258.47 71.36 Lead 137.73 95.67 Leunelle Marble . . .2020 I'ainovvick^lI.C.).. .4115 Bolsover (H. C.) .. 2.164 Vlalm Brick 264.11 72.92 Bolsover (H. C.) . . 138,0:i 96.14 Bolsover (H. C.) . . . .2058 Portland Stone .4158 IFire Brick 2.201 Portland Sione 272.01 75.10 Norfal(H.C.).... 139.22 90.71 Lath and Plaster . . .2065 Fire Brick .4219 Norfal (H. C.).... 2.219 Leunelle Marble . . 273.14 75.41 Stock Brick 139.0;; 96.97 Roman Cement . . .2099 Norfal (H. C.).... .4382iPainswick(H.C.).. 2.238 BolsQver (H. C.) . . iNorfal (11. C.) . . . . 270.52 345.37 76.35 95.36 Slate 143.94 145.75 100.00 101.26' Phister and Sand. . .\s|ihalt 1 .21011 .2150 Bolsover (11. C.) . . Yorkshire Flag 4453 Yorkshire Flao- 2.360 2.572 Leunelle Marble . . .4554 Asphalt 302 30 100 00 Vnrl-.Mr,. Ifl»„ 146.4^ 149. o; 102.29 103.13 Plaster of Paris .. iJak Wood 1 .2163 .4042 Slate .5304 .5409 Leunelle Marble . . Slate 2.078 2.788 Hair and Lime . . 396.10 109.38 Fire Brick furkshire Flag.. .. 401.81 110.94 Asi)halt 151.9.'i 105.5 7 Beech ditto .4431 \sphalt .5529 Napoleon Marble. . 3.284 Lead 1888.3 521.35 Napoleon Marble.. 169.61 117.031 Fir ditto .5174 .S'apoleon .Marble. . .0170 10.50 Si THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Feb. 3, Table II. Absorption of Moisture ly Weight. Absorption Absorption Specific- Name of Substance. of moisture of moisture by weiglit. by bulk. gravity. AberiJeen Gr.inite .. 2.00 5.416 2.708 Napoleon Marble .. 3.00 9.85 3.284 Corrara White Marble 3.10 8.42 2.717 Sbetland Flag Stone 3.25 8.74 2.691 Caithness ditto 3.27 8.62 2.638 Slate 3.50 97.58 2.788 Leunelle Marble 4.00 10.71 2.678 Asphalt 5.00 12.86 2.572 Carrara Hard Marble 8.50 23.09 2.717 Mann & Go's Stucco 16.00 35.56 2.223 Arbroath Flag Stone 20.50 50.77 2.477 Hewithburn ditto .. 23.00 56.85 2.472 Fire Brick . . 32.00 70.43 2.201 Norfal 33.50 74.33 2.219 Portland 34.26 73.87 2.157 ' "i'orksbire Flag 40.00 94.40 2.360 1 Bolsover 40.10 86.77 2.164 Painswick . . 58.00 129.80 2.238 Bath Stone 78.00 144.12 1.858 Maulmien Teak 82.50 61.85 .7498 Stock Brick 109.00 199.57 1.831 Hair and Lime 109.12 184.52 1.691 Alalm Brick 116.50 186.63 1.602 Keen's Cement 126.50 155.59 1.230 Chalk 133.50 206.79 1.542 Roman Cement 133.56 208.35 1.560 Plaster and Sand . . 147.00 192.27 1.308 Beech Wood 185.50 138.04 .7442 Plaster of Paris 187.50 220.50 1.176 Oak 224.75 128.04 .5697 Fir Wood 622.75 265.41 .4262 PKACTICAL DEDUCTIONS. Want of space will not allow me to point out the numerous subjects of practical utility to be derived from the whole series of experiments hitherto detailed for the benefit of architects, engineers, and builders, but I will ven- ure to fill up the remaining sheet with a few deductions that appear most prominent. Asphalte stands as the best composition for resisting moisture ; it is a slow conductor of heat, and hence is well adapted for flooring, as in cells of prisons, where economy of heat and dryness, the most important advantages are obtained. Slate will be seen to stand as a very dry substance, but from its quick conducting power (Table I.) it is very unfavourable to flooring where warmth is required; but when the one property is sought for and not the other, as preventing the ascent of moisture up the walls of houses, it is well calculated to be useful by forming a layer in the wall a few inches above the ground. The absorbing power of comniou brick appears very great, being more than one-fifth of its own weight; whereas Mann and Co.'s Stucco paint cement is not greater than ^ of its own weight, and hence more than six times better adapted to resist moisture than brick, therefore the advan- tage to be derived by covering brick houses in exposed situations with this substance is considerable, while Koman cement resists moisture even worse than brick. I wish it to be borne in mind that I only speak of this stucco as regards its power of resisting the transmission of water, being the only pro- perty of it which I have examined. Keene's cement and plaster of Paris stand as the warmest substances, there- fore are well adapted to line rooms with, while hair and hme is a remarkably quick conductor, and therefore a cold substance for that purpose. 1 would also draw attention to the fact, that plaster and sand and plaster of Paris (particularly the latter) are admirably calculated to resist the action of fire, while we know, on the other hand, that lath and plaster is about the most combustible material in a house. I can most confidently recommend plaster of Paris and plaster and sand to be employed in surrounding iron chests, or other places which contain valuable property, intended to be protected from lire. If an iron chest be surrounded with six or eight inches in thickness of this substance, I believe it will perfectly preserve papers, &c., from any de- stroying heat in the midst of the burning of our ordinary dwelling houses. I may also point out that Yorkshire flag stone is a very quick conductor, and therefore ill adapted for warm flooring; also that lead which forms the covering of roofs is a remarkably quick conductor, and therefore a great waste of heat is experienced where such covering exists ; hence the third back rooms on ground floors in our London bouses are found to be so cold ; a vast quantity of heat escapes through the leaden roof, and through three of the surrounding walls, which are generally external, and so thin as to allow of a free escape of heat. Such places should be lined with slow con- ductors if warmth is sought for. Touching the practical utility of the specific heat experiments, I may point out, that fire brick absorbs a great quantity of heat, and therefore is well adapted to form the hacks of our fire grates, whereas, with iron backs, there is an enormous waste of fuel and heat, at the same time the fire requires constant stirring, and a quick supply of coal to keep it in ; yet, curious to remark, we never enter a bouse, even of the highest order, where iron backs to fire grates are not universally to be seen, while, a back formed of a composition, as that of fire brick, which can be as easily moulded into any desirable shape, would both save fuel, thoroughly warm any apartment, require less stirring, and not go out so soon. With regard to the specimens of wood I have examined, it is worth ob- serving that Maulmein teak absorbs much less water than oak wood, in the proportion of 82 to 224, being nearly one-third less; and as the density of woods in their ordinary state bears a strict relation to their porosity or pro- portion of air within their pores, connecting with this, the fact that iron, protected from contact with the atmosphere and water ("being compounds of oxygen) the better it is preserved, may very possibly be the reason assign- able for the truth why iron is preserved considerably longer in Maulmien teak than in oak ; the rtlation of absorption of water with the teak and oak (omitting the decimals) is as 82 of the former to 224 of the latter. The density of all these specimens of wood is here calculated from the state in which they naturally exist, that is, as dry as could be obtained, yet contain- ing an unknown quantity of air and moisture. Mr. Parnell observes " when wood, rendered perfectly dry by the aid of heat, is exposed at common tem- peratures to the atmosphere in its ordinary state of humidity, it re-absorbs a certain proportion of water, varying accordingly to the compactness of the wood, and to the quantity of deliquescent saline matters present." In refer- ence to these two assigned reasons that govern the absorption of water by woods, I would draw attention again to the Maulmien teak in comparison with the beech wood ; the relative specific gravity or density of the former to the latter is as 7442 to 7498, being very nearly equal, yet the absorbing power of the two is very different, being in the proportion of 82 to 185. These facts render it incumbent on rae to recommend it to the attention of sliip-builders. By Table II. it will be observed that the two kinds of flag stone, termed Shetland and Caithness, absorb very little moisture; having been previously informed of this property, I was desirous of e.xamining them, and certainly they maintain the character determined from the observation of practical men. Their conducting power for heat 1 had not an opportunity of calcu- lating, but if I might venture an opinion, I suspect they would range like Yorkshire flag stone; if so, they are quick conductors, or cold materials for flaging rooms were warmth is required ; nevertheless, they will be found as valuable materials for arresting the ascent of moisture iu the walls of houses, and speaking from memory I believe the Caithness flag has thus been em- ployed in the north of England with great success. The Carrara marbles mentioned are those generally employed in con- structing mantle-pieces; it is curious to observe, though their density is the same, yet the harder specimen absorbed more than twice as much water as the softer marble. Portland stone, Bath stone, and the stones employed in erecting the new Houses of Parliament, may be considered as spongy materials for absorbing water; their relative conducting power may be referred to in the first column in Table I. It will also be seen that Napoleon matble is a warmer material than common brick. I mention this to correct the general opinion that brick is a slow conductor, and therefore a greater thickness of that material should be used in forming the walls of our houses ; hence it is that the brick walls so often neither aft'ord protection from the cold of winter nor the heat of summer. It will be observed that the specific heats have been compared with water as 1, therefore, if we reflect upon the capacity of water for absorbing heat, it very much exceeds all the substances with which it is compared. Water, therefore, becomes a reservoir for heat upon the surface of the globe; islands being surrounded by this reservoir, are preserved of a more equable tem))e- rature than main lands. In reference to the conducting power of malm and stock brick, it will he seen that stock brick is placed twelfth in the scale, and malm brick the six- teenth ; it is. therefore, so much colder as a shield from the weather. From this circumstance I would remark, that when this brick (malm) is used to ease a building (as is now commonly done) the walls should be constructed proportionalily thicker, or we render the house so much colder. The ab- sorbing power also of this brick for heat is very low, being placed third in the scale in Table I. (third column), therefore we may conclude that malm brick is more a substance to please the eye for building than useful as a protection against the escape of heat, and what applies to the escape of heat will bear a similar relation to the protection against the cold of our climate. It is curious to observe how low in the scale hair and lime is placed, both as to conduction and capacity for heat. If lead were omitted from the Table it would stand nearly as the quickest conductor and the lowest specific heat, proving that the compound is ill-adapted to line our rooms as far as concerns the preservation of heat. The best property of Roman cement, from these tables, certainly appears to be that of its slow conducting power, and therefore it is much better adajited to encase brick houses than malm brick, and as far as regards their relative absorbing power for moisture, the difl'erence is not very great, being in the relation of (omitting the decimals) 133 of the former to 116 of the latter. IS-li.-] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 55 AN IMPROVED WATER METER. Invented by Mr. Alexander Mitcheli, Watch & Clock Maker, Glasgow; described by James Thomson', Esq., F.R.S.E., M.R.I. A., F.R..S.S.A., Civil Engineer, Glasgow. (Bead before the Royal Scottish Society, 12th Decemhef, 1842, and reported in their Transactions.) The action of the meter, referring to the annexed figure, may be described as folio, -vs: — The supply-pipe// being connected to the water main by a coupling, &c., in the usual wwy, the water flows through the valve g, and passing into the cylinder h h h h at j, is dis- charged by the pipe k into the receiving cis- tern 1 1, from which the water is drawn off by a stop-cock I', Upon one end of the axis or spindle of the screw a a is fitted a pinion d, working into the train of wheels e e c e, so arranged as to indi- cate the quantities of water discharged either in gallons or cubic feet, similar to the index of gas meters — the whole being set in motion by the flow of water through the cylinder acting upon and causing to revolve the Archimedean screw enclosed within it. To prevent the screw from being driven forward by the water, and in order to reduce the friction to a mini- mum, the end of the axis at d has a hard steel point inserted, which works in a cock or pot- lance fitted outside, and enclosed in an oil box, supplied with oil through the filter d'. In order to render the indications of the meter uiiiformlv correct, under different heads or pressures of water, the following very inge- genious method of adjustment is adopted: — Upon the axis of the screw are fixed four thin brass wings or leaves c c c c, each moving upon a separate hinge or pivot c', fixed at right an- gles to the axis, with screw nuts upon the end of each pivot, by means of which the wings can be maintained open or shut at pleasure, and so lessen or increase the discharge of water at each revolution of the screw. The lower pair of wings in the drawing are represented slightly open. With this power of adjustment, it is very easy to regulate the quantity of water discharged under different pressures, so as to correspond exiictly with the index and train of wheels, which can best be ascertained by trial upon setting up the meter, say by a measure- ment of 20 gallons, and opening or closing the fly leaves, to bring the quanlity measured and the index to corrcsjjond. It will be evident that the quantities of water passing through a metre, upon this principle, would be correctly indicated tloivn to thai quan- tity requisite to overcome the friction of the screw, below which amount, however, the water would pass through the cylinder without affecting the index, and consequently without being registered. Al- though the quantity thus passing would not be considerable in a well- constructed meter, Mr. Mitchell has recently introduced an improve- ment which completely obviates this objection, and renders the indi- cations correct under any circumstances, and down to the smallest quantity. This is accomplished by means of the conical valve cock g, which is so constructed as to act instantaneously, and so keep the supply either flowing at the full bore, or suddenly'shut off, when the cistern is full. The opening and shutting of this' valve is effected in the fol- lowing manner :— To the end of the lever A A, which works upon a journal, and is raised or depressed by the ball-float /, are attached the two arms ju;; and 0 0. As the water in the cistern rises, these arms are carried forward without acting, however, upon the valve, until one of the chains, connecting them with the lever and lead-weight u ii, is upon the stretch. At this point the lever and weight Are upon a balance, so that the least further rise of water in the cistern carries it suddenly over, and allows the valve g to close. A reverse motion takes place on the fall of the cistern water, the action of the other arm and chain js;^ opening the valve, which a small catch retains in its place ag'ainst the force of the supply water. To prevent any injury to the pipes from the sudden action of the valve, an air-vessel wj is t= =ti =i Refebrnpe to Enceaving.— ABCD, outer cise of thin east iron for cnclosin;^ the apparalus shown in seel inn, n a Arehimedean screw workm^ in the cyhndcr hh. cc thin br.iss wind's (ir Hies, «iili adjiistin^ screws for regulating the motion of the screw, d pinion upon the end of the screvv-spindle or a\is. e e f train ol wheels s^et in motion by the pinion rf, to indicate the i|uanlity passed through the cylinder, closed in with a glass front. / supply pipe, g valve worked hy the lever li li, connected to the b ill- Ih at i. h h lever for opening and shutting the valve g. k dischart;e pipe llowing into the cistern I I. m air vessel to prevent injuring the pipe On opening and shuttiiijj of the valve, n n lever, with had to retain the valve open or shut, o o and p p arms fixed upon the end ol the lever h It, and attached with chains to the lead weight n. attached to the supply-pipe immediately above the position of the valve. The introduction of this improvement, which prevents the possi- bility of water passing unregistered through the cylinder, renders this description of meter very perfect, and capable of indicating accu- rately the smallest as well as the largest quantities. From the small cost, too, at which they can be ni;inuf,ictured, it is to be hoped they will soon be brought into general use, and sitbsliluttd for the present unequal mode of water assessment upon house rent. Report of Committee. — Your Committee having met with Mr. Mitchell, and having again heard his explanations, and carefully exa- mined the water-tneter submitted to them, came to the following con- clusions:—1. That as far as they can judge, this meter m^iy be consi- dered sutTicientIv accurate to form a fiir measure between water com- panies and their customers. iit its construction is simple, aud well devised for permanent practical use, being little subject to de rangement from the wear of its parts. 3. That its rate of registra- tion being susceptible of easy adjustment, either in plus or minus de- gree, and its actual delivery, during certain portions of time, being always ascertainable by the consumer, its use may be adopted willi confidence, as being alike equitable to the suppliers and the con- sumers. 56 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Feb. 3, GEOLOGY IN CONNEXION 'WITII ARCHITECTURE. On the importance qfffcological studies in connexion with the practice of archi- tecture, teith notice of rxperimentx on tin- resistance' to crushing and fracture, and on the ahsorbent quaiities of the principal hnitding stones of Ireland. By Geoegk Wilkinson, Esu. Read at the Geological SociETr of Dublin, lOUi of January, 1844. In bringing before the Geologicnl Society the resulis of some experiments made on the principal building stones of Ireland, it is, I conceive, necessary to ofler some general remarks on the atlvantagcs to be derived tlierefrom ; ad- vantages, in my opinion, so very general, that to look at the result of expe- riments in a merely mechanical and professional point of view, would be con- fining the subject wilhin too narrow limits. It ouglit to be a just matter of sur[irise that, at Ibis advanced age of scientific investigation, the subject of practical geology in all its important bearings should have occupied so little attention ; and that where there appears a desire for ameliorating the condition of the people of this country, particularly by promoting employ- ment in ways calculated to develop its natural resources, persons sliould over- look what is capable of being accomplished through the medium of well directed e.Nperiments in this interesting and valuable science. To present the importance of practical geology in a familiar way, I would call your atten- tion to the large proportion of people ivho are daily engaged in operations on the rocks in the country, either in dislodging or separating from their native beds those portions required fur the varied purposes of building opera- tions, or in conveying to the localities where they are required, and in shap- ing them for the diflerent purposes to which they are to be applied, and thus calling to aid all the useful arts of the country, giving extensive employment to labourers, mechanics, and tradesmen, as well as to the scientific and learned professions of engineers, architects, artists, and others. Must persons are more or less interested in the construction of their habi- tations, and I may say, all see the advantages of public structures, and ap- preciate the importance of bridges, canals, and other public and private buildings, and probably see in them the progress of civilization, and the benefit and dignity they confer on a country ; but few, and very few, know anything of the materials employed in their construction, which too often present themselves to their minds only as a heap of stones and mortar. If we look to the early history of the most ancient nations, we find that the art of building has attended the first advance of civilization; and the use of worked stone has succeeded to caves in rocks, and the rude wicker or earth work of their common and early structures ; but tlie conversion of stone to the increasing artificial wants of society was necessarily consequent on the advance of the mechniiical arts before it could be shaped and applied. How interesting are the first though rude efforts displaying practical geology , The bold and noble monuments of the early ages show the natural vigour of the human mind, untutored in the mechanical skill and art of later times. The stupendous monolilhal structures, and those early sepulchral monuments, known as cromlechs, cairns, and moats, which abound throughout Western Europe, were doubtless the work of a people, who, taking nature for their guide, by prodigious labour, raised and put together, and frequently con- veyed to great distances, for the erection of their monuments, the immense stones which, detached from their native beds, were distributed over the sur- face of the country. Most of those stones are of the primary and crystalline class of rocks, which, from their liardness, have resisted the violence of that (listurl)ing power which removed them from their mass, and all'ord us a good knowledge of their enduring quality. Moreover, the originality and boldness of their application, resulted from minds familiar with nature's \vorks and untaught in the arts, which in after ages, accomplished by skill and the use of smaller sized materials, what the eaily ages, unskilled in building, could alone express by the magnitude of the stones. Let us ccnsider the more advanced history of the principal nations of the earth, and we shall find that geology, which term I may here use to express the converted rocks, has received great consideration. The architects and sculptors of Greece and Rome knew the qualities of their materials, and if we may judge from ancient writers and existing remains, gave consider.able at- tention to them, abounding as those countries did in good materials. In the writings of Vitruvius on Roman architecture, the most particular rules are laid down «ith regard to the selection and use of building stones, and the cements employed with them. How important are the results of their inliu- ence on society ! If Egypt, Greece, and Rome, had had their principal struc- tures of a perishable material, what would we not have lost ? What interest would we now feel in those countries ; or how coultl we have derived the great advantages which have ilowed from them ? Good materials, and a right knowledge in using them, have, however, produced a diflerent result ; and again, what do not those countries owe to the durability of their struc- tures, conceived, as they have been, in a noble spirit. M'ithout them, Rome of the present day would be unvisitcd by the countless thous,ands whose wealth noiv enriches her; without her buildings the classic shores of Greece would less of European sympathy j nor would the dusky inhabitants of Egypt occupy such interesting ground hut from the remains of the stupendous and imperishable monuments of her past history. Our own kingdom also pos- sesses proud memoiials in the enduring monuments of the middle ages. Those connecting links with the past and present, afford us noble examples of the religious zeal and skill of our I'orefathers ; whilst the perseverance which has been displayed in accomplishing their erection, is much calculated to stimu- late us to bold designs. These indelible landmarks of his early home, the traveller finds deeply implanted in his mind, and it is difficult for us to esti- mate their eftect on society, in the attachment they cause to our laws and institutions. Nor do those venerated and bold structures fail to excite a (loiverful feeling in the inhabitants of the new world, who, though born in a distant land, contemplate with pride and fervent admiration the works of their progenitors. But the edifices of centuries past, many of which, even in their dismantled state, have withstood the destructive violence of the ele- ments, will yet outlive very many of the most costly structures of the present day ; and until a very recent period, so comparatively few were the buildings calculated to endure to any distant period, that future ages, judging by our public structures, will look upon the people of the present time as a dege- nerated race, and in the erections of centuries back will contemplate the finest and most durable monuments of architectural skill. Many persons may say that a durability sufficient for the age is all that is necessary, and that posterity, which has done nothing for them, may act for itself. This, however, even in a narrow practical and economic point of view is most erroiieous, for the constructive arrangement of the ancient buildings is less costly than in those of the modern period, and from their simplicity and the right use of the materials employed, they are more sound and durable edifices. In the buildings of the present day the simplicity of early structures has been lost sight of; a laboured mass of cut stone being more appreciated by the public than outline of design, and harmony of effect. We see in the ancient structures a homogeneous construction — the u.se of timber as supports under masonry is avoided ; where openings or projections occur stone arches or other stone supports are employed, and a much more general use of stone, for various purposes, prevails, than at the present day ; and in them we have models of constructive arrangement which we may pro- fitably imitate. Many of the old buildings are so constructed that when dismantled of their roofs and their floors, they return almost to the state of the original rock , perhaps as a mass of limestone, for the stones may be lime, the sand may be that of limestone, and the lime burnt from the same rock. Such is frequently the case ; thus, the mortar being good, becomes hardened by age. and more approaches the nature of stone ; for it is said by an intelli- gent and scientific Frenchman who has given much attention to cements, that it requires 1,000 years to make mortar really good. Without doubting that a few years are sufficient to produce good mortar, it might be stated that the mortar of the Egyptian Pyramids, now supposed to be nearly 4,000 years old. is still in a good state of preservation. Structures so constructed become like a solid mass of rock ; and that this is the case, the explosions made by Cromwell, in the I7th century, have very well shown, for the re- mains of some of the old castles, of which portions have been disturbed, ap- pear almost imperishable. The sound and enduring stale of some of the rnins, the original forms of which are still perfect, enable us (airly to state that a right use of the rocks of the earth has been capable of jiroducing such a solid mass, that many may now, in their skeleton shapes, fairly be called architectural fossils ; and they afford to the practical, as organic remains do to the scientific geologist, valuable studies in determining the character of the rocks to v\ hich they belong. To the antiquarian, also, the study of geology affords much information, for the use of certain rocks, and the mode of working them, determine, to a considerable extent, the chronological date of the building in which they occur. It was a peculiar custom of the Normans and Anglo-Normans, to make use of none but the sandstones or oolites, similar to those with which they had become familiar in their own country, and in the round towers, and early ecclesiastical structures, erected under the inffuence of the Christians familiar with the Norman or Lombardic architecture, we rarely find anything but sandstones employed in the dressed masonry. With the Normans or Lombards (under which name I may include the northern nations who estab- lished themselves on the decline of the Roman power, and perfected from the last and woist models of the eastern and western Roman empires that pecu- liar architecture known to us as Norman, in which circular arches are the peculiar characteristic,) it was the practice to make their doorways the most enriched portions of their structures, and from being more elaborated or worked than any otiier part, they are commonly executed in a different kind of material, sandstones of variable quality having been generally used ; and it is a peculiar fact, that an instance in which limestone occurs for dressed work or for doorways is very rare. Being familiar with the kind of mate- rials employed in must of these structures, I do not recollect one in which the ordinary limestone rock has been so used. It is not until a late period of the Norman architecture in Ireland that limestone has been employed. In the large limestone tract of the west of Galway and Mayo, where are the ruins of Cong and EaUintubber.in the later 18-14.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL. 57 Norm:in anil Iransllion styles of arcliiteclure, a light coloured easy-working limestone hns been obtained from some distance, while the lime-stone of the locality, which is now preferred to any other material, and is conveyed to distant places for use, lias been avoided excepting for the erection of the nn- w rough! faces of the common walls. After the period in which these build- ings were ei'ected, limestone appears gradually to have come into general use in all parts, and now the directly 0|iposite custom prevails, limestone being commonly used in sandstone districts ; and I have known masons when em- jiloyed in working sandstone to ivliich they have been unaccustomed, to com- [ilain of stiffness and swelling of the arms for some days occasioned by the toughness of the stone, so diilerent to the brittle rebounding ellect of the limestone. It is most probable that the brittle nature of the limestone, in the working of which the Normans were not skilled, rendering it difficult to shape into mouldings after the masonry was built, as was commonly their custom, may have operated ag.ainst its use. Those interesting structures, the round towers, on which so much that is evidently erroneous has been written, appear from their architectural and constructive peculiarities to be decidedly after the early Norman style of architecture. These edifices, of which Ire- land has just reason to be proud, display to the practical geologist most in- teresting models of simple constructive arrangement, erected as they are with various kinds of rocks, including granite, slate, sandstime, and limestone, and which are almost always the stones of the locality, excepting in the su- perior dressed work of the doorways. Many antiquarian works of a recent I'criod show very mistaken ideas as to the nature of the materials with which these early buildings have been constructed, and, therefore, draw erroneous conclusions. A very slight acquaintance with practical geology, and nothing more than this society, from their collections, will be able toafl'ord,wid lend to correct such errors; and it is most likely that such statements as those of Colonel Morris, in his work on the round towers, (in which he de- termines the red sandstone of some of these structures in the south to be Roman brick, and deduces from this certain conclusions regarding their origin.) will not be repeated. There is one more featuie connected with antiquarian research, upon which I should wish to remark, viz., the peculiarity of some of the earliest Norman architecture of this country. The architecture of the Normans in every country in which it was introduced (though preserving all the general cha- racteristics of Its early originals.) diliers in details. It clearly continued to be the style of architecture in Ireland much later than in England, and e.x- tended over a much longer perioil than in other countries, owing, doubtless, to the peculiar and remote position of Ireland, at the western limits of Eu- rope. It also frequently diders considerably from the Norman architecture of England ; but it is in the early examples that the most distinctive details occur: and here a peculiarity is devolveil, for which practical geology aflords a ready and salistactory reason, for tlie very haid nature of the stone has induced a ditlerent kind of ornament, and in several of the early examples we find the most elaborate execution on almost square columns, or rather jambs and architraves, quite at variance with the bold and deep cuttings so common in the Norman style. Nor is such a result other than should be expected, for they must have been deprived in those early ages of the facility of obtaining softer stones. It was the practice of the Normans at an early period to supply stones even to England, where soft oolitic stones abounded in many parts; and when at a later period intercourse with Ireland improved, we find that the stones of Normandy were brought to this country, and are to be met wiih in many of the ecclesiastical buildings, more particularly on the eastern coast. It may be said that the study of the different properties of the rocks of the country, as regards their fitness (or building operations, relates more par- ticularly to professional investigation— that matters of this kind should be confined to the meetings of civil engineers and architects ; and that ibe Geo- logical Society is constituted for scientific investigation of the theory of geological phenomena connected with the structure of the earth's surface, and for the study of the successive changes it has undergone in arriving at its present state. To such an objection t would remark that, however in- teresting the pursuit of such a science may be in its theory, and however calculated to elevate the mind by reflecting on the wonderful architecture of our earth, and the vast changes its surface has undergone in becoming suit- able for the habitation of the human family, we shall yet stand far short of obtaining all the advantages to be derived from this noble siudv if we con- fine ourselves merely to the theory. Owing to the neglect of the study of this science, designs are often prepared by architects and engineers, to whom is intrusted the expenditure of very considerable sums, without sufficient re- gard to the geology of the locality, the inquiry being confined to the qnes- tion of cost, as to the nearest place from whence materials required to carry out a particular design may be obtained. It has frequently happened that stone has been brought from a great distance at considerable expense, when rocksof an equal,'or of superior quality ab'jund in,thc vicinity, with regard to which an acquaintance with this science might have reasonably afibrded infor- mation. Numerous instances of such occurrences liave come under my own observation within these last feiv years, where, either from sinking wells, or in making excavations of other kinds, or by chance trials for stones, there have been unexpectedly discovered, at very great advantage in outlay and frequent benefit to the contractors, some very valuable quarries ; in illustra- tion of which I may mention a particular instance with which I am familiar, in the discovery of a valuable working limestone quarry in the vicinity of a nobleman's mansion, which, if earlier known would, I am informed by the contractor, have saved him upwards of £1000 in the expense of procuring stones, which he had to convey a distance of many miles, and which were of an inferior ijuality to those which could have been obtained on the spot. If the science of geology were made practically useful, such occurrences would be r ire, and in time would be altogether avoided. The professional man is often deterred from tlie study of geology by the dilTiculty of mastering the tcchnic ditics, if I may so term them, of the science ; and the theoretical geologist on the other hand is untrble to appre- ciate the wants of the other ; but acting together, the result « ould be mutu- ally beneficial. The practical man would acquire the theory of the science with much greater facility; the theoretical geologist defining tlie geogra- phical outline of the (irincipal rock formations, an i by the existence of fos- sils, and by recorded/facts, determining where similar formations may or may not be expected to prevail ; the professional member would obtain spe- cimens of the diflerent stones for experiment and chemical analvsis, which in the yet imperfect state of geological science would most probably induce new theories in regard to many rocks, where the gradation from one mineral character to another is almost imiierceptible. The peculiar stratification or dividing joints of the rocks are also features for profitable investigation. If we examine the various kinds we find great differences to exist in the size and shape of the masses into which they are subdivided ; and in the same kinds of rocks we discover a subdivision peculiar to certain depths or other influences. In all, however, we recognize the wonderful contrivance of the Almighty in adapting the surface rocks of the earth to the want of indus- trious man. The greater portion of these rocks (the result of sedimentary deposition in water, of which the traces are still evident) occur In layers or thin beds, so separated from each other as to admit of being easily raised ; others, with beds of soft clay, or other matter interposed ; and, in the rocks of the primary or igneous classes, among which are included granites, basalt, &e., and which, occurring in large masses, would otherwise ffreqiiently be unconvertible, we observe the wise provision of nature in Iraversin"- them with joints or cleavages influenced by some prevailing law of crysialliaation or polarization, not as yet, perhaps, sufficiently accounted for. In the more solid masses, in which are included some of the limestone as well as other rocks, from the effect of internal heat, great pressure and other causes, the stratified form has disappeared ; while the same cause which has obliterated the earlier divisions has itself produced others; and in some instances so shattered is the upper portion of the rocks that the practical builder alto- gether avoids them, although the removal of some feet from the surface would frequently disclose a most vjiluable material. Hence the advantage of scientific investigation and recorded facts. At the present time the want of a society combining practical and theoretical inquiries cannot, I think, but be manifest to all who contemplate the ordinary edifices of the present day. A better acquaintance with geology, or what is the same thing, a better knowledge of the rocks of the country, is essential to the production of edifices wdiich will vie with those of past ages in durability, and harmo- nious adaptation of design to the locality. And it is, I conceive, only by correcting the public mind, and by giving assurance from experimental re- sults and established facts, that a beneficial change can be efl'ected. Nor is the pursuit of this science unimportant as regards the commerce of the country. Let us look to the article of slates. At the present time there are several good quarries working, among which I may mention KiUaloe, Valentia. and one more recently opened with great spirit by Mr. Synge in the county of Wicklow (the slates from which resemble those from the Bangor quarries) ; yet, such is the state of public opinion with regard to the native slates as to preclude their general use ; and because at one period, in their early working, the slates of this country were very inferior to those now produced, the prejudice arose, and still continues, and no eflbrt has been made to show by experimental inquiry, that Ireland contains slate quarries more than sufficient to supply all her wants; and yet thousands of pounds are annually going out of the country hi a direction from whicli there is no re- ciprocal trade. I feel persuaded that it only requires the assurance w hich would result from well directed eHurls of the Geological Society to cause, in a very short period, the annual expenditure of sever.d thousands of pounds in the country in raising a native material, by extending the use of it, whicli money now unnecessarily goes to Wales ; and there is this circumstance at- tending an increased demand, that the quality and economy of raising the slates will be improved. I may speak from experience on this subject, having used native slates in many instances; but from the little encourage- ment given, and from the prejudice still remaining, though the cause is chielly gone, the ]iroprietors liave to struggle with many disadvantages in effecting a sale against their long cstiblished competitors who have a trade in the Welch slates. In more than one instance the native slates have been 58 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Feb. 3, partly placed on buildings, in which I was concerned, and. to satisfy preju- diced oljjeciions, it was expedient to have them removed, although the same slates have been used elsewhere. At KiUaloe, where a few years back there was a rude surfaced mountain in which only goats or very poor cattle browned, there are now, owing to the slate rnck which prevails there, many hundred men daily employed. At Valentia not less tl.an 200 are m daily work, and probably half that number at Mr. Synge's in Wicklow The im- portance of the encouragement of such a trade is therefore manifest ; for a regular trade of this kind, with all its minor ramifications, is much more beneficial to a country than the mere temporary employment on public works, which, creating a temporary excitement, occasionally works more mischief in the end than otherwise. At present the proprietor of the Va- lentia quarries, who works them chicfiy for sawn flags, finds his principal market in London, while articles of this kind required for Ireland are ob- tained out of the country. , , • i, A similar remark may be made with regard to bricks. Good clay is abun- dant in the country, anavever, in its inlancy, it does not appear to me to represent the spirit of a department in which the minds of those most inleresteil in building operations are engaged ; and from the con- trary opinion wilh reference to the Dublin Geological Society, combining as t does scientific and practical geologists under its most intelligent and zealous curator, I augur that with perseverance most useful and interesting results will fiow from tlieir labours. Reverting to the more practical consideration of the subject, we find that llie altered circumstances in the advanced civilisation of the present age, now occasion the much greater use of the more convertible building stones, and so variable are the different kinds of rocks in the degrees of hardness and facility uf conversion, in their colour and their relative durability, that a knowledge of these properties is now almost indispensable to the economical erection of the structures ol the present day, as well as for the designing any building, in which the bold simplicity and spirit of the ancient struc- tures is to be embodied ; and hence the value of experiments and recorded observation on the defective materials which ancient and more modern buildings present, and without which expensive practical experience, and fre- quent failures will alone teach. The importance of attention to the good quality of the building stones will be evident by reference to buildings in Dublin, and to the already decaying nature of much of the granite in the Four Courts, and portions of many other structures; and I may mention that it is but a few years since, the necessity arose for restoring with new masonry the walls of the extensive building of Trinity College Library and the walls of the cathedral structures of Christ Church, and St. Patrick, m the old buttresses of which latter buildings the effects of perishable stone may now be seen. EXrERlME.NTS. The experiments which I have now to bring before the Society have been made on nearly 600 specimens of the principal .stones of Ireland, which I have from time to time in various ways collected together, and obtained chieHy through the kindness of diiVerent parties, by whom they have been presented to me, and among others I may mention the managers or proprietors of the several slate quarries. I shall divide these experiments into three classes, viz. ; — 1st. Absortion when immersed ; 2d, Resistance to fracture, or bearing strength ; 3d, Weight necessary to crush these stones.— 1st, The results ot the weight of water imbibed on immersion are \ery interesting, and disclose some important facts. The size of the stones immersed was 14in. long by 3 in. square, one half of which specimens are now in the possession of the society. There were placed on their ends in 16 in. of water, and were uniformly im- mersed for 88 hours, having been brought to a dry slate before immersion, by being kept some time in a room at the ordinary temperature of domestic apart- ments. They were carefully weighed before and after the immersion. (It would be impossible to give in detail the results of these very numerous and extremely valuable experiments, and it will only be in our power to notice the averages given by Mr, Wilkinson). Of the six principal varieties of rock, viz :— Lime- stone, sandstone, granite, basalt, and slates, the following are the results t— - Ordinary limestone of Ireland— average weight per cubic foot in a dry state (.53 different experiments) 1701b., least weight 1591b.; greatest 1801b.; ave- rage absorption J.lb. ; least absorption nothing ; gieatest ditto i lb. The chalk limestone of Antrim weighs 1601b. to the cubic foot, and absorbs 3 lb, of water. The impure shaly calp limestone weighs 160 lb., and absorbs from 1 lb. to 41b. of water per cubic foot. Sandstone average weight 'per cubic foot (from 38 specimens) 1451h.; least weight 1231b.; greatest ditto 1701b. The absorption varies from nothing to upwards of 101b.. being exceedingly variable; the average being 5J lb. Granite average weight per cubic foot 1701b.; extreme weight 176 lb.; least weight 1431b. The Newry and Kingstown granite ab- sorb |lb.; Carlowfrom U to 21b.; Glenties (Donegal, between granite and gneiss) 41b. Basalt average weight per cubic;foot 178; extreme weight 1811b.; least ditto 171 lb. ; absorption is less than Jib. to the cubic foot. Clay roofing slate average weight of cubic foot 177 lb. ; extreme weight 1791b. ; least ditto 1741b.; absorption from nothing to less than Jib. Soft clay slate from near Bantry absorbed about 2 lb. In these experiments the weight of the stone and the alffiorption have been deter.nained by direct weighing, and not by taking the specific graviiy. The latter mode would prob.ably give the most exact result ; but from ihe small size of the specimens which would be operated on. and from the variation in density, which is evident in ditierent parts of the stones here experimented on, and which is common to must rocks, I ihink that the result would frequently not approximate closer than that derived from di- rect weighing in larger masses. For particular scientific investigation the specific gravity is doubtless desirable, but for practical purposes the weight of the stone and its absorption ascertained in its ordinary state, is, I conceive, all that is useful or necessary for practical consideration. The limestones, it will be seen, are among the least absorbent of the rocks, and being the must abundantly used as a building material, it is obvious, that if good mortar be use! in a proper manner in the external pointing, any weather may be resisted in almost any situation, « ithout the use uf perishable rough cast or costly ce- ment. B dldings. however, carried up in wet seasons, in which the external mortar is not allowed to become hard, or where it becomes injured by frost, cannot resist the weather, but with good mortar pointing inserted between the stones from which the old joints have been raked out, I feel satisfied Irom ex- jierience and from the result of cases to which I could refer, that no material is more secure than these non-absorbent limestones. There is a popular error with regard to limestone, which is very generally considered to he a stone that will not keep out the weather ; its very non-absorbent quality is, however, the cause of this idea, the stone condensing in the interior of the rooms the mois- ture of the air. Sandstone and limestone, when properly used together, owing to their different properties, make the best work; the absorbent quality ot the sandstones keeping the interior face of the walls dry. and the exterior ot limestone resisting the weather. I believe it is doubted if mortar will itself resist [he weather ; that it will, however, when it is carefully and properly ap- l>Iied, I feel a strong conviction, resulting from experiment, practice, and ob- servation. And 1 may here remark what is calculated to strengthen the opinion, viz. : the state of some of the external mortar in the old castles and other ruins, where the plastered surface, after weeks of wet weather and heavy rain, if struck with a hammer, will commonly show a dry dust very close to I 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEFilR AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 59 llie surface. It is therefore, not tlie fault of limi'Stonc that wet iionctrates bviildings, and it is frequently incurring unnecessary expense to avoid it on tliat account, fur in most cases it is the fault of the mortar joints and not of the stone ; and tliose portions of a Ijuilding erected witli tlie ordinary cut stone of the present day, are frequently likely to be the least dry part of the struc- ture, owing to the generally imperfect mortar joints. The absorbent stones, such as the ordinary clay slates, and common earthy sandstones, are not likely to resist the severe weather in exposed aspects without some external protection. The second series of experiments relate to the sirenglli of the different kinds of stone employed to bear superincumbent weights, or applied in various ways, in which their resistance to I'racture is the point to be considered. [Mr. Wil- kinson here exhibited a diagram, which showed in a familiar way the results of the experiments. Slabs of the diflerent classes of stones were represented of equal size and length, and a height ot wall shown resUng on tbem, varying wuh the bearing power of the dilferent stones, the average, extreme, and least, bearing of all be'ing given. The very great dill'erence at once showed the im- portance which belonged to expL'riments of this kind, and how failures, which frequently rciult from their improper use, might he avoided, and how far their strength might be depended on, m applying them in any way diHerent from that which they have been commonly and locilly applied.] Mr. W. contin- tinued — I may here remark that the experiments have been very carefully made, and the test has been applied by a powerful but well-adjusted lever, the arrangement of our talented and scientific member. Mr. Mallei, by whose kindness 1 have been allowed to use it. The result of the average of many experiments is shown in the diagram, and the lines above and below represent the extreme weak stones, and the extreme strong stones of each class. From this it will bo seen that the strongest stones in resisting fracture are the slate rocks. Some of these are stronger when the pressure is applied on the edges of the laminae of cleavage than when applied on the faces.. The basalts are next in strength, then the limestone, the granite, and the sandstones. Fortu- nately for construction, that stone which is the strongest is that which sup- plies the materials in the most useful forms for those portions of a building in whuh such strenglli is required. I liave no doubt that the Valentia slate rock will ultimately come into very much more general use, and that the quarry will be of a considerable value ; stones can he raised from it neirly 30 It. long. 4 ft. or 5 ft. wide, and from 6 in. t5 12 in. thick, and it is probable the use oi this material will elU'Ct a considerable change in many parts of the interior constructive arrangement of buildings. .Such are the cotivenient sizes and strength of the stone that it wouhl without any intermediate bearings or support make the floor or ceiling of the room in which the Society is at pre- sent assembled, the ends merely resting on the side walls, It can also be easily wrought. The sandstones are the least satisfactory, and require great caution in using them in any important constructive arrangement. The only instance, among several hundred stoni! staircases, in which I liave encountered any lailure Iroin the fracture ot the stones has been at Lisburn. where several of the stone slops fractured cluse to the wall ; being a geomelrial staircase the failure of one liroko the others. Now, in looking to the results of the experiments wo find a satisfactory expUanation, because the stone here used is till weikestof the whole; and though ihe stone quarries at Scrabo contain some really good and useful material, the quality of it varies so much, as to make it necessary to exercise great caution in its use. By recording failures of this kind, however, much future inconvenience would be avoided. ■fhe third series ot experiments was to ascertain the pressure required to crush cubes of one inch sides. The second diagram represented by the differ- ence in the heights of the walling over columns of the same size, but supposed to be ot the different kinds of stone, their relative strength, the columns being considered as the stones on which the pressure was exerted. The order of strength in this case differs from that ascertained in the experiments on frac- ture, as shown in the first diagram. When subjected to crushing, the basalts proved the strongest, the limestones, .and successively the slales and sanil- stoiies; the quality of the latter is exceeding variable, and show the great ad- vantages to be derived from recorded. facts. Of the diflerent varieties of the limestones, some of ihe largely crystalline stones, and the compact hard calp, are the strongest. The light coloure J crystalline stones of Ardbraccan, and those around Cork, are among the weakest. The Connemara while marble, or pri- mary limestone, is Ihe strongest of all the limestones I have yet met with. Among the strongest sandstones are the red rocks of the soulli, and the hard qiiarlzy grits of ihe north-west of Ireland. Among the weakest are those of the county Down quarries, and the sandstones in Antrim and around Clonmel, and some of the coarse quartose sandstones of Donegal. Of the slates, those from Valentin, as proved by several experiments, resist less pressure than those of Killaloe, and those from Mr. .Synge"s quarries in Wicklow are about intermediate. Of ihe granites 1 have given nocompantive results, not having yet completed sufficient experimenls to enable satisfactory conclusions lo be drawn. I miiy mention, however, that, from several trials, the results do not give granite any superiority over many of the stones in ordinary use. From the foregoing experiments, which I apprehend to be sufficiently nu- merous to allow of some general jiraclical conclusions, itis clear that relation generally exist between the weight and degree of absorption of stone?, the lightest being the most absorbent, and the heaviest the least so ; but this rela- tion is not const.intly uniform, .and in some varies considerably, -is might rea- sonably be expected. Nor is it prob,ablo that, however carefully the stoni'S might be weighed, either under an exhausted receiver of an .air pump, or in any other way, that any results would be obtained. dilTering much from the conclusion here arrived at. Nor is there any uniform relation between the same kind of stones when used in diflerent ways ; for, used as a column, or in any other position where a weight would be exerted to crush if, the basalts, as shown by the foregoing experiments, may exceed all others, and yet occupy an inferior position in the scale when applied to support a weight over an opening, or as an architrave resting on columns (the peculiarity of mineral char.acter rendering one stone better for one purpose than anotlier) as the particles of the stone are uiflerently acted on; and although this may be at variance with a commonly received opinion, I have full con- fidence in the general result of the present experiments which are very de- cided, and 1 believe much more numerous than any others of the kind which h,ave been made. And however close the relation may be, wdiieh would ap- pear from othor experimenls to exist between the crushing and fracturing strength of similar bodies, it is very clear to my mind Ihat this law does not extend to stones, which, as aggregated or compound bodies, may be expected to diflijr much in exjierimcnfal results from those which are sim|>le. In con- clusion, I trust that these'experiments will be received by the Society as inci- pient attempts to establish some positive data in this neglected but important branch of their study, and hope that they may be the same moans of in- ducing others, better qualified, to pursue the subject. NOTES OF THE WEEK. It was with great regret we learned that the Council of the School of Design had succumbed to the clamours of interested parties, and given up the class of wood engraving for females. The strong remonstrances of the press have, however, procured its restoration. The necessity of providing suitable employment for females would alone entitle any proposition for ef- fecting this to favourable attention, from motives of common humanity. Then, too, it should be considered, that it is perfectly legitimate to give ele- mentary instruction in any branch of the fine arts. We never heard of sculptors inveighing against the Royal Academy, or architects against any of the numerous public institutions for giving instruction in their art. The elementary processes may indeed be taught, but genius and refined taste cannot so well be communicated. Just imagine Landseer, Maclise and Westmacott applying to the Government for the prohibition of all public schools of art, what a lamentable spectacle would it present. If the School of Design can invent any process for making young girls first-rate engravers, ■we say so much the better, let them do it; hut if, as we believe, they cannot communicate inspiration, but only create mechanical skill, we say again so much the better, for it will tend to reduce the price of inferior works, which now have to be paid for at high rates without any adequate cause. The remuneration of first-rate talent instead of being reduced by this measure is much more likely to be increased, while much good will be done by reducing the price of merely mechanical performances, and providing suitable employ- ment for many females. It is ridiculous to assert that a common diagram engraved on wood is a work of art, and is to be paid for as an artistic pro- duction. The Society of Arts has had a legacy left to it of £.5000, and University College receives £14,000 under Mr. Brundrith's legacy. We were amused to learn that a Theatre Royal has been erected in New Zealand, which altliough of slight materials, is illuminated with gas. A fine statue of the Qneeu has been erected on the top of the grand portico of the Royal Institution at Edinburgh. It is from the chisel of Mr. Steele, and has attracted much admiration. The height of the jiedestal and statue is ISfi., and the Queen is represented with a diadem, and in her robes of state, holding the orb in her right hand, and in a sitting posture. It is esteemed a very fine ornament to Edinburgh. The Sth and 9th of April are the days named for sending in works of art to the Royal Academy for the ensuing exhibition. M. Jacques, a French sculptor in Russia, has met with a great misfortune in the destruction by fire of his model for a colossal statue of the Neva, by which the labours of four years were lost. Signer Lanzaru?lo of Rome, has, it is said, discovered the means of fixing on lithographic stone, daguerreotype impressions. He has presented to the ' Pope several plates of the public buildings of Rome. It is said, that .Mr. Clegg is going to Berlin for the purpose of laying down an atmospheric railway from Berlin to Charlottenburg. The monument raised by pulilic subscription to the Prince of Condi', in France is finished. It is by M. Fauginet, sculptor, and M. Leveil, architect, and consists of a column and a cross of marble, 40ft. high. The base is decorated with statuary. Overbeck is at Rome at work on a jiicture for one of the churches of Lu- beck, his native place, and for which he is to receive 1000 ducats. 63 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Feb. 3, The palace at Baden is to be decorated with stained glass, by Dr. Stantz, of Berne, a celebrated artist, and with paintings by Gotzeuberger, illustrative of tlie history of the district. Among the engineering works recently published at Naples are the follow- ing :— ■' iMontieelli, Sulla origine delle acque del Sebeto, 1840." " F. Abate, delle acque publiche della citta di Napoli, 1840." " L. Cangiano, sulle a. p. potahile di N. 1843," and also on artesian wells, 1842. It is now determined that a boring sliall take place for an artesian well at Naples. The supply of •water to that city is very bad, but the expense of obtaining it has hitherto prevented any elective measure. The Emperor of Austria has determined on erecting anew Imperial Lilirary at Vienna. The new building will also provide fur the imperial collections of natural liistory and antiquities. It is hoped that tliis will give an occasion for tlie employment of Austrian painters in decoration on a large scale. A great many new lines of railway have been brought forward during the week, and the be.-t prospects of employment for engineers during the ensuing season are formed. A very splendid new hotel has been built on the site of the ancient Ducal Palace of Bragnaza, in the centre of Lislion, and is to be placed under the admirable management of Madame de Bclem, who will immediately re- move to it her entire establishment. REGISTER OF NEW PATENTS. Under this head we propose to give abstracts of the specilications of all the most im- portant patents as ihey aru enrolled. If any urlditional information be reijuired as to ony patent, the same maybe obtained by applying to flir. LAXTON at tlie Othce of this JOURNAL. I.MPROVED WATER CLOSETS. Henry Austin, of Ilatlon-garden, Middlesex, Civil Engineer, for " Im- provemenls in the construction of water closets." — Granted July 20, 1843; en- rolled January 20, 1844. The first p:irt of these improvements relates to the m;ieliinery or apparatus for the discharge or supply of water ; and, secondly, to the method of work- ing and actuating the machinery ; and, laslly, to a mode ul' forcing water into water closets, when there is little or no fall provided for the supply. The seat of this improved water closet is made to work on pivots, or centres, at the sides, so as to move up and down by the weight of a person using the water closet. Fig. 1 shows a sectional elevation of a water closet, constructed according to the first and second part of these improvements ; a the supply pipe, leading from the supply cistern, b a water box, c the discharge pipe, which is made fiat at the lower end, and so as to fit round the pan, d an air pipe, fixed upon the water bos, e the seat, which moves upon centres or pivots fixed at the sides, / a valve, actuated by the lever g, and connecting rod h, one end of which is attached to the end of the lever g, and the other, or lower end, to the back part of the seat. When the water closet is not in use. the connecting rod, lever, and valve are in the position shown in the dia- gram, that is to say, the valve/in such case fits against the end of the supply n t- Fig. 1. Fig. 2. pipe rt, (which may be about one inch in diameter) ; but when the closet is in .use, the weight of ihe person on the seat causes the saiue, by means of the CLinnecting rod, to raise one end of the lever g, and Ioh er the opposile end, so as to bring the valve / upon the end of the pipe c ; in this position the water will begin to flow from ihc supply cistern into the box J, but on the weight being removed from the seat, the valve, by means of the weight of the connecting rod, will ascend to the position shown, and the water contained in the box will rush down the pipe c, and into the pan or vessel. Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of parts for causing a force of water sufficient for the purpose, when there is little or no fp.ll, provided n is the seat moving upon centres 4, to the back part of the seat is attached an arm c. which actuates the piston d, by means of the connecting rod e, and lever/, When the seat is depressed, tlic piston d will be partially withdrawn from the box or cylinder. Just above the piston, when in this position, there are two or more small holes through the sides of the box or cylinder, through which the cylinder is filled with water. On the weight being removed from the seat, the piston will begin to ascend in the box by means of a counter- balance weight g, and the water contained in the box will be forced through the pipe h, and into the pan i, with sufficient impetus to remove any deposit; by this arrangeinent a force of water sufficient for the purpose is said to be obtained, when its level is below that of the pan. A NEW MASTIC OR CEMENT. Chaki.es Bertram, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, for ■' An improved mastic or cement whicli vtatj also lie emploifid as an artificial stone, and for coating stone and other .sHManccs."— Granted July 20, 1843 ; enrolled January 20, 1844. Tins improved mastic or cement is made as follows: — About TO parts ot turf or peat, as it comes from the field, is subjected to pressure or heat, in order to free it from the greater portion of water which it contains, after which the turf is mixed with about 30 parts of pitch or tar from the gas- works (preferring llie latter) ; this compound, after being allowed to rest for some hours, is put in a vessel and keiit at a boiling heat for three hours ; the product, after being well incorpor.ated. is a mastic or cement, called by the inventor " Scrcollanc," and is of a very tenacious and adhesive quality. When this mastic or cement is to be employed lor coating ships, the inventor em- ploys to each 100 parts of peat or turf, two parts of yellow soap, and 10 parts of o.\ide of iron, or other like poisonoi;s matter, the object of whicli is to prevent barnacles, sea-weed, and other matter, adhering to the sides and bottom of the vessel. M'hen this cement is to be used as an artificial stone, the inventor mixes about 35 parts of peat or turf, and 30 parts of mud taken from the bottom of rivers, ponds, canals, or marshes, intermixed with dry sand or fine gravel ; this mixture is treated in the same way precisely as above described, and then moidded into blocks or slabs, of the form required for paving or flagging. The above composition is the same in every respect as that for which a patent was obtained by Mr. William .Mylam in June last, the inventor, therefore, only claims the application of the aforesaid cement to the purposes above described. ROLLING IRON INTO SHEETS. William Daniell, of Aberc.am, near Newport. Monmouthshire, Tin-plate Manufacturer, for " Improvements in rolling iron into plates or sheefs.'' — Granted July 22, 1843 ; enrolled January 22, 1844. The object of these improvements is to avoid the repealed processes hitherto necessary, in the manufacture of thin plates or sheets of iron, of piling and reheating, whereby a saving of fuel and iron is etrected,and the repeated pro- cesses of piling, heating, hammering, and rolling is avoided. The process is as follows : — A ball of iron is taken from a puddling furnace or refinery, and submitted to the process of hammering, after which it is to be rolled into a bloom of about Gin. wide, and oin.deeij; this bloom is then cut by a saw, or other instrument, into lengths of from 4to Gin.; after which the pieces are to be immediately rolled between rollers, taking care that the grain of such pieces is in a vertical direction, by which means the upper and under sides of the bars produced will be the clean cut surfaces; these pieces, if care be taken, can be rolled, without reheating, into bars of about Sin. wide, and kin. thick. The process s i far is stated to have been the subject of a patent granted to Mr. Daniell in April, 1822 ; but, instead of proceeding as therein described, the patentee commences at once to roll the pieces in a transverse or opposite direction, so that the bars, in place of being piled and hammered, are finished into thin plates or sheets, by rolling the pieces in the reverse direction to that in which the bars were rolled. The bars arc then cut into lengths, according to the size of the plates to be made ; these pieces are then heated in a suitable furnace, and rolled in grooved rollers, the grooves of which are the same length as the pieces of iron to be rolled, the rolling being effected at right angles to the previous rolling ; the lolling is thus con- tinued until the piece is about a quarter of an inch thick, after which it is to be rolled in plain rollers until such piece is reduced to one-eighth of an inch in thickness ; in this slate the piece of iron is technically called a " mould- ing." and is to be completed in a tin-plate mill. The patentee claims the mode of rolling iron into ihiii plalesfur the manufacture o. tinned sheets, &c., by causing jneces of iron to be rolled out into sheets or i>lates, by rolling them at right angles to the direction to which ihey have been produced, when such pieces have been obtained by rolling cut iron with the grain in a vertical direction, the upper and under surfaces being the cut suilaces. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 61 GAS POWER. Jamf.s Neville, of Walworth, Surrey, 'Civil Engineer, for "Imprmmmisin ohtaining power hj menvs of gases applicable to worhitig machines."— Granted July 13^1843; enrolled January 13, 1844, Fur this purpose the patentee employs the rough nitrates of potass or soda, combineil «ith rharcoal. or bituminous coal, or other combustible matter, whicli will have the effect of decomposing the said nitrates. The coal or charcoal and nilrales are mixed together in such proportions as to completely cITect the decomposition of the nitric acid of llie said nitrates, and the cnm- piiund or separate gases, and heat produced therefrom, are madeavailalile for producing moiive power. Till! annexed engraving is a sectional elevation of the apparatus employed for ciillecting and applying the gases to tlie purpose of generating sleam, and IS :is fulluws :— n n and b b are two cylindrical vessels atfi.\ed at right angles to each oiher, as shown ; c c is another cylindrical vessel, placed within the luier, or vessel b b. on the top of whicli is placed a pipe or tube d; e is a Vessel suspended within the vessel a in an inverted position, with iis lower end dipping into the water contained in the vessels a and A, wliich vessels form or constitute a boiler ; /is a hopper, to which are attached two pipes g, g, «li:c!i pass ihiough the end of the vessel e, as shown ; // is a furnace, and i a reiori, divided by a plate or partiiion^'. The aciion of this apparatus is as follows : the hopper/ being filled wilh the above mi.\tureor compound, a fire is lijilited within the furnace //, the heat uf which jiasses in the direction shown by the arrows, and escapes through an opening at/c. When the retort Mi^is become sulficiently healed, the compound or mixuire contained in the hopper is allowed to fall donn the pipes g g upon the heated retort, whereby the [larticles of the mixture become ignited, and the gases and caloric obtained thi'iefrom pass up the tube (/, and between the annular space formed by the vessel !' and tube d, so tliat the gases and vapours are made to pass through water, in their passage tu the boiler, and communicate their high temperature thereto, which will have the elfect of producing a considerable quantity of steam, winch, combined with the gases, may be applied for producing me- chanical power ; I is stated to be a contrivance for regulating the pressure in the boiler, and is the eduction pipe for the steam and other vapours. Tlic patentee slates that the residue of the nitrates employed may be removed through an opening formed at n ; videlicet, the sub-nitrales of potass or soda will nearly repay the original cost of the raw material. 'Jhe claim is for the application and use of gases and caloric obtained from thedecomposition of the saiil nitrates, whether combined or not with aqueous vapour, as a means of producing mechanical power. PEIMIXQ OF BOILERSi D.WiD N.4P1EK, of York Road. Lambeth, Surrey, Engineer, for " Improve- ments applicable In boilers, or apparatus for gentrating steam." — Granted July 25, 1843 ; enrolled January 25. 1844. These improvements in boilers or apparatus for generating steam are In- tended to prevent what is technically called priming or flushing, or, in other w ords. the water from passing off in conjunction with the steam, and is effected in the following simple manner. The surface of the water in the boiler is covered with one or more tiers of hollow metallic balls or other buoyant sub- stance, or the same may be effected by substances that are not buoyant ; such as perforated plates, supported in the boiler by any mechanical means, or wood may be advantageously employed ; but the patentee prefers hollow metal balls of about 2 inches diameter ; a tier of these balls being placed upon the suffice of the water form a number of interstices, which will be greatly reduced by placing another layer or tier upon the first, and the same will [irevent the water, when in a .=itate of ebullition, from rising np and passing off in conjunction with the sleam. The claim is for the method above de- scribed of preventing the priming and flushing, of whatsoever form or mate- rial the substances employed, and whether buoyant or supported by mecliani- cal means. AERIAL LOCOMOTION. Wii.T.TAM Croiton Moat, of Upper Berkeley Street, Marylcbone, sex, Surgeon, for "A method of obtaining aerial locomotion." — Granted 1843 ; enrolled January 26, 1844. Middle. July 2C, This machine or apparatus, intended for the purpose of aerial locomotion, consists of a rectangular or oblong frame of wood, or other material, sup- ported, when on the ground, by four legs ; to the upper part of the frame there is a transverse shaft with two double cranks, this shaft gives motion, by means of two other shafts, to IG propelling flippers, which latter give motion to ihe machine. The following description and accompanying en- graving, which is a longitudinal elevation, will serve to show the principle of the invention.— a a is the rectangular frame of wood, supported on legs J 6 ; c is a transverse shaft, supported by centres, passinu through the frame sides this shaft has two double cranks, one of which is shown in dotted lines; upon this shaft, and about the middle of the framing, there is keyed, or otherwise firmly fixed, a large wood wheel d. this wheel imparls motion by means of a rope or gut passing round its periphery, to two shafts, which are also sup- ported by the framing at e e. upon the end of each of these shafts there is a frame consisting of two pieces of wood //, at right angles to each other, in the form of a cross, to each of the ends of these cross pieces there is attached a wood frame g. and to each of these frames is attached, by means of a hinge joint, a propelling flapper /, consisting of a rectangularfranie of wood, covered with parchment or other material ; k, /;. are wheels and square wood frames placed eccentrically with shafts that carry the crosses, the posilion of these eccentric wheels can be altered by means of ropes and tackle, but for what purpose is not clearly shown in the specification ; I is the rudder, which is aciuated by two ropes passing along the frame sides to opposite ends of the machine, and m a platform, which may be extended to any desired length, and is intended for tlie person to stand upon, whose office it should be to guide or govern the machine. On motion lieing given to the large wheel, which is effected by four men standing upon the platform n, a rotary motion is imparted to the cross pieces, which carry Ihe trames and propelling flappers, whieli cause the latter to strike successively upon the air in a direction the opposite to that of Ihe line of gravity; these combined efi'ecis, it is presumed by tlie inventor, will cause the machine to ascend and be propelled through the air. Tlie claim is for the general arrangement and combination of parts, and the application of the same to obtain aerial locomotion. G2 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL. [Feb. 10. GOVERNMENT CONTRACT FOR STEAMERS. Wf. have much pleasure in behig able to give a copy of the specification is- sued by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, on the 2(Jth of January last, to the principal engineers, who are invited to contract for steam engines jnr two nf Her Majesty's steam vessels of the first class and four of the second class. Tlie tenders are to be delivered on the alh March next. It will be per- ceived that the engineers are not limited to power, tlie object of Government being to obtain as great a power as possible within the limit assigned for the engine room, and within the limited weight. Specification of certain particulars to he strictly observed in the construction of four pairs of marine steam engines, referred to in the Admiralty letter oj tlie 20th of Januar;/, 1844. For vessels vf the Second Class. The tenders are to be made (in triplicate) on the accompanying printed forms, every particular in which is to he strictly and carefully filled up ; and all drawings, models, .and boxes containing them, are to be distinctly marked witli the names of the parties transmitting them. The whole weight of each pair of engines, including the boilers (with tbe water in them), the coal bo.xes. paddle wheels, spare gear, the floor plates, ladders, guard rails, and a!/ other articles, to be supplied under the contract, is not to exceed 300 tons. N.B. If ihis condition is not strictly complied with, the contractor is to fnr'eit £1000., or their Lordships are to be at liberty to reject the engines, the manufacturers paying £1000. for the disappointment. The coal boxes (in the space of the engine room) are not to cont.ain less than 350 tons, computed at 48 cubic feet to the ton, and more if possible. Sufl'icient details of the coal boxes are to be shown in the drawing, to enable a calculation of their contents to be made. In this computation, the space below the deck to the depth of G in. is to be excluded, to allow for tbe space occupied by the beams, and for the difficulty of completely filling the boxej with coals. The consumption of coal per horse power, and the number of days' coals ivhich tbe boxes will contain, are to be accurately stated in the tender. To avoid the possibility of mistake in the dimensions given in the drawings furnished to the respective parties, it is to be understood that feet, inches. The length of engine room in the clear is .. 50 0 Breadth of ditto 33 0 Depth of ditto 21 0 Centre of shaft above water line 8 9 The horiz'-ntal situation of ditto as per drawing, or as near as can be. 'Ihnsc tenders, however, which place engines of sufficient power in a space less than 50 ft,, and give the largest stowage of coals, will be preferred. The holding down bolts are to be secured by nuts let into the lower sleep- ers, so as not to require the bolts to pass through the vessel's bottom, and the bolts are to have at the lower end of their points wrought iron washers about Sin. square and 1 in. thick placed between the nuts and the wood. Should this mode of security be inapplicable to the particular kind of engine proposed, the engineer is fully to describe any other secure mode which he may think the most advisable to adopt. The pistons are to be fitted with metallic packing. The blow oflT pipes are to be 3.\ in. in diameter, and not less than J In. in thickness. Discharge or escape valves are to be fitted at the top and bottom of each cylinder, for allowing the escape of water therefrom ; the valves to have suitable metallic cases, to prevent danger of persons being scalded by escape of boiling w aier, reverse valves are to be fitted to the boilers, and slop valves at the ship's side to tbe waste water pipes. E.aeh cylinder is likewise to be fitted with a separate movement and valve, for the purpose of using the steam expansively in various degrees, as may from time to time be found eligible. The air pumps are to be lined with gun metal of J in. in thickness wlien finished. Tlie air pump buckets are to be of gun metal, with packing rings. The air pump rods are to be of gun metal or Muntz metal, or of wrought iron cased with gun metal. The threads of all screwed bolts, nuts .and pins used in engines and boilers, and in every other part of the work furnished by tbe contractor are to agree with the threads used in the steam department at WoolHlch. A small engine is to be fitted capable of working one of the pumps for feeling the boilers, in every case when the boilers are tubular. Pipes to be fitted for supplying, in the event of a leak in the vessel, the requisite quan- tity of Hater from the bilge to the condensers. The hand pump to be made capable of being worked by the engine also, and to be arr.inged to pump into the boilers on deck or overboard, and to draw water from the boilers, from the bilge, or from the sea. Tbe feed ap- paratus to be complete, independently of any feed Irom a cistern above the deck, should such b;' fitted. The steam jilpes and all other pipes to be of copper, and their respective thicknesses and diameters to be specified in the tender. A separate d.amper to be fitted to every boiler. Brine pumps, or some other equally efficient ap- paratus, with refrigerator, to be fitted to the boilers, and blow-ofi' pipes so arranged, that any boiler may be blown off separately. A small flat Iron vessel to be fixed in one of the paddle boxes, with two pipes, one communicating with the stoke hole, and the other with the boiler, for obtaining a small supply of distilled water from the boiler. Air tubes to be fixed in the coal boxes, for ascertaining their temperature. Particulars will be furnished to the contractors on application to the Captain Superinlendant at Woolwich. The Boilers are to be of the tubular construction, anil the tender is to specify the cost with Iron tubes, and with brass tubes respectively ; and it is desirable that the up(X'r part should not be a greater distance above the water line than circumstances render necessary. They are to l;e constructed in three or more separate parts, each of which may be used independently of the others. .Sufficient details of the boilers are to be shown, to enable a calcu- lation to be made of the area of fire grate and of the fire and flue surface. A space of 13 in. wide is to be left clear between the boilers and the coal boxes in every part. The paddle wheels arc to be of the common construction, and to be fitted with suitable breaks. The tenders are to specify the highest power of engines which may be com- liatlble uith the foregoing specification. The calculation is to be made, al- lowing the effective pressure on each square inch of the piston to be 7 lb., and the speed of the jilston — For 4 0 ft. stroke not to exceed 196 feet per minute. „ 4 6 „ „ 204 „ 5 0 „ „ 210 „ 5 R „ „ 216 „ „ 6 0 „ „ 222 „ 6 6 „ „ 226 „ .,7 0 „ „ 231 „ 7 6 „ „ 236 „ 8 0 „ „ 240 If any other than beam engines are [proposed they must be described veiy minutely, with proper drawings or models. All the necessary ladders for the engine room, together with fenders, guard rails, and floor plates, are to be included in the tenrler, and likewise the ex- pense of trying and fitting the spare gear. It is to be understood that the prac- tice of fixing new engines on board Her M.ajesty's vessels at Woolwich Dock- yard Is to be entirely discontinued. The ports to which their Lordships will lor the convenience of manufacturers allow vessels to be taken, are those of London, Liverpool, Greenock, Glasgow and Dundee, provided the places at which the vessels are to be in those ports sliall be named in the tender, and approved of by their Lordships. In tbe case of vessels receiving their engines on board in the port of Lon- don, they will in the fir;,! instance be brought to M'oolwlch ; and no subsequent charge will be allowed for transporting the vessel to the place where they are to be fixed on board ; for coals in trying the engines until they are complete ; for boats, anchors, men, lighters, pilotage, canal or duck dues, shipwright's work, or for any other expence whatever oecasioneil by the engines not being fixed on board at M'oolwlch. The "watching" of vessels is to be performed in future by officers and men in Her Majesty 's service ; but no shipwrights will be provided by Government. In all cases ot vessels receiving their engines on board at any other port than that of London, a deduction of 2 per cent, will be made from the price of the engines named in the tender, as a compensation for the expense, wear and tear, and risk thereby incurred. The expense of clothing (In tbe following manner) the cylinders, steam pipes, and boilers. Is also to be included in the tender. The cylinders are to be covered with hair felt to the thickness of two inches, the felt is to be covered with thoroughly dried wood, well fitted, and bound together by iron or brass hoops. The steam pipes are to be clothed with felt, which is to be moulded with spun yarn, and then to be covered with canvass, the whole to be of such thickness as to be even with the flanches. After it has been ascertained by trial that every part of the boilers is per- fectly tight, two good coats of red lead paint are to be put on them, and telt aj'plied to the tops, sides, and ends, to the thickness of two inches, while tbe paint is moist. For tbe more convenient application of the felt, it is to be previously stitched to canvass for the purpose of holding it together. The canvass is then to be well painted and carefully covered with thoroughly dried one inch de.nl boards, having rabetted or grooved and tongued joints, and bound up to the boilers with suitable iron stays. The coating of felt ami boards on the top of the boilers or steam chest is to be kept at least 18 In. from tbe funnel, and the circular space between the coaling and the funnel is to be covered with a 3 In. course of bricks set in cement, and surrounded and held together by an iron hoop. The boards ami bricks on the upper pans of tbe boilers are to be covered with sheet lead, 41b. to the sjuare loot, so as to prevent any leaks from the deck reaching the felt. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 63 The specification for two pairs of engines for first class vossels, is oxacily similar to tlie foregoing for the second class excepting the followinp; — feet. iiK-bes. The engine room is to be in length . . 51 0 Fjiendlh .. .. .. ..34 4 Depth .. .. .. ..23 0 Centre of shaft above water line .. 8 6 Coals to le stowed in the boxes, 400 tons Cor more if possible.). Wfiyht of machinery, ft-c, complete as specification, 350 Ions. The blow-oft' pipes are to be four inches diameter and a quarter of an inch thick in metal. GRAVESEND TERRACE PIER. Considerable progress has now been made with the above work, for the carrying out of which an Act of Parliament was obtained during llie session of 1S12, the Royal Assent being given on tlie 18th June of that year ; plans of the work were immediately afterwards prepared, in accordance with designs pieviously submitted to the Admiralty and to the Thames Navigation Committee, while the proposed undertaking was before Parliament, and wliich had been approved by those bodies. A contract was entered into on the 15th November following between the Commissioners, appointed by the Act for carrying it into execu- tion, and Messrs. Fox, Hendrrson, & Co., of the London Works, Bir- mingliani, for the execution of the whole of the works connected with the pier, and which were eventually commenced early in April last, from the designs and under the superintendence of Mr. John Balding Redman. The site of the pier is, perhaps, as fine as that of any similar work in the kingdom, being immediately in front of the Terrace Gardens' embankmeni, the road of approach to the pier crossing those pic- turesque gardens, and rapidly descending from the end of Harmer Street, which, together with the terrace at right angles to it, are at an elevation of 30 feet above the level of high water of spring tides ; to meet this, and to give ample room for the navigation of small craft along the shore of the river, in accordance with the wishes of the Tb.imes Navigation Committee, the platform of the pier will be 12 ft. above the level of a high spring tide, and 32ft. above the level of low water of similar tides, and will be nearly even with the crown of the arch which carries the road over the gardens, and the circular road of approach to the pier entrance, to be obtained by the embankment now in course of formation, will be level throughout, and of the same alti- tude as the platform of the pier : the precipitous descent from the archway to the present wooden pier, now so inconvenient, will tliua be obviated, and the rapid descent of carriages from the town will be checked before arriving at the pier. The entrance to the pier is flanked on either side, east and west, by two stone offices, of a substantial cliaracter, formed of Kentish wrag ashlar, with Derbyshire stone plinths, quoins, cornices, and dressings to windows and doors, tlie walls of wliicb are now completed ; the one will be surmounted by a clock turret, and the other by a belfrv ; the pier will project northwards 240ft. beyond these offices, or 200ft. into the river beyoml the embankment, the walk along which will be continued uninterrupted underneath the pier, between the main abut- ment and the first tier of coluuuis ; immediately north of the othces tiiere will be distinct approaches on each side to the vans and coaches, accommodation for which will be provided on the raised terrace formed by the retaining walls on each side of the abutment, and com- modious flights of granite steps will be laid down on each side, from the platform of the pier to the terrace promenade, and to the gardens, parallel with the approaches to the carriages. The pier will be supporteil on 22 cast iron Doric columns; one-third of the number are fixed, and the whole of them c;ist ; they are consi- dered to be the l.iigest and heaviest columns ever formed of cast iron; they are 28ft. in length, and weigh from 9 to 10 tons each ; their bases are, when fixed, level with low water of spring tides, and their capitals 8 ft. above the level of high water of the same tides. This will be the waterway throughout under the pier, as the girders supporting the platform and superstructure are horizontal. The width of the platform will be 30ft., and there are three columns in the width of the pier, at each point of support. The first span or opening under the pier is of 22ft. over the terrace promenade, and from thence two spans of 50ft., and one of 51 ft. to the pier head, which is formed by a re- turn at right angles to the main portion, 90ft. long by 30ft. wide, termed a T head from its resemblance to that letter, and formed by 13 columns, viz., seven at the junction and three at each extremity. The approach from the river will be by a double staircase, formed of cast iron bearers, supported between the outer columns, carrying transverse oak steps, and spiu;ious landings at various levels, to suit any state of tide: a transverse flight will lead from the upper landing to the summit of the pier. The platform will be formed of fir planking on joists laid trans- versely upon the cast iron girders, the external ones of which will support a cast iron Doric entablature, enclosing the platform anil forming the parapets: the entablature will be surmounted by coupled, pilasters, filled in with a panelling of corrugated iron, supporting a light wrought or corrugated iron roof, which will cover the whole sur- f;[ce of the pier, and an ornamental cast iron cornice of the same level and meeting that of the offices, will run round the eaves of the roof and form a gutter, the pilasters forming rain water pipes to lead off the water: the pier may eventually be enclosed at will, on either side, by shutters to slide behind the panels, formed by the pilasters; from the platform to the ridge of the roof the height will be 16 ft. The junction of the roof's at the T head will be surmounted by a lantern tower, from which will be exhibited a powerful and distinctive light for the benefit of shipping, to be erected subject to the approval and under the direction of the elder brethren of the Trinity House; this light will be at an elevation of GO ft. above low water of spring tides, and 40 ft. above high water, and will be exhibited from a plate glass lantern, surmounted by a copper dome and vane, and supported upon an oct^igonil iron tower. The whole area of the pier is at present enclosed by timber piles, braced together, forming a defence to the works and supporting horizont.d longitudinal bearers, upon which rails are laid, which are traversed by a huge travelling machine framed of liittber on Jour rail- maij wlutls, and supporting at top a powerful crab, which traverses upon rails laid upon the traveller at right angles to those below: the span of the traveller is 40 It., and the machinery is at an eluvation of 00 ft. above low water mark. The foundations of the pier are now nearly finished up to the T head ; and the abutment, wing walls, and offices nearly completed, one third of the main columns fixed, and some of the girders laid in their places. All the heavy castings are completed, and it is anticipated that the pier will be available to the public early in the ensuing summer. The advantages gained by the construction here adopted, are an uninterrupted and free waterway at high water, very little impedi- ment to the tidal currents, an easy approach from the shore, and an efficient protection to those frequenting the pier as a landing place or promenade from wind and weather. The wooden pier now used will be removed upon the completion of the new pier. METROPOLITAN IMPROVEMENTS. A letter, headed as above, and of very unusual length, especially on such a subject lately appeared in the Murning Chronicle, which we should have noticed ere now had it not escaped our attention at the time. Be the writer, who aflixes only his initials, E. P., professional or non-professional, there is a good deal of judicious remark in what he says, among other things, in regard to the consideration which ought to be bestowed beforehand on the style of architecture to be adopted for the new streets, now in the course of being formed from Leicester Square to Bloonisbury. If anything more than the dull regularity of uniform rows of plain-front<'d houses is to be aimed at, it is highly desirable that the opportunity thus afforded should be m.ide the most of, and turned to far better account than has been done in preceding "improvements" of the kind, whether at the west-end of the town or the east. With the writer of the letter in the Chronicle, we depre- cate "a second edition of Regent Street," and its meretricious, t.iwdry compilation of downiight architectural frippery; but of Mmig.te Street we do nut entertain quite so high an opinion as he seems to do. While it is a degree or two better than Regent Street, and free from most of the gross solecisms displayed there, it partakes of tke defects of the same system of misplaced and overacted architectural jjomposity. In as far as a mere order of columns or pilasters can besto\r it, it pos- sesses an air of magnificence, which though it may strike fur a moment, too plainly betrays itself to be only in the " High life below stairs" taste. The shops on the ground-floor inevitably throw a degree of ridicule on the mock dignity of the upper part of the fronts: the efl'ect thus produced is somewhat ludicrous — akin to that which must bare attended Sarah Siddons' occasional starts in the tragic vein — as when she would ask a servant fur beer at dinner time, in blank verse uttered in the tones of Lady Macbeth. Besides the evident misapplication of a columnar style for such purposes, we generally find it, when so made use of, to have been adopted pgt so bqucIi from any particular affection fur or relish of it, 64 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [Feb. 10, as from indolence, or else the inability to produce any sort of charac- ter or variety by any otber means. Pomposity and mock dignity of a different kind are occasioned by tliese "joint-stock " facades being carried on to tlic extent they generally are ; — whereby, instead of being increased, the sort of grandeur which is aimed at is lost. Were not more houses grouped together into one composition than would rr'wc nine, eleven, or thirteen windows in breadth, such fronts would carry with them a far stronger appearance of belonging to distinct houses on a large scale; and as such they would at the same time appear more lofty also. This is tolerably evident from the group of clubhouses in Pail Mall, which are infinitely more impressive than a uniform range of building of "respectable" cojnmon-place design would have been, even had it been extended along the whole street. Whatever may be the reason for it, it almost invariably happens that in wholesale masses of houses packed together to form one continuous front, study cf design and effect is in inverse ratio to the ambitious pretension of the ensemble : hence not only poverty, but even ])altriness, and sometimes vulgarity of expression. Such is the case with nearly every one of the " Terraces," " Places," " Squares "—or whatever other may be the polite designation bestowed upon them — which have sprung up of late years along the western outskirts of the metropolis. Considered as architecture, they are for the most part, sad rubbishly stuff, bedizened out with coarse finery, so essentially vulgar in taste, that the extreme of plainness is preferable to it, since at all events it does not court notice. It must be acknowledged that we have in many instances fallen into a sort of "swell mob" style of architecture in some of our "public improvements." To return to the writer in the Chronicle; we are not a little puzzled bv what he says on the subject of the British Museum. "Time and criticism would be wasted on it. The question is not an open one. The architect, by the style in which he has already finished two sides of the quadrangle, has already determined, within an ornament, more or less, the character of the front of the building. To him, without any meddling interference, should be left the completion of his design." This is surely str.inge sort of argument: in the first place, noiv is the very "lime" for "criticism" to interfere — to step in ere it be altogether too late, and demand that what remains to be done to the buildings should be made, as even now might be, to redeem its thorough unsatisfactoriness as far as it is advanced, It is because the quadrangle shows us pretty plainly what will be the quality of the ex- ternal facade, that we protest against the original design being so car- ried into execution. It is nonsense to say that the question is not an open one, when the matter itself is a public one, and it may be presumed, of some im- portance, unless the importance of our advancing in art, has been pro- digiously exaggerated. In one sense, it certainly is not an " open question," because, instead of being made such, and public opinion being sounded by those wlio possess any authority or influence in the business, there is evidentiv an effort, although a silent one, to gag all questioning — a determination to weary out remonstrance, by turning a (leaf ear to it, and to smother both inquiry and observation. But this must not be — dogged and unflinching sulkiness on one side must be met by unrekuting perseverance on the other. To suffer the matter to drop because all that has hitherto been said has produced very little if any apparent effect, would be very ill-advised, ^ince it is the sudden silence which has succeeded to the loud and even stormy out- cry raised at first in some quarters, which has thrown a damp upon the matter, as if it were found to be utterly hopeless and irreme- diable. If nothing else, the ominous symptoms now manifesting themselves in Great Russell Street, would, we should have thought, elicited fresh remark. There is, indeed, one reason for their not having done so, though not of a kind very flattering either to the architect or the edifice ; for many seem to have no suspicion that the row of " houses " a little to the west of the present buildings of the Museum, is in- tended to be connected with the "grand facade," as a wing to it. It was but the other day, that we ourselves were asked if a new street were going to be opened there — a very natural mistake, for that range of building certainly does look like a row of mere " street houses." Therefore, as soon as it comes to be seen what they are intended for, perhaps even those who have hitherto been silent may begin to ex- press some disappointment and dissatisfaction, more especially as they have not been prepared for anything of the kind, by any of the so- called views professing to exhibit to us the new front of the Museum, but suppressing those very conspicuous appendages to it. In the mean while, even those who would persuade us that Sir Robert Smirke ought to be left to go on entirely in his own way, do not expect more from him than a structure of "a pure, austere, cold, classical charactei-, worthy of its object, though perhaps not a work which will inspire many persons with warm admiration and pleasure." That it will be cold and austere enough, we may rest assured ; but that it will be "pure" and "classical," we very much doubt — or rather are not quite so fortunate as to have any doubis, fur if we had, we might then have hopes also. If chilling bareness be purity — if the introduction of alien and disturbing features, and the rejection of classical treatment and classical embellishment, be classicality, why then we shall have both that and purity : — nut otherwise. Still, "let no one" says the Chronick's correspondent, "let no one hint at the substitution of anv other architect. A total failure would bring disgrace on us for the rash and uncourteous interference. Against such an imprudent transfer, Buckingham House taken from Mr. Nasli and committed to Mr. Blore, exhibits some things which should act as a warning. Mr. Hardwick might bestow on the Museum some splendid and ornamental conceptions, which might resemble the noble palace he has erected for the Goldsmiths' Company; and Mr. Barry might enrich the building witli a facade in the style of bis admirable clubhouses. Some persons would be found, I do not in the legist doubt, who would suggest an Elizabethan front; and again Mr. Barry might be led in a retrograde path, and to please an inferior taste of a majority in parliament, or a majority of commissioners, he would be induced tu suppress the beautiful forms of Greek or Italian architecture, and only reproduce Hatfield or a Town Hall of the Netherlands." The precedent here produced for superseding the architect origi- nally employed, by calling in another, says mure for that course being now adopted, than all the rest does against it. Without stopping to inquire how far Mr. Blore altered for the better or for the worse, what had been done by Nash, we are hardly warranted in inferring, from want of better success in that particular instance, that a similar result must necessarily attend every other case of the kind. Besides, Buckingham Palace is still essentially what Nash made it, for his suc- cessor did not erect a new/a^ade, and even the alterations were but inconsiderable. As to what is said of Mr. Barry, and the probability that he would adopt, or that any one else would think of recommending, the domtslic palazzo Italian, or Elizabethan, is quite preposterous. In regard to the style or mode there could be but one opinion: Greek or Greco-Roman and columnar it would be a"j matter of course; and al- though he has not much practised it, we have very satisfactory evidence of what Barry is capable of achieving in that style, in the Royal Insti- tution of Manchester — one of his earliest productions ; and again in the masterly design exhibited some years ago for the Town Hall of Bir- mingham. After all, too, Mr. Barry is almost out of the question, he being engaged on another national structure upon a far more magnifi- cent scale than the Museum. It were, besides, idle to mention any individual beforehand: full time enough will it be to look about for a successor to Sir Robert when he shall have been advised to feel the indispensable necessity of retiring from his very arduous and long protracted exertions in the service of — the public. His attachment to the public service is undoubtedly very great — f^ir more so than his deference to public opinion, and his readiness to comply with what has been demanded of him by the public. Even his would-be apologist in the Chronicle, lectures him rather sharply for not complying with the call for the exhibition of the model for the facade of the Museum. "It is uncourteous, it is unwise, and it is unjust to withhold from the public the design which is determined upon." Yes; and it is not over wise or gracious either upon the part of those who have the power of enforcing compliance, not to do so. To Sir Robert Smirke himself it may, probably, be matter of utter indifference should the building afterwards cause universal dissatis- faction, and heap disgrace upon its author. But it is not or ought not to be matter of indifference to us, the public, whether the Museum reflect credit or disgrace upon our national taste in architecture. Personal interest and party favour may, indeed, ward oft' censure from the architect in some quarters, and sycophancy may award to him its applause, but honest criticism and sound opinion will ultimately pre- vail, and then botli that and all his other works will be estimated very differently from what they have been during the tide of a forced po- pularity. "Sir Robert Smirke," observes an intelligent contempo- rary, "has sailed with a fair wind and few impediments down the stream, and if he has not reached a peaceful haven, he has at least been embayed in a fertile and fragrant nook. Whether he has started fairly, and sailed in his own boat, we will not at present inquire ; but if he values a repose wdiich in his old age we would not disturb — if he wishes to be spared from the bitter criticisms wdiich his works are calculated to call forth — whether regard be had to his expmstve con- structions, and li/tless, frigid designs, or to his jobs, failarts, and labo- rious jjiicriltties — we should desire him no longer to dare the public censure." 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL. 65 OBSERVATIONS ON ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURE. Bj Henri Fulton, M.D. No. G. The world, llnit is to say Ihf architectural profession, is dividcil on the sniiject of competition designs; one nioietv, and that not the least talented, stand alouf and leave the field to be occupied bv the re- mainder; wlio, although they do not condescend to write in favour of competition, yet take every advantage of it in practice; and if com- petition goes on, this seclion will enjoy a monopoly. Undonliledly, if the practice of modern architecture had attained such a state of perfeclion as painting and sculpture have done under such master-minds as Buonorotti, Raphael, Da Vinci, Canova, &c., and that the public were as well qualified to judge of architecture as of the sister arts, the aristocracv of the [jrofession would be quite right in standing on higher grounds, and treating the practice with contempt; nor do I imagine the public, if well informed, would re- quire it ; all that would be necessary for committees of selection to do, would be to fix on the style of the intended edifice, and then employ the architect within their reach, who was known to excel in that par- ticular style. But, alas, this is not the case, at least as far aa the public are con- cerned ; and as long as things so continue, and competitors are to be found to enter the lists, competition designs will be in request: and it is in vain that the anticompetitors, either by precept or example, endpavour to stem the current; better then to sail with it, than waste their strength in useless elforls to sail against it : better it would be to endeavour to turn it to their own advantage, and that of the art, bv modifying, directing, and improving it, and not leave the harvest to be reaped and housed by others, less qualitied, perhaps, than themselves for the undertaking. I readily admit, that in very many instances competitions turn out badly i soinetiines the architects do not know exactly what the adver- tising committees want, and it would be scarcely reasonable to expect that ihey should, as the committees seldom know it themselves. Not unfrequently the competition is all a farce got up to save appearances, the architect having been fixed on previously. I knew an instance of competition where the limit for the estimate was £20,U0U, and the prize was given for a design which the architect admitted would cost £80,000 (in fact he was not aware that there had been any limit.) It looked better on paper than any of the other plans, and the architect got 7o;. prize, and what was better, he got £600 for altering it. On the parties being told that "the design never would have a firmer foundation than the paper on which it was drawn," their wrath was great, however, the event proved the correctness of the vaticination, for the design was thrown into the fire. Such adjudication as this brings its own punishment with it; for I believe it cost, together with a world of litigation, nearly £1,500 without any result. Such misadventures, however, do not occur in every case, as I be- lieve the nation generally is well satisfied with the result of the com- petition which placed the erection of the Houses of Parliament in the hands of Mr. Bairy. As a contrast to this, Sir Robert Smirke (with- out competition) is to design the facade of the Museum. I much doubt if it will prove equally satisfactory. Where, as in the instance of the Museum, there is to "be no competition, it appears to me that the architect, if not in honour, is at least in duty, bound to submit his design for the opinion of those who are, or even wish to be considered, judges of its merits: not indeed that I would have the architect, like the old man in the fable, make an ass of himself by endeavouring to please every body, but I would have him, as the old man ought to have done, listen to the objections, suggestions, and observations of others, and then use his own discretion as to whether he should lead, drive, carry, or be carried. It never can be injurious, either to the "ame or interest of any well informed person, to hear and weigh the opinions of others, even although they may not be so wise as he is himself. So thought Edmund Burke, no mean authority in matters of taste ; speaking generally, he says, "I have known, and according to my measure, have co-operated with great men ; and I have never yet seen any plan which has not been mended by the observations of those wlio were much inferior in understanding to the persons who took the )ead in the business." It may be asked if architects in refusing to enter the lists as compe- titors, under existing circumstances do not begin at the wrong end. They ought to improve the public in taste before it can be supposed competent to appreciate individual merit; they ought also to be able to point out to the public such and such works on which to rest their jlaims for copfidence. The establishment of aa annual exhibition of lesigns and models, as pointed out in a former paper. No, V., would afford to every architect an opportunity of making himself known to the public. Certainly the proposals for competition designs are very frequently absurd enough, and tend to place the profession on a very low scale indeed; for instance a joint stock company in connexion with tlie Dublin and Drogherla Railway have just advertisi'd fur pl.ms fur build- ings, to cost £15,000, and the successlul competitor, who shall furnish the most approved " plans, s|iecilicatlons and estimates," shall receive the munificent sum of ten guineas! There is on the advertising com- mittee the name of one gentlrman who could not have been aware of this insulting oH^er to the architectural profession. Architects com- peting in any case should not furnish or be required to lurnish any- working plan, specification, or detailed estimate : these with the su- pervision of the works ought to be subsequently paid for at a fair rate. This would simplify the thing and frustrate the mean intentions of advertising committees: indeed, as to the estimates, under the present system, they are generally most absurd, and quite on a level with the dtS!giis, though seldom in accordance willi the interests and wishes of those committees, who speculate on having the plans carried into eflTect by a builder, witiiout any further aid from an architect. II. It is almost as rare to find a failure in Gotliic as it is success in the Greek style; which does away in a great measure with the neces- sity for competiton where the former stvie is the one selected. Would it be easy to find an architect who could design one part of a Gothic edifice equally respectable as the portico of the new Exchange, com- mitting so great an error in any other part, as has been committed in polytrigliphing the interior, and exhibiting a base prostitutim) of a beautiful ornament. The reason of this success is, tli.it fortunately we have no Palladian Gotliic unless it be the exterior of the Duomo at Milan, and some lemiuiscences of Sir C. Wren and Jones at West- minster and Winchester. It is true we often find in the same edifice a mixture of the details which more properly belong to difiVrent eras of the style. The style however, admits of great latitude in this respect; but it ought not to be carried too far, as lor instance, the alternation of pointed and cir- cular headed windows ; or even their introduction in the same compo- sition, which would be just as bad taste as the mixture of Ionic and Corinthian columns in ,i Greek composition; it would seem to be taking a leaf out of the Palladian "analysis of beauty," where it is considered a great perfection to exhibit an alternation of segmental and pyramidal headed window pediments. III. One cause of the ignorance of the public on architectural sub- jects, is the criticisms of tbe miscellaneous press — almost every edifice spoken of in the newspapers is praised : those who know anything of the wav in which newspapers in general are conducted, will be at no loss to account for this, as I believe those reports are for the most part written by the parties most interested ; the editors in general being as ignorant of architecture as their readers; and it would be hard for the blind to lead the blind with safety and security. It is most es- sential, therefore, for the public not to be led away by representations of that description. Every person with any pretensions to good taste and correct judgment join in the condemnation of the National Gallery, both as regards fitness and beauty ; and yet was it not praised beyond measure by the newspapers of the day ? Oh ! how it grieves me to think of the National Gallery of Berlin, in comparison with our own. When it shall be found, as I am confident it soon will be, that another and more suitable edifice is requisite, the palace at Kensington ought to be appropriated for that purpose. It would be sufficiently out of the smoke of London, and yet at a convenient distance for visitors. But I find myself digressing too much from the subject commenced with. IV. At page 26 of this Volume C. D. of Milford, objects to the notice with which the Conciliation Hall, Dublin, is introduced to the readers of this Journal, as he considers the edifice below criticism. Is C. D. one of that school who object to "vilanous saltpetre" being dug from the harmless bowels of the earth? Does he not know that the end of a journal is in holding up the mirror to art, to shew deformity its own image, as well as beauty her own feature? In dissecting (which C. D. is pleased to remind me of,) pathology must be attended to as well as physiology, the diseased as well as the healthy functions. C. D. may be right as to there being no committee of selection in the case of the Conciliation Hall. The observations on that subject were Intended to be general. The Admiralty have purchased the working model of the Trafalgar Square Nelson with which to adorn their offices, which stand sadly in need of it. m THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND AllCHITECrS JOURNAL. [Feb. 10, Fig, 1.— Patent Boring'Machine>Bd Augurs. WATSON'S PATENT IMPROVEMENTS IN DRAINING. In ouv last Kumbcr, in descriliing the Patent Drain Pipe, we alluded to tlii- Boring Machine, which is the most important part of the Pdlent, as it enables the drain pipes to be inserted wilh facility, which, without it, would be a very troublesome affair. The Patent Bering M^ichine, shown in the annexed engrav- ing, tig. li is worked by two men turning the handle wJiich gives the rotarv motion ; the advanc- ing motion is given by another man, who leans on a lever, which is represented in a perpendicu- hir position; this when pressed downwards propels a pinion wheel, which advancing up the rack, impels a collar, and, by means of a thumb-screw, clips the boring rod passing through it. Double racks are used for the sake of obtaining a steady motion. The action of the auger may be very advantageously used for brick work ; it cnts out a com- plete cylinder of brick, and thus brings out a solid core. No other tool has been found to produce such a result. Augers and drills of every shape had been tried by the patentee be- fore he hit upon this. Fig. 2 is a front elevation and section of the retaining wall in the cutting of the London and Birmingham Railway between Euston Square and Camden Town ; at the back of the wall is that dilEcult soil, the London clav, which has given so much trouble in consequence of being occasionally saturated with water ; the clay has now yielded to the influence Vnrk atone or slate dowels and cr.imps are now g:uerally adopted in England ; tliej aie far better and ch«ap«r.— Ed. C. E. & A. Journal. shears were erected, to the day the stone work was completed, was just five weeks. Iron Work.— The figure of the beacon is that of a truncated pvra- mid: it is formed of six wronght iron shafts, five of them 36 ft. 7 in. in length, standing in the periphery of a circle of 16 ft. diameter, and one 36 ft. long at the centre, the outer shafts incline towards the middle in such proportion, as to fall at the top within the circumfer- ence of a circle of 3ft. diameter; each of these shafts is composed of two pieces of equal length, the diameter at the foot of the lower piece is 5{in., and at the top 4in. ; the diameter of the upper piece is 4 in. at the foot, and 3 in. at the top, they are united by a cast iron socket of 3 ft. in length, 2i in. thick at the joint of the shafts, which is at the middle of the socket, 2in. thick at the top and bottom, and lin. thick elsewhere ; the top of the lower shaft is made concave, and the bottom of the upper shaft convex, fitting one into the other. At the distance of one foot from the joint of the shafts, a steel key, 2 in. deep by i of an inch wide, passes through the socket and each shaft to secure them together; the sockets inside, and 18in. of the ends of the shafts are turned and accurately fitted to each other. At a distance of 2-Sft. from the foot of the lower shafts, are four shoulders one foot long, and projecting, at the lower extremity, one inch from the shaft to form points of support for the same at the surface of the f.uiudatiou stone. Above and below the joints of the shafts, and at distances of 9 ft. and IS ft. respectively above the top of the stone, are two sets of braces extending from the middle shaft to each outer shaft, and from one outer shaft to another, making ten in each set; the braces are of wrought iron 2iin. square, the extremities are seemed by Ijin. screw bolts to cast iron collars, these collars are strengthened by two wrought iron bands, and are firmly attached to the shafts by steel keys ; the space between the collar and shaft, and between the keys is filled with zinc ; the braces are secured to the collars in such a manner that they serve for ties in case of anv unforseen strain acting from the interior of the beacon, such as might possibly be occasioned by ice, or any other floating body. The tops'of the shafts are provided with shoulders to support a cast iron cap, composed of five arms, each 3ft. in length, and 4in. in width, strengthened by a rib, or flanch, of 31 in. in depth ; the shafts pass through this cap 18 in. from the centre of it, and are there keyed in place; a wrought iron band 3 in. wide, and i in. thick, is shrunk upon the extremity of these arms to add to its strength ; from the ends of the arms of tlie cap, 3 ft. from the centre, braces of 2 in. round iron descend 4 i ft. to the mainshafls,and are there secured by screw bolts passing through their extremities, and through the shafts also. At this junction of the braces with the shafts, a wrought iron band, similar to that which en- circles the cast iron cap, is fitted and bolted at a distance of 4:Jft. ; again below this second band is a third band similar to the two others, and similarly secured bv screw bolts through the shafts; finally, there are 10 panels or gratings, 4S ft. long, corresponding in shape arid di- mension with the wrought iron bands between the shafts, and the wrciUght iron bands; these gratings are made of boiler iron ^kths of an inch thick, with eight horizontal and three vertical slats, or bars, 3in. wide, riveted together; the horizontal slats are 3iu. apart, but at the distance of 500 yards, the top of the beacon presents the appearance of [\n opaque body Ojft. long by 6ft. wide at the top aud bottom, and 4J ft. wide midway of the same. . ■ -, r 'The feet of the iron shafts penetrate the stone foundation 25 ft., and are secured in their places by heavy iron wedges fitted to the unoc- cupied spaces between the sides of the holes iu the stone and the shalts; the holes being inclined, and the braces between theshalts being immoveable. It is evident that the feet cannot be withdrawn from their places without rupture. Now, the braces are of 24 in. square iron, and the thickness of the stone outside of the hole is 2Jlt. and this would seem to present sufficient strength to resist a shock from any ordinary cause. , , , , ., In addition to the concrete around the outside of the stone, and the cramps and dowels to secure the same together, there are five iron tiesofU in. diameter, extending from a collar of two inch wrougiit iron, which surrounds the middle shaft, to each of the outer shafts to which they are firmly and securely attached by means of heavy iron stirrups ; the ends of the ties are furnished with screws and nuts, and by this means cm be kept in a constant state of tension. This arrange- iiient was resorted to as an additional means of preventing any ten- dency there might be in the outer foundation stones to separate them- selves from the middle stone. The beacon, as finished, stands 34ft. above low water, and 3ft. higher than the old beacon; the cage, or grating, is painted black, and the shafts verniilivu red. The iron work was executed in Boston by Messrs. Cyrus Alger & Co., under the immediate superintendence of Mr. Lester; the entire weight is upwards of 19,000lb. The foundation was prepaicd, and 68 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Feb. 10, the oeacon erected in place by Mr. Benjamin Pomeroy, of Stonington, ConnectU'Ut, under a contract made with him for that purpose. The entire cost of the iron vvorlc and foundation was about 4.,&)0 dollars, anil tlie time consumed in the construction was three months. I had it in contemplation at one time to coat the iron work with zinc, by means of electro-galvanism, but 1 found that too mucli time would be required for preparing the necessary tanks and ap|)ar,itus. 1 venture to hope, however, that anotlier occasion may present itself, and that in the more important structure of the "screw pile light," which 1 trust 1 shall one day see executed upon our own shores, that the galvanizing process may be successfully ap[ilied. In conclusion, I beg to call attention to one or two of the more im- portant advantages which this applicaiion of one of the priiiciples of Mitchell's Screw-pile, (see Cixnl Engivtcr ^- ArchihcCs-Joarnal, p. 182, vol. 3, 1S4U,) to the construction of light houses and beacons, presents. In a very exposed situation, a light, or a beacon, if built of masonrv, can only stand when the best description of work is introduced; this, of course, involves great expense, and much time. The mode ot con- struction for such situations must, in principle, be similar to that adopted for the Eddystone and Bell Rock lights, and this, as all know who understand the subject, would, in the case of our own coast, ^xe- aent an insiiptralilc ubjtclion : for example, the Bell Rock Light, on the coast of Scotland, cost £3G0,0UU, and four years were required to build it, this too in a situation where the rock upon which it is placed is bare at low water. The Eddystone was neither so costly, nor did it require so much time to complete it, still the amount would, with us, justly be considered out of the question for a single light.' There are many places upon our coast at which tlie screw pile light could be erected at a very moderate cost, far less, indeed, than that of a light ship ; notwithstanding this, there are at this time several floating lights in Pamlico Sound, on the coast of North Carolina. The Middle Ground, in Long Island Sound, upon wdiich there are only 3 feet at low water, and at which a light boat is now maintained, is, of all others, the most suitable point to make the iirst experimei.t upon with this description of light. In reference to the durability of wrought iron exposed to the action of sea water, I have not a great deal of information to impart, still I have some which beais upon this question. Upon many of the reefs in Long Island Sound, and more particularly in Fisher's Island Sound, it lias been the practice tor many ye.irs to erect wiought iron s|)indles of about 4 in. di.imeter, and from 15 to 2jft. in lieight; such spindles last from 15 to 20 yeais, unless carried away by ice. The contractor who placed several of these spindles, informed me that one upon a reef in Fisher's Island Sound hail been up iU years without being re- newed ; the wasting takes place principally between high and low water, and in this particular case, the size of the spindle is reduced from 4 ti) 2 inches in diameter. If, however, the zincing process, or if a |)reci|Utate of copper be resorted to, there is every reason for be- lieving th.a the iron thus protected would last twice, or three times, 2iJ years. In short, economy in cost and in time, and the application of the principle of the screw idle in situations where masonry could not be resorted to without inordinate expense, would seem to be ad- vantages in theinsirlves sufficient to justify extensive experiments in a brancii of the public service of such importance as that of our light- house system. 2 Tile Car Rock Beiit'oii, on tlie coast of Scotland, cost ^S.OOll ; six years were required for tlie construction ; it was intended to build it entirely ol stone, but when half liinshed tlie upper part was constructed of cast iron. The cast iron beacon on Vork Ledge Maine, is ail exact copy of the Car Koclc iieucou : it cost ^'2,000. PATENT SCREW-PILE BATTERY AND LIGHT-HOUSE. Mr. Mitchfll, the Patentee of the Screw. )iile, previously described in our Journal, proposes to adapt them for tlie purposes of furniing foundations for tlie erectiiv^ of batteries in tlie oier for plants, which they take up, thereby again rendering the atmosphere fit for our use. Under the head of the mechanical and chemical expedients to be resorted to for rendering barren soils fertile, and fertile soils continuously, so we shall of course come to a number of facts connected with the influence of ma- nures and the dilferentoperationsof tillage. Looking at soils, in the first place they must of course originate in the action of the air, water, heat and light, or of those agents commonly designated under the term of " the weather " upon the earth; and as the dilfecent rucks or strata which form the crust of the earth, are some exposed in one place and some in another, giving thereby a dilierent constitution to the soil, we see the important bearing of geological science upon agriculture. 72 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Fkb. 10, Originally llic surface of the eartli coiisislod entirely of Iiaril rocks, wliich by tile influence of moisture and oilier agents, liave gradually Ijecome disin- tegrated and fitted lor the growth of plants. It is obvious, therefore, that the nature of the soil must greatly depend upon the character of the rock upon which the soil rests — though not always so, in consequence of ihe soil from one rock being sometimes carried to a rock of a ditferent description. In examining a geological map we find immense tracts of chalk, red sand- stone, limestone, clay, coal, and so on. all of which give rise to diiTerent soils ; and it is important to consider this branch of the sul.ject, for it ex- plains to us how one system of amelioration which answers in one place, does not succeed in another. The different strata give rise to what are usually called the different rocks, the term " rock" being usually applied in agriculture to the base on which the sub-soil immediately ties. The sub-.soil is the matter supposed to be de- rived directly from the disintegration of the rock itself: then upon the top of the sub-soil comes the superficial soil, which in its mineral contents will agree with the rock and the subsoil, but which is nevertheless greatly dif- ferent, in consequence of the animal matter which falls upon it, and the long e.vposure to the air, mo sturo, heat and light. " 1 propose," says Mr. Brando, '• 1st. to lay'before you a short account of the inorganic constituents of the soil, and endeavour to show how the pre- ponderance of one or other of these constituents gives a different character to the soil— in other words, what is meant by a sandy soil, a clayey soil, a marly soil, a chalky soil, he. And in reference to these matters. 1 shall en- deavour to limit myself to such an account as presses immediately upon agriculture." There are four substances usually called earthy bodies which are met with more or less in all fertile soils, and it is highly essential that an agriculturist should be acquainted with their particular characters and peculiarities. They are silica, or siliceous earth; alumina, or aluminous earth ; lime, or calca- reous earth ; and magnesia; all of which arc resolved by the chemist in their purest state to the form of a white powder. Chemically speaking, these sub- stances are all metallic oxydes, and not as was formerly supposed, simple boilics. With regard to sil ca. that very important ami abundant ingredient in almost every soil, it has this curious constitution, that it is composed of equal weights of a metallic body and oxygen. He would have his hearers particularly to bear in mind the following pro- portions of the four earthy bodies which he had just referred to— all of them consisting of a metal and oxygen, viz. : — 8 parts of oxygon combine with 8 parts of the metal silicium, to form 16 parts of oxyde of silicium, or silica. 8 parts of o.xygen combine with 9 of the metal aluminum, to form 17 parts of oxyde of aluminum, or alumina. 8 iwrts of oxygen combine with 20 of the metal calcium, to form 28 parts of lime. And 8 parts of oxygen combine with 12 of the metal magnesium, to form 20 parts of magnesia. The Professor then observed that he would pass througli as quickly as he could an outline of the properties of thes? bodies. To commence with s lica. Silica exists in nature in a great variety of forms, absolutely, or very nearly pure. We find it in rock crystal quite pure , very nearly so in flint, which contains in addition some slight colouring matter, which we do not perfectly understand, and perhaps about I per cent, of foreign matter. If you heat flint, or rock crystal to a red heat, and then plunge it in water, it immedi- ately becomes opaque, and can then be readily nibbed down to a fine powder. Another very abundant source of silica is to be found in the white pebbles H hich are so often met with in the beds of streams. And we also find a con- siderable quantity of silica in the form of sand, of which we cannot take a iietter specimen than the white sand from the western extremity of the Isle of Wight, or from Lynn, in Norfolk. It is a curious fact with regard to sand, if we examine it microscopically, we find it to consist partly of minute crystals, and partly of small rounded particles, so that a part may be regarded as the crystals of flints, and part as small pebbles. It would appear that crystallized sand arises from decomposed granite — granite consisting of three substances, quartz which is afterwards sand, felspar, and mica. The extraordinary property which strikes us as being very important with regard to silica, is its utter insolubility in water and almost everything else. You may keep even the finest sand you can obtain in water for any length of time, and yet not the smallest porti.n will be dissolved. Silica, however, does find its way into plants, and into some in considerable quantities— in common straw, for instance, corn, and any grass, we find a great quantity of this insoluble substance ; and it becomes a curious question to ascertain hoiv silica is rendered soluble and finds its way into plants. .Silica is indeed of the utmost importance to the texture of plants— if we take a stalk of wheat we shall find that it is silica which gives it firmness, enables it to bear the car in due season, ami imparts to it all those properties which belong to the more perfect and better kinds of straw. But though silica is insoluble in water, it is readily soluble in potass, soda, lime, and other alkalis. In some strata we observe silica presented to the roots of plants in a soluble form; but if we dissolve silica in an alkali, and then throw it down again, we find that in some cases it may be thrown down perfectly insoluble and sometimes quite soluble. Sometimes it is taken up in a soluble form and sometimes re- tained in an insoluble form. No doubt the silica in this wisp of straw Aas hfen soluble, now it is perfectly insoluble in water. Glass is a compound of silica and soda, yet glass is insoluble in water, for we know that it is employed as a vessel for holding water. This arises from the mechanical texture of the glass ; for if we rub glass to a fine powder, we find that it does become soluble in w-ater. This application of silica to the soil becomes a very important question ; because there is no doubt that certain crops fail, not for the want of silica, because tliere shall be plenty, but for the want of it in a soluble state. Now some agriculturists actually mix pounded glass, or another sub- stance, which I will show you presently, with their manure, and employ it with great success. If, instead of common glass, they take another com- pjund of silica, viz., glass with more soda, they have a substance which readily dissolves in water. The Lecturer here exhibited a solution — called by the ancients "liquor of flints," and then proceeded to observe, "I can at pleasure separate the silica from it in a particularly soluble, or in a particu- larly insoluble slate," He then proceeded with the following experiment. In a glass containing the " liquor of Hints " he added a large quantity of wafer : and in another glass he had some of the liquor in a more concentrated state. To each of these solutions, he added a little of almost any acid ; in the strong solution silica was thrown down in the form of a jelly, and by adding more water he showed that it would not re-dissolve the silica. In the weaker so- lution no such result was obtained, although he added as much acid as to the other, yet it remained perfectly clear. '• In the first state," said Mr. Brande, " I need hardly tell you sili.a would be perfectly inert m the growth of plants— in the other state it would be readily taken up. We find also, though common glass in its usual state does not appear to be acted upon by the air and water, that it does yield, when acted upon by those agents for a long time. Pieces of glass are often met w ith in a field of all kinds of colours, and so soft, that they will give way to the nail. There is another curious agent, which has the power of acting upon silica, and of carrying it at once away, and wlien he comes to analyze soils, he must show this substance — it is fluoric acid. Now it would appear that we have to consider silica first as a mere mechanical ingredient of the soil— that is, giving to the soil a certain looseness of texture possessed by all sandy soils: and then, also, with reference to the component parts of the crops growing upon the soil. Anotiier substance to which lie adverted, is the argillaceous earth or alu- mina. It is an ingredient in all fertile soils, and from it they derive some very important properties. In the first place, all clays contain alumina : and he need not advert to the importance of clay in soils, and to the functions which alumina performs in them. It is a very hydrometic substance, that is, it has a great attraction for water, which it absorbs and retains in great quantities. It is the only substance which gives plasticity when mixed with other bodies; and whenever we have a plastic substance, then we have alumina. Alumina is a most useful ingredient in the soil, provided that it does not exist in excessive quantities; if there be too much of it, it forms that stiff, clayey, unmanageable soil, of which there is so much in England. 1 must take you to it in its pure state, and we get it out of alum. If we dissolve a quantity of alum in water and add an alkali, we shall throw down alumina in a pure state, or very nearly so. If we only take 10 or 12 per cent, of alumina, and mix it with silica, we ihall find that it will give to it the plastic nature of clay. Indee I, a very- small portion of alumina gives plasticity and adhesiveness and other important properties, especially as relates to moisture, in any soil. Like silica, it also forms a component part of the growing crop. Some vegetables cannot grow without alumina ; none, perhaps, can grow well without it in the soil : some few actually require it as fi od. There are certain vines which cannot be cul- tivated without alumina ; in those vines we find alumina composing a certain part of the plant — nay. we find it even in the grape— and even in the wine. The Rhenish wines contain a considerable quantity of alumina ; and it is a curious fact, that a quantity of wine was actually stopped at the Custom House some time ago, which it was thou^^ht had been adulterated with alum, when, in fact, it contained no more alumina than it had taken up from the soil. Alumina at once difiers £rom silica, in that it is equally soluble in acid and alkali. Another character of alumina is. that it combines with sulphuric acid and potass, and crystallizes very readily ; but we have to deal with alumina only in reference to the soil and its agricultural purposes. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 73 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. By Professor Brande, F.R S., &c. Lecture II.— February 3, 184i. (Specially reported for this Journal.) The next most important constituent of the soil is lime. Now lime is found in nature in various states of combination, but principally either as carbonate, ph(is(ihate, or sulphate. As carbonate it exists in most fertile soils. It is added, also, largely to fields as a fertilizing agent. But for this purpose it is not used in combination, but in a free state, as caustic or quick lime, in vthich condition it is obtnined by exposing limestone rocks, which are carbonate of lime, to a strong beat in properly constructed kilns ; this drives off its car- bonic acid, and reduces it to the state of pure lime. If chalk, for instance, is heated, water first escapes, then carbonic acid, and the heat should be con- tinued till it ceases to lose weight. As the limestones are not all pure, but are mixed with other ingredients, so the resulting Hme is of diHerent qualities, and receives various names, such as hydraulic lime, fat lime, and meagre lime, each being a.lapled for some particular object, some being used largely in mortars and cements. In lime-burning there are several circumstances that must be attended to, or success will not be obtained; one is, that the proper degree of heat be maintained, another, that a gooj current of air be kept up. It has been found, by tlie experiments of Sir James Hall and others that when carbonates of lime are heated to the most intense heat in closed vessels, only a part of the carbonic acid escapes ; indeed, they have shown, that II healed under pressure, none of the gas escapes from it, but that it is converted into a semi-crystalline mass resembling marble ; in fact, it is sup- posed that in this manner marble has been formed in nature, by the intense heat of streams of volcanic lava acting on the chalk whilst imbedded beneath other strata, the pressure not allowing the gas to escape, and during its slow cooling assuming a crystalline arrangement. Hence we see the importance of constructing the kiln so as to allow a good current of air to carry off the carbonic acid as 'ast as liberated ; which is also assisted by the steam pro- duced from the moisture in the chalk. Now the change of quality produced by this burning „.;, by the old chemists, and is even by many of the un- scientific agricu turists of the present day. attributed ,o something that it abstracts from the hre, and hence, say they, its caustic quality. But Dr. Black showed, ong ago, that such was not the case. He found that when 50 b of pure chalk were converted into lime, it only weighed 281b., hence nrnv;df r'"h 'm '"'i""' «"'• "'''^'' '^^'"^""^^^ experiments was Plowed o be carbonic acid, and the remaining 281b. of lime has been shown !^h' ,roT'r™""°^^°"'-°^=' metal which he named calcium, to- gether wilh 81b. of oxygen gas, forming oxide of calcium, or lime. Hence the composition of pure carbonate of lime may be represented thus :- ,„ , (carbonic acid (P"'"'" •• G 50 carbonate of lime-J ^^ oxygen 16 lime /calcium . 20 ' (oxygon . . 8 50 When lime Is exposed to the air it crumbles down into a fine powder, and If then examined it will be found to have combined with water from the air and become what is termed slaked. The same effect may be produced by pouring water on to lime. By taking a portion of fresh lime and pouring water on it, it will be observed to swell considerably, and to become very hot sufficiently so even to char wood and to fire gunpowder, at the same lime Jailing into a dry powder, which weighs much more than i: did originally, every 281b. of lime having combined with 91b. of water, forming 371b of hydrate of lime or slaked lime. If left longer exposed, it is found then to combine with the carbonic acid always present in the air, parting again with the water, and returning to the state from which It set out, of carbonate of lime. There are other methods of getting the carbonic acid from a carbonate than by heat. If to 1,000 grains of chalk, an acid be added which has a stronger attraction for the lime, the carbonic acid will be set free, and may be collected as gas in a glass vessel inverted over water. This is the ordinary method of obtaining carbonic acid for experiment. But the lime in this case IS not obtained pure, as it combines with the acid employed. Then if an equal weight of chalk be heate.i so as to drive off, in that manner, all its car- bonic acid, and then placed in the glass vessel full of gas, it will be found that alter a time the water will rise in the glass, showing that the lime is absorbing the gas, and again becoming carbonate. Lime is soluble in water, and although it requires 800 times its weight of water to dissolve it, the solution will exiiibit most of the properties ot lime. It strongly reddens turmeric test paper, showing that it is alkaline : it absorbs carbonic acid from the air, thn surface becoming covered with a crust of chalk : aJded in excess to rain or river water, it produces a clou liness, prov- ing that they contain-carbonic acid ; but if tlie water coiUaining the carbonic acid 13 in excess, the carbonate first formed is redissolved, on account of the formation of the very soluble bi-carbonate of lime. To this latter property is owing a beautiful appearance frequently met with in limestone districts ; the rain, falling on the surface, becomes impregnated with carbonic aciil from the soil, and then filtering through some crevice in the limestone, renders some of it soluble ; it then, perhaps, finds an outlet at the roof of a cavern, and here, being exposed to the air, parts with the extra quantity of carbonic acid, depositing the insoluble carbonate of lime, which first encrusts the roof, then by constant dripping, forms aseries of beautiful crystalline icicles termed stactalites, the remainder falling on the floor, forms large stony masses termed stalagmites. The consideration of these properties of quick lime will explain its utility when added to the soil. Its first action when strewn on the field, is to absorb moisture, to swell considerably, thereby loosening the texture of the soil- then, when acted on by rain, to form a solution which is destructive to animal life, killing all grubs and worms— when brouglit in contact with organic matter, to decompose it, which maybe illustrated by mixing sawdust, lime and water into a paste, when it becomes dark brown, evolving carbonic acid— to decompose salts of alumina and iron which might be pernicious to the young plant— and, ultimately, by uniting with carbonic acid, to diffuse car- bonate of lime through ihe soil in a finer stale of division than it can be ob- tained in by other processes. One of the uses of lime which has till lately been overlooked, because taking place more slowly, is the property it has of disintegrating several kinds of rock, such as felspar, clay slate, and mica slate, setting free their alkali, which is highly necessary for vegetation. This accounts for the power attributed to lime, by many agriculturists, of awaken- ing the dormant energies of some soils, bringing them, in the course of four or five years, into excellent condition. The tests for lime are few and simple. In limestones, the application of an acid causes effervescence, as it generally exists in the state of carbonate. In river water, such, for instance, as the Thames, it exists as carbonate, and on boiling, is deposited, as is evident by the fur which accumulates in kettles. In spring water, so that it is not too near the chalk, in our blue clay, for instance, it is found as sulphate. Oxalate of ammonia is a very delicate test for the presence of lime in solution, causing turbidness even when a very minute portion is present. Ammonia causes no precipitate in solutions of lime, and is therefore useful, in analysing soils, in'order to remove first those substances which are precipitated by it, and then the addition of carbonate of ammonia will throw down the lime. A fourth ingredient of the soil is magnesia, which though not in so great quantity as the former, is still important This is found as carbonate in some limestones, which are then termed dolomites, or miignesian limestones. They are very excellent for building purposes, being very strong and durable, and were highly recommended by the Commission appointed to select stones for the Houses of Parliament. A curious point in their history relates to their use as manure, in Yorkshire, where they abound. It was found that when burnt for lime, they killed the young plant. Now this is owing to the fact that the carbonate of magnesia, when burnt, is reduced to the caustic state, or pure magnesia, similar to the lime ; also, where strewn on the soil, it ab- sorbs carbonic acid, but so much more slowly than the lime, that when the yonng plant shoots up, it still retains its causticity, and destroys it. This difficulty is, by careful management, got over, and it is now much used. Magnesia is found as pure carbonate in .some parts of Asia and America. It is also a constituent of the serpentine rocks of Cornwall, and forms a large part of steatite, augite. hornblende, and meerschaum. Many of these are characterised by a peculiar greasy feel, hence steatite is well known by the name of soap stone. It is also abundant in sea water; w/ien the salt has been crystallized from it, it imparts a very bitter taste t • the residue, which, on that account, is termed bittern. From this it is separated in l:irge quan- tities and used in medicine as Epsom sails, or sulphite ot magnesia. Puro magnesia is almost tast( less, but possesses a slight reddening power on lest paper ; it is therefore an alkaline earih From solutions of magneslan salts, carbonate of potash throws down the insoluble carbonate of magnesia, which bears the same relation to pure magnesia that ch.ilk does to lime. Carbonate of ammonia does not produce any precipitate, which may therefore be used to separate lime from magnesia ; but if to the mixture phosphoric acid be added, a precipitate is slowly deposited, which is therefore a very characteristic test for magnesia. To these four earths, which are all metallic oxides, may be added, as a common ingredient of the soil, oxide of iron. There are tivo oxides of iron, the red, which is insoluble and consequently harmless, and the black, which is very noxious. Both of these frequently impart colour to soils. The one is com- monly known as rust of iron, the other, as slag. Dissolved inaci Is, and lime or ammonia adiied, the respective oxides are precipitated combined with water, as hydrates. But the lower or black oxiile has always a strong tendency to pass into the higher state of oxidation, even by exposure to air. This may olten be seen in ferruginous springs, which at their source are quite clear, but as they flow a!ong, the protoxide of iron is converted into the peroxiile, and is deposiied on ihe banks as an insoluble red powder. The best tests whereby to recognise iron arc striking and delicate. One of the best is 74 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Feb. It, a solution of any astringfent matter, green tea for instance, but a solution of galls is best, wliicb changes it to a dark purple, forming, inileed, ink. It is on this account that spring water, which frequentlj contains iron, spoils tea- Prussiate of potash, also) may be used, which gives a dark blue, which is Prussian blue. These are the principal constituents of the soil. But there are other sutj- stances also present, which, though only in minute quantity, and once over- looked as unimportant, are now considered to be of vital consequence to plants, and which will be co»sidered in the next lecture. ELECTRO-METALLURGY. The importance of the recent discoveries in electro-magnetism, have in no instance been more completely shown, than in their applications to metalhc productions. The application of electro-magnetic power for plating, emanates from Mr. Spencer, of Liverpool, who was so shamefully used by the British Association. The Messrs. Elkington had, however, long before taken out patents for plating, although on other grounds. They subsequently made experiments with regard to the use of electro-magnetism in gilding and silver- ing, and the result has been several valuable processes of manufacture. From a very interesting little work, published by Messrs. Elkington, we extract the following descriptions:— , ,. . , v Galvmuc Battcry.-\n speaking of the discovery of this Art, we have been led to describe what a Galvanic Battery is. Many different arrangements ot battery have been suggested, all more or less valuable, according to the parti- cular object for which the arrangement is required, but we do not think it important to notice them. In Electro-Metallurgy there are two distinct states (if such an expression may be allowe.lj of galvanism or electricity, viz., electricity in its condition oiqumMly, and inteiisiUj, and as it « ill be necessary to quote these terms, we shall endeavour to explain them. . The ?«an(;(i/ of electricity generated in a battery, is in proportion to the surface of zinc exposed to the exciting fluid, whether such consist of one or more pairs of plates ; but if more than one pair be used, tlion the zinc ot the first pair must be connected with the zinc ot the second pair, and the copper vith the copper; and thus the quantity may be increased .as the numbers ot pairs are augmented. A, Battery Trough. B, Zinc Plates. C, Copper Plates. D, Connecting Wires. Intensity is necessary when, from the nature of the solutions, or from any other cause, there is a resistance to be overcome; the electricity requiring intensity or power to force its way through , but the amount of metal de- posited, depends wholly upon the quantity of the battery, and not upon the intensity. Intensity is produced by arranging two or more pairs of plates, by con- necting the zinc of the one pair with the eopper of the next pair, and so on to any number of pairs— any numtjer thus connected, forming a battery equal in qnanlity to one pair of plates only. other substances, forming compounds, capable of being dissolved, and held in solution by acids and certain alkalies; thus, tor example:— When pure silver is put into pure nitric acid and heated, the metal is rapidly dissolved, forming the nitrate of the oxide of silver, or, as commonly designated, the nitrate of silver, and this may be held in s ilution in water. In forming a metallic salt for the purpose of electro-deposition, one general rule holds good in all cases, and may be considered a law (and if this law is attended to, no difficulty whatever can e.sist in electro-depositing) ; and this is, that the metal dissolved in acid or other solvent must have a greater affinity for such solvent, ihan the metallic article to be coated with the metal thus held in solution— for this simple reason, that if the article to be coated hA% a greater affinity for the solvent than the metal held in solution, a chemical substitutionjpreceding the galvanic action) takes place ; the acid in preference combining with the metal, for which it has the greatest affinity, forming an oxide upon its sur- face, which oxide intervenes between the article and the metal depoiited upon it. Such failures therefore as have taken place in electro-depositing have not been the result of any defect in the principle, but from want of knowledge in the operator, and principally from ignorance of the law just stated. For this reason the nitrate of silver cannot be used ; the nitric acid having a stronger affinity for most other metals than (or silver ; another and better solvent therefore must be obtained, and this will be spoken of under the metal, silver. Operation.— In proceeding to plate metals, it is necessary that the battery should be so arranged, that the quantity of electricity generated, should cor- respond with the surface of the articles to he coated, and the intensity should bear reference to the state of the solutions ; that is, that the quantity should be sufficient to give the required coating of metal in a given time, and the in. tensit,, such as 10 drive the electricity through the solution to the articles. It is also essential that the plates of metal forming the positive pole in the solution, should be of corresponding surface to the articles to be coated, and face them on both sides. Having procured the metallic salt best adapted for the purpose, the same is placed in an appropi late vessel, the articles to be coated are then suspended in the solution from wires attached to metallic rods, which cross the vessel at intervals, and which are connected with the zinc or negative terminal of the galvanic battery by means of long rods, placed longitudinally upon the vessel ; plates of the same metal as that held in the solution are then placed therein upon either side of the articles; and connected with the positive or copper terminal of the same battery, by means of aslip of copper, fixedupon the ejge of the vessel. A, Battery Trough. B, Copper Plates. C, Zinc Plates. D, Connecting Wires, With this knowledge a battery of several pairs of plates may be arranged So as to produce bolh the quantity and intensity required. Metallic Salts.— M. ordinary metals have the power of combining with A, Vat or vessel coitaining tlie solution. B, Battery with Zlne pole Z, connected with roiis KRi and Copper pole C, eonnected with the metallic sheets PP, in the solution; hy means of the Copper slip F; DD, are articles suspended in the solution by wues from the rods RR ; S, the solution. The particular arrangement of battery shown in the above sketch we find the most useful in practice. The coppers being continued above the zincs in- stead of below, prevents their being affected by the mercury, which amalga- mates the zinc. The plates also resting upon a shelf a tew inches above the bottom of the trough, are always In contact with the least saturated portion of the e.«iting fluid, the sulphate of zinc formed, being specifically heavier, falls to the bottom. , So soon as the articles, which are connected with the negative pole of the battery, and the metallic sheets with the positive, are both immersed in the 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 75 snlution, the galvanic circuit is completed. The metal held in solution and the solvent combined orifiinally from being in different electrical states, the metal being positive, and the solvent negative. When the galvanic circuit is completed, the solution becomes a jiart of that circuit: the electricity then passing through the solution decomposes it, the positive element— the metah going to the negative pole, which is the article ; and the negative element — the solvent — passing to the positive pole, which is the plate of metal sus- pended in the solution, with which it combines. So that for every atom of metal attracted to the negative pole, a corresponding atom is dissolved from the positive, and the solution is maintained in the same state. In proceeding to plate an article by the electro-process, great care should be taken that it is free from all grease and o.'iKle ; for this purpose the first operation is to boil it in a solution of caustic alkali, by which any grease is saponified ; it is then scoured with sand and water, after which it is dipped info dilute acid, which removes any oxide that may be on the surface; after rincing in water, it may be placed in the solution. It is sometimes well, before placing the article in the solution, to dip it into a dilute solution of the nitrate or cyanide of mercury, and this may be found necessary when the metal to be operated upon has an affinity for the solvent of the so'ution used. It is cenerally believed that metals deposited by electricity are necessarily soft, because pure, but this is not a consequent : from experiments we have frequently made, it appears that the hardness of the deposited metal varies with the intensity of the battery; a battery of three or four pairs intensity producing silver sufficiently bard to scratch ordinary sheet silver, wliilst sheet silver will not scratch it. When the intensity of twelve or fourteen pairs of plales is used, the hardness is so great that burnishing with a steel tool fails ill producing a polish upon it. Metals deposited.— The following metals have been deposited by Messrs Elkington by the electro-process— gold, platinum, silver, copper, zinc, anti- mony, arsenic, bismuth, nickel, cobalt, palladium, titanium, cadmium, lead, and tin ; those which are principally adapted to manufacturing purposes are gold, silver, copper, and zinc : and upon these we shall make a few remarks^ pointing out the peculiar adaptation of the electro-process to their use. GoW.— Cyanide of jiotassium is the salt we prefer for dissolving this metal for electro-depositing, it is obtained by fusing eight parts'of dry ferro-cyanide of potassium with three parts of carbonate of potash. The gilding solution may be prepared by placing sheets of Kold in a solution of pure cyanide of potassium, and attaching to the negative pole of a galvanic battery a small plate of gold, and to the positive a much larger plate ; when but a small quantity of solution is required, this method answers very well, and makes a pure solution ; but when a large ([uantity is wanted, time will be saved by dissolving gold in nitro-muriatic acid, and precipitating it by magnesia, the oxide thus obtained being again dissolved in cyanide of potassium and water. This solution should be used at a temperature of 130 deg., the arrangement of the battery and articles being the same as already described. Silver.— Tim sail of silver, best suited for electro-depositing, is also the cyanide. Silver being allowed to remain in a solution of cyanide of potassium, is dis- solved, or take the nitrate of silver, to which, add a solution of cyanide of potassium, the silver combines with the cyanogen, and precipitates as a white powder ; the liquid is then decanted, and the precipitate well washed with pure water : to this more cyanide of potassium is added, which dissolves the precipitate, lorming the double salt of cyanide of potassium and silver ; this constiluies the plating solution. The same general arrangement is to be observed for plating with silver as already described, the quantity of battery power, being in proportion to the surface of the articles to be plated, and the intensity agreeing with the density cf the solution. In a lew seconds after the articles are placed in the solution and connected with the battery, they are covered with silver, and arc allowed to remain therein until the necessary coating is obtained, and this is ellected in from lour to six hours. In order to ascertain correctly that the required quantity of silver has been received, every article is weighed previously to being placed in the solution, and again after the process is completed, and the weight entered in a book against each. After the plating is finished, the articles are taken to a lathe, and brushed with brass brushes, when they are ready lor burnishing, this process consists in rubbing the surtace with great force, with a liii^hly polishtd steel or blood-stone tool, until it is as bright as a minor. This is a severe test for any plated article, by whatever process made, and if a most perfect cohesion did not exist, it would at once be de- tected in the burnishing. Copper, — It was, as we have already noticed, the deposition of this metal from its sulphate, which suggested to Spencer, in England, and to Jacobi, in Russia, the application of the elenric current to the multiplication of works of art. For all purposes of solid deposit, for electrotyping, &c., the solution of the sulphate is found to answer best, and is the cheapest; the method of operat- irg with it is now generally well umierstood. A considerable improvement. however, may be made in this solution, (when used for the purpose of covering metals) by the addition of caustic potash or soda, which should be added by small quantities until the precipitate formed by it, is no longer re-dissolved by the solution. The ordinary sulphate of copper contains one atom of acid for one of copper, so that, in decomposing by the electric current one atom of this salt, we have one atom of copper only (le[.{jsited ; but by the addition of caustic alkali, a part of the acid is taken up by the alkali, leaving two or three atoms of copper combined with the remaining acid, forming a different salt of copper. This we find superior to the ordinary sulphate, and in practice effects a saving of battery power, besides the deposit being obtained in a shorter time. The arrangement of battery best adapted for solid deposits of copper is the single cell. A plate of amalgamated zinc is put into a vessel of unglazed earthenware, or any other porous substance, containing dilute acid, and placed in the copper solution, the articles to be coppered are attached to the zinc plate. In this arrangement crystals of sulphate of cO[iper should be sus- pended in the solution, to compensate for the metal deposited : but when the neutralized solution above described is employed, it is necessary now and then to add caustic alkali to maintain the proper qualities of this salt. But the simplest of all single cell arrangements, and which we find the best in practice, is to wrap the amalgamated zinc in a double sheet of ordinary brown paper, tied round with string, the joints being cemented with glue; care should be taken in this, as well as in every other single cell arrangement, that the surface of zinc be equal to the surface of the article or articles to be coated ; the better plan being to suspend before each article a corresponding surface of zinc. From the qualities and cheapness of copper and its salts, it is generally used for all purposes of electrotyping and solid deposition; and it may also be used as a coating for the protection of iron from rust, besides rendering it higl-.ly ornamental. The alkaline salt of copper best suited to the coating of iron, is the double salt of cyanide of potassium and copper ; it is thus prepared : — Take pure dry crystals of sulphate of copper, dissolve them in water and precipitate with the ferro-cyanide of potassium, wash the precipitate and dissolve it in cyanide of potassium ,and water. After the iron has been properly cleaned, which is ctl'ecied by allowing it to remain for a short period in dilute sulphuric acid heated, it is placed in the cyanide solution, heated to about 12U deg., and connected with the battery ; in from two to five minutes it will lie found com- pletely coated ; the iron should then be scoured with sand, and placed in the sulphate solution ; if any portion should have been imperfectly coated in the alkaline solution, it will immediately turn black in this, in which case it should be cleaned and returned to the alkaline ablution for one or two minutes. By this process every article of iron work, either cast or wrought, may be firmly coated with copper, and afterwards bronzed, the articles retaining all the strength of ihe iron, with the beauty and indestructible qualities of the copper ; and with the aid of our patents for the production of works of art belbre described, copies of the beautiful marbles and bronzes of the antique may be successfully produced. Zinc. — All metals, in oidinary circumstances, possess a certain definite gal- vanic character, and when any two are together exposed to an exciting fluid, there is immediately generated a galvanic action ; the electro-positive metal is gradually destroyed, whilst the negative is protected by the action which destroys the positive. Thus zinc and copper placed in connexion, in an ex- citing fluid, lorm a galvanic battery; the positive metal, zinc, being destroyed, and the negative, copper, protected. The ellect of this action may be noiiced upon iron railings which have been connected with the stone work of build- ings by lead, a metal negative to iron ; after long exposure they will be found much more wasted upon the parts touching, or adjacent to the lead, than in any other ; this arises wholly from the galvanic action induced by the two metals in contact, and at the expense of the more positive. Zinc is galvani- cally posi«wc to all ordinaiy metals, and, from this property, protects them when in contact with them ; whilst the zinc wastes away, but very slowly ; because " When exposed to air or placed in water, its surface becomes covered with a grey film of suboxide, which does not increase ; aud this film is better calculated to resist the mechanical and-chemical effects of other bodies than the metal itself." Thus, while zinc has the property of protecting other metals by its electro-positive. state towards them, its own decay is prevented by its oxide, which exists only as a thin film, is insoluble in water, and is not easily removed. These properties of zinc have long been known ; but have not until now been practically taken advantage of for two reasons:— 1st. The impussibiliiy of procuring /lure zinc, except at a cost so great as to prevent its use. And, 2ndly. The impossibility of applying pure zinc in a melted stale to iron. Impure zinc is of little or no value as a protection to other metals, because the impurities it contains being all electro-negative to it, are by their galvanic action operating to its destruction ; and there is no method of procuring the metal pure, but by distillation or deposition. But supposing pure zmc to be obtained, the difficulty is still to be oTercome, of applying it, xcept by deposition. 76 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Feb. 17, Tlie best and cheapest solution of zinc is the sulphate, which may he safely useJ lo coat articles of iron, the zinc having the greatest affinity for the solvent of (he solution. One pound of dry crystallized sulphate of zinc, to one gallon of water, forms a very good solution; very little intensity of lattery is necessary, indeed, if the quaniilij he well balanced with the surface of the articles in ihe solution, and the electricity has not too far to travel, no intensity is required. The electro process therefore olTers a cheap and eHectual mode of protecting iron frum oxiddtion, by coating it with pure zinc. DIclalllc Cloth is another adaptation of this art, for which article we have recently obtained patents, and which is valuable from its properties if resist- ing the efl'ects of the almospl)ere, as well as being water and fire proof, besides being so light that a surface of nine square feet may be made to weigh only 18 ounces. The mode of manufacturing is as follows:— On a surface of copper, attach very evenly stout linen, cotton, or woollen cloth, and connect it with the negative |iole of a galvanic battery, immerse it m a solution of copper or other metal, connecting a piece of the same metal as that in solution, with the positive pole : decomposition takes place, and endeavouring to reach the copper plate, the metal insinuates itself into all tlje pores of the cloth, forming a perfect metallic sheet. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. Patented by Thomas W. Booker, Esq., of Melin Griffith, near CardifT- (From the Transactions of the Society of Arts.) The method usually, now and heretofore, adopted in the manufacture of bar iron (where the dangerous, and, as the auihor thinks, reprehensible prac- tice of puddling the crude or raw pig iron, without the intervention of the refining process, is not adopted), is as follows : — The pig iron is thrown up on what is called the milling finery, or run into the finery in a fluid state, from the smelting or blast furnace, and after underguing the process of re- fining, it is run out into cakes or moulds, and suffered to get cold ; it is then broken up into lumps of a convenient size, and thrown into the. puddling re- verberatury furnace, which is usually constructed with one door, and at which only one man can work at a time. The author's improved method is detailed in his specification, plan, and model, and its effect is this — a saving of full 50 per cent, in fuel, and nearly 50 per cent, in metal, an immense saving of labour, and a (greatly increased product of work in the puddling furnace — the usual product of a puddling lurnace being from fourteen to eighteen tons in a week, while the author's will as easily produce from forty to fifty tons in a week. The author thus combines the processes of refining wilh pudilling, and to show the importance of preserving, and the hazard of dispensing wilh the refining process, he subjuins the results of analysis by M. Berihier of three samples of cinder or scoria, in one of which the remark- able fact of the presence of phosphoric acid shows how important this opera- tion is to the purification of the iron : — Protoxide Pliosnhoric Silica. of Iron. Alumina. Acid. A Staff'ordshire sample.. 0-276 .... 0-612 .... 0040 .... 0-072 A South Wales sample.. 0-368 .... 06-10 .... 0015 .... none Ditto do. 0424 .... 0520 .... 0033 .... none The object of Mr. Booker's invention is to simplity and accelerate the conversion of cast iron from its crude state into malleable or wrought iron, for which purpose the refinery or furnace is adapted to the various qualities or descriptions of cast or pig iron which it may be ne- cessary to use, by surrounding or enclosing the hearth w-ith blocks of cast iron, into and through which water is allowed to flow or not as may be ex- pedient, and as is well understood in making refinery furnaces, the blast of air being introduced through one, two, or more apertures or tuyres, as usual. The refinery isconnected with the reverberaiory or puddling furnace, which is constructed ot the requisite form and dimensions. The bottom of the body of the furnace, and the grate bars, and binding plates and bars, are formed of iron ; the other parts of the furnace are constructed with firebricks, sand- stone, or fire clay, as is well understood. In the neck, or near the flue of the reverberatory furnace is an aperture through which the iron, when it has become decarburetted or refined in the refinery, is introduced or run in a fluid stale direct from Ihe refining hearth into the puddling or reverberatory fur- nace. On each side of which reverberatory furnace a dour is constructed ; the door in the one side being immediately opposite to the door in the other, through which two doors the workmen perform tlie process of puddling in the ordinary way in which puddling is done, when working only with one door, which is the general practice. As RESPECTS THE Kefining. — Having thrown up the fuel, and having, by the api.lication of fire and blast, procfuced the necessary heat, a charge of nine cwt. or thereabouts of pig or cast iron, of the description generally used for iorge purposes, is thrown on and melted down and decarburetted ot refined in the ordinary way ; and when the refining process is completed, the whole charge of metal is run off in a fluid state direct into the reverberatory or puddling furnace previously prepared to receive it, by having been already heated to a proper degree of temperature, and by the bottom, sides, bridge, and opening to the flue being protected in the ordinary way, by the work- men having previously thrown in a sufficient quantity of limestone and iron cinder, The metal having been introduced into the reverberatory or puddling furnace in a fluid state, the workmen raise, apply, and regulate, and vary the heat in the ordinary way, by feeding and moving the fire in the grate, and raising or lowering the damper on the top of the stack or flue, as circum- stances require, and as is well understood ; they at the same time stir and agitate the iron with bars and puddles, while the escape of the oxide of carbon in a gaseous shape takes place, and until the whole mass of iron agglutinates. The workmen then divide it into lumps or balls of a convenient size, and draw the charge from the furnace, passing the lumps to the squeezer, hammer, or rolling cylinders, or such other contrivance or machinery as is used for forging or compressing the iron. During the process of refining the iron, by the application of heat and _ blast, in the open refining hearth, a considerable quantity of scoria or ■ cinder is produced, which is tapped and run off as heretofore, as circum- ■ stances require; but it is to be observed, that during the process wdiich the iron undergoes in the reverberatory or puddling furnai e, the author does not find that any cinder need be generated or produced, and cinders and lime- stones are thrown in, as already described, for the protection of the various parts of the furnace exposed to the action or agitation of the fluid metal, but no cinder need be tapped or drawn off. Mr. Aikin's opinion.- The principal novelty in Mr. Booker's invention consists in placing the refining and the puddling furnace so near each other that the refined iron may be run in a liquid state into the puddling lurnace, J instead of allowing it (as is usual) to cool and become solid when let out of ^ the refinery, previous to its being transferred to the puddling furnace. The beat lost by the iron is thus saved, as we 1 as the time required to bring the solid refined iron to a state of fusion. Both the refining and puddling are to be performed, according to Mr. Booker, in the usual way; it was there- fore incumbent on him to show how it happens that while the common pro- cess of puddling produces slag, his does not. Mr. Booker's statement that by his process a saving of full 50 per cent, in fuel, and nearly 50 per cent, in metal, is eflected, appears to be an enormous exaggeration ; the saving in the former being only (as far as appears) the fuel required to melt the refined iron. In making iron of the best quality, 3174 cwt. of pig iron give 26"45 refined, which is reduced to 23 in the pud- dling process. 8 74, therefore, is the loss which 3r74 pig suffers in becoming puddled iron. Half this loss, namely, 4-37, will represent 50 per cent, of saving, and this, added to 23, makes 27'3V, which is 0-92 more than the entire quantity of refined iron. Berthier's analysis of two samples of scoriae from South Wales, and one from Staffordshire, showing the presence of phosphoric acid in the former and none in the latter, has no hearing on Mr. Bookei's statement, that in the process of refining, the phosphoric acid is separated from the iron. If the quality ot the iron produced by Mr. Booker's process is not worse than ihat of iron refined and puddled in the usual method, Mr. B."s process deserves the approbation of the Society. But I would recommend that Sir J. Guest, or some other pract cal iron master, should I'e consulicd. In answer to a communication from the Secretary, Mr. Booker writes; — " I account for ' the production of slag in the common puddling furnace, and its non-production in mine, as follows : — The common puddling furnace is so constructed that the iron operated upon in it is exposed to a very rapid draught or current of air, which rushes in at the grate at the back of the fur- nace, and passes off through the body and into the flue and stack at the head thereof. This draught is so great as to oxidize the iron, and transform a great portion of it into slag or scoria during the process of puddling, which process, moreover, is effected so slowly, that the charge of iron, consisting of from 3J cwt. to 4J cwt. is exposed lo the heat and draughts in the puddling furnace during the space of full an hour and a half. '- My puddling furnace is so constructed, that the draught or current of air admitted at ihe grate is broken, and its oxidizing effects upon the surface of the iron while fluid, and upon the fibrous particles as they cohere, after the oxide of carbon has been expelled, are entirely neutralised. That pirtion> therefore, of the charge which in the common puddling furnace is convertid into slag or cinder, in mine is not wasted or oxidised, but remains, and is converted into pure malleable iron. " 'The saving of fuel' is accounted for thus: — In the common puddling furnace not more than 4S cwt. of metal is admitted at one time, and this in a solid cold state. In mine, double Ihe quantity is admitted, and that in a melted and fluid state. It is obvious that the time, fuel, and labour necessary for melting the iron are saved, and that double the quantity of iron is con- verted from a cast into a malleable state within halt the same space of time.', 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 11 THE PHILOSOPHY OF DESERT FORMATIONS. ( Continued from page i2.) In vain, in lliis grand and universal wreck of by-gone existences, will the geologist look for the mixed material composing many of the older soils of Europe: the fossils of the one and of the other speak alike of a common origin, of causes similating to causes, effects to effects; but the mineral kingdom is still in its infancy, is still but par- tially developed: it has naphtha, bitumen, mineral pitch, and bitumi- nous rocks, but no coal: it has the metalloyds in their uncombined, and even in their combined state; but it has neither iron, copper, silver, tin, or other mines of metallic substance ; and, where the me- tals are developed, as M. Guielin truly observes, they are but superfi- cially disposed upon or near the surface of the earth : it has no lacu- strine or terrestrial deposits, no aluminous clays, no formations analo- gous to the lias, no fossils which tell of its previous occupation by terrestrial forms of life; the beds of its lowest valleys and plains, as its most elevated tracks, denote the one common origin, and exhibit properties and fossil bodies common to both. Wherever the fresh waters descend from above, or percolate through the porous strata, there fertility appears ; the soils of the desert, like the island in the midst of the ocean, when favourably disposed, teeming with vegeta- tion, and demonstrating by its abundance and the sterility around it that nature operates by general laws. Every locality has its local phenomena, and from no one portion can we take a sample as illus- trative of the one great whole: the groups and families of mollusca, the chains of reefs, and the beds of marl filled with reliquae, are all peculi.ir to their respective regions, and confined to that geographical area within which alone they can exist. To whatever depth these soils have been explored the same phenomena is presented to obser- vation, and in no one instance throughout these extensive tracks, on digging for water, have vgetable earths or other products generated by their presence been discovered; they are alike deficient of the gems and metals common to older soils, or lands more favourably situate for their development and increase. In these localities dis- posed within rainy regions, or watered by rivers, the mineral kingdom is largely developed, and many of the metals towards the eastern and southern regions of Africa are found in abundance ; but the only metal generally disseminated over the virgin earth is iron in its oxidated state united with calx, or developed in saline beds in the form of iron glance; in this latter state it abounds in Mount Ormus in the Persian Gulf, which elevation is almost wholly composed of muriate of soda: beyond the state of sulphate, phosphate or carbonate, iron ore is rarely or never seen, and only where water is present. Again, in these soils, the stones continue for indefinite periods of time in the petrified state, similating in their general composition and cha- racter; and such is the case with desert sands, the one and the other becoming translucent and crystalline, as they are exposed to the con- joint action of heat and water: thus in the river Nile, many of the sands are exceedingly beautiful, and other of the stones are converted into varieties of quartz and mineral gems. All the plains and elevations of the deserti are more or less im- pregnated with salt, and the greater part of the springs are so saline as to render the water wholly unfit for man or animal to drink. By the sea of Abyssinia, the s ilt exists in dry solid masses : the summit of the mountains which border the desert to the west of Grand Cairo present an immense plain, covered with a mass of lalt extending over a surface of 3U or 4U square miles. In the Mesopotamian deserts there is an abundance of rock salt, much of it in very large transparent crystals. In the kingdom of Tunis, mount Had Delfu is entirely com- posed of rock salt, and in lact there are few parts of the desert where it is not to be found. The earths of soda and magnesia are also ex- ceedingly abundant, entering into the composition of rocks, and decom- posed masses of calcareous matter, and giving character to the marls. The hills which form the boundaries of Upper Egypt are all of fossil composition, some of them have passed by gradual transition into compact limestone, and when within the reach of the waters have assumed a quartzose structure: others are in the state of soft carbonate of lime, indurating as they become exposed tj the hot dry air, and the fossil shell fish contained therein are discovered in their various stages of conversion into chalk, from which state, on exposure to the atmosphere, they silicify.and eventually become Egyptian jasper. Many extensive formations are wholly composed of Cirrhipedes, pipe corals, ostrae, &c. ; the upper plains exhibit a great variety of species in their fossilized state, particularly echini, ostree, radiati, and other fish of a calcareous nature ; in some places the limpets and rock oysters are seen fossilizing as the ro ;ks indurate ; in fact their changes and re-combi- nations are, generally speaking, indefinite. Many of the hill ranges in the very heart of the Nabian and Suez deserts have a striking similarity in character and composition, to the very recent formations bordering the Red Sea, being of a calcareous nature, and containing vast quantities of the same species of marine exuviee : the perpen- dicular fronts of both mark the action of the waters as they have slowly decreased, and their upper surface terminating in considerable plains covered with salt and fossil bodies; and where the dry hot sands have covered in the fossils for a series of ages, they have been preserved from change, so that when taken therefrom, pearl oysters have exhibited all their native freshness, as though recently abstracted from the waters: they also contain aggregates of an indeterminate character between granite and sandstone, or limestone and sandstone, in whii-'h are numerous crystalline secretions of sulphate of iron: some of the beds gradually assuming a lamellated appearance, the fossils and chalk being in alternate layers, as is often exhibited by the chalk formations of this country. In some of the extensive valleys the whole of the fossil bodies spread over the surface are covered with a delicate bloom of sulphate of magnesia; in other places the eye is dazzled by the lustre reflected from crystalline salt or selinite. Green marble (serpentine) is very prevalent in the Nubian and Egyptian deserts, rose jasper in its various stages of formation, from the slightly adhesive mass of siliclfying pebbles and calcareous mat- ter, until the whole of the aggregates become united by the silicious waters, jasper is exceedingly abundant, and Mr. Bruce mentions small pieces having green, white, and red spots, called in Italy Diaspo Sanguineo : the granites and porphyries sometimes form entire hills, and with marbles and limestone entire mountains; and the mountains bordering the sea, or those which receive the rains, have a reddish or brownish hue, the calcareous matter spreading over their surface having passed into various stages of change. Both Buchardt and Bruce speak of enormous masses of red granite, hornblende and rose quartz as being exceedingly abundant, particularly near the borders of the Nile, and in the rainy regions. It was from the heart of the desert, between Cosseir and the river Nile that the ancients quarried their fine granites, marbles, and porphvries. Of the phenomena of the desert, the moving pillars of sand are not the least remarkable. Bruce says, "we were at once surprised and terrified by a sight, one of the most magnificent in the world. In that vast expanse of desert (Waadi el HabsudJ, from W. to N.W. of us, we saw a number of prodigious pillars of sand at different distances, at times moving with great celerity, at others stalking on with a majestic slowness ; at intervals we thought they were coming in a very few minutes to overwhelm us, and small quantities of sand did actually more than once reach us ; again they would retreat so as to be almost out of sight, their tops reaching to the very clouds. There the tops often separated from the bodies; and these once disjoined, and dis- persed in the air, did not again appear. Sometimes they were broken near the middle, as if struck by a large cannon shot. About noon they began to advance with considerable swiftness upon us, the wind being very strong at north. Eleven of them ranged along side'of us about the distance of three miles. The greatest diameter of the largest appeared to me at that distance as if it would measure 10 feet. They retired from us with a wind at S.E., leaving an impression upon the mind to which I can give no name, though surely one ingredient in it was fear." This phenomenon is common to the deserts of Nubia and Arabia, and generally occurs in plains surrounded by high mountains: it is produced in like manner as waterspouts, by contending currents in the atmosphere, the upper and prevailing current being opposed by the other, changes its force of direction towards the earth, descending in a spiral form, and rebounding from the earth passes upwards within the vortex it creates, until it reaches the prevailing current, when it is immediately broken to pieces; the sands are preserved in their pillar like form by the encircling current. I have often encountered them in the Arabian deserts, with a sensation of pleasure rather than fear, for it does not appear that any danger exists either of being carried up by the whirlwind, or being choked by the falling sands. The Samiel (signifying angel of death), sometimes termed the Simoon, is in reality dangerous and deserving its name, and instances of entire caravans having been overwhelmed are related by many his- torians. While in the midst of an extensive plain where all retreat is cut off, it is seen advancing in a dull yellowish fog, extending from the surface of the earth to an inconsiderable height; its outer edge has the copper colour hue of clouds preceding a hurricane in the West Indies ; its searching influence is felt long before it reaches you, and even the camel, shows symptoms of alarm, uttering loud cries; and every traveller falls prostrate with his face towards the earth to prevent suffocation. In one of the Waadis of Nubia I encountered this venomous blast, and as it passed over my prostrate form, every part of my body tingled as though innumerable sparks of fire had come in contact with the flesh. When blown over, which was in about ten minutes, I found my water skins dried up, and the sands on the wind- 78 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Feb. 17, ward side ranching to (be s;iddle-bow of my camel. This terrific blast Consists of snlpliuretled livdrogen and carburetted hydrogen, and other uoxious exhah.tions of the earth, uniting within their volumes an enormous quantity of burning sands, so exceedingly minute, as to be invisible to the eve: it is said, and I believe truly, that no human being can fully inhale this vapour without having the lungs irreparably injured, and instant death is very often the consequence. In some parts of the desert, towards the land of Abyssinia, about Narea and Caffa, there are immense marshes where the waters an- nually accumulate, until in the overflow they empty themselves into the beds of the rivers, — this gives a new character to the oceanic fossil soil, the grey marls are converted into a red bole, the sands in many places consolidate as sandstone, and much terrestrial matter or vegetable earth is blended with the various substances primarily com- posing these plains. Again a portion of these waters passes off by filtration into valleys disposed at a great distance from them, carrying ■with them the causes of etfects manifest in the changes of fossil mat- ters into minerals. The entire Delta of the Nile is spread over a marine formation, being generally of a calcareous nature, or consisting of sands silicified, marine exuvije, and marls converted into clay in consequence of uniting with the overlying matters. The deserts, in whatever parts of the globe they are disposed, even exhibit phenomena peculiar to themselves, and as such at variance •with the geological notions of the day; in our researches, no remains of lacustrine fresh water or land species have hitherto been found be- neath this marine strata, the organic character disappears the lower we descend, but, the lower beds, to the greatest extent known, consist of sands and ocean marls. We cannot therefore conclude that in the changes of this planetary body, the waters have experienced no diminution, but that the great preponderance of oceanic matter, com- posing in entirely ancient soils, as well as in recent formations, tlie phenomena of the deserts, and of newly formed islands and continents, all demonstrate priority of existence to the soils formed by the opera- tions of nature on dry land, and it is palpably manifest to all men that the ocean earths form the basis of land vegetation, and of all things produced thereon by the influence of the atmosphere. In one of the preceding articles, has already been explained the reason why the term "terrestrial" is used to designate the earth or dry land, in contradistinction to the terra "oceanic." It is palpably manifest to men of even common sense, that there are organic species peculiar to the waters, and organic species peculiar to dry land : also that there are earths peculiar to the one, and to the other, as for in- stance vegetable earth and ocean marl : in reality the one and the other are the products of animal and vegetable organic bodies— ocean marl implies or embraces varieties, but vegetable earths do not, although much animal matter is blended therewith, they are in fact the earths of earths, species of dry land proceeding from oceanic earth ; the term "terrestrial" in contradistinclion to " oceanic," implies no contradiction. It has also been observed that gelatinous matter, whether generated by animal or vegetable species favours the con- glomeration of silica, and there are few analytical chemists of the pre- sent day who will be found to dispute this acknowledged and palpable truth. I go a step beyond this and prove that gelatine favours the generation of silica. A correspondent holds it to be absurd to sup- pose that the comminuted particles of shell fish can be converted into sands. " The earthy matter in shells," being, as the correspondent says, "wholly lime;" truly this is some new discovery, the elementary con- stituents of living creatures of the deep are various, the most simple organization being purely gelatinous, others combine in their elements albumen and gelatine, with phosphorus ; otliers with these, marine acid, the earths of sodium, &c., — the abundance of these elementary compounds is manifest in the ocean slime, the phosphorescent light, and saline quality of the waters ; the slime is the natural cement of the shells of mollusca, as it is the natural and sole constituent of many species, the elements of the gelatine generated by living organic ac- tion, and forming other combinations, become converted into albumen, and then again gelatine and albumen on the death of the animal, form other combinations, entering the mineral kingdom with silica, &c. Otherwise, whence comes the silica whicli constitutes full two-thirds of the entire bulk of the earth? it is not found in the waters oosing from the ocean beds, for the generation and increase of species, is invariably followed by the continuous increase of fossil beds. Mr. Lyell would supply calcium from internal reservoirs. Whence will he derive his supply of silica and other earths? It is sa:d that silica is composed of definite elements, so is the living organic body ; in death this mathematical union is sometimes wholly dissolved, and other malliemalical and mechanical combinations lake place, the results being definite; undecompoundtd bodies, defying the art of the chemist to separate the elements of their composition but being of necessity compound bodies, and therefore susceptible under some, though to us unknown circumstances, to change. To the highly intellectual body to whom I address myself, no sub- ject can be "more interesting than "The Architectdre of this Earth ;" from the elementary works alluded to by a Correspondent, they derive ideas of the general building, but from me they learn the nature and composition of the material, and the circumstances under which it was and is produced: geologists see the building through geo- logical spectacles clouded by crude i leas and contradictory opinions, and are told to rest satisfied with this general view, and not to look for foundations to the building or primary causes of its being, as that is not their province: I simply hold up the mirror of nature and permit men to judge for themselves. Twenty years travel and obser- vation is wortii at least double the quantity of closet philosophy. Geologists teach that crystalline rocks are produced from a previous heated liquid state. I liiaintain that aggregate masses are combined together by certain common bases or cements, and under the influence of long continuous atmospheric heat or chemical action. Geologists maintain that the material of crystalline rocks has been upraised from the interior of the earth; I am jirepared to prove that the most elevated crystalline bodies are produced by atmospheric influences, and that they do not exist at any considerable depth within the earth; geologists term these rocks 'primary, and say that the causes of ettects thus manifest have universally ceased : I prove that many of them are recent, and that the causes of their formation are even now more active than ever they were. It was only a short time since that much learned eloquence was put forth by geologists to prove that from the geological character of the soil no coal could possilMy be found in the Falkland Islands, but the existence of coal in those islands was well known to individuals at that time, and it has since been proved that there is abundance of coal, and that the great beds pass by gradual transition into this mineralized form, specimens of which are now to be seen in the " Museum of Economic Geology." Again, bodies every vear are added to the number of known undecompounded bodies. Who then shall presume that natural philosophy is now perfect? Geology at present is a very uncertain and fluctuating science. The effects of heat and cold, water and atmospheric air, gases and vapours, upon bodies exposed to them, or chemically combining with each other, are palpably manifest to all men, howevc-r limited their sphere of action may be'; the flowers of the garden, the grasses of the field, the creature which exists by the one or the other, all exist by sufferance of temperature and association. On the island wholly com- posed of marine exuvia; and sands, vegetable species, peculiar to that island, make their appearance, and as they generate and die off, or periodically shed their fruits, flowers, and leaves, so the formated soil becomes covered with a coating of mould gradually increasing in thickness; the plants yield potash; whence is the potash derived? It cannot be from the oceanic soil, because in this soil potash has no place; and, again, its quantities multiply as vegetable matter in- creases ; if derived from the soil, and eventually returned to ihe soil, tliere would be no perceptible increase. It is not a constituent of ocean waters. If, then, it be an inorganic substance, whence can it be derived ? Certainly not from the atmosphere. It cannot, there- fore, be primary, not being antecedent hut contemporaneous with, as necessarily apjiertaining to, the vegetable body: under other aspects the same plantyields soda and not potash. It is found as a constituent of many mineral bodies, and its presence truly denotes the presence of vegetable matter, lost in combinations with other compounds: afford- ing demonstrable evidence that the rock, of which it forms a consti- tuent part, assumed its consolidated form after this earthy matter was deposited, consequently that the rock is a secondary product. On the AnvANTAriES of em?lo\ing Large Stecuia ant Elevated Sit- uations lOK Astronomical Observations, by C. P. Smyth. Ksf|.. in a paper lately read at the Astronomical .Society, the auihor adverts lo meihuds proposed by Mr, H. F. Talbot lor the muUi plication of copies of specula by means of the electrotype, and for observing astronomical objects with a telescope absolutely fixed, by means of a revolving plane mirror, uhieh me- thods he considers might, if carried out, produce great improvements In asironcmy. Amoni:st the advantages of the latter method he cnumerales the following, arising chiefly from the unlimited focal length which it would he possible to give lo the mirror ; First. The obviaiinn of the necessity of an ac( urate parabolic shape tor the retlector ; Secondly, The magnilying of the image willioiit distortion or colour ; Tliirdly, The small eflect which inaccu- racies of the screw ol the micrometer would produce, eye-pieces of low power being employed; Fourthly, The elimination of errors dependenl on the contraction or expansion of ihe tubes of telescopes; and lastly. The advantage of having the eve in a fixed position. The author then enlarges on Ihe advantages w'^liieh would attend the use of such a lixed telescope if placid on the slope of a high mountain, with the object-mirror and ihe eye- piece fixed on piers, and separated by a considerable interval, the mirror bein;; beneath. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. 79 GRESHAM COLLEGE. Scale 12 feet to 1 incti. In our last voUiniP, p. 27G, we gave a plate sliowiug the Basingliall Street front of Gresli.un College, at wliicli time we made some obser- vation? on the merits and demerits of the building. We now exhibit the minor front in Cateaton Street, which has less pretensions to dis- play. ON THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. By J. J. ScoLES, Esq., Fellow. (Read at the Royal Institute of Britiih Architects.) About three years shice the two first parts of the magnificent work of Colonel Vyse on the Pyramids of Egypt, were presented to the Institute, and Mr. Scoles then read a paper on the subject of the dis- coveries made by Colonel Vyse, and described the pyramids atGhizeh. On the presentation of the concluding number of the work, he took the opportUEiity, on the last meeting of the Institute, to resume the subject and to describe the further discoveries which have been made in the pyramids situated at Sakkarah, Dashhour, and other places in the"Faioum;" and which are delineated in the third number from drawings by Mr. Perring, the civil engineer, under whose direction the various excavations were made at the, expense of the gallant Colonel. There appear to be thirty-nine pyramids in Middle and Lower Egypt, all of which have been explored by Mr. Perring. They are situate on the western side of the Nile, cliiefiy on the desert hills, occupying a space measuring from north to south of fifty-three English miles. The first pyramid described by Col. Vyse is known by the name of Abou Roash; the base is 320 ft. square. The bulk of it is built of the mountain rook, (a sort of hard cbalk,) which has been reduced to a level around it, and the defective places have been made good with masonry. No part of the external casing is to be found ; indeed the edifice was not probably ever completed or raised to a considerable height. A passage about KiO ft. long, commencing on the north and descending at an angle of 22° 35' leads to an apartment about 4U ft. by 15 ft.; above it smaller chambers appear the have been constructed similar to those in the king's chamber in the great pyramid of Ghizch, called "Chambers of Construction," because they relieve the lower part from the superincumbent weight. Near to the pyramid are lieaps of broken granite, which may be the chips of tile blocks for the extreme casing; the blocks tliemselves probablv have been re- used in modern times, as the pyramids have been a sort of quarry for ages past. The fragments, though granite, crumble to pieces upon being handled, and are much decomposed, either from great antiquity or from an exposure not merely to the corroding air of the desert, but also to the moist winds of the Delta. The common saying that it never rains in Egypt, only applies to the upper country. In the Delta, extending from the sea to the district of the pyramids, rain is frequent and copious, and it was noticed that persons have arrived at Alexandria and remained there some time, subject to continual rain, and have left with the impression that it always rained in Egypt, although their idea before visiting the country was, that there it never rained. The next pyramid is situate at Rhtgah. Mr. Scoles here re- marked that the names given to the pyramids and by which they are known, are derived from the villages nearest these monuments, and have no reference to their ancient names, though frequently the site of an ancient city is to be traced in the modern name of the villages in the vicinity. This pyramid of Rhegah is curious, on account of being carried up in two inclines, like a pyramid at Dashhour. Mr. Perring did not succeed in discovering any entrance to it; but in the course of his excavation he discovered fragments of stone sculptured and coloured, and some marked with golden stars upon a dark blue ground, as if belonging to the ceiling of an apartment. At ./ibouseer are five pyramids, some tolerably perfect; Mr. Perring experienced great difficulty in exploring the interiors, as large masses of rubble masonry constantly fell in and seriously injured some of the explorers. The interior of three of these pyramids are similar in their arrangement. The entrance passages leading from the centre of the northern fronts are at first inclined and afterwards horizontal. The apartments in the centre, range from east to west, and are covered by inclined roofs, formed of several courses of stones. The bulk of the northern building has been in the first instance carried up in degrees or steps, and afterwards completed in the pyramidal form. The masonry in general is very rude, consisting of rough blocks of various sizes put together like rubble work with Nile earth instead of mortar. The passages are lined with granite and were closed by portcullis of granite; this material was apparently introduced to give strength to the masonry where its solidity was weakened by passages, &c., and as an additional security there had been three tiers of roof blocks over the chamber, and the base of the upper tier had been carried beyond those of the lower, in order to distribute the pressure over as great a base as possible. These blocks were of immense size, some 45 ft. long, 9ft. wide, and 12 ft. thick, and yet so completely had they been destroyed by the indefatigable exertions of the people who broke into these pyramids, that only two perfect blocks and fragments of two others remain. The marks of wedges were every way visible, but Mr. Perring observes, it is difficult to imagine any power but that of gunpowder could have effected so much destruction. A recess in the casing above the entrance appears to have been intended to re- ceive an inscription like that, as we are informed by Diociorns, was placed over the entrance of tlie third pyramid of Ghizeli; and this circumstance may account for the inscription said by Herodotus and by other authors to have been seen upon the great pyramids. In one of the Abouseer pyrandds blocks of granite filled up the entrance passage and remained in their original positions, clearly proving that the interior of the pyrunids was not inteniled for any astronomical purposes. The pyramids of Ghizeli had the passages similarly filled up, and the violators of these monuments of the dead had in the first instances forced a way down to the chambers through the solid masonry. The larger of these Abouseer pyramids was built insteps or degrees covered over with flat stones, and the space between these and the pyranddal casing was perhaps filled up with a rubble work of smaller stones. The murtar used in this pyramid was composed of Nile earth mixeil with a small quantity of lime or pounded limestone. In this py- ramid we have a specimen of the durability of wood, lor a long piece of this material had been worked into the masonry, which though rather shaky, was completely sound, and must have been built in the masonry at the time of the original creation of the building, a considerable THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Feb, 17, portion of the same still remaining inclosed amon^ the stones that have not heon disturbed, and tlic mortar adhering to its surface, which could only have t;iken place when it was first laid on. A portion of this very" piece of vt'ood is in the British Museum. In the smaller pyramid the apartment was V2 ft. 2 in. long, and 10 ft. Gin, wide; the roof was covered with blocks laid horizontally, and which had given way. At Sakkarah are eleven pyramids and a large building called the Throne of Pharaoh. They are built of stone, and are much decayed, except the large one, which is built in degrees, and this and another towards the north-east are the only two at present open. Mr. Per- ring has given a sketch of these pyramids, and that gentleman re- marks that Bruce probablv alluded to this view, when he observed that "Ihe traveller is lost in the immense expanse of desert, which lie sees full of pyramids before him — is struck with terror at the un- usual scene of vastness, and shrinks from attempting any discovery among the moving sands of Sakkarah." hi the second pyramid the regular inclined passage in the centre of the northern front remains closed up with masonry. The two apartments liave pointed roofs, the blocks which form the sides are not laid in horizontal beds, but are laid on an inclined (jlane like the beds of the queen's chamber in the great pyramid of Gbizeh. The great pyramid of Sakkarah is called by the Arabs, Haram el Modarrggeh, "The Pyramid of Degrees." It is evident that the ex- terior of the edifice originally consisted of six degrees or stories, varying in heiglit and gradually diminishing in height towards the top, each of which had the shape of a truncated pyramid, and was successively smaller than that below it; but by the effect of time and violence, the whole of the eastern and nearly the whole of the northern and of the soutl'.ern sides of the lowest tier have been re- moved. Two attempts have also been made to force an entrance on the southern side, and the French are said to have employed artillery for the purpose. The bulk of the masonry consists of loose rubble work, and is inclosed by walls about Oft. in thickness, and are com- posed of rudely squared stones set to the angle of the face; and the breadth of the building from north to south has apparently been in- creased by an additional wall on each of these sides. The walls of the lowest tier are lU ft. thick. The mortar is of various kinds, but it is principally composed of the gravel of the desert and of lime, or of Nile earth, and of small pieces of calcareous stone. The face of each story has an angle of 73" 3U' with the horizon. The entrance is in a pit which opens into a passage partly horizontal and partly inclined, leading to the lower part of the large apartment. Near the entrance of the passage is a hole for the pivot of a door. Another passage from the norlliern front leads to the same apartment at 7ft. Gin. above the floor. A third entrance from the same front communicates with a recess in the upper part of the apartment. A fourth entrance proceeding from a pit on the southern side, communicates by a hori- zontal gallery with another recess 7U ft. above the floor of the a|>art- ment. The gallery is an excavation, but as the rock above it was not of sufficient thickness to sustain the weight of the superincumbent masonry, the ceiling is supported by a row of 22 short columns formed with blocks of compact limestone. The columns have been brought to their bearings by wedges of wood. The southern end of this gal- lery did not seem to have been previously visited, as nearly 3U u.um- niies were found in it apparently undisturbed. They had neither coffins ur sarcophagi, but three or four had painted decorations ; they were enclosed in wrappers with pitch and bitumen : but as Mr. Per- ring did not meet with any of the objects usually deposited with miiinmies, excepling some of the common stone idols on the bodv of a female, he therefore concluded they were the bodies of persons employed on the building. The large apartment (measuring 24 ft. by 23 ft., and 77 ft. high) is an excavaiiiin. The original ceiling was examined by the help of torches made of greased rags, and ascertained to have been formed with planks, supported by a platform of timber, consisting of cross bearers of oak, l.ircli and cedar, and of two principal beams of oak about 18 by 12, and strutted irom each side by angle pieces. The larch was in the soundest state. Beneath the floor of ihis large apartment, which consists of blocks of granite 3 ft. G in. to 4 ft. G in. thickness, a remarkable chamber 10 ft. long, 5 ft. 4 in. wide, and 5 ft. 4 in. high had been formed ; Ihe entrance to it hid been closed by a conical block of granite shaped like the stopper of a bottle, above four tons weight. The Baron von Minutoli supposes tliis chamber to have been the place of an oracle ; but Mr. Perring is of opinion the place was in- tended for a treasury, because there did nut appear any secret en- trance by which a man could easily have got into it, and because the ponderous block by which it was closed did not seem fitted for mys- terious purposes, as a number of men and machinery also would be required to raise it; because likewise no acoustic effect was perceived which would peculiarly qualify the place for an oracle. The floor of the large apartment was supported by pillars of loose masonry wedged up with wood to an uniform height; broken pieces of wood, crooked branches, &c. have been inserted between the pil- lars to tie them together. The extensive employment of wood is peculiar to this pyramid. There are other smaller apartments in this pyramid. The doorway in one of them is bordered with hierogly- phics in relief, and small stars in relief are sculptured on the headings of this and another doorway. The sides of some of the apartments are ornamented with rows of convex pieces of bluish-green porcelain about G in. by 41 in., inscribed on the back with a hieroglyphic, the impression of which remained on the cement. The porcelain had been removed. At the back of each piece of porcelain was a projection pierced through with a hole, into which the moist stucco upon the wall entered (the stucco was composed principally of plaster of Paris); in some instances to in- crease the adhesion the wall was also perforated in the same manner. This pyramid differs from the rest in many respects. It is the only one in Egvpt the sides of which do not exactly f.ice the cardinal points, the northern front being 4" 35' east of the true north. It differs in the form and mode of building, in the number and complexity of the passages and apartments, having four entrances, one being on the southern side; by the hieroglyphics and peculiar ornaments on the walls of the chambers, and also in containing a large apart- ment covered with timber. The remaining pyramids at Sakkarah are very much ruined, and have not any peculiar arrangements or con- struction to require particular notice. The throne of Pharaoh, so called, from an Arabian tradition that an ancient king of Egypt erected it for his seat, is a pyramidal building, composed of very large stones and constructed in two degrees or stories. The materials consist of coarse calcareous stones, in which are semi-petrified oyster shells. The building has no doubt been a tomb, but no entrance has been dis- covered. At D ishhour are three pyramids of stone and two of crude brick. The north stone pyramid is the most perfect of any in this district. The stones are laid in horizontal courses, and the masonry is good ; the angle at the apex is nearly a right angle, and the building has on that account a handsome and solid appearance. The usual inclined passage leads to the chambers about 12 ft. wide, which are covered over by the courses of the walls over sailing about G in. on each side, leaving the ceiling I ft. 2 in. in width. The southern stone pyramid is built in two inclinations, so that the lower part has the form of a truncated and the upper that of a per- fect pyramid, which mode of construction, according to Sir Gardner Wilkinson, was probably occasioned by a desire to complete the building more quickly than it was at first intended : this conjecture was in some degree confirmed by Mr. Perring's researches, by which it appeared that the upper part had been carried up with less care than the lower, and was also composed of smaller stones ; but what- ever may have been the cause, all architects must agree with Mr. Perring that the ert'ect is unpleasant, and very inferior to that of the other regular formed pyramids. The beds of the casing stones are not horizontal ; but incline downwards towards the interior of the edifice, in order probably to obtain greater solidity, as likewise to save the materials, as less of the external faces of the stones thus laid would require to be worked away to complete the exterior of the building. This inclination, however, is not uniform, nor at right angles to the exterior, but it seems to be regulated by the shape of the blocks. The usual inclined passage leads to several chambers, which are covered by the side courses approacliing each other. The northern brick pyramid is composed of crude bricks IG in. long, 8 in. wide, and from 4| in. to 5.j in. thick, some composed of al- luvial soil, some of sandy loam mixed up with Nile earth and a little straw. All the bricks are remarkably solid, laid principally in courses from north to south, occasionally intersected by courses from east to west. The bricks were bedded in, and the interstices between them were filled in with fine dry sand. The bricks were marked on the upper surface, by means of the fingers, with ditt'erent signs, ap- parently according to their quality and also according to their posi- tion. The most usual mark had been made by two fingers about 1 in. apart, having been drawn down the middle. This building was cased with stone, and it was supposed that stone might have been also em- ployed in their interior for the construction of the apartments, or that the interior might afford additional proof of the antiquity of the arch, because ceilings to any extent could not have been formed with bricks in any other manner; but with all Mr. Perring's excavations and researches, he could not discover any entrance or apartments within, but he discovered a very curious and interesting mode of forming a foundation. It seems that the stony surface of the desert 1S44.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 81 had been made level by a layer of fine sand, and confined on all sides by a stone platform 14ft. C in. wide and 2 f(. 'Jin. thick, which sup- ported the external casing, and the pyramid was built upon the sanil, which is firm and solid. Mr. Perring has met with many other in- stances in Egvpt where sand had been thus used, and provided it be retained in its place it apparently may be depended upon. The blocks composing the platform were laid upon four courses of bricks. Several of the blocks of the casing were held together by stone cramps of the double wedge form. According to Herodotus, Asychis, the successor of Myserinus, added lofty propyliea to the eastern front of the temple of V'ulcan, and from a desire to surpass his predecessors, constructed a pyra- mid with bricks, upon wliich was this inscriplion — "Do not degrade me by comparing me with the pyramids built with stone, which I excel as much as Jupiter excels the other gods, for those who built me thrust poles into the lakes, and collecting together the mud which adhered to them, they made bricks, and thus they constructed me." The pyramid in question has been supposed by Mr. Hamilton and bv other good authorities, to have been built by Asychis: and in support of that opinion it may be observed that it is the most considerable pyramid built with bricks, and that it is near the other pyramids built with stone, with which it might have been compared, and also that it is within a sliort distance of the Temple of Vulcan, which Asychis had so considerably embellished: the solidity of its con- struction is likewise remarkable, not a single brick appears to have settled from its place ; and although the boasting terms of the in- scription has excited much surprise, it is difficult to imagine a mass more solid and also more durable, as long as it was protected by an external casing of stone from the effects of the atmosphere. It is certainly, therefore, as superior to those built with conmion stone rubble, as Jupiter may have been supposed to the other gods. As the whole of the bricks are not composed of alluvial soil, the latter part of the inscription can only refer to those formed of the mud or clay drawn out of one of the sacred lakes. ]f it be urged that this py- ramid could not have been built by Asychis, because from having been cased it must have had the appearance of stone, it may be remarked, that all the brick pyramids in Egypt (which are four) appear to have been covered with stone ; and likewise that the above-mentioned in- scription vvould have been unnecessary had the material of which the pyramid was formed been apparent. The southern brick pyramid is much destroyed, and Mr. Perring did not discover any traces of the chamber, the roof of which is stated by Dr. Richardson and others, to have fallen in, nor did he perceive any considerable settlement. It is built in the same manner, but not so carefully, as the other brick pyramids. The bricks contain a greater quantity of straw, and vary from ISJin. to 13iiu. long, and 73 in. to biin. wide, and oiin. to 4jin. thick. The upper surfaces have been marked with the fingers. The pyramid of Meydoom is called the false pyramid, because the base is supposed to have been formed out of a knoll of rock, and it certainly has that appearance. The base is about 53UI't. scpiare, and 124ft. Gin. Iiigh. It is formed in three degrees, each having the form of a truncated pyramid, at an angle of 74" lU'. The blocks are of compact limestone 2 ft. thick; they are laid at right angles to the extern.d face, and have been worked and put together with greatskill. The entrance was nut discoveretl. Mr. ferring thinks the whole has probably been covered with large unsquared blocks, so as to complete the shape of a regular pyramid. The appearance is very striking from the river, and particularly commanded the attention of Mr. Scoles and his fellow-travellers in passing up the Nile. The lllahoon pyramid is built round the knoll of a rock, which is nearly 4U ft. higher than the base ; the rock has been faced with crude bricks, and a superstructure has been erected over it, composed of the same material, and supported by walls of stone wdiich proceed from the centre of the edifice. The bricks are laid in a mortar formed of Nile earth, as high as the walls extend, and above them in gravel. They measure Ibiin. by Si in., and about Oiin. in thickness, are well worked, and are formed of Nile earth, mixed up with various propor- tions of chopped straw, and are marked with the fingers as at Dash- hour. Another ruined brick pyramid exists at Hovvarah : the bricks laid in tine gravel. No entrance to it has been discovered. There are three other pyramids,-tvvo at Biahhrao and one at hi Koofa, both built of stone, but of small dimensions. Most of the pyramids have been connected with the plain by in- clined causeways formed of large blocks of stone, some with a parapet wall on each side. These inclined roads were no doubt originally con- structed for the conveyance of the stone, and of the other materials used in the erection of the pyramids, but they seem afterwards to have constituted the regular approaches. Herodotus mentions that they ' were adorned with tlie figures of animals, which were probably either sculptured hieroglyphics, or an avenue of sphinxes; and at Abousecr fragments of black basalt, at nearly equal distances, were found on the causeway. Pavements about two feet in thickness extended around the buildings, and where the rock was low the pavement was placed upon a layer of sand. The pyramids correspond in their general arrangement ; with one exception their sides are placed exact to the cardinal points ; and in the excepted one the difference is only 4°35'; the entrances are on the north side (the pyramid at Sakkarah being the only one having, in addition, an entrance on the south side), and in having the inclined passages leading to various apartments, which passages, to a con- siderable way down, have been filled up with solid blocks of stone or granite of the exact size of the apertures. The discovery of sarcophagi, mummies, and other memorials of the dead, show that the pyramids were used for tombs, and the filling in of the passages with solid blocks proves that the interior could not have been used for astronomical purposes, and the question of those passages having been constructed lor the purpose of seeing the Polar Star is set at rest by that circumstance ; and Colonel Vyse, in his desire to further elucidate the question of the astronomical theory, communicated with Dr. Herschell, and has appended that distinguished astronomer's reply, which is to the following effect, viz. : — " That 4,000 years ago the present Polar Star, or Ursa Minoris, could by no possi- bility have been seen at any time in the twenty-four hours through the gallery in the great pyramid ; but that the star a Draconis was at that time the Polar Star, and as it is comparatively insignificant, and only of the third magnitude, if so much, it can scarcely lie supposed that it could have been seen in the day time, even in the climate of Ghizeli, or even in such a recess as the inclined entrance of the Great Pyramid, though it would have been directly in view of an observer stationed in the descending passage. No other astronomical relation can be drawn from the table containing the angles and dimensions of the passages, for although they all point within five degrees of the polo of the heavens, they differ too much and too irregularly to admit of any conclusions. The exterior angles of the buildings are remarkably uniform, but the angle of 52° is not connected with any astronomical fact, and was probably adopted for architectural reasons." Col. Vysc's work also contains some valuable information in the form of notes hy Mr. Birch, of the British Museum, upon the hieroglyphics discovered in the pyr.imids, with reference to the dates, pre-nomens, and royal standards of the monarchs by whom the pyramids were erected ; but many of these hieroglyphics are quarry marks, some in red ochre, but instead of having been inscribed, like those on the pyramids at Ghizeh, upon stone brought from the Mokattam quarries, they were found also upon blocks quarried on the spot, and Mr. Birch observes — "This is remarkable; in the former instance they may have been intended to distinguish the materials which had been prepared for a royal edifice, but in the present case their use is not obvious, and they can only have served to denote the founder of each particular pyramid." But Mr. Harris, an English merchant, wdio has been resident in Egypt above twenty years, in a letter to Mr.Perring gives a mure matter of fact meaning, by suppos- ing that these incripliuns were directions to guide those who em- barked the stones at the quarries, who conveyed it to its destination, and who built it when there, and that some of the characters indicate the building for which the stones were destined, and others the posi- tion in which they were to be placed, and that these directions could not be necessary to all the stones of a building, but would be requisite for all or most of those composing the linings of the chambers, passages, and other particular positions. The desecration of these magnificent mausoles by the intombmentof subjects, as the inscriptions relate to the interments of a royal scribe and a military chief, is a surprising fact, which cannot now be satisfac- torily accounted fur ; although history informs us that the memory of the monarchs who erected some of the pyramids was not held in much veneration. As regards the period in which the pyramids were erected Mr. Scoles could not offer any satisfactory opinion ; by some authors they are placed more than 2,000 B.c.or about 4,000 years since; tiy others 1,200 years later, or only 2,300 since. This latter opinion is supported by Mr. Watiien, an architect, who, in his work on the arts, antiquities, and chronicles of ancient Egypt, from observations made in 1S39, has very fully entered into this subject, and supposes the spoils, the gold and silver, taken from the Temple of Solomon, by the king Shishak of Scripture, 970 B.C., were applied to build these pyramids, and the author has given some curiuus dissertations on the chronology and dynasties of ancient Egypt. Many circumstances show that those at Ghizeh were the first erected, and that the pyramids of Dash- 82 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Fbb. 17, hour were constructed in imitation of the stone ones, and to have been formed of brides on account of tlie comparative cheapness. The circumstance of many of these pyramids being carried up in degrees or steps, agrees with a passage in Herodotus relative to the mode of building the large pyramid, which he describes as fol- lows: "This pyramid (the large one)," he says, "was constructed in the manner of steps, by some called parapets, by others little altars; such being its original construction, they raised the remaining stones with machines made of short pieces of wood, from the ground to the first layer of steps, and when the stone was let down on this, it rested on a second machine standing on the first layer, from this it was drawn to a second layer, where another machine lay to receive it, for there were just as many machines as layers of stones, or perhaps, continues Herodotus, they transferred the same single portable machines to each layer on removing the stone, and thus the upper part of the pyramid was first finished off, then the next part, and last of all the lower ground part. Now these parapets as they are termed corres|)ond with the side degrees or pi itforms, as we would call them, seen in these pyia- mids, and on which the machines were placed; for the small steps formed by the sets-off of each course, as were seen in the large pyra- mid, previous to the insertion of the casing stones, would not have been wide enough for the machines to rest on." The word parapet, as used in the translation, does not mean a pro- tecting wall to a platform, as we in general understand it, but evidently the platform, and in the North of England it is so applied at the pre- sent time, and the foot pavement is called the parapet. As connected with the pyramids, Colonel Vyse has given an ac- countof Captain Caviglia's excavations in 1818 in front of the sphinx; when he discovered the steps, and a small temple in front of this gigantic figure, which is cut out of the solid rock. The paws stretch out 5U ft. in advance, and are built of masonry. That the monument is imposing in its aspect, cannot be doubted ; but in its defaced state, it is dilhciilt to perceive (to quote the words of the explorer) "the contemplative turn of the eye, the mild expression of the mouth, and the beautiful disposition of the drapery at the angle of the forehead," which rivetted so much the attention of Captain Caviglia. Mr. Pf rring has annexed some remarks on the measure by which the ]ivramids were built, with reference to the cubit. The length of the ordinary cubit, as the name implies, was the distance from the elbow to the middle finger, containing six hands breadth, each of which was divided into four finger breadths. Mr. Perring says the dimensions of the pyramid agreed with a cubit as described in Ezekiel chap. xl. V. 5, " In the n)an'shand a measuring reed, of six cubits long by the cubit and a hands breadth," and therefore contained seven hands breadth, equal in English feet to 1'707 ft., and that by this measure a general agreement is obvious in the dimensions of the building. The stone arched tomb near the great pyramid, named after Colonel Campbell, the Consul in Egypt, was next referred to; by some called the Nile girt tomb, being placed in a pit 30 It. Gin. by 26ft. Sin. wide, and 53ft. deep, surrounded by a trench or narrow canal 5 It. 4 in. wide and 73ft. deep. The bottom course of slabs 5ft. in length was bedded on a layer of sand 2 ft. 6 in. thick, (another instance of this mode of forming an artificial foundation), and the side walls were formed with small stones. The ceiling of the chamber is formed of slanting stones, with a horizontal one or stretcher between, making the middle part of the ceiling flat and the sides inclined. Immediately above this ceiling an arch commenced, which covered in the upper chamber ; the intrados of this arch formed the segment of a circle which had a radius of lift. 2in., and a span of 11 ft., was 3ft. lOin. thick, composed of four separate courses, each well breaking joint. It had not been built upon a centering observes Mr. P. (but how he ascer- tained this does nut appear.) The stones were '1 ft. long and 15 in. broad. Those of the first course had been cut to fit the joints, which radiated from the centre; vv'ith this course great care had been taken, but in the other rings the stones were rectangular and packed up at the back vith chips. Each course was separately grouted with fluid mortar. The masonry was beautifully worked, and the joints were scarcely perceptible in the interior. The undersoil of the stones of the inner course of the arch have had the arrisses taken ott", and were tooled round so as to resemble rusticated work. There were indications that the central excavation and the trench also was covered by an arch, and the whole was probably covered by a pyramid. From an inscription on this monument, the tomb was made for a scribe named Ohaikop, either during the reign of Psam- metichus II., anterior to 61.14 B.C., or of Apries, posterior to 570 B.C. This tomb contained three sarcophagi: one of the granite and a fragment of the basalt one is now in the British Museum. This arch being in the present day one of ordinary construction would not have required so full a description, if it were not about the oldest stone one we are acquainted with ; it shows that the prin- ciple of the arch was well understood at the time, and that many arches had been previously formed. The brick arches in the tombs at Thebes are of much older date, according to Sir Gardner Wil- kinson. It was worthy of notice that the arch of Campbell's tomb has no abut- ments and stood by itself, and its resemblance to the form of the sewers in the City of Westminster, must be apparent to every one conversant in that mode of building. It was singular the Greeks, with these examples before them, did not construct arches (the curved form for ceilings being much used), and that the introduction of the arch was not, with these exceptions, more general, at least, in Egypt ; and Mr. Scoles expressed himself on this account sceptical on the subject of the antiquity of these arches. He was of opinion that the arrangements and dates of the dynasties by Egyptian antiquaries, was not so satisfactorily based as to make it clear to his mind that the periods in which the kings lived, in whose reign these arches are said to be built, was free from the suspicion of error, and he concluded his paper by remarking, that the descriptions he had given of the pyramids, and other buildings, was entirely taken from Colonel Vyse's work, and that in general be had used the very words of the text. REVIE^ATS. Architecture or the Reign of George III. and the Regency. Pictorial History of England. Hisloria quoqito modo dekciat, says the great Roman orator; but he would probably have greatly altered his opinion, had he lived to read history as it is sometimes written now-a-days. Most assuredly we have not received so much dekctalion or disapi)ointment from the concluding — and what we hoped to find the most interesting chapter of all on the history of English architecture and art in the "Pictorial England," the ground to be passed over being quite fresh, and eonse- quenlly affording scope for original remark, and something more stirring than the mere echoes of long established opinions. We should have thought that any writer qualified for the task at all, would eagerly have availed himself of the opportunity so offered, to enter tolerably into ciitical remark upon the several architects and their works, of the period under review. Possibly we may wrong the writer himself, for the work being by various hands and literary as- sistants, subject to the control of the editor in chief, it is not at all un- likely that his manuscript may have undergone a good deal of pru- ning and curtailment ; and should such be the case, we really compas- sionate him, it being one of the hardest miseries of authoiship, except to a mere hack, who cares for nothing beyond his pay for the job. However, we liave only to take what we find, just as it is; and must therefore report of it as being an exceedingly rapid and con- densed sketch, in which several names are merely culalogui;d, without comment of any kind — so that tliey stand like shadowy ghosts, of whom we are left to guess whether they are destined for Elysium or Hades. Sir John Soane, indeed, may be said to be here put into the former place, and he is spoken of at much greater length than any one else. He is, besides, the only architect complimented witli his portrait; but his spirit, we suspect, would not be a little perinrbed, could it behold it, since this must be some degrees more offensive than the milucky one painted by Maclise, which caused at the time such ire and so much rumpus. But before we proceed to the estimate of Soane's professional character, we will quote an excellent remark from the opening para- graph of the architectural portion uf the chapter. "The exquisite refinement of Greek art, as it had been revealed by the gnat work uf Athenian Stuart, and tlie other researches and pub- lications to which it had given rise, had suddenly alfected the public mind in a manner which left little room fur the exercise of the judg- ment, and Greek art was unfortunately adopted, not as a. pniiapit, but as ii/as/uoii. The reproduction of its forms was demanded without reference to the (propriety of their application, or to the relations which essentially constitute the beauty of architecture. A system which reduced the art and science of aichiteclure to the appropriation of ready-made temples, and dispensed with so much of the burden of study and I bought — a faith, in art, whose yoke was so easy — could scarcely fail to attract disciples; and Greek architecture (so called) came into existence in England in the most abuilite shape in is/t/ch the narruwtst ^pifit of imilatwn could product il," 1S44.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 83 This is excellent; and the concluding words, which we have marked by italics, point out, in the clearest manner, one most mischievous radical error in the system of our Anglo or pseudo-Greek style, wliicli, owing to opposite elements being merely brought into contact, instead of being, as far as possible, reconciled together and harmonized, is for the most part a patched and piebald one, and generally bald enough in all other respects. Let us hope, then, that this soul-less, mechanical, Brummagem Gieek has had its day with us; for though a great deal of it will hardly outlive the century, there are, unhappily, some " monii- meris" in it which will record the classical dullness of the period when they were erected. In the same degree as we cordially assent to the opinion above quoted, do we differ from that expressed by the writer in what he says in regard to Soane. Great praise is undoubtedly due to Sir John : he pursued his art, con amore, at all events — which is more than can be said of every one who writes himself architect; — he ventured to think for liimself, and to bieak tlirough the trammels of mere rules, and he certainly was fertile in ingenious ideas, expedients, and con- trivances; this we readily admit, but never can we subscribe to the opinion, that the "great merit of liis peculiar style is to be found in consistency of detail;" or that his compositions "derive, from a detail based on the purest examples of antiquity, and alwai/s harmonious, a character more essentially Greek than can ever be attained bv the most literal transcript of Greek art, misunderstood and misapplied." Of course what is misunderstood and misapplied is bad, and so far much of Soane's detail may be greatly preferable, but it does not therefore follow that it is entitled to be described as a Grecian charac- ter. The truth is that although, after he first began to do so, he was always aiming at a style of his own, he never wrought out for himself, even the consistent elements of one : he just got up to a certain point, and there stuck fast, unable either to advance, or to turn back again. Never was any artist more unequal, — not only in different, but in the very same productions. Even the Bank itself — his great and most studied work, exhibits almost the very opposite extremes of taste, on its exterior, for instance, in that charming little poetical bit of design at the norlh-west angle ; and in the centre of the south front, which is little better than a mean and unmeaning jumble. The same in regard to the interior : there are many admirable ideas and delifjhtful bits ; but of the former, not one is fully wrought out; and the others are ex- hibited only in patches, or so as to appear such. "Consideied as his architectural scrap book," observes a writer in the ' London Interiors,' — " the interior of the Bank is highly interesting , it is a collection of architectural episodes, but no regular architectural epic." Soane seems to have been always studying — and in that he was to be com- mended ; but he was also, unfortunately too much addicted to the practice of mere experimentalizing, and of applying desultory and unfinished " studies" to what were intended to be finished works, utterly disregarding a very salutary precept inculcated in one of his own publications, advising that a design should be laid aside for awhile, and then be rigorously scrutinized and scanned with a fresh eye, — revised and corrected in every part. If he himself, therefore, followed this judicious piece of advice of bis own, he was unable to detect in bis own designs, those strange inequalities and incoherencies, and that want of keeping in them, which are so disagreeably striking to almost every one else. Even his contrivance was sometimes terri- bly at fault, as in the Treasury Buildings at Whitehall, where he has put a row of entresol windows immediately behind the hollow entabla- ture of the order! — as be has also done in the centre of the south front of the Bank — a terrible failure, by the by, in every respect, for before he came to that part of the structure, he seems to have ex hausted his ideas, and to be fairly at his wits' ends. Specimens of Decorations in the Italian Style. By J. W. and W. A. Papworth. London: Ackerman, 1844. We suppose that the connexion of the elder Mr. Papworth with the Royal School of Design sliowed the necessity and utility of this work, which consists of selections from the splendid Koman publications on the decoration of the Vatican, after the designs of Ratfaello, and some- times called the Ratfaellesque style. The popularization of these beautiful designs is a worthy work ; and we had great pleasure some time ago in publishing in the Journal (vol.vi. p. 1) some able obser- vations of Mr. Poynter relating to the Loggie, which he had read before the Royal Institute of British Arcliitects. There is in the Loggie to be found abundant examples of original conception, pure taste, and luxuriant imagination, than which no better studies can be presented to the artist iu arabesque. The subjects, however, are so extensive, and the work in which they are recorded so elaborate, as to be entirely beyond the means of the bulk of the public, no plan could therefore be better than to present a selection of them at a modi'rate price. The Messrs. Papworth's work fulfils these conditions, and we most earnest recommends its use. At the same time we think it due to the importance of the subject, and to the standing of Messrs. Papworth in the world of art, to make some observations as to the mode in which the design has been carried out. It is a decided im- provement on the ordinary works of the class, with Louis Quatorze and Louis Quinze ornaments, and decorations by Watteau, Laneret, &c. It affords copious materials for borders, corners, centres, bands panels, frames, wreaths, brackets, finials, scrollwork, paters, bosses,, foliage, &c. Thus the artist and artizan will have abundant choice of subjects, not merely for pictorial representations on flat surfaces, but also for works in metal. On the due application of such examples iu studv, we should have liked to have seen some observations, for which we know the compe- tency of the Messrs. Papworth, for this volume will uecessarilv be sought after, and in many instances, instead of becoming a stimulus to ingenuity, will only be used as a refuge for dullness. We are not in favour of cram works, to which a stolid individual resorts, picks out two or three bits and joins them together, we cannot sav coinljines or unites them. This is a grand evil and requires redress : we do not want Ratfiello mutilated; we do not want art dislocated, and nature bepatched ; but we want compositions which shall breathe the spirit of Raffaello, and follow out the course which he himself has shown. We do not expect that every one should be possessed of genius of originality, but the key note being given we may obtain a well modu- lated exercise, or the works of Ratfaello may teach a still better lesson, "Go and study in the school that he did — in the world." We should have liked to have seen some observations on this subject from the pen of the Messrs. Papworth, or if not, they might have availed themselves of that able and interesting criticism of Mr. Povnter, to which we have already referred. With this they must be well ac- quainted ; but we do not observe that they have profitted by it, or shown that refined discrimination, which we have a right to expect from them. The ChimiEras with breeches on (Part 1st, Plate ind,) might well have been excluded, and indeed the fabulous animals so frequently introduced might without any great prejudice hare been totally omitted. To the trophies, small vase5, and St. Peter's keys, (Part 2nd, Plate 4th,) we must also object. These are trifling points; but a work by the Messrs. Papworth should show care in trifles, for it is perhaps destined to teach the elements of taste to many a poor mechanic. We also consider the drawing in many places, particularlv of the human figures, very careless. It is very true the authors say, " To bring them within the means of every designer, no needless delicacy of the graver has been expended upon these — the amuse- ments of our leisure hours." Delicacy and carelessness are, however, two very different things. The selection is of a very fragmental character; that may in some idea attach to the nature of the work, but we should like to have a better selection and a bettor collation. There are many specimens iu an impure Roman style, such as Adams has shown in the pilasters of the Adelpbi, while we should more willingly have seen such graceful,, broad, and beautiful studies, as the acanthus, in plate 6, of the second part. We think, too, specimens allied in style might have been brought" together. As to style, however, our ideas are rather at variance with those of the Messrs. Papworth, who hold forth the application of some- of these ornaments to the Elizabethiau style. This sounds to us some- thing like barbarism ; but at the best it is a clap-trap to catch the plasterers and compo-builders. Why did not the authors introduce- more of Raff'aelle's admirable adaptations of fruits, flowers, birds, and animals in composition? These form an admirable basis for study. The observations we have made we should esteem hypercritical if applied to individuals of less popular standing than the Jlessrs. Pap- worth, but they do at all detract from our recommendation of the work as one of great value, and we are indeed so highly satisfied with it, that we recommend to the consideration of these gentlemen the propriety of also publishing some of these ornaments on an enlarged scale, say folio, for the use of students in schools of design. The Messrs. Papworth have rendered great service by this publication, and we hope they will persevere in tins course of instruction. The Year Book of Facts in Science and Art. By the Editor of the Arcana (if Science. London: Bogue, 1841. This is the volume for last year of this popular annual register of the sciences, containing a nuaiber of facts collated from various works published during the year. We are sorry not to see so many refereuces to staadard authorities as in previous years. 84 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Feb. 17, The Art of Land Surveying for the use of Schools. By John Quested. London : Uelfe and Fletcher, 1843. This liltle manna! is for the nse of schools, to which purpose it seems well adapted ; we must, however, regret that so many books are accumulated on this subject with so few new results. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. Fell. 13. — Gkokge Rennie, Esq. in the Chair. A paper hy Mr. J. Grantham described a series of experiments on an iron vessel called the Liverpool Screw. This boat w.is 0() ft. long, 12 ft. 6 in. beam, and liad 3ft. 9 in. draught of water; she was propelled by two high- pressure oscillating engines witli cylinders 13 in. diameter, and 18 in. stroke; the pressure of the steam in the boiler varied from 50 lb. to 601b. per square inch, and it was cut off at one-fourth of the length of stroke, working the remainder hy expansion; the nominal power was 20 horses, but it did not really exceed 18^ horses. The cylinders were placed diagonally, with both the piston rods working on the same crank, the driving shaft being beneath the cylinders, and running direct to the propeller without the intervention of either gearing or bands. The screw propeller was enlarged three times, and at last was left at 5 ft. 4 in. diameter by 20 in. in length ; it was set out with a pitcli expanding from 10 to lift, on Woodcroft's plan ; it was made of wrought iron, with four short arms witli broad shovel ends, whose united area was 16 square feet, 13 ft. only of it being immersed, as some portion of the arms was constantly above the water; the angle of the centre of the float was 45°; the speed of the propeller was generally 95 revolutions per minute. With these dimensions the speed attained was described as lOi statute miles per hour. The amount of " slip " of the screw in the water, as ascertained by Massey's log, was stated not to exceed 5 per cent. Several experiments were detailed, which showed tliat there was not more tendency to "list" or to turn round by the action of the screw, than with paddle- wheels, and the vessel was said to have excelled all the other steamers of the port of Liverpool in towing out vessels in a rough sea. Designs were submitted on this principle for a steam frigate and for large steamers working wiih oscillating cylinders direct upon the main shaft. In the discussion which ensued, the various forms and modifications of screw propellers, and their relative merits were very ably treated by a number of speakers. Mr. Uennie gave a sketch of the introduction of a kind of screw used by Mr. S. Brown with his gas engine, which was tried on the Thames ; the more successful attempt of Mr. Smith, and the buihling of the Archimedes and other vessels ; he mentioned also (he claims of Mr. Sauvase, of Bou- logne, to the invention, and his being recently rewarded by the King of the French. Mr. Rennie entered largely into the theory of the forms of the pro- pellers, and in this he was followed by Mr. Farey, Mr. Galloway, Mr. Sa- muda, and others, and Monsieur Normand, of Havre, who is celebrated for giving such superior forms to the vessels built by iiira ; he gave a slight sketch of the Napoleon French frigate, in which he eulogized the engines constructed by Mr. Barnes and the general result obtained with the vessel, hut it appeared that the speed was not superior to what had been obtained with paddle wheels. Pump I'nlves. — A model was exhibited by permission of Sir II. T. De la Bcche, from the Museum of Economic Geology, showing all the kinds of valves used in the pumps for draining the Cornish mines, and the merits and defects of the various kinds were very ably explained and commented upon by Mr. Jordan, under whose directions the model was constructed. Mr. John Taylor gave an historical sketch of the introduction of the various improvements, the causes which led to them, and the effects they had pro- duced ; the length of the discussion on the screw propeller left so liltle time for the subject of the valves that it was announced to be renewed at the next meeting, on Tuesday, February 20th. THE ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS. January 22. — Professor Traill, M.D., F.R.S.E., President in the chair. The following communications were made : — 1. Sir George S. Mackenzie, Bart., exhibited three elegant specimens of Mr. Cheverton's work in ivory, in a difi'erent style from that formerly shown, and communicated part of a letter from him. The subjects were the Mer- cury and Pandora of Flaxman, and Morning and Night by Tborwaldsen. These specimens were much admired. They can be executed at twenty guineas, inclusive of the frame. Their effect, when viewed as semi-transpa- rencies, is also very fine. 2. A Ball and Socket Levelling Instrument, constructed by Mr. Aeie, for Thomas Stevenson, Esq., C.E., and also an improved Portable Levelling Instrument and Rod, were exhibited. Communicated hy David Steven- son, Esq., F.R.S.S.A., civil engineer. In this ball and socket spirit-level, designed by Mr. Thomas Stevenson, civil engineer, the first peculiarity is the substitution of a small circular level fixed upon the upper side of the tube for facilitating the setting of the instrument, instead of the delicate cross level at present in use. But the principal advantage of Mr. T. Stevenson's improve- ment consists in the combination of the ball and socket motion for the first setting, previous to the application of the parallel plate screws for the final adjustment. The ball and socket was long in use, but for about half a century it has been almost entirely discarded, and the parallel plate-screws substituted. In the level exhibited to tne Society, the hall and socket has been restored, and the parallel plate screws retained, so that by this union the advantages peculiar to both systems have been attained. The person using this instru- ment is in consequence rendered quite independent of the rugged nature of the ground on which it is set, or the inclination of the telescope to the hori- zon, as by looking first at the small circular level, he can in an instant bring it nearly right hy means of the ball and socket, after which, a slight touch of the p,iral!el plate screws perfects the adjustment. In this way the oljserver can set his instrument with exactly the same rapidity and ease on a steep slope iis on level ground, and is enabled to proceed with equal facility at such rugged stations as would in the instrument now in common use altogether exceed the range of the parallel plate screws. The practical surveyor will see the great saving of time and trouble resulting from the use of Mr. Stevenson's instrument. Mr. David Stevenson also showed s. portable level and rod, constructed to his directions, by Mr. Adie. With nearly the same accuracy as the large levels, this instrument possesses the advantage of much greater portability. It combines a telescope 10 inches long, a compass, and a level, and is packed in a flat leathern case measuring about 6 in. by 2 J in., rendering it very con- venient for perarabnlatory surveying, for which it was made. It rests on a tripod, which is also very portable. The levelling rod accompanying this instrument, when closed, forms a round staff 3ft. Gin. long, which is cut longitudinally through the centre. The two parts are hinged at one ex- tremity, and when the rod is to be used they are opened and fixed hy a spring. The scale is marked on the flat side, and when the staff is closed the figures are protected from injury. 3. (Parti.) Observations on, and Improvements proposed in the Ventilating and Warming of Factories; with Remarks upon the essential importance of pure air for the preservation of the health of those engaged in employments carried on in a confined atmosphere, whatever be its temperature. By Robert Ritchie, Esq., Civil Engineer, Edinburgh. The first part of the paper gave a shortaccount of the different methods which had been employed in heating fac- tories by steam pipes, as now nearly universally adopted, describing the man- ner in which these were generally arranged ; and concluded with a short description of improved ventilating arrangements which had been adopted in some extensive factories. .SECOND GENERAL MEETING OF THE ARCHITECTS AND ENGINEERS OF GERMANY. Held at Bamberg on the 8th, 9th. & lOlh of September. 1843. Wt. find in the Allgtmeine Bauzeiiung an account of the second meeling of the architects and engineers of Germany, which was last year held at Bam- berg in Bavaria, on the 8ili, 9lh, and 10th of September. The first meeting was held at Leipsic. The meeting at Bamberg was held in the public as- sembly room, called the Concordia. Arouhd the hall were exhibited the ar- chitectural drawings sent to the meeting. Sep. Stii.—A public breakfast was held early in the morning. The rest of the morning was employed in the examination of the catbeilral and other curiosities of the city. At 11 t!ie meeting commenced, when llerr Barlet welcomed the memliers to Bainberg in the name of the citizens. To this speech Dr. Puttrich replied in the name of the members. Dr. PcTTRtcn then took the chair. Professor Stier read a paper containing some remarks on the present state of architecture and its early condition. Professor M'iessenfeld, of Prague, then communicated a plan for a third bridge at Prague, of wood, and of large span, to cross the river Moldau. The dfsign was by a carpenter of Prague, fur a colossal structure of wood and other materials, partly on the suspension principle, the span of w hich is pro- posed to be ol 600 feet. A limg discussion ensuid on this, but without any determinate conclusion being come to as to its practicability. Sep. 9. — Professor .Stier opened the meeting with a pai)er on architecture, on rectilinear and arched or curved architecture, and their prospects in the present day. Herr C. W. Hoffmann, architect, of Berlin, made a communication on the discovery by Khrenberg of inlusorial earth. Herr KRAFfT, C.E., of .Stettin, read a paper on btton or concrete founda- tions, as ai)plicd by lleir Nechaus, C.li., on the Slettin Railway along the Oder, where it had been nrtessary to build a collVr-dam 30 ft. to 35ft. deep, the depth of water being upwards of 20ft. Herr Kraflt stnmgly recom- mended the use of concrete for such purposes. la the present instance a 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 85 strong sheathing of planks covers the water sije anJ the inside, within wliich the concrete is rammeil in to about a foot below the lowi'st water line and tlie rest of the wall of the embankment is th'n carried up with masonry. In llie second design the masonry is also supported by piles under the concrete. Herr Koli.man, architect, of Augsburg, made some observations on the various legal rights existing with regard to water power, and the want of de- fined principles of legislation aflecting it. Herr Wink EI.MANN, architect, of Berlin, gave an account of an improve- ment in Cupel furnaces introduced into the royal foundry at Berlin, and also into Borsig's foundry, consisting of a new arrangement of the blast-holes. The furnace is surrounded with a hollow cast iron girdle, having eight blast holes communicating «ith the furnace. The blast is said t^ be so much in- creased as to melt with 201b of coal 2J cwt. of iron, whereas before it melted only 15 cwt. Another advantage of this plan is, that by means of a pane of thick plate glass, set on the outside, the progress of the melting can be watched. Herr "Winkelmann also exhibited a model of the trussing for a bridge on a new construction. Herr Hermes, architect, of Schwerin, gave a description, with drawings; ot an improvement on the Turbine, introduced by Herr C. L. Nagel, of Ham- burgh. After dinner, at twelve or one o'clock, the Association took a trip by water to examine the Ludwig canal. Sept. 10 — The Association met at breakfast at seven o'clock in the morn" ing, and afterwards examined the City jiictiire .gallery. The business p oceed. ings began at ten o'clock. The time ibr the meeting this year was left to the committee, and it was suggested that four days' meetings should be held in- stead of three. The place of meeting fixed upon is Prague. This routine business being over, the company went to examine the col- lection of paintings belonging to the Cathedral Clinpter. At tu o o'clock tlie grand celebration dinner was held, when a hundred sat down. Thus con- cluded the proceedings. The number of members who attended was 90, and the number of drawings exhibited was 129, very few of them, however were original, principally studies and representations of churches. They filled four rooms. NOTES OF THE WEEK. A most important discovery connected with Egyptian antiquities has been made, fully confirming the anticipations of the great Dr. Young, that copies would be found of the decree in.icribed on the Rosetta stone. Dr. Lepsius, in charge of the Royal Prussian Expedition, has discovered in Nubia a per- fect copy of the decree, including the demotic inscription. This was an- nounced last week in the Literary Gazette, and very great results are anti- cipated. By the return of the Commissioners of Woods and Forests we find they have very laudably appropriated £.180. to the purchase of old tenements, obscuring Holyrood House, andA'/ll.for a similar purchase as connected with Arbroath Abbey, We wish this department were charged with the maintenance and restoration of our ancient monuments. In Scotland alone many fine ecclesiastical edifices might be preserved, which are now going to Tuin. A statue of General Bertrand is proposed to he erected by public sub- scription at Chateauroux, his birth-place. A mining engineer is employed by the French government expressly to look after the mineral springs in France. An exhibition of paintings will be held at Ghent next July, which will, it is said, be well worthy of the contributions of foreign artists, and of their examination. A bronze statue by M. Moldknecht, life size, is to be erected at Conde sur Noireuu to Captain Dumont D'Urville, the navigator. Mr. Cave has lately completed a pair of 150 horse oscillating engines, or the two equal to 300 h.p., for an iron steam vessel, which he has likewise built for the French Government in Senegal ; it is to he propelled by a screw made entirely of wrought iron, galvanized and coated with a peculiar varnish to prevent its corrosion by salt water. By a very simple contrivance, for which Mr. Cave has taken out a patent in France, the screw can at all times be disengaged from the gearing and brought upon deck, so that the speed of the vessel may not be impeded by it when there is a sutBciency of ■wind to use sails without steam. Before Mr. Cave decided on adopting any peculiar sort of screw, he caused an iron steam boat, with a steam engine of the power of 20 horses, to be tried up the river Seine, to be propelled by at least 20 different shaped screws, till at last he found one more eft'ective than the other, which he adopted for the vessel. We perceive by the daily papers that the launch of the Janus steam- frigate took place on Tuesday, the 6th instant, at Chatham Dock-yard, being a vessel of peculiar construction, designed by Vice-Admiral the Earl of Cundouald, better known a« Lord Cochrane. After the launch ehe was taken charge of by the master-attendant, and was w«rped alongside the sheer hulk to have her machinery fitted. The form of the body of the vessel nearly resembles that of a wedge towards the extremities, is precisely similar at both ends, and is, consequently, capable of moving in either direction with equal facility ; her capabilities of advancing and retreating in narrow- channels, for the purpose of offensive warfare, are thereby made perfect. The following are her particular dimensions : — Feet. Inches. Length between the perpendiculars .. .. 180 0 Length of keel for tonnage .. ,. .. 159 1 Breadth, extreme .. .. .. .. 30 0 Breadth, moulded 29 4 Depth in hold 19 1 Tonnage, old measurement .. 761 53-94 Intended load draught of water, with 260 tons of coals 11 2 When launched her draught of water (with 40 tons of ballast on board), was — Forward . . 7 5 Abaft .. 7 2 The Janus is fitted with a rudder at each extremity, but on ordinary oc- casions one only will remain in place. The tillers work on deck. She has two capstans, and is provided with a pair of hawser-holes abaft as well as forward, but only one pair of riding bitts and one pair of catheads. Her armament will consist of a 10-inch gun at each extremity, throwing hollow shot of 861b. weight, and she will also be capable of mounting two 42- pounder guns. The engine by which this vessel is to be propelled is an in- vention of the gallant earl who designed her. It is to be a rotatory engine, which, it is said, will not occupy more than one-sixth of the space required for the common reciprocating engine. It may be placed so low as to be out of reach of gun-shot; it will have no beams, cranks, side rods, parallel mo. tions, levers, &c. ; and it may be fixed in less than a quarter of the time now required for fixing marine engines. While its first cost is considerably cheaper, it may be more easily kept in repair, (.') in the opinion of the pro- jector, than the steam machinery now in use on board vessels of war. A Government trial of the Screw Propeller took place on the 3rd instant with her Majesty's steamer Rattler, at the measured distance in Long Reach, in order to determine, as correctly as possible, her rate of going, as com- pared with that of her sister ship, Prometheus, which had been ascertained by the Government authorities the day before, by a similar trial. The Rattler having been built for the purpose of testing the merits of the screw propeller with those of the paddle wheels, is constructed as nearly as pos- sible upon the lines and models as the Prornetlieus ; they have both the same amount of engine power — viz., 200 horses; both vessels were laden to the same draught of water — viz., lift. 3in.; the steam pressure in both cases was regulated alike — in fact, every thing that could be conveniently done to render the trial a fair one was duly attended to. Under these circumstances more than ordinary interest was excited amongst the naval and engineering officers connected with the Woolwich Dockyard establishment, by whom the results of the various trials of both vessels were most minutely noted, and in the end summed up, contrary to the general expectation, in favour of the Rattler, to the extent of nearly half a knot per hour, their relative speed being as follows : — Prometheus, 8-757 knots; Rattler, 9-240 knots, or within a fraction of lOJ statute miles per hour. The Prometheus is one of the third-class war steamers recently introduced into her Majesty's navy by the present surveyor. Sir William Symonds, and is, we are informed, under orders to sail almost immediately for the Mediterranean. SEVERN IMPROVEMENT. The Lincoln Lock and Weir being the first of the series connected with this important work, have been brought into full operation. The lock is 100 ft. long by 20 ft. wide, with a lift of 7 ft. at low water. The walls and invert are faced with blue Staffordshire bricks of excellent quality, and are built upon a foundation of red sandstone rock. The water is let in and dis- charged through a culvert 7 ft. high by 4 ft. Gin. wide, built in one of the walls, and running parallel with the lock chamber, with which it communi- cates by seven arched openings, by this arrangement the lock is filled with such rapidity that vessels have been passed through it in 2i minutes. The weir which is 300 ft. in length, is constructed of two rows of sheet piling, the waling of which form the upper and lower sills, the intermediate space being filled with blocks of red sandstone ; a large quantity of this ma- terial is also placed below the lower sill to protect the piles from the action of the water. Both the lock and the weir are placed in artificial cuttings, ■which arrangement required the waters of the Severn to be diverted from their original course. From a variety of causes this was a work of no small labour and difliculty, but it was successfully performed, and the water was turned into its new channel over the weir on the 30th of December last. Four other locks, one being 150 ft. long by 30 ft. wide, together with their accompanying weirs, which range from 300 to 400 ft. in length, are in course of construction between Stourport and Deglis, near Worcester. The woiks below Worcester consist of a series of embankments, and the deepening of the navigable channel by dredging. 86 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Feb. It, The whole of these works is being executed under the direction of Wni. Cuhitt, Esq., as engineer in chief; Mr. E. Deader Williams, being the resident engineer, and Messrs. Grissell and Peto, the contractors. CANNABIC COMPOSITION ORNAMENTS. At the last meeting of the Royal Institute of British Architects and the Institution of Civil Engineers, several ornaments of tliis new material for decoration were exhibited. Any new material tliat m:iy facilitate the intro- duction of ornaments into our dwellings cannot he otherwise than accept, able, for fortunately a great demand exists in the present day for decora- tions. The Cannabic composition is an Italian invention, which, although it has been some years in existence, has only lately been hrought to such a degree of advancement, as to justify its introduction into this country. The mate- rial which is used in (his coniposilion is the common hemp, wliicb possessing great tenacity and equal plial}ility at the same time that it is procured in abundance and at a moderate price, affords every facility for carrying nut the invenlian. It admits of application to any iiiternal architectural orna- ment, as cedings, bosses, tru5s moulding, brackets, panels, ca|)itals, pilasters, and mouldings of evoiy kind and in every style, as well as for external purposes. It has an exceeihngly good surface, admitting of any kind of varnish, paint, or finish. For gilding it is most admirably adapted, likewise for painting, -varnishing, burnishing, and bronzing, as may be seen, by specimens at Mr. Ponsonbv's, tlie gilder and decorator in Piccadilly. It takes a beautiful bronze colour, and by gilding acquires quite a metallic surface and high burnish. The advantage' of these properties in decoration will he well appreciated by the ai'chitect, as giving new resources for carrying out his ideas. Neither are the consistency and durability of the material less observable, being at ■the same time hard and elastic. From these properties it is not liable to ■crack when put up in a room. It possesses a great degree of sharpness and 'iholduess, which it is the intention of the patentees to increase by using a • greater degree of mechanical power. It is such a light material that it admits of being put up in large masset on ceilings and in other situations in relief. With regard to external properties, it is not at all effected by wet nor by the vicissituiles of tlie atmosphere, being waterproof. In centre pieces for ceilings, door-panels, and other compositions, as it admits of being exe- cuted in larger pieces, it is much less troublesome than the ordinary mate- rials. The number of patterns for selection in the cannabic material at the present moment amounts to about four hundred, many of them quite new; but this number will speedily be increased, while the patentee will lie most happy to afford every facility to architects who may wish to have pat- terns executed from their own designs. The price, it is st;ited, ranges from about 10 to 20 per cent, below the •prices of articles in common use, and it is on this ground that the patentees .expect its extensive application. For decoration in the colonies and the iEast and West Indies, great difficulties at present exist, as most materials ■sutTer rapid deterioration from the climate. The supply of a durable and cheap material will therefore be the means of extending ornamental deco- ration in our extensive possessions : it is likewise well adapted for the deco- ration of steam vessels. ON SUPPLY OF WATER AT FIRES. A great many proposals having lately been urged upon Government with •the view of establishing in London, and all the large towns throughout the provinces, a system for the more speedy extinction of fires, viz., by attaching iiose or leathern pipes, with branches, to the plugs and mains laid down in the streets, so that the water might be thrown to a sulHcient altitude by its own pressure, without the aid of fire-engines, an experiment a few days since was made by Mr. Quick, the engineer of the Southwark Water Company, in order to ascertain how far it could be made ajiplicable. The company nut having the necessary apparatus to make the trial, the assistance of the Fire llrigade was granted to carry out the experiment, Mr. Braidwood, the super- intendent of the force, being present on the occasion, tlie particulars of which will he found to be highly important. The report, which is extremely vo- luminous, states that it took place on the morning of Thursday, 8th instant, between the hours of 4 and 9 o'clock, Mr. Quick selecting Old Gravel-lane, Union. street, and Tooley-street, as the most favourable spots to carry on the operations. During the whole period the jiressure of water at the company's works at Battersea was kept at 130 ft., and every service pipe or outlet was kept shut, so that the trial should be fairly made. The first experiment took place in TJnion-street, by having lengths of rivetted leathern hose {2k in. in diameter and 40 ft. long) attached to G standeocks, placed into plugs, all situate within the space of about 700 yards. The water was conveyed from the head at Battersea, through 5,300 yards of iron piping, consisting of 4,'250 yards of 20-in. main, 550 yards of 15. in. main, and 500 yards of 9-in. main. On one standcock being opened, the jet of water thrown from the copper liraneb (with |-in. hose pipe on) reached an elevation of 50 ft., and the de- livery was at the rate of 100 gallons jier minute. The next object sought was to ascertain the quantity of water that could he obtained from the plug. The branch-pipe for this purpose was taken oft', but the length of hose re- mained on. The delivery was then found to he 200 gallons per minute, showing that nearly two-thirds of the water was lost by confining it to a small jet. Had the standcock and hose been taken away, there would have been quite sufficient water to supply three fire-engines, each delivery being equal to the discharge from the first standcock. Another was then opened, and the jet from the former was reduced to 45 ft. elevation. Other two were added, and the jet of the first was then 40 ft.; and on three being opened, the jet from the first rose to 35 ft. The fourth was opened, and the jet of the first decreased to 30 ft. The fifth was then brought into play (viz. si.v in all), and the jet from the first only measured 27 ft., fully sliuwing that there was a regular gradation in the height of the jets, according to the number opened. The next trial was made in Tooley-street, the standeocks being used as in the former case. Some slight difference was observed in the elevation to which the jets were thrown, the first gaining 60 ft. ; and wlien the whole were opened the height was reduced to 40 ft., tiie delivery of water being at the rate of 70 gallons per minute. Another trial was then made in a street leading into Tooley-street, where there was only a service-pipe laid down, called a 5-in. main. The first standcock threw a jet of 40 ft. , and on the others being opened, the one furthermost from the first started only emitted a jet of 24 ft., and a delivery of 58 gallons. FAILURE OP A QUAY WALL. A GOOD many years since a breast wall or quay was built at Ardentallan, in Argyleshire, for shipping stones from a quarry at which much work has been done. When Mr- David Smith, builder, at Olian, was erecting the beacon of Skervuil in Jura Sound, for the Northern Lights' Board, be fitted the courses of blocks for that work to their places on the quay, and has oc- casionally had upwards of 200 tons of stones upon it at a time, without accident. The quarry has lately been worked for the repairs of the Caledo- nian Canal, and on the 23d iilt. there were between 170 and ISO tons of diessed stones lying upon the quay ready for shipment, when, to the astonish- ment of the quarriers, the crane upon the quay was observed to move and shake without any visible cause, and some openings appeared at the surface of the quay, which were rapidly widening; the men on the instant cried out for the foreman, who rushed to the spot, and saw the quay, with its crane and the cairn of blocks upon it, moving outwards from the shore, and sink- ing in the deep water ; and in less than two hours the whole liad proceeded seaward about 50 yards, and settled with a depth of lift, water over them. This quay was 48 yards in length, and had a large space behind for arranging materials for shipment. The face wall was founded one foot under the lowest tide mark, upon a bed of strong blue clay, covered with a thin stratum of gravel; and at 100 yards from the site of the quay the water deepens to 4 fathoms. It is remarkable, that with much heavier loads this breast work should have stood so long without any apparent failure, and after the founda- tion was so much consolidated, that it should have completely left its site and settled in deep water. The whole mass is now so coni|detely absorbed in mud and clay, that although the height of the quarry and materials could not he less than 20ft., it has not lessened the depth of water at the entrance of the place. — Scotsman. MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES FOK THE ENSUING WEEK. Monday. — Royal Institute of British Arcliitects at 8. — Some original Drawings, by Fredtf- ricli C.illicrwood, Esq., Architect, Honorary and tJorrespouding Member, of Arthi- tectural AnliijuUies recently discovered in some ruined Citieit in central America, will he exhihited and described. — Chemical Society, at S. Tuesday.— The Institution of Civil Engineers at 8. — " Description of a bridge across the river Shannon at I*ortnnina," by 'i'. Rhodes, M. Inst. C.E. — " Uoscriptinn of a bridge over the river Whitadder at Allanton," by J. T. Syme. — " Description of a cast anil wrought iron trussed girder for bridges, \vith a serirs of experiments on their strength," by F. Nash. Wednesday. — Society of Arts, at 8. — Geological Society, 8J. — London Institution, Finsbnry Circufi, at 7. Tliursday. — Royal Society, at 8.^.— Society of Antiquaries, at 8. Friday. — Royal Institution, at 8^. Saturday.— Royal Institution, at 3.— Professor Braude, ** On the Chemistry of Agri culture." Lecture IV. 1S44.] THE CIVIL ENGINEKK AINU AKUHlTECrS JOURNAL. 87 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. I By Professor Brande, F.R.S., &c. Lwturp III.— Detivfrcii at the Itoi/n! Inst'Uutim, Feb. 10, 1844. (Sfecialli/ reported for this Journal.) If the agricultural chemist bad been asked. » few years aRo, what ttere the essential ingredients of the soil, he would most assuredly have said that the earths and the organic matter present were all tliat were important ; but that the principal part of the nourishment was due to the organic matter, and that the saline ingredients were of very liUle use. Now. however, he would have quite a different story to tell, and it is principally to Liebig that we are indebted lor a more correct view of the subject ; fur it is now proved beyond doubt, that although the salts present in the soil may form a .small per cenfage of the whole, yet they must not be considered as accidental, but as being perfectly indispensable to the plant, which, according to its nature, lakes up one or other into its circulation, and without which it could not exist. By the saltt must be understood all the substances consisting of a base unlli'd to an acid. The principal bases are potash, soda, lime, and maonesia; these are always present in fertile soils. The .acids with which they ar? generally in combination are the carbonic, sulpbiiric, and phos|phoric acids, and frequently silica, so that when the chemist talks of Hint, he some- times speaks of it as an acid, which it really.is; for although not sour t« the taste, being insoluble, it combines with bases, forming neutral and fretpienily soluble salts, which is a better proof of being an acid than the action on the tongue. Wlicn plants are burnt so as to destroy their organic pari, ibeir saline constituents alorte are left, forming the ashes of plants, and the (|uan- tity of ash varies greatly with diflerent plants and with diflerent parts of (he same plant, ai will be evident by inspecting the following table :— Quantity of Ash in 1000 parts of Hay . ... 90 Potatoe ... 40 Birch .... 3 Red Clover . . 77 Turnips ... 70 Oak .... 2 Wheat .... 12 ,, leaves . 130 Elm leaves . . 120 straw . . 60 Elm .... 20 Willow leaves . 82 Oa(s 40 Willow ... 5 Beech leaves . 42 straw . . 50 Beech ... 4 Birch leaves . 50 An investigati(m tf the properties of the principal salts in the soil and their components will make this part of our subject more mtclligible. And first of their bases. These are metallic oxides, the metals of which were first obtained in a separate state by Sir H. Davy. I'hey are named, respectively, of potash, polassiuni, of soda, sodium, of lime, calcium, of magnesia, magnesium, of baryta, barium, &c. Bnt potassium, which, i.s, perhaps, the most easily obtained, may be taken as the type of the class. It is a white metal, like silver, lighter than water, which is also the case with sodium. When thrown into water it runs over the surface, decomposing it with great rapidity, libe- ratingits hydrogen, which ignites from the heat evolved, and combining with the oiygen, forms potash, which is instantly dissidved. The alkaline pro- perty of the solution, may he rendered evident by its action on vegetable co- lours, turning yellow to brown, and frequently red to blue. If acids be added they will combine with it, forming neutral salts, which may be obtained by evaporation. The other alkaline metals go through the same process, al- though none so energetically as potassium ; though sodium approaches very nearly to it In this respect. The proportions in which tliey comljine are, 40 parts potassium to 8 oxygen, producing 48 potash, or 24 „ sodium to 8 „ 32 soda. From these figures it will be evident that wherever soda can be uscil as a substitute for potash. 321b. would do the work of 481b. of potash. As it IS very important to the agriculturist to ascertain whether a soil con- tains salts of potash or of soda, the distinguishing tests must be borne in mind. In order to get them in a proper state for testing, boiling water is poured on to a portion of the .«oil, and then ihe whole poured on to ;i filter ; the water running through carries away all the soluMe portions. If this be then evaporated, the resulting salt will frequently indicate, by iis shape, solubility, and behaviour in air, which base it contains. They are generally in combination with sulphuric acid, and if it be the sulphate of potash pre- sent, it will be found to be very slightly soluble, and remaining unulianged by exposure i whereas if it be the sulphate of soila. it will be very soluble, and by exposure to air, become covered with a while powder, or efllorescence, as it is termed. This arises from il.s giving up to the air some of the water which it had combined with when crystallizing, and so falling into a white powder. The tests most commonly used in the laboratory, arc tartaric acid and chloride of platinum. \\'hen the former is added to a solution containing soda, no precipitate is produced; but if to one containing potash, a very copious crystalline precipitate is produced of bi-tartrate of potash, or as it is commonly called, cream of tartar. When there is very little potash present, t forms very slowly, but it may be hastened by rubbing the sides of the vessel with a glass rod, when the crystals are deposited on the parts where the rod has rubbed, as though a little tickling coaxed the solution to deposit its crystals m re rapidly. With the chloride of platinum, soda gives no pre- cipitate, but potash yields abimdanlly a yellow ish brown deposit, consisting of the double chloride of platinum and polassium. .Some plants absorb but little alkali from Ihe soil, whilst others take an immense quantity. Amongst the latter Is the common wormwood, which impoverishes a soil of its alkali in a very short time. Indeed, so well known is that, that it has, for years past, been collected and burnt, and its ash, known as salts of wormwood, applied to many purposes on account of the quantity of alkali it contains. Similar to tins is the grape, which appro- priates to itself abundance of potash, which it deposits from its juice in fer- menting, as salt o( tartar. The alkalis are seldom found combined with car- bonic .acid, for although they are so in the ashes of plants, it arises from the decomposition by heat of other organic acids, they being converted into car- bonic acid. In the wood sorrel, for instance, the juice is intensely sour, o« ing to the presence of binox.rlate of jxitash ; but after being burned, the oxalic acid is all decomposed into carbonic acid, the whole of the salt having be- come carbonate of potash. But it will be Interesting here to notice Ihe bases of the inorganic acids. Silicic acid or silica has already been touched upon. Sulphur, the base of ■sulphuric acid, familiar to every one as brimstone, is found in nature both free and in combination ; free, in abundance in Sicily, and in combination, plentiful in our own islands. With inm it is exceedingly common as iron pyrites or sulphuret of iron; recognized In coal by its bright yellow colour, and washed out of our chalk clid's in rounded masses of almost every size, which are commonly looked upon as thunderbolts. When sul- phur combines with oxygen, it forms sulphuric acid, which takes place spontaneously when iron pyrites is exposed to air and moisture. This acid may be formed artificially on a small scale by immersing a lighted mixture of sulphur and saltpetre (nitrate of potash) into ajar of oxygen gas standing over water ; the sulphur then burns with a beautiful blue flame, combines with the oxygen, and forms sulphuric acid, which is ditsolved by the water, forming a weak solution of oil of vitriol. Now this is remarkable for its fixily. so that it may be placed in a proper vessel over the fire, and the water boiled away, leaving the sulphuric acid. This is the method commonly employed in the manufactories for strengthening it. The acid consists of 18 parts of sulphur. 24 of oxygen and 9 of water, forming 49 parts of the strongest oil of vitriol. This acid is very rarely found free in the soil, as its noxious properties would make it Ihe most sterile of land. But as will be shown hereafter, some plants possess the properly not only of separating the acid from its alkili, but even of separating from it the sulphur, which it employs to form new combinations, as for instance, Ihe essential oil of the mustard, and the radish, in which there is a consideralile qiiantttv of sulphur. But decaying vegetables will do the same, the sulphur in this case combining with the hyilrogen which ia being given off. and forming the oll'ensive gas. sulphuretted hydrogen, familiar to all who have smell a loul gun barrel, or a rotten egg. It is to thisdecomposlion is due thenausious smell of water in which vegeta- bles have been boiled, and is continually taking place at the mouths of rirers, which empty into the sea vast quantities of rotting vegetable matter, which there meets with the sulphates in the sea water, and Ihe decomposition take* place. Ships anchored in such situations have their copper corroded oil in one-half the usual time, and to Ihe same cause is also attributeil the un- heallhiness of certain African rivers. But altliough 5ul|ihuretlel hydrogen is known to be very destructive of lifi' w lu-n present in considerable quantity, it is doubtful whether it is so injurious to man when in the minute quantity which it must be in the open air, even in the worst situations ; the daily ex- perience of the chemist woidd seem to c.uifirm this, for, from ilslieingso much used as a test, ho is continually breathing an .atmosphere sensibly im- pregnated with it, and yet with impunity, as it has never been known to produce any effects analogous to the eastern fevers. To other causes, then, must be attributed the contagious influeiiees present in Ihe air of these shore?, and nothing seems more probable than that it is due to certain dtcompusing organic particles, acting on the blood in the manner of a ferment. The best lest for its presence, either in solution, or in the air, is a solution of sugar of le.ad. which it bl.ackens even if present in a very minute quantity, producing sulphuret of lead. Though sulphuretted hydrogen is undoubtedly very per- nicious to animal life, it is not so to plants, and its solution in water has been used with advantage even in horticulture, by Sir Fl. Solly. Indeed it is essential that many plants should be supplied with sulphur in some shape or other, as they require it to assist in forming some of their constituent parts. The glulen of wheal, for instance, could not be formed without it, and it is essential to the mustard, cabbage, turnip, water cress, and indeed to the whole of the large class of cruciferous [ilants. I'Vom this it is seen that the alkaline sulphates are frequently doubly useful in the soil, as being the source of alkali and also of sulphur. Their presence in solution is readily ascertained Ijy baryta dissolved in nitric or muriatic acids, which forms the very insoluble while sulphate of baryta, not redissolved by nitric arid. By this means it is proved that whereas in wood ash the alkali Is present as car- bonate. In coal ash it is as sulphate, which is therefore a good top dressing; for many crops. 9 99 I Kl MJ K^M. V ill v^ a XI J WIii'ii combined wi'.Ii lime, sulpliiirle acid forms sulphate of limi- or gypsum. It is found in great abundance in many parts, in the neighbourhood of Paris as plaster-stone, where it is rendered anhydrous by burning, converting il into plaster of Paris, as it is termed. It crystallizes beautifully as selenite. found ill clay districts. Satin spar is also a very beautiful variety of this sub- stance. It is found anhydrous also, but not frequently. It e.\ists in con- siderable quantity in the rock salt of Cheshire. In some countries it is found to form so large a portion of the rock salt, even of some kinds which are eaten at table, that if the table salt be dissolved from it, it still retains its form, as a spongy mass. In this way whole mountains are said to be disin- tegrated. This will also serve to explain an expression of scripture, which is otherwise obscure to us who use salt in a state of purity, respecting salt losing Us savour ; if a mass of rock salt containing much sulphate of lime, be exposed to heavy showers, the table salt is dissolved out, the original shape still being retained ; and thus salt may be said to lose its savour. Of the virtues of gypsHm as a manure, the agriculturist has lately heard a great deal, but there is no doubt that its virtues have been highly exaggerated. There is very little proof of its being useful to any plants which do not in- clude sulphate of lime in their composition ; but as lucerne, saintfoin, clover, qnd turnips contain a portion, there is no doubt it is of use to them, when applied as a top dressing. There are cases in which red clover may spring up, promisingluxurianlly.but ultimately die away— the soil is tired of clover, as the farmer says ; in this case sulphate of lime is frequently of great ser- vice, though it is by no means the only substance clover requires. We have .Johnstone's evidence that clover and vetches are both improved by its use- Indivd the ashes of many plants show that they require it, as their sulphates frequently amount to as much as 10 per cent, of the ash. A wagon load of gypsum is said to be sufficient for 30 or 40 acres. The water falling on the surface slightly dissolves it, one part requiring 500 or 600 of water for solu- tion. It may be owing to its sparing solubility in water, that we have so many contradictory statements of its efficacy, as the farmer «ho uses it on very dry land, or during a very dry season, would perhaps derive but little benefit from it. The consideration of the phosphates, of bone manure, with the relation of the inorganic to the organic constituents of plants, will form the subject of the next lecture. REGISTER OF PATENTS. MACHINERY FOR CUTTING STONE. Cii.\Ri.TnN J.4MES WoLi.AsTON, of Welling, Kent, Gentleman, for " Impnve- meiits in machiiterii for culling mnrhle and .s/6He."— Granted August 1. 1843; sealed February 1, 1844. The first part of these improvements consists in a machine or apparatus for cutting blocks of marble or stone ; the machine consists of a rectangular or oblong table of iron or other suitable material, supported upon the framing of the machine in a horizontal position upon two V slides, and is capable of being moved thereon in a direction of its length. On each side of the machine, and about the middle thereof, there is a vertical frame, and to this frame are attached the cutters, which are set at some distance apart, and stand ofl from the edge of the frame at different distances, so that each cutter, beginning from the lower one, will make its cut further and further into the block of marble or stone (which block is placed and secured by set screws upon the table of the machine), so that the cuts in the side of the stone will form a succession of steps, which peculiar arrangement of the cutters forms the prin- cipal feature in lliis part of the invention. The frames and cutlers are moved up and down in a vertical direction by means of two connecling rods, each of which are attached by one end to the cutter frame, and at the other or lower end to a stud fi.ved into the face of the wlieel, keyed on the end of a horizon- tal shaft, running under the table of the machine, the rotary motion of which gives the necessary motion to the cutter frame ; the extent or range of the cutler frame can be regulated by putting the pin into certain holes drilled in the face of tlie wheel, at different distances from the centre thereof. There are also certain arrangements for moving the table upon which the block is fixed, so that the stone on the return stroke of the cutter frame moves back for giving clearance to the cutters, but when Ihe same are about to cut into the sides of the block of stone, the table is moved forwards equal to the distance given for the clearance, and the depth intended for the next cut, all of which movements are self-acting or governed by the mechanical arrange- ments of the machine, — The second improvementconsists in a mode of making stone pipes. The block of stone intended to Lf bored out is placed with its end upon a table ; below the table, and in a vertical position, there Is a metal tube, on the upper end of which is fixed several cutters ; the table upon which the block of stone is fixed can be lowered by means of a screw, upon the end of the tubular cutter, which cutter, having a rotary motion given to it, bores a hole into the end of the stone equal in diameter to Ihe cutter, the portion of stone cut out passes through the tubular cutter. BLACK DYEING. Fredebick Steiner, of Hyndburn Cotl.age, near Accrington, Lancashire, Turkey Red Dyer, for " A new mamtfacluri' of a ceilain colouring vtaltcr, coni- monlfi cnlled gwancine:'—Gt3.n\ei Augusts, 1843; enrolled February 7, 1844. This invention relates to a mode of obtaining a colouring matter commonly called garancine. from spent madder, or madder alter it has been used for dyeing, and is performed as follows:— The inventor constructs a large filter of brickwork, but without mortar, outside the dye-house, that is to say, a hole is to be dug in the ground, and lined with bricks, and upon the bricks is placed a quantity of stones or gravel, and a piece of fabric, such as common wrappering, and below the filter there is a drain to take off the water which p.asses through. A quantity of diluted sulphuric acid, of the specific gravity of 105°, water being 100". is kept in a vessel near the filter ; the spent madder which has been used for dyeing is allowed to pass, by means of a channel, from the dye pan to the filter, and when running in a portion of the dilute sulphuric acid, is allowed to run in with it, which changes the colour of the madder to an orange tint; after the water is drained off, the residue is put into bags, and the same put into an hydraulic press, and afterwards passed through a sieve, the madder is then put into a wooden or leaden vessel.and to every 5 cwt, of madder 1 cwt. of sulphuric acid of commerce is added by sprinkling, and the whole thoroughly mixed together. The madder in this stage is [ilaced on a perforated lead plate, fixed about six inches from the bottom of a vessel, and between the bottom of the said vessel and the per- forated plate, a qu.antity of steam is introduced, which passes through ihe said perforated plate and mixture contained in the vessel ; a substance will now be obtained of a dark brown colour, approaching to a black, this sub- stance is garancine .and insoluble carbonized matter. The substance after being thrown out to cool, is washed with a quantity of clear cold water until all the .icid is destroyed ; it is then submitted to pressure, and after being dried in a stove is ground between a pair of ordinary madder stones, after which from 41b. to 5 lb, of carbonate of soda to every 100 cwt. of the mixture may be .added to neutralize any aciil which may remain. The patentee claims the manufacture of garancine from spent madder, or madder after it has been used for dyeing. A NEW SUBSTANCE FOR PAPER. RicHAEn ARCiiiBAi-n Bkoom.\n, of IGG, Fleet Street, London, Gentleman, {or [\n' " Munufaclurc of paper, cordage, nmlling, and olher textile fiilnics, as ah-ofor Ihe appliealion of Ihe said materials to Ihe stuffing of cushions and mat- tresses." Granted August 10, 1843 ; enrolled February 10, 1844.— Communi- cated. This invention consists in a mode of manufacturing papir from the convol- vuli of the cissus genus of (ilants, which are found in Guiana, co.ast of Africa West India islands, and other p.arts. The mode of converting ihis vegetable' into paper is as follows :— The bark or rind is in the first place stripped off the stems, and the fibres separated by being bruised, after which the fibres are to be ilried in a stove, or by other suitable means, to free them from the sap ; they are then boiled for some hours with a quantity of American potass, and afterwards washed, .and then bleached by Ihe appliealion of chlo- rine or other suitable matter; the next process, .after the fibres have been properly bleached, is to card them wilhamelal comb, after which they are reduced by suitable machinery into a pulp, and may then be manufactured by the ordinary process into j-aper. The inventor states that Ihe above may be combined with rag pulp, or other suitable material. There are also oilier herbs, known in the West Indian islands by the name of herbs conpunts, and also the bark of the West Indian pear tree, from which a good [lapcr may be manufactured. That part of the specificalion, which lelaies (u the manufac- ture of cordage, malting, and other textile fabrics, consists merely in the ap- plication of the herbs before referred to, which arc rendered into filaments and then manufactured in the same manner as Hax or hempen ropes. And lastly, this invention rel.ites to the application of the aforesaid material, when reduced into fibres, to stuffing chair cushions, mattresses, liic. The patentee claims the application of the aluresaid material to Ihe manufacture of paper, cordage, matting. Sec, as above described. PRESERVING OF PROVISIONS. .Iames Cooper, of St, .lohn's Street, C^lerkenwell, Middlesex, Provision Merchant, lor " I'essels of peculiar construction, and an apparatus for the purpose of preseruing various articles of provisions for the use o/'/amiV/ts.''— Granted December 5. 1843 : enrolled February 5, 1843, This invention, in the first place, relates simply to the arrangement and 1S44. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 89 application of certain vessels for preserving fruit anil other articles of provi- sion; and, si'condly, to a moile of stopping the vessels containing the fruit. S^c. with corks or bungs. In carrying out the first part of these supp^seJ imiirovements, the patentee, for the purpose of atlbriling greater facility to private families in preserving meats, constructs a vessel of iwo or more parts made to fit one another, so that the vessel can he enlarged or diminished ac- cording to the size of a jar. containing tlie fruits or other matters to be pre- served to be placed within it. This vessel is made at the lower end to fit an aperture, formed in the boiler of an ordinary kitchen range, so tliat tlie steam generated in such boiler can be turned to some useful account ; this vessel is provided with a perforated bottom in order to allow the steam from the boiler to pass into the same ; the jars containing the fruit or other article of food in- tended to be partially cooked, are successively placed within the aforesaid vessel, ami subjected to the steaming process, when they have remained a sufhcient length of time, the jars or vessels containing the fruit, which ara made with a conical neck or opening, are to be tightly corked wiih as much expedition as pcjssihle, for this purpose the inventor forces the corks or bungs into the necks of the jars by means of a screw, which constitutes the second part of the invention ; and consists in the application of a screw to the cork or bung, similar to lliat used in an ordinary screw press, this screw is to Ijc kept constantly applied to the stoppers of the vessels until the contents are nearly rool. The patentee claims the mode ot" constructing a vessel or vessels in such manner that they may be applied to the boiler of , an ordinary kitchen range, in order to preserve provisions in jarsby the application of steam ; and. secondly, to a mode of constructing apparatus for stopping jars and securing such stoppers till the contents of the vessels are cooled. MUNTZ'S MKTAL SHEATHING PATJ.^NT. In the Court of Common Pleas, Feb. 8 to 13. (Sittings at Nisi Prius, at Westminster, before Lord Chief Justice Tindal and a Special Jnry.) MONTZ V. FOSTERfAND OTHEK8. The (rial of this cause, which lasted live days, commenced on Thursday, the 8th inst., and L-oncluded on Tnesrlay evening, the 13th inst. about seven o'clock. The Attorney-General, the SoHcitor-General, Sir T. Wilde, IVIr. .Serjeant Bompas, fltr. M. I). Hill, and Mr. Cowling were counsel for the plaintiff; and Mr. Kelly, fllr. Jervis, Rlr. Serjeant Channell, and Mr. Webster appeared for the defendants. This action was brought for an alleged infringement of a patent granted on tlie 22d of October, 183'J. tolMr. G. F. Muntz, M.P. for Birmingham, for '* an improved mainifactnre of metal plates for .^.beatbiog the bottoms of ships and other such vessels.'* Copper sheath- ing for ships was lately in such general use, tliat it may not be recollected by the major part of the public tliat it was only about ,50 or 60 years ago that the practice of sheathing tlie bottoms of vessels witll metal was introduced, in order to protect the bottom from the barnacles and sea,veed which adhered to a rough sijrf^ce, and impeded fie sailing of the vessel. E.xpensive as the process of copppring the bottom was, on account of the iirinie cost of the metal, the expense of rolling it into sheets, and the corrosion to which the metat was subjected by ttie action of sea w-ater, the use of copper was found to be attended with this further inconvenience, viz., that being f.istened to the bottom of the ship with iron nails, the iron very quickly rusted, the fastenings ceased to hold the metal, and the copper came olf. Great as tliese drawtjacks against the use of copper for this purpose were, the coppering of the bottoms of ships yielded advantages whicli more than counter- balanced the inconveniences by which the process was attended, and in order to make the invention still more useful Sir Humpliry Davy turned his attention to the subject, and en- deavoured to devise some method for counteracting the raiiid oxydation which took place- as formerly the copper bottom of a ship rarely lasted longer than live or six years. It struck Sir H. Davy that if a portion of zinc were applied to the copper it would counteract the process of oxydation, and a vessel sheathed with copper and zinc plates, in accordance with bis theory, was sent a voyage to a distant part of the world, from which it returned perfectly uninjured, so far as the bottom was concerned, by the salt water, but at the same time it was as foul as if there had been no metal at all upon the bottom. The exjieriment had succeeded too well; it had prevented any oxydation from taking place. The problem therefore, still remained to be solved, whether any metallic composition could be found for the sheathing of ships, by the use of which the bottom could be kept clean, and at the same time too great a degree of oxydation might he prevented. To the solution of this problem I\[r. Monti, who Is a oietal roller at Birmingham, directed his mind, and com- menced a series of practical experiments, for the results of which he took out a iiatent in 1832. The invention slowly but steadily attracted the notice of the shipping interest of the country; and it appeared that in 1834, in the port of London, 30 sllips were sheathed with metal under Bluiitz's patent, the number gradually increasing, till, in the year 18-13, there were in tlie same port 3,'i7 vessels sheathed with tlie new composition, of which 17,947 cwt. were sold in the last mentioned year. The composition was a mixture of copper and zinc, wiiicii was cheaper than copper, was more easily worked, and lasted longer, being also sutBciently hard to allow of its beiog fastened to the sides of the ship with nails of the same composition. The specification of tlie plaintiff's patent thus described the nature of his invention: — " I take that quality of copper known to the trade liy the appellation of ' best selected copper,' and that quality of zinc known in England as ' foreign zinc,' and melt them to- gether in the usual manner, in any proportions between TiU per cent, of copper to 50 per cent, of zinc, and liJ per cent, of copper to 37 per cent, of zinc, both of which extremes, and all intermediate proportions, will roll at a red heat; but, as too large a proportion of copper increases the difficulty of working the metal, and too large a proportion of zinc renders tlie metal too hard when cold,Jand not sufficiently liable to oxydation, I prefer the alloy to consist. of about 60 per cent, of copper to 40 per cent, of zinc." It was proved by the testiniooy of several witnesses who were examined on the part of the plaintiff, and who were not contr.adicted, that any person acquainted with the triide of a metal roller could maiinf;ictnre this com]iosition from the description of the invention contained in the spe- cdication ; and it appeared that between February and April, 1843, the defendants had made a tiu.antity of sheathing, amounting in value to about 700;. or 800/,, some of which was sold by them in Liverpool, and which was declared, ujion subjecting it to a minute analysis, to be as nearly as possible composed of the same proportions of copper and zinc as those pointed out in tlie plaintiff's specilication as the best alloy for the purpose, namely, (in per cent, of copper and 40 per cent, of zinc. The defence set up was, that there had been no infringement of the patent ; that the invention was not new, and that Mr. Bluntz was not the lirst and true inventor; and, also, that the specification was bad for uncertainty, ^'c. Upon the ti-st point, the infringe- ment, the evidence seemed very clear ; but the main ground of defence was, that in the y^ar ISOO a Mr. Collins took out a patent for a composition for sheathing ships, which it was argued was substantially the same invention as that which the plaintiff claimed as his own. The specilication of Collius's patent said, " The yellow sheathing (the slieathing in question) consists chiefly of zinc and copper. Tiie compound must be heated, and in tliat state rolled. 100 parts of copper and 80 of zinc afford a good composition ; but the proportions may be varied, or other metallic substances added, provided the property of bearing the mechanical process, when added, is not destroyed," Evidence was given Ott the part of the defendants to show that some of the metal slieathing made by them after April, 1843, was made Irooi the specilication in Collins's patent alone, and several wit- nesses were also called to prove, on their behalf, that a composition of copper and zinc, in the proportion of 60 |ier cent, of the termer to 40 per cent, of the latter, had been made itl the years 1828 and IS2U, but it did not appear that any plates of this composition had ever been applied to the sheathing of ships. The defendants also raised various objections to the stieeilication of the plaintiff's patent. Loid Chief Justice Tindal, before he proceeded to charge the jury, told them that if they were desirous of hearing the whole of the evidence read over which had been given durio;; the five days throunh which the trial had lasted, he sliould wish to take another day for the purpose of reading it through, in order that he might save their time; but if, Imvlng heard the evidence, to which they had pail great attenlinn, and having taken copious notes, they did not require that assistance he would at once jirocced to call their attention to the points on wliich they would have to give verdict. Tlie jury immediately said, that it would not he at all necessary for his Lordship to read over the evidence to them. The Lord Chief Justice then left it to tlieni to say, In the first place, whether there had been any iulringement of the p.itcnl granted to tho plaintiff, assuming the patent to be good; secondly, if so, whether the manufacture was a new inve tion, or xvliether it had been already made public by Collins's patent; and, tliirdly, whether the specilication of the plaintiff's patent was sufficiently plain and intelligible to enable other persons to make the composition for which the patent lad been Kiaiitcil. His Lordsliip al.io gave it aa hi-i opinion, upon llie matters of law arising in the case, that the nature of the plaintiff '» invention was well described by the title of the patent—" An improved manufacture of metal jilates for sheathing the bottoms of ships or other sudi vessels ;" that neither " best selected copper" nor " foreign zinc" formed part of the invention, which consisted in tha discovery of a composition for sheathing by which a ]iroper decree of oxydation was ob- tained, and no more ; that rolling the metal at a red he:it was not claimed as part of the invention; and that the invention did not particularize any proportions but those of 60 per cent, of copper and 40 per cent, of zinc, as applicable for the purpose of making his metallic slieathing, although he had designated other proportions between the extremes of which the metals would melt at a red beat. Blr. KeUy tendered a long bill of exceptions to tills ruling. The jury retired at half-past six to consider tlictr verdict, and after an absence of about ten minutes returned into court, and found for the plaintiff- Damages, 40s. MADDEN'S IMPROVED KNIPE CLEANEK. The accompanying engraving is a representation of a new Knife Cleaner, Polisher, and Sharpener, the invention of Mr. Madden, of George Street, Adelphi. It performs wh;it it professes to do in a very ett'ectual manner, with one half the labour and time by the old method, making no dust or noise. The great merit of the invention is its compactness and jiorta- bility. The machine is fixed upon a stand 12 in. long by 8 in.; it consists of two parallel cheeks of iron, the intirior faces of which are slightly bevilled, and lined with buff leather ; these cheeks are pressed together by two springs by which they are suspended : on the top of the cheeks is a groove to receive the brick-dust. When a knife is to be cleiined, it is placed be- tween the cheeks at one end, and drawn backwards and for- wards, which causes a small portion of the brick-dust to drop down, and by which means the knife is thoroughly cleaned. The price of the machine is 15s. 00 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Feb. 24' CARRINGTON BRIDGE, NOTTINGHAM. (' JVith Engravings, Plate 2.) This bridge was erpcted from tho designs of H. M. Wood, Esq., Architect to the Corporation of NoKinghLim, and subject to llie ap- proval of Thomas WoodhoiiM', Esq., C. E. to tlie Midland Comities Railway. It was built at IIih joint expense of the Corporation ot Nottingham and the Midland Counties Railway Company, at a cost of ie5,045/., and makes a new and beautiful approach to the Railway Station. The iioveltv of this bridge eonsisis in the flatness of the arch (the span being /"O feet and the versed sine only .i, which is less than any iron bridge I am aware of,) it is also remarkable for having ornamental scrolls for spandrils. The width of the roadway is .')0 feet. The masonry and approache-j were executed by Mr. Henry Sharp, and the ironwork by Messrs. Cort and Co., ironfounders, &c., of Notting- ham, and Leicester, and tlie work was completed in the most substan- tial and durable manner. The quantity of cast iron used in the course of erection amounted to I'll! tons, and the wrought iron, including bolt and tension rods, about 1,568 lb. This bridge now forms a very pleasing object, and is one of the principal ornaments to the interesting town of Nottingham, and does equal credit to the public spirit of the inhabitants, the talent of the architect and the skill and enterprise of the contractors. The bridge was commenced in the early part of 1842, and com- pleted the same year, and much to the credit of those that were employed, not the slightest accident occurred during the progress of thu works, not even so much as fracturing a stone or breaking a rope. After proper scaffolding had been thrown across the canal from abutment to abutment (under which the boats contain- ing the ril)s were brought), with necessary hoisting tackle, and a crab on each abutment, the whole of the ribs were hoisted into their places in 15 days. An attempt was made to test the ribs in the foundry yard, but in consequence of the difficulty in procuring suitable abutting places to carry the heavy weights intended to be applied, and the probability that they would not be fairly proved, it was abandoned, and they were afterwards tested in their places at the bridge in pairs, the weight consisting of pig lead, equally distributed over the whole length of the ribs, and the following is the result : — Weight ai!|ilielat'es of cast iron should have been substituted, which, althougli More expensive in the lirst instance, would have been the cheapest in tin; end, as timber in such a situation cannot be calculated to eTidiire more tlian 20 years. The joinls of the planks having been properly caulked, a layer of tar and pitch of equal parts mixed with sand, in proportion of half a peck of sand to nine gallons of tar and pilch, was applieil.in a hot and fluid state three quarters of an inch thick, w hicli^made d covering' impervions to moisture. The roadway was formed of MoiVut»"Sorirfel granite, with which was mixed a small portion of tar and pitch, \nd from the adhesive nature of the resinous matter, with tlie assistance of a roller, it readily consolidated and formed u compact mass. Roads or streets composed of this material make a very smooth and pleasant surface lo travel over; it forms a very hard road, is perfectly clean in the winter, as the subsoil cannot work through it, and is free from dust in summer, an advantage of which no other road material, that I am aware of, can boast. Iron as a material for bridges is growing more extensively into use, and its superiority over other materials, as to durability, facility of construction, and its capability of being moulded to any pattern, so as to form highly ornamental structures, becomes daily more evident; and its uion- gemral introduction in puljlic buildings, manufactories, &c., would be of great utility. The details of construction will be sufficiently understood by a re- ference to the engravings. Refekence to Engraving, Plate II. Fig. 1. Elevation of bridge; scale lin. to 20ft. Fig. 2. Half ele- vation of external rib, cornice and railing. Fig. 3. Ditto of inner rib ; scale -f^ i". to 1 ft. Fig. 4. Plan of ribs and braces; scale -'^ in. to 1ft. The scale of the following figures is n in. to 1 ft. Fig. 5. Section tlirough external rib. Fig. G. Section through ex- ternal rib and cornice A to B. Fig. 7. Section through inside rib, A to B, 211. Sin. from centre to outward. Fig. 8. Back of plinth. Fig. '.I. Transverse section of stay from E to F on Fig. 4. Fig. 10. Section from L to M of ribs. Fig. 11. Section from G to H of ribs. Fig 12. Plan of abutment jilate. Fig. 13. Section of ditto from X to Y. Fig. 11. Transverse section of abutment plate of quoin from V to W. Fig. 16. Section of bracing frame from C to D on Fig. 4. Fig. 16. Transverse stay. „ „ „ ^ B. B., C.E.,&Cy. S. TUBULAR BOILERS. (IVilh Engravings, Fig. 1 to 4, Plate 3.) It is our intention occasionally to give drawings founded upon the most approved mode of construction, of marine engines and boilers; we now commence with a tubular boiler for 60 h.p., and shall hereafter give designs for one of 150 H.P., and afterwards of 300 h.p., up to 500 H.p. . , The drawings represent a tubular boiler, of the most improved construction, as used on board our fast river steamers, and now in- troduced into the vessels of Her Majesty's navy. The power is of (iO horses, say two marine engines of 30 H.P., or 3ft. stroke, and 3U in. cylinders, making 30 strokes per minute. It may be manufac- tured in one piece, and with its apparatus complete, would weigh not more than 10 tons, a manifest improvement on the old system o^ flue boilers, which, for the same power, could not be made of less weight than 16 to 17 tons, and occupying, superficially, a space of 14 ft. square. The weight on the safety valve may be 10 lb. per square inch. The steam expanding in the cylinder at one-third of the stroke. It wonld easily perform this duty, with a moderate consumption of fuel. The suif.ice, and detail of construction, are as follows:— There are six rows of tubes of I'J each, or 114 in all: they are 21 in. diam. in- side and about 3 in. outside. The superficial area will be 2 J diani. — 5-'j4 area X 1 H tubes = 677 square inches total sectional area of tubes. The surface of tubes 65007 144 = 45 1-4 sq.ft. 148-8 23diain. = S-64cir. X 66 in. long X 114 tubes: Plate surface. Fires (above grate) and uptakes Total absorbent surface of boiler . . . . 600-0 Grate bar surface 7-0 X 2-1 X 3 fires = 43'9 square feet. Area of grate uptake = 12 in. by 75 in. = 900 square inches. Area of tubes (as ibove) .. = 677 ditto. Area of chimney uptake 14 in. X 48 in. = 672 ditto. Area of chimney = 24 in. diam. .. = 452 ditto. To be evaporated per hour = 74^ cubic feet of water, under juessure of 161b. per square inch. Results of surface, per nominal lioise. 43*9 Grate bar surface = -^^^ = 07-25 square feel pel- horse. Tube surface Plate surface Total 10 square feet Area of tubes 60 451- 60 148'8 60 = 7-5 ditto = 2-5 ditto 10-0 ditto ditto 677 ^ = 11-25 square inches per horse. Ditto of grate uptake -^-—- = 15-00 ditto ditto Ditto of chimney ditto Ditto of chimney 11-20 ditto. 7-50 ditto ditto ditto .■^r*!?'^'-!'*^ Boiler tV.r Tu,. :;(i,IJ.I'. ffigxTif..- -] gjfi 1 ■/ ^ Joihuu v. J.R.Johhais . ittii 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 91 TliP materials of which such boilers should be constructed, are as follows Furnaces, of best Low Moor iron sin. thick ; the grate and uptake should be of the same kind and substance. The tube plates are some- times made of mixed metal ; but we prefer Low Moor iron of a inch gauge. The tubes (if of brass) should they be those made by Alston, which are bare J in. thick, or 12 wire gauge. If made of iron, they should be those of Russell & Co. A difference of opinion exists as to the advantages arising from the use of brass or iron tubes, although practice has hitherto been almost confined to the former ; but it appears likely that a great change will shortly take place in this ])articular, arising from the injurious effects produced by galvanic action on the iron shell of the boiler, which in many boilers has occurred to an alarming extent. Of course this would be actively obviated by the use of iron tubes, and the advan- tage of the one over the other, is solely a commercial question, deter- minable by practice only. We think the iron tubes will be found the best in all respects, especially if means are taken (and they are sim- ple) to prevent the accumulation of salt and calcareous deposits. The shell and chimney uptake may be of best Staffordshire iron, i in. thick, and i in. below, say for 2 ft. up from the bottom, where the decay is generally very rapid. Care should be taken in properly staying every part. PARKYN'S DIRECT ACTION ENGINE. ( fVith an Engraving, Plate 3.J Sir — I herewith send you a drawing of a Double Cylinder Engine, which I patented in England last year. I have erected an engine, similar to that shown on board, the Iron Boat, Prince Albert, built for the Montreal and Laprairie Ferry. The engraving is a longitudinal section through the engine, showing the method of connecting the cylinders with the air-pump, and trans- mitting the power to the main shaft. The novelty of the plan is the way in which the air-pump is worked, securing greater economy of space and fewer moving parts, and consequently less friction — these being the primary objects to be attained by all plans of direct acting engines. The cylinders are 42 inches in diameter, and 5 feet stroke. The air-pump is 28 inches, and the same stroke. The plunger of the air-pump is worked down to within 3 in. of the flooring of the vessel, thus securing the longest possible stroke for a given height, with an adequate length of connecting rod, which in the engine shown is ten feet. F, F, are the two foot valves — the discharge is at the side. The two valves G, G, in the air-pump plunger are to allow for the exit of any air that may collect in the pump. The valves of the engine are four in number, two for the steam on the left, and two for the exhaust on the right they are of the kind generally denominated the Equilibrium Valve, and worked by two eccentrics, one for each pair ; this is adopted to secure the means of cutting off the steam valve at any part of the stroke. The engine can be started, stopped and handled by a force not exceeding 401b. ap- plied to a lever 3 feet long. The condenser is immediately below the nozzles, thus securing instant condensation. The engine at ordinary working makes 21 revolutions with a pres- sure of steam of 181b. per square inch in the boiler, and cutting off at half stroke, driving a wheel 20 ft. 0 in, diameter, 7 feet wide with 20 inches of dip. The vacuum in condenser averages 28i inches as indicated by the barometer. The boat is 178 feet long between the perpendiculars, 175 feet on keel, 25 feet beam, depth of hold 8 feet, and 2 ft. 9 in. draught of water when light. The boilers are upon the tubular principle, and con- structed to burn wood fuel. The boat before the navigation closed was 23 days upon her station, and seemed to answer all the purposes for which she was built. I thus submit to the criticism of English engineers the first Double Cylinder Engine that has been manufactured in Canada, and erected on board the first iron boat built in the colony. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, William Parkyn. fit. Mary's Foundry, Montreal, Dec. 12, 1843. P.S. In such class of vessel as the Helen Macgvegor, described in the Journal for November, an engine on the plan here submitted could be got in the same space, having a 0 feet stroke and 12 feet connectipg rod. [It is very evident that Mr. Parkyn's engine is a copy of the double cylinder engines of Messrs. Maudslay & Co. ; this engine being in every respect, but one, exactly similar to that patented by Joseph Maudslay and Joshua Field on the 7th of May, 1839, and de- scribed in the Journal, p. 73, Vol. Ill, 1840. The only novelty, is in placing the air-pump between the cylinders, and making it the guide for the bottom end of the connecting rod; the air-pump is therefore necessarily open topped, and working under the pressure of the at- mosphere. This arrangement most undoubtedly reduces this kind of engini> to a minimum of space per horse power, and admits of a longer connecting rod than Messrs. Maudslay and Field's engine, for the reasons given by Mr. Parkyn — his working the air-pump piston to within an inch or two of the vessel's bottom. There is considerable ingenuity in the scheme, although, if our memory serves us rightly, we have seen it before printed and described in some work, but which we cannot refer to just now. It possesses all the faults of Maudslay's engines, and which we think have been urged against them with much reason — namely, greatly unbalanced weight, and consequent irregu- larity of motion, and perhaps of more consequence still — the surety of a difference in the friction of the two pistons, throwing a heavy strain, and wear and tear on'the piston rods and working parts con- nected therewith. Mr. Parkyn's engine possesses all these disadvantages, to which must be added his open topped air-pump, which adds to, instead of reducing the unbalanced weight— for he has to bring up the bucket or plunger against the atmosphere, which in a pump of 28 in. diame- ter, is equal to four tons or close upon half the power of one cylinder (vacuum pressure.) As the condensation water is, under ordinary working, about equal to one fourth of the air-pump's content per stroke, it follows that the power requisite for its expulsion into the hot well is exerted only during the last quarter of its descent, and until it reaches that point it is totally inefficient as a balance to the working parts, and then it has become useless from their accelerated motion. Messrs. Maudslay avoid this, although they increase their weight and space, by placing the air-pump as shown in the drawing before referred to (Vol. III., 1840.) There is still another objection to Mr. Parkyn's plan. The velocity of the air-pump plunger is double that generally given, it is necessa- rily the same as the piston, instead of a moiety, and this would be a serious objection in the minds of many English engineers. In the case of a bucket with valves, we should agree as to its impracticability, but we do not think the objection applies with so much force when a solid plunger is used, (as by Mr. Parkyn,) and the delivery valves are made of sufficient capacity. We know of several good engines, that have the strokes of their cylinders and air-pumps equal, the Prince Albert, of London, for instance, just occurs to us. The friction is, of course, greater, in the ratio of 2 to 3, and probably the wear of the air-pump would be considerable, from the oblique action of the con- necting rod : but these are matters for practice to determine, and we shall be glad to hear again from Mr. Parkyn, after his engines have been at work for some time, and perhaps he can then favour us with some indicator diagrams taken from the cylinder and from the under side of the air-pump plunger— these would assist our judgment mate- rially, and be very interesting. The steam and eduction valves, used by Mr. Parkyn, are those of the Cornish engines— generally known by the name of double beat valves; two sets of eccentrics are applied, and the expansion of the steam is effected by a slot in the eccentric notch, which can be al- tered at pleasure, and is both novel, simple and effective : but it is not applicable to slide valves. On the whole it is a creditable production, although, as we have said before, it is a decided infringement of Maudslay's patent, in so far as the employment of two cylinders, piston-rods, T piece, &c., is con- cerned. However, we cannot help again expressing our pleasure at these liberal exchanges of practical knowledge, between the new and old world, and feel gratified at our Journal being the means of com- municating them to the public.]— Editor C. E. & A. Journal. Railways.— First Report fiam the Select Committee.— The Select Committee appointed to consider whetlier any what new provisions ought to be introduced into sucli railway biUs as may come before this House during the present or future sessions, for tlie advantage of tile public and the improvement of the railway system, aud likewise to con- sider whether any and what changes ought to be made in the standing orders relating to railways, and who were empowered to report their opinion thereupon from time to time to the House, have considered the toiatter referred to them, aud have agreed to the fol- lowing clause be inserted in all the. railway bills now coming before or passing through Parliament, viz., " And be it further enacted, that nothing herein contained shall be deemed or construed to exempt the railway by this or the said recited acts authorized to be made from the provisions of any general act relating to such bills which may pass during the present session of Parliament, or of any general act relatiug to railways which may pass during the present or any future sessioa of Parlisment," 93 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Feb. 24, VALVES AND ECCENTRICS FOR WORKING STEAM EXPANSIVELY. (WUh Engravings, Figs, llo 7 Plate '3.) Sir — Enclosed I send you a description and sketches of an elegant apparatus for cutting off the steam at any required part of the strulie ; which (judging from the clumsy manner in which that object is often done) I believe to be not generally known. The accompanying sketches (Plate 3, Figs. 1 to 7,) are taken from the engine used for mechanically ventilating the Reform Club House, in Pall Mall, made by Messrs. Easton and Amos, Engineers, South- wark, and is, I believe, their invention, and has been found to answer the purpose well. H is a curious fact that the same valves have been patented twice since they were introduced at the Reform Club House in 1840. In the Mechanic's Magazine, July 15, 1843, there are ab- stracts of the patents referred to, — 1st. Robert Wilson, engineer, of Manchester, specification enrolled June 22, 1843. — 2nd, James Morris, merchant, of Cateaton-street, London, specification enrolled June 22, 1843; so that these patents were both sealed and enrolled on the same day for the identical invention, and that invention having been in public use at least two years previous. I hope this will show you the value, if well executed, of your new plan of giving abstracts of all patents connected with the professions of the engineer and architect. I remain, Sir, your obedient servant, George Spencer, Engineer's Draughisman. 5, Himgerford Street, Strand. Description of the Valves and Eccentrics. Fig, 1, is a Section through the Passages, Cylinder, Valves, and Valve Box. — Fig. 2,Froiit Elevation of Cylinder Face. — Fig. 3, Plan of Valve, — Fig. 4, Valve Cover. — Fig. 0, Plan of Non-Shifting Ec- centric.— Fig. 7, The Shifting Eccentric. — Fig. 12, Section showing both Eccentrics together. The valve A is similar in construction to the ordinary slide valves, except that there are two steam ways passing through the valve; this valve is made to slide on the cylinder face by means of the non-shift- ing eccentric C, and never varies in the distance it travels. The valve cover B is made to cover the two steam ways exactly, and slides on the top of the valve A, and is worked by t!ie shifting eccentric D. The eccentrics C and D are bolted together by a bolt passing through one of the square holes E in C, figs. .5, 0, and 7, and through the cir- cular slot g g,\nV> ; bands T pass round both eccentrics, to which the rods acting on the weigh-shaft levers are attached. The object gained by this arrangement is to give a uniform sliding motion to the valve A, while the slide cover B, and its eccentric D, are so contrived that its travelling distance may be varied as required. This adjustment is managed in the following manner: — on the non-shifting eccentric C, a boss g is cast, on which the shifting eccentric D fits, and may be moved round and bolted in any required position as before mentioned; now if the point ;s of D be brought to the point x of C, the eccentric will not cause any motion to the valve cover B, but if the point x of D be brought to the point a: 1 of C, then the valve cover B will have a rectilinear motion equal to the diameter of the cifcle of which the distance from x to .r 1 is the radius, or any intermediate length of motion may be given to the valve cover by altering the position of the shifting eccentric — and thus the steam may be cut off easily at any re- quired part of the stroke. NOTES OF THE WEEK, The Director of the Sileaian Railway has invented tjie following means to enalde passengers, in case of distress, to communicate with the engine driver. A circular hole, closed ly a fiai), is made in the lop of each carriage roof, and which can be opened by means of a string, so that the passengers can pass tlivough the hole a signal of distress, which the engine driver can see, and instantly stop the train. An instance of the utility of this arrangement re- cently occurred on the line, a noise like the bubbling of boiling water being heard behind one of the carriages ; after waiting for some lime, a civil en- gineer in the carriage passed through the roof the distress flag, and the train being stopped, it was found that one of the axles had got red hot, no doubt for want of grease. Of course the danger was immediately checked. M'e do not, however, place too great a value on the contrivance, as it would be a great source of annoyance in the hands of silly old women. A description of the interesting, but little known, objects of antiquity in the Sagre Grotle Valicaue, or Hypogeum of St. Peter's, has at last been pub- lished by direction uf the Papal Governmeut, from the pens of Sard and Set- clini, illustrated with 42 coin'et -plates, An elegant building has been erected at the Hermitage, on Mount Vesuvius, called the Vesuvian Meteorological Observatory. A plan for the improvement and restoration of the C'ampagna Vicana, has been well received by the King of Naples. A new grotto has been discoM'red at Monte di Ciima, near Naples, by the seaside. It is esteemed by some to be the true Sybil's grotto. The first artesian well has been begun at Naples in the garden of the Roy^l Palace. Great exertions are being made for the maintenance of the Flemish language and literature in Belgium. The Government of Hamburgh have signed a contract with an Anglo-Ham- burgher company for lighting the city with gas. Nine statues, representing the nine Muses, have recently been brought to the Hotel do Ville. at Paris. They are for the decoration of the fjrand festival gallery. More than 200 sculptural artizans are employed in finishing that magnificent gallery. The town of Breteuil is about to erect, in gratitude to M. Laffitte, a foun- tain, surmounted by his bust. The amount voted is £80. In 1829, M, laffitte gave to the town a hall and market-house, which cost £1,600. The ruins of a Gallo-Roman town, of great extent, have been found in a large forest near St. Saulge, in the Nivernais. It possessed a temple, forum, many streets, and every day vases, pottery, and objects of sculpture, are dis- covered. The Minister of the Interior, in France, has given orders for the opening of a part of the Museum of the Hotel de Cluny on the 15th inst. The bronze statue of Admiral Duquesne has been placed on a provisional pedestal, alongside of the statues of the other marine commanders in the midst of the Cpurt of the Louvre. It is only placed there for public exhibi- tion, being destined for Dieppe. This is a very good way of exhibiting public statues, and should be imitated here. The Minister of the Interior, in France, has presented to the town of L'Orieut a picture representing a naval exploit of Captain Dusaulfhoy. Father Ungaretti, employed on the catalogue of Egyptian antiquities at Rome, has been struck with a paralytic stroke. A panorama is being exhibited in Germany of Hamburgh before and after the fire. The City Picture Gallery, at Mentz has finally been located in the saloon of the Palace. News has been received of Mr. Fellowes' operations in Lycia. The expedi- tion is in excellent health, and a great many good things have been obtained. Among them is a monument representing a mythological being driving a car, in which is a triple-headed monster, being a lion at one end, with a goat rising from its back, and a scorpion or serpent at the other end. Mr. Fel- lowes has named it the Chimajra tonili, and to prepare it for shipment he has caused it to be sawed in two, Tiic HUJea is lu beyin embarking the objects of art by the end of the month. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS. February 19. — T. L. Donaldson, Esq., V.P., in the chair. A paper was read by Frederick Catherwood, Esq., Architect, Hon. and Corresponding Member, on the " Antiquities of Central America." The Mexican Indians, besides a perfect knowledge of stone cutting, and laying, were well acquainted with various kinds of mortar, stuccoes, wd cements, and large masses of excellent concrete arc found in many of their buildings. They were, in fact, so far as the mechanical part ffcnt, accom- plished masons. In another department of art which requires more know- ledge and science than the budding of pyramids and temples, they were in no wise inferior to the Egyptians — to the preparation, mixing, and use of pigments. Their painting is indeed superior both to their architecture and sculpture, and they went even beyond the Egyptians in the blending of colours ; approaching more nearly to the paintings found at Pompeii and Ilerculaneum. In one of the rooms of a large building at Chichen Itza are paintings cover- ing the entire walls from the floor to the ceiling. (For a plan of Chichen Itza see Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal, Vol, VI. p. 133.) The apart- ment may be 30 ft. long, 12 ft. wide, and 15 ft. high. The figures are not more than Gin. to 8 in. in height, but most interesting subjects are represented, abounding with life, animation, and nature. In one place are seen warriors preparing for battle, in another the fight is at its height, castles are attacked, defended, and taken, and various military executions follow. This forms one section of the wall. In another are seen labours of husbandry, planting, sowing, and reaping, and the cultivation of fruit and flowers. Then follow domestic scenes, and others apparently of a mythological nature ; indeed, almost everything requisite to give us an intimate ncquaintance with Indian 1. IIKI VyX V IMj t.ryxyiiyt.i^K. AWU ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. <.3 life IS depicted. The subjects are too numerous to mention, and such was the multitude of tigures and objects, that a month would not have sufficed for delineating them. Unfortunately these beautiful paintings are fast has- tening to decay, and every day adds to their approaching obliteration, from the visits of Indians. The pervading type of the architecture in the central parts of America and Yucatan, consists in first constructing immense pyramidal mounds, or ter- races, of greater or less height, and on these placing their sacred edifices and palaces. Whether these mounds, or, as some call them, pyramids, (and by the Indians they are called teoealli,) are in general solid, or contain in all cases passages and apartments, remains yet to be ascertained. lu the few that have been opened, by accident or design, small arched rooms have been found. The buildings are generally long, low, arched, and of a single itorv a plan frequently adopted by the Spaniards on account of the shocks of earth- quake to which many parts of the country are exposed. In a few instances buildings of two and three stories were met with. The teoealli before-men- tioned are found in great numbers throughout the country. They are fre quently of large dimensions, of a pyramidal form, but do not terminate in a point hke the Egyptian structures. They have on their summits platforms o( sufhcient extent for their temples, which contained statues of their deities and in front was seen conspicuous the sacrificial stone or altar, convex on its upper surface so as to raise the chest of the human victim Mr. Catherwood thought there could he but one opinion as to the altars Idols, and sacnhcial stones at Quirigua and Copau, having been constructed and used for these dismal rites. Indeed the channels cut on the upper sur- faces of these sacrificial stones left no ioubt on his mind as to the uses to winch they were applied. Another and not less distinguishing, feature than their mounds and pyra- mids are the arched rooms found in all their buildings; he called it an arch heoaiise it has all the appearance of one, and answers most of its purposes and the inveutors were on the very threshold of discovering the true principles of the arch It invariably consists of stones overlaying each other from opposite walls, untd the last meet over the centre of the room, or what is still more commonly the case, when the last stones approach within about 12 inches of each other, a flat stone is laid on the top, covered either with solid masonry or concrete. The joints of the stones are all horizontal. The roofs have a slight inclination to throw ofl' the rain, and are cemented. This foriii of arch appears at first sight original, and is so in as much as regards the Indians, but the same principle was used in the earliest times by the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Etrurians, and would, in all probability, suir- gest Itself to any people who had to construct a stone roof over a space too wide for them to cover with flat stones. He lia.l been indebted to Mr. Ainslev a short time ago for a sight of his beautiful drawings of Etrurian remains and among them is shown an arch, which, if he had met with it in Central America or Vicatan, he should have undoubtedly taken for one of the usual arches of the country. It is at a place called Cervetri, and forms a part of the Galassi tomb. The finding similar arches in Etruria and Yucatan, and not very dissimilar pyramids in the latter country and Egypt, was no proof to lus miml that a communication must have anciently existed between the resuUs'"*" ™""'™'' ^'™"*' necessities may well have produced similar As regards analogies in architectural ornaments in the new and old world the same argument applies. The one most frequently met with, and per'. fectly abke in Greece and Yucatan (which he would call the twisted rone or stood " *" "'■"»'"''"' •''^e'y '<> be found wherever rope making was under- Copau may be called the City of Idols, as it abounds with monolithic statues of Indian deities. The city stood on the bank of a river, and was surrounded by walls ; that on the river side is stil! from CO to 90 feet in height in some places The remains of a vast temple or collection of temples he scattered about with innumerable fragments of mutilated ornaments and statues. The statues are generally about 12 feet in height and four feet square, the front and back having representations of human figures, habited in a most singular manner, with towering head-dresses of feathers and skins .h/f!"." ;. "e'^''V?'^°?'='' «'"' necklaces, the ears with ear-rings, and the feet with sandals, hke those of the ancient Romans. The sides are carved with lueroglyph.es, which no one has yet been able to decipher. They were hIKi '■/''"? "■■"• "° 'l""'"^ of "^''ed buildings here, though no doubt such formerly existed, but immense pyramidal inounds and terraced waUs are met with to a great distance in the surrounding forests Qmrigua is the next place of interest in this part of the country. It is in many respects similar to Copau, hut probably more ancient. It consists of ruined mounds and terraces, with many colossal statues, deeply buried in the entanglement of a tropical forest. Some of the statues are 2C feet i" numl' n 1 • '"^^ "k"'' "" '""'P'"'" '' '" '"^ ""ef- ""'1 as «""»! there are numerous hieroglyphics. At Ocosingo the arch was met with, before alluded to, with the usual accompaniments of mounds and terraces, and an ornament over one of the doorways not unlike the winged globe of Egypt. Palenqne, in Chiapas, the most southern province of Mexico, is better known than any other of the ruined American cities. It was prol,;!, y aban Mexico to Honduras, as no mention is made of it in his despatches. The principal building is called the palace. It stands on an artificial mound tT^ ^:"' '1^1,^ 2«0f'- -'J ^^(^- ''igl.. with staircases on 1 e fL^ides: The building Itself measures 228 x 180ft., 25ft. high, and of one story The front and rear have each H doorways, and eleven on each end. The piers dividing the doorways still present traces of admirable stuccoes, which were painted. The interior is divided into three court-yards, with a tower in one ot them. Every part appears to have been elaboratelv decorated with sculp- ture m stone, stuccoes, and paintings. In several i>( the apartments Mr C_atlierwood noticed that the walls had been painted several times, as traces' ol earlier subjects were discernible where the outer coat of paint had been destroyed. The paintings were of the same nature as the frescoes of Italy water colours app ied to cement. The other buildings are inferior in size tj he palace but all on high mounds, richly decorated with numerous stone tablets of hieroglyphics, and sculpture of figures, well executed, which have awakened a lively interest in the antiquarian world. The whole is shrouded in the de^pths of a tropical forest, which has to be cleared away at every fresh visit of the traveller. ' Next came the ruins of Uxraal, which for their vast extent, their variety and being for the most part in good preservation, may claim precedence of any other remains of antiquity in Yucatan. (Of these a plan and view will be found in Vol. VI. of the Journal, p. 135.) The Casa de las Moiijas, or House of the Nuns, is a building forming four sides of a square, and enclosing a court-yard about 300ft. each way Each of the four buildings presents a difi-erent design, so also do the rear fronts and the ends, presenting no less than sixteen diti'erent fai,>ades The Grand Teocallis, called by the Indians the House of the' Diviner stood to the eastward of the last-mentioned building, and within a hundred yards of It. The pyramidal part rose to the height of 100ft. above the plain 'with two noble flights of stairs leading to the platform on the top. ' The Casa del Gobernador, or House of the Governor, is next in importance riiis immense building is constructed entirely of hewn stone, and measures 320ft. in front, by 40ft. in depth. The height is about 2Gft. It has 11 doorways in front and two at the ends. The apartments are narrow, seldom exceeding 12 ft., just large enough to swing a hammock, which was. and still IS, the substitute for beds throughout the country. Some of the rooms are long, measuring 60 ft. and 23 ft. high. There does not appear to have been any internal decorations, nor are there anv windows. The lower part of the edifice IS of plain wrought stone, but the upper part is singularly rich in ornament. Taking the frout, the ends, and the rear of the building, we have a length of 712 ft. of elaborate carving, on which traces of painting are still visib e. The peculiar arch of the country has been employed in every room the lintels of the doorways were of wood, a more costly but less durable material than stone, and from its hardness more difficult to be worked Un fortunately they have all decayed, and the masonry they supported has' fallen down, and much of the beauty of the building is thus destroyed. The Casa Uel Gobernador stands on three terraces, the lowest is 3 ft. high 15 ft wide and 575 long; the second is 20ft. high, 250ft. wide, and 545ft. long; and the third IS 19ft. high, 30ft. broad, and StiOft. long. They are all of stone, and in a tolerable state of preservation. These are the principal buildings at ijxmal, and the others are much inferior in size and preservation At Kabah, in addition to richly decorated facades, some very curious in- ternal decorations were found. At Zayi an immense edifice of three stories in height. (Of Zayi a description and engraving will be found in Vol. VI.. p. 135.) At Labnah a handsome gateway. At Bolonchen a natural curiosity in a deep subterranean well, the descent to which is by long ranges of ladders of dangerous construction. At Tuloom a walled city. At Izamal some large mounds, and a colossal head. And, finally, at Ake a collection of large stones on a high mound, not unlike a Druidical monument. „ ; „.^ '■??*'■'' '° 'he age of these monuments, Mr. Catherwood differed from Del Rio, Du Paix, Lord Kingsborough, and VValdeck. The growth of tropical trees has not been sufficiently studied to make them a safe criterion to judge of the age of such monuments. The accumulation of vegetable mould to the depth of 9 ft. IS another proof that has been adduced in favour of their high antiquity, and doubtless in a northern chmate would indicate a remote age but not so in the tropics ; vegetation there is so rank and rapid, that within less' than twelve months from the first visit to Uxmal. Mr. Catherwood found the whole place so overgrown with shrubs and small trees, that nothing but the high Tescalli were visible, and the outUne of the other monuments and a thick deposit of vegetable mould covered the places they had so short a time before cleared away. Mr. Catherwood met with no physical marks surely indicating a high antiquity ; on the contrary, the whole course of his obserl yations led him to form an opposite opinion. It is also proved by undoubted testimony that many of the buildinirs, now in ruins, were in use by the Indians at the time of the Spanish invasion. He did not think he should be safe in ascribing to any of the monuments (which still retain their form) a greater age than from 800 to 1,000 years, and those which are perfect enough to he delineated he thought it likely were not more than from 400 to 600 years. The roots of trees, and the tropical rains, are the chief elements of destruction, and daily and hourly is the work going on. Another century will hardly have elapsed before the whole of these interesting monuments will have become undistinguishable heaps of ruins. If it be so difficult to determine the age of the monuments, it can scarcely be less so to ascertain who were their architects. At all events it is probable that the Tolteques and their descendants erected the buildings we have been considering this evening. The Mexicans, or Aztecs, adopted the arts and civilization of their predecessors, and used the same method of astronomical calculation. Air Tite observed that the greatest resemblances to the American styles he had observed, were in the buddings of Ceylon aud Java, described in the 94 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [Feb. 24, wovks of Sir Stamford Raffles. There seemed to h.m some h.ng l.ke an analogy m the huildings.-Mr. Catherwood sa,d he had ""' """^'^'^ f-f J' Tite a. led whether he had examined the masonry "''\'-^f«;f . ° '.'''..r^f. '" which it is formed, and whether it is so executed as to indu.e the 1 ehef that tTe To tecs were a cultivated people. He also inquired w^hether they were acQuainted with the working of metal, as for instance, had arty idols of bro ze h en found, as in Egypt and elsewhere.-Mr. Catherwood said dee- dedlv that the masonrv was regular and well executed. All that .s known with" reaard to their power of working metal, was the testimony to i ad- duced hv the historians of the early conquests of Cortes and otiiers. There had also been found raanv beautiful objects, some of gold, some ot silver hut mostly of copper. Their proficiency in tlie arts was also i lus- trated by the delicate paintings on their MSS., some of which he had in- tended to have brought with him, but being on a kind of bark, they were so fragile as to be liable to iniurv.— Mr. Tite said he had some wood engravings of °them in the well-known work Purchm's Pilr/rim.—m. Poynter, in re- ference to the analogies discoverable in the ornaments, cited a case ot the pectdiar Greek scroll, which is an emblem of water, being foriiied on a Penivian vase, where it evidently had the same meaning, the fish being re- presented underneath it, as it is sometimes found in the Greek.— Mr. Donald- son inquired if any windows were found in the Toltecan buildings.— Mr. Catherwood said none, only doors. The doors in some of the large bmldings were very ornamental. That at Chichon Itza was highly decorated.— Mr. Donaldson asked if there were any bed-mouldings to their coriiices.— Air. Catherwood said none. In answer to another inquiry, he said the material of the buildings he had seen was limestone, there had been none of sand- stone or granite seen by him, and he was disinclined to believe there were anv It was said that the great sacrificial stone in the city of Mexico was of granite, hut he had not examined it. It is very generally supposed that the Egvptian buildings are of granite, but he had been much surprised after two yeirs residence in the country, to find that with the exception of one or two small buildhigs, they were all of grey sandstone, lie said that no cramps had been found among the masonry, and that the material of the beam^ of the doors was sapote wood, on which the carving is very sharp and beautiful Mr. Stephens had got two beams away, but they were afterwards destroyed by fire. Mr. Donaldson asked whether the wood was used as an object of rarity, or because thev had not stones long enough to cover the entrances —Mr. Catherwood said the wood was used purely as an object of luxury, as it admitted of richer car\ing.— Mr. Poynter asked if any quarries had been found.— Mr. Catherwood replied none, nor tombs. This was a matter of deep regret, for such a discovery would have been highly inter- esting They heard of many campos santos, but in only one instance did they find a burial ground, when they obtained a skull, which had been exa- mined by Dr. Morion of Philadelphia, who had pronounced it exceedingly curious —Thanks were then voted by acclamation to Mr. Catherwood. We should observe that around the room were arranged a number of drawings by Mr. Catherwood, which excited much attention, from their remarkable union of architectural precision with pictorial effect. The discussion upon the vahies nf pumps was also resumed. The resem- blance between the disc valve of Palmer and Perkins, and that invented by Belidor was examined, and the general opinion appeared to be that Messrs. Palmer and Perkins' valve would he found very useful in large pumps for mines, through which much sand or chi|)S passed. The general question of valves with large openings with their inlluence on the working of the deep mines of Cornwall and otlier places was noticed. The discussion occupieil so much time that no papers conld be read; those, therefore, which had been appointed for the 20th, were announced for reading on the 27th instant. INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. \Feb. 20. — The President in the Chair. The discussion on the screw propeller, which was carried to so great a length at the last meeting, was resumed. Mr. Grantham explained the con- struction of the propeller used on board the Liverpool Screw. It was formed of four arms. Mr. Grantham being present, stated that he had come prepared to answer a Question which had been put at the last meeting respecting the angle at which the blades were set. The mean angle of the blade, taken in the line of the radius, was 45°, and this liad given a most admirable result. The par- ticular object of his paper had been to prove, by the data obtained in the experiments on the Liverpool Serein, that it was both practicable and desi- rable to construct the wheel of such a large diameter and long pitch, that its motion would be comparatively slow, so much so, as to admit of its being driven direct from the engines similar to the ordinary paddle wheels, and to use the condensing engine. He stated that he most approved of the form of screw adopted by Mr. Ericsson with the expanding pitch. He objected to the form exhibited in some of the models laid on the table ; propellers thus constructed could not conveniently be made to present a large surface to the water, without which a considerable slip would take place and a con- sequent loss of effect. It also formed an additional obstacle to direct action. Mr. E. Galloway contended that the amount of slip was greater than was imagined owing to the following current at the stern. He also argued that there was no advantage to be gained by the expanding pitch. Mr. Cowper related some experiments made on a small toy, (with blades in the form of a screw propeller,) which is projected into the air, by having a rapid rotary motion communicated to it— form these he was to give a decided pre- ference to the expanding pitch. Mr. Braithwaite confirmed Mr. Grantham s statement regarding Bcrisson's propeller, and promised at a future meeting to give the results obtained on board the Prirtceton steamer, U. S. America. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MOTIVE POWER. At the Roval Institution, on February 9th, W. R. Grove, Esq., gave a lecture " On the Progress made in the Application of Electricity an a Mo- tive Power." The subjects of Mr. Grove's communication were, 1, a brief summary of the laws of the electro-magnetic force ; 2, a description of the chief modifi- cations of the engines to which that force has hitherto heen applied ) 3, the commercial statistics of its application ; 4, the purposes for which this power is available. In dealing with the first of these stdijects, Mr. Grove exhibited, by many illustrative and successful experiments, the well-known re-actions of iron and other metals on each other, when exposed to the influence of an electric current. The actual application of these familiar phenomena was then shown in the working models of several machines, which were set in action by the nitric acid (or Grove's) battery, invented hy Mr. Grove, and described by him four years ago at the Uoyal Institution. These machines may be divided into three classes ; first, those acting by the immediate de- flecting force, as shown in the galvanometre, Barlow's wheel, &c. ; secondly, those on what is called the suspension principle. In these, two powerful electro-magnets are fixed contiguous to the periphery of a wheel, and in the line of its diameter, plates of soft iron being fastened on this periphery at short and equal intervals. The electro-raagnets are so arranged as to lose their attractive power as soon as they have drawn through a given space each " plate of iron, necessarily presented to them by the revolution of the wheel, but are immediatly re-invested with this power, in order to operate on the next plate. By these means the wheel is kept in constant rotation on its axis. The remaining class of electrically-driven machines are applications of the principle of Ritchie's reiolving magnet. In these, an electro-magnet, balanced on a pivot, so as to rotate in a horizontal plane, is arranged between the poles of a permanent magnet. Hence, the alternate attractions of the opposite magnetic poles, combined with its own momentum, cause the electro-magnet to continue rapidly revolving. Having noticed machines, on these various principles, hv H. Fox Talbot, Esq., Mr. Hill, of Swansea, and Professor Wheatstone, Mr. Grove proceeded to his third subject, the com- mercial statistics of electro-magnetic power. It appears by the experiments of Dr. Botto, that the consumption of 451b. of zinc will produce an effect equivalent to a single- horse power for 24 hours. The cost of the zinc metal, at 3rf. the pound, would amount toll*. 3rf. .\bout 50Jlb. of the nitric acid of commerce would be required to dissolve the metal in the most econ- omical and effective manner. The charge of this, at (>d. the pound, would be \l. 5s. 3rf. The whole expense, therefore, of obtaining the effect of a one-horse power by an electro-motive apparatus, would be \l. Us. 6(7. In this calculation the cost of the requisite sulphuric acid is assumed to be fuUv covered by the value of the salts of zinc produced in the operation. The same amount of power produced by a steam engine would not cost more than a few shillings. Mr. Grove explained that this comparitive costliness of the electro-magnetic machines resulted from the sources of their force, zinc and acid being manufactured, and consequently costly articles; whereas, coal and water, the elements of the steam engine's force, were raw materials, supplied at once from the earth. Mr. Grove took this occasion to observe, that the experiments of Botto, just alluded to, were made with his (Grove s) battery ■ and that upon the cost of the constituents of this, the calculatmns were founded. At first sight, this battery would appear a dear form, from the expen'ie of the nitric acid ; but a little consideration proves the contrary of this Compare it, for example, with a battery merely charged with dilute sulphuric acid (the cheapest possible electrolyte), to perform an equivalent of work, (as the decomposition of a given quantity of water,) a series of three cells of the ordinary battery is necessary ; hence the consumption of three equivalents of zinc, and tiiree of sulphuric acid. But the intensity of the Grove's battery is such, that the same resistance can be overcome by one cell consuming only one equivalent of zinc, one of sulphuric acid, and one- third of nitric (there being in this acid three available equivalents of oxygen.) Independently of this smaller consumption, Grove's battery has the advan- tage of occupying only i^ih of the space of the other constructions. In con- chiding his communication, Mr. Grove mentioned the two well-known appb- cations of electric power— the electric telegraph and the electric clock. To neither of these can steam, or, indeed, any known force, be so apphcable as that which travels with a greater velocity than light itself. lO^t.J inri x^iviL, arNuiiMiiiU AI\L» ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 9S STEAM NAVIGATION. THE GOVERNMENT STEAM VESSEL CONTRACT. Since the publication by us of the Specification and Condilions is- sued to engineers for constructing engines for four second class and two first class vessels, Government have extended the space allowed for the engine room 6 feet in length for both class vessels ; this is still too little : if the beam engine is to be introduced, it onght to have been extended to at least 12 feet, otherwise engineers v/ill not be able to carry out their own ideas as to the most effective mode of con- struction; they will be obliged to cramp their ideas to make the en- gine suitable tu tl]e Goveriiment dictates as to space. We believe the limitation originated in a great mistake, as it is supposed by many persons that the tubular boiler, which is now being very generally in- troduced, occupies less space; this is true as to bulk, but not superfi- cially,for it is requisite to construct tubular boilers witli as large a fire grate and back flue as for the flue boiler, for if a given quantity of steam is to be generated, tlie same quantity of fuel will be required for a tubular boiler as for a well constructed flue boiler. We consider that Government was most decidedly wrong in limiting the space at all; it ought to have been left entirely to the judgment of the engineer to make their own designs, and it would tlien have been the duty of the Government officers, to have compared each design, and decided upon that engine which appeared to them to be the most effective for permanent service, for a few feet in length in such large vessels, as irom 180 to 220 feet in length, cannot be of such consequence as the eftec live working of the engine. We have before alluded to the necessity of Government making a rigid enquiry as to the comparative duty, expense of working and repairs of each description of engines, whether beam or direct action of the several descriptions that have been introduced within the last 10 years ; we trust this will be no longer delayed : and there is one other enquiry that ought also to be made, that is, as to the length of the Government steamers ; in our opinion the second and first class vessels are too short, they would be better if built from 10 to 20 feet longer, which would give that space which is so essentially re(iuisUe to make a comfortable engine room, the most important part of a steamer. THE SCREW AND PADDLE WHEEL TRIAL. In page 85, of last week's Journal, we gave the particulars of the Govern- ment trial of the screw propeller and the paddle wheel, with her Majesty's steana shijis the Ra//ie,- and Promethms, the former vessel was fitted with the screw, and the latter the paddle wheel ; as the experiment is one of im- portance, we have taken the trouble to obtain the proportions of the Rattler We understand that as far as the build of the vessel, the proportions of the Prometheus are nearly the same. Dimensions of H.BI.S. RBttler. Feet. Inchei. Length, extreme .. ., 195 q Ditto on decks .. .. 170 g Ditto on keel for tonnage .. .. 157 91 Breadth, extreme .. .. 32 8i Ditto moulded .. .. 31 jq Depth of hold .. .. jg 71 Burthen in tons 888^ Draught of water (mean) . . . . H 3 Area of midship section at 11 ft. Sin. . . 280 Engines — Maudslay's 4 cyUnders, aggregate power 200 horses : — Diameter of cylinders . . . . 0 40 Length of stroke . . . . 4 q Diameter of screw . . . . 9 0 Pitch of ditto. . ., .. 11 Q Length originally . . • • 5 g Do. as reduced on the occasion of the trial 3 0 Number of threads two. The gearing at present consists of two motions, which gives a velocity of four to one of the engine. The first motion of two to one consists of a large spur wheel and pinion, the cogs of which are divided into three parts thus — "^ those of the larger wheel being made of hard wood, and the smaller one of iron ; this sub-division of the wheels, prevents that very disagreeable raftlinc' which is so nuich complained of. The second motion consists of a large and small drum, with their surfaces divided into seven convex parts, thus — upon which seven leather straps, of live inches in width, are kept ti^ht hv a suitable pulley or drum for that purpose. The drum and straps have merely been put in to try their efficiency, and to allow the multiple to be diminished or increased as circumstances may require. It is inl<-nded, when the experi- ments have been completed, to remove the drums .i,nd straps, which will be replaced by a single wheel and pinion of requisite proportions It is estimated that from 18 to 20 im'. is absorbed in transmitting the power of the engine through the medium of straps at so great a velocity as IS required to drive the screw. Diameter of Gearing. Diameter of spur wheel M'idth .. Pitch .. .. .. \\ Diameter of pinion Ditto large drum . . Dittoof small drum The boilers are upon the ordinary llue principle. The boilers of the Promet/ieus are upon the new tubular principle, the dia- meter of her two cylinders 52Jin., length of stroke 4 ft. Gin. Feet. Inch 11 2 2 6 0 5 4 4 10 fi G 9 LAUNCH OF THE "QUEEN" NEW FERRY STEAMER. On Saturday, 12th inst., a fine iron steam boat, the property of the Biiken- liead Comra.ssioners, and intended to plv between Woodside Ferry and Georges pier, was launched from the yard of Mr. John Laird, the builder ^orth Birkenhead— amidst a large concourse of spectators, the occasion having excited considerable local interest, the vessel being of a new and pe- culiar construction, which it is fully expected will greatly expedite the trip across the Mersey, particularly from the Cheshire side. " She is somewhat arger than the ^un, (the largest boat now on the station,) being 110ft long by 22 It. beam ; her plates and ribs are of extra strength ; and she is put together with that tidelity, firmness, and improved fastenings, for which the constructor (who has had greater experience than any other iron ship, builder) has long been justly celebrated. Iler deck is flush, and uninter- rupted liyunwieldly erections, from end to end, her paddle frame-work beine carried along her whole length, dying into her extremities, and enclosed by continuous bulwarks, so that the full length and breadth, including the over- hangings, IS rendered available for the accommodation of passengers She IS moreover finely moulded, and will doubtless prove herself very speedv Her peculiarity consists in her being constructed that she may be pronelled with either end foremost, so that the delay of backing out, and then running a-head from the shore, especially from the Woodside shp, and which occu- pies on an average from four to five minutes each trip, (or nearly half the time of crossing,) will be altogether avoided— itself a great desideratum not only as regards passengers, but expenditure of fuel. This is accomplished by a rudder at each end, so contrived that it may be fixed firmly amidships, forming a cutwater when that end (which was before the stern) is required to become the bow. So far the plan has before been in operation, though with but partial success, from the difficulty of securing the respective rud- ders to form a stem, and their habUity, even on slight contact at their outer edge, to be carried away or deranged. Mr. Laird has, however, contrived a remedy for this liability to damage by an outward and standing guard of iron, forming a cutwater outside the rudder when that end is the bow, and within and just clear of which the rudder works, when it becomes the stern, in which case, from its comparative thinness, it oflers little or no resistance to the speed of the vessel as a stopwater. This guard is secured, below, to the keel, and above to the stern. The rudders do not rise, as in ordinary vessels, to the top of the external part of the stern post, but occupy the space only between the bne of the keel and the water or dranght-mark of the vessel. When not in use it is not perceptible to the eye, forming, as it were, a secret door. It is secured, when forming part of 'the stern below, by dropping a strong bolt, which firmly attaches its outer edge to the guard, so that the whole becomes as one piece, forming a deep ho!ding-on fore-foot. A steam frigate for the navy has recently been built, having two rudders, with the object here sought, on the suggestion of Lord Dundonald. How she will succeed we have not yet ascertained; but we doubt not but additional strength and safety would be secured by the adoption of Mr. Laird's " patent guard." Another steamer of precisely the same size and construction, and for the same proprietary, is in a forward state iu Mr. Laird's yard . The Queen will be propelled by engines of 60 H.f ., with oscillating cylinders, by Messrs. George Forrester & Co. (See Journal for last November, p. 367, and Plate XIII.) The engines and boilers will occupy a space of only 21 ft.', leaving a large space forward and aft for cabin accommodation. 98 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS juuiu^ai.. The PRiNCETON.-The Time, correspondent (A Genevese Traveller writes-" A great object of interest to our citizens at tins time is the Umte 1 States war-steamer Princeton, just built under the superintendence of Capt I ockton «luch now lies in this harbour, and is daily visited by crowds of ktere ted snectalors. This steamer is constructed with Ericsson's proi.elle . steam mrchinerv is placed entirely below the water line, ont of the reach of shot Us ensine is extremely light and simple of construction, occupying only about one-dgbth of the bulk required by the ordinary British marine- enK ne of the same power. It gives a direct motion to the axis of the pro- neller without the aid of cog-wheels or auxiliary gearing of any description. It IS styled the semi-cybndrical steam engine, and is the invention of Captain Ericsson For the vast power which it includes in so small a compass, ami for the exquisite symmetry and projiortion of all its working parts, this eneine is the theme of general admiration. The armament of the Princeton includes two huge wrought iron guns (introduced by Capt. Stockton , placed one at each end of the ship, the largest weighing 10 tons, and with a bore of I" inches, carrying a ball of 2131h. This gun is placed on awronght iron carriage, also contrived by Captain Ericsson, and which, without the use ot the ordinarv breaching, checks the immense recoil, and the vessel sutlers but a very slight shock from the diseliarge. By means of this carriage this huKC gun is managed bv half-a-dozen bands with peifect facility. The peeu- liarity of tlie steam machinery of the Princeton and its being placed out of the reach of shot are supposed to give her obvious advantages over all other steamers now afloat intended for naval warfare." • Improvements in the riach-worlc -The Paris papers speak of a psychological phenomenon, who mmmmmmmm and (lUBittis, the cock that crows at noon-day, &c. Koyal Museum. Another method of applying tlic waves of the sea has been lecently contrived, which prorses more practical result's than the p.opelling -l'""-^- J ^e olyect ,, ,„ „,a^^^^^^^^^ breal;ers on a dangerous coast serve as tlieir oivn warning' signals to sailors I he invLntor ^rODOses to have hollow buoys moored near the dangerous coast or sand bank, to wh.c* buo?s nmes somewhat like organ pipes are to be affixed. Metal tongues, on the prmcple 01 acco Srons are to be titled to the pipes, so that when the buoys are tossed up and down by the breakers the air may be lurced through, and cause them to utter warn.og soumis, winch would become louder and lou.ler as the sea raged more harcely and the danger incrsased.— tlorning Post. LIST OP NEWT' PATENTS. fFrorn Messrs. Robertson's Lisl.J GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM JANUARY 27, TO FEBRUARY 24, 1844. Six Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise erpresseil. Robert Johnstone, of Baker street, Middlesex, gent., for " '"P'^'f ''="'y" "fj",", struction of lamps ior the combustion of naphtha, turpentnie. and other resinous 0.1s. .lanuary 27. .lanuaryj/. ,. ,, .„ „„ Henry Vernon Physick, of Bath, civil engineer, for " Improvements applicable to ma- chinery for driving piles." January au. . William Edward Newton, of Chancery Lane, civil engineer for '\'"P"y™,''''J "\, '^ preparation of caoutchouc or India rubber, and in manulacturing various fabrics, ol wnic.i caoutchouc forms a component part." (A communication.)— January JO. ^_ Ezra Washington Burrows, of Swinton Street, St. Pancras, civil engineer, for Im- provements in the construction of engines for producing and commumcat.ng motive powei by the elastic force of steam, or by manual or anunal labour. January M. George Millar Clark, of Albany Street, Regent's Park, taUow chandler, for "Improve- ments in night lights, and in apparatus used therewith." January aO. William Lucas Sargant, of Birmingham, for " Improvements in the manufacture ol barrels for lire arms." (Partly a communication.!— January aO. Baptiste Buret, of Leicester Square, merchant, and Franjois Marios David, of the same place, manufacturer of gas apparatus, lor •' Improvements in the manufacture ol gas. January aU. ...,,„ William Fletcher, of Moreton House. Buckingham, clerk, for Improvements in the construction of locks and latches applicable for doors and other purposes. January .in James Silcock, of Birmingham, engineer, for " Improvements in planes." January 31. Robert Hodgson, of Princes Street, Clapham Road, Surrey, engineerj for " Improve- ments in propelling vessels, and in the machinery for working the same. hebruary -. William Sangster, of Regent Street, Middlesex, umbrella and parasol manufacturer, for •' Improvements in umbrellas and parasols." February ti. Benjamin Aingworth, of Birmingham, gent., for " Improvements in manufacturing but- tons for wearing apparel." February tt. Thomas Southall. of Kidderminster, druggist, and Charles Cmdgington, of the same place, banker, lor " Improvements in the manufacture of iron and steel." February ». James Johnstone, of Willow Park, Greenock, Esq., for " Improvsroents in steam boilers." Fehruarv 8. Christopher Nickels, of the York Road, I-ambelh, gent., fol manufacture of crape, or substitutes for crape. Februarys. F,r-, lenks Coates of Bread Street, Cheapside. mercliant, lor " Improvements in appa- rat^s"oMiliU.h'g the reduction ol .■■■-tures.dislocations of bones, and for man.taunng their parts in their just positions. (A commumcat,on.)-Pebumry 8. Charles Wheatstone, of Conduit Street, Hanover Square, gent., for "Improvements on thfconcerthia and oU.er musical instruments, in which the soun.ls are produced by the action of wind on vibratory springs." Februarys. , , , . , ,, „ John Cox .and George Cox, of Georgie Mills, near Edinburgh, manufacture of leather and Belati,«, or " Improvements in the manu.acture ot leather and gelafUM. Feb. 8. George Straker, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, shipowner, for " An improvement, or improve- ments in ships' windlasses." Februarys. „ „ „ ,. «n Pdwin shenoard of Manchester, foreman in the works of Messrs. G. C. Pauhng & Co., conuaclo'srd Im'iWers, lor "Improvements in niachinery or apparatus for planing, sawing, and cuttiug wood, and other substances.' -February S. William Fdward Newton, of Chancery Lane, civil engineer, for " A new or impvoved .vueno^annandus for obtaining and applying motive power for propeUmg on railways ofwlter, aid tol raising heavy'bo.lies,' applicable also to various other purposes where power is required." (A communication.)— February 8. Joseph Gibson, jun., of Birmingham, japanner, for "Improvements n. ornamenting glass."— February 10. „ „ . . , Henry Hawes Fox, of Northw.ods, Gloucester, doctor of medicine, for An unproved mode of constructing lire-proof floors, ceilings and roots. -Feb. 1(1. William Geeves of Little Portland Street, cork and cork gun wadding manufacturer, for • ' i^no^men'.s in prepared wood for lighting or kindbng hres."-February U. William Edward Newton, of Chancery Lane, civil engineer for " An improvement or improvements in furnaces." (A communicatiou.j-February 1.. Job Haines of Tipton, Stafford, coal master, and Richard Hames, of the same nlace, coal ma8 ler tor " An improved method or methods of making or „,anu acturn.g hnk , lor the co.i^trucuou of hat chains used for mining and other purposcs."-Febroary la. Bennet Woodcrott, of Manchester, consulting engineer, for " Improvements in propel- ling vessels."— February 13. ....,,• -.i James Overend, of Liverpool, gentleman, for " IrtDrovements in printing t'l-ri" ".th metaufc niatter". and in linishing silks and other fabrics." (A commun.cal,on.)-Feb. 13. Andrew Kurtz, of Liverpool, manulacturing chemist, for " Improvements "> =Pi'''™'"^ to be employed lor drying, evaporating, distilling, torrelying, and calc.mng."-Feb. 13. Vln,h Galloway of Union Place, City Road, civil engineer, for " Certan. combinations of mateHals to be used as a substitute for canvas,and other surfaces employed as grounds ?or pafil?ng, and s .me of which combinations are applicable to other purposes. - ^tlraull Dobree. of Putney, Surrey, esquire, for " Improvements in the manufacture of fuel." (A communication.)— February 17. John Lionel Hood, of Old Broad Street, gentleman, for " An improved composition, or mfxtnreo," metals Applicable to the manufacture of sheathing for slnp_s and other ves- sels, bolts, nails, or oilier fastenings." (A com,nun>cat,on.)-February L . John Kibble of Glasgow, gentleman, for " Improvements in transnutlnlg power in working nmchinery, where 'endless belts, chains, and straps are or may be used. - "'wilUam Losh, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, esquire, for "Improvements in the manufac- ture of metal chains lor mining and other purposes. - February 1, . Alexander Alliolt, of Lenton, bleacher, for "Improvements in fulH.g stretching, drying"" 'lr"lg Boods m.amifactnred of wool, cotton, silk, and other librons mate- rials." — February lit. t- * r Caleb Bedells, of Leicester, manufacturer, for " Improvements .n the manufacture of elastic fabrics."— Feb. 19. .... Christopher Nickels and Benjamin Nickels, of York Road. Lambeth, manufacturers, fo. " imp.ovc.ments in the manufacture of elastic fabrics, and in rendering elastic labrus less elastic." — February lit. . Alfred Jeffery, of Bruntou works, Limehouse, for "Improvements in treating wood, and certain olher substances required to be exposed to water."-February 19. Alexander Parkes, of Birraingliam, artist, for " Improvements in the manufacture of cenatn alloys o? combinations ot'metals, and in depositing certain metals."-February '1. William Sheldon, of Birmingham, japan painter, for "Improvements in the manufac- ture of buttons andinjapanner'sware, and articles in substitnl.on ot papier-mach^."- ''VzraTenk's Coates, of Bread Street, Cheapside, mercliant, for " Improvements in the forging of bolts, spikes, and nails."- February 21. . , . . ■ „, Henry Charles Ilowells. of Hay, gentleman, for " Improvements in the fastenings of nartsol- bedsteads and other frames." (A commun.cation.)-Febrnary .'l. Thomas Li,ldell, of Newcastle, engineer, for " Improvements in apparatus for pre- venting explosion in steam boilers."— February 21. Robert nettle, of Gourock, Scotland, civil engineer, for " Improvements in gridirons, frying-pans, and other cooking utensils and heating apparatus."-February 24. Francis Studlev of Shrewsbury, gentleman, for "An improved mill, or apparatus for grimhuggrarn. with or without siftir or dresser, also for cobbling bruising crnshiug futting spiilting, or dividing seed, pulse, berry, or other art.cle9."-February M. Alexander Alliott. of Lenton, N.ttingham, bleacher, for " Improvements in scouring, bleaching, and dyeing."— February 24. Tl,„n>as Masterman. of the Dolphin Brewery. Broad Street. Ratchffe. common brewer, fo^'' A method of mechanism for the speed'y cooling of liquids, being within certain fregieesi? temperature, and which method, or mechanism, he terms a " Belrigerator. February 24 ; two months. William Rouse, of Great Barton, Bury Saint Edmund's, wheelwright, for '[nprove. ments in carriages, and in parts of carriages applicable to certain ,,urposes.' Feb. S. Peter Bothwell Jackson, of Strawheny Hill, Manchester, engineer, for "Improvements b, the cons r Si. and manufacture of wheels, cylinders, hoops, and rollers, and ,n the machinery or appara",;scon,,ected therewith, and also improvements .n stea.n valves." ""He'.uy iirown, of Selkirk, for " Improveme..ts in cardh.g silk, cotto.,, and other fibres." "'BenjImh^Bailey, of Leicester, fra.uesmith, for " Improvements in n.achinery for manu- facturing looped fabrics." February 24. Caleb Bedells of the borough of Leicester, manufacturer, for " impr.iveme.its in the ma,n.facfure' of' bonne's, collfrs, capes, ca,,s. shawls, coats, gaite.s. scarfs, stock.ngs, gloves, and mils." February 24. , ., , . - i Gaspare Conti, of James Street, Buckingham Gate, gent., for "Improvements in h>- draulicmachinery to be used as a motive power," February .4. „„,.,, John Aitken, of Surrey Sq..are, for " Improvements h. atmospher.c railways. Feb, .-1. Archibald T.ail, of G.eat Russell Street, Bloomsbuvy, for "An improvement .n th manufacture of sails, for ships and other vessels." Februa.y .4. James Smith, of Qu»eu Square, Westminster. Esq., for " Imp.ovements i.. slubb.ng, spinning, twisting, and doubling cotton, and other fibrous substances." ieb.uary .4. 1 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 97 OBSERVATIONS ON ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURE. By Henry Fulton, M.D. No. 7. Antrim House, Dublin. Madame Catalan!, according to report, had ceased to exist; this, however, has happily turned out to be erroneous. The Royal Insti- tute of the Architects of Ireland, was also reported to have expired : this is also happily unfounded ; for although lately showing but little sign of life, they have roused from a state of lethargy and have had a meeting. AH we know of this meeting is, that "a very interesting paper was read from the respected Vice-President:"— how we wish we could get a peep at it. But although when the queen of song shall be removed from us, she will leave us no memorial of her skill, save the perishable recollection of her powers of melody ; not so the Royal Institute of the Architects of Ireland, who have favoured us with the more lasting memorial of their skill and taste in compo, of which we endeavour to give an outline at the head of this article, and if the reader do not admire it as much as we think he should, let the fault rest with the sketch rather than the original. To do the Institute justice, and if in political matters justice be not done to Ireland, there shall be no portion of it withheld on the pre?ent occasion: in justice then, we must say, that one of the best situations which the City of Dublin affords has been selected; an old friend was to have a new face. Antrim House is situated at the angle of the best and most fashionable if not the largest square in Dubim; a noble street opens on the other side of the square, forming a vista, at the end of which the edifice is situated, occupying the field of vision; it was an old fashioned brick building, without any pretension to architectural display, having seven windows on the first floor, and presenting a frontage of 72 feet. On its coming into possession of the late noble President of the Institute shortly after his election, it was no doubt thought a good op- portunity to show his taste, and that of the Institute, and to rescue the latter from the imputation that it had done little or nothing as a body to further the art. Some persons go so far as to say that the Institute had nothing to do with the in-compo-rahle alterations, and that the design was given by a mere builder, but I think it must in all fairness be presumed that the council of the Institute were consulted. I do not assert positively that such was the case, but it is reasonable to suppose it, for the noble President was what Mr. Gvvilt would call a " mere amateur," and h»\v could he know anything about it, unless indeed his taste was "formed, guided and directed," by Mr. Gwill's Encyclopaedia. No, we must suppose that he left all to the Institute, except the payment of the bills. And on the occasion of his lordship being installed as President, the Institute called his attention to the discreditable fact of "grossly ignorant pretenders being confounded with the instructed professors of the art," and in reply his Lordship No. 79.— Vol. VII.— March, 1844. expressed "his desire to promote the interests and objects of the In- stitute, by affording them his countenance and support." The Insti- tute also informed his Lordship, that " it would ill become a body whose profession has a peculiar connexion with the principles of good taste to address the language of adulation to a nobleman whom they deemed fitted, from his nice perception of those principles, to be their patron and their guide." And again, "your good taste and your in- formation are too well known and too generally admitted to allow your judgment to be disregarded. Those who have hitherto looked with coldness on our professional claims, will not willingly bear the discredit of appearing indifferent to a society which your Lordshi]) sanctions and adorns, by your connexion with it." By the way, that is laying the compo on his Lordship in good style; but, at all events, it proves my position, that it is impossible the design could be that of a mere builder or "grossly ignorant pretender." Some might think that his Lordship himself had designed the demi-facade, for such it is ; but this cannot be, for I have understood that after it was finished he did not approve of it, and men seldom disapprove of their own works, or at least confess it if they do. Having thus disposed of the preliminaries, we proceed to speak of the demi-facade itself, and although it is undoubtedly a pleasing task to speak of an edifice where everything is to be admired, still we feel overwhelmed with the responsiiiility and the fear that it may be be- yond our ability to do justice to its merits. The first thing we have to admire is the head of this front, in common parlance we shall call it a cornice, although not certain that it is exactly one. It is certainly not a bold cornice, no, that would have been unsuitable in Ireland, for there the word " bold " is synony- mous with naughty, hence they say in that country " a bold boy," meaning a naughty one; this is not, therefore, a naughty cornice, and ;is it is a remarkable one, it must consequently have more than a ne- gative quality, and be a remarkably good one ; that it is so, may be proved, for it does not excite the least alarm in the mind of the most timid as to its stability, or the power of the walls to support it, and any old gentlewoman, either in pantaloons or petticoats, may pass under it without apprehension; besides, it has the advantage of casting no shadow, and surely it would have been bad taste to throw any part of the demi-fa9ade into the shade : moreover, it would have been unfair to have taken an undue advantage of a good situation to have placed a bold cornice where it could only be seen to advantage: no, no, equal justice forbids us to think such an expedient would have been proper; let those who admire bold cornices reserve them for bad situations and not throw them away on good ones. " To throw perfume on the violet Is wasteful and ridiculous excess." The Greeks to be sure sought to obtain broad shadows and the play of light and shade in their compositions; but they were quite wrong, for the more enlightened Chinese consider shade in a picture as a de- cided blemish, let us, therefore, hear no more senseless twaddle about chiaro oscuro, for the noble President of the Institute was at the same time President of the Board of Control, and in that capacity well ac- quainted with the state of taste in the East, and it may be taken for granted that the President's taste was more Chinese than the ex- ploded " guslo Greco," so ably opposed by Sir William Chambers. Indeed, according to that highly esteemed architect, the Greeks knew little or nothing of the art, for we find him saying—" In the con- structive part of architecture, the ancients do not seem to have been great proficients; I am inclined to believe that many of the deformi- ties observable in the Grecian buildings must be ascribed to their de- ficiency in that particular." To be sure he never saw a Greek edifice; but what of that, for if they presented nothing worthy of observation, what would have been gained by seeing them ? He had, however, a perfect conception of the deficiencies of the Parthenon, and was the first almost to suggest that it would have been improved by the suit- able addition of a steeple! We hear a great deal now-a-days of the advantage of obtaining a play of light and shade by means of detached columns and bold cor- nices; but I would ask what right have columns and cornices to play with light and shade, let them mind their own business, and be pre- vented from playing idle pranks like bold boys. Observe, again, in this edifice, the happy expedient with regard to pediments: the Greeks and Romans placed them on the gable ends of their edifices; but if so placed in the present instance, they would have been hid by the adjoining houses, and we might as well have had none at all; but by placing them above the windows, we are left nothing to regret. Small minds, indeed, might object that they were necessarily diminutive in such situ itions, but magnitude is relative, and if any of the inhabitants of Lilliput will favour us with a visit they must deem these pediments to be as large as those forming the 98 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, g;ible end of any temple in their own country. But although these pediments are necessarily small, yet they are worthy of being praised more highly than it is in our power lo do, on account of having their cornices with an equal if not greater projection than the crowning cornice of the edifice itself; this latter is 72 feet long, and each of the pediments little more than half as many inches, which shows the talent and resources of the projectors in giving greater importance to the lesser parts. The original idea of a pediment was that it should surmount a por- tico, now a portico is an opening, so is a door, so is a window, there- fore why should not a window or a door have a pediment? These pediments are not all of the same form, but by a happy mixture of pyramidal and segmental, the spectator is presented with " a pleasing variety." We may be indebted for this to a difference of opinion existing in the council of the Institute as to the relative merits of the two figures, not that the reader is for one moment to suppose that it is intended to insinuate that the members of the Institute are not most harmonious on all matters of importance ; but only that they •were divided in the selection of two figures of equal merit. How happy should we be with either, and still more so with both. Ignorant persons may be inclined to find fault with the slashing, gashing and frosting of the lower portion of the fa9ade ; but if they vein only be at the trouble of examining the tatooed liead of a New Zealand chief in the Britisli Museum, they may see that the beauty and interest of it consist in those kind of gashes and slashes; and if such expedients add to the beauty of the human face, why may they not be suitable to the face or facade of the human dwelling? And in point of fact the frost-work, though rustic and vulgar in itself, yet in such master hands seems as if produced by the fair fingers of science to set off the edifice to advantage. Formerly the house had only one door, now it has two. With a due regard to economy, as vfell as to afford a pleasing con- trast, the compo is only carried up as far as the window stools of the first floor, thus forming a demi-facade, which viewed in connexion with the parallelopepids of the remainder and the window ornaments and cornice, obviate the effects of monotony, so frequently to be ob- served in other designs. Suetonious mentions in praise of Augustus, that he found the city of brick and left it of marble ; may we not conclude in praise of the Institute, that it found Antrim house of brick and left the half of it compo. II. Gresham Club, London. — In the West-end we have clubs, and why should we not have clubs in the East? The wise men are said to have come from the East, but certes the architects of that quarter do not display much wisdom in such erections as we are threatened with in the shape of the Gresham Club, as it appears in the published lithographic design. The outline of the edifice is well enough ; that is, it is in keeping with the Farnese style, and although there is a kind of offset or bay at the end of the main building, yet as this is not carried up all the height, it has not the effect of breaking up the general outline, thus far all is well ; but how shall we speak of the miserable details? I have never yet spoken of such devices, as the centre window above the entrance presents to us, because I thought such windows had been scouted out of practice by every one having the least pretension to taste in architecture: in short, I considered that a reference to them, "even by a mere amateur," would almost have been tantamount to an insult to the profession ; but here it is, an ugly arch with an ugly key stone springing from two Corinthian columns, and these latter flanked by two others connected by bits of cornice, and the interspaces fitted with transoms and muntons, forming what is called a French window. Bad indeed must be the taste of any one who conceives that any form of arch is improved by a projecting keystone, inasmuch as it destroys its completeness and simplicity of form, however, the keystone in the plan appears to break into the frieze which is placed above the arch; and above this frieze we have a cornice, on the centre of which rests a window supported in heraldic style by two curly-cues something like a lion and unicorn, giving the said last- mentioned window the effect of a broken pediment. Hercules with his club might have been substituted for the upper window, or like the Colossus of Rhodes he could stand with afoot on the apex of each curly-cue, and admit the window between his legs, to complete the picture. The principle of ;irches imposed on columns, as here ex- hibited, is the state of architecture in the transition or debased Dio- cletian style before it passes into the Gothic; it is the worthless grub before it expands into the beautiful butterfly. The Rev. James Dallaway, in his "Discourses on Architecture," (a very interesting work,) has fallen into a mistake with regard to the date of the origin of arches on columns. At page 7, London, 1833, he says, " the Basilica of St. Paul's at Rome, by Constantine, has the earliest instance of arches constru ;ted on columns instead of piers, which was universally the Roman method." Now if the reader will look at Adam's views of Diocletian's palace at Spaltro, he can see ex- amples of it in almost every plate, and many of them flanked by rect- angular compartments, as in the Gresham design, and in the east end of St. Martin's Church. Although the interval between the time of Diocletian and Constantine is so short as scarcely to require notice, yet the precise date, as well as the locality, is of great importance, as fixing the Pagan and not Christian origin of the practice. Columns are quite unsuited for window ornaments, for their effect never can be good in any case or under any circumstances when the intercolumniations must be wider than the best examples of antiquity. Columns well proportioned and properly placed form the great and distinguishing beauty of the Greek style, and this never should be lost sight of even in its degenerate oft'spring, which climate, manners, uses, and convenience impose on our adoption. But although the Greek style does not furnish us with columns for any such illegitimate purpose as we see them here applied to, it gives us mouldings in abundance, which may with advantage be used instead of them. A due proportion of ornament gives pleasure to the spectator, but the thing overdone turns the composition into ridicule, and, as in the Gresham Club, places it on a level with the tasty exhibition of the compo shops in the Paddington and Commercial Road, for besides the window with the arched head and rectangular wings, we have no less than twelve pedimented windows in front, destroying all repose and preventing the edifice from having the least claim to dignity, which it would otherwise have from its unbroken outline. And again, the cornices which support these pediments rest on pulvinated friezes or bustles ; and if there be one form in ancient or modern architecture worse than another, the pulvinated frieze is the example ; it too forcibly reminds one, of those of our fellow creatures, whose heads appear too heavy to be supported on the vertibral column, and hence their backs protrude, so these fiiezes protude, weighed down as it were by the great weight of the liltle gables, which they appear to have been unable to support. " Atlas Rroaned the world beneath — They groan beneath " — a pediment. It h;is been urged, and with some reason, that the use of projecting quoins is necessary to define, I may say insulate, a composition, and that it gives it the appearance of stability; but if quoins are to be used with that intention, surely it is not absolutely necessary that they should be pared and frittered away to show open joints. I admit that I never saw or heard of projecting quoins (headers and stretchers as 1 believe they are called) with close joints ; but would they not look better than open ones, and give all the desired effect with more sim- plicity and less effort and expense than the present mode. It will be long ere ''even the mere amateur" of Greek architecture shall be reconciled to the expedient of transplanting triglyphs to friezes which have no architraves and columns beneath them ; the soil is not congenial, nor does their introduction in the Gresham Club House seem likely to prove an exception. To be sure we find these well placed in such situations in the Egyptian style, but there they have a different character; nor are the Egyptian the debased offspring, but rather the parent of the Greek triglyphs — as we may almost say — the cause and not the effect. It is to be hoped that if Clubs shall continue to be trumps, those architects who hold the honours in their hands will in future play the game according to Hoyle, and not lead the knave to be taken by their competitors queen. With all its imperfections (and it has some to which many of the remarks in this paper are applicable) the Reform Club is still the king of trumps; but the best court card has yet to be played. CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK. FASCICULUS LVI. " I must have liberty AVitlial, as large a charter as the winds, To blow on whom 1 please." I. Some of our own public buildings are strange patchwork — merely masked just in front, though more than that side may be ex- posed to view. The National Gallery, for one, betrays more offensive meanness, as we are allowed to see that the back is a mere brick wall; a defect that might have been avoided by continuing the east end so as to form an architectural screen with a mere portal or opening through it for the public thoroughfare behind the building ; which would also have given some importance — now very much wanted to 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. that elevation. The exterior of the British Museum is the work of a mere builder, without the sliglitest pretension to arcliitectural design or effect. What its facade will turn out we shall see in good time. The Post Office has nothing but its portico to recommend it as a work of architecture ; all the rest is of very inferior character : and even were the fa?ade many degrees better, the general effect in the view from the north west, would always be unsatisfactory, unless the north end of the building were altogether different from what it now is. II. There is a point in Grecian architecture, as adopted by modern architects which does not seem to have been taken at all into consi- deration, particularly by American architects, who though they affect the Grecian temple form, in their principal structures, and lay so much stress upon classical columns, &c., of imposing dimensions, do not scruple to introduce windows without even altempting to keep up the style in those features, for more frequently than not, they are either mere apertures in the wall, or very tame and poor in design. This is one of the ill consequences of servilely copying features, wholly unfit for the intended purpose, without very great modifications — so great, in fact, as to convert them into something quite different from their original character. Where windows cannot be got rid of, at any rate columns may be dispensed with ; and, as the former are, in such cases, absolutely necessary, so also should they be treated as essential features in the design, and be made to contribute to beauty instead of marring. In general, astylar composition is far better suited for modern purposes, than columnar. With reference to Gwilt's " Enoyclopsdia," we may here remark that nothing whatever is said on the subject of the architecture of the United States. Some little information rela- tive to it may be picked up from Dunlap's work "On the arts of de- sign, &c.," but it is so very meagre as to be more tantalizing than instructive. III. It was rather a singular omission on the part of Mr. Gwilt, that when dealing out his blows against architectural amateurs, critics, and writers, he did not level a hit against lecturers upon architecture at literary institutions, and such places, for, they also contribute to increase the mischief, by giving persons a turn for amateurship, and directing their attention to the subject — at least, if they address their audiences to any purpose at all. if such teachers and leaders of the people are also professional men, instead of being an excuse, that can be only an aggravation of their offence — in th.e eyes at least of such very strict and orthodox persons as Mr. Gwilt — since they ought to know better than to divulge to the profane the profound arcana and mysteries of their art. Rather does it behove them to warn the " igno- rant public" against prying into anything of the kind — very far above the reach of their faculties, and therefore to be submissively believed in, with becoming stupid wonderment, and with unquestioning confi- dence in the infallibility of those who are the lawful depositaries of all such mystic learning. It is odd, too, that Gwilt had not a fling at Loudon, it only because the latter, besides entertaining and advo- cating views directly opposite to his own, initiated architectural jour- nalism, and, moreover, strenuously endeavoured to expel mere pe- dantry and mvsticism from criticism, and establish principles of BBsthetic rationalism in their place. In fact, hardly any two writers have laboured to promulgate more opposite views, and let them be ever so orthodox, Gwilt's are certainly by far the less liberal and less popular ones. That he goes against the stream is very evident, since so far from being attended with the desired effect, his attempt to throw ridicule and discredit upon, and so put a stop to non-profes- sional— and as he deems it, unlicensed architectural writing and study, has only served to draw down upon himself a great deal of severe and not unmerited reproach. Instead of being at all intimidated by his growlings, the class of writers whom he would fain suppress alto- gether, seems to have gained fresh courage. Another reverend "literary idler" has just appeared in the field, in addition to those who had previously done so, since Mr. Gwilt first uttered his denunci- ation against the whole race. Exclusively of the opinions contained in it, his idea of au Encyclopaedia is an unusual one, for persons naturally look, in a work of the kind, for the very latest and freshest information; whereas his stops short at the very point where abun- dance of new matter and fresh subjects presented themselves. Were I we to judge from his work, we might fancy that the history of art in the present century, not only in this country, but all over Europe — in fact throughout the whole civilised world, was a mere blank. Yet, if excess of delicacy withheld him from venturing to comment on the works of contemporary architects at home — though it did not from falling foul upon contemporary writers — he might have ventured to ex- press his opinions quite freely in regard to those of other countries. Besides, if he was fearful of giving umbrage by it, he might have drop- ped critical remark altogether, and confined himself to a mere historical report, and descriptions of bui.dings, as has been done in some other encyclopedias. He might too, without impropriety, have given a place in his "Ciitalogue " of books, to some of the best architectural treatises which have appeared in publications of the kind, for instance, those in Brewster's Encyclopaedia, the Britannica, and the Metropo- litana, bv Telford, by Hosking, and by Narrien. IV. Flattering as are just now the prospects of art in this country, as far as one great national work — the " Palace of Westminster," is concerned : it is matter of very doubtful question, if the influence so occasioned will be a permanent or an extensive one. There are two other influences equally powerful and active among us, which must more or less counteract, if they should not absolutely neutralize that of art; namely, party spirit on the one hand, and fashion on the other. Why the former, which is so entirely distinct from, should ever be al- lowed to interfere in matters of art, let others explain — if they can; yet so it is ; highly favourable opportunities are frittered awav, one after the other, by their being converted into little better than mere jobs bestowed by party favour — no matter on which side. It is no doubt very natural — perhaps amiable, in public men to endeavour to serve their friends, but it is frequently most fatal to the interests of art — a truth proved by many very striking and notorious instances. This is certainly not the way either to advance ;irt or encourage talent among us — quite the contrary : therefore, if such unhappy and mis- chievous system cannot henceforth be set aside altogether, matters must continue to go on pretty much as they have done ; for all the mere talking about art, will prove of no real service to it. In the ordinary affairs of life, common sense prevents people from post- poning their own obvious interests to party considerations or political feeling. Provided he be a competent artiste in his profession, the most ultra conservative cares not though his chef de cuisine be an out and out radical ; neither does his Grace of Canterbury relish his fare at all the worse because it may happen that his French cook is a Papist, And why should they? Is it not strange then that persons who would not risk the chance of an ill-dressed dinner, or, other domestic blun- ders, by employing incompetent servants, should thrust, as they not unfrequently do, very incompetent and ill-qualified ones upon the public. V. As far as mere size goes, the Tract Society's new building in Paternoster Row, fully rivals the Reform Club House, and greatly sur- passes any of the ornamental facades in Lothbury and Mourgate Street. There is plenty of it in regard to extent and height — more especially as the situation itself is exceedingly confined ; nevertheless, it does not look by any means so large a mass as it might have been rendered in appearance, owing to its being not only so divided, but so varied in design, that it shows like five quite distinct and separate houses, viz., three of a single window (of three openings) in breadth on the upper floors, and two intermediate ones of three windows in breadth. In this case it is not the mere "breaks" in the elevation that are objectionable, on account of their cutting it up into too many petty divisions; that would have been a comparatively minor defect; but here the want of unity amounts to absolute contradiction and dis- ruption of the whole, if intended to pass as a single piece of design, owing to the inserting, mixing up, and dovetailing together two quite different designs after cutting them into slices fur the purpose, taking three of the one, and two of the other. Thus, three of the compart- ments on the ground or shop floor, have columns forming a small order raised on pedestals ; while the intermediate ones have arches which rise higher than the capitals of those columns, whereby all continuity of line is completely broken, for it is not kept up in the degree it is done where the imposts of arches are on the same level with capitals of columns in other parts of a composition. As to the style, it must for the want of an other term, be accounted It.dian ; but it is certainly of a very lame and doggrel kind. If it seem harsh to say this, it is also not a little hard to be compelled to do so : here was at all events a very fair opportunity for producing a mure than ordinarily good spe^ cimen of its peculiar kind ; something exhibiting the same careful- ness in design as is manifested in one or two facades lately erected in Lothbury and Moorgate Street. There is no economy in adopting a poor design, good taste costing no more than barbarous ugliness — if always so much. Charcoal most effective in the Growth of Plants. — Mr. Barnes of Brecon, says, " Charcoal is the most astonishing article to make use of for all purposes of cultivation, and especially for plants under artificial treat- ment. I judge from many year's experience of its use. My pine soils con- sists of nothing but cliarcoal and loam, without a particle of manure of any sort. Everj plant under my care has some charcoal used abont it. I never saw the plant that did not delight in it, and to heaths it is most especially acceptable." Mr. Stewart, gardener at Stradsell Hall, has exhibited to the Horticultural Society some cucumbers grown in equal parts of loam and charcoal, without any manure. No stimulant could have given better fruit so far as health was concerned. 9* 100 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECPS JOURNAL. [March, CATHEDRAL OF THRANDIA. An extract from Torfeus relative to King Olave, and the Cathedral of Thrandia (Trondiem, or Dronthiem), in the kingdom of Norway ; read at the Royal Institute of British Architects, as a supplementary paper to one read at a previous meeting, " on the Archileclure of Wisby, in lie Island of Gothland," by John ,Wliite, Esq., Architect. (See Journal, p. 144, Vol. IV., 1841.) Four miles from Agdanesia towards the east, at the southern shore of the gulf of Thrandia, is situated the old and very famous city of Nida- rosia, at this time generally called Thrandia, which that most powerful and pious king, Olave Fryggvinus, caused to be founded on the western bank of the moulh of the river Nid, where there was formerly the estate of Nidarnesia; and hence it obtained the name of Nidarosia, derived from the river Nid, which, in the genitive, makes Nidar, and the word os which means the mouth of a river. 0/the Cathedral of Thrandia. This city of Nidarosia, not uncelebrated as being the residence of the archbishop, had many temples and monasteries, which, however, the cathedral church far eclipsed in magnificence, and the admirable elegance of its structure; which, in few words, we might clearly prove not to have any equal in artificial beauty, whilst it flourished entire, throughout the whole of Christendom. Now, however, the greater part of it, except only the sacred chapel or choir, lies prostrate and overthrown; and, when we confess candidly with much regret that we cannot give as a perfect description of it, as we ought, it may not be disagreeable to put forth to the public notice the few remarks, which are here subjoined. Of the relics of St. Olave, and the building and magnificence of the Cathedral of Thrandia. History tells us that the body of Olave (who was called St. Olave), son of Harold, King of Norway killed by the hands of his subjects, was concealed aud preserved, by removing it from place to place, by his friends, lest it should fall into the power of his enemies, and be ignominiously treated ; until at length it was magnificently entombed in the temple of Nidarosia, (which was conse- crated to St. Clement, by Bishop Grimkel and Einar Thambaskelfer) on the permission of King Sweyne, son of Canute, and his mother Alfiva, who at that time possessed the supreme authority, and that a short time afterwards it was exhumed (on account of some miracles by which it was declared to have been lilted up, after it was com- mitted to the ground) and placed in the temple itself (where the place appeared fitter and more commodious), enclosed in a gilded tomb ; this in the next following years they sometimes opened, and shaved the hair and beard, and pared the nails; and, impressed with a belief of its sanctity, the archbishop, with his bishops, abbots, priors, and monks, and the whole ecclesiastical synod, by spreading and propa- gating abroad these miracles, which were reported to take place at his corpse, occupied the minds of men, and, at stated periods of time, carried it about with great pomp and splendour, after the Papistical fashion : to which an immense multitude of persons, not only from Norvfay, but from Denmark also and Sweden (Suecia), and other distant parts flocked, offering large presents, whence were collected incredible sums of money; from which, among other things, a silver coffin was made, in which they placed the sacred (as they say) relics of the King ; and this again was enclosed in two wooden shells, shining with gold, silver, and precious jewels. They built also a cathedral of a very ornamental structure (viz., the archbishop's of this place, sup- ported by the assistance of the kings), of which even now a part appears entire ; yet this admirable work was not finished in the reign of one king ; in as much as Harold the Strong, King of Norway, and brother of St. Olave, first had its foundations laid on that sandy hill, where the body of his brother Olave had been buried first : and aiter- wards Olave, his son, surnamed the "Just," or "Peaceful," finished it, with the assistance of the Archbishop Eystein, and dedicated it to Christ, and placed upon its altar the coffin of St. Olave. (This is in- correct ; for that Eystein, who built the cathedral, of which to this day some part remains, when that temple, which Harold erected, was destroyed, lived long after.) Under succeeding kings, however, in course of time, when immense vveath was daily accumulating, as much by the presents of the natives as of foreigners, it was elegantly adorned in many ways ; until at length one of the archbishops added a choir of a most beautiful and magnificent structure, and which, as we said above, is the only part that remains. But as it never was our lot personally to examine with how much art this cathedral was reared, aud of what dimensions it was, we can only subjoin here, in few words, what we have heard of it from the accounts of others. First, as regards its form; it is said chiefly to re- present a cross, wholly composed of the natural (living) and cut rock ; and the entire walls, inside as well as outside, everywhere sculptured with admirable skill, together with innumerable images, and figures exe- cuted with perfect workmanship ; while, at the corner of the temple, where it verges towards the west, twelve stone statues of the apostles of colossal size are seen; these are all gilt over, and the corner of the temple is gilt also. It has, moreover, numerous rows of marble columns, within and without, made from different sorts and colours of marble, so exquisitely polished, that some think they were cast like metals. Of these you may see sixty, elegantly carved, at the southern gates of the temple; and as many think it would be an arduous and difficult task to determine the cost of rearing these gates, how much more difficult would it be, to ascertain the expense of rearing this whole temple, and to estimate it according to the magnificence of the whole work. It is said, too, that each sort of marble considered more excellent for this fabric, was conveyed hither from Ireland and Green- land : but that a softer, white, and variegated kind, was supplied in abundance from the district of Thrandia. And as this royal cathedral in elegance of structure and entire magnificence of execution shone pre-eminent, so also it surpassed in its other ornaments, for it had a most rich sacred repository, stored with books, cups, dishes, priestly garments, holy bags, with other things of the same kind, and vessels of the church. Thus the archbishop, with a pompous train, clothed with a mantle (superhumerale) of cloth of gold (attolicum), bore on his back an image of the Holy Trinity, made from pure gold, as they are commonly represented; and at the same time had carried about the coffin of St. Olave (which, as we said before, was placed in two wooden coffins enclosed in one another) by sixty men (no less were necessary) ; from the edges of the coffin, which was overlaid with gold and silver, innumerable purses were suspended to receive dona- tions. Upon It stood the penitentiary priest, as he is called, oflfering the indulgences of the Pope of Rome, or remission of sins to those who gave money. This cathedral was also very rich, in proportion to the power of the kingdom, in vast revenues and large possesions ; so that in the banquetting rooms of this place, jugs, cups, dishes, and plates of silver, and indeed every sort of silver implements, have been always used with the utmost prodigality, which in other places were preserved in the vestibule (exedru.) But since this complete magnificence and glory of the world rested on an unstable and slippery foundation, quicker than one could have conceived, it all fell down with an awful destruction ; the cathedral, indeed was thrice set on fire by lightning, and the fluid flying so as to be seen a long way across the Gulf of Thrandia, consumed the monas- tery called Holmklostur, and reduced it to ashes ; which was a certain proof that this had not happened by chance but by the will of the Almighty, who would not permit their grave and dreadful errors and idolatry, by which they had seduced the wretched people, with their taking his holy name in vain, to go unpunished. And, in a similar way, the pomp and luxury of the ecclesiastics of this order, and the power and authority of worldly rule, all of which had depended upon the dominion of the Pontificate, fell altogether, upon the removal of their cause, when, by Divine grace, the light of the true Christian religion shone on these shores. Yet it is much rather to be lamented than recommended, that, at the beginning of the reformed religion, the reformers not content with taking away from the temples and monaste- ries whatever gold, silver, and other treasures once employed for the useof the Pontiffs, were found there (such as priest's garments and other utensils), but prompted by nothing else than an innate spirit of wanton- ness and malice, they threw down aud destroyed those elegant struc- tures; unnecessarily burning ;i great quantity of very useful works, and precious relics of antiquity, in a foul conflagration, stripping of every decoration entirely, the sacred temples, basely plundering them of all their ornaments, and perpetrating robbery detestable and totally un- worthy of the name of Christianity. In this way, too. Otto Stigius had burnt the very beautiful library of the Cathedral of Thrandia, with a number of useful books of great price, and monuments in the cemetery. By a similar conflagration, one Thordus, surnamed Kodde, maliciously destroyed all the books and ancient manuscripts of the repository of Stafangra (Stafan grenois exedra). In the same storm the silver coffin in which the body of St. Olave was buried, with the two wooden ones which were before spoken of, with all the gold and silver and precious jewels (of which one eclipsed the rest, and which the Archbishop Eric Valkendorp had bought for 24U tons of butter (Vigenti tonnarum, dodecadibus butiri) and had inserted amongst the rest on the edge of the coffin) stript ofl; was taken away, as was also the great silver cross, wont to be carried in state, by three men, before the tomb of St. Olave, the cups, dishes, holy bags (hierotheca), and the other treasures of the cathedral, gold and silver, chosen from the repository (exedra) and banquetting room. Besides the ornaments of the altar, jewels were also taken away, beau- tiful bells, and the like, laden with which a certain large ship, about 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 101 to cross into Denmark, sunk before Agdanesia, and never afterwards appeared. And a little while before, a large portion of the same money, on its way into Denmark in a huge ship, was taken for booty by some Batavian pirates; this happened in the year 1541. Amongst tlie other ornamented works of this town, the royal throne in the pre- cinct of the church, of which many steps were of rock sculptured and worked out with surprising art, most elegantly constructed, may be justly reckoned, on which formerly the kings when they were chosen, or when the people paid their homage, were wont to'sit. And, in- deed, whatever we have said of tlie elegant and magnificent structure of the Cathedral of Thrandia, is to be also understood of the work of the wall, and of the marble elaborately sculptured with the finest art. For it is sufficiently clear, that very many temples and edifices in the Christian world, have much eclipsed this one of Thrandia in the gold and silver, and more abundantly adorned with precious things ; but that they are not to be compared to it in the artificial structure of its wall. Rutger, son of Hermann, in liis description of Norway, has the following: — "There was once a most magnificent edifice, surpas- sing all the other temples in the whole of Europe, or indeed in trie whole Christian world ; and there are some who affirm that it had not a like or equal ; for whether you regard the workmanship or extent, by its square blocks of stone, its splendid columns and perfect finish it moved every beholder with admiration." So spoke Rutger. AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT OF IRELAND. Sir— I am encouraged by your article in the last number of the Journal on "Agriculture and Engineering," to send this paper, hoping from its appearance in a scientific journal, that the subject may obtain more attention than I suppose it would receive if inserted in a political one ; and as the remarks made by you must naturally turn the attention of the profession to a subject peculiarly interesting to the inhabitants of this island, I propose giving some idea of the state of land, and of the subjects intimately connected with it, which a residence of a few years in this country has made me acquainted with, so that a correct opinion may be formed, in England, of the real wants of the people, and of the means of supplying them. As regards the profession, that it may be seen if proper steps be taken here, and in England, a vast field may be opened for the profitable display of those talents which the civil engineer's practice in the sister country has astonished the world with, and which (may I be forgiven for expressing the opinion) has, 1 believe, raised my native land to that proud position over the nations of Europe she now holds, " the pride and envy of them all." The great want of the people is, the means of subsislence. This may be subdivided into want of labour, and want of the knowledge how to obtain the necessaries of life, which the holders of land in England usually have ; that is, want of instruction in the business of farming, which they have not as yet, and which 1 fear from the present absence of example, and from the limited means of obtaining the necessary knowledge, they will be slow in acquiring. If remedies can be found for this state of things, my opinion is, the country will be prosperous and happy. The idea may be ridiculed, that the ills of Ireland are contained in these two deficiencies, yet to an unprejudiced mind, devoid of political animosities, or religious bigotry, acquainted with the situation and feelings of the peasantry, having but one object in view, the improvement of their temporal or social condition, and with a knowledge of what may be done bv a change in the system of agriculture, I believe such a mind must acknowledge, that if all their necessities are not supplied by providing these deficiences, yet much will be done, and the remainder will follow. But it is a difficult thing to reason with men under daily privations, their whole prospect of spinning out the thread of life hanging upon holding the land they are in possession of, with nothing to fall back upon if they lose this, and with the knowledge, not anticipation, that their bodily strength will be useless in providing food— they cannot be em- ployed, they are not wanted, there is nothing to be done. Is it not miserable to know that this is true, that in Ireland, a country more than any other requiring the employment of labour, where it can be obtained at the cheapest rate, and where the mass of the people are literally in want from the non-employment of them, that this should continue. It must not be so. You in England must remedy it, and when you have done so, the agitation which has so successfully ran over the country will be destroyed, and the people will not be led by the rhodomontade of designing men. In considering the propositions I am about to make, it is necessary to bear in mind ; 1st, That there is no demand for the labour of the people; and, 2d, That the small farmers who occupy from JO to 20 acres of land are, from the want of instruction, unable to obtain one half of the profit that can be realized by a person understanding the business of agriculture. After describing the usual system of farming by such tenants, I think it will be unnecessary to enter into calculations to prove my second assertion ; and as to the first, the fact is so well known, it will be supererogation to make a remark for substantiating it._ The usual system practised, is to raise a crop of potatoes, after this wheat, then oats, 1, 2, and some times 3 or more successive crops, if the land is able to produce anything resembling one. The ground is covered with weeds, never fallowed, or fallow crops raised. Potatoes, from the mode of sowing, are useless for cleaning the ground. The land is then let out to rest ; and it may be taken as the general system with occupiers of land in this class, that out of 10 acres, with land in grass to starve a cow upon, for it is not food for one, and with land at rest, one half of the farm never pays anything. The cause of resting land is the want of manure, and as the stock is roaming over the im- poverished pasture for at least two-thirds of the year, the straw of the farm is only saturated with wet, and in place of being nutritious manure made under cattle, it is nothing but rotten straw, useless, as compared with what it might have been if the stock had been fed in stalls and the manure made by them. The reason they do this is, that no better mode is known to them ; they have no examples, but bad ones, to copy ; no one to instruct them, no place to obtain the necessary information. To provide employment, I propose, 1st, the regulation, compressing, deepening, straightening, and widening of all the rivers that may be navigable or otherwise; all rivulets and streams, in every district, where they conduct the main supply of water from the valleys to a river or other large reservoir: and as this is the first step necessary for the improvement of property, it is the first thing that should be done. This will be more beneficial than railways at present; because railways congregate large numbers to one district, removing them from their homes, and are useful to the people only that reside near the line, or a few miles from it; the increased expense of living lessens very materially the advantages of labour to the man that is obliged to leave his family to obtain it, and besides the applicability of railways generally is a matter of some doubt; in a few cases they will pay a fair interest for the outlay, but if carried generally through Ireland they would not. The deficiency of manufacturing" produce, the small number that travel by coaches, are fully explained in Mr. M'Neil's Report on the Dublin and Cashel line ; the large districts which it is found necessary to include for the support of this under- taking, proves that this view of the case is something more than theoretic. Another reason why railways would not now be so useful as this plan is, that employment is required in every part of the country, which railways could not give, but the regulation of rivers and streams is required in all places, or nearly so. The interest on the outlay could be obtained everywhere, as the benefits from it would be immediate — results not so certain in railway speculation. The immense tracts of low land wastes might then be brought into profitable and permanent cultivation. An example will prove the correctness of my anticipations. A retired officer bought an estate in Tipperary : 200 acres of it was flooded by the Shannon for a great portion of the year; it was nearly valueless, it could not be drained, and was useless without it. The improvements at Killaloe lowered the waters of Lough Derg, they have not been since flooded, and his lands are im- proving rapidly. The Calla's are irrigated, and the appearance of the whole district in the short space of twelve months is quite altered. It is perfectly dry, crops are growing luxuriantly, where the Shannon rested for four months in the year; and I am sure the benefit to these 200 acres, by this alone, is not less than 80/. per annum. Now, I know places on insignificant rivers where as much mischief is done to property as the mighty Shannon did on this; it is not in single places, but extends generally through Galway, Mayo, King's county, and Tipperary. In fact, I believe, and the opinion is founded on actual inspection, and considerable consideration, that one- twentieth of the lands of these counties is absolutely useless, and per- fectly unprofitable, from this cause alone. A proprietor engaged rae to inspect an estate which was much injured by a river, or rather rivulet, to report to him as to the means of remedying the injury, and to estimate the expense attending the execution of what I might propose to be done. I did so. About 150 acres of his land, 40 or 50 acres of his neighbour's, and 15 acres of a third party, were entirely unimprovable from an obstruction of the stream by a ledge of rocks; I proposed they should be blown out, and the level above reduced three feet ; the estimate of the whole expense was less than 40/. ; it was acknowledged that the 200 acres and upwards would be improved 10s. per acre per annum, without any further outlay, but if internal draining were carried out, the whole might be cultivated, and made equal to the higher land on the estate. Cattle can never be on it 103 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, more Ihan fwo months of tlie year, and tlien have nothing but coarse semi-aqiiatic grasses to feed on ; these are produced on a tine alhivial soil, twelve inches deep, incumbent on lime stone gravel, but saturated with water. Sdll this has not been done. Why? Because only one of the proprietors agrees to assist in defraying the expenses of the work. In another case, an intelligent Scotch proprietor had 20 acres incapable of being drained, from the shallowness of the river, and consequently uncultivated ; live acres are fit, to use his own terms, " ;is pasture for a flock of geese only," the cost of this work is £ 140 ; it is in progress of execution at his sole expense, and the increased value wdl be 8s. per acre by his estimate, by mine 12s.; however take his, and yon will see the interest of 5 per cent, can be paid, even in the latter case. How much more in the former? I think I have shown there is room for the profitable employment of the people, in the regulation of rivers, and that to a very consider- able extent. But how is it to be done ? Not by Government volun- teering to assist proprietors for the purpose of inducing them to improve their estates; not by ofti?ring loans to the estates requiring them ; nor by a drainage bill empowering two to force one, alone. If these steps are relied upon, they will be found miserably insuflficient. Government if they wish to improve the condition of the landowners and peasantry, must act on Napoleon's plan. Give the proprietor a choice of borrowing from them the money required, and executing tlie work himself, under the direction of district engineers, appointed by a board of intelligent agricultural gentlemen, assisted by expe- rienced civil engineers, sitting in Dublin; and then say if you do not do this tm will, and will then apportion the share of expense according to the benefit derived, for which your estates must pay the interest. The law of the land recognises this principle. In 1732 the Barren Land Act was passed by the Irish Parliament, which empowered the Court of Chancery to enquire into the interests of persons claiming waste lands, and to oblige Hum to conlribule to the drainage thereof in proportion, to sitch their interest. Common sense points out, that where a dense and starving population require employment, and that means for providing them therewith can be usefully applied, not only for their benefit, but also for tlie benefit of the country at large, that where private objections, or narrow minded niggardliness, obstruct the good, that they should be disregarded ; and even if it were allowed that the rights of property would be interfered with, still, is the public good to be sacrificed by the neglect and incompetence of landed proprietors? Should they not be compelled to see their own interests and benefit mankind? It is only such persons that could complain ; the improving man of intelligence would rejoice ; for the good he intended doing could no longer be nullified by the neglect of his neighbour. Another means of giving employment and improving the condition of the people, is by the reclamation of waste lands; I do not mean the bogs: there is enough to do without them, and our successors in some centuries to come may find it to be then perhaps to their ad- vantage to undertake this. The Waste Land Society, of which the Earl of Devon is chairman, have begun in the right way; but the limited means at their command, compared to the demand for their assistance, enable them to be a model only to Government. I at- tended the last annual inspection made by his Lordship on the lands of Ballinakill. Three years before that I visited it; then it was a wild, dreary, desolate mountain ; now how does it look? Seventy or eighty families are living in comfort on it, the cottages are clean, neat and comfortable, the crops equalling, if not excelling, those grown in the demesne of the neighbouring Baronet; good roads have been formed, fences erected, draining executed, turnips and clovers feed their stock, and all appears improving and satisfactory. A neigh- bouring gentleman, Mr. Featherstone, has purchased a tract of the same mountain, his tenants surpassed, if possible, in improvement, the Society's. He has built a handsome residence for himself and family, young plantations have sprung up, and in as sheltered and comfortable a spot as the most fastidious could wish for, where a few years since a solitary bird could not be seen, so desolate appeared the place; there he told me all he did had paid him, he had created an estate, and that many of his tenants having reclaimed, with some Httle as- sistance from him, portions of land, had sold their interest in them to others for large sums, and taking a new spot, had begun again in the same mountain ; and were in better circumstances than the lowland men holding the same sized farms. But how was this? The answer is worthy of particular attention. On the Society's and Mr. Feather- stone's tracts the tenants were not allowed to waste their time in la- borious unprofitableness; they were instructed what to do, in reclaim- ing, draining, and cropping, by experienced agriculturists, employed by the proprietors to do so; and in this only lies the secret. The educated man's duty was to think, advise, instruct: the labouring man's to act, and well has the system answered. There are a million and a half acres of such mountain wastes iu Ireland, which if im. I proved, would support 3000 families, or 180,000 person-!. Witliout alluding to the advantage bringing this into cultivation would be to England, in the increased supply of provisions to your markets, without looking to the great national improvement this would be, but merely viewing it as a charitable act, how immeasurably does it surpass the poor relief acts, the emancipation and other political measures. How can this be done? Easily. Large sums are annually voted to the Dublin Society, and expended in their botanic gardens, &c. Let Government grant £10,000. per annum to assist the Waste Land Society. Colonel Robinson knows well what to do with it; and if with so much money he should at all hesitate how to apply it, the Earl of Devon can assist him. Associated with them, let there be Cap- tain Larcom, Captain Kennedy, or perhaps Mr. Stewart French, would be better, as he knows where, and how to begin; let him be the repre- sentative of Government ; and I venture to say that with such men, with an efficient statF of practical men, and backed with the £10,000; more would be done for the improvement of this country, in an in- credibly short space of time, than 100,000 soldiers could ever accom- plish. There are said to be 300,000 acres of land covered by the expan- sion of lakes and rivers, to which may be added IJOO.OOO acres that are saturated with water, rendered unprofitable, but uncovered; £10,000,000 per annum of agricultural produce is said to be lost to the kingdom by unreclaimed land ; and yet nearly three millions of the inhabitants are destitute from the want of employment. Now if such statements are true, and they have been reported by Government officers, if England pays for agricultural produce £10,000,000 per annum to foreign nations, which could be provided her by this country, and if in addition to this a dense and starving population are discon- tented, almost disaffected, and that this is occasioned by the want of employment, surely it is the interest of the British Government to try the experiment I most humbly have recommended, and the result, there can be no doubt, will fully equal that obtained by the Waste Land Society. But these plans only relieve the persons without land ; what is to be done for those occupying it? Before I state ray opinion, allow me to put you right as to the landlords of Ireland. As a class, they are the most abused, but I am happy lo say, it is by those who know least about them. Their worst fault is, I believe, that they do not see their own interests sufficiently, that they view their estates with local eyes, instead of doing so with eyes enlightened by a study of other coun- tries, by viewing what has been done in other places through judi- cious improvements. It is really very difficult to convince many that their incomes can be at all increased by improvements; and when we see men who are presumed to be educated, still lingering in the old beaten track of dubiousness, unwilling to try for the improvement of their condition, because their fathers did not do, as we would, it is not a matter of surprise that those under them, the uneducated, should follow and persevere in the systems practised of old, which they have been taught almost to revere, certainly to follow, changes from which, their superiois have characterised as theoretic nonsense, wild specula- tions, mad schemes, &c. But to return to the calumnies heaped on landlords ; many have ejected, in some cases I believe with unnecessary crueltv, but il is not general; I know many inheriting fine estates, and large debts, good men, incapable of assisting their tenants, and unable to allow time for payment of rent from the pressure of their creditors. These men, if they are not paid, are compelled to seek tenants ca- pable of doing so. Then comes the difficulty of obtaining possession ; the occupier knowing the impossibility of obtaining subsistence if he leaves, endeavours to retain possession in spite of law, and the land- lord is compelled to obtain an habere — scenes of distress follow. But what is the cause of them ? iVant of labour. In fact, I believe if constant employment could be obtained, many of the small farmers would give up their holdings, and that farms might be consolidated, which, with improvement in the system of agriculture, would be a vast advantage to the country; but whilst the deficiency of employ- ment continues, I consider it cannot be done without causing so much misery that no advantage to a few could justify. Had Irish landlords, English tenants, or tenants with the same capital, same education, and same intelligence, you would hear nothing of the disagreements of landlord and tenant. The Irish would not be a whit behind the Eng- lish landlords, and Ireland would be prosperous; but to do this, you must raise the character of the Irish tenant, and this brings me to the subject of the improvement of the small Irish farmer. All you re- quire to do, is to instruct him in the practice of agriculture. I look upon it to be as absurd to put a good piece of land into the hands of small farmers, uneducated, understanding nothing of the proper sys- tems of farming, such as the Irish small farmer, and direct him to manage it, as it would be to give, one who never learned to write, a good pen, and order him to do so. They must be taught. Agriculture is 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 103 a business, requiring an apprenticesliip of practice am\ reading to be master of. But such perfect mastery is not required in tlie Irisli farmer ; let him be tauglit tlie primers of the business on the soil where he lives, by men fully competent to teach and direct him, let these agriculturists be men of intelligence, capable of understanding the composition and management of the various soils they vpiU meet with; they must be fully conversant with green cropping. Rotation, house feeding, and soiling, the ingredients and application of manures, draining, sub-soiling, and irrigation; the management of dairies, and milch cows; and let them be located one in every parish where such services are required, paid out of the county cess by the grand juries, at or near the rate of £100 per annum, and be directly under the surveillance of a committee of gentlemen in each parish, and of the district inspectors appointed by the government board before referred to. The cost will be for the whole country about £250,000 per annum, to be continued for seven years; or in the whole £l,7o0,000, by which time there will be sufEcient knowledge obtained by the people, for dispensing with their further services. To assist in meeting this sum, the police might be reduced in a few years, although at first it would be unwise to do so ; but as the people increase in comfort, there will be less crime, and less need of such large forces to prevent it. The advantage to the tenant would be, increased comfort, increased confidence with his landlord, and a prospect of continuous prosperity and eventual independence. To the landlord the advantage would be equally great, certainty of his income, peace and prosperity on his estate, in which he will be a sharer, from the tie that would then exist between the proprietor and occupier, and the increased value of his property, from the improved condition of the tenantry. There is no interference with the rights of property in this ; the benefits of proprietorship are increased. The necessity of supplying the information proposed, is shown by the adoption of the means, to an insignificant extent, certainly, by the agricultural societies. They have done much good, but not sufficient for the object in view, (viz.,) elevating generally the condition of occupiers of small farms; nor can it be done by such means, the instruction must be more general and more explicit, than the agriculturist has time and opportunity of giving. Let me insist upon it, that all the tenants require is instruction, you may teach them reading, writing, arithmetic, and even the higher branches of education; but it is all useless as applied to the tenantry of this country, if they are not taught agriculture. It is this by which they are to subsist, by which landlords are to receive their incomes, by which Ireland is to prosper, and therefore this instruction should be provided by Government in the direct manner I have ventured to suggest. Increasing the franchise will not provide food ; the equali- zation of churches will not grow potatoes; nor will the Repeal of the Union fatten cattle. But these effects are expected by a Repeal. Reduction of rents are not generally necessary, nor would it be adequate to the wants of the people, and would be a decided injury to landlords. Instead of reductions of lOs. per acre, which iu most cases would be 30 per cent., teach them to swell their 3/. produce into 5/., not by increase of prices, for that cannot be controlled, but by increased production. Remember, that potatoes and milk are their only fare, that with this they are contented, if they have sufficient ; that their wants are few, and yet unsupplied ; their privations many, and unre- lieved ; that a starving people may be made easily to rebel, perhaps be as easily subdued ; that people in such circumstances deserve pity as much as punishment for many crimes; that immediate suffering, present distress, dread of the future, and remembrance of the past, have caused the rapid progress of the Repeal movement, and that you. Sir, with the English people, are alone able to relieve their dis- tresses, to supply their wants, and this can be done by increasing the demand for labour, by supplying the practical information they require in the business of agriculture : then will plenty succeed poverty, hap- piness displace misery, and Ireland become a great and prosperous portion of the kingdom, a helpmate for England, and a blessing to our country in the over ruling hands of God. Your very obedient servant, J. B N, C.E. Parsonstown, Ftb, 26, 1844. SUPPLY OF WATER TO BOILERS. Sir — In your Journal for last month there is a plan mentioned for supplying high pressure boilers with water, which I think might be effected in a more simple manner, thus; — Let a 6 c be a small tank, placed bv the side of the boiler, half above and half below the proper water level ; let a, b, be ordinary slide valves connecting the tank with the boiler, c a valve connecting the tank with a reservoir placed above the level of the tank. The action will be as follows :— The valves a, b, being shut, and c open, the tank will fill with water ; then c being shut, a and b opened, the water will run out of the tank down to the level of the vyater in the boiler ; the valves being again reversed, the same operation will be repeated, the steam in the tank being condensed by the admission of the cold water. If the valves be connected with the engine, so as to be reversed at proper intervals, a self-acting and self-regulating feeder will be ob- tained ; for it is evident the water in the boiler can never rise above the top of the tank, and if the water falls too low, a whole tank full will be admitted instead of half, thus quickly restoring the balance. The valve b should be large, and the communication with the boiler not left open longer than necessary, in order to prevent the water m the tank becoming heated by the condensation of steam; a board floating loosely iu the tank would prevent the steam coming in contact with the water. An apparatus of this kind placed on the top of a locomotive would enable the boiler to be supplied by hand while the engine was standing. I remain. Sir, your obedient servant, Henry Cark. Folkestone, February 8, 1844. An attempt is to be made this session to extend the patent law from four- teen to twenty-one years. It is indeed to be regretted that, whereas the copyright of authors dates from publication, when profit is supposed imme- diately to commence, the copyright of inventors expires too frequently before a profit can be realised. MAXTON'S LONG SLIDE VALVE FOR CONDENSING ENGINES. By Mr. John Maxton, Engineer. The advantages of this valve are,— that it may be used without a steam-chest, while it has all the advantages of a long slide valve in shortening the passages to the cylinder, it works with much less fric- tion than the common long slide-valve, the pressure being equalized, and is much less expensive, and easier upheld, than the packed valve. In fig. 1, the piston is represented as descending in the cylinder, the vacuum being formed under the piston by the passage A through the valve towards the condenser, the steam being admitted above the 104 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, piston bv tlie induction passage B, the steam at tlie same time having access to the portion of the valve below at D, wliich tends to press the 'MM 7////'////// 'lll/Z/fllf, /pm^ 1 7 ///■:). TiOjM//, ^ "V> )/ Fig. I. Fig. Fig. 3. valve outwards from the cylinder, while the vacuum, acting on the in- side of the valve E, draws it towards the cylinder, the valve being so proportioned that the vacuum must so far overbalance the steam, that the valve will keep close to the cylinder. ]n fig. 2, the piston is at half-stroke, ascending, and the position of the valve is reversed from that in fig. 1. Fig. 3 is a front view and section of the valve. John Maxton. Ltiih Engine Works. TUBES OF LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. Investigation to determine the diameter of the Tubes of a Locomotive Engine Boiler to produce a maximum effect. In treating this subject it appears rational to suppose that the effect of the hot air in passing through the tubes is directly in proportion to the extent of surface in contact therewith, and as the time of contact conjointly : that is, denoting the number of tubes by n, their diameter by 5, their aggregate surface by s, their united area by a, and the time of contact by /, supposing the length of the tubes constant, we shall have the following postulates. S= A. 8' B. 5 C. is a n- S^ a maximum D. B Let the parallelogram A B C D be the space which is to be occupied by the ends of the tubes, and letAB = a, and AD= 6 ; also let the distance between the inner surfaces of two adjacent tubes be a given interval c, and because the same distance c must exist between the sides of the extreme tubes, and the ends A D, B C of the above figure, then a — c must be divided into a certain number of equal parts, wh'ich will be regulated by the distance between the centres [of two adjacent tubes, ;ind let this distance be (a — c)x, x being a function of (a — c), =: -, the number of tubes in ^ (a — e).-!: x one horizontal row A B. The tubes are so disposed, that the lines joiniug the centres of any three adjacent tubes form an equilateral triangle, consequently the vertical distance between the horizontal rows will be D (a - c).rv/ J 2(6 -c) (a — c)x\^ I (a — c)xi>,/ 3 the number of liorizontal rows in A D, and 2(6 - c) 2(6- c) « (a—c)xs/3 {a — c)xW9 The whole number of tubes in A B C D = n. Further the distance (a — c)x is greater than the diameter of a tube by the interval c, therefore (a — c)a: — c=^ the diameter of a tube = 8. Let 7r:=3*141B, then the aggregate circumference of all the tubes (and which may be taken to express the internal surface in consequence of the length of the tubes being constant), will be i-(b-c)_ i(a-c)x-c) ^ ^^j (a — c) a/3 *■ and the area of the tubes will be ir(6 — c) S(a — c)x- or s (C) ^r n i\ or t (A or B) 2(a — c)v'3 ^' Now by the postulate we have st a maximum, and substituting the values s and t as found above, we have 2ir(6 — c) S(a—c)x — c\ t(6 — c> !(a — c)x — cy_ (a — c)V3* *' 2(a— c)V3 ^ ~ T-(6 — c)2 S(a — c)x — cy . „ .. ,„- — -i — . li / , a maximum = n- o' (D) 3(a — c)= X* ' ^ All the above quantities, except .r, are constants, and the second factor only contains the variable, therefore we have S(a — c) X — cV '■- ' =: a maximum. Differentiating and equating with zero, rejecting the denominator, we have 3 (a — c) ^* {(a — c) x — c}' d x — i x-^ {(a — c) x — c}^ d x = o ; whence (a — c) x =^ 4 c. But (a — c) X zn the distance between the centres of two adjacent tubes, which is therefore equal to four times the interval between their internal surfaces. Further (a — e) x — c =: 3 c = the diameter of a tube, which must be equal to three times the same interval. It is obvioHS that the smaller c is taken, the greater will be the value of the expression i^^ ~ / ; and, therefore, the tubes ought to be placed as near together as possible. In order to exemplify the application of the principles herein developed, I have prepared drawings of the tubes of a locomotive engine boiler, such as are very commouly used, and also of one tubed according to the proportions just determined. oOOOOOOOOOOOOOo oooooooooooooo oOOOOOOOOOOOOOo pooooooooooooo ooooooooooooo ■ oooooooooooo poooooooooo °^ooooooo ^ ■ o ooooo o 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. JOS Table of the comparative evaporating power of t\iree different methods of tubing: — Reference to drawing A B C Number of tubes 103 78 45 Internal diameter of tubes inches If 2 3 Distance hetii'een centres . . „ 2i 3 4 Interval in tube plate jj f f f Total circumference of tubes 525-82 490-09 424-05 Total sectional area of tubes 213-61 24504 318-08 Product of circumference and area. . 112,320 120,091 134,881 Comparison A : C :: 100 : 120 13 : C :: 100 : 112 ooooooooo opOOOOOOOo ooooooooo, opopoooo, ooooooo "or)oo° o o o o It appears from the above, that the boiler which is tubed in the theoretic proportion is from 12 to 20 per cent, superior to tlie others. Let us now determine the area of the tubes, as cojnpared with the whole space, when the preceding theoretic ratio is adopted. = the number of tubes in one horizontal row A B. the vertical distance between the horizontal row s 4c 4 c V' =2c v/3 := the number of horizontal rows in A D. 6 — c (a — c) (b — c) 8c= V3 Diameter of a tube =: 3 c the wliole number of tubes. Oir (a-c)(6 — e) = Sc'l/S ^ 32V3 the area of the tubes : from which it may be observed that tlie diameter of the tubes disappears from the expression, indicating that so long as the ratio between the diameter and interval remains the same, the aggregate area will be constant, let the actual diameter be wliat it . 9 ir may : and the value of ^^ = 0'51. The area of the tubes will. 32v/3 ' therefore rather exceed the half of the space. Manchester. Geo. W. Buck. o A ENTASIS OF CHURCH SPIRES. Sir — In a report of a recent meet- ing of the Royal Institute of British Architects, given in your journal of Jan. 27, 1 observed some remarks up- on the question of entasis in spires, from which it appears, that the gentlemen who took part in the discussion had not recognised de- cided curved lines in any spire ex- cept that of Newark ; 1 am happy to be able to instance, from the same district, a much finer and better developed example than the spire of that church, which, it is true, has a positive though slight entasis: the accompanying drawing, should you think it worthy of a place in your valuable Journal, and which is an elevation of the steeple of Gedling Church about four miles from Nottingham, will more clearly exemplify this assertion : the scale and measurements may be depended upon, as the latter were taken during some repairs at the summit of the spue. It will be perceived from this that the amount of varia- tion or bulging from a straight line drawn from the base to the summit, is very considerable, being in the widest part not less than two feet; indeed tlie swell is so great as to prevent a person, standing upon the leads of the tower, seeing the weathercock, unless by leaning over the battlement: the curve extends 43 ft. from the top of the battle- ment, where it meets the straight lines of the rest of the spire, and forms a segment of a circle whose radius is about 27Uft. The style of the spire is of what I should denominate the second decorated; circa 1320: and it is, perhaps, worthy of remark, that Newark is also of decorated date, although somewhat later than Ged- ling. It is situated at the north west angle of the nave; and conse- quently groups very picturesquely with the body of the church, which possesses many interesting features, and has a most exquisite early English chancel of rather unusual dinieiisions (50 ft. by 24ft.): there are I'unr uiclies occupying llie alter- nate faces of tlie spire as iu;licatcd in the drawii g; they coiiiain male jj» roe THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, and female stiitues, in the attitude of prayer. One of the best pre- served male figures is apparently clad in chain mail, with a low conical helmet; and wears either a juponor cyclas, with a triangular or heater shaped shield, and a sword girt upon the thigh: this costume cor- responds with tlie date to which I have assigned the erection of the steeple. Tliere are also two canopied niches, containing good figures of saints, upon the western end. The general ettect of the spire is very imposing, its lofty altitude gaining additional elevation from its beautiful proportions and fine outline ; which, together with the absence of all meretricious detail, and resulting simplicity of design, would, in my opinion, render it an admirable model for modern imitation. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, J. C. Robinson. J^oUingham, February 20, 1844. MESSRS. BOULTON & WATT, ON THE STEAM ENGINE. Through the intervention of a Correspondent we are enabled to lay before our readers a document of some importance — being not less than a copy of the instructions furnished by Messrs. Boulton & Watt to five, we are informed, of their principal agents, and superinten- dents, who were deputed by them to attend, in different parts of the kingdom, to the erection of the steam engines made by the firm, under the first conditions of the patent-rights granted to them. In the history of the invention of the steam-engine, some authors have shown much laborious research, and have deemed it right to ad- duce as elementary discoverers, the names of Hero, Brancas, and other individuals; and have terminated this branch of their histories, with the inventions of Sir Samuel Morland, and the Marquis of Wor- cester. But we, ourselves, are of opinion that, in the history of the invention of the steam-engine, there are only three important elemen- tary periods; viz., those of Savery, Newcomen, and Watt; and all of them took place within a century. In taking a retrospect of the inventions of those eminently distin- guished individuals, and of the times in which they respectively lived and brought them forward, we scarcely know to whom the greatest meed of praise is due — whether to Savery, for the invention of the steam-engine, and its first application to the arts of life ; or to New- comen, for the introduction of the cylinder, piston, beam, and pump- work generally, which still remain, as essential features of the inven- tion; or to Watt, first for effecting the condensation of the steam in a vessel separate from the cylinder; and secondly, for his admirable contrivance of the parallel motion. For it was by this last that he was enabled to work the steam on both sides of the piston, and to reduce the action of the engine to that extraordinary precision of time and power, for which it is now universally celebrated, and by which it is adapted to tlie performance of the most delicate and rapid processes, even to the weaving of lace. To James Watt, notwithstanding the profundity of his intellect and great inventive powers, much additional praise is due for his sound commercial talent ; so ably aided and seconded, as it is well-known tu have, been, by his princely-minded partner, Mr. Boulton. And, perhaps, it was owing to this last mentioned circumstance, that the names of Messrs. Boulton & Watt spread so rapidly over the surface of the civilized world, as pre-eminently skilful mechanicians. A document emanating from such a firm, even as a matter of history, is of some importance ; but when the low state of the mechanical arts at that period is considered, and a knowledge of it is placed in juxta-position with the soundness of judgment, prudence, and fore- sight, displayed in the document, we cannot withhold our admiration of that commercial sagacity, by which they ensured practical success. There cannot be a question, that much of that success, and its conse- quence, the realization of great wealth, was produced by deep inves- tigation of, and attention to, minute details, as thus exhibited ; and it ought to convey to many of those who have embarked, or are about to embark, in the same arduous and honourable profession, a memorable lesson. In giving the document to our readers, we shall not presume to dis- turb the meaning of the text, or attempt to eniich it by notes and an- notations. But, at the conclusion, we shall take a retrospect of the whole, and bring the practical illustration of the steam-engine down to the present time. Section. . 3 . 4 . 5 Table of Contents. To dig the foundations of the engine liouse The foundation of the lever wall and of the condenser cistern Section. . 1 . 2 The walls, or butts, which support the cylinder beams and platform 'I'o build the lever wall . . . . . . To leave proper holes for the upper cylinder beams, and to fix them Concerning the spring beams . . . . . The wooden and stone platform that the cylinder stands upon . The construction of the great lever, or beam, and its parts To fix the plug tree arch, the martingales, the king posts, and other arti- cles about the beam ...... The great chains, and martingales . . . . . The cap, and cross bar, of the piston rod .... To hang the plug tree . . . . . . The wheel and pinion windlass to lift the cylinder . The springs to save the shock of the great Iji-am To pay strict attention to dimension in building the house, he. The condenser cistern . , . . . . The boiler ....... The boiler setting . . . . . . • The gauge pipes ...... A pool for the injection water . . . . . The plummer blocks not to be fixed until the cylinder is fixed . To fix the outer bottom of the cylinder . . . . To fix the inner bottom of the cylinder, and to make its joints To fix the cylinder to its bottoms . . . . . The holding down screws, and setting the cylinder u[iright To clean the cylinder, to hang the piston, and to put a lead ring within the cylinder, to save the bottom when the piston falls To make the piston rise and fall perpendicularly To fix the under part of the lower nozzle . . . . To fix the steam case to the cylinder, and to make its joints . 30 & 31 To fix the upper part of the lower nozzle, the perpendicular steam pipe, and upper nozzle . , . . . . The cross pipe ...... To communicate the steam from the cross pipe to the steam case, and to the outer bottom . . . . . . To fix the condenser pumps, and to make their joints The valves of the condenser buckets and clacks, and their other mountings The copper eduction pipe ..... The joinings, and fixing the injection and blowing pipes . To fasten down the condenser pumps, the pump break, to pack the buckets of the condenser pumps . . . . . The condenser stuffing box ; the air pump lid, and clack door; and fixing the injection valve .... Guards to prevent the valves over opening The guide posts, plug tree, and working gear The regulators .... The cylinder stuffing box The lid or cover of the cylinder . . . To pack the piston, and of its mounting To examine, by steam, if all the joints are tight 'to fix the steam gauge, and barometer Tu examine the tightness of the joints, and piston, by working the air pump by the pump break . . , . . Proper length of the piston chain, and other matters r^ating to it To fix guards to prevent the pump rods from dropping To screw up the holding down screws from time to time The uses of the three regulators ..... Their operations in working the engine . . . . The use of the eduction pipe ..... The use of the air and hot water pumps . . . . The uses of the barometer, and steam gauge, and of the necessary strength of the steam ..... To pack the piston . . . . . . To pack the buckets of the condenser pumps To set the engine to work . . . . • . To regulate the engine ; and marks of its being in good order To examine the tightness of the joints, and to search for air and water leaks ....... To examine the engine while it is working . . . . To feed the boiler ; and to keep the steam regular To make the fire properly, and to oil the wearing parts . To examine the piston every week, and to give it the proper quantity of tallow ....... To examine the regulators frequently, and the stuffing boxes ; marks of the engine being in order ; heat of the hot water . The use of the steam or boiler regulator .... f 0 set the engine a-going, by working the air pump by the break To make putty for the joints, and cautions about grease . 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 29 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. lot General Directions for Building the Engine House, and Constructing some parts of tlie Engine. 1. Having fixed upon the proper situation of the pump in the pit, from its centre, measure out the distance lo tlie centre of the cyhnders ; — that is, the length of the working beam, or great lever, and the half breadth ofeacli of thi.' great chains, ' tl-.en, from the centre of the cylinder, set off all the other dimensions of the house, including the thickness of the walls. Dig out the whole grounds included, to the depth of the bottom of the cellar ; so that the bottom of the cylinder may stand on a level with the natural ground of the place, or lower, if convenient. For the less height the house has above ground, so much the firmer will it be. The foundation of the walls must be laid at least two feet lower than the bottom of the cellar, unless the founda- tion be firm rock ; and care must be taken to leave a small open drain into the pit, quite through the lowest part of the foundation of the lever wall, to let oft' any water that may be accidentally spilt in the engine house, or may naturally come into the cellar. If the foundation, at that depth, does not prove good, you must go down to a better, if in your reach ; or make it good by a platform of wood, or piles, or both. 2. The foundation of the lever wall must be carried down lower than the bottom of the space left under the condenser cistern, to get at the screws which fix the condenser ; and two short walls must be built to carry the beams under the condenser cistern. Two other slight walls must be built, one on each side, at a little distance from the cistern, to keep the earth from it, which would otherwise cause it to rot. 3. ^yIthin the house, low walls must be firmly built to carry the lower cylinder beams, so as to leave sufficient room to get to the holding down screws ; and the ends of these beams must also be lodged in the wall ; but the platform must not be built on them, until the house is otherwise finished. 4. The lever wall must be built in the firmest manner, and run solid, course by course, with thin lime mortar; and care must be taken that the lime has not been long slaked. If the house be built of stone, let the stones be long and large, and let many headers be laid through the wall ; it should also be a rule, that every stone be laid on the broadest bed it has, and never set on its edge. A course, or two, above the lintel of the door which leads to the condenser, build, in the wall, two parallel flat thin bars of iron, equally distant from each other, and from the outside and inside of the wall, and reaching the whole breadth ol the lever wall. About a foot higher in the wall, lay at every four feet of the breadth of the front, other bars of the same kind, at right angles to the former course, and reaching quite through the thickness of the wall; and at each front corner lay along bar, in the middle of the side walls, and reaching quite through the front wall. If these bars be 10 It. or 12it. long, it will be sufficient. \V hen the house is built up nearly to the bottom of the opening under the great beam, another double course of bars must be built in, as has been directed. 5. At the level of the upper cylinder beams, holes must be left in the walls for their ends, with room to move them laterally, so tliat the cylinder may be got in ; and smaller holes must be left quite through the walls for the introduction of iron bars ; which being firmly fastened to the cylinder beams at one end, and screwed at the other, or outer end, will serve, by their going through both the front and back walls, to bind the house more firmly to- gether. 6. The spring beams, or iron bars fastened firmly to them, must reach quite through the back wall, and be keyed, or screwed up tight ; and they must be firmly fastened to the lever wall on each side, either by iron bars, firm pieces of wood, or long strong stones reaching far back into the wall. They must also be bedded solidly ; and the sides of the opening built in the firmest man- ner with wood or stone. The spring beam must always be laid eight inches, on each side, distant from the working beam, to give room for the side arches 7. The house being finished, a wooden platform, of two and a half inch plank, must be laid on the lower cylinder beams; and the centre of the cylinder being accurately marked on it, four hules must be bored through the cylinder beams for the holding down screws; and four boxes, about SL'Ven or eiglit inches square, and as long as the stone platform uill be deep, must be placed perpendictdarly over them. Then the stone or brick platform must be built up to the level of the cylinder's bottom. It must be composed of the heaviest materials which can readily and cheaply be procured. A very solid pillar of stone or brickwork, laid in the best lime mortar, must be carried up directly under the cylinder, and must be, at least, of the diameter of the out- side of the flanches ; the rest of the platform may be filled up with heavy materials, bedded solidly in a mortar of clay and sand, and well beat into their places, so that they may never settle or yield. 1 [N.B. — It may be necessary here lo state, that as the instructions here given were for the first engines made and erected under the patent, they were applied to pumping only; that the engines were of the fiind denominated **aljnu8pheric," and that, as the parallel motion was not ttien invented, tlie circular motion ot dilieient pails ot the beam were changed into the approximatively vertical, upward and downward, motion of the piston rod, and pump rods, by arch heads, or " arches," on the beams ; and by suspending tlie rods to them by chains.] 8. The lever, or great working beam, is best when composed of one single log of seasoned oak , where that cannot be obtained, two maybe used, or four, or more. The fewer logs it is composed of, so much the more durable will the lever be, or of so much smaller scantling may it be made. This beam must be fashioned and mounted. The diagonal stays, fastened to the arches, and on the lower log, or lower edge of the beam, will prevent the logs from sliding on one another, by the difference of the direction in which the chains act upon them, when the end of the lever is up or down. These stays must be let into the side of the beam, that the other diagonal braces may pass over them. The diagonal braces, which reach from the top of the king posis to the lower edge of the beam, are intended to prevent the logs from bending or sliding on one another. They are fastened to the beam, at their lower end, by means of a strong square bar of iron screwed at both ends, which passes through the beam, and serves to bind it together, laterally. They must no- where else have any fixture to the beam. Their screws, at the top of the king posts, must be tightened from time to time, as required. The gudgeon must be placed on the top of the beam, and must not be at all let into it ; only the corners of the log may be taken off, to fit the saddle plate, and to prevent the saddle plate from sliding on the beam. One or two pieces of hardwood, about five inches broad, and a foot long, by three inches thick, miy be let into the upper side of the beam, one inch deep, with their ends butting up against the saddle plate. They must be spiked down in their places ; and both them, and the saddle plate, must be laid in a bed of tar and tallow, mixed and used boiling hot, which will prevent the wood rotting under them. A clamp of oak, four inches thick, and from four to six feet long, must be spiked on the lower side of the beam. This clamp must be rounded on the edges ; its use is to prevent the beam straps from hurting or weakening the beam in that critical place. These beam straps must not be made out of thick bars, or lumps of iron ; but must be made up by a number of thin or small bars welded together ; and they, and all the other iron work of the beam, must be made of iron of the best quality. All the big pieces should be made up of smaller, or thin bars, in the way I have mentioned. Upon no account, whatever, let any holes be bored through the beam near the gudgeon, nor any thing else be done, which may weaken it there. 9. The arches for the plug tree and condenser pumps should be screwed to the beam by screw bolts, nhich should pass through the joints of the logs of the beam, if it be composed of more logs than one, and one bolt may gene- rally pass above the beam ; these bolts also serve to keep the beam together laterally ; these arches should be maile with a shotdder of two inches pro- jection to rest on the upper side of the beam. The tails of the mattingales of the plug tree, and the condenser pumps, must also be secured by bolts passing through the beam in some joint, if it can conveniently be done. The lower end of the king post should have a hollow in it, to fit the gudgeon on ; but care should to be taken that it rests upon the gudgeon, and not uj/on the saddle plate. It should be contrived, that the tails of two of the great mar- tingales should rest on the middle of each of the two logs which compose the thickness of the beam ; that is, when the beam consists of lour or more logs. The martingale screws should be strong, and should go quite down through the beam, as it is them that principally keep the beam together in the direction of its depth. Near these screws must be placed the keys, or pieces of hard dry wood ; which, being half let into each log of the ber.m, prevent the logs from sliding one upon the other. These keys should never be above two inches thick ; lb U is, one inch let into each log : they may be made in three ]>ieces, the two outside pieces dovetail ways, and the middle one tapering ; by driving up which, they are made to join themselves in their mortoises. Or they may be made of one piece, six inches broad at one end, and five at the other, so that by driving the whole in, it may check the sliding of the logs. If there are more sets of logs than two in the depth, the keys must be placed, alternately, on different sides of the martingale screws. Care must be taken, in placing the chains for the plug tree and con- denser pumps, that all the heads of the chain bolts be next the beam, and that they be far enough off' not to rub on the diagonal stays, or any other thing. 10. The great chains must be made of the very best iron, and the martin- gales must be placed so, that the adjusting screws may lie parallel to the arches, and the upper surface of the head of the martingale be at right an- gles to them. The holes, in the martingales, should be quite easy for the adjusting screws ; and a washer, thinned about the outer edges, should be quite easy for the adjusting screws ; and a washer, thinned about the outer edges, should be put under the nuts. There should be a sufficient length of chain, to reach one link lower than'the under end of the arch of the beam. 11. The cap and cross-bar, for the piston-rod, should be firm work, of good iron. The mortoise, in the cap, should be made exactly to suit the mortoise in the piston-rod ; and the cutter, or forelock, to fit them both exactly ; and the cutter above all things should be the very best of iron, as the whole depends on it. There is always a sufficient size given it in the drawings ; so that, if it should iaii, it must be the fault of the iron, ot work- 108 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, mansliip. This cutter must be kept in its place by two cross cutters; and these again, by a thong of leather, passed through some holes in them. 12. It «ill seldom happen that the plug tree can be hung directly under its arch ; you are to place them exactly in the places fixed by the drawings ; that of the arch will always be found right in the geiicral section ; but the place of the plug tree and guide posts must be taken, by measuring from the nozzle, in the drawing of the working gear. A strong iron bracket with a stay must be fastened to the top of the plug tree, in such a direction that the point of the bracket may come directly under the arch. There must be a hole in the point of the bracket, to receive the end of an iron rod, reaching down from the chain ; and the end of this rod must be screwed, for five or six inches, and have a nut on the lower side of the bracket, to adjust the height of the plug tree by. 13. There sliould be placed upon the spring beams, over the cylinder, two uprights, connected at top by a strong cape piece. These uprights serve to support a windlass, with a wheel and pinion ; by means of which, and a pair of tackle pulley blocks hung to the cape piece, it will be easy to lift and put the cylinder, Uc, in their places ; and after the engine is completed, it makes it easy for the engine man to raise the cylinder lid, to pack the piston, without ctfcer assistance The barrel of the windlass may be of oak, about six inches diameter ; and must have a square gudgeon of iron driven quite through it ; on one end of which, the toothed wheel must be fixed. The gudgeon may be from one and a half, to two and a half inches square, according to the size of the engine ; and the wheel about two feet diameter, driven by a pinion five inches diame- ter ; but these may be larger, or less, according to the weights commonly to be raised. It is necessary to mention to those who may look on a wheel and pinion as a superfluous expense, that there is no trusting to windlasses wrought by bars ; and that many bad accidents have happened through the use of them, which obliges us absolutely to condemn them for this purpose. 14. The springs to receive, and, in some degree, to save the blow when the engine comes down too suddenly, are best made of a piece of a square dry elastic timber, reaching from the plummer blocks, to nine or ten inches be- yond the catch pins ; their size must be suited to that of the engine, from six inches square, to twelve, or fourieen. The ends next the catch pins must be sloped off on the under side, for four or six Icet in length, according to the size of the engine ; so that their points may be one inch distant from the spring beams, to which they must be bolted down, by a screw bolt at the end of the sloped part, and another at the end next the plummer blocks. The pait of these springs which are struck by the catch pins, should be covered by a plate of iron, and that again by a piece of strong leather, to prevent the clattering noise they might otherwise make. 15. The utmost attention to dimensions must be observed, in constructing the masonry of the building; particularly in regard to heights; mistakes in tbem are productive of the worst consequences. 16. The condenser cistern must be made of best Dantzic thiee inch deal plank, if it can be got. If not readily to be got, any other good red deal, or oak, may be employed ; but whatever kind of wood be used, be sure lo cut off all the sap wood, otherwise the cistern will soon become useless. The best way of putting the cistern together is, by means of long screw bolts ot iron, about three-quarters square, put through the planks edgeways, from top to bottom of the cistern. These screws may be eighteen inches distant from one another. The bottom may be put together in the same manner with screws ; and then fixed down upon the beam, or beams : and be supported by so many more smaller beams, as may be necessary. If the cistern is not more than seven feet long, no uprights, on the outside, are necessary ; only one, about six inches square, in each corner, in the inside; and in no cistern ought there to be any upriglits on the sides next llie wall. The joints of the planks should be plain joints and put together on a strip ot coarse flannel, soaked with a mixture of tar and tallow, eijual parts, and warm ; or upon bullrushes. A large cock or a brass valve should be fixed in the boiloni ol the cistern, to let oil' the water occationally ; and a notch, about four inches deep, and eighteen inches broad, wiih a trough fitted to it, should be made ^ in the upper edge of the cistern, to convey away the waste water. If surlace 1 water cai.not be found to supply the injection, a small pump should be fixed, to bring up water from the main pump head inio this cistern. In case the water from the pit is good, and is raised to the surface, the main yamp may deliver it rlirectly into ihe cistern j but if the water le subject to be muddy, or mixed with sand, &c. it will lie best to put it into another cistern, to de- posit some part of the matter first. If the pit water be vitriolic, or encrusting water, it becomes necessary to use every means to procure better water, other- wise it will destroy the condenser, &c. 17. In making the boiler, you should use rivets between five-eighths and three-fourths inch diameter. In the bottom, and sides, the heads of the rivets should be large, and placed next the fire, or on the outside ; and in the boiler top, the heads should be placed on the inside. The rivets should be placed at tuo inches distance from the centre of one rivet to the centre of the other ; and their centres should be about one inch distant from the edge of the p'ale. The edges of the plate should be evenly cut to a line, both outsiile and inside. It is impossible to make a boiler top truly tight, which is done otherwise. After the boiler is all put together, the edges of the plates should be thickened up ; and made close by a blunt chissel, about one quarter inch thick in the edge, impelled by a hammer of three or more pounds weight ; one man holding, and moving the chisel gradually, while the other strikes. All the joints, above water, should be wetted with a solution of sal ammoniac in water, or rather in urine ; which, by rusting them, will help to make them steam t'ght. After the boiler is set, it may be dried by a small fire under it ; and every joint and rivet above water, painted over with thin putty, made with whiting and linseed oil, applied with a brush. A gentle fire must be continued until the putty becomes quite hard, so as scarcely to be capable of being scratched off by the thumb nail ; but care must be taken not to bum the putty, nor to leave off, until it becomes dry. 18. In building the brickwork of the boiler setting, no lime must be used where the fire or flame comes ; but a mortar made of loam, and sand, and clay ; but lime mortar should be used towards the outside. Pieces of old cart tyer, or other such like pieces of iron, may be laid under the chime of the boiler; between it and the bricks ; which will prevent its being so soon burnt out there. The brickwork, which covers the boiler top, should be laid in the best lime; which will not hurt it there, but will preserve it. The mortar should be used thin ; and the boiler top well plaistered with it ; which will conduce greatly to tightness, if done some time before the engine be set to work. If your lime be not of the species which stands water, it will be well to mix some Dutch, or Italian terraso, or pan scratch from the salt works, with it; but in any case, the lime should be newly slacked. In car- rying up the brickwork, ronnd the flues, long pieces of rolled iron should be built in, in two or three courses, to prevent the brickwork from splitting- Four holes, at convenient places, should be made into the flues, large enough to admit a boy to go in, to clean them. One of them may be over the fire door ; and another light behind the damper, in the backside of the chimney. This last, may be as high as the flues themselves are. These holes, when not in use, must be built up with nine inch brick work, and made perfectly air tight. Immediately above the brick work of the boiler setting, a hole must be left in the chimney, on the side next the boiler. This hole must be as wide as the chimney ; and must have a sliding door fitted to it, to open it more or less, at pleasure; the use of it is to moderate the draught of the chimney, and to prevent the flame being drawn up it, before it has acted sufficiently on the boiler. A groove must be left in the brickwork, for the damper to move up and down m, easily ; which should fit flat to the face of it. The damper may be made to move easily, up and down, by means of a wheel, on a beam, with a counterpoise equal to the weight of the dam| er. The best form of a fire door is two feet long, and one foot high, inside mea- sure, to have leaves, made of boiler plates, hinged on the two sides, and over lapping one another, about an inch in the middle. The scantling of the frame may be three inches broad by two inches thick. 19. The gauge pipes may be fised into the boiler top, in some conven'ent place; the lower end ot the longest should reach within six inches of the top of the flues ; and Ihe shortest should be four inches above it. The feed pipe should reach two feet under the surface of the water in the boiler ; and should have a valve, at its lower end, to prevent the water being ever forced up through it, by the steam. Its upper end should lise seven feet higher than the surface of the water in the boiler. It should be supplied with water by a pipe from the top of the hot water pump, regulated by a cock near the feed pipe. 20. If you have not land water that will naturally run into the ci ndenser cistern, you must make a pool somewhere in the neighbourhood to receive the water from the hot water pump and reserve it for supplying the boiler and condenser cistern when the engine siands still on any occasion. This pool must be at least forty feet long, and twenty feet wide, and to ho d three feet deep of water; and pipes, or troughs, must be laid from its bottom, to the boiler feed pipe and cistern. That, at the feed pipe, must have a cock on purpose. It is meant, that the pool be simply dug in the earth; and be lined «ith turf, puddled ; or otherwise made water tight. If no ground, within a reasonable distance, be high enough for the water lo run from the bottom of the pool into the boiler, then a pool may be made o lower ground, and a hand pump be fixed up, to supply the boiler and cis- tere ; but this ought to be avoided, if possible. This concludes the first part of Messrs. Boulton & Watt's instructions. In our next JoHrH«/, we shall resume the subject, and give their '" Directions Jor Putting the Engine together ;'^ and also an engraving of the description of Kngine lelerred to in these particulars. Silver Mine. — We learn from Stockholm, that a silver mine, which is expected to be very productive, has been discovered near the town of Lindsherg. 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 109 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. By Professor Brande, F.R.S., &c. Lecture IV.— Delivered at the Royal Institution, Feb. 17, 1844. (Specially reported for this Journal.) Phosphoric acid, once considered unimportant, is requisite for most crops, but especially for wheat and grass. It is generally added to the soil in com- bination with lime, as bone dust, the earthy part of bone consistinj; almost entirely of phosphate of lime. Phosphorus, the base of phos|ihoric acid, is never found in a free state In nature, being obtained Ly distilling a mixture of phosphoric acid and charcoal. It is a pale yellow semi-transparent solid, remarkable for its easy combustibility, luminous in the dark, owing to its slowly burning. When set fire to and a tall glass jar placed over it, flakes of a beautiful white substance are collected, which is phosphoric acid, the phosphorus having combined with the oxygen of the air. These flakes will, in a short time, abstract moisture from the air, and become liquid. If this liquid be then added to a solution of lime, phosphate of lime, or bone earth, falls as a fine white insoluble powder. When bones are burned, it is this which is left as the while ash, the animal matter having been destroyed. But as phosphate of lime is soluble in acids, the animal part may be obtained in a separate state by digesting bone in weak muriatic acid ; the bone remains in its original shape, but is then as flexible as cartilage, the whole of the earthy part being removed. In this state it is that bones are employed to make animal glue and portable soup. Formerly it was supposed that it was to this part that the virtue of bone manure was due ; but it is found that bones are nearly as efficient after the animal part has been destroyed, as for instance, after they have been distilled for the manufacture of hartshorn, or ammonia. Since this has been clearly established there has been great demand for phos- phate, search has been made to ascertain whelher any large natural supply of this substance could be discovered, as it is frequently found in a mineral state. For this purpose Dr. Daubeny made a pilgrimage to Spain, and in Estramadurahe found a large quantity known as Phosphorite, from its giving off a pale blue light when heated ; but as there is no water conveyance from thence, and the roads are bad. the expense would be too great. It is present in nearly every soil, anj is even to be found in chalk, as the following analysis of the Brighton chalk will show. 100 of Brighlon Chalk. Carbonate of lime . 98-57 Carbonate of magnesia. . 0-38 Phosphate of lime . 0-11 Oxides of iron and magnesia. . 0-14 Alumina . 0-16 Silica . . . . . 064 10000 In slate, phosphoric acid sometimes exists combined with alumina, and oc- casionally the surface of the slate is found covered with a crystalline mass of phosphate of alumina, or wavellite, as mineralogists term it. When this dis- integrates, to form a clay soil, the phosphoric acid will get diffused, and thus become one of the elements of the food of the plant. In the chalk, which is agreed by most geologists to be the debris of organic matter, the phosphoric acid has, no doubt, had its origin from theshellsuf come of the loweranimals. An interesting observation has been made on this subject, viz. that the shelly or bony structure of the lowest animals consists wholly of carbonate of lime; that as they increase in complexity of structure, a little phosphate of lime Is found, and in that of the animals highest in the scale of creation, phosphate has entirely replaced the carbonate of lime. From this fact, the absolute necessity for phosphoric acid in the soil is evident; for the growing animal, browsing in tlie field, is c ntinually adding phosphate of lime to his increas- ing bone ; from whence can it come ? As he eats nothing but plants, it must be in their structure, and analysis proves it to be so: then, again, as the plant derives all it contains from the earth, air, and water, it must be in one or other, and the analysis of all fertile soils shows that it is invariably present. These remarks applying to phosphoric acid, are applicable to all the inorganic constituents of animals or vegetables. But it is also requisite that they should be in a soluble state, or the plant cannot take them into its circulation, and frequent disappointment has arisen in the use of bone dust, from there having been nothing in the soil to dissolve the phosphate of lime ; it is by some imagined that plants excrete from their roots acid substances to render soluble the substanci s around them. Experiments have been made by dissolving the phosphate in an acid previous to mixing it with the soil, and very beneficial results have been obtained. The Duke of Richmond found that a much larger crop of turnips was thus obtained, and some agriculturists have slated that one pound of bone dust mixed with acid is as efficacious as 61b. wilhuut. The propoilions advisable are, to take 1001b. of bones, and alter breaking small, to add to tlicm about 501b. of sulphuric or muriatic acid, they being the cheapest, and about three cwt. of water, which will give a solution of sub- phosphate of lime and free phosphoric acid. In order to get it into a con- venient form for application. It is advisable to sprinkle this liquid over some substance which will absorb it, such as saw-dust ; if to this be added some silicate of potash, a most fertilising agent is obtained. A manure which is now being very extensively employed in this coutry, and the demand fur which is daily on the increase, viz,, gunno, appears to owe its qualities prin- cipally to the phosphate and other salts which it contains. It is the excre- ment of sea birds, and is obtained in immense quantity. The amount of In- organic matter it contains may be ascertained by burning a known weight in a silver crucible, and weighing the ash which remains. The quantity of inorganic material requisite to be added to the soil will depend upon two things, the quantity that the plant absorbs to form part of its system, and also upon what part of the plant is removed from the field, as it has already been seen how greatly the various parts of a plant differ in the quantity of their inorganic constituents. Hence is evident the importance of ploughing in all the parts of the plant not taken to market, especially the leafy parts. It is even, in sandy soils, found advisable to burn the plants which have grown there, such as heath and furze, and to return the ashes, which, by this means, in a few years render it fit for the growth of more profitable crops. The great difference in the quantity of the salts wdiich various plants appropriate, will be rendered very evident by the two following tables : — Sails, Sfc. n 1000 of the Ash of Seed and Strati , Wheat. Wlie.it straw. Barley. Barley Straw. Oats. Oat Straw. Beans. Bean Straw. Potash 190 5 120 35 60 150 195 530 Soda . 203 7 120 10 50 — 380 15 Lime . 80 70 45 105 30 27 77 200 Magnesia 80 10 80 15 25 5 75 67 Alumina 20 28 10 30 5 — 15 5 Oxide of Iron — . — — 5 15 — — — Sulphuric acid 40 10 25 20 15 15 40 10 Phosphoric acid 35 50 90 30 30 3 138 73 Silica . 340 810 500 735 765 800 60 70 Chlorine 10 10 10 15 5 — 20 25 Composition of Three Soils. Silica 7767 9214 8465 Alumina . 445 149 50 Oxides of Iron . 515 308 82 Oxide of Magnesia 83 31 3 Lime 212 59 13 Magnesia . 153 36 7 Potash and Soda 24 14 2 Phosphoric acid 68 6 13 Sulplturic acid . 56 1 1 Chlorine . 4 2 3 Organic matter . 24 7 106 1200 9574 9926 9839 Less 426 74 161 10,000 10,000 10,000 This will serve to explain why those plants which contain but few of these salts are said to form good fallow crops. It is remarkable, also, the invariable proportion in which they are present in the same plant, although grown in a different climate, and in a different soil. Sprengel analysed wheat from several distiicts, and found them, in this respect, exactly to resemble each other. A question has ari>en amongst vegetable physiologists « hether < nc sub- stance usually present in a plant, can be substituted by another, and it has been found to take place in some few instances. For instance, cases ha\e occurred where plants which usually have one alkali present, when grown in a soil where that alkali is not present, have been found to appropriate another, but still preserving the .same amount. Indeed, some planis, when growing in circumstances where they cannot obtain inorganic alkalis, will positively form organic ones, in order to carry on their functions ; such is said to be the origin of the morphia, in poppies, to which organic alkali the properties of opium are due. It is well known that potatoes when stored up in a damp cellar, will throw out shoots to a very great length. Now when these are analysed, they are found to contain a vegetable alkali in great abundance, to which the name of solanine has been given, not an atom of which is ever to no THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, be found in Ihe plant in Us natural state. It has, in fact, formed this alkali from some of its otlier constituents, so that its germinations may proceed. The efTtcacy of common salt as manure is most undoubted in many situa- tions. To lands near the sea there cannot be any necessity for adding it, as the winds carrying the spray always give it a top dressing of salt, and those near the shore generally get too much. It is said by some to render the silica soluble, but one undoubted benefit it bestows is in killing the grubs and vermin which infest some crops to so enormous an extent. It is present in every soil. It is used in sreat quantities for the manufacture of soda, and distilled with sulphuric acid, yields muriatic acid. The very hrge proportion of inorganic constituents thatlsome plants con- tain, is occasionally rendered evident by accident. Thus hay, which contains 90 per cent of its weight, is frequently found, when a rick has caught fire, to be converted into a hard opaque glass, and a com stack will burn to a com- plete tlint. In the case of hay, this accident sometimes occurs, when it has been stacked before it is dry, by the heat which is evolved during the fer- mentation of its juices. There is a very admirable arrangement in nature for returning to the soil, every year the inorganic substances which it requires for its growth, but which it has not retained in its wood, and that is the autumnal fall of the leaf, which, as has been already seen, contains, of all other parts, by far the greatest quantity of salts. Thus they serve to go one perpetual round, now dissolved by the water in the soil, and absorbed by the roots, now flowing with the sap through every ramification of the tree, and at last forming part of the leaf, to be on the approach of winter, again de- posited on the soil, to be again dissolved, absorbed, and perform the same functions ; but in each circuit leaving part of itself as a permanent resident in the stem of the plant. Thus, then, we are led, by a consideration of these and other circumstances, to the only inference that can be drawn, that these inorganic constituents, in small proportion to the other parts as they maybe, are nevertheless vitally essential ; that no substance found in the ash of a plant can be considered as accidental but as constitutional, without every one of which be present in the soil, and in a fit state, it is useless to expect the plant to show, when the deficiency of the soil is known, what is requisite to be added, so as to make it suit each respective crop. But it is time to pay attention to the organic part of the soil. This, which consists of the vegetable mould formed from the decay of the woody parts of the plants, is known by the name of humus. It may be traced in various stages, from the firm wood, to the yellow rotten wnod, then to a brown, and lastly to a black earth, which is almost charcoal. On the banks of a stream, shaded by overhanging trees, the fallen beams may frequently be seen in the medium state, whilst at the bottom of the water, the dark brown mud is the best instance of it in its final state. When stirred it frequently gives off car- bonic acid and carburetted hydrogen, arising from the decomposilion of the woody fibre, or eremacausis, as it is the fashion to term it. There is no doubt that the presence of this is beneficial in the soil, though not to the ex- tent that it was formerly considered. As it is very slightly soluble in water, it cannot yield much nourishment to the plant, and it is doubtful, except by the carbonic acid which it slowly evolves, whether it is of any other than a mechanical advantage to the soil. Indeed it is the opinion of many, that so long as the plant can get its inorganic parts from the soil, it can derive all its organic parts from the atmosphere. Vegetable matter, however, is found in all fertile soils, in the proportion of from 10 to 20 per cent. In boggy earth, it forms from 60 to 70 percent. For the growth of rice, but little is re- quired, for barley more, and for wheat more ; abnut 12 per cent, is advisable. Water poured on good soil, should be very slightly coloured ; if deep brown, it will be barren, possibly arising fron the presence of an acid, rendering the vegetable matter soluble ; this must be counteracted by lime or chalk. Soils are classified and named according to the proportion of their principal constituents; thus some consist of pure agricultural clay, of which pipe clay is a good example, which consists of from 50 to CO of silica, the remainder being alumina. This when stirred up with water, deposits no sand. Rivers, passing through clayey soils, carry with them an immense quantity, taking weeks to deposit the whole, and in some cases carrying it a long way out to sea. When a clayey soil contains From 5 to 20 per cent, of sand, it is called a strong clay. „ 30 to 40 „ „ clay loam. „ 40 to 70 „ „ loam. „ 70 to 90 „ „ sandy loam. 90 ,, ,, sandy soil. Whc 1 chalk is present in from 5 to 20 per cent , these are termed marls ; and are sandy, loamy, or clayey, according to proportions. More than 20 per cent, forms a calcareous soil. From 5 to 20 per cent, of humus constitutes a vegetable soil, and from that to 70 iwr cent, a peaty soil. Lectcre v. Twenty years ago, when the agricultural chemist was requested to analyze a soil, he would consider he had done his duty when he had ascertained the proportions of the four earths, and the organic matter. Now, however, the case is widely difierent, and it has become one of the most complex opera- tions, which can be performed only by an experienced hand, and wiiich it is of no use for the farmer to attempt ; for it is very doubtful whetlier, if he became an expert chemist, he would also be an expert agriculturist. Siill, however, the knowledge of the use of the various tests set forth in these lectures ought to be possessed by every agriculturist, they are soon acquired, and will give very valuable information. In order to classify soils, the usual mode of examination is as follows:— Weigh a certain quantity of soil, dry in air, then reduce it to powder, and dry It before a fire on paper, at as greats heat as the paper will bear w ilhout charring, then weigh it to ascertain the quantity of water lost ; burn it in a crucible fur the purpose of destroying organic matter, and again weigh it ; then put in dilute muriatic acid, about 1,000 grains of the soil to a pint of water and two ounces of acid, which will dissolve the saline ingredients, dry it before a fire, and weigh it, then stir it up in a considerable quantity of water, and whilst the finest particles are suspended, pour off the water, and by this means the clay will be separated, A soil may have every ingredient requisite for vegetation, and yet not be productive on account of its not being in a proper mechanical condition, and there are several particulars to be looked to in this respect, such as density, division, retention of water, capillary power, shrinkage, relation to heat, 8tc. All these demand consideration. A soil should not be too dense, as it then offers too great a resistance to the growth of the plant, retains water too firmly, and, consequently, is always cold. The weight of a cubic foot of good soil should be from 50 to 90 lb. The state of division of a soil should be tolerably fine, though occasionally large masses are of use. It is the custom to gather oft' the large stones from a field, but during cold or dry winds they are of service by protecting the tender plants from the nipping of the one or the parching of the other. The state of cohesion of a soil should be between the looseness of sand and the plasticity of clay. This may be considerably modified by deep ploughing, by tilling, but particularly by draining. In very clayey lands, the best thing to do would be to add sand, but as that would be generally too expensive, the best substitute is drainage. The resistance to the plough varies very much according to the nature of the soil. It has been calculated that sand gives a resistance of about 41b. to the square foot, clayey ground about 81b., and a stiff clay about 251b. Soils diller in nothing so much as their power of imbibing and retaining water. It has been found, by direct experiment, that exposed for twelve hours in damp weather, 1,000 lb. dried sandy soil gained 21b. ; 1,0001b. dried loam gained 21 lb. ; 1,0001b. dried clay loam gained 251b. ; and 1,0001b. dried pure clay gained 37 lb. According to some experiments of Sir H. Davy, the same quantity of a barren sandy soil gained 31b. in twenty-four hours, whilst a fertile soil gained 181b. This will give some idea of the enormous quantity of moisture that would be absorbed from a moist air following a dry wind. Mr. Solly has made some experiments on increasing the imbibing power of dry soils, by adding- to them some very deliquescent substance ; for this purpose he used chloriile of calcium with very good results, Connected with this is its re- taining power. A quantity of water which would soak sand, would scarcely moisten dry clay. They have been found to vary as follows : — 100 lb. of sand retained 251b. of water; loam, 401b.; chalk, 4olb. ; marl, 501b.; and agri- cultural clay, 701b. The moister the land, of course tlie more imperative it is to drain it well, as too much water keeps a soil cold, and prevents the air from getting to the plants. Capillary attraction, or that power by which liquids crawl up small cre- vices, is exceedingly influential in agriculture, and is beneficial in two ways j 1st, by keeping the surface in a proper state of moisture, bringing up water from below, as fast as it evaporates above. This action may be illustrated by standing a lump of salt or otlier porous substance on end in a plate filled with a coloured liquid. It takes place very rapidly by using a tall glass cylinder, having a porous bottom, filled with sand. The densest chalk that can be procured will, in this way, become coloured several inches high in a few hours. In horticulture it is frequently taken advantage of by keeping a flower-pot in a saucer, into which water is poured. The second important use of capillary attraction is to bring up from the sub-soil a supply of those soluble substances of which the removal of the crops is continually depriving the soil. This may be thought but trilling, but when the immense amount of water evaporated is taken into account, it will appear far from insignificant. After a continuance of dry weather, the soil will frequently be covered with a perceptible film of the salts thus brought up, which by the first shower is diffused through the soil. In sandy lands the fertility depends upon this property. In tropical climates, where evaporation is so much greater, it is seen on a magnificent scale. In the deserts of Peru, for instance, the nitrate of soda thus annually brought to the surface is raked off, and exported in immense quantities, to be used for manufacturing, and latterly for agricul- tural purposes. In Africa, also, the neighbourhood of Tripoli thus furnishes a supply of a variety of carbonate of soda. These facts induce the inquiry 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AN ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Ill 77-5 21 1.42 008 100- a trace wlietlipr it is not advisable to savf the drainage waters, and after evaporating, by some means, to restore tbem to the soil, as doubtless they must contain these salts, which would be so beneficial to the crops. The shrinkacc of soils in dry weather seems to be in proportion to the clay or'orRanic matter present. Clays and peats in drying shrink one-fifth of their bulk. This action is of great utility, by increasing capillary aclion, and by forming conduits, by which the supeiduous water may run off. Of course this does not take place in sandy soils. The absorption of heat by the soil during sunshine is very great, some- times raising its temperature 30° or 40° over that of the air. When the air has been at 70' or 80'. the soil has been observed, during sunshine, at 100' or 120°. Black lands will rise rather higher in temperature than those of a lighter colour, but not so much so as might have been imagined ; the greatest difference observed having been 10'. When a chalk was observed at 100', a neighbouring black loam was at 110°. The difference of absorption of heat by different colours may be illustrated by placing pieces of phosphorous on three pieces of tin, one with its own surface, one coloured white, and the other coloured black, and placing a hot iron ball between them at an equ.al distance, to represent the sun. The phosphorus will be ignited first on the black, next on the wdiite, and lastly on the metallic surface. Those soils which absorb the quickest, radiate the quickest, and consequently would be coldest at night. The subject next claiming attention is the atmosphere, and which here in- troduces an important division of the subject ; for as the soil has Ijeen con- sidered as being the source of the inorganic part of plants, so the atmosphere is considered as yielding to the plant the wdiole of the organic part. Start- ling as this statement may appear, strong arguments will be brought forward to prove its plausibility. The composition of the atmosphere in 100 parts by measure is, Nitrogen .... Oxygen- .... Watery vapour (consisting of oxygen and hydrogen) Carbonic acid (consisting of o,\ygeu and carbon) Ammonia (consisting of nitrogen and hydrogen) These are the invariable proportions of its constituents, let the air be col- lected where it may, on the top of a mountain or in the depth of a valley, in Europe or in America. This extraordinary uniformity may be accounted for by the property of the difi'usion of gases, by the action of currents, the earth's motion, winds, &c. Nearly the whole of the organic part of plants is composed of Ihe four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. As all these substances can be found in the soil, that was supposed to be the source from whence Ihe plant derived them. But recent investigations have shown that whilst vege- tables impoverish the soil as regards the inorganic matter, they greatly in- crease the proportion of organic matter in the soil. A fir plant, growing on a dry sandy soil, is continually enriching it nitii humus, by the fall of its leaves and twigs. It is evident, then, thit it must derive the greater part, if not all, of its wood from the air, and it is doubtful whether, for this purpose, the great bulk of the air, the nitrogen and oxygen, contribute any part, or whether it is not due to the water, carbonic acid, and ammonia, which, al- though present in so small a quantity, yet, as will be shown in a future lec- ture, is sufficient for the purpose. These may, by artificial means, be re- moved from the air, the water and ammonia by means of sulphuric acid, or chloride of calcium, and the carbonic acid by lime ; and although the differ- ence could not be detected in breathing or in the burning of combustibles, yet it has been destroyed as regards plants, because there is an entire absence of that whicli maintains vegetable growth, and without which plants cannot form their structures. The proportion in which the nitrogen and oxygen exist in the air can be ascertained by abstracting the oxygen ; this can be done by several means ; if fine iron filings be powdered over the inside of a glass vessel, and this stood over water, the iron will combine with the oxygen, or become rusted, and the water will rise in the vessel to take the place of the abstracted oxygen. But it maybe effected more rapidly by burning a piece of phos- phorus in a portion of air confined over water; the phosphoric acid pro- duced dissolves in water, leaving the nitrogen gas pure. If the properties of this gas be then examined, it will be found that it will neither burn nor sup- port combustion or life, that indeed, it is totally inert. If it is w ished to get oxygen gas pure, it cannot be obtained from the air, as there is no means known of removing the nitrogen. It may be procured by heating sulislances which contain a great quantiiy of it, and which will part with a portion of it readily. Such is black oxide of manganese ; which is commonly employed on account of cheapness. For the sake of purity, chlorate of potash is best, or a mixture of the two. The properties of the gas thus obtained are the opposite of those of nitrogen, being very energetic, supporting combustion most vividly, and hurrying respiration to fever and death. Iron and zinc wire, heated at one end, and introduced into this gas, burned with great beauty, as do also charcoal and sulphur. Phosphorus burns with brilliancy, such that the eye can scarcely bear. From this it is evident that in the air it Is the oxygen that is the acting principle, and that the nitrogen serves the office of detecting it, so as to make its action on substances immersed in it sufficiently slow. The next and lollowing lecture will be devoted to the consideration of the lesser, although as regards plants, the more important components of the atmosphere. Fig. I. Fig. 2. REGISTER OF PATENTS. tTnder this head we propose to give abstracts of the specifications of all the most im- portant patents as they are enrolled. If any additional information be required as to any pa'ent, the same maybe obtained by applying to Wr. LAXTON at the Office of this JOtJRNAL. IMPROVED WINDOW SHUTTERS. Aechibalp IIokn, of Aldersgate Street, Zinc Worker, for " Improvements in the covstruction of windows, and for other purposes.^* — Granted August 15, 1843 ; enrolled February 15, 1814. This invention consists in a novel _ 1 mode of constructing shutters for clos- xg ii [ ~' ing windows and other openings, and consists in forming the shutters of thin plates of metal, strengthened at each end, and made to slide in vertical grooves at each side of the window or opening, and are successively depo- sited side by side in a box or chamber provided for their reception. Fig. I, is a transverse section of a window showing the application of this im- provement; Fig. 2, is an end view of some of the plates, drawn on a large scale ; Fig. 3, is a front view of the shutters, shosving the method of rais- ing tliem : a, a, a, are tliin plates of metal, strengthened by means of trans- verse pieces of metal, a' a' at each end i all of which are similar, with Ihe ex- ception of the lower one, which has a piece of metal, b, attached to its lower edge, having a female screw at each end, through which the screws, c c, pass. In Fig. 2, e is a portion of the grove, within which the ends of the plates slide, and //, the box or cham- ber for receiving such plates, which are so formed at their edges, or that part which forms the coupling, that as they are raised in the groove e, they will successively be disengaged, and each succeeding shutter will force the preceding one into the chamber /. It w ill be clearly seen, that on giving motion in one direclion to the screws c c, Fig. 3. a a j \' a g ri ^ 1 a 1 L. 1 M which is effected by means of a winch or handle, g, seen in Fig 1, which im- parls motion by means of a bevel wheel to the horizontal shaft, It, that the metal plates or shutters, a a, will be raised in the groove, and the same will be disengaged successively until the whole, with the exception of the lower one, are deposited iii the chamber ; antl on reversing the motion of the handle, IIS THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Maroh, the plates will be lowered, and in their descent will successively catch hold and successively draw each other down, and thereby form a plain metallic surface with lop joints. The patentee claims the mode of constructing and combining shutters in such manner, that they are successively caused to move into and out of the same grooves. CHAIN CABLE. James Brown, of High Street, Stepney, Middlesex, Engineer, for " Im- piovements in tackle and apparatus for loorking and nsing chain cables in ships, and otherwise, and also certain improvements in tillers or rudders of ships and other v<-ss«/s."— Granted August 16, 1843 ; enrolled February 16, 1844. The first part of these improvements relates to a mode or modes of letting out, stopp ng, and raising chain cables; and secondly, to an improved steering apparatus. One of the improvements in the controller first described, of which Fig. 1, is a side elevation, and Fig. 2, a plan, is tliat the "shoe Fig. 1. Fig. 3. seat" or base of the frame is more deeply imbedded in the wood than is usual, and the anti-friction rollers hereafter described instead of working in fixed steps or jiiurnals in the ordinary manner, are dioppeJ lonsely in their bearings, a n, Figures and 2, is the framing ; 6,ashaft,supportedateach end (I ^ d'-^-ij /;=^ wheels and two sets of levers, this view only showing one half the machine, the section being taken through the centre. Between the ratchet wheels there is an indented wheel k, such indentures being made to receive each al- Fig. 2. Fig. 5. by the frame sides ; c, is a leaf, having a slot or opening, as will be seen by the plan, and is attached to the shaft b : to the end of this shaft is also fixed a winch or handle, d, the object of which is to move or alter the position of the leaf when required ; e, is a bent lever, moving upon its axis,/; this lever is connected by means of a handle, g, to a corresponding lever on the oppo- site side of the frame ; i, is an iron roller, supported at each end by the levers e, and moving in a curvilinear .slot A- ; it will be clearly seen, ihat when heaving the chain cable, the same will be allowed to pass freely in the di- rection of the arrow, in consequence of the leaf moving freely upon its axis, but it cannot return, on account of the end of the leaf coming against the iron roller i, which is shown in its elevated position, but on depressing the end of the level, the roller will be moved in the slot and away from the end of the leaf, and the cable will be at liberty to run off; 1 1, are two anli-fric- tiou rollers, which are dropped loosely in their bearings or journals. Another modification of the above, consists in moving the iron roller by means of an eccentric. There are several other method.s described for slop- ping and relarding chain cables, amongst which is the following, which is termed a box stopper, and is placed just over the chain funnel : a a. Fig. 3, is the frame firmly fixed to the deck timbers, and covered with a loose lid b ; c, is a lever or nipiier, attached at one end by a pin joint to the projection d; through the other end of this lever is passed a pin, which moves in the slot of the lever e ; this lever is also attached in like manner to the projection/. The cable passes betHeen the lever or nipper c, and the dead nipper g ; thus by elevating the lever e, the pin of the nipper c, will be moved in the slot, and the same will be raised and the cable set at liberty, but on depressing the lever e, the nipper will retain the cable by one of the links, as sho«n. Another modification of this is shown, as being applied to the underside of the deck, which is termed an under deck controller. Fig. 4, is a sectional elevation of an apparalus for heaving the cable ; a a, shows a portion of the frame side ; b, a plate boiled thereon, which carries one end of an horizontal shaft c; upon this shaft is firmly fixed the working lever d, and also an arm e, to the extremities of which are attached one end of the connecting links //, the other ends being attached to the levers^.?, which levers work loosely upon the main axis h ; i i, are two palls afhxed to the levers g g, and taking into the ratchet wheel : it should be observed that there are two ratchet Fig. 4. temate link ; the intermediate links of the chain pass into a groove : J, is a lever moving upon an axis n; to this lever is attached one end of cross bar o, which takes into the teeth of the ratchet wheels ; p, is a friction band for retarding the motion of the barrel when letting out the cable. It will be clearly seen by the above, that on moving the ends of the lever up and down that a continuous rotary motion will be given to the barrel, and the chain will be hove in ; when it is required to let out the chain it will be necessary in the first place to release the palls / i, after which the cross bar o, is released from the wheel by raising the lever /, which gives full liberty to the barrel. Another improvement consists in constructing an improved link, which is iniended to supersede the common ishackle or snivel. Fig. 5, shows a front and edge view of one of these improved links, which are constructed in two halves or parts, each part having an opening, so that when put together, (which is effected by means of pins passing through holes in the link,) the openings are on opposite sides, and form one continuous link, which is said in the specification to have "all the strength of one continuous so/irf ring."' We think if the patentee had said links or shackels, constructed as above, were something less than half the strength of a solid ring, he would have been nearer the truth, since the strength of the link is, by such opening, reduced to one half, minus the area of metal removed by drilling the holes for the reception of the pins. It will be seen that when it is required to disconnect the chains it will only be necessary to remove the pins and turn one of the parts half round, so that the two openings come together. There are other modifications of the above, which consist of hooks, the openings of which are closed by a piece of metal, so connected to the hook or hooks as to be easily removed. The second part of the invention relates to a steering apparatus, and con- sists in the application of an additional pair of blocks, which are said in the specification to be attached by chains to the outer ends of the axis of the wheel, but in ihe drawings are shown as being attached to the end of the tiller, which is undoubtedly the proper place, the effect of which is said to cause the tiller rope to be always kept perfectly " taught'' tight on the lee siilc. The specification sets forth twelve claims, which may l)e summed up in the general arrangement and combination of the parts described. CORKING OF BOTTLES. William Fletcher, of Morion House, Buckingham, clerk, for "Securing corks in the mouths of bottles."— GtanUd Aug. 24, 1843; enrolled Feb. 24, 1844. This invention relates to a mode of securing or fi.xing corks into the necks of bottles containing soda water and other aerated liquors, the mode of effecting which is as follows. Through the neck of the bottle and just below the rim there are two small holes in a ri^ht line with each other. These holes are intended to receive a metallic pin pointed at one end and turned round at the other, so as to form a ring suitable for withdrawing the pin when it is required to draw the cork of the bottle. When stopping or corking bottles containing aerated liquors, the cork is forced into the neck of the bottle in the ordinary manner ; but in place of securing such cork by means of cord or wire passing round the neck of the bottle and over the cork, it is only necessary to insert the point of the pin into the sm.all hole formed in the bottle neck, and force the same through the cork and through the hole in the opposite side of the neck, which will have the effect of hold- ing the pork very securely in the neck of the bottle. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 113 STEAM ENGINE, BOILER AND PROPELLER. Peter Borrie, of Princes Square, St. George's in the Kast, Middlesex, engineer, and Mayer IHenry, of Crutched Friars, in the City of London, merchant, for "Improvements in steam engines, boilers, and propeUing ma- c/iiwen/."— Granted Aug. 3, 18« ; enrolled Feb. 3, 1844. The first improvement is for a rotary engine, and consists of a cylindrical case, within which revolves a cylinder having four longitudinal openings or recesses in its periphery, into which are fixed four sliding pistons, each oppo- site piston being connected together and acted on by springs. This cylinder is eccentric with the case, and turns upon its axis, which passes through the ends of the case and also through stuffing bo.xes. Steam is admitted at one side and near tlie upper part of the case, the force of which acting upon one of the pistons causes the Interior cylinder to revolve, the steam escaping as the piston upon which it impinged passes the eduction port, which is on the opposite side, and in this manner the pistons are alternately acted upon, and rotary motion is obtained. This engine differs from one for which a patent was granted June 7th, 1S42, to Mr. John Woodcock, of Manchester, in this particular, that Mr. Borrie employs a double acting air-pump, which is worked from a crank fixed atone end of the main axis, and which may probably have some claim to novelty. Fig. 1, shows a section of this air-pump, which is open at both ends ; a a, we will suppose to be the induction passages leading from the condenser, and each being provided with a valve opening inward ; bb, are the eduction ways and which are also provided with valviis opening outward ; it will be clearly seen that the motion of the piston within the pump barrel e, will be double acting. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. \v v; \ 1 ' \ — 1 ^-1 c i^ 3_ :w Fig. 3. The patentee does not claim the application of this air-pump to the rotary engine as above described in particular, as the engine may be worked as a high pressure engine. The second improvement consists in the arrangement cf two viljratory cylinders, inclined at an angle of about 45 degrees ; three pistons of both cylinders are connected to one crank pin, from which pin is worked a double acting air-pump. The third improvement relates to tubular 1 jilers ; these boilers are constructed with a water space all around the fire he flame and heated vapours of which instead of passing from the fire box immediately through the tubes, pass underneath the tubes to the farther end of the boiler, and from thence through the tubes and to the chimney, (which is now generally done by most engineers with marine boilers.) The fourth improvement relates to a mode of disconnecting padjle wheels. And lastly to a stern propeller, of which we have given a side and end view ; d. Fig. 2 &3 is a shaft p:\ssing through the slern of the vessel ; eee, are three plates fixed on the end of the shaft, each of which are broader at the outer end, and are of a curvilinear or spiral form with regard to the a.xis. The patentees claim the general arrangement and combinalioa of the several improvements described and set forth in the specification. STEAM ENGINES AND BOILERS. George Bennetts, of Gunnis Lake, Cornwall, civil engineer, for "Improve- ments in steam engines and boilers and in generating steam." — Granted August 15, 1843; enrolled February 15, 1844. This invention relates to the construction and arrangement of certain ap- paratus in connexion with the engine and its boiler, for the purpose of ren- dering the steam which has been employed in working the engine, and is in its passage to the condenser or into the atmosphere available for heating the water, from which the steam is to be generated. And also in generating steam by injecting water in small jets into generators, which are maintained at such a temperature as to convert the water into steam on its coming into contact with the surface of the generator, whereby the cost and size of the boilers is reduced, and a saving of fuel eS'ected. Fig. 1, is a vertical section of parts of a condensing steam engine ; a, is the cylinder with its piston rod, &c. ; i, the eduction pipe ; c c, the air-pump and condenser, all of which are well known ; e e e, represents a vessel formed of three cylindrical pieces, bolted together at the flanches ; at each of the places where these pieces join there is an internal projection, which is of such area as to allow only a thin sheet of water to pass at each stroke of the pump between these pro- jections and the outside of the eduction pipe, which pipe passes through the vessel, and at the ends of the vessel where the pipe protrudes a steam tight joint is formed. This vessel should be capable of containing as much water as the engine will require to supply it with steam for eight or ten minutes ; g, is a double acting forcing pump, connected at its eduction passage by means of the pipe h, to the vessel eee, and at its induction passage by means of the pipe/, with the discharge cistern d ; i, is a pipe leading from the vessel e e e, to the generators or boilers ; k, is a valve, which the patentee places in pumping engines in the position shown in the drawing. This valve should be kept open during the time the engine is in motion, so as to offer no re- sistance to the steam in passing from the cylinder ; but when the engine is at rest this valve should be closed, and the steam in the cylinder allowed to pass into the eduction pipe, where it will give out its heat to the water in the vessel eee. This valve may alternately be opened and shut by any conve- nient means. The mode of action of this part of the invention is as follows. If the vessel e e c, is filled with water, and the pumpg-, set in motion, the water which it forces into the vessel at It, will force an equal quantity of water out of the vessel through the pipe i, into the generators or boilers, and the water thus forced into the vessel at h, will c'rculate through it for 8 or 10 minutes, until arriving at i, it is forced onwards into the generators or boilers, and during the time it has remained in the vessel e, will have taken up as much heat as the steam is capable of communicating, and the water entering at the part of the vessel next the condenser, is forced into a hotter position at each stroke of the pump, whilst the area of the vessel at four and five being contracted so as to allow only sufficient room for the water forced in by the pump to pass freely, prevents the water that has already passed these places from returning. By these means the steam which has been employed to work the engine will be available for raising the tempe- rature of the water which is supplied to the boiler ; and a partial condensa- tion of steam may also be effected whereby jless water than otherwise is required for condensing the steam in the condenser, and a smaller discharge pump than otherwise necessary will effectually free the engine from water and air, thus having a greater available power in the engine, at the same time economising fuel. Mr. Bennetts for this part of the invention claims the mode of using steam after it has performed its work, for the purpose of heating water when applied according to the means herein described. The second part of this invention consists in a mode of generating steam by injecting the water upon the surface of metals raised to such a temperature as to convert such water immediately into steam. Fig. 2, is an end elevation, showing the arrangement of the generators, which will be sufficient to give an idea of this invention; A, is the furnace, from which there is a flue leading underneath the three generators marked /) b b, and which are shown in the side elevations, (in the draw- ings of the specification,) as being about three times as long as from front to back of the fire place ; the flue after arriving at the further end of the generators, turns upwards and joins the flue C, formed by the arrangement of generators, along which the gases and other vapours pass until they arrive at the end immediately over the front of 10 Fig. 2. 114 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECPS JOURNAL. [March, the fire, whence they diverge and join the flue D D, whereby the gases are conducted outside the arrangement of generators, until they arrive at the further end, at which place the flue joins the chimney ; b h b, c c, q, are the steam generators made of metal, sufficiently strong for the purpose ; these generators are connected at both ends by pipes so as to form one continuous vessel ; ///. are three pipes, which extend as far into the interior of the generators b b h, as the further end of the fire place, these pipes are perfo- rated throughout their length with a number of small holes, and are con- nected to a horizontal pipe (not shown in the drawing) which passes in front of the aforesaid pipes///, and extends to the water heating vessel e ee. Fig. 1, to which it is connected ; g-, is a pipe through whicli the steam is conveyed from the generators to the engine and to a safety valve. The action of this apparatus is as follows. If the vessel e e e, Fig. 1, is filled with water, and the pumpg', set in motion, the water which it forces into the vessel at h, will force an equal quantity of water out of the vessel through the pipe i, into the generators or boilers, and the water thus forced into the vessel at h, will circulate through it for 8 or 10 minutes, until ar- riving at i, it is forced onwards into the generators, and during the time it has remained in the vessel e e e, will have taken up as much heat as the steam is capable of communicating, and the water entering the generators through the perforated pipes fff, will come in contact with the heated sur- faces of the generators, and be thereby converted into steam, from whence it proceeds through the whole arrangement of generators to the engine. The water forced into the generators at each stroke of the pump only bears suf- ficient to supply the engine with one stroke of steam. The fire can be regu- lated by any of the well known means, care being taken not to overheat the generators, which ought never to be brought to a temperature approaching a red heat. FURNITURE CASTORS. John Charlton, of Birmingham, factor, for "Improvements in castors for /iraj"(are."— Granted August 17, 1843 ; enrolled February 17, 1844. The specification, which consists of eleven skins of parchment, describes about 21 different kinds of castors for furniture, one of which consists of a cast iron socket, which may be subjected to the process of annealing, for the purpose of converting it into malleable iron, this socket is intended to receive the end of the table leg or other piece of furniture to which the castor is to be attached. Another cup or socket of brass is made to fit the external part of the iron one, so as to work loosely thereon ; this latter cup is cast with two ears or projections, which support the roller in the ordinary manner, the two sockets being held together by a screw passing through the the bottom of the brass socket and screwing into the bottom of the iron one, the head of the screw being made sufficiently large to prevent the brass or external socket dropping from the iron one when the piece of furniture to which the castor is affixed is raised from the floor. There are several other modifications of ihis description of castor, among which there is one having its socket made m the form of half an egg. Another class or description of castor consists of a steel or iron spindle, made of a conical form at one end, which part is made to fit a conical recess formed in the underside of the socket, a hole being bored in the end of the table leg to receive such part. This spindle, which is shown in the drawing as being made in six or eight different forms, and applied to as many castors, has a collar or enlarged part in the middle, which is made to fit into a recess somewhat larger than the collar, and formed by a loose piece of metal, the edge of which is firmly fixed and held by a projecting piece on the bottom edge of the socket, the object of which is to prevent the spindle dropping out of the conical recess when the castor is lifted from the floor ; and, to the lower part of the spindle is firmly rivetted the ears or projections which carry the roller. By this ar- rangement the weight of the piece of furniture is supported by the conical part of the spindle bearing against the socket, and that part just below the collar or enlarged part, which part fits in a hole (in the form of a bearing) bored in the centre and through the loose piece of metal, which holds the conical recess. HYDRAULIC ENGINE. Frederick Lipscomb, of Gloucester Place, Kentish Town, gentleman, for " A hydrostatic cvginc, parts tvltcrcof are applicable to other engines and other purposes, and also improvements in railway carriages,^^ — Granted Aug. 17, 1843 ; enrolled Feb. 17, 1844. The patentee having ascertained that the re-action produced by pressure upon a liquid is caused by the compression of the globules of .lir suspended in the liquid, which globules, by being compressed, have their elasticity in- creased in an equal ratio to their compression ; and that re-action would not be produced in a liquid divested of air, constructs an engine which he deno- minates a hydrostatic engine. It would only be a waste of time and room to give a descriptive account of this apjiaratus, and we will only remark, that if the patentee had paid a little more attention to the pressure of fluids he would not have speculated to such an extent in an engine he will eventually find incapable of moving a stroke. That part of the invention which relates to a break -for retarding or stopping a train of railway carriages, consists in applying hydraulic pressure upon a liquid confined in a tube supported by guides at the end of the railway car- riage; the pressure on the fluid has the effect of driving by means of a piston and intermediate gearing, the blocks or breaks against the wheels. The next improvement consists in fixing a thin board or other material on each side of these wheels, wdiich are wholly composed of metal, and used in the construction of railway carriages, the '"sheet of wood" or other material being in size, or nearly so, to the space between the inside of the tire and the inside of the nave of the wheel, the unoccupied space between such " sheets" being filled with straw, tar, lashing, or other imperfect conductor of sound, for which the inventor claims the practical application of any of the imper- fect conductors of sound in contact with such railway carriage wheels as are usually composed of metal, for the purpose of lessening the vibration of the wheel, thereby lessening the noise consequent upon vibration. CLOTH FOR UNING WALLS. John Coilaed Drake, of Elm-tree Road, St. John's Wood, Middlesex, Land Surveyor, for " Improvements in lining walls of liousis." — Granted Au- gust 22, 1843 -, enrolled February 22, 1844. This invention relates to a mode of lining walls of houses with a water- proof cloth, whereby they are rendered impervious to damp ; for this pur- pose, the patentee prefers calico, on account of its cheapness : such fabric is to be coated on one side with a solution of india rubber, the process for making which is well known, and applied in the manner following. A number of strips of calico or other fabric, from three to lour inches wide, are covered on both sides with india rubber cement or solution ; these strips are affixed to the sides of the wall, by means of such cement, in parallel ver- tical lines, and at such distances apart, as to receive the edges of the pieces of fabric with which it is intended to line the walls. These pieces, which as above stated, are only covered with the solution on one side, are cemented to the strips already put up, with such cemented side to or next the wall, so that the plain side of the fabrics is free to receive a coat of paint; or the same may be papered in the ordinary manner. In constructing the walls of houses in the first instance, " stilos " or pieces of timber are inserted at convenient distances, and also transverse or cross pieces may be inserted, the space between being filled up with stucco or cement level with the face of the pieces of timlier inserted, and to these pieces are affixed the strips of calico or other fabric, as before described. For the purpose of covering the wall according to this invention, the patentee makes use of a frame, for stretching the pieces of cloth before applying them to the walls ; it consists of two bars of wood or wood and iron, or other metal, capable of being elongated by means of a screw, which connects them together ; to the ends of each of these bars there is a cross piece, having a number of pins fixed in it ; the ends of the cloth or other fabric are pricked or forced on to the pins, and the bar elongated by means of the screw, which causes the piece of fabric to be stretched previously to being cemented to the wall, in the manner hereinbefore described. The patentee claims the mode of lining the walls of houses, by the application of calico or other fabric coated at the back with a solution of india rubber. BOTTLE STOPPERS. Alexander Spears, of Glasgow, merchant, for "Improvements on or apper- taining to glass bottles proper for wine and other liquids.^* — Granted Sep. 6, 1843 ; enrolled March 6, 1844. This invention relates to a mode of stopping bottles containing wine or other liquid, and consists in making a screw plug or stopper of glass or earthenware, as may be required, to fit the neck of the bottle, and is effected as follows. The inside of the bottle neck is made with a female screw, into which is made to fit a screw plug or stopper, having an enlarged part or head equal in diameter to the external neck of the bottle, the head of the stopper being slightly hollowed underneath, and made to fit nicely upon the face or end of the bottle neck, which is about one-fourteenth of an inch in thickness. In bottling wine or other liquid it will be necessary to apply a little soft wax either to the end of the bottle or to the underside of the stnpper, for the pur- pose of excluding the air, after which a strip of tin foil may be wrapped round the neck of the bottle and head of the stopper. The specification describes certain arrangements of machinery for forming the screws within the neck of the bottle and also upon the stopper. The patentee claims the use of screw stoppers either of glass or earthenware with 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 115 glass bottles, having corresponding screws in the neclis thereof, and also the use of softened wax or india-rubber, which may be applied either in a semi- fifuid state or in the form of a washer between the surface of the stopper and the top of the bottle ; he also claims the arrangement of machinery for forming the necks of bottles and upon stoppers as described. AN IMPROVED LAMP. Pierre Pei.letan. of Fitzroy Square, Middlesex, for " hnprovmenfs in the production of light."— GranleA September 6, 1843; enrolled March 6, 1844. This invention has reference to a 'patent granted to Mr. Pelletan on the 2nd of May last, for improvements in the production of light, in which spe- cification was explained the mode of producing light from volatile substances, and applied to a manner of mixing the spirit of turpentine or other less combustible matter with water, which were mixed in a generator in the pro- portion of from 4 to 10 of water to 1 of turpentine. The present specification states that the above mixture will boil in a gene- rator under atmospheric pressure at 212, (turpentine boiling at 272,) at which temperature (212) steam will be generated from the water, and will carry off with it, in passing through the turpentine, a portion of that spirit, so that the vapour which is allowed to pass through a burner is a mixture of of turpentine and water, and will burn with a bright white flame, tut on at- tempting to increase its length will emit a large quantity of smoke, to ob- viate which the patentee employs a burner of peculiar construction, which forms the subject of this patent, and consists of a tube through which the steam passes to the burner; this tube has four openings at the bottom for admitting common air to be mixed with the steam ; these openings can be regulated by a screw slide : the upper part of this tube is enlarged, and forms an annular space, into which the steam after passing through a per- forated plate enters ; it also passes through another perforated plate before leaving the burner : a current of air is admitted through four short tubes which pass in a horizontal direction through the annular space, or that part forming the burner, for the purpose of supplying the centre or middle of the flame with air, by which means a flame may be obtained as white and voluminous as may be required. ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF VOLCANIC ACTION. Volcanic action is the co-operative cause of numerous changes in the local disposition of the earth's surface, and in the character and quali- ties exposed to its influence ; atfecting not only those matters exposed to the direct action of heat, but also the surrounding strata. It is the minister of change, of production, and re-production: and while it insatiably devours entire beds of the earth, and amalgamates their organic and inorganic bodies as one grand result, thus obliterating for ever their former character and qualities; it gives liberty to their gaseous products, creates new and important compounds, causing matter to enter into new combinations; which, from their peculiar character and qualities, remain for after ages the unerring indicators of the magnitude and extent of its destructive powers : but, in the multiplicity of the phenomena, we must not forget, that there are limits to its extent, and that while so far as by awaking electrical action in bodies exposed to its influence, and thereby generating numerous beautiful results, it is still the humble and ineffectual imitation of that greater power, the sun, whose universal and continuous operations give birth to the most stupendous as well as the most beautiful of natural products. Geologists, awed by the terrors of volcanic action and by the wide-spreading havoc it occasions, have in uurneious in- stances been led to attribute to it powers of creation and disposition of matter, which it does not possess; and some of them go so far as to attribute to it tlie entire formations of the superticial crust of the earth, such as we now behold it, the material of every crystalline rock having, as they suppose, been elaborated within the interior, from whence it has issued in the exquisite beauty and peculiar order in which we now behold it: overlooking the simple fact that it is in the nature of volcanic action to destroy rock, which once destroyed, can never be reproduced in its primary state, its elementary constituents in decomposition and re-combination with bodies of other nature, giving results widely different from the body to which they previ- ously belonged. We cannot shut our eyes to the almost endless di- versity in the character and composition of crystalline rocks, their gradual transition into each other, the organic constitution of many of them, as proved by the configuration of their parts, as well as by their bituminous and other peculiar organic properties: nor can we doubt the evidence of our senses, when we witness in tropical regions both within and above the waters, the gradual consolidation into the crystalline body of calcarious and earthy matters uninfluenced by volcanic action and its attendant phenomena. The high lands of South America are analogous to the low lands of the North, and exhibit the deserted bed of a primitive ocean ; they are extensive steppes, bare and desolate, save a few saline plants; muriate of soda being comman to all of them, and also entering into combination with, and giving character to many mineral products. Enormous masses of white marble abound on the elevated savannahs of Cuba, which are principally composed of raadripores, ocean marls, and the coverings of molluscous animals. Coal is found on the Pe- ruvian heights, and the cinders ejected from some of the volcanoes evidence that abundance of this mineral exists within the lower beds: the sulphates are common in all these elevated regions, the high and dry climate is also extremely favourable for the development of electro-chemical action, as the abundance of inflammable products is favourable for the sustenance of internal fires. The phenomena of the volcanoes in that portion of the globe vary in their nature, in conformity to the vast range through which the in- ternal heat traverses, and also to the nature of the material : water, it is evident, being the grand essential necessary to produce intensity of ac- tion: this is sometimes abstracted from the neighbouring, or from subter- ranean lakes, and at other times it is supplied from the melting snows : sometimes it is abstracted from the neighbouring sea. The Jurago, being a small hill in 1760, in that year, on the 29th of September, it began to burn with furious explosions, ruining entirely the sugar works, and the neiglibouring village of Guacana, and from that time continued to emit fire and burning rocks in such quantities, that the erupted matters, in six years, had formed themselves into three high mountains, nearly three miles in circumference. During the time of the first explosion, the ashes were carried as far as the city of Quere- taro, 150 miles distant from the volcano; and at Valladolid, distant 60 miles from it, they were so abundant that the people were obliged to sweep their yards three or four times a day. In this exuded material we identify the well known madrepore limestone, and various kinds of felspathic rock. Humboldt, who probably never saw the historical record of this event, tells us, "that from his own observations, as well as from the testimony of those who were actual eye witnesses of the event, that a large tract of ground, from three to four square miles in extent was up-heaved, in a convex form, to the height of 550 feet, and that from the midst of this protuberance arose six conical hills, the least of them 300 feet in height, and the loftiest, Jorulla, elevated 1,600 feet above the level of the plain." To the shame of geology, this, and a silly woman's (Mrs. Maria Graham's) report of the eleva- tion of the whole line of coast of Chili, for the extent of 100 miles by an earthquake, have been made the bases of systems of elevation, as incompatible with the operations of nature, as they are in violation of common sense. In support of this uplifting theory, Mr. Phillips ob- serves, "Those who admit the uplifting of a whole island at once from the bed of the ocean (and who that is conversant wiih volcanic phenomena can question that such events have occurred) need feel no difiiculty in admitting the testimony of the Indians, or the opinions of Humboldt, with respect to the fact of a mountain like Jorulla having been uplifted from the interior of the earth." This is the argument ad absurdum ; for if the latter admission be made, the like admission may be required for elevating continents. Again, Humboldt damages the value of his statement, by adding that the whole mountain was composed of trachyte, as well as by several other similar sweeping assertions. The islands of Santarino and Sciacea were raised piece- meal by a succession of continuous and violent explosions, and many volcanic cones have been elevated in like manner. Admitting, as geologists express it, the whole country of Quito is one volcanic hearth, still we find, that in all eruptions the ejected material is such as is palpably manifest tlie well-known constituents of the superficial beds of tlie earth. Combustion proceeding slowly through the beds formed during the eocene period, is at length awakened into action by the sudden intrusion of waters, the natural consequences follow, the generated steam and expanding gases rend the upper beds asunder, and deep-seated earthquakes extend to the distance of some hundred miles; the ejected material being the com- mon minerals of the soil, sulphureous gases, sulphur, mud, and water, but very seldom lava; the torrents of water are generally supplied from the melted snows capping the heights of the crater. Cotopax became a volcano about the time the Spaniards arrived in Peru; an eruption occurred in 1743, which had been for some days preceded by a continual interior rumbling noise. The ignited substances that were ejected being mingled with considerable quantities of snow, which melted amidst the flames, were carried down with such rapidity that the plain from Callao to Latacunga was overflowed, and all the houses, with their wretched inhabitants, were swept away in the general and instantaneous destruction. The river Latacunga was the 10* 116 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March* receptacle of this dreadful flood, till becoming swollen above its banks the torrent rollel over the adjacent country sweeping away houses and cattle : the eruption continued for several days longer, accom- panied with terrible roarings of the wind rushing through the craters that had been opened. In May, 1744, the flames forced a passage through several other parts of the sides of the mountain, so that in clear nights, being reflected by the transparent ice, it exhibited a grand illumination. Mud is also ejected from some of the volcanoes of South America, and other portions of the globe, enormous beds of which after long exposure to the atmosphere become solidified as basalt; this is the distinguishing feature of the volcanoes of Java, which rarely emit lava. Vesuvius has also been known to emit torrents of mud ; and, in 1755, Etna vomited forth immense quantities of salt water, with abundance of marine shells. " The volcano in the island of Tanna," says Pallas, "ejects a soft clay, of a bluish ash colour, which seems to be torn from the beds directly over the reser- voir from whence the explosion proceeds : the volcanoes Skaptaa and Skaptaa Seyssel, discharge vast rivers of a muddy consistency, prin- cipally of the nature termed alluvial; and it is said that these streams in 17S3 covered a space of more than ],200 square miles; the lavas of Madeira and the Cape de Verd Islands are little other than mud, the scoriEe, ashes, tufa, &c., being such as to denote the nature of the inner beds from whence they were ejected. The island of Madeira consists of vast beds of commingled terrestrial and oceanic matters, of limestone rising from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the level of the sea, and abounding with coral and marine shells. Where the internal fire exists among the older formations or mineral beds, the matters ejected are of analogous nature, being metallic scoricE, fragments of crystal- line rocks, &c. The volcanoes of Java, Sumatra, Sulpher Island, in the Loo Choo Archipelago, the Red Sea, Teneriffe, Vesuvius, and nearly all the great volcanoes of the earth, emit vast quantities of sulphur. During one eruption of Etna vast clouds of black sand or powder were ejected, which covered a space of fifteen square miles twelve feet thick. Lava, or streams of melted material, are occa- sionally ejected from the majority of the volcanoes of the earth during eruptions: this material is infinitely diversified in its nature, in con- formity to the beds from whence it was abstracted ; it is sometimes composed of the constituents of vegetable earths or aluminous clays, at other times it consists of lime, lime and magnesia, lime and soda, soda, lime, silica, and iron, in fact, it exhibits every possible variety, and every possible consistence, from a thin watery fluid to a ponderous molten mass, from the simplicity of chalk to the unity of compounds, which distinguish the crystalline rocks ; the lava of no two volcanoes being alike. Even in the lava issued from the same volcanoes there is a marked difl^erence. Thus Von Buch distinguishes on Vesu- vius alone eighteen diflTerent kinds, and the old and new lavas of Etna are readily distinguished by their marked diflTerence from each other. Lava is, in fact, the melted material of the inner beds, the chief con- stituents of which are silex, lime, chloride of sodium, alumine, and potass, which are well known substances belonging to the fossil and mineral kingdoms. Dr. Kennedy's analysis of lava from Etna is given as silica 52, alumine 19, lime lU, oxide of iron 15, soda, the consti- tuents of oceanic soil, unmixed with aluminaries. The permanently elastic fluids given out of volcanoes are muriatic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphureous acid, aud carbonic acid, the latter being chiefly given out from extinct volcanoes; all these substances are well known constituents of fossil soils, being exceedmgly abundant both in their combined and their uncombined state : petroleum is also given out from some volcanoes in its unchanged state : in the Dead Sea this material is in its natural mineral state, being composed of animal matters, salts, and sulphur. "The sulphur," says Mr. Phillips, "is derived from the mutual decomposition of sulphureous and sulphuret- ted hydrogen, but this material is primarily derived fjom the decom- position of organic matter." Ammonia is evolved in abundance from many volcanoes, being a constituent of animal bodies, and a known constituent of almost all rocks. The conditions of preservation of organic bodies are total exclusion from atmospheric and aqueous influence, but no sooner do they be- come exposed to the one or the other than change is the inevitable consequence, and as all change generates heat, so in changing masses the heat must not only in many cases be intense, but extensively ma- nifest. The first effect of the waters upon these fossil beds, in which are combined all the elements of combustion, will be manifest in the earths and alkalis, which greedily abstracting the oxygen and the hydrogen thus set free by the decomposition of the water, will unite ■with the sulphur : again, in the decomposition of bodies thus chemically acted upon, much nitrogen gas is evolved, this being one of the chief constituents of animalized beds; and if muriate of soda be present, which it generally is, muriatic acid gas will also be given oft'; if the nitrogen unites in portions with hydrogen, ammonia is formed, and this gas is also evolved from the heated masses, as being one of their primary constituents: hydrogen and sulphur combining, form sulphu- retted hydrogen gas, and if not recombined it evolves through the strata into the atmosphere. The surface beds exposed to atmospheric influences soon oxygenize, but the fossils beneath the soil retain their primary conditions, or continue in a changing state, combining and re-combining for indefi- nite periods of time, with no other quantity of oxygen present than belongs to their primary condition, which is always insufficient to effect those permanent alterations necessary to efliect the transition of metalloyds into the state of perfect metals. When we consider the nature of a fossil bed, we can readily conceive the intensity of action consequent on the accidental intrusion of water upon it. It abounds with silica, magnesium, calcium, and sodium, both of which latter alkalis are highly inflammable : sulphur is constantly generating within it, and if muriate of soda, as is the case in censiderable quan- tities, the animal matter is partly converted into bitumen ; under all circumstances it is a wonderful supporter of combustion, and if the carbonate unites with the soda, this compound acts as a flux with silica, and the accidental admission of water kindles the silica, which then burns with great intensity : again, the action of water upon potassium when this alkaline earth is present in the fossil bed, is suf- ficient to support combustion. _ Against this theory of generated heat of combustion, it is urged that air as well as water must be present to support combustion, and in order to meet this dithculty. Sir Humphrey Davy was compelled to adopt the vague hypothesis, that the interior of the earth is cavernous, and that these caverns were natural reservoirs for the at- mospheric currents supplied by apertures disposed as the surface of the earth. In all fossil and even in mineral beds vast quantities of azote exist in the latent strata, and when the heat is generated by electro-chemical excitement and increases to the heat of combustion, the electro-chemical disturbance continues to increase with the in- crease of heat. The accident of association, as for instance, the in- troduction of one of the inflammable gases produces atomic excite- ment in the chaotic mass, gaseous evolution of other gases, decompo- sition and re-combination of bodies with bodies, all of which in their expanded volume generate action and re-action accompanied by evo- lution of heat: it is a well-known law of chemistry, that every com- pound elastic fluid, and every consolidated body combines with its molecular particles a certain degree of heat pecular to itself, being capable of receiving an additional quantity of heat, without altera- tion of its physical condition; and, as Dr. Black expresses it, when- ever a body changes its state, it cither combines with caloric or se- parates from caloric; these phenomena are manifest in fossil beds, extensively excited compounds united by slight aftinity are immedi- ately separated, the gaseous products exchange place, disposition, and association, act and re-act upon the several bodies among which they are disposed, or with which they are brought in contact ; and in the general decomposition which ensues the azote of the fixed air is extricated, contributes to assist and maintain silent combustion. We cannot conceive any locality wholly free from fixed air, it is a compo- nent of all the most ponderable rocks, it is disposed in bodies com- posing the earth, and it is one of the chief constituents of animal matter; we have, therefore, good grounds for believing that during the heat of combustion, azote in sufficient quantities is extricated from the strataacted upon to support,maintain,and when other causes are favour- able, to extend that combustion. On the other hand, after eruptions have taken place, and the open crater is formed, a large and continuous supply of air is drawn in by this funnel: communications with the atmosphere is sometimes maintained through the medium of the funnels of extinct volcanoes: air is sometimes communicated through cavernous apertures: it is also communicated with the intruding waters which always hold a certain quantity of air in mechanical combination. "All the phenomena," says Professor Phillips, « which are concomi- tant upon volcanic action, seem to admit of explanation, if we will only suppose salt water, and afterwards air, to find admittance into cavities in the interior of the earth, whence they come in contact with the metals, and the earthy or alkaline metalloyds combined with sul- phur there existing." It cannot be denied that chlorine is an abun- dant material of the earth, even in beds the most distant from the sea, and from their elevation most assuredly not subject to the intrusion ot salt water : it is also a well known fact, that all volcanoes are disposed near the sea, and where there are exceptions to this rule, as in Central Asia, they are disposed in the vicinity of the salt lakes, the relics of a former sea, and consequently an oceanic soil: salt beds, and conse- quently saline waters, abound in all quarters of the earth, and most particularly so in fossil soils, where chlorine abounds under numerous forms and combinations, with many bodies having little affinity, and in 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL, in some beds, being manifest in its gaseous state. Again, as I have pre- viously observed, air is always present with water, and in its latent state, and consequently when combustion is generated by the intrusion of saline waters in fossil beds, in their primary condition, the alkalis being in their uncombined state, air is liberated in sufficient quantity to sustain the internal fire. It cannot for a moment be contended, that spontaneous combustion will not be elicited from mixed bodies buried within the earth, for the artificial volcano distinctly proves that all the phenomena of volcanic action may be truly imitated. The earth is deriving a large and continuous supply of oxygen and azote from the atmospliere, and the phenomena consequent thereon are variously manifest in different regions of the earth : in the vast expanse of deserts in Asia and Africa, the virgin soils greedily imbibe air as well as rains and dews, the oxygen entering into combination with the marine exuvis, the hydrogen uniting with the sulphur, and escaping to the surface as sulphuretted hydrogen. This gas, so inimical to the existence of man, is continually evolved in those parts of the desert which have become covered with rank vegetation: be- tieath the rainless regions the sulphureous gas is principally evolved : on the other hand nitrogen readily unites with the supporters of com- bustion, becomes a component of many earthy bodies, and is a proxi- mate cause of the generation of nitrates. Chlorine freely evolved unites with sulphur and phospliorus and forms an acid, and this acid is again decomposed by the uncombined alkalis, deposited as a weutral body, on or in the surface of the earth, it is the subject of incessant change, separating and recombining as local influences may determine. Chlorine and oxygen are the only gases which emit light under any circumstances : chlorine has a most powerful attraction for oxygen, decomposing water and other substances, of which hydrogen is an element, when at a red heat. If chlorine be liberated from its combinations in calcarious fossil beds, and is retained in its cavities, the phosphorous, which abounds in these beds, uniting with it, will take fire and exhibit the phenomena of spontaneous combustion ; the •heat thus produced, and communicated to the sulphur and iron, or other metals, or undecompounded alkaline earths, with water, the &eat is strengthened and increased, and must of necessity increase, so long as the causes of effects produced are in operation. In the heat thus produced, the electric matter, in its latent state, is liberated, and intense electric action is generated, which is followed by a sequence of events favourable to the development and continuous support of .combustion. Spontaneous combustion takes place under numerous combinations. In the union of ammoniacal and muriatic acid gases, much heat is evolved : mixtures of the inflammable gases with oxygen generate heat: again, heat generated in the sulphates, combustion takes place: the nitrates and chlorates in deflagration with metallic bodies, or with sulphur, phosphorus, &c., undergo a great enlargement of volume pro- ducing light and heat : nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, present similar phenomena. Sulphuric acid decomposes marble with evolution of great heat and falling on caustic lime the heat is increased. All the materials of combustion above enumerated (except charcoal) are com- mon to, and form the chief components of, virgin or fossil soils, and ibeing present are capable, under favourable circumstances, of gene- rating and supporting the heat of combustion. Hydrogen with caloric forms gas sixteen times as light as common air; insoluble in moat substances, but capable of dissolving sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, .oils, &c., and thus forming different species of inflammable gas : it decomposes several metallic oxides and acids with simple or known radicals: its continuous decomposition and re-production within a .confined medium is considered sufficient to maintain silent combustion and evolution of heat for an indefinite period of time. the spindle E. The steam has access from the boiler to the space G G, where it increases in elasticity, till pressing upon the rim H H, its Fig. 1. BOULTON, WATT & CO.',S NEW SAFETY VALVE. The above sketch represents a new arrangement of safety valve, adopted by Messrs. Boulton, Watt & Co. for tubular boilers, when re- quired to bear a load of more than 5 lb. on the square inch. The two objects kept in view in such cases, were— 1st. to diminish the size of the lead weights put upon the valve — objectionable not only on account of expense, but also of the space taken up in the valve box — witliout at the same time lessening the area for the escape of steam; and 2nd. to provide the means of taking off any part of the weight upon the valve, at any period of the vessel's passage, with the greatest facility. The first of these is effected by the application of the double beat or Cornish valve, in which the upper part A, rests upon the se.it B by the two surfaces C C, being loaded with the weights D D D, upon power overcomes the weight of the vaive, and the part A, rises from the fixed seat B, leaving two openings for the escape of the steam at the points C C. This area is much greater than in the ordinary valve, while tlie part to be loaded is only the rim H H, reducing the weights to about one sixth of those otherwise necessary; a, is a small stuffing Kg. J.l box which screws into the seat B, to prevent the passage of steam round the spindle E. The sides of the rising part A, are made con- vex, to give a greater passage for the steam when the valve is open. Fig. 3. The second object, vii., taking off one-third or two-thirds of the weight when desirable, is done by the graduated spindle E, acted upon by the rod and lever L and M, which are worked by a screw handle on the front of the boiler, raising the upper, or two upper weights, and making the load 151b., 101b., or 51b., as maybe required. If the rod L, be drawn still farther, the collar e, rises to the arms d d, and raises the valve and weights together when necessary to let the steam escape, the engines being at rest. Feb. 20, 1844. 118 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, OBITUARY. GEORGE MADDOX. We have to take some reproach to ourselves for not having before spoken of one who, if scarcely known to the public as a professional man, was an honour to his profession, and most sincerely and de- votedly attached to his art — to a degree that, perhaps, rather retarded than at all advanced his immediate interests, causing him to post- pone all other considerations to his love of art — an enthusiasm which continued unabated to the very last. The whole of his long life may be said to have been one uninter- rupted course of study, not merely in architecture, but in art generally; therefore, long as it was, it offers very little in the shape of matter-iif- fact biography, although if treated auto-bio graphically, and so as to record mental habits and their formation — feelings and opinions, the most studious and an almost recluse life, may possess a higher and even stronger interest for the few, if not for the many, than one marked by variely and adventure. The power and originality of mind were rot wanting, which would have enabled the subject of our memoir to give the world a memoir of himself, fraught both with interest and instruction — most certainly the last, if only by embodying in perma- nent form his own opinions and views of art, and thereby becoming a valuable store of criticism. As to what we are able here to say, it is so very slight and imper- fect that it does not deserve the name of "memoir" at all, since it amounts lo little more than a mere " memorandum" of the man, without even the skeleton of a biography, in regard to facts and dates. George Maddox was a native of the town of Monmouth, where he was born in 17G0, and where his father was, we believe, a builder by trade. On the expiry of the time of his apprenticeship with his father, he came up to London, where he afterwards obtained an en- gagement with Soane as his assistant. How long he actually con- tinued with him, we are unable to say, but we believe for no very great length of time; certain it is that he ultimately quitted him in disgust,— which is so far from being at all surprising, that it would have been infinitely more so, had one of such independence of mind as was Maddox, tamely brooked the tyrannical temper, and the wild and wayward caprices of the other. Though this may have been a some- what imprudent step in its consequences, there was, no doubt, enough to justify it, more especially as there is strong reason for supposing, that not temper alone, but also ungenerous conduct, on the part of Soane, caused the rupture between them ; and, whether justly or un- justly, at all events the character of the latter gives strong probability to such suspicions. He was next connected with the Pantheon, in Oxford Street, and in such a manner as to be seriously involved in the pecuniary affairs of that property. About the same time a most promising prospect that was opening itself to him, was suddenly cut off by the loss of a patron in the then Duke of Cumberland, brother to George III., whose death caused the project of building an Opera House in Leicester Square to be abandoned, just as all but the final preliminaries had been arranged. The edifice was to have been upon a scale then, and even now, unprecedented in the metropolis; Grecian Ionic in style, with a magnificent portico, whose columns would have been about sixty feet high. What became of the design for it, we are unable to say ; but it does not appear to have been preserved. The same is, unfortunately, the case with those of many buildings which he actually did execute, and which, although, being for the most part only private houses, and those upon a moderate scale, they were not of a kind to obtain general notice, have much in them highly deserving of attentive study, being most carefully studied themselves; and containing many original and valuable ideas, nor least of all so, in regard to detail. At any rate, a selection of some of them would have formed an instructive publication, as would likewise some of his original compositions for capitals, and other ornamental details in the Greek style; to which, for want of any other, the not particularly recommendatory epithet of "fancy" capitals, &c., must be applied, although they were singularly happy in idea, and true to the sentiment of Grecian prototypes, — felicitous conceptions meditated, and after- wards wrought out, core amore. Enthusiastic as was his admiration of classical architecture, more especially of Grecian, Maddox was by no means an advocate for merely copying the extant examples of it, much less for treating them in the jejune, spiritless, and mechanical manner we generally find them. He was, in fact, an artist in the most comprehensive sense of the word,— perhaps to a degree that was rather prejudicial than the contrary, to his immediate interests, since he was too much wrapt up in art, to attend to thai of making his way in the world, and pushing him-self forward as he might have done, without thereby compromising )iis integrity. Cheap and vulgar praise he scorned, and no doubt felt that few could appreciate his ideas. This last must certainly have been the case in regard to the architectural subjects, annually sent by him to the Society of British Artists. As pictures in oil, they were of all others almost the least calculated to attract notice in an exhibition room: "Portraits of cabbages," as he himself used to say, would have had a fairer chance of being looked at. And his required to be not only looked at, but carefully looked into, to detect all the varied beauties of detail, and the fresh and valuable ideas with which they abounded. In truth, they were quite out of their element in such miscellaneous exhibitions, more especially as there was nothing in their mere titles to call attention to them, and being generally of small size, and not of a kind to strike at first sight, they were apt to be overlooked, or else merely glanced at, by those who could have done justice to their merits. Besides being a very superior architectural painter in oil, Mr. Mad- dox showed great ability with his etching-needle, and some time before his death had made considerable progress with a series of etchings, about forty in number, of groups of architectural fragments and orna- ments. Unfortunately infirmity and suffering prevented his finally completing them for publication, as he intended ; yet it is to be hoped that even now they will not be entirely lost to the world, but impres- sions of tliem published from the coppers as left by himself. This, we hope, will be done, if only for the sake of his widow, who, it pains us to say, has been left almost entirely without resources, since for many years previous to his death he had no other means of subsisting than teaching pupils, and occasional employment from others in making designs and drawings; occupations precarious almost at the best, and frequently interrupted of late years by severe and protracted attacks of illness. The last of which terminated in his death, Oct, 7, 1843 in the 83rd year of his age. LmGI CANONICA Is another octogenarian whom art has lately lost, and still more recently, for he died at the beginning of the present year, some time in the month of February, at Milan, aged 82. Like his eminent contem- porary, Luigi Cagnola, whom he survived just ten years, it was the good fortune of theCavaliere Luigi Canonica to be employed on some of the more important monumtns of Milan. After the celebrated jirco delta Pace, by the former, the Arena, by the latter, is one of the modern architectural tioiii of that city, although it is not every English tourist — not even those among them who are architects also — that has condescended to bestow any notice on either, at least not beyond what the ordinary "Guide-book" supplies. That the "Arena" should have obtained so little of their attention, is indeed surprising, because it affords a good opportunity for comparison with ancient structures of the same kind. We meet, however, with some description of it, in a work entitled " Notei Abroad, Sec," which, we may remark, deals far more largely than usual in architectural criticism, and occasionally speaks out more than rather freely in regard to some of our architects here at home. " In the arena," says the writer, " Canonica has given us an imitation of an ancient amphitheatre, upon a still larger scale than any similar work of the Romans, it being an ellipsis of about 800 by 400 feet, dimensions that would give it a superiority even over the Colosseum. In other respects, however, it must be confessed that it falls very far short both of that and the edifice at Verona, for there are not more than eight rows of gradini, which do not rise above twenty feet; which want of height, together with the much greater extent of open area, causes it to assume altogether a different character, and appear little more than an inclosure surrounded by asingle/);-(eci>ie/2o of seats; whereas iu all the ancient amphitheatres the external walls are ex- ceedingly lofty, and consist of tiers of arcades. Here, on the contrary, there is only one series of semi-circular arches, disposed at a consi- derable distance from each other, with a plain square-headed doorway beneath it (each?J, and the summit is finished by a balustrade. Never- theless the whole is a work of great magnitude, and was completed within a comparatively shorttime." (It was commenced in 1805.) "The principal entrance is at one extremity through an arch, with two fluted Doric columns on each side of it, supporting an enriched entablature, and a pediment, filled with sculpture, placed against a podium, or low unbroken attic. This frontispiece rises much higher than the external wall, the impost of the arch itself being on a level with the top of the balustrade. There is also on one side, namely that adjoining the Piazza d' Armi, a raised loggia (PutvinareJ of eight Corinthian columns of red granite, containing seats for the Viceroy and his suite, with a saloon behind it, whose windows open on the piazza. This unique structure was erected by order of Buona- parte as a place of public amusement and recreation for his Milanese lieges, where they might be gratified not only by horse 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 119 380 feet 510 feet 360 feet 346 feet 320 feet and foot races, for which it is exceedingly well adapted, but also aquatic exhibitions and rowing matches, as the arena can be laid completely under water in a very short time. A festival of this last-mentioned kind was given on the occasion of the birth of the King of Rome." To this account we need merely add that, notwithstanding there are so few rows of seats, they are computed to be capable of accom- modating no fewer than 30,000 spectators. We ought to observe, however, that the dimensions stated by the writer whom we have quoted, do not pretend to accuracy, we therefore give them according to what we have found them stated to be in metres ; annexing, in order to afford readier means of comparison, those of some ancient ancient amphitheatres ; — Milan, Arena . • 780 Rome, Colosseum . . 615 Verona, Amphitheatre . 450 Pola, do. . . 436 Nismes, do. • . 400 If we have spoken somewhat at length of this work of Canonica's, we shall not do so in regard to any of his other buildings, and for a most cogent reason, having, unfortunately, no materials for descrip- tion ; and it has even now cost us no little trouble to ascertain the names of those we here enumerate. Among those erected by him at Milan are the Teatro Ri; the Teatro Carcano, and the Teatro Ftlo- drammalico ; also the Casa Canonica his own mansion, and the Palazzo Belloni. Canonica has been spoken of with high commendation by the writer of an article in the Quarterly Review, on the " Palladian Architec- ture of Italy," more especially with reference to the last-mentioned structure, "the front of which," it is there said, "is, perhaps, for its size, the most beautiful of any private building in Italy. It consists of a rustic basement story, with a balustrade, on which rests a disengaged colonnade of six fluted Ionic columns, with an unbroken entablature, and above it another balustrade with statues." We also find him mentioned as the architect of three other theatres, at Brescia, Mantua, and Parma; at least the last was designed by him, though executed by Bettoli. Canonica possessed a considerable fortune, and has made some munificent bequests, leaving by his will 174,000fr. (about£7,000) to the Primary Schools of Lombardy, and 87,000 fr. (about £3,70U) to the Milan Academy of Fine Arts, the interest of which is to be devoted annually to the education and support of some young artist — architect, sculptor, or painter. though each column is computed to carry a weight of ten tons, and a wall of the same guard-house, otherwise built, has settled a good deal. Fig. 1. Hg.2. Fig. 3. FOUNDATIONS ON SAND. The subject of foundations on sand has latterly attracted a good deal of attention here, and particularly on account of Mr. Perring's discovery that many of the buildings in Egypt were built on such foundations. At page 80 of this volume of the Journal it is said, " It seems that the stony surface of the desert had been made level by a layer of fine sand, and confined by a stone platform 14 ft. 6in. wide and 2ft. 9in. thick, which supported the external casing, and the pyramid (that of Dashhour) was built on upon the sand which is firm and solid." Other examples of the same kind were met with by Mr. Perring, and it seemed that the sand, when retained in its place could be depended upon. We have, therefore, thought it would be interest- ing, while public attention is directed to the subject, to notice what has been done on this system in France. It seems to have been first adopted, in 1822, by M. Devilliers, C.E., when employed on the canal of St. Martin, where he used it extensively. It is to be observed, however, that it is the only system employed in the Dutch colony of Surinam, and was suggested long since by Captain Rosmy but not applied. We have no account of M. Devilliers' works, and the process seems to have remained in abeyance until 1830, when Captain Gauzence, of the French Engineers, employed it for the support of the portico of of the Guard-house of Mousserolles, at Bayonne. This plan is repre- sented in Fig. 1, where A represents the front of the portico, B the fayade of the guard-house, and C the sand foundation. The soil was a slippery greasy clay, extending to a considerable depth, and it was at first proposed to lay down a platform of wood as a biisis. Capt. Gauzence's suggestion however having been adopted, the soil was dug out to about a yard below the substructure and filled in with sand well rammed. On this were laid two courses of Ashlar masonry, and then a course of dressed stone, forming the surbase. Be- fore finishing the columns, one of them was laden with ten tons of lead without any sensible etiect being produced. The structure was finished in October, 1830, and no settlement has taken place since, The same plan has been successfully pursued in some of the fortifi- cations of Bayonne, where buildings had to be placed on made ground. In 1836 a sand foundation, about 2Aft. thick, was employed, with an equally satisfactory result, for the quay wall of a small harbour on the coast of Brittany. For the construction of the artillery arsenal at Bayonne another plan has been adopted. The soil is of the same greasy kind before de- scribed, while it is quite impossible to use wooden piles, for not only is wood very dear in the neighbourhood, but at high water a stratum of water penetrates the soil, which rapidly rots wooden piles or plat- forms. Colonel Durbach therefore proposed to employ what have been termed piles of sand. The forge department is surrounded by square piers united by a wall, and in fig. 2 we have a section of one of the piers, the weight of which, and of the carpentry supported, is about 35 tons. The foundation piles are so arranged that each bears only two tons. The process adopted was to drive into the ground an ordinary wooden pile about 7 in. square and 62ft. long. This was then drawn out, and the hole filled with sand. The surface was then levelled, the sand well rammed in, and the masonry raised upon it. To draw the wooden mould pile, an ordinary machine was used, to which a chain was attached in the manner shown in fig. 3. In 1833 Colonel Durbacb's plan, with some modification, was em- ployed by M. Mery, C.E., in the canal of St. Martin, at Paris, for the construction of a lateral culvert, which passed through ground of bad quality, in which a quantity of water was infiltrated. Instead of sand, which would have been washed away, sand mortar was used, made by mixing one seventh of hydraulic lime with six sevenths of sand, which soon consolidated. With regard to the sand to be employed, it is recommended that it should be moderately fine, of equal grain, and not earthy. It must be moulded and rammed in layers of about Sin. or 9in. thick, which is an important point. The theory of this process is not known, but it is supposed that the pressure is equally distributed on the sides as well as on the base. Some curious circumstances as to the pressure of sand are to be ob- served in connexion with blasting, where it is found to produce the most efficient tamping. 120 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, IMPROVED TWO CYLINDER ENGINE. ( With an Engraving, Plate IF.) Description of a 20-horse high pressure engine, with two cyh'nders, in the establishment of Messrs. Geo. Forrester & Co., Liverpool. This engine is represented in the accompanying engraving ; Fig. 1, being a side elevation; Fig. 2, a ground plan; and, Fig. 3, an end view of the same. The improvement consists in an arrangement of tno cylinders (in- stead of one of double the area), which are placed side by side upon an independent foundation plate, in a horizontal position, with a space of sufficient width to allow a connecting rod to work freely between them ; the piston rods of both cylinders are connected together by a cross-head at one end, from which the power of the combined cylinders is communicated directly by a long connecting rod to the crank shaft at the other. Each cylinder is provided with a separate slide valve, both valves being connected together, and worked by one valve shaft and eccentric motion. The feed pump is placed at the front end of the foundation plate, at the same level as the cylinders, and is worked directly from the main cross head of the engine, to which the pump ram is attached. Steam of 35 lb. pressure is used in the boiler, and the supply is regulated by an atmospheric governor (Hick's patent), which is attached to the throttle valve, placed in the leading steam pipe to the two cylinders (as shown in the drawing). The object of the above arrangement (as will be seen) is to lessen greatly the dimensions and vveight of the engine, the length occupied being little more than half that of the ordinary engine, whilst all the working parts are rendered more accessible, and their simplicity is such as to render it both durable and easy of attention. An important feature in this arrangement is that of the crank shaft being very close in position to the seat of the cylinders, whereby the strain of the engine is confined to a very limited portion of the foundation plate, the power of the combined cylinder not being transmitted through any portion of the framing at their front end, but only through that part intervening between them and the crank shaft which is placed immediately behind them. The engine being thus perfectly self-con- tained requires no foundation, except a bed of brickwork or timber to raise it to the requisite height, whilst the reduced space it occupies renders the expense of the engine house, or preparation for it, com- paratively small. KEVlEWa. GEOLOGY. 1. Geology, introductory, descriptive and practical. By David Thomas Ansted, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Geology in King's Col- lege, London. Loudon: Van Voorst, 1844. Part L 2. A History of British Fossil Mammalia and Birds. By Richard Owen, F'R.S., Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. London: Van Voorst, 1844. Part I. The study of geology, whatever interest it may possess for the follower of abstract science, has immediate claims upon the engineer, being intimately connected with his practical pursuils, and recognised as an imperative part of his professional course and taught in the public schools. In the design of grand works of internal communi- cation in tlie drainage of the opt-ti country, in the search for water, in the industrial application of the miupral resources of a district, the engineer experiences the necessity fur a well grounded acquaint- ance with the principles and details of geology. In the laying out of a line of canal or railway, he must ascertain what materials he has in the locality, which can be used with a due regard to economy and durability, and from inattention it has often happened that materials have been at much expense brought from a distance, which were to be found in equal abundance and perfection on the spot. It lies with the skilful engineer to point out such deposits of brick earth, lime, ballasting sand, and other mineral prod uctions as may become a source of increasing traffic to the line. For the supply of a steam engine or factory he will frequently find a difficulty in obtaining the requisite supply of water, and he has to determine on the practicability of ob- taining it from the underlying strata. He may also have to construct absorbent artesian wells, for the purpose of carrying off impurities. Jn the supply of water to large towns, geological knowledge is of much avail, for the engineer has not merely to avail himself of sur- face sources, but he must ascertain how far the supply of water is likely to be permanent, 'and what means exist of increasing the sur- face supplies. He may also be threatened with opposition as inter- fering with the supply of water to other purposes, and to vested in- terests. The question of bringing water from the Colne, so ably dis- cussed by Mr. Robert Stephenson, was mainly one of geology, (Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal, Vol, VI., p. 350.) In the course of works, too, many geological questions arise, not merely as to the nature of the substrata influencing the foundations and the power of sustaining an embankment without bulging or spewing, or as to the extent of a deposit of wet sand or quicksand, but in a variety of ways. Thus in the important case of Ranger v. the Great Western, one of the allegations was that a particular rock was improperly and unfairly described, the description of Pennant stone intimating that it was a soft rock, whereas it was a hard rock, and that the trial pits on one of the sections were unfair, because they did not show the substratum of hard rock, and of which no mention was made in the specification, whereas it ought to have been known to the engineers that such a substratum was to be found within a certain depth, and that thereby the contractor was misled. In this specific instance judgment was given in favour of the engineer; but it shows how much care it be- hoves the practitioner to employ. Indeed the geological features often influence a contract; bricks are directed to be made on the spot; thus Mr. F. W. Simms, C.E., had the superintendence of a tunnel, constructed on the South Eastern Railway, through a difficult geolo- gical formation, and at the same time he had the direction of large brick works in which he introduced several valuable improve- ments, (Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal, Vol. VL, p. 348.) The use of stone upon the line requires a good deal of conside- ration, and also the use of any material for embankments, or bal- lasting. The danger of mixing some sells is well known, witness the case which occurred some time ago of pyrites taking fire on the London and Birmingham Railway, and embankment, sleepers, and rails being seriously injured. The use of light sand employed on the Croydon Railway for some time until gravel could be reached, was found highly inconvenient for ballasting, the passengers com- plaining much of the quantity blown into the carriages, and the main* tenance of the line being very troublesome. An intimate acquaint- ance with the different strata is in fact of the greatest importance, one material will stand with one batter, one with another, and so on, and an engineer removed from one geological district to another, will often find himself at a loss, when he attempts to avail himself of bis previous experience in his new locality. Thus a northern engineer will frequently not duly allow for the nature of the chalk and London clay formations of the southern districts. Tunnels are projected in the chalk as a homogeneous and compact mass, and fissures are met with, and springs of water. The London clay, too, presents the greatest difficulties, and baffles all calculation; works may stand very well for two or three years, or for longer periods, then they swell with water, extensive and sudden slips take place, and there are no means of stopping them. It cannot be said that the slips on the Croydon Railway are yet remedied; and certainly Mr. Gibbs was as little to blame for their occurrence, as Mr. Cubitt is for not having been able yet to check them, although so much of the clay has been removed, and large buttresses of gravel have been substituted. So at last the London clay has begun to show its character in the Camden Town cutting of the London and Birmingham Railway, and Mr. Watson's ingenious plan of draining (described at pages 49 and 61 of the pre- sent volume) has been obliged to be adopted as the only efficient means of checking the evil, though strong retaining walls strengthened by iron girders, present a barrier sufficient to contain any other mate- rial. The treatment of slips has become a new branch of engineering, requiring a most skilful application of the various modes and appli- ances of draining, while as yet the means of so constructing the original works as to prevent slips is far from being in a satisfactory state. The engineer avails himself of previous experience, he finds works standing in several localities with a certain batter, and yet his own works may crumble to the ground, though he has faithfully fol- lowed the exemplar. One element with regard to the slope, at which any material will stand, has, in our opinion, beeu passed over, and that is the height. It may happen that clay or chalk may stand very well with a certain batter at 20 ft. high, and yet that it may not stand with the same batter at 40 ft., 60 ft., or 80 ft. We think it very likely that a law prevails modifying such results, and it would be very desirable to have the subject investigated. We need scarcely allude to the advantages which an engineer will derive from his geological knowledge in laying out any grand line of works, the adoption of such a course as to avail himself of the natural passes and levels, and not to come in contact with the natural difficul- ties. So too with regard to many operations; thus the grand experi- ment of Mr. Cubitt iu removing large quantities of the Dover chalk ^ -i I o o a- ct _J >3 . li ' ' 1 ^ t^•!: ■ 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. I2l rocks by gunpowder remains a subject of controversy ; for although he. has undoubtedly removed the material in an economical manner, it may be very much doubted whether he has not so shaken the re- maining rock, and so extended its fissures, as to threaten hini in sub- sequent years with serious slips, which may be productive of much embarrassment. So also the application of the artesian well system requires caution, for by want of care the well may be carried down to a limited reservoir only, when any other well being carried down to the same natural tank will diminish the supply to the previous well, and require both to be carried to a greater depth. The theory of artesian wells is satisfactorily established, but its application is in many cases matter of great controversy, as in the instance of the Trafalgar Square well, and it is necessary that the engineer should be well instructed so as eflficiently to conduct his operation, and satis- factorily to defend its propriety. We may remark here era ^assa?!/ that the progress of the artesian well system is one of deep interest to the engineer, and with regard to which many valuable experiments are going on : thus at Naples the supply of water from the exterior is scanty and expensive, and a well is being bored in the King's garden to try for water at a lower depth: so too in the desert of Egypt a similar experiment is contemplated by the Pasha, the result of which will have an important bearing, and if successful, will alle- viate one of the great difficulties of the Indian transit. An acquaint- ance with the inferior strata of water is indeed of the greatest value, for it will sometimes happen that water will abound below, which cannot be retained on a sandy surface, or it may exist in a state of greater purity, filtered through loose strata, while on the surface, it may be so mixed with extraneous matters as to be unfit for use. A better acquaintance with this subject may lead to some relief of the great droughts suffered by some districts of Australia, and which ma- terially impede the progress of our colonies there. To return to the railway and canal engineer, it will sometimes happen that in cuttings he will come on deposits of septaria, which are extensively used in the manufacture of Roman cement, or on coprolites, which have been pointed out as a copious source of manure, and likely to be so em- ployed, or he may come on some calcareous formation, the qualities of which being duly ascertained may be of great value for agricul- tural purposes or in the composition of cements. In mining the possibility of reaching coal or ironstone is often left to the investigation of the engineer, and the educated engineer will not do now what was formerly done, bore for coal in the tertiary de- posits. He has, too, as we have before observed, to make himself well acquainted with the geological character of the district in which he is engaged, and he has thus the opportunity of ascertaining its mineral resources, and of suggesting the necessary means of exploi- tation. The opening of the coal and lime works by the Messrs. Ste- phenson on the line of railway in Derbyshire, has not only been a means of affording great benefit to the district, but of bringing in con- siderable profit to the projectors. An investigation into the supply of ironstone, the presence of the requisite flux, and the accessibility to fuel is requisite to determine the formation aud establishment of an iron work, and its successful prosecution. Indeed, various are the occasions on which geological skill will be found one of the most Taluable attainments of the engineer. In hydraulic works this knowledge is indispensable, one coast differs from another, rivers from rivers, and a well grounded acquaintance with the natural operations going on in the locality and elsewhere must be the chief guide to the engineer. Here the ris medicalrix natiirce is of the greatest utility, nature cannot be contended with, she must be humoured, and her powers turned to account. The most elaborate piers and jetties may be erected, but if the backwater be poured in at right angles to the tide, a deposit must take place. So too, an ill considered disposition will make a costly harbour a mere shingle trap, and the extension of piers and jetties only results in the carrying of the bar further out out to sea. Here, too, is a depart- ment where much is to be studied and much is to be done, at present it decidedly remains the domain of empiric practice, and harbour is made after harbour, and hundreds of thousands spent after hundreds of thousands only to result in failure. A careful examination of re- sults would show a most lamentable condition of this branch of en- gineering science, for few indeed are the works which have proved effectual. This, too, must be the case so long as Mr. A. or Mr. B. is directed to improve Mudport Harbour, in the teeth of his repeated failures, for here a man is not fried by the efficacy of his cure but by the polish of the instruments he has employed in maiming or de- stroying his patient. His harbour is barred in a calm, and inaccessible in a gale, but what matters that, his north pier is an admirable spe- cimen of constructive skill, his pier wall is faultless, and his lock gates magnificent, and so lie goes on, and people talk about back Vva.ter, scouring power and shingle, and when tliey have bothered their own heads and other person's, there is an end of the matter. So long as your engineer can employ a ballast engine, and dredge away the obtrusion, he gets one or two feet more water, and people are satis- fied, not considering that he has applied a mere palliative and not removed the evil. The only remedy we can suggest under the cir- cumstances, is to leave the design of harbour works open to public competition. The result we think would be to give the young engineer an excitement to study this branch, to give due effect to local ex- perience, and to bring nautical knowledge to bear, while the public would feel much more deeply interested, the plans would be judged by a much more jealous tribunal than they now are, a great degree of valuable information would be obtained, and the basis laid for the scientific pursuit of hydraulic engineering; as it is, we consider, the grand defect undoubtedly to be an ill acquaintance with natural operations, aud an inattention to the proper application of natural resources. We may make the same remarks with regard to embanking, which as a scientific study, is in its infancy. Some thousand acres have been recovered on the Lincolnshirecoast, but it has been by brute force rather than otherwise, and the means of applying natural resources to the recovery of the numerous available sites on our coasts have been totally neglected, though nothing would be more easy than the reclamation of very large districts, if adequately treated. We shall have occasion, in alluding to the force of water, and the amount of solid matter held in suspension, to show what an immense power is available if properly directed. We may remark with regard to any hydraulic construction, that careful study is required, the contour of nearly every coast varies, and consequently the set of the currents, which form the chief disturbing forces. This will be recognised at once, if we compare the eastern coasts of England with the west or with the south. Each has its peculiarities; and it is quite absurd to set an engineer at work in one locality, even on the gronnd of his success in another. How differently do the tides and currents set in the straits of Dover to what they do elsewhere: then again look at the tidal current acting in St. George's Channel, where at one end it has a broad entrance, and at the other is confined within the narrow space between Port Partrick and Donaghadee. How different is this from the long line of current sweeping for several hundred miles along the east coast. Were there no other motive for the study of geology by the en- gineer, yet the uniqiae opportunities he has for making new discove- ries ought alone to incite him. In the bowels of the earth extraor- dinary phenomena meet his eye first, unexpected faults, slips, and novel fossils; in his cuttings and in his tunnels, he has the means of perceiving the order and superposition of strata, their depth, their extent, and the organic remains which characterise them, and under circumstances which other geologists vainly seek. It is with pride we point to many engineers, who have availed themselves of these opportunities, as the collection of railway sections in the Museum of Economic Geology will show, and who have rendered great service by many valuable discoveries and important commu- nications. With so many members of the profession devoting themselves to colonial pursuits w'e cannot too strongly recommend to young men the importance of geology. As the medic, d man is called on in the colonies to find supplies of drugs and medicines, by the use and sub- stitution of local plants, so the colonial surveyor has to discover adequate materials, and to point out the resources of the district in which he is employed. By such exertions his value to the community of which he is a member, and his importance are enhanced, and by well directed investigation he may much increase the produce of the colony, and find many advantageous means of investment on his own account. The discovery of coal in a colony is recognized, as a most valuable service, and its exploitation, either immediately or indirectly, gives employment to the engineer, increases his professional income, and afiibrds a permanent source of occupation. We have now before us two works produced by Mr. Van Voorst, a circumstance, which to those who know his publications, will be alone a sufficient recommendation. Each work appears in parts. Mr. Ansted is Professor of Geology at King's College, and he gives abundant proof in every page of his qualification for the task he has undertaken. The arrangement of his work, and his treatment of the subject rather differ from the course usually pursued, but they are such as to give the student a clear and well grounded acquaintance with the study. Mr. Ansted carefully eschews all theory at the com- mencement, and begins his description of the strata with the palaeo- zoic, instead of with the tertiary, as is frequently the case. His style is simple, and his great endeavour is to give the learner a clear idea of what is before him. It is a book written, not as such works too often are written, for the learned man, but for students, in which !22 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, tlie writer enters as it mere into the mind of liis reader, anticipates his difficulties, and by malting himself acquainted with them is more easily able to remove them. This is the great skill in the art of teaching, as in all persuasive arts, to think not of yourself and your own ideas, but how you can best communicate the subject to those whom you are addressing. The mere inculcation of a fact is nothing, you must make the student apprehend it and comprehend it. In attaining this end, we think Professor Ansted has well succeeded, and he has produced a work, which of all those which have appeared, is best cal- ( ulated to be of service to the learner. We must not, however, be iiiisunderstood, this is no cram book, no creation of paste and scissors, the anything good enough for the public ; but carefully elaborated, every fact duly weighed, the knowledge and experience of the author brought to bear, and the latest researches recorded, even to the current period. Professor Owen is an authority in every department of compara- tive anatomy, known for his close and ingenious research, the extent of his discoveries, the originality of his views, and the keenness of his discrimination. Those who heard his masterly paper before the Geological Society on Koch's Missourian, can well appreciate his powers, the skill with which he disarticulated the skeleton, showed its true character, and reconstructed it as the Mastodon. It did cer- tainly appear extraordinary that men of science should not have re- cognised the false articulation, when the posterior extremities were made to join on to the caudal vertthrte ; the turning of the tusks up- wards, and the raising of the skeleton on the fore legs were shown to be characteristics impossible and false. His paper on the Amphi- therium in the work before us is no less admirable. The British Fossil Mammalia are arranged not according to any geological peculi- arities, but according to their natural classification, beginning with the Quadrunians, and we have perused this tirst part with deep in- terest, and strongly recommend it to all who are desirous of making themselves acquainted with this important branch of geology, so ne- cessary for the accurate discrimination of strata, and so valuable in its bearing on the higher branches of the science. We can scarcely conclude these remarks better than by extracting the preliminary observations of Professor Ansted on the power of water. " It requires but little study to discover that every one of the most common and daily operations of nature is concerned more or less in the formation of stratified rocks. Every shower of rain that falls in a hilly or mountainous district, every brook or river that pursues its course through a greater or less extent of country to the sea, or is swallowed up before reaching the sea in some mightier stream than its own, every lake or pool that receives the waters of a river loaded with the particles of muddy soil over which it has passed, and pours forth at its opposite extremity a transparent stream cleared of im- purities, every wave that dashes against a projecting rock on the sea coast, or washes into a hollow bay, tearing and grinding away the solid clift': — each one of these, together with other not less powerful though less frequently recurring agents, is concerned in the formation of new strata, and in effecting changes in the physical conformation of the globe scarcely less remarkable than those with which the geologist has to deal, and which will hereafter be described. A few instances of the actual extent of the effect thus produced will form a useful and interesting introduction to a description of geological facts analo- gous to them. "Of the many constantly recurring phenomena, which, owing to their perfect and undeviating regularity, attract but little notice from the casual observer, there is none perhaps more remarkable than the quantity of solid matter held for a time in mechanical suspension in the water of rivers and brought down to be deposited at the mouth of the stream, or spread over the bed of the ocean. The vast amount of mud thus conveyed by running water is occasionally seen in the ex- tensive deltas, or tracts of swampy land, at the mouths of great rivers, such as the Rhine, the Po, the Nile, the Ganges, &c. ; in each of which cases the river divides into so many channels before reaching the sea, that its actual character and apparent magnitude is completely lost. " The origin of these vast deposits of rich alluvial soil must be sought for entirely in mud brought from the high lands or the plains through which the river passes, and held in suspension so long as the water is in rapid motion, but which sinks to the bottom wlien the current is checked. To obtain some notion of the actual quantity of solid matter thus continually brought down from the high land to the sea, an experiment was made some years ago by Mr. Leonard Horner, on the waters of the Rhine, the calculations founded on which possess considerable interest. Mr. Horner found that in the month of August, when the river was unusually low, one cubic foot of water taken fairly from near the middle of the river, near Bonn, supplied rather more than 21 grains of solid matter, and that in the month of November, when the water was turbid, about 35 grains of residuum were obtained. Now, taking the average of these two observations, and considering the Rhine at Bonn to be 1,200 feet wide, to have a mean depth of 15 feet, and to run with a mean velocity of 22 miles per hour, it appears that nearly 400 tons of solid matter would pass down the stream per hour; and that in the course of one year, between seven and eight thousand millions of tons woidd be carried along, the greater part of which must be deposited in Holland before reaching the sea, in consequence of the slow and meandering course of the river through that flat alluvial country. In the course of 2,000 years, the Rhine may thus have brought down enough material to form a stratum one yard thick, extending over an area more than 3G miles square. "But the delta of the Ganges far surpasses in magnitude that of any European river; and is on the whole, perhaps, the most extensive and remarkable of all those at present forming of which we have any accu- rate data. The head of this gigantic delta commences at a distance of 220 miles in a direct line from the sea, and the base of it is 200 miles in length ; the whole triangular space occupied comprising up- wards of 20,000 square miles, every part of which has been formed by deposition from the river and its tributaries. " The quantity of mud and sand carried by the Ganges into the Bay of Bengal is however, notwithstanding the vast deposit which pre- viously takes place, still so great, that during the rainy season when the stream is turbid, the sea does not recover its transparency even at a distance of GO miles from the coast; and the quantity of mud held in mechanical suspension is so great, that a glass of water taken out of the river when at its height, is said to yield one part in four of mud. Calculating from the dimensions of the river and the rate of the current, Major Rennel has shown that during the flood season the weight of the mud thus brought down daily, and deposited either within the limits of the present delta, or at the mouths of the different branches, must be as much as 450 millions of tons, a quantity which is perhaps more readily understood by expressing it as equal to about 74 times the weight of the Great Pyramid of Egypt, supposing that to be a solid mass of granite. "Another instance of a vast amount of solid matter conveyed by a river, and spread out upon the bottom of the ocean, is seen in the dis- tribution of the sediment of the great river of the Amazons. At the point where the current formed along the coast of Africa, (a current which crosses the Atlantic to the continent of South America,) meets the stream of the Amazons, it runs at the rate of about four miles per hour. The stream of the river, however, preserves part of its original impulse, and its waters may be recognised by their muddy colour, and are not wholly mingled with those of the ocean at a distance of 300 miles from its moulh. An immense tract of swamp is being formed along the coast of Guiana by the deposit of the mud thus brought down by the Amazons, and the shallow sea along that coast is rapidly being converted into land. " The power of water when in motion of transporting not only mud, but heavy bodies of considerable magnitude, is another point of con- siderable interest in geology, and one that requires to be stated in some little detail, because there are certain popular fallacies concern- ing the motion of heavy bodies, which tend much to confuse and mis- lead the judgment on this subject. " We are accustomed to consider weight as an absolute quality of certain bodies, which we therefore call heavy. Now this quality of weight, as the word is commonly applied, is in fact only relative ; and in this relative sense, a piece of wood is no more heavy when im- mersed in water than a balloon filled with hydrogen gas is in the air, each being lighter or of less weight than an equal quantity of the element in which it is placed, and which it displaces. In all cases, the actual weight of that quantity of the fluiil which would have occupied the space filled by a solid body, must be di-ducted from the actual weight of the body before the relative weight, — the only part which resists motion, — can be calculated. "Speaking accurately, therefore, bodies of all kinds are heavier in air than they are in water, and are consequently moved with greater facility in the latter, than in the former fluid. It should also be borne in mind that the power which water possesses, of transporting heavy bodies, increases in an enormous ratio with the increase of rapidity of the current; and with these considerations, we shaU be able to account for, and understand statements on record, otherwise almost incredible, of the effects produced by water in rapid motion. " As a recent instance of effects of this kind, and one occurring in our own island, 1 quote an account of an extensive flood, which spread simultaneously over a large tract of country, in Aberdeenshire, in the early part of August, 1S29. The total length of river flooded on this occasion could not be less than between five and six hundred miles, I and the whole of the river courses were marked by the destruction of bridges, roads, crops, and buildings. .844.] The civil engineer and architect's journal. 123 " Speaking of the river Nairn, Sir T. D. Lauder relates, in a detailed account of this flood that a fragment of sandstone rock, fourteen feet long, three feet wide, and one foot thick, and which could not have weighed less than three tons, was carried down the river a distance of two hinidred yards. "A bridge over the Dee having five arches, and a vi'aterway of two hundred and sixty feet, which was built of granite, and had stood un- injured for twenty years, was carried away by the flood, and the whole mass disappeared from the bed of the river. " ' The river Don,' says Mr. Farquharson, describing the effects of the same flood, 'has, upon my premises, forced a mass of four or five hundred tons of stones, many of them weighing as much as two or three cwt., up an inclined plane, rising sis feet in eight or ten yards, and left them in a rectangular heap, about three feet deep on flat ground.' "The gradual wearing away of solid rocks, by the action of water passing over them, is another cause constantly tending to destroy ex- isting inequalities of the surface, and deposit the materials in beds at the bottom of the sea. In one instance on record, a torrent of hard blue lava, ejected from one of the craters near the summit of Mount Etna, had crossed the channel of the Simeto, the largest of the Sicilian rivers, and had not only occupied the channel, but crossing to the opposite side of the valley, had accumulated there in a rocky mass. The date of this eruption is supposed to be 1603 ; and, at any rate, it is one of the most modern of those of Mount Etna ; but now, after the lapse of little more than two centuries, the river has cut a passage for itself through the lava from fifty to one hundred feet wide, and in some parts from forty to fifty feet deep. " But the power of marine currents, and the ceaseless dash of the waves of the ocean, are much more striking in their effects than the quiet action of a river. As instances of this, the condition of the various promontories of chalk, on the south coast of England, and the opposite coast of Normandy, is too well known to require more than a passing allusion ; but on the northern and more exposed shores, both of the main land and the western Islands of Scotland, this power is exhibited on an extremely grand scale. In what is called the Grind of the Navir, in the Shetland Isles, the sea is constantly widening a passage it has cut for itself, through cliff's of the hardest porphyry, tearing down huge fragments of rock, and depositing them at a consi- derable distance. In this way, from time to time, islands have been separated from the main land, and the islands themselves split, as it were, into shreds ; until at last even these bare bones, the skeleton of what was one land, have also been swept away, the last victims to the restless violence of moving water. " The ordinary force of marine currents is also, under some circum- stances, very remarkably shown. During the erection of the well- known Bell Rock lighthouse, at the mouth of the Tay, six large blocks of granite, which had been landed on the reef of the Bell Rock at low water, were, on one occasion, removed by the force of the sea as the tide rose, and thrown over a ledge to the distance of twelve or fifteen paces ; an anchor weighing about twenty-two hundred weight being, on the same occasion, thrown upon the rock. "Along the whole of the eastern coast of England the waves are ceaselessly occupied in washing away the different projecting head- lands that stretch into the sea. In various places in Yorkshire, Nor- folk, and Suffolk, houses, churches, and even whole villages, are, from time to time, swallowed up, and the advance of the sea is sometimes extremely rapid. At Sheiringham, in Norfolk, a house was built in 1805 at the distance of fifty yards from the cliff, which, however, has receded so rapidly, that in the year 1829, after the lapse of less than a quarter of a century, there remained only a very small garden be- tween the house and the sea, as much as seventeen yards of cliff having been swept away in the course of the five last years only. In the harbour of the same port (Sherringham) there is now at one point a depth of twenty feet of water, where, less than fifty years ago, there stood a cliff fifty feet high ; and a little further to the south, where the cliff's are composed of alternating strata of clay, gravel, loam, and sand, large tracts of land are not unfrequently swallowed up by the sea, being undermined by the waves, or by springs of water rising and penetrating between the beds. Many other extensive landslips have occurred, from time to time, on the south coast of England, and also on the western coast, where the county of Cheshire has suffered a loss of many acres of land between the Mersey and the Dee, by the gradual advance of the sea upon the abrupt low cliffs of red clay and sand." Illustrations of Baptismal Fonts. London: Van Voorst. Parts II., HI., and IV. We were pleased with the first number of this work, but we are still more gratified with its progress. Now that ecclesiastical archi- tecture is carried out in its details, that it is considered not enough to design the sIr-U of a church, but it is required that its parts and its fittings should be in some degree appropriate, great convenience will be felt in having accessible manuals for study and reference. Mr. Weale has done much good in publishing so many examples of stained glass, brasses have been taken up by the Camden Society, and fonts by the present publisher. Pulpits, moreover, will be found not un- worthy of notice ; abroad, especially in Holland and in Belgium, many beautiful specimens of carved pulpits exist, which may be advan- tageously studied here. Indeed a record of the many admirable spe- cimens of carving in wood and in metal would be highly valuable, as for instance, Grinling Gibbons' works, which, we believe, have never yet been published, though recognized on all hands as masterpieces of art. In London, especially, we have many admirable specimens of this artist, which, with the growing taste for ornament, might be ad- vantageously studied. Of course in a work on baptismal fonts, the delineations are the grand thing, description amounts but to little, and we are consequently restricted in our notice of the work. We can but describe its general character, which seems to be that of careful and accurate delineation, at the same time that a highly artistical effect is produced, and the result is a work valuable for reference, and ornamental in the library. We are glad to see that it is in contemplation to give a classed index at the end of the work, so that the several specimens of Norman, Early English, and Decorated may be bound together, and more con- veniently referred to. The publisher has also very prudently given a list of those gentlemen who have communicated drawings, which is very long, and we regret to see includes the names of only four archi- tects. The metropolis has only contributed one architect, and we think this, to some extent, a reflection on the profession, for it is to be supposed that in the course of their studies they must necessarily have examined the many admirable works of antiquity in their several neighbourhoods, and have formed drawings of them. This argues but little for the love of art, and zeal for diff'using knowledge, existing among the great body of architects. The amateurs far out-number the architects, and the clergy are upwards of thirty in number, showing a laudable zeal for the promotion of art, and for the honour of the edi- fices in which they respectively officiate. In fact, the number of ladies who have contributed drawings seems to be about as large as that of architects, while the drawings communicated by the ladies are much more numerous. This is not creditable to the architects, and we hope it will be remedied. Indeed if any charge can be rightly laid to the door of the architects we fear it is that of a want of public spirit. They are never forthcoming on any great occasion, they give nothing to the public they can avoid, and publish little of any value. The greatest jealousy exists as to communicating accounts of their works and designs, and notorious examples frequently occur of public servants setting the public voice at defiance, and refusing to submit their designs for important edifices to open and candid scrutiny. The publishers complain that the architects, though a richer body, do not sabscribe adequately to professional works, but that they are beaten hollow by the engineers, in the proportion of three to one. It is also to be observed that at the Royal Institute of British Architects the greatest deficiency of original papers is evident, and the managers are obliged to get up papers on antiquities, and on books pub- lished bv other people. The most valuable papers in their "Tran- sactions" are by Professor Willis, and other laymen. Yet, under such circumstances, a morbid jealousy of the acquirements and inter- ference of amateurs, and of the criticism of the press, exists on the part of many members of the architectural profession, when it is evi- dent that there are small grounds for the assumption of professional su|)eriority, and that it is of the greatest importance that the public voice should be brought to bear as an excitement to exertion. It may, too, be safely pronounced that the majority of works treating of archi- tectural antiquities have emanated from laymen. In what other pro- fession can such a state of aff'airs be found ? Surely not in engineer- ing, in medicine, at the bar, but all going unequivocally to prove a want of disposition on the part of architects to comply with their responsibilities as members of a noble and enlightened profession. We say this with no desire of offence, but because we feel the facts strongly, and are desirous of seeing a remedy applied to such a state of aff'airs by the vigorous exertions of the profession. The architectural pro- fession is in a serious position, the public voice has virtually pro- claimed it inefficient in the performance of its public duties, and has required a greater originality of design, and a more intellectual treat- ment of details. A spirit is abroad among the clergy, and among the educated and intelligent of the community, which exacts much more intellectual labour than architects have been accustomed to aff'ord, and it becomes them to comply with the reasonable demands of the public 124 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, It should be recollected that Michael Angelo.Philibert de I'Orme, and Sir Christopher Wren, not to enumerate other names, were not originally architects by profession, and yet they have produced works, whicli whatever technical defects they may possess, yet by their originality thev have obtained fame in all times. As it is, the movement for the restoration of Gothic architecture has been entirely extra-professional, the great zeal manifested for it now is by the clergy, and in this, as in other departments, it is but a short step from the theory of the ama- teur to his practical exertions. If the architects once teach the public that their proiessional title is but a name, farewell to all their glory, and we cannot sav that such a result is either impossible or far distant. One thing is ve'ry evident, that architects, as was observed at the Institute on a recent occasion, are behind the age, and they must bestir themselves strenuously. To return to the " Illustrations of Fonts," we are pleased to hnd such a long list of drawings already received, promising a valuable and extensive series, and also that the editor has formed a considerable list of fonts lying in a desecrated state, and also of those once dese- crated, but now restored, the publication of which is promised in a forthcoming number. We strongly suspect that the editor is a clergy- man, for the vigour and energy he displays are not characteristic of the architectural profession. We are pleased to find noticed in the numbers already published so many instances of the restoration of desecrated fonts, showing a laudable and energetic spirit on the part of the clergv. Indeed it appears that the clergy have been most ear- nest in affording information, whenever applied to. The number of Norman fonts is considerable, several of them from Cornwall, which we believe are rather later in date than is generally assigned to the Norman period, for Cornwall was much behind the Saxon parts of the Island. At Keysoe, in Bedfordshire is an early English font having an ancient inscription as follows:— " +TRESTVI ;KEPARHIC IPASSERVI PVRLEAL MEWAREL PRIEV : KE DEVPARSA GRACEVE RREYMERCILIFACE AM. which forms a distich running thus in modern French :— Restez ; qui par ici passerez Pour I'aine de Warel priez : Que Dieu par sa grace y/^.'^ Imerci iui fasse. Amen." or Voir J Now we are inclined to give a different reading of the last line. It is tolerably evident that it cannot be either Vkaie or voir, neither agree with the sense or the orthography. The word is veurret, and it is probably some irregular inflexion of the verb vouloir, perhaps voudra, vemlltra, or veiiii/traii, contracted to veurrey. The two latter lines according to us would read — " Que Dieu par sa grace Voudra merci lui fasse." ^ Hand- Booh for Plain and Ornamental Mapping, and Engineer- ing Drawing, used by Surveyors and Civil and Mechanical Engineers. By Benjamin P. Wilme. Part V. We have before had occasion to allude to the utility of this work, and are glad to see that Mr. Wilme continues his labours so usefully ; we must, however, remark that we do not approve of the colouring in every instance as adopted by Mr. Wilme ; for example, in one of the plates, stone ashlaring is shown of a tint usually introduced for brick- work ; again, we must observe, that sufficient pains have not been taken with the plate of " Signs used in Mapping," many of them are drawn very carelessly ; this should not be the case with a work that is professedly to be an examplar of reference. PROPOSED SUPPLY OF WATER AND RAILWAY AT BERLIN. (From the Allgemeine Preuezische Zeitnnrj.J Since railways have been conducted through mountains and over deep valleys, proposals for gigantic works have been listened to with less doubt and astonishment. A project is now spoken of for Berlin, which, if com- pleted, would be one of the most magnificent hitherto possessed by any capital. It is well known that Berlin is not yet provided with water-works like London, Paris, and other cities, for the purpose of extinguishing fires, clean- sing the streets and other objects. It has been found, after many enquiries, that those arrangements which have been adopted in places where nature supplies water from elevations, cannot serve as models for our flat country. Subterranean conduits are nothing more than the gradual extension of works separately undertaken and executed without regard to the future. In places where a perfect system for the supply of water has to be established at once, to its whole extent, aqueducts give a more perfect means of conduction than pipes, which always occasion a continual disturbance of the pavement of the streets. Aqueducts, however, would be too expensive for Berlin if they were not at the same time directed to another and more important purpose, viz., the introduction of railways into the city. At Paris a circular road is intended to be formed round the city, for the purpose of connecting the different lines of railway. For Berlin it is proposed to introduce, instead of a circular line of rails, a system of viaducts, passing through the centre of the town, where, by crossing each other, they will connect the termini of different roads. This mode of uniting our railways will have many advan- tages over the circular plan, which would interfere with the outlets from the town. Luggage cars will, by this arrangement, be dispatched between Leipzig, Breslau and the Baltic, without being unloaded at BerUn. These railways within the town wUI, however, besides the principal object of their adoption, supply the place of cabs and omnibusses, like the Blackwall and Greenwich railways of London; — they will connect the distant parts of the town with each other, and lessen the distance to the centre. The small stations, which will have to be constructed for each of these railways, as; near the centre as possible, and to an equal height with the viaducts, and according to the models of the Blackwall, Greenwich, and Eastern Counties railways of London, will cover a considerable portion of the budding ex- penses, as the lower parts of these structures will be used for waiting rooms, workshops, meal and corn halls, and other purposes. For the completion of this grand design, the railway viaducts will also be aqueducts, for the supply, in any direction between the different parts of the town, of high-serv-.ce water for extinguishing fires, watering the streets, &c. The viaducts will rise with the common gradients of I in 100, or, supposing wooden rails to be employed, of 1 in 20. The required height will be gained after their entrance upon the waste lands in the town, and they will be maintained at the height necessary for the supply of the water, which will be raiiiCd by steam engines from the river or from wells. The water may be further dis-. tributed from the aqueducts through stone pipes, which, from the cheapness of the material, may be placed on both sides of the street ; and as there will be little necessity for repair, there will be few occasions to interrupt the traffic. A greater width will be required for the railway viaducts tlian for the aqueducts, and this surplus space will save the necessity of constructing large reservoirs for the head of water, the formation of which would he very expensive in the absence of high grounds. But Berlin, with the slight fall of its site, wants a greater quantity of water, for the purpose of cleansing its streets, than cities with a considerabte descent. This will be economically supplied by using the water raised by a steam pov/er of 1000 horse, in its descent, for the purpose of machinery in manufactures and workshops, an arrangement which we cannot now more minutely describe. Thus the intended works will unite a complete supply of w.iter, the shortest possible connexion of the railways terminating in Berlin, an omnibus communication with the different parts of the town, and a^diS'j tribution of steam power similar to the supply of gas or water. GEOLOGICAL SUBMARINE RESEARCHES. At the Royal Institution, Feb. 23, Professor Forbes gave a lecture " On the light tJirown on Geologif by Submarine Researches." Having alluded to, the researches of two Italian naturalists, Donati and Soldani, who dredged the Adriatic about the middle of the last century. Prof. Forbes entered on. the important inferences which he had derived from similar investigations in the Irish Channel, and in the Archipelago. His first conclusion was, that marine animals and plants are grouped, according to their species, at particular depths in the sea, each species having a range of depth appropriated to itself. Prof. Forbes illustrated this assertion by a diagram, indicating the plants and animals respectively inhabiting what he termed the littoral zone, which extends immediately from the coast — the laminarian zone, where the broad- leaved fuci are most abundant — the coralline, in which there is an as- semblage of mollusca, especially bivalves and corals, and the deep sea coraf, so called bacause in it only we find examples of large corals on the British shores. Prof. Forbes next alluded to the fact of the number of species diminishing according to depth, so that by gaining an accurate knowledge of the Fauna and Flora, appropriated to various sea-bottoms, the naturalists can infer their depth — no plants are found below 100 fathoms, and the probable zero of animal life is at 300 fathoms. Sedimentary deposits below this depth are consequently destitute of organic matter. This circumstance bids the geologist to be cautious in inferring that any stratum was formed before the creation of animals, on no other account than that it is devoid of organic remains : he should rather conclude from such deficiency, that the stratum was deposited in very deep water — Prof. Forbes next remarked that British species are found throughout the zones of depth in the Mediter- ranean Sea ; but that in that sea, the proportion of northern testacea in the lower zones greatly exceeds that in the upper, so that there is a represeata. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 125 tion of climate, or parallels of latitude, in depth. The fourth proposition advanced by the Professor, was, that all varieties of sea-bottom are not equally capable of maintaining animal life. The sandy parts are usually the desert ones. Hence the scarcity of fossils in sand-stone : though traces of worms (which inhabit the sand) are found in ancient sand-stones. As each animal is not able to live, except on its own locality, those marine animals, as the scallop, which are gregarious, deteriorating the ground when they increase beyond a certain extent, die ; then the place becomes silted up, the ground changes, and another race occupies it. This fact explains the phe- nomena of distribution of organic remains in rocks — i. e. their being grouped together in separate strata, fossilliferous strata alternating with those which are free from organic remains. — Prof. Forbes proceeded to observe, that such animals as are common to many zones of depth, are those which have the greatest horizontal range in space, and are generally those which are present in the tertiary deposits ; and thus it is that the most generally- distributed fossils are such as are found in the greatest number of formations ; because these are necessarily the most independent of destroying influences. But, on the other hand, as the elevation or depression of strata to a very small extent would destroy the species peculiar to any zone, or to the zone above or beneath it, it becomes an important inquiry how this destruction is compensated. In dealing with this question. Prof. Forbes announced a most important law in zoology, one altogether new to ourselves — viz. That the mollusca migrate. He discovered by his own observation, that this is the case even with the limpets, the most fixed of all species. This migration occurs in their egg-state, when the ova are strung together, and floated over the ocean, from shore to shore. In the larva state they are swimmers. In fact, they commence their life in a form closely analogous to that which is permanent among the pteropods. But, though in this state they can live in any zone, they cannot arrive at perfection except in the peculiar zone to which they are adapted. This accounts for the very imperfect shells of pre- maturely dying mollusca being found at a low depth. Professor Forbes con- cluded his communication by noticing its bearings on the views of the most eminent geologists of our time. 1st. With regard to Mr. Lyell's principle of distinguishing tertiary strata by the per-centage of recent species in each. This is confirmed by Prof. Forbes's investigations ; only in using Mr. Lyell's criterion, the element of depth, which gives climatal character in living animals, must be taken into account. 2nd. Prof. Forbes next noticed that Sir H. De la Beche had hypothetically anticipated, what his researches esta- blished, the representations of climates and depth, ten years ago. 3rd. He lastly ascribed to Viscount d'Archiac and M. de Verneuil, the credit of having announced (what he had observed and mentioned in the course of his communication) that species which are found in a great number of localilies, and in very distant countries, are always those which have lived during the formation of several successive systems. SULPHATE OF BARYTES. A correspondent of the Athentmm observes that there is a beautiful white' as all artists know, made from the earth called Barytes. The pigment is called "constant" or "permanent white." If the " quick," or " setting," properties of lime, are not essential to the art of fresco painting, or stuccos and washes in house decoration, I would suggest the use of the sulphate of barytes instead. It is, in itself, a most brilliant white, and from the expe- rience of artists, is known to mix with most colours, without altering their properties. It may not be generally known, that this earth (in the sulphates) is found in large veins in different parts of the county of Montgomery, and is thrown out in large quantities by the miners in the lead mines. It is found, also, in Shropshire (bordering on Montgomeryshire) in the hills called Stiperstones, in a mine called Snailback. It is a mineral which was con- sidered of little use in the county of Montgomery till the last few years, when a person, of the name of Maguiness, rented a vein of the sulphate of baryies, and converted old flour mills, at Pool Quay, (in Welshpool) into mills for grinding this beautiful mineral, which is of a dazzling white when ground. It is put in barrels, and shipped in great quantities for America, where it is used in the composition of china. This sulphate of barytes is indestructible, uninfluenced by damp, foul air, time or light, and seems to be a substance, both from its durability and extreme beauty, peculiarly fitted for house de- corations, when the vehicle is not oil. The carbonate of barytes is, as all chemists knov\', of a most poisonous nature, but the sulphate, being insoluble, is perfectly harmless. It has been used, since Mr. Wedgewood first applied it, in the composition of china, but it seems a pity that such a beautiful sub- stance should be applied solely to that use and the pigment used by artists, if it can be applied more generally in paintings, where water and size are the ■vehicles, and in house decorations. The iNew Houses of Parliament will afford scope for its use, if these suggestions prove practicable. The annual exhibition of the works of art was opened at Paris on Friday the 15th instant. The catalogue comprises 2423 articles, or 826 more than in 1843 — namely, 1808 paintings and pictures, 348 miniatures, water colours, paintings on porcelain, &c. ; 24 works of architecture, 133 of sculpture, 89 engraviugs, and 21 lithographs. ST. STEPHEN'S CATHEDRAL, VIENNA. In the Journal of last January we gave an abstract of a paper by Mr. Higgins, read at the Royal Institute of British Architects, on the recent re- storation of the spire of St. Stephen, at Vienna (the Dom-Kirche), respecting which a correspondent of the Allienamm has forwarded the following com- munication : — " As some recent interest about the Dom-Kirche of Vienna seems to have been created among both your readers and writers, perhaps a few notes, taken on the spot, and before the ' cast-iron ' restoration, will prove accept- able also ; they pretend to no other merit than those advantages may give them, for I had no intention of printing my pocket-book, when filling it with such brief, hurried, and meagre memoranda. The Great Tower of St. Ste- phen's is steeple-capt, very high and noble, but the top leans much from its original position ; it is carried up by canopies and pinnacles, the former on an outer plane of decoration, like net-work hung over the spire itself : the crocketting (as usual throughout German Gothic) is inelegant, has a larded look, and reminds one of holdfasts instead of ornaments, ileyn. crockets should never appear stuck on but growing out of, what supports them. The west front is Lombardesque in character, being decorated with small ani. mals — a phase of Byzantine, or rather Romanesque ; its portal (the ' Giant's Gate ') consists of several round-headed arches under a pointed one, but this last perhaps altered from circular, and all sustained by slender columns, which, as well as the superincumbent arches, are wrought over with lozenge reticulation, or platted over with reeds, not with zigzag nor any other peculiar Norman or Saxon embellisment. The east end has a double apse, one part of which forms the choir, and both parts are polygonal in ground plan. The choir is battlemented with trefoil arcs, the nave with a parapet of flowing open-work. Buttresses run tlironr/h the cornice quite round the church, and rise into crocketted pinnacles, many of which are now deficient. The nave has several gables on its sides, now filled up, except one of beautiful tracery. The roof is tiled in lozenges and letters, made by di- versified colours — another German techtonic fashion that should become English too, as our monotonous red roofs present the ugliest bird's-eye view possible. Correspondent to the great steeple-tower at S.E. stands an intended but unfinished duplicate at N.W.; besides these there are two smaller towers, octagon, and set over gable ends, which appear on the west front. North and south of these towers run the aisles, exhibiting a much more modern cha- racter, as the towers themselves have a Normanesque air. Thus two hnes of corbelling (a table supported by trefoil arcs with bosses for corbel-heads) adorn the lowermost story, while above these are ;three plainer lines (the common Norman table on small arcs without any heads beneath them). Outside the church, at its base, some curious tombs, like rectangtdar mantel- pieces of reeded mouldings, which another triad of reeds, but curvilinear, interpenetrates, where it meets their jambs and crosses, arch-wise or rhumb- wise, their hotels. Interpenetration could not well push its preposterous ingenuity further ; Nureniburg doorways often present -similar examples of it— to be avoided. St. Stephen's Cathedral is neither whitewashed nor painted within, but impressive from gloom, and the fine, soft chiaroscuro produced by darkness stamping itself in visible masses upon the grey co- lumns and walls, yet leaving portions of both to dawn here and there through it. Sundry additions of varied Gothic, such as chapels, screens, &c. enrich the effect. Transept narrow and short ; chancel of deep-tinted wood, well carved, and harmonizes well with the edifice, both as respects character and colour. The columns all massive, composed of numerous rounds and hollows, rise picturesquely from altars at their basement {these, however, are low-classic). Except in the choir, whose nave and aisles have the same height, this church does not hear out Mr. Whewell's assertion that it exemplifies a late system of Gothic vaulting, for the nave is highest else- where, though but by a httlo; generally, the interior has neither the ele- vation, lightness, nor "openness he attributes to edifices thus constructed ; it has his last characteristic indeed— absence of a clerestory. The choir exhibits plain diagonal ribs on its roof, all the rest of the church complex intersec- tions. With regard to the windows they had mixed geometrical and flowing traceries ; those in the body have now modern sashes and square panes : those in the side chapels of the apses are mostly built up, but some retain their old rich painted glass, very splendid, yet very sombre." THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA. Mr. Wheelwright lately read a paper at the Geographical Socieiy show- ing how an easy line of communication might be made between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, over the Isthmus of Panama. Mr. Wheelwright, from his long residence in that part of the world, was perfectly acquainted with the country. After discussing some of the routes that had been proposed as lines of communication, whether by canal or otherwise, between the Atlantic and Pacific, Mr. Wheelwright gives the de- cided preference to the line between Chagres and Panama, the line in fact which had been explored and described by Colonel Lloyd. The Chagres river cannot easily be ascended by sailing vessels for various reasons, but properly constructed steamers of six or seven hundred tons burden may cross the bar to ascend as far as the confluence of the Trinidad, at all times and seasons. From a height, at the junction of the Trinidad, the line pointed 136 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, out by Llovd is distinctly seen to be free from any continuous heights, and from anotlier elevation at Gorgona, on the Chagres, the line, which runs about five miles to the westward of the latter town, is again seen to be un- interrupted but by small isolated hills. The road from Gorgona to Panama, good in the dry season, is muddy after the rains, though always practicable, and an omnibus might be driven along it by merely clearing away the trees. This road passes over the head waters of streams flowing into the two oceans, and such is the level, that the traveller cannot perceive any division between them. The level nature of the ground thus established, Mr. Wheelwright is of opinion that, whatever ulterior plan may be decided upon, a road should first be constructed as near the level line as possible, both with a view to future labours, which such a road would great facilitate, and for the purpose of an immediate intercourse between the two oceans. This road should commence at the junction of the Trinidad with Chagres, to which place the steamers would ascend without stopping at Chagres : thus no risk from climate would be incurred, and the whole detention on the Isthmus would not exceed a few hours — goods could be transported with celerity and easily at a trifling expense. Excellent timber, and a most useful liana are abundant, as are also provisions, which are cheap : labour is likewise cheap, and coal, when wanted, is found in great abundance, and of good quality, extending across the Isthmus from Coca del Toro to St. David. RAILWAYS. Rbsolutions ordered by the House of Commons to be Printed, March 4, 1844. Ordered, 1. That in each case where bills are now pending to authorize the construction of new lines of railway, competing with one another, such bills be respectively referred to one committee. 2. That the committees for the consideration of such bills be specially constituted. 3. That bills now pending to authorize the construction of new lines of railway, which will compete with existing railways, be in like manner referred to committees specially constituted. 4. That such committees be composed of five members, to be nominated by the Committee of Selection, who shall sign a declaration that their con- Btituents have no local interest, and that they themselves have no personal interest, in the bill or bills referred to them, and that they will not vote on any question which may arise without having duly heard and attended to the evidence relating thereto ; and that three shall be a quorum. 5. That a select committee be appointed to consider which of the pending railway bills shall be deemed competing bills, according to the foregoing resolutions. 6. That such select committee be composed of five members, of whom three shall be a quorum, and that the committee have power to send for persons, papers, and records. 7. That such of the standing orders as relate to the composition of the committees on private bills and the orders consequent thereon, be suspended, so far as regards competing railway bills pending in the course of the present session. J. H.1LEY, 01. Dom. Com. CARRINGTON BRIDGE, NOTTINGHAM. Sir, — In your last paper, No. 84, page 90, there are some observations on this bridge referring to the flatness of the arch in the cast iron ribs, which have a versed sine of 5 ft. in a span of 70 = 1 in 14 ; the arch is stated, by the writer, to be the flattest he is aware of. I beg, therefore, to inquire of you, or such of your readers as may be able to answer the question, what is the span and versed sine of the cast iron bridge over the river at Boston, Lincolnsliire. It is now upwards of 30 years since I saw it, but (judging only from memory of the latter, and from the drawing given in your Journal of the former) I think Boston bridge must be the flatter of the two, but I believe it it not so large a span. But of Boston bridge some of the ribs were fractured when I saw it, and when I fancy it had not been long erected. I am. Sir, your obedient servant, A Subscriber. March 2, 1844. STEAM NAVIGATION. Mr. Blake, the master builder at Portsmouth Dock-yard, is ordered by the Admiralty to prepare plans for constructing another 50-gun frigate, of the same tonnage (2,000) and dimensions as that already ordered to be laid down here. They are to be named the Leander and Shannon. . The Prometheus steamer, Lieutenant Pasco, arrived at Devonport on the 11th March, from her voyage with the Penelope. She was disabled in one of her boilers before she reached Madeira, where she remained six days. Soon after she left Madeira for this port her other boiler became damaged. On the 17th March she arrived at Portsmouth. She will proceed to Woolwich to be repaired. The Vulture first class steam-frigate was nndooked at Sheerness on the 13th March, and now remains in the basin. The Dadalus, 42, a frigate of the old school, same dimensions as the Penelope, was ordered from Sheerness to Woolwich to be cut down to a flush- deck corvette, to mount 18 32-pounders, of 56cwt. The Penelope, 22, Captain W. Jones, left Lisbon on the 5th March for the coast of Africa. Every letter received from her ofiicers and crew brings fresh complaints of the miserable discomforts experienced by them, and pronounces her an utter failure as a first-rate steam frigate. The coating of the bottom of the Shannon frigate, at Sheerness, with the marine glue is just completed. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS. March 4. — William Tite, Esq., V.P., in the chair. A paper was read " On. the Architectural Nomenclature of the Middle Ages," by the Rev. R. Willis. This paper is a portion of a work on which Professor M' illis has been for some time engaged, and in which he proposes to ascer- tain the architectural terms of the middle ages, and to trace the origin of many technical words in use at the present day. The Itinerary of William of Worcester contains many examples of such terms as were in use in the fifteenth century, especially in a detailed description of the churches of St. Stephen and St. Mary Redcliff, at Bristol — but although this document has long been in print, nobody hitherto appears to have thought of comparing the descriptions with the existing buildings — a process to which they have been submitted by Professor Willis with satisfactory results, the coincidence being found perfect. By this means, the names of several mouldings have been fixed beyond a doubt. With regard to the terms applied to the members of classical architecture in the present day, few are found of classical origin in any language in Europe, the architects and writers of the Renaissance having generally applied the terms in common use, with the exception of Albert!, who affected to call everything by a new name, and invented for himself a Latin nomenclature which has never been adopted. Of the Vitru- vian terms, few have been retained, since his early translators, being for the most part practical men, and writing for practical men, having naturally made use of their own mediaeval words, applying them to the classical mouldings. In fact, the names of mouldings to be picked out of Vitruvius, who has not written expressly on the subject, are neither complete nor very intelligible, and a distinction is to be made between the names he applies to mouldings derived from their form, and those which are due to their place or mode of combination. These terms Professor Willis calls the sectional uml functional names, and much obscurity has rested upon the words used by Vitruvius from inattention to this point. The nomenclature in use in England at the present day is of a very mixed character, and has arisen from the different media, Italian, French, or Dutch, through which a knowledge of the great masters reached us during the seventeenth century. March 18. — E. B. Lamb, Esq., in the Chair. The following papers were read — 1. " Some observations connected with Hampton Court Bridge, and the adjacent parts of the River Thames," by C. Parker, Esq., Fellow. It appears, that as late as the year 1750 there was no communication between Hampton Court and the opposite bank, except by a ferry ; for we learn, by an act of parliament about that date, that J. Clark, who possessed the manor of East Moulsey (from the reign of Charles II.) was empowered to erect a bridge across the river, from East Moulsey to Hampton Court. The bridge was erected from the designs of S. Stephens, by B. Ludgator, and was opened in December, 1753. That bridge, however, did remain up long; for having been built too slight to stand, or to resist the concussion of the passing craft, it was subsequently taken down. On its removal, the present bridge was erected, and although it has been repaired several times, the ori- ginal form of its construction is still preserved. It is built of oak, supported by ten piers of the same material ; the length is about 350 feet, and the breadth 18 feet. In 1841, it appeared that material alterations had been made in the current of the river, by the construction of Moulsey Lock, about the year 1817, and subsequently (about 1833) the construction of two wooden embankments, projecting from the north bank of the river, by which the width of the stream was reduced one-half. These obstructions had caused such an alteration in the direction of the current and the rapidity of the stream, as to occasion, not only a disruption of the banks and the bed of the river, but likewise much injury to the bridge itself, from the craft being frequently driven with violence against the piers. Extensive repairs were in consequence found necessary. The main piles were strengthened 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. J97 with additional ones, the decayed portions were removed, and the whole bound together with wrought-iron chain-bars. Proper precautions were talten to retain the challi in the piers, and the gravel of the platform was reduced in thickness 18 inches, in order to lighten the superincumbent weight ; and the structure, though still presenting a somewhat disjointed and sunken appearance, is now firm and compact. 2. " On the Chancel of Rim/vood Church, Hants," by Mr. F. J. Francis. This chancel, 50 feet long and 22 feet broad, is (as appeared from the draw- ings exhibited) a fine specimen of the early pointed style; and, although, like the rest of the church, it has suffered from continued neglect, spoliation, and bad taste, enough remains to prove, that the ancient builders had be- stowed on it no ordinary portion of ingenuity and skill. The peculiar fea- ture is the number of windows which it contains, there being a series of eight lofty, narrow lancet windows on each side, with deep splays, some of which bear traces of painted decorations, with a fine triple lancet at the east end, making a total of nineteen. The peculiar features of the style are well carried out in all the details. The caps and bases of the slender Purbeck pillars, which separate the splays of the window at the east end, are in the purest taste ; indications of similar pillars are to be found between the win- dows on the north and south side. THK ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS. February 12.— Professor Traill, M.D., F.R.S.E., President in the chair. The following communications were made : — 1. (Part II.) Observations on, and Improvements proposed in, the Ventilat- ing and irarming of Factories. By Robert Ritchie, Esq., C.E. Mr. Ritchie continued his exposition of the modes in use for warming and ventilating factories. He showed the diversity of opinion which exists on the subject of ventilation, some being in favour of an upward, and others in favour of doionward, withdrawal of the vitiated air. He also showed, from the opinions of many scientific men, the advantages, as regards salubrity, to he derived from not separating the ventilating from the warminr/ process, &c. 2. Account of a Cheap and Portable Self. Register-Tide-Gauge. Invented by John Wood, Esq., of Port-Glasgow. Communicated by John Scott Russell, M.A., F.R.S.E., C.E. One of these tide-gauges and examples of its work were shown. This is a very beautiful, simple, cheap, and portable tide- gauge. It can be packed in a box of about two feet square, costs about 21. only, and registers by a pencil on a cylinder of paper the total rise and fall of the tide for a month at a time. IJy a simple addition, costing only 20s. more, where there is a clock at hand, it can be made to register the state of the tide at every period of time. The machine was much admired for its simplicity and cheapness, and was referred to a committee. 3. On the Naphtha or Camphine Lamp, and its expense compared with other sources of Light. By Andrew Fyfe, M.D., F.R.S.E. The lamp was exhibited. After describing the construction of the lamp. Dr. Fyfe alluded to the nature of the oil used, which he said seemed to be a preparation of turpentine, if not turpentine itself, and then afterwards to the comparative expense. From different trials he had made, comparing its light with that of gas, he found that the expense would be as about three to one, compared to that of an equal light from the gas as supplied to Edinburgh. Of course, if the gas were more expensive, or the quality inferior, theu the comparative expense of the lamp would be less. As compared to lamps with common oil, the expense was as about three to five for whale oil, and as about three to eight for sperm oil. Accordingly, though the lamp was more expensive than gas, yet, in those places where gas could not be got, the lamp was much more economical than lamps with sperm or even with common oil. 4. Account and Description of a Self-Registering Dynamometric Apparatus, constructed in Paris for the Hydraulic Experiments of Mr. Scott Russell, by M. Morin, Chef de Bataillon of Artillery. With diagrams of its work, and some account of its results. By Mr. Scott Russell. The apparatus was ex- hibited. It is a very scientific and expensive apparatus, requiring the greatest care in its construction, as the springs, on bending, show on the register equal strains in equal spaces traversed by the pencil. It is particularly useful i n hydraulic and railway experiments, registering correctly the strains and forces at all parts of the voyage or journey. It has several very beautiful adaptations and adjustments, and requires little attention from the engineer observing. The whole work is carefully recorded on a roll of paper which is taken off and preserved at the end of the journey. 5. Autographic Apparatus for obtaining accurate Drawings of the Forms of Surfaces or Double Curvature ; with Autographic Projections and Draw- ings, illustrated by Practical Examples. By Mr. Scott Russell. Referred to a Committee. February 26. — Mungo Ponton, Esq., F.R.S.E., in the Chair. The following communications were made : — 1. (Part HI.) Observations on, and Improvements proposed in the Venti- lating and Warming of Factories. By Robert Ritchie, Esq., F.R.S.S.A., Civil Engineer, Edinburgh. In this part of his paper Mr, Ritchie stated the general principles upon which all approved modes of warming and ventila- tion must proceed ; and in particular the combination of the two, so that the air of the chamber shall not only be warmed, but a constant influx of pure warm air, and the extraction of the vitiated air, shall be effectually secured, in order that the health of the operatives in large factories may be promoted. 2. Description, with a Drawing, of a neio Method of constructing the Dwellings of the Poorer Classes, in order to ensure a more comfortable home, and better ventilation. By Mr. Anthony Bower. In this paper it is pro- posed to construct the dwellings of cast-iron as being cheaper than stone or brick, and to ventilate them by a common double concentric shaft or chim- ney, into the centre portion of which the fire flues are carried, and into the outer portion are carried the ventilation flues — the beams supporting the floors being cast hollow, and the ventilation going on through them. He proposes to make the tops of the houses flat, to allow of drying clothes thereon, and he collects the rain water in cisterns at the roofs for washing the clothes. 3. Description and Drawing of a Water-Meter. By William Praser, 4. On a Reversing Locomotive Sleam-Engine, with Reversing Box, and Pivot Valve. By Mr. Daniel Erskine. A Working Model in German Silver was exhibited in action. This was a very beautiful application of Mr. Ers. kine's reversing box and pivot valve to the locomotive steam-engine. The reversing was performed in the most simple and instantaneous manner, by moving a handle. The model was exceedingly well executed by Mr. Erskine's own hands, and did its duty well, either on a straight or circular railway. ROYAL INSTITUTION. March 1. — Mr. Fownes delivered a lecture " On the Chemical History of Sugar." — After a slight description of the properties and distinctive charac- ters of the more important of the sweet principles of the vegetable kingdom, the lecturer proceeded to discuss the subject of the practical manufacture of raw and refined sugar from the juice of the cane. The sugar-cane itself, originally a native of India or China, was introduced into Sicily, by the way of Egypt and Syria, at a period antecedent to the Crusades. It was carried, in 1420, by the Portuguese to Madeira, and subsequently, by the same people and the Spaniards, to Brazil and to the West India Islands. The process of sugar making in the British West India colonies has probably undergone but little change for two centuries or more, except in the improvement of the machinery for crushing the ripe canes and extracting the juice. he tem- pering with lime, clarifying by heat, and quick evaporation in a series of open pans, still remain. Under the most favourable circumstances a large quantity of molasses is always produced ; and as we know from the experi- ments of M. Peligot that nothing but crystaUizable sugar exists in the juice of the cane, this production of treacle must be ascribed to an alteration of the sugar from the high temperature of the liquid in the open pans towards the termination of the boiling. The excellent plan now adopted by the refiners of the raw or Muscovado sugar, for concentrating their purified and bleached syrup by evaporation in vessels from which the air is exhausted, patented in 1813 by the Hon. C. E. Howard, was then described and illus- trated, and its adoption in the sugar islands, for concentrating to the neces- sary degree the clarified cane juice, strongly recommended. Under this system the product of sugar would be greatly increased, and its quality much improved, while little uncrystallizable syrup would be produced. This is, however, but a part, although an essential one, of the improvement of which the sugar cultivation and manufacture are susceptible. The East India sugars are made in part from the juice of a palm ; the crude product, or jaggery, is subjected to a kind of refining process before exportation. These sugars are softer and less crystalline, and inferior in sweetness to those of the West Indies. The cause of the latter fact is to be sought for in the quantity of grape sugar they contain, which, indeed, is found more or less in every sample of raw sugar, having been produced in the first boiling at the expense of the crystaUizable portion. For the purpose of detecting the pre- sence of the grape sugar recourse may be had to a beautiful experiment of Trommer, described in the " Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie," for 1841, p. 360. The sugar to be examined is dissolved in water, mixed with a solu- tion of sulphate of copper, and then a large excess of caustic potash ailded. The blue precipitate at first thrown down is re-dissolved with intense purplish- blue colour by the excess of alkali. So far, both cane and grape-sugar behave alike; but on heating the liquid to the boiling point, the cane sugar solution undergoes but little change, while that containing the grape sugar yields a copious precipitate of brilliant red suboxide of copper. It was suggested that this experiment might possibly be put into a form applicable to the assay of sugars, in which the proportion of grape sugar — that is, worthless su^ar — should be inferred from the quantity of suboxide of copper produced from a given weight of the sample. The cheaper kinds of raw sugar, chiefly con- sumed by the poor, are sometimes cruelly adulterated by an intentional ad- mixture of grape sugar, |manufactured on a large scale for the purpose from potato-starch. This is a fraud which should be suppressed. INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. March 5. — The President in the Chair. The first paper read was a description by Mr. J. T. Syme, of the bridge over the river Jfhitadder, at Allanton. This bridge, which was executed at he expense of Miss Boswall, of Blackadder, from the designs of Messrs. 128 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, Stevenson & Sons, of Edinburgh, consists of two arches of 75 ft. span each, with a versed sine of 11 ft. 6 in., the centre pier being 32 ft. 1 in. long and 10 ft. in breadtli, making the distance between the faces of the abutments 160 ft.; it was constructed of soft red sandstone, and the abutments were built up solid, the greater part of the masonry being ashlar ; the total cost of the bridge was stated to be £6058. An account of the building of IJ'ellington Bridge, over the river Aire, at Leeds, by Mr. J. Temperley, was also read. This bridge was executed from the designs of the late Mr. Rennie about 20 years since ; it crosses the river where it is 100 ft. wide and 6 ft. deep ; it consists of a segmental arch of 100 ft. span, with a versed sine of 15 ft., constructed of stone from the quarries of Bramley Fall, which are about four miles from the bridge ; the abutments are built in radiating courses, external faces, which are horizontal, the whole being well bonded together : the total quantity of masonry is 80,000 cubic feet. The method of forming the foundations, as well as of the coffer-dams, and centre was given in detail, and it was stated that the total cost of the bridge was only £7250. Mr. G. Rennie made some clear and consise remarks on the ancient arches, of which traces have been discovered, by the recent researches of travellers ; alluding to Perring's account of ancient arches discovered at Thebes, the bricks of which bore the name of Sesostris, which would carry back the knowledge of the arch to a period of upwards of 3000 vears. He noticed also the size of the stone lintel among the Greeks — the etruscan arches found in Italy, and also the more modern but very bold arches still remaining in Italy, Portugal and Spain. A paper by Mr. F. Nash was then read describing a new kind of girder, composed of a number of diagonal bars of wrought iron abutting against each other, with cast iron transoms ; these latter supporting the pressure and the former the tension. This mode of construction has been recently introduced in France; and the paper after describing a number of prelimi- nary experiments on small girders, gave the details of the proofs, to which four girders placed side by side with a bearing of 74 ft. 8 in. had been sub- jected, by order of Mons. Teste, the Minister of Public Works, Paris. From this it appeared, that with a load of 62 tons, the deflexion in the centre was l^W in., and that the girders resumed their original position on the weight being removed, after bearing it for a month. In order to test the effect of a sudden shock, a cart loaded with 4^ tons of iron was caused to break down suddenly in the centre of the bridge, without producing any prejudicial effect beyond crushing the flooring planks. The weight of these four girders was stated to be 20} tons. March 12. — The President in the Chair. The discussion upon the knowledge of the properties of the arch pos- sessed by the ancients was renewed, on the presentation by Mr. Page of drawings of two arches standing near some Cyclopean remains at Cape Crio, (Cnidus). There was no positive evidence of the date of these arches, but from their being built without mortar, and the massiveness of their con- struction, it was agreed that they were probably of the same period as the Cyclopaean work among which they were situated. The failure of the Pont de Boverie, at Liege, which sunk so much and cracked on the piers to such an extent as to oblige it to be taken down, was fully explained by Mr. Rennie, who presented a drawing of it. Mr. B. Green also exhibited a design for the proposed stone bridge of eight circular arches for connecting Gateshead with Newcastle-upon-Tyne, at a high level. He also exhibited some beautiful specimens of ornamental bricks, made by Mr. Barnes, of Newcastle. The first paper read was an " Account of the harbour of Pidteney Town," (Wick, Caithness, N. B.) This harbour, which was designed by Mr. Telford for the British Fisheries Society in 1803, and for which the first part of the works was executed between 1805 and 1811, by Mr. Burn, at an expense of £16,400. The success of the herring fishery, and the consequent increase of the shipping frequenting the port, rendered a more extensive harbour essen- tial, and in 1823, other plans, which received the approval of Mr. Telford, were carried into effect by Mr. Bremner. The various extensions of the works were given in great detail, with the ingenious methods employed in their execution, as also the account of the devastation caused by the sudden inroad of the sea upon the unfinished work of the pier, when 100 ft. in length of the pier head was swept away in one tide, besides doing much damage to the other parts of the works. The ruined works were secured for the remainder of that year by binding them together with chain cables, and in the succeeding summer the works were completed, and have stood so ever since. Some interesting observations were made as to the relative action of the waves upon long and short slopes of the sea faces of piers, and the author's experience evidently leads him to prefer a slope of about one to one for works which are exposed to a heavy sea. The various ingenious methods adopted by tlie author for conquering the difliculties before him, excited great interest, which was kept up by the next paper, also by Mr. Bremner ; it was a " Description of casks nsed in floating large stones for building sea walls in deep water." These casks, which were *?^°"K'y built of fir staves, hooped externally with irou, and supported in- side by radiating bars, like the spokes of a wheel, were used instead of crane barges, for conveying stones of 30 to 40 tons weight, for securing the foot of the sea walls of Banff Harbour, which had failed. Two of these casks, of 445 ft. cube each, were nsed to convey stones of 30 tons weight, by pass- ing the two chain cables, which were wound round them, through the eyes of the leweses which were fixed in the stone at low water, at which time the chains being hauled down tight, when the tide flowed, the buoyancy of the casks floated the stones, and they were towed by a boat over the place where the stone was to be deposited — the lashing being cut away, the casks were let go, and the stone fell into its seat. This method was found to succeed perfectly in weather that would have destroyed any craue barges, and the works of Banff Harbour were thus secured from further degradation, and were subsequently entirely restored at a comparatively small cost. The drawings and enlarged diagrams gave fully the details of this method of working. A model of Farani's railway switch was exhibited, and its self-acting motion, in guiding the carriages into the sidings or on the main lines, as required, was shown by the inventor. These switches were stated to have been used on the Grand Junction Railway for Gome considerable time. March 19. — The President in the Chair. In the recapitulation of the conversation of the meeting of March 12th, there were read some interesting remarks by Colonel Leafe, on the know- ledge possessed by the Greeks of the properties of the arch : he contended that numerous examples still existed of their having used it, but from the solidity of their constructions, the nature of the materials they employed, and the architectural character of the edifices, which were chiefly temples, the arch was evidently less employed than among the Romans, who used different and less solid materials. A description was then read " of the formation of the Town-lands of Mnsselburgit, on the Firth of Forth," by Mr. James Hay. This was a cu- rious instance of an extensive tract of nearly 400 acres of land, being formed by an alluvial deposit, in about 300 years. The river Esk, when swollen by rain, is stated to bring down quantities of the detritus from the hills, which, with the soil washed from the banks of the low lands, is ar- rested when it meets the tide, and is thrown upon the beach ; this, being mingled with large boulder stones, become fixed ; the sand is blown over it by the heavy north winds, to which the shore is exposed, and thus this large tract has been formed. The diagrams showed the several lines of high water at various dates, and that nearly the entire town is built upon land thus recovered from the sea without the aid of art. The next paper read was " a description of an hydraulic traversing frame at the Bristol terminus of the Great Western Railway, by Mr. A. J. Dodson, Assoc. Inst. C.E. The action of this machine, the object of which is to transport the railway carriages from the arrival side of the terminus, to the departure side, or to any one of several intermediate lines, was thus de- icrilied : an opening being made in the train, the apparatus is pushed on to the line of rails, and the carriage required to be moved, is run over it when the frame is quite down, it being then sufficiently low to allow the carriages to pass freely over. As soon as the carriage is brought directly over the apparatus, a man works a pump, acting upon four hydraulic presses, which raise the frame until both sides are in contact with the axles of the carriage wheels, and raise the flanges of the wheel clear of the rails ; the whole ap- paratus, with the carriage suspended upon it, is then easily transported to any of the lines of rails, when, by unscrewing a stopper, which allows the water to flow back from the presses into its cistern, the carriage is lowered on to the rails, and the apparatus is rolled over ready for re-commencing the operation, the whole transit not having occupied more than one minute and a half. The action of the apparatus (which was made by Mr. Napier, York Road) was stated to be very satisfactory, and its cost to have been about .f220. An account was then read of the Landslip in the Ashley cutting on the Great Western Railway, by Mr. J. G. Thomson, Grad. Inst. C.E. The cutting, wliich was described, is situated about five miles on the London side of Bath ; it was made through a mass of detritus from the neighbouring highlands, consisting of sand, oolitic gravel, vegetable matter, and stones of the great oolite, lying upon the blue lias clay and marl. The whole district was extraordinarily full of water, and appeared to have defied all attempts to drain it ; this accumulation of water softened the clay, turning portions into soft silt, and when, by cutting away a portion of the foot, which was situated on a slope, tlie su|)port was taken away, the whole mass was set in motion, and every attempt to resist it was fruitless. The details of the at- tempts at driving water headings, sinking pits, which collapsed and were obliged to be filled up with stones and fagots, and all the other engineering devices that were adopted, were given with great minuteness, and when being aided by some well executed drawings, gave an interesting account of a good specimen of one of the difficulties to be encountered by the railway engineer, in the ordinary course of his labours. The paper was an example of that which has been so frequently insisted upou at the meetings of the Institution, namely, the advantage to the civil engineer of a knowledge of geology, by which his progress would he safely made under such circumstances. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 1 20 March 26. — The President in the Chair. The paper read was by Mr. C. H. Gregory, engineer of the London and Croydon Railway ; it treated of " railway cuttings and embankments, with an account of some ' sHps' in the London clay." An outline was given of the general principles which regulate the formation of railway cuttings and embankments, illustrating the manner in which these works arc affected by the geological character of the earths employed, or that were cut through. The paper then gave a detailed history of some heavy slips in the London clay, which had occurred under the observation of the author, on the London and Croydon Railway, and described the means adopted for clearing the rail- way from the immense masses of clay witli which it was covered, to a depth of 10 to 12 feet, and for enabling the passenger trains to run without hind- rance, during the time of repairing the damage. The cause of these slips was then fully considered, and it appeared evident that in nearly every case they proceeded from the combined action of air and water, the latter entering in rainy seasons by the cracks formed by the drying action of the former, until the mass of upper yellow clay being detached, moved by its own weight, and sliding upon the blue clay, the surface of which was rendered semi-fluid by the percolated water, was precipitated into the cutting. The means adopted for preventing the recurrence of such events were fully considered, particularly the introduction of gravel buttresses and rivetments through and at the foot of the slips, a system which had been perfectly successful. In the discussion which ensued the means adopted were generally approved ; many instances were given of the use of similar gravel buttresses on other railways ; the importance of eitensive surface drainage and of freeing from water the slopes and embankments, was insisted on; the interesting question of the ' creep,' or presumed rising of the floor of old mines was examined, and it was contended that, in almost all cases, it was the roof, or upper rocks ■that sunk down. The case of the village of Wallsend was instanced, which place had been sunk vertically between 16 and 24 inches, in consequence of the excavation of the coal from beneath it, by the mines under the direction ■of the late Mr. Buddie. The further discussion of the question was adjourned until the next meet- ing, April 2, when the monthly ballot for members was announced to take place, and the following papers will be read : — " Account of the Railway from Amsterdam to Rotterdam, and of the prin- cipal works upon it." By Le Chevalier F. \V. Conrad, M. Inst. C.E., trans- lated from the French, by C. Manby, Secretary. " Description of the Piling Machine used at Montrose Harbour Works." By G. T. Page, Assoc. Inst. C.E. " Account of a series of experiments on the comparative strength of solid and hollow axles." By C. Geech. EDGE'S WATER-METER. Bead at the Society of Arts, March 20, 1844. Fig. 1. For many years past the want of a machine to measure liquids, while being transmitted through tubes, seems to have occupied pub- lic attention, and more recently water com- panies, and practical engineers, have become desirous of the ex- istence of such an in- strument ; the former to ascertain the quan- tity of water supplied, (more particularly to their large consumers,) the latter to ascertain the amount of water passed into their steam boilers, and by infe- rence the amount of steam generated, the comparative advan- tages of dilFerent fuels, and the attention of the engineer to his duty. It was with a view to supply the wants of the two latter classes, that the present ma- chine was invented ; although there is no doubt that if modified in a particular way, it would as effectually answer the purposes of the former. Before entering upon a description of this machine, it may be as well remarked that several others for the same purposes have been from time to time brought before the public, without much suc- cess ; these however are liable to one of two very important faults, either that they cannot measure liquids while acted upon by pressure, or that they will measure any air wliich may pass through them, as if it were liquid. These objections are entirely overcome by the pre- sent arrangement, and also, it is believed, a greater degree of accuracy and simplicity is obtained. The annexed engravings show the meter for the measurement of water, for which purpose it is now being tested in several parts of England, and also at Mr. Edge's manufactoiv, Great Peter-street, Westminster. Fig. 1 is a sectional elevation showing the cliambers A and B, and the machinery therein. Fig. 2 is a section of chamber A, taken at right angles to Fig. 1. The outer casing is rectangular, and is made of cast iron; this how- ever may be varied to zinc or tin plate if the pressure of the liquid be not too great. This case is divided in the middle by a partition C, thereby forming two chambers A and B, communicating through the slit D in the top of the partition C. In the partition C there is a four way cock E, the larger end of which opens into cliamber A, and the smaller into chamber B ; the water is conducted to and from this cock by means of tubes, shown by arrows passing througli chamber B. This cock transmits the liquid to and from the chambers A and B, in the same manner as the slide valve conveys the steam, to and from the cylinder of the steam engine. Parallel with the centre of the cock E, Is a spindle F working in the upright standards GO; this spindle carries a driver H, which acts upon projections on the plug of the cock E, and it also carries a metal cylinder I, hermetically sealed, in which is a heavy metal ball K, less in diameter than the cylinder, so that it may roll freely in if. In the upper part of chamber A, tliere is a float L working upon the axis M, which carries a pendant arm N, having upon the end of it a friction pulley. As the float rises and falls by the action of the water, this arm vibrates, and acting alter- nately upon the inner sides of the two teeth on the spindle F, causes the lower end of the cylinder I, (in which is the metal ball) to be raised, the ball rolls to the opposite end of the cylinder ; and by its weight moves the spindle F suddenly round, which motion is com- municated to the plug of the cock E, thereby causing a change of inlet and outlet. The action of the meter is as follows. The water enters the inlet pipe, and (from the peculiar position of the plug of the cock) passes into the chamber A, until it has risen to the dotted line Z, the float will by this time have been raised to its higliest position, and the pendant arm N will have raised the lower end of the cylinder I by its action upon one of the teeth on the spindle F. The ball will then suddenly roll to the other end of the cylinder, causing the spindle to move round, which motion is conveyed to the plug of the cock, and its position being reversed, the water then passes into the chamber B through the four way cock. Now the air which was in chamber B and the upper part of chamber A, becomes compressed, and its expansive force acting upon the surface of the water in A, expels it through the outlet by the four way cock, until the water falls to the dotted line Y Y, when the float will also have fallen, and by its action upon one of the teeth on the end of the spindle, have raised the opposite end of the tube, causing the metal ball to roll to the other end, which force being conveyed to tlie plug of the cock by the driver, suddenly moves it into its original position. The water will again rise into the cham- ber A, and acting on the compressed air expel the water from B, through the four way cock. Thus each chamber receives and dis- charges distinct portions of water ; the pressure exerted to fill the one, being communicated by a column of air to discharge that in the other. Each stroke being equal to the area of the chamber A, from dotted line to dotted line, (minus the bulk of the float and other machinery in that part of the chamber). It may here be remarked that the bulk of chamber B has nothing to do with the measurement ; for B can only receive as much water as A discharges, and can only discharge as much as is received by A. The only exception to this rule, is when an additional pressure takes place, at this time a longer stroke is given, which is again repaid by a short one, which exactly compensates for it when the pressure is removed. Upon the axis M, there are two teeth taking into a crown wheel, similar to a clock escapement ; thus tlie vibrations of the axis M, give rotary motion to the upright spindle O ; from thence to the counting apparatus which is of a novel description. 11 130 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, WESTMINSTER BRIDGE CONTROVERSY. Mb. Babhv has brought forward a new design for a Westminster Bridge. The stnirinre proposed is to be of iron, and of five arches, tlie old bridge having thirteen arches. The design is made to harmonise in style with the Palace of Westminster, and has a very light appearance. Mr. Barry proposes to improve the navigation, to give greater waterway, and greater roadway, while the expense is estimated at ^185, 000, and it is supposed the cost of repairing the old bridge will be double the sum, and the property of the Bridge Commissioners is considered to be ample for securing the outlay, thus making no demand on the public purse. The span of the proposed arches is, centre arch 160ft., two second arches 157ft. each, and two end arches 133 ft. each. The roadway is much lower and much broader. The breadth of the river will be considerably curtailed by the embankment, a space equal to two arches of the old bridge being taken in at each end. The plan of a temporary timber bridge to carry the traffic during the removal of the old bridge and erection of the new is shown. MARINE BOILERS. Sir — As a subscriber and careful reader of your highly respectable and well conducted Journal from its coinmencemenl, I have, in con- junction with many others, derived much pleasure and considerable advantage from the manner in which many subjects of science and art have been treated ; but nothing has pleased me more than tlie plan you have adopted in the number for this present month, (viz., page 90 and plate III,) of giving working drawings and particulars of marine engines and boilers, and I sincerely trust nothing will inter- vene to hinder your carrying out a plan so important to every one connected with practical mechanics and commerce. The specimen of boiler you have given is certainly a good one and will, I have no doubt, if generally adopted, be found very su- perior to those of ordinary construction ; but with all due deference to your judgment and sources of information, there are several bad parts, or rather some that might, in my estimation, be improved. In the first place, I do not approve of the straight sides wliicli you have adopted, because they are in practice found to be very weak, and hence must be heavily stayed, to prevent the change of form and liability to leakage from the fluctuation of pressure to which they are subjected. To remedy this defect I would make the shell slightly curved in all directions, which could be made to occupy a mere frac- tion of more space, and would, from their improved or arched form, prevent that vibration that I complain of. The next point I would call your attention to, is the uptake from the furnace at the back end of the boilers, where the water is permitted to go direct up between the outer and uptake shells without any external lire doors, and in the event of bursting one or more of the iron tubes, which is often the case, (at least in railway locomotives, the tubes being only soldered, except for a short distance behind their insertion plate, where they are welded,) how could you stop the leak at the back end without extinguishing your fires? Now had you introduced a fire or tube door at the back end, same as front, you could with ease plug the burst tube or tubes up at once, and hence the only difference in the working of the boilers would be the loss of the heating surface of the said tube or tubes. There are other minor points that might, in my estimation, be improved, such as the curving the furnace tops and bottoms, &c. ; but I must not trespass further upon your notice, as all these, and perhaps more, will readily occur tu the practical niiui : yet however valueless these remarks may be in themselves, if every one who was capable of correcting the mistakes that occur in me- chanical works would condescend to do so, they would lead to that interchange of thought which by rubbing against each other produces the sparks of excellence. I am. Sir, Vour most obedient servant, J. H. S. C. Nemcastle-on-Tyne, March \lth, 1844. [Our correspondent is evidently a locomotive engineer, accustomed to steam of very high-pressures, and consequently spherical and cylindrical boilers. It is not intended that steam of a higher density than 101b. per square inch should be used in the boilers delineated in our last number, which pressure would not affect their form if they were stayed in any tolerably efficient way, and which would not be so heavy as the additional plate, water and space, which would be ne- cessary if shaped in accordance with the suggestions of J. H. S. C. The '•fraction of additional space," required by curvilinear shelled boilers, is not so small as bethinks; we could illustrate this, but it would be too lengthy for a note. We do not understand what he means by the " vibration " of rectangular boilers. Doors in the back uptake, for the removal of defective tubes would not be safe for marine boilers, the heat would be so intense as to seriously affect the safety of the vessel, and the most effective surface would be decreased. Nor do we see the necessity of it, for we are not acquainted with the failure of a single tube in any marine boilers of this description. The tops of the furnaces are made elliptical, the bottoms nearly square, to admit as large a portion of atmospheric air to the grates as possible, for it is not always convenient to raise the gates to get the required area. In courtesy we answer the questions put to us, although the remarks of our correspondent will sound strange in the ears of marine engineers. — Editor.] VULCANIAN ARCHITECTURE. (From the Athenaum ) A paper on the restoration of St. Stephen's Spire, Vienna, read at the Institution of British Architects, (see the Journal for January last), has even a more than architectural interest ; it serves to illustrate the progress of human knowledge, and to show how compatible is a vast deal of movement with very little advancement. There may be progressions in various pro- vinces, but retrogressions in perhaps as many others; and the sura of the former, minus the amount of the latter, would exhibit zero for the surplus oftcner than most people imagine. Human knowledge, if thus considered, will appear to expand somewhat like a gridiron pendulum, whose alternate bars contract while their companions lengthen, so that the whole remains, a prodigious time, of the selfsame dimensions. Human intellect, again, if it does march, marches at about the pace of my Uncle Toby, putting one loot before the other without advancing an inch. Contrary to Swift's maxim, we hold that a specimen brick mni/, by times, tell no little of the structure from which it was taken ; and we think the one above, taken from the Temple of Architecture, tells a lamentable tale respecting its present condition. It reveals rather more than a Babylonian tile does of Bolus's Toiver, and in far less cryptic characters. The imperial architects, it would appear, have raised St. Stephen's dilapidated spire to its ancient stupendous height, not by means ofj lawful masons' work, but blacksmiths' — they have rtstored the pyra- midal part (above one-third of the whole altitude) not with stone, but iron I Exquisite and appropriate finish—just as Samoyeds might tip the imperial sceptre, if they got hold of it, with a fish bone ! Barbarians— so our super- civilized contemporaries call them— built up that epitome of the sublime and beautiful — to which Cleopatra's Needle was a needle — than whose top- most stone no loftier above earth's surface did mortal hand ever lay (except what said barbarians posited also) ; yet modern "progressives," either through want of genius, pure artistic taste, masonic pov('er, or — the fatalest amonp; all defalcations — want of inspiring will, tremble at a like attempt, and instead of a [iroper apex, put upon the stone frustrum of the tower an enormous iron fool's cap — fit'emblem of their deserts who ordained it ! This forging a steeple implies, we allow, some progress in the arts, but a retrogression too, far greater, because in a nobler province. The sun of mental enlightenment, we suspect, about which flatterers of themselves along with their age, hold such stentorian discourses, gets almost as many new spots, year by year, as it gets rid of: it shone, perhaps, throughout the " Dark Ages " pretty much as it does at present, save that our metaphorical Dan Sol " tricks his beams " a little better. Spirits of the Old Free Masons, hear this— a foundry for Gothic Architecture ! Spires to be cast like lamp-posts : pinnacles, canopies, crockets, finials^all the delicate and decorative details of your exquisite style to be made per pattern, and moulded per gross, like cheap stoves, irons, fenders, snuffer-dishes, inkstands, metal buttons, and brads! Ready made cathedrals will no doubt soon be ordered from the mine's mouth for European cities, like palaces for Timbuctoo! Vulcan, the god of blacksmiths, will become the god of architects : England, above all other lands, bids fair to make his anvil her chief altar, and, as the Lipari Isle of yore, to resound his name and his hammer throughout her subterranean dominions — Vulcani domus, et Vulcania Domine tellus. Hue tunc IgDipoteos cxio descendet ab altol We do not, by these remarks, mean any impeachment against the merits of iron applied to common domestic, or even public structures, nor, indeed, to divers tincommon, where the more heterogeneous the materials the more suitable they would be: but we would denounce with the force of an inter- dict, if possible, the adoption of this illegitimate substance in superior edi- fices, as radically subversive of true architecture — professionally and nation- ally disgraceful. Let us, therefore, enter our humble caveat against [the Vulcanian School being commended for imitation among our countrymen. Some connoisseurs might deem an iron or a leaden, or a wooden, yea, a lea- 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 131 them steeple on Westminster Abbey middle tower better than none, and tbe mongrel addition'to St. Stephen's, at Vienna, may stand excused by such an alternative ; nevertheless, a vicious principle once admitted, furnishes a pre- cedent to be followed when its origin has been forgotten, because mankind has a natural leaning towards the corrupt in fine art, as well as in morals. The school abovesaid does not^count its sole disciples amongst the successors of the Huns, nor confine itself to the Carpathian wizards of the Danube ; even those learned martinettes, the Prussians, sanction it; even their heaven- born baumeisier, Schinkel, entered himself a pupil ! Berlin iron-work having obtained great vogue for its quincaillerie and brittle 'bijouterie, insect- brooches, and animalculous'breast-pins, ladies' clasps, purses, filagree trink- ets, pup[iet statues, and chimney-piece articles of virtu — being proper enough, too, perhaps, for coarse' or' concealed masses of construction — was brought into most abusive use for prominent architectural features — nay, whole na- tional edifices. The Kreuherg Deiihmt, by Schinkel himself, and Luther's canopied shrine, at Wittenberg, are Je.'iamples. W.^ consider this pseudo- rnasonic system only another version of imitation stone work ; as lo principle, not one jot above lath-and-plaster edification: [a system biought about among architects by modern Tmiddle-class taste — by the self-same low- minded satisfaction with surface effects which gazes enraptured at mock- marble and scagliola columns, "compo " entablatures, ;)n;)i>r-mac/ie' balus- trades, and similar factitious 'substitutes— which loves them ibetter than the genuine materials, because more applicable to profuse bedizenment, and easier distorted into novel I'monstrosi ties. Found, if needful, a new kind of architecture upon the native' character of iron, such as its essence can per- vade, its attributes warrant, its powers embrace ; let some forgetive brain, in Falstaff's sense hammer out a solid, sterling system of Vulcanian Architec- ture, and we shall praise it ; but none of your hybrid abortions, begot be- tween metallurgy and masonry, that cohere [still worse than the brass and clay of Nebuchadnezzar*s'image ! It maybe said, what imports tlie sub- stance, so as the appearance is agreeable? how should molecular consti- tution of parts affect their integral masses, whose forms and proportions are alone very important? A reply seems almostl superfluous ; yet we give it. Besides that bad faith, when appearances do not fulfil their promises, always offends a well-regulated mind — besides that the inward or thorough worth of materials enriches the spectator's imagination — besides that their untracta- bleness overcome enhances his pleasure, as the quantum of skill, toil, and time employed upon all productions augments their value — besides this, we are much disposed to maintain that there exists a bond, indissoluble though indefinable, between beauty of end and legitimacy of means — that the nature of the constructive material suggests, demands, nay, often commands the style of construction ; and that, if the former become debased, the latter will degenerate also. We are persuaded the Parthenon could never have arisen had the Greeks built their temples of cast iron ; no, nor the beautiful Tripod Monument, had their Corinthian capitals been moulded out of the very nicest potter's clay in the Ceramicus, and their columns been the very best stock- brick, covered over with plaster of Paros ! No more, we affirm, than the Phidian Minerva could have sprung from " Coade's Stone," as the customary stuff of sculpture, or little wooden lozenges given birth to the rude grandeur of the Appian Way, and such specimens of cyclopean road-making. Such things we will admit possible when beavers can build another Waterloo Bridge with Thames mud and their tails! Augustus, it was said, found Rome brick, and left her marble ; yet see how the inveterate use of brick de- based the Roman style of architecture, until the native properties of that material absorbed those of the finer one, and brought forth a style (the ar- cadedj favourable to their full development. The spirit of the material, as it were, transfuses itself throughout the creations therefrom : the meanness of a material enters into the soul of the artist ; understanding by meanness — not commonness (for Grecian and Etruscan fictile vases of most refined ele- gance are often mere earthenware), but— poor and pitiful mis-adaptedness to the given purpose ; this it is which would render an El Dorado, though built of ingots, or Aladdin's palace, though walled with gems, mean architec- turally beside a simple Greek fane, whose blocks beget its massive character ; and which, on the other hand, permits a Gothic church of grey stone or riibble itself, to rival Pentelic temples. We shall, perhaps, have the Vulca- nians cite King Solomon as patronizing cast metal pillars. What then ? Were either Jews or Gentiles enjoined brazen architecture thereby ? Must archi- tects, till the pillars of the world give way, bow down before the brazen images oi Jachin and Boaz? Had these enormous objects no loftier aim, no deeper, where all was symbolic ? Briefly — how much does any one know about them ? But hypothesis, reasonable or fanciful, aside, 'it is amongst the plainest principles of art, we submit, that every material should be made to do its own work, and not the work of another, unless their qualities have a close simi- litude. Tempera may sometimes do the work of fresco, oils of either; yet perhaps, we might date and deduce the downfall of painting from what many persons derive its perfection — Van Eyck's discovery— the substitution of a smooth and luscious medium, whose appropriate productions are small elegant, 'and epicurean, for simple n'ater or size, best adapted to the most gigantic elTorts, the sublimest ami severest trials of the pencil. We would push this principle farther and contend that no material, while doing its lawful work, should be made to seem as if doing the work of another. Real art rejects all such artifices— virile taste despises all such puerilities. Even when the imitation is unintended, its existence proves either the imitator's faint perception of distinct principles, or his feeble hand, which fails to obey his clear convictions. Look at Henry the Seventh's Chapel; observe its numberless minute, slim, canelike mouldings, its lath-and-rafter-like ribs and braces, its bird-cage delicacy of screen-work, its panelled surfaces throughout— little distinguishable irompanel, indeed— does it not seem rather a colossal specimen of joiner's craft than anything else?— a carved, morticed, and dovetailed construction of box- wood than a structure of stone ? Dexte- rous, we grant, polydedalean (if you please so to call it) in mechanism, fanciful as a frost-work palace in effect ; but cast your eyes on the Abbey Choir next it, and behold whatamere bijou, an architectural trinket, it looks compared with the massive grandeur of this! This proclaims iiself at once, genuine masonry, and thus far, if no farther, much excels its florid neighbour whose embattlements and enrichments might pass for petrified carpentry. A coral grove may be curious, precious, and beauteous ; yet all amateurs (but old children, who still cling to their corals) would prefer an oak forest. The Abbey Choir, we sometimes imagine, turns a huge shoulder of contempt upon the little fretted and frittered appendage behind it, perchance acknow- ledging about the same relationship to it which Fingal's Cave does to the mermaiden of Staffa's stalactite grotto. Indeed, the Lancet, or Early English style, under this view, surpasses, we think, the Decorated (by many persons deemed the perfectionated) Gothic, as well as the Florid, or decadent. For, beyond dispute, those double-curved and contorted outlines— those ramified cusped and tressured foliations— those antler-spread traceries, make stone pretend to be what it is not— a flexous substance, make it ape live timber, molten ore, or some pliable compost. Now, though we may consider stone ductile or plastic in statuary and decorative details of architecture, yet, where it forms a principal feature, and marks an arcliitectural style, it should have itself a pure architectural character ; it should resemble mason-work, should pronounce itself stone, and suggest no adventitious substitute. Thus, a crocket or a corbel may imitate a leaf or a lion's head, because a positive leaf or lion's head stuck upon the place would not de-characterize the edifice ; but a window or a parapet should not, strictly speaking, weave its mullions like a vegetable branch, nor twist its bars like iron-work, unless the edifice be built of timber or metal. Even were the Greek Corinthian capital taken from a flower-pot, we see that the core is a stone cylinder, and does not pre- tend to be a stem of acanthus. These remarks are submitted for a very difl"erent purpose from that of disparaging the Decorated Gothic, which we admire and revere : but the true and strict laws of art demand our veneration still more. They, alone, ever and anon dunned into the ear, will fright the isle out of her improprieties, if this be possible. She finds licenses enough placarded on every church-wall, through the whole breadth of its flank and length of its steeple : " plenary indulgence" for unchasteness in architecture! absolution without either confession or repentance! Akin to the above principle is another, .sinned against as with a cart-rope, with the very loosest libertinage, ever since the "Renaissance," or it might rather be called the Decadence, of pure architecture, seeing that the pointed style is pure architecture, on its own picturesque grounds. But this aforesaid transgression, like an original sin, vitiates a whole species of techtonic pro- ductions, though it may leave a certain divine spirit about them still,— we mean Italian edifices. More or less throughout these, pillars, entablatures, and pediments are made to perform the part of mere decoration, instead of staminal and horizontal support, and protective shelter, their true business. A colonnade along the entire front of a house supports what ?— a cornice! And what does the cornice support ? — sparrows. Tiers of little portico-fafa;les, called windows, adorning the same front, what do their pediments protect ? — spiders beneath their eaves, migninionette boxes in their balconies, bytiraes also glaziers and chambermaids who stand outside to mend ihe panes or cleaa them ! Yet this at best elegant debasement of the Classic style entitles its professors to pronounce the Pointed " barbarous," and to boast their won- derful progress beyond the architects of the Middle Ages. Again, let us inquire, did the gods ever commit such gross actsof artistical bad faith as the Italian school,— disguising, under a thin surface of cut stone, masses of quite a difl'erent nature, almost always of a comparatively worthless one, which yet constitute the veritable erections ? Excuse this as we may, it must be deno- minated mongrel architecture. Some of the very grandest efforts in modern constructive art are obnoxious to that name. St. Paul's cupola, despite its many merits, is a much less genuine production than Salisbury steeple ; whilst its outward appearance bespeaks a " Pantheon hung in the air," what sublime elements compose it? Timber and lead ! The whole dome, exierior and inte- rior, consists of no less than four distinct materials, — stone, brick, wood, and metal,— thus being a specimen of mason's, bricklayer's, carpenter's, and plumber's work, mixt together share and share alike, rather than what it seems and ought to be, part of a masonic edifice. So far forth, it can just as little call itself a legitimate feature, as the iron palisade which fences (we 11* 132 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL. [March, wish it could screen !) lliat accumulation of architectural absurdities— Euck- ingham Palace. AVren was no " Goth"— his Westminster Abbry towers attest tills ! — but he ranks amongst tlie very greatest modern architects; he wrote well too on his art, yet asperses a skill he attempted to rival and failed to reach— the power of "spirirg-up," with an " allectalion of height and grandeur.''* St. Bride's steeplc'became unsafe, though it had never been half the height of Strasburg Cathedral, nor stood half the time ! Bow's, somewhat about St. Bride's altitute, may stand better, — perhaps much because it employs both within and without^Gothic props.and principles. We return from onr not altogether irrelevant digression, and repeat — iron should no more pretend to supplant or represent the beautiful stone-work of tointed edifices, than stone the reticulations and convolutions of chain-work. Frivolous minds or very green experience alone can relish either. Certain Neapolitan statues by one C'orradini, a popular sculptor (that is, stone- carver), which exhibit tlieir forms under nets or veils wrought upon the solid marble, our travelled gentlemen and ladies .pronounce miracles — and such they are — miracles of the vilest taste and paltriest ingenuity. Cast-iron architecture, Classic or Gothic, is still worse, because no miracle, good or bad, at all; it goes to destroy the art, as afne art, and will do it if patronized, by substituting machine productions for man's immediate handiwork. Let us assure ourselves of this, — whatever removes the artist's own hand from his material, removes his spirit from it also, and just to the same distance. Many mechanic helps between it and him will prove just so many artistic obstacles ; his manufactures will augment, but deteriorate. Of the architect at least well may it Le sung, Ay me what perils do environ Ttie man tliat meddles willi cold iron 1 We have been more serious upon this matter than perchance it deserves ; indeed, why should we care much about domes or spires, when Heaven's stupendous cupola stands for ever above our Iieads, when those numberless crag-pinnacled steeples, built by the Supreme Architect, from the Spitze-horn down to Derbyshire Peak, are within sight of eye or of mind ? Tliese will suffice, let man do what he may I But we have said all we have said, because Truth is the greatest of all utilities, being useful even where it illumines perishable, unimportant objects, as its virtue remains in the soul !' * V. Parentalia. These "senseless arti6cers** (he thus stigmatizes them elsewhere) never lilte him built a prodigious and prodigal second story us a mere maslf to smuggle in foreign conveniences. Such are the concealed flying buttresses which support St. Paul's spine and haunch. GKEAT WESTERN STEAM SHIP COMPANY. The last meeting of the shareholders of this company seems to have been regarded by the directors with some misgivings, for, contrary to the usual practice of respectable companies, the press were excluded. It is not un- natural that the directors should have been so desirous to keep their pro- ceedings in the background, for a most unsatisfactory tale does their report relate. It is a supplement to the many similar narratives by them of arrange- ments misconceived, of reckless and meddling experiments, of serious and embarrassing failures, and of vexatious delay. The Great Western having been slightly injured in one of her recent voyages, affords an eligible oppor- tunity to Mr. Experimenter Guppy to alter her paddle-wheels, and try some of his new views upon her, although she is acknowledged by the directors as having, with her ordinary paddles, proved the fastest ocean steamer. Had the company a number of boats, a lucrative traffic, and large dividends, so far from disapproving of any experiment of the kind, we should have con- sidered it highly laudable, we should have praised the public spirit of the directors, and awaited with complacency the failure or success. Here, how- ever, is a company with only one boat running, the success of the company a matter of doubt, and so far from the managers doing what is safe, " letting well alone," they are rushing heedlessly and recklessly into experiments, which may turn out well, but which just as likely may end in loss to the company. On such grounds we see these proceedings with regret, for we have no confidence in the management. As to " the Great Postponed" — we beg pardon — the " Great Britain," she is not forthcoming yet, and her advertised days of starting cannot be com- plied with, for ludicrous to detail, this" momirum, horrendum, informe (we believe we may add, in compliment to the board), inyens, cui lumen adivptum," this mighty whale among the minnows, cannot get through the lock-gates. We beg to recommend for the figure head Sterne's starling, if prepared with a Guppyan profile, and a profuse repetition of the motto, " 1 can't get out." Anything so extremely preposterous, so ridiculous to every one but the poor shareholders, has scarcely ever been known, but it is avowed by the directors that they built the vessel without making themselves duly acquainted with the dimensions of the gates, subsequently calculating on the Dock Trustees allowing them to pull down one side of the gates to let her out. This the Dock Trustees refuse to do, although the company are willing to go to an expense of i'30O for the purpose. Nay. the Directors have gone so far as to offer a thousand pounds towards the' permanent enlargement of the dock- gates, and even this has been refused. The conclusion is, that the way novr proposed for getting her out is to construct three or four iron pots or tanks to be put under her keel, by which it is expected she will be raised some three or four feet ! and so to be carried through the gates on stilts. We should not, however, be turprised, at the rate the company are going on, if like other detenus, she were only got out of custody by being whitewashed, for management so careless, and expenditure so profuse, we have rarely ever witnessed. In addition to this, there is another mess with the Dock Trustees, for through miscalculation, the water in the dock had to be lowered eight feet, in order to allow " the Great Postponed" to be floated. The trustees claim some JE800 compensation, and the directors resist, so that a snug law suit is hkely to be manufactured on this score. As to the conduct of the Duck Trustees, we cannot speak in favour either of its immediate or ultimate policy. A parcel of Bristol hogs could hardly have done more to injure the city than have these trustees, they exacted dues from the Great Western when she could not get through the gates, and though they received £2,500 dues upon her, besides those upon her cargoes, they were not satisfied till they drove her permanently to Liverpool. Indeed all that the enterprize of a few energetic individuals has projected and done for the city of Bristol promises to be destroyed by the pigheadedness of its inhabitants. Bristol now occupies a very low rank in the list of ports, in consequence of the dis- advantages she labours under in not being able to supply a return. The Great Western Cotton Works, which would have had the effect of locating an important manufacture on the spot, have not been adequately supported, the Great Western Steam-Ship Company have been driven away, and their yard is to be shut up, and thus the only chance Bristol had for retrieval, by becoming a great steam port, has been irretiievably destroyed. Indeed, even as to the trade she has, it is likely before long to be seriously affected, for the Great Western Railway Company cannot afford to lose traffic if the people of Bristol can, and they will undoubtedly promote docks at Pill and else- where, to which all the Irish, and Welsh, and Somerset steam tonnage will be removed, and which will have superior facilities for the conduct of all traffic. So much for greediness. Meanwhile, however we contemplate the proceedings of the directors, they inspire us with equal distrust of their prudence and capacity. At first they were to have trunk engines, then they altered them ; first they adopt a par- ticular system of screw, and then they alter it. The worst of it, however, is, that they are already engaged in making the screw, while they have been making trials elsewhere, in consequence of which they are going to change the form again, of course at great expense and with great delay. The next thing we suppose will be to do away with the absurdity of straps for working the screw, and to substitute cog-wheel gear, and next the incumbrous flue boilers will have to he exchanged for tubular boilers. *' Never ending, still beginning," the whole performances impress us with the idea that they can be meant for nothing but to provide snug berths for some parties who want such provision. The directors also ask the shareholders to arm them with the power of retaining the yard and workshops, and tendering for Government and other contracts. Whatever may he our views with regard to the general policy of such a measure, we must say that the directors have made out no case for such confidence to be reposed in them, and the shareholders can only antici- pate a profuse expenditure, a great deal of meddling and bungling, and a great delay in getting returns, if any should ever be forthcoming. Who, too, will trust parties with contracts who have not as yet shown that they have practical experience on the subject, and who have pro tanto failed in every- thing they have undertaken ? A general meeting of the proprietors of the above company was held on Thursday, March 14, at Bristol. The following is an abstract of the Directors' Keport : — " The receipts by the Great Western for 1843 have amounted to £33,406 Os. id., and the expenditure has been only £25,573 4s. id.; the receipts for 1842 having been only £30,830 8s. 2d., while the expenditure was £28,615 Is. \d. To the improved state of things in the United States much of this is to he attributed, a good deal to the close attention to expenditure; but your directors believe still more to the circumstance of Liverpool having been altogether the rendezvous for your business on this side the Atlantic." The report then states that the Great Western's last winter voyage to Nevr York, by way of Madeira, had been rendered unprofitable, the carelessness of the New York pilot having allowed her to touch the ground, in consequence of which that vessel had to be surveyed and repaired at her Majesty's dock- yard at Pater, at an outlay of £C06, in addition to which it was calculated that a loss of £1,500, in passengers, had been sustained by the unavoidable delay, and change in the times of sailing. She had been subsequently docked in Bristol, and " thoroughly examined," when, according to the directors,, it was " impossible to over rate her condition." The pilot at New York had been suspeiuled on the representation of the company, and the under- writers at Lloyd's had signally marked their sense of Captain Hosken's merit in bringing home the vessel. " The Great Western has run nearly 240,000 miles, at a higher average speed than bad been attained by any other sea- going steamer — IO4 miles per hour." In September last the company's en- gineer reported that the boilers, which had done duty for six years, might, at an outlay of £1,000, be made to last for one, or, at most, two seasons longer. Under these circumstances the directors thought it better to have new boilers, the estimate for which is £3,000, which are now being rapidly put up on board, are known by the name of tubular, and require only half the space of the old ones, by which the stowage of the ship, for either coals. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 133 or cargo, lias been increased to the extent of upwards of 200 tons. She is also to have new paddle-wheels, which are nearly finished, and in progress of fitting in place. The directors observe : — " Mr. Ashton, the well-known shipbrolier and auctioneer, was employed to effect a sale of your works, either by private contract or by auction, and your directors regret to announce ineffectually. The time is now fast approaching ■when they will be closed, unless parties come forward to take them off your hands. Situated as your premises are, with water-side frontage, ample space for building, a graving dock of the first-class, and in other respects a more convenient engineering and ship-building establishment than any in the king- dom, your directors long since expected that they should be able to commu- nicate to you that the mechanics and other able hands, who before their establishment were many of them strangers to Bristol, would not have had occasion to turn their backs upon the city ; they still trust these hopes may be realized, and that the time will not arrive when it will be advisable to sell the tools and the materials piecemeal. Your directors have, on more than one occasion, suggested to you the good effects to be anticipated from your arming them with authority to tender for Government vessels, or otherwise to work for the public. The opportunities have been numerous, and if they had been authorised to have accepted some of them, Bristol, they think, ■would by this time have become a steam-ship building port of the first class, and your establishment, in all probability, in a flourishing condition, instead of being, as it has a prospect of being, on your hands, subject to an outlay for rent, taxes, and maintenance, of not less than Jt'400 per annum." Prince Albert's visit and the undocking of the Great Britain are then briefly alluded to, it being stated that " the whole of the expenses of that aus- picious occasion were defrayed from the fund arising from the sale of tickets, or from visitors to the works." The report then goes on to state that, " for the purpose of opening the bank fronting the dock in the most inexpensive way," the Great Western Steam, ship Company had obtained the permission of the Dock Company to lower the water in the float six feet. Circum- stances, however, had rendered it necessary to lower the water " considerably below the six feet asked for ;" and on the 13th December, nearly six months after the event, the Dock Company made a claim for £312 Ms. lOd. for damage done to the ship Aiujmta in consequence of the lowering of the water. The payment of this sum had been resisted, and the " not acceding to this demand, the directors have reason to fear, has operated injuriously upon the consent of the dock hoard to the passage of the Great Britain through the locks." The report then goes on to speak of the Great Britain. " The size of your ship Great Britain was not finally settled until the year 1839. At your annual meeting, in 1840, her dimensions were made known to you, and a model was laid before you. Before, however, the final settle- ment of her power and capacity, deputations from the public bodies had been for months sitting in committee, with the view of arriving at some conclusive recommendation to the city, by and through which it was anticipated that the trade of the port would be relieved by arrangements with the Dock Com- pany, and its locks throivn open for the ingress and egress of a larger class of steam vessels than those which are of necessity, your directors believe, confined to Bristol only ; and one of the resolutions which were reported to your town council on that occasion as the result of the inde- fatigable exertions of the gentlemen composing that Committee was, ' that it is essential to the trade of the pott that the entrance to the floating harbour should be made wider' — at the same time your consulting engineer, Mr. Brunei, was employed by the council to survey the harbour and rivers, and did, after completing the same, hand in estimates for widening the old locks, or forming a new one. The Great Britaiu's beam and form were a good deal affected by the width of the locks, which were supposed to be 45 feet nearly all the way up and down ; ou measuring, however, your engineers have since found they are much narrower, even at the average high water mark. The great buoyancy of iron ships is such, that to gain draft of water, which in then as well as in the present state of knowledge of ship-building was supposed to he necessary to give stability and the other qualities neces- sary for a sea-going steamer, the usual form of steam-ship building had to be abandoned, and the breadth towards the bottom considerably contracted ; capacity, conseqently, had to be looked for above rather than below the water line. This and other considerable advantages led to the adoption of the form in which the Great Britain is built, her widest part being far above the line of flotation ; and they have great pleasure in stating that she has been visited by most of the eminent ship-builders and engineers of this and the neigh- bouring kingdoms, and her construction and form not merely highly approved of, but greatly admired. About the middle of the year 1841, your engineers reported to your directors that a great saving would follow putting the boilers on board in dock, and at the same time they were informed that it was not likely tne ship would be allowed to occupy nearly a whole side of Cumber- land.basin for so long a time, as it was then discovered would be necessary to complete her equipment ; and in 1842 your directors reported to you that the most economical way of getting the machinery on board would be through an aperture in her side while in the dock, by which the necessity of floating her would be avoided. Your directors were fully aware that by this decision they would have to seek the consent of the dock directors for a temporary removal of two or three of the upper courses of stones of the lock, and the unshipping of the gates of either one or both sides for a few days, which they were assured by your consulting engineer, who acted in the same capa- city for the dock directors, would be a matter comparatively inexpensive in execution, without risk, easy of accomplishment, and in no way Ukely to in- convenience the trade of the port." The report then proceeds to detail the unsuccessful negotiations with the Dock Company, respecting the facilities afforded for getting the Great Britain into aiul out of Cumberland basin ; the directors observing, that they had not anticipated such a termination to the negotiations, more especially as " the actual dues on the Great JVesiern^ received by the Dock Company, have amounted to £2,500, while those upon her several cargoes, which the directors have no means of computing, must have been considerable." The consequence of this want of agreement between the two companies is that, instead of getting the Great Britain into Cumberland basin on the 21st inst., and out of it for Kingroad on the 4th April, it is " the painful duty" of the directors to inform the Steam-Ship Company, that they anticipate so much delay from the plan which they are now driven to adopt, that they think it will be impossible to keep the advertised dates of the sailings of the Great Britain. The Report then goes on to state : — " The expenses for experiments on the Archimedes have been reported to you. Your directors regret that she was taken away before they were com- pleted. A three-armed screw made for her at your works, was tried by Mr. Guppy, on the French man-of-war Napoleon, a vessel of more than double the power of the Archimedes, and with it a high speed vias attained ; and your directors believe with a screw of proper size on a similar plan, she is at this moment admitted to he the fastest man-of-war afloat. Your consulting engineer's services have been engaged by the Lords of the Admiralty to report upon screws, and for this purpose her Majesty's ship Rattler, of 800 tons and 200 h.p., has been placed at his disposal. Her experiments have been frequently attended by one or other of your officials, as were also experiments, three years ago, upon her Majesty's ship Polyphemus, a sister vessel, with paddle wheels. In her a speed of nine knots was attained in Southampton water. The late results of the Rattler have been nine and a half, better than half a knot over the speed of the Polyphemus, as well as of another sister vessel of the same power, and in the same place with paddle-wheels — her Majesty's ship Prometheus in the Thames. Y'our directors have been induced to dwell upon this subject, not merely in consequence of its importance, but because of garbled statements of speeches in the House upon the navy esti- mates, or of assertions not founded on the real facts of the case, having led many of the proprietors to seek for information at your office. Y'our con- sulting engineer and Mr. Smith, the patentee, are acting with the most per- fect understanding, and the speed of the Rattler has been improved with every alteration of the screw, the principle, your directors believe, remaining the same. Your directors greatly regret that it became necessary to put the Great Britain's screw in hand before the experiments in the Rattler were concluded. They will not quit this subject without reminding you that it has never been asserted that a higher rate of speed is expected to he attained in perfectly smooth water, with a screw than with paddles; but that it has numerous advantages over the paddle for long voyages on the ocean, and that the averages are likely to be better ; and as certain authorities have asked what the speed of the Rattler is or what about 11 statute miles per hour is to 15 or 10, or even more, which is reported to have been attained by fast boats on the Thames, the Hudson, and other rivers; you are to re- collect that the power in her Majesty's ships is seldom more than one horse to four tons, while in the fast river boats it is about as one to two tons, or even less, and that few, if any of them, would be safe at sea in l)ad weather, from the slightness of build and disproportion of weights. The Elberfelt, recently caught crossing the Channel, is a case in point. If your directors are rightly informed she was built for the Elbe, of iron one-eighth thick, and did not draw two feet of water. The accounts of the company are appended to the report, and after reserving the sum of £430 13s. for the reduction of the preliminary expenses of the company, and £767 in reduction of stock, a dividend has been declared of 21. 10s. per share, or 7^ per cent, on the ori- ginal cost, or 9^ per cent, on the reduced cost of the Great Western, which will become payable on the 15th inst., free of income tax, leaving a balance of £1,511 9s. \d. to be carried to the reserved fund, making the amount, with interest, £13,139 3j. 4d. in reduction of the original cost of the Great Western, Subjoined to the report is a statement of accounts, in which the following is given as the COST OF THE " GRF.AT BRITAIN." Hull, engines, and boilers . . . £66,790 3 10 Fittings . . . . . 8,908 13 8 Masts, rigging, boats, pumps, cables, and stores . 2,110 9 4 General expenditure, including screw experiments 19,344 17 6 £97,154 4 4 THE PROPOSED NEW BUILDING ACT. We have now in the House of Commons another bill " Far better Regu- latiny the Building of the Metropolitan Districts, and to provide for the Drainage thereof." The bill that we noticed last year, and which was read a second time in the House of Commons last session, proved an abortion. The present bill appears to have been got up with great labour and care, and with some few alterations may prove acceptable ; the principal fault is, the bill is too verbose; however, we are not disposed to be too nice, knowing the difticulties the framers must have had to contend with ; we shall for the present only give an outline of the bill, with a few extracts of the most important parts. 134 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [3Iarch, It is proposed to extend the building act district the same as in last years' bill (see Journal, Vol. VI., p. 214), and it is also proposed to empower her Majesty in Council to extend it to any place within 12 miles of Charing Cross. It is proposed to alter the mode of rating the building into classes as set forth in Schedule C hereafter shown ; the third and sixth class of buildings are to be erected under the joint supervision of the district surveyor and the official referees. Power is to be given to the Commissioners of Works and Buildings (here- tofore called Commissioners of Woods and Forests) upon the recommenda- tion of the official referees to modify any of the rules prescribed by the act. Two architects are to be appointed by the Home Secretary of State to act as official referees, with a salary of £1000. each, to whom are to be referred many important duties ; in fact, they may be considered as judges: it is therefore essentially necessary that they should not he allowed to practise as architects privately, and that a clause ought to be inserted to that effect ; and we think the importance of the office demands that both the referees and also the registrar (another officer to be appointed with a salary of XIOOO.) should have one public office, and it would be still better, if it were part of the same building as that of the Commissioners of Works and Buildings, thus uniting all under one roof woidd give importance to the department. We shall now defer making any further observations, but shall carefully watch the progress of the building, and report if any important alterations should hereafter be made. The following arc the clauses to which we have referred. The numbers refer to the bill. 11. And, for the purpose of preventing the express provisions of this Act from hindering the adoption of improvements, and of providing for the adop- tion of expedients better adapted to accomplish the purposes thereof; be it enacted, with regard to every boiling, of whatever class, so far as relates to the modification of any rules hereby prescribed, that if, in the opinion of the official referees, the rules by this Act imposed shall be inapplicable, or will defeat the objects of this Act, and that by the adoption of any modifica- tion of the rules hereby prescribed, its objects will be attained either better or as effectually, it shall be the duty of .'uch official referees to report their opinion thereon, stating the grounds of such their opinion, to the Commis- sioners of Works and Buildings ; and that, if on the investigation thereof it shall appear to the said commissioners that such opinion is well founded, then it shall be lawful for the said commissioners or any two of them to direct that such modification may be made as will, in their opinion, give effect to the purposes of this Act ; and that although such official referees shall be of opinion that such modifications are not requisite or admissible, yet if any party interested present to the official referees a representation, setting forth the grounds whereon such modification is claimed, it shall be the duty of the official referees, and they are hereby required to report such representation, as well as their opinion thereon to the said commissioners, vrith the grounds of such their report and opinion and that thereupon, if the said commissioners think fit, it shall be lawful for them or any two of them to direct the official referees to make such order in the matter as may appear to them to be requisite; and that, with regard to such application, so far as relates to the payment of the costs thereof, it shall be lawful for the said commissioners to direct such official referees to make such order relative to the costs of such reference to them, as to the said commissioners shall seem fit. 75. And now, for the purpose of providing for the appointment of com- petent official referees to superintend the execution of this act throughout aH the districts to which it is applicable, and also to determine sundry matters in question incident thereto, as well as to exercise, in certain cases, a discre- tion in the relaxation of the fixed rules and directions of this act, where the strict observance thereof is impracticable, or would defeat the object of this act, or would needlessly affect, with injury, the course and operation of this branch of business ; be it enacted, with regard to the official referees, so far as relates to their appointment, to their qualifications, and to the tenure of their oflice, that it shall be lawful for her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State acting for the Home Department, and he is hereby empowered to appoint two persons, being architects, to be official referees of metropolitan buildings, and from time to time, as he shall think proper, to remove such official referees, and in their place to appoint other persons so qualified. 76. And be it enacted, with regard to such official referees, so far as relates to their functions generally, that it shall be the duty of such official referees, and they are hereby required to superintend the execution of this act, by the several district surveyors already existing, or hereby authorized to be ap- pointed, and to perform the several matters to them respectively assigned by the provisions of this act, and to determine all questions referred to them, whether expressly by this act, or at the instance of any one or more of the parties concerned. 77. And be it enacted, with regard to the official referees, so far as relates to their jurisdiction, that if any doubt, difference or dissatisfaction, in respect of any matter within the limits of this act, arise between any parties con- cerned, or between any party and any surveyor, or between any two sur- veyors, as to any act done, or to be done, in pursuance of this act ; or as to the effect of the provisions thereof ; or as to the mode in which the provisions and directions of this Act are or ought to he carried into effect ; and parti- cularly as to whether the requirements implied in terms of qualification, applied to sites, to soils, to materials or to workmanship, or otherwise, and denoting good, sound, fit, proper or sufficient, are fulfilled in certain cases; or as to the district in which any building, matter or thing is to be deemed to be situate, especially in cases where such building, matter or thing is partly in one district and partly in another ; or as to the expenses to be borne by the respective owners of premises parted by the same party-walls, or the pro- portions thereof; or as to the proportions of the expense to be borne by the occupier, or by the owners of premises, in respect of any work executed, or any other matter whatever ; then it shall he lawful for any party concerned and he is hereby entitled, to require the official referees to determine such matter, but so that such requisition be made in writing, and that it sets forth, either generally or otherwise, the matters in respect of which the determina- tion of the official referees is required; and that the determination of such referees, or of one of such referees, with the assent of the registrar of metro- politan buildings, as to all or any of the points in difference on which such referees shall make their award, and as to the costs, charges and expenses of such reference, shall be binding on all parties to such reference. 78. And be it enacted, with regard to the official referees, so far as relates to their authority in respect of any reference to them, and to the effect of their award upon the rights and interests of the owners and occupiers of property, that it shall be lawful for such referees and they are hereby em- powered to exercise all such powers as arbitrators as they would have had in case they had been appointed under an order of her Majesty's Court of Queen's Bench at Westminster ; and that if such award be given in writing, and be sealed by the official seal of the registrar of metropolitan buildings, it shall be as effectual as if made under an order of reference by such court, and shall be enforced by the said court in all respects as if made under an order of such court ; and that it shall be binding and conclusive against every person, body politic and corporate, including the Queen's Majesty, her heirs and successors, claiming any estate, right, title, trust, use or interest in, to or out of the said premises or any part thereof, either in possession, re- version, remainder, or expectancy, and against every other person whom- soever. 79. And be it enacted, with regard to such award, so far as relates to the effect thereof as evidence of the matter thereof, that if on the trial or hear- ing of any cause or matter in any court of law or equity or elsewhere, any copy of an award, signed and sealed with the seal of the said registrar, be produced, then it shall be the duty of all judges, justices, and otbers, and they are hereby required to receive the same as prima facie evidence of the matters therein contained. 81. And be it enacted, with regard to such official referees, so far as relates to the regulation of the business of their office, that when any matter is by this Act required, directed or permitted to le done by the official referees, the same may be done by any one of them, with the assent of the registrar of metropolitan buildings, unless express provision to the contrary be made, and if done by any one of them with such assent, it shall be as valid and effectual as if done by all of them ; and that, suliject to such restrictions and regulations as may be made in that behalf by the Commissioners of Works and Buildings, it shall be lawful for the official referees to appoint any one of their number, under their bauds and the seal of the registrar of metropolitan buildings, to make any inquiry or any survey which shall appear to them either necessary or expedient in order to enable them to determine any matters in reference. 82. And, for the purpose of duly recording relaxations of the requisitions of this Act, made in pursuance of the provisions hereof in that behalf, and of providing for the revision from time to time both of such relaxations and requisitions, and of providing against the partial exercise of the powers of this Act, and for the more effectually providing for the due recording of the acts of the official referees, and for exercising a due control thereon ; be it enacted that it shall be lawful for the Commissioners of Works and Build- ings, and they are hereby authorized and required to appoint a registrar of metropolitan buildings ; and that such registrar shall hold his office during the pleasure of the said commissioners; and that, subject to the provisions of this Act, it shall be lawful for the said Commissioners to make rules for regulating the execution of the duties of the office of tiie said registrar; and that it shall he the duty of such registrar to keep a seal, and to affix such seal to all documents made by the said official referees, and required to be sealed ; and to keep all the documents and records relating to the busi- ness of their office, and to register the same : provided always, with regard to such registrar, so far as relates to the affixing the seal of office to any document, that if it shall appear to the said reg strar that any such docu- ments are contrary to law, or not complete in any of the requisite forms, or beyond the competence of the said official referees, either with regard to the provisions of this Act or any rules or regulations prescribed for their guidance, by the said Commissioners of Works and Buildings, then it shall be the duty of the said registrar to refuse to affix the seal ; and that there- after, if the said official referees shall so require, it shall be his duty, and he is hereby required to report the matter and the particular grounds and rea- sons for his refusal to the said commissioners ; and that upon the receipt of such report it shall be lawful for the said Commissioners to authorize the .said registrar to affix the seal or to confirm his refusal ; provided always, with regard to such office of registrar, so far as relates to the execution of his duties in certain events, that if such registrar be ill or otherwise unable to discharge the duties of his said office, or if he he absent, then it shall be lawful for tiie said Commissioners i Works and Buildings to appoint some other person to act in his behalf, and to assign to such person such, part of the remuneration of the said registrar, or otherwise to remuneraie him as the Lords of the Treasury shall appoint in that behalf. 87. And be it enacted, with regaid to such official referees ami registrar. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 135 so far as relates to their remuneration, that it shall be lawful for her Majesty to grant to each of such official referees and the said registrar a salary not exceeding one thousand pounds by the year, in four equal quarterly pay- ments ; and that if any such official referee or such registrar shall be ap- pointed, or shall die, resign, or be removed from office, in the interval be- tween two quarterly days of payment, then he shall be entitled to a propor- tionate part of the salary for the period of such interval during which he shall hold such appointment. Schedule (C.)— Part l.—(See § 5.)— Rules for determining the Classes and Rates to which Buildings are to be deemed to belong for the purposes of this Act, and the Thicknesses of the Walls of Buildings of such Bates. Cl.^sses op Buildings. — For the purposes of this Act, all buildings of whatever kind, subject to the provisions thereof, are to be deemed to belone to one or other of the following three classes ; that is to say— First Class.— K a building be built originally as a dwelling-house to be occupied, or intended to be occupied as such— then it is to be deemed to belong to the first, or dwelling-house class. Second Class.— U a building be built originally as a warehouse, storehouse granary, brewery, distillery, manufactory or workshop, or be occupied or inl tended to he occupied as such, or for a similar purpose— then it is to be deemed to belong to the second or warehouse class. T/drd Class.— U a building be built originally as a church, cliapel, or other place of public worship, college, hall, hospital, theatre, public concert-room public ball-room, public lecture-room, public exhibition-room, or occupied or intended to be occupied as such, or for a simUar purpose, or otherwise used SCHEDULE (C),— Parts II & III.— (&e § 5.) Conditions for determining the Rates to which Buildings are to be deemed to belong, and the Tliickness of the External and of the Party Walls thereof. In reference to Height. In reference to Area. In reference to Stories. than 22 ft., 2. If more than 21 . and not more than 33 ft.. 3. If more than and not more than 47 ft.. - - It is to be of the 1st or Lowest Rate of this Class. I. If the building - - If the building do - - If the building do .^ ^".!'5i8^*'°**^ ™*''"^ "°*^ cover more than not contain in height 4 squares, more than '2 stories, - - or if it cover more;- - or if it contain 3 - ■ It is to be of the than 4, and less thanlstories, |2d Rate. 6 squares. Rate of Building. Requisite Thickness of External Walls of each Rate of the First Class. Requisite Thickness of Party Walls of each Rate of the First Class. or if it cover more than i;, and less than squares. 4. If more than 47, - - or if it cover more and not more than 65 ft, If more than 65, and not more than 82 ft.. than 8, and less than 10 squares. or if it cover more than 10, and less than - - or if it contain stories, or if it contain 5 stories. 12 squares. . If more than 82 - - or if it cover more !ft.| than 12 squares. or if it contain 6 stories. And the thickness of the external walls .. And the thickness of the partv-waUs must must be, at the least, 8i in. from the top ef be, at the least. IH in. from the top of the the footing to the top of the wall. j footing to the top of the wall, And the thickness of the external walls .. And the thickness of the party. walls must must he, at the least, 134 in. from the top of be, at the lea t 17^ in. from the top of the the footmg to the under-side of the gutter- footing to the under side of tlie second floor ■ plate; andat the least 8i in, from the under, and, at rhe least, 1^4 in. from the under-side jSide of the plate to the top of the wall. of the second floor to the top of the wall. - Jt ia to be of the - - And the thickness of the external walls . . And the thickn-ss of the party-walls must must be, at the least, 17^ in. from the top of be, at the least, 17iin. from the top of the the tooling to the under-side of the second footing to the under-side of the third floor- floor; and, at the least. IS^ii. from the and. at the least, 13^ in. from the under-side under-sicle of the second floor to the under- of the tliird floor to the top of the wall side of the gutter-plate ; and, at the least, 8J in. from the under-side of tlie gutter-plate to the top of the wall. And the thickness of the external walls 3d Rate. - - It is to be of the 4th Rate. - It is to be of the 5th Kate. or if it contain more than 6 stories^ - - It is to be of the 6th Rate, and of the ;id Class. .. . ,„.. „ - And the thickness of the party. walls must must be. at the least. 17* m. from the top of be, at the least. 22 in. from the lop of the the footing to the under-side of the third;footing to the under-side of the second floor; floor ; and, at the least, 13.^ in. from the and, at the least, 17^ in. from the under-side under-side of the third floor to the under-side of the second floor to the under-side of the of the gutter-plate; and, at the least, 8i in. fifth floor; and, at the least, 13i in. from the from the under-side ot the gutter-plate to the under-side of the fifth floor to the top of the top of the wall. kyall. - - And the thickness of the external wallsl. . And the thickness of the party-walls must must be, at the least. 22 in from the top of be. at the least, 22 in. from the t«p of the the footing to the under-side of the second footing to the under side of the third floor - floor; and, at the least 1/^ in. from the.and, at the least, 17^ in. from the under-side under-side of the second floor to the under-'of the third floor to the top of the wall, side of the fourth floor ; and, at the least. 13.^ in. from the under-side of the fourth floor to the under-side of the gutter-piate; and, at the least, 8,^ in. from the under side ot the gutter-plate to the top of the wall. And the thickness of the external walls must be, at the least, 4 in. greater than is hereby required for walls of the 5th rate. And the thickness of the party-walls must he. at the least, 4 in. greater than is hereby required for walls of the fifth rate. 1. If the building be in height not more than 12 ft., 2. If more than 12, and not more than 22 ft., 3. If more than 22, and not more than 30 ft.. 4. If more than 30, and not more than 50 ft.. - - If the building do not cover more than 6 squares, - - or if it cover more than 6, and less than 10 squares. - - or if it cover more than 10, and less than 18 squares. - - If the bviilding do not contain in height more than one story, - - or if it contain two stories. - - It is to be of the - - And the thickness of the external walls First or Lowest Rate must be, at the least, 8:^ in, from the top of of this Class. the footing to the top of the wall. --It is to be of the - - And the thickness of the external walls Second Rate. 5. If more than 50. and not more than 65 It.. 6. If more than 65 ft.. or if it cover more than 18, and less than 26 squares. er if it contain three stories. - or if it contain five stories. - It is to be of the Third Rate. must be, at tbe least, 13^ in. from the top of the footing to the under side of the gutter- plate ; and, at the least, 8ii in. from the un- der-sideof the gutter-plate to the top of the wall. - - or if it cover more than 26, and less than 35 squares, or if it cover more than 35 squares. or if it contain sis stories, or if it contain more than six stories, - - It is to be of the Fourth Rate. It is to be of the Fifth Rate. - - It is to be of the Sixth Rate, and of the Third Class. - And the thickness of the external walls ranst be, at the least. 17i in. from the top o( the footing to the under-side of the second floor ; and, at the least, 13^ in. from the un- der-side of the second floor to the under-side of the gutter-plate; and, at the least. 8i from the under-side of the gutter-plate to the top of the wall. - - And the thickness of the external walls must be, at the least, 17^ in. from the top of the footing to the undet-side of the third floor; and, at the least. 13.^ in. from the un der-side of the third floor to the under-sidf of the gutter-plate; and, at the least. 8^ in. from the under-side of the gutter-plate to the top of the wall. And the thickness of the external walls must be, at the least, 22iu. from the top ot the footing to the under-side of the second floor; and, at the least, 17^ in. from the un der-side of the second floor to the uiider-sidt of the fourth floor; and, at the least, 13^ in from the under-side of the fourth floor to the under-side of the gutter-plate; and, at the least, 8^ in. from the under-side of thegutter- plate to the top of the wall. - - And the thickness of the walls must be. ;it the least, 4 in. thicker than is hereby re- ijuiied for walls of the fitth rate. - - And the thickness of tbe party-walls must be, at the least, 134 in- from the top of the footing to the top of the wall. - - And the thickness of the party-walls must be, at the least, 17^ in. from the top of the footing to the un'Jer side of the second floor, and l3:i in. from the under side of the second floor to the top of the wall. And the thickness of the party-walls must be. at the least, 17^ in. from the top of the footing to the under-side of the third floor, and, at the least, 13^ in. from the under-side of the third floor to the top of the wall , And the thickness of the party-walls must be, at the least, 22 in. from the top of the fooling to the under-side of the second floor, and. at the least, 17,i in. from the under-side i)f the second floor to the under-side of the tifth floor, and at the least, 13^ in, from the under-side of the tifth floor to the top of the wall. - - And the thickness of the party-walls must be, at the least, 22 in, from the top of the footings to the under-side of the third floor; and, at tt-e least, 174 in- from the under-side of the third floor to the top of the wall. And the thickness of the party-walls must be, at the least, 4 in. thicker than is hereby required for walls of the fifth rate. 136 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [March, or intended to be used, either occasionally or constantly, for the assemblage of persons in large numbers, whether for public worship, business, instruction, debate, diversion, or resort — then it is to be deemed to belong to the third or public building class. Rates of Buildings. — And the buildings included in the said classes are to be deemed to belong to the rates of those classes, according to the conditions of height, area, and number of stories set forth in the following tables ; which conditions are to be determined according to the following rules : The Prince of Wales Steamer. — This fine vessel made a trip down the river on Tuesday, the 26th March, previously to going on her station between London and Margate, for the ensuing season. She is an iron vessel built last year by Messrs. Miller, Ravenhill & Co., the well known engineers, who also constructed the engines, which were originally a pair of side lever engines, taken out of another Margate steamer. During the experimental trip the Prince made several trials in Long Reach, to test her capabilities as to speed, which maybe calculated at not less than \2\ knots through the water. She ran down below the Nore and could find no competitor with whom to try her comparative speed ; on her return she again tried her speed at the mile distance in Long Reach, when she met i\\trenojrned Princess Alice, with the tricoloured flag flying at her mast-head, notifying the presence of Belgian royalty on board. The Princess had been announced to have outstripped all vessels she came near. This was a fine opportunity to test the capa- bilities of the annular engines of the Princess and the beam engines of the Prince. The helm of the Prince was ordered to be brought about, but be- fore the vessel was fairly turned, her sister, the Princess, had got a-head full a mile; nothing daunted, the Prince moved on, when it was very soon discovered that he was making way fast upon the Princess, and in about 30 minutes he went right a-head of her (not very gallant to her highness). All on board of the Prince pronounced it a decided victory of at least one- and-a-half to two miles per hour faster than the Princess ; we may, there- fore, pronounce, without fear of contradiction, that the Prince is the cham- pion of the river, until any other vessel is found that will eclipse her. This we must own was to us a fine trial : here we had the skill of one of the first builders of iron vessels, Messrs. Ditchburn and Mair, with the annular en- gines, of the celebrated firm of Messrs. Maudslays and Field, against the iron steam vessel and engines of the Prince of Wales, both constructed by Messrs. Miller, Ravenhill, and Co., another firm equally celebrated for the excellency of their workmanship and the success of all their vessels. LIST OF NEW FATBNTS. (From Messrs. Robertson^s List.) GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM FEBRUARY 26, TO MARCH 28, 1844. Six Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed. Isabella Larbalestier, of Noble Street, Falcon Square, furrier, for " Improvements in making certain skins resemble the sable fur." — Sealed, February 26. Richard Kitson, of Cleckheaton, card manufacturer, and John Garthwaite, of Lee(!s, flax spinner, for "Improvements in wire cards for cardinR cotton, wool, silk, flax, and other fibrous substances, and for producing tow and yams from line and taw-yarn waste, which comes from the spinning frames commonly called hard waste." — February 27. Charles Newington, of Ticehurst, Sussex, esq., for "Improvements in apparatus for ascertaining and indicating the time at which a person is present at a particular place." —February 27. Thomas Harbottle, of Manchester, gentleman, for "« machine designed for manufac- turing boot soles, taps, and also for riveting leather hose, traces, and for other purposes, to which the same may be usefully applied."— February 27. William Clegg Cover, of Chester Square, Middlesex, gentleman, for *' A method of casting off the sash lines and weights from the window sashes, and of taking out the win- dow sashes from their frames without removing the beads." — March 1 ; two months. Joseph Crawhall, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, rope manufacturer, for "Improvements in machinery for manufacturing ropes and cordage."— March 2. John Stevelly, of Belfast, professor of natural philosophy, for " Improvements in steam engines." — March 2. Henry Dunnington, of Nottingham, manufacturer, for "Improvements in the manu- facture of fabrics produced in warp and lace machinery." — fllarch 4. Peter Ward, of West Bromwich, Stafford, practical chemist, for " An improvement in ■combining matters for washing and cleansing." — March 4. Samuel Atkinson, of Manchester Street, Gray's Inn Road, Middlesex, turner, for *' Im_ ■provemenLs in the construction of wheels for carriages." — March 4. Bernard Peard Walker, of Noith Street, Wolverhampton, clerk, for *' Improvements hi machinery for making nails." — March 6. Thomas Foster, of Streatham, Surrey, manufacturer, for *' Improvements in preparing composition of India rubber, and other matters for forming articles therefrom, and for the coating of surfaces of leather, and woven, and other fabrics." — March 6. William Henry Barlow, of Leicester, civil engineer, for "Improvements in the cod- Btruction of keys, wedges or fastenings, for engineering purposes." — March 6. William Fairbairn, of Manchester, engineer, for certain "Improvements in machinery used for propelling vessels by steam." — fllarch 7. Charles Townend, of ^Manchester, fustian manufacturer, for "An improved process, or manufacture, whereby cotton fabrics are aided and made repellant to water and mildew, and any unpleasant smell is prevented in such fabrics." — March 7 ; two months. Alexander Angus Croll, of Brick Lane, Middlesex, superintendent of the gas works, and William Richards of the same place, mechanical inspector, tor " Improvements in the manufacture of gas for the purpose of illumination, aud in apparatus used when trans- mitting and measuring gas." — March 7. Wilton George Turner, of Gateshead, Durham, doctor in phiUsophy, for the " Manu- (acturing of salts of ammonia and compounds of cyanogent from a substance never before applied to that purpose."— March U. Charles Harrison, manager of the Coed Talon and Leeswood Iron Works, Flintshire, for *' Certiiin improvements in the manufacture of cast iron pipes and other iron castings." — fliarch 14. Charles Roberts, of High Holborn, Middlesex, boot maker, for "Improvements in the manufacture of boot and shoe trees, lasts, and stretchers." — March 14.* William Godfrey Kiieller, of Wimbledon, Surrey, chemist, fur "Improvements in the preparation of zink, and in combinations of zink with other metallic bodies."— March 14. Henry Pershouse Parkes, of Dudley, Worcester, manufacturer of chain cables, for " Im- provements in the manufacture of flat pit chains."— March 14. Samuel Cunlilf Lister, and James Ambler, of Bradford, York, manufacturers, for " Im- provements in machinery for applying fringes to shawls and other articles."— March 14. Frederick Stephenson, of High Street, Birmingham, comb manufacturer, for "Im- provements in bookbinding, snd apparatus for cutting books or other folded paper, part of which improvements is applicable to pen holders." — March 11. John Browne, of New Bond Street, Middlesex, esq., for " Impjppvements In urinary utensils."- March 14. MHlliam Bovvn, of Leicester, glove and mit manufacturer, for " Improvements in weav- ing elastic fabrics." — March 14. John Tatham, of Rochdale, machine maker, and David Cbeetbam, of the same place, cotton spinner, for " Certain improvements in machinery or apparatus to be employed in the preparation and spinning of cotton wool and other fibrous substances." — fllarch 14. Moses Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, Middlesex, gentleman, for " Improvemenis in steam- engines, steam-boilers, and furnaces or fireplaces." (A communication.)— March 14. Emanuel Wharton, of Birmingham, engineer, for " Improvements in steam-engines, which are in whole or in part applic-ble to other motive engines, and to machines for raising or impelling fluids."— March 14. Thomas Se>mour, of Riding House Lane, Great Portland Street, Middlesex, gun-maker and John Seymour, of Wellington Street, Gray's Inn Lane, lock-filer, for "An improved safety-bolt and tumbler for the locks of certain kinds of fire-arms."— March 14. William Henry Burke, of Tottenham, Middlesex, manufacturer, for " Improved ma- chinery for cutting Indian rubber aud other elastic substances into balls and other solid figures." — March 19. William Saunders, of Bush Lane, London, chemist, for "An improved apparatus for modifying temperature in the condensation of vapours, and in the cooling or heating of liquids and fluids." — March 19, Hugh Inglis, of Kilmarnock, Scotland, mechanic, for " Improvements upon locomotive steam-engines, whereby a safing of fuel will be effected, which improvements are ap- plicable to steam vessels and other purposes, and to the increasing the adhesion of the wheels of railway engines, carriages, and tenders upon the lines of rail, when tUe same are in a moist state." — March 19. William Bates, of Leicester, fuller and dresser, for "Improvements In the dressing and getting up of hosiery goods manufactured from lamb's wool and other yarns, and in ma- chinery for raising the nap on the same, and in the construction of legs and other forms or shapes for stockings and other articles of hosiery." — March 19. Jules Thiebeauld de la Croupe, of Pinner's Court, London, merchant, for "An im- proved apparatus for, or method of purifying, clarifying, and refining, vegetable extracts." (A communication.) — March 19. Andr^ Drouet de Charlien, of Sabloni^re Hotel, Leicester Square, gentleman, for '* Im- provements in rails for railways, and in wheels for locomotive carriages." (A communi- cation.)— March 29. William Isaac Cookson, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne esquire, for *' Improvements in ap- paratus for burning sulphur in the manufacture of sulphuric acid." — March 20. John Holland Butterworth, of Rochdale, Lancaster, cotton spinner, for " An apparatug applicable to preparation machines used in the spinning of cotton and other fibrous ma- terials."— March 2U. Moses Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, Middlesex, gentleman, for " Improvements in dyeing." (A communication.)— March 21. John Butt, of ftfaldon, Essex, draper, for " Improvements in candlesticks." — March 22, John Harcourt Quincey, of Old Street, City Road, gentleman, and John Johnson, of Cursilor Street, lamp raakur, for "Improvements in the manufacture of lamps, and shades for lamps and other lights." (Partly a communicdtion.j — March 'lb. William Pollard, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, gentleman, for "Improvements in the manufacture of ammonia." — March 28. James Hardy, of Birmingham, Warwick, gentleman, for "Improvements in the pro- cess of welding tubes, pipes, or hollow rods of malleable iron by machinery." — March 28. Joseph Maudslay, of the firm of Messrs. Jlaudslay, Son, & Field, of Lambeth, Surrey, engineer, for " Improvements in steam engines." — March 28. Alfred Richard Johnson, of the firms of Messrs. Johnson & Co., Regent Street, and Messrs. Griffiths & Johnson, Old Bond Street, Middlesex, hatters, for " Improvements in hats." — March 2tf. Joseph Cooper, of Hoxtoo, Middlesex, gentleman, for " Improvements in the purifi- cation and clarification of sugar, which improvements are also applicable to the purifying and clarifying of other articles of commerce." — March 28. Robert Davison, of Brick Lane, Middlesex, civil engineer, and William Symington, of East Smithfield, Middlesex, civil engineer, for "A method or methods of drying, sea- soning, and hardening wood and other articles, parts of which are applicable to the de- siccation of vegetable substances generally." — fliarch 28. Robert Mollstt, of Shatklewell, Middlesex, gentleman, and Jesse Bridgman, of Hack- ney, Middlesex, gentleman, for " Improvements in separating the fatty and oily from the membraneous portions of animal and vegetable substances." — March '^8. Charles William Spicer, of 28, Portman Square, Middlesex, esquire, for " An invention called the nautilus, or portable life preserver and swimming belt." (A communication.) —March 28.; Charles Hector Francois Dumontier, of Rouen, France, engineer, for " Improvements in the construction of Uthographic and autographic presses." (A communication.) — MarcE 28. A New Propeller.— An invention has been made by an ingenious mechanic of Edinburgh, of a new mode of giving motion to vessels, doing away with paddle-wheels and boxes, as well as the Archimedian screw. It is a simple revolving cylii.rier, placed midships, which acts as a windlass, and makes a rope of the sea; in fact, the velocity acquired is in proportion to the quantity of water discharged by the agency of the cylinder, through a discharging nozzle at ejch side of the vessel, and what is curious, the discharg- ing nozzle can be turned by a simple operation on deck, so as to stop the vessel, make her move backward or round as on a pivot, within her own length, without even the know- Icdf^e of the engineer, or the assistance of the rudder, as no stoppage of the engine is necessary for the purpose. The convenience ii a smaller consumption of fuel, and the capability of the broadside carrying au entire armament. — Scotsman. CovHER Balloon.— A balloon composed of copper is so far completed, that it is now exhibited to the public: this immense globe is formed of sheets of copper, united and soldered. The object proposed by this experiment is to resolve the problem of the practicability of the employment of metals in the constraction of balloOKS.— Paris Paper. ^J'^- 1 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 137 THE TIMBER ROOFS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. Remarks on the Timber Ronfs of the Middle A^es, by Tho.mas Morris, nad before the InUitute of Briiish jlrchitecls. ( With an Engraving, Plate V., containing Roofs of He following buildings.) Fig. 1. Westminster Hall.— 2. Nursted Court, Kent.— 3. Old Basing Church. — 4. Guard Room, Lambeth. — 5. School House, Coven- try.—6. Hall Croydon Palace.— 7. Conway Castle.— 8. Eltham Palace.— 3. Wolsey's Hall, Hampton Court.— 10. King's College Chapel.— 11. Chapel, Croydon Palace.— 12. South Wraxall.— 13. Westminster School. — 14. Crosby Hall. The timber roofs of the ancient regal and baronial halls, whicli form so prominent and characteristic a feature of our national mediffival architecture, merit, in an eminent degree, the attention of all to whom the science of construction is an object of interest ; and although other avocations have precluded the present writer from going into the subject in that full and perfect manner which it is calculated to repay, and which its importance fairly demands, he trusts he may be able to furnish a few observations, to serve, perhaps, as a stock on which the results of other and more successsul efforts may be at a future season engrafted. So little, indeed, has yet been done towards giving a connected form to the history and principles of English car- pentry, that he who would shrink with conscious inability from at- tempting so comprehensive a project, may yet hope to find not utterly valueless such mere gleanings as the present. It will not be thought requisite to carry the subject back to that remote period of Anglo-Saxon history when the carpenter (as well as other artificers) was considered, if not a positive vegetable, at least part of what we are accustomed to call the plant of an estate, trans- ferable from owner to owner with the land, as we read that "when the brother of Godwin gave to a monastery a certain manor, he in- cluded its appendages ; that is, his overseer and ail his chattels, his smith, carpenter, fisherman, miller, all these tenants, and all their goods and chattels." The artificers of the early Saxons appear to have been for the most part either monks or slaves — they were nothing more than sheer necessity made them — they lived and died poor, unhonoured, and un- improved ! " The habits of life were too uniform, its luxuries too few; its property too small; its wants too numerous, and the spirit of the great mass too servile and dull," says Mr. Sharon Turner, " to have that collection of ingenious, active, respected and inventive men who make and circulate our internal and external commerce with eager but not illiberal competition ; or to have those accomplished artificers and manufacturers, whose taste in execution equals that of the most elegant fancy in its invention." " In the monastery," says the historian, " were to be found smiths, carpenters, millers, illuminators, agriculturalists, and fishermen." The carpenter was at that time the Irtom wyrhta (the tree or wood work- man.) The Anglo-Saxon verb used in speaking of building is commonly gelymbrian, " to make of wood," and it is known to every architec- tural antiquary that many early churches were constructed of that material — one at Greensted, in Essex, still remains. As we approach the time of the Norman conquest, matters became ameliorated, and this was an advantage concomitant with the estab- lishment of Christianity and the influx of Italian clergy. The most durable materials were sought for and applied in ecclesiastical works, and to our architects for several centuries previous to the date of any large wooden roof, " The art was known, By pointed arch and shafted stalk. The arcades of an allayed walk, To emulate in stone." This art they practised with such admirable skill and effect, that their works have been not unfrequently considered beyond the pale of modern imitation. To these architects who had previously and pro- gressively roofed our edifices with stone, from the simple adaptation of the more Romanum in buildings of Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman dates, to the masterly example in the Chapter House at York, who had clothed with so much invention and taste the bold framework of mathematical deduction, are we indebted for the wooden wonder of Westminster. The span of Gothic groined roofs seldom exceeded 35ft., ' while the Great Palatial Hall was double that width. Nome- 1 The Chapter House at York is 57 ft. in diameter, but the building is octagonal, and the points of support, therefore, more frequent, and the resistance to a pressure froui within greater than in a continuous vault. The nave of York Cathedral lis also of the great extent of ^8 ft. No. 80 — Vol. Vll.— April, 1814. rous obstacles to a stone roof must therefore have presented them- selves ; the builder was thrown upon the resources of his art, but he proved himself his craft's master, and a novel and elegant application of that great element of lightness and beauty, the arch, was the conse- quence. The former ponderous and friable material was exchanged for one equally susceptible of the nicest equilibriation, and greatly superior in tenacity and tractibility. It was one of the grandett in- novations recorded in the annals of English art. TVestminsler Hall, Anno 1399.— (Fig. 1.) Our first consideration (in respect of dimensions if not of date) is due to the roof of Westminster Hall, where the distance between the sides is 08 ft., and the length 240 ft. This length is divided into twelve bays, giving a distance of 20 ft. between the principals or points of pressure and support. At these intervals an arch of great strength and boldness is thrown from wall to wall, setting down on stone corbels, and rising about five-eighths of the span. The curve, from the springing to the vertex, is divided into three nearly equal spaces, but the intermediate points are made to approximate some- what more closely, in order to facilitate the disposition of the load ; and additional stiffness and protection is afforded by the well-devised framework within the arch. It will be seen that the uppermost (A these points falls immediately under the middle of the rafter, where the weight is collected by a massive purlin, and carried by an auxiliary arch to the queen posts, and by them conveyed to the hammer beam, a timber which possesses the property of a lever rather than a tie. The point of intersection with the arch (Fig. 1*) is its fulcrum or cen- tre of motion, and the force exerted at the inner end, which repre- sents the weight of the upper half of the rafter, forms a well adjusted counterpoise to the pressure on the pole plate or beam at the foot of the rafter connected with the outer end of the hammer beam. These forces combined follow the direction of the arch, which discharges its load fairly on to the walls ; and the outward thrust is so perfectly counteracted by the disposition of the parts, that the flying buttresses of the exterior seem called for, rather as a set off to the casualties of practice than any imperfection in the principle. This appears, indeed, the light in which they were received by the builders, for there seems to have been little attention to regularity even in their original dis- position. This chfd'muvre was completed in the year 1399, when Richard II. kept his Christmas at Westminster, and is said to have entertained 10,000 guests daily, but as that number could barely manage to stand in the hall, it is clear the whole party did not dine together. This was no doubt a circumstance of annoyance to the hospitable monarch who is said to have exclaimed that it was but a " mere dressing room in comparison with what he wished to have I" Eltham Palace, 1480 (Fig. 8.) To the decorated period Mr. Rickman has, I think, erroneously attributed the roof at Eltham. Its characteristics are certainly those of well developed perpendicular. It is a bad imitation of the West- minster roof, the chief arch being an obtuse pointed segmental one, which of course exerts a very considerable pressure against the upper part of the walls, and the hammer beams and brackets are but ill cal- culated for supporting any part of the load that may be thrown upon them. Thedesignerseems to have taken little pains to obviate a lateral strain, trusting,'in this respect, to the resistance afforded by the walls and buttresses. The principal rafters are of large dimensions, and are stiffened by horizontal struts under the purlins. The arched rib relieves the hammer beam of much of the weight at its inner end, and there are no longitudinal arches springing from them as in the foregoing example. The clear span of this roof is 36 feet. On investigation, I find my previous surmise as to the date of this roof supported, and its erection satisfactorily attributed to Edward IV. The cognizances of that monarch are of frequent occurrence in the masonry, and documentary evidence exists of his having at great cost repaired his house at Eltham. His third daughter (Bridget) was born here in 14S0, and in 1483 he celebrated Christmas in a most sump- tuous style — 2000 persons being regaled daily at the festive board. Wolsey's Hall, Hampton Court, 1520.— (Fig. 9.) The roof of the Great Hall at Hampton Court (temp. H. 8) covers a space of 40 ft., (which is the same as at Christchurch, Oxford, and Trinity College, Cambridge,) and is, perhaps, the most elaborate we possess. As a scientific system of framing, it cannot enter into rivalry with that at Westminster, which will be readily f -It, when we consider that the admiration it attracts is directed to a mere casing and noi to the actual skeleton. This gives it the character of a ceiling r.ither than of a roof, but it is to the timbers that our attention must now be 12 13S THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. devoted, nnd here we do not recognize that masterly arrangement, that perfect equilibration, which should at once proclaim it to be "By its own weight made steadfast and immoveable," a line that may be applied to Westminster Hall, with equal truth, force and beauty. In the present instance a considerable thrust is exerted laterally upon the walls, rendering buttresses necessary to its stability. Still there is much ingenuity in the frame work, and the pressure is made to exert itself at an angle of about 70°, being as near to a vertical direction as the scheme of the roof would perhaps admit of. The principal rafters may be said to partake of the property of an arch, and being concealed, their ruder construction does not form a very material disadvantage. The forces are made to exert themselves upon the hammer beam ; but with respect to the manner in which this timber is supported, a marked difference is observable ; a difference, indeed, that causes a complete change in the constructive principle and ultimate transmis- sion ot the load. At Westminster we have seen the great arched rib proudly spanning the entire width of the hall, and forming the grand support of the whole roof. The hammer beam, as has been shovvn, is poised with the greatest precision upon a point in the arch, and the weight thrown perpendicularly on the walls at the springing ; but at Hampton Court this principle is not carried out, for the hammer beams with their struts support the arch ! In estimating the lateral thrust of such a piece of framing, the simplest method seems to be to compose the forces acting on the hammer beam, and draw the re- sultant, A B, through the bracket and the walls to the ground. We thus liave the elements of a lever, the external edge of the wall bein? the fulcrum or prop. The weight of the wall collected at half its thickness from the fulcrum, as the resistance to be overcome, and the point where the resultant cuts the ground, shows the position of the counteracting force. In this point of view the ancient massive rubble wall had certain advantages over the light and compact mural works of the modern^. In conveying the forces from the hammer beam to the wall, the bracket is presumed to be of adequate strength ; but it ought to in- clude a straight (or more strictly a parabolic) line from the bottom of the queen-post to the corbel, to prevent a cross strain, and the line of the composed forces should pass en the outside of the corbel, other- wise the hammer beam would be liable to be depressed. The form ot these brackets being just the reverse of that which the mathema- tician would prescribe, the introduction of the bolt, an object which is regarded by the carpenter with extreme jealousy, became an act of only due precaution. [April, Roof of Wisstminsler School.— {Fig. 13.) This exhibits very closelv the anatomy of such as Hampton Court, and was selected by Tredgold as a general type of these works. The deflexion of the hammer beams and derangement of the queen-posts consequent on an excessive loading of the inner ends of the brackets, is quite apparent. The hammer beams of the opposite sides are now connected by bars of iron, a most unsightly and I fear equally ineffectual remedy. ^ King's College Chapel.— {Fig. 10.) This roof, which has been very accurately delineated by Mr. Mac- kenzie, is curious, from the degree of care bestowed on its form and finish, considering its destination as a mere covering to the very beautiful masonry beneath. It illustrates the practice of first roofing m buildings to be vaulted with stone. "There are," savs Rickman, " buildings in which, though the upper roof is shown, there is pre- paration for an inner roof; such is Chester Cathedral, where only the lady chapel and the ailes of the choir are groined, and the whole of the rest of the church is open; but on the top of the shafts is the com- mencement of the springing of a stone roof. It is in perfect consistency with the usual order of events to suppose that roofs were constructed with principals of a simple arched rib antecedently to those of more complicated forms and grander dimen- sions; and at Conway Castle (12S4) (Fig. 7) there are appearances which have induced me to suppose that the purlins and other timbers were supported by a series of stone arches and gables, serving the purposes of principals. Guard Room, Lamhelh Palace, 1450.— (Fig. 4.) This is a very elegant roof of a simple wooden arch, but its precise aate is not recorded. It has the lofty two-centred and bold tracery ot early perpendicular work, and there is in Braylev's illustrations a memorandum under the date 1452, that on accmint of the great in- firmity ot Archbishop Kemp a convocation was adjourned from St. Fauls Cathedral to the Manor of Lambeth, and held in the High ureal Chamber, (alUl camertl rnajori,) which he supposes to be the room in question. It is said to have been the restoration of a still earlier guard room. Though now plastered over there is every reason for concluding that the rafters were originally exposed to view. Hall and Chapel, Croydon Palace, 1450.— (Figs. 6 & ] 1.) These furnish examples with the four-centred arch; and at the Moat House, at Igthum, Kent, is a very bold simple arch which when accompanied by spandril tracery, and the upper part occupied by king-posts and the other timbers, must have produced a very fine effect. The Roof of the Divinity School, Oxford, may be instanced as a specimen of the arched rib, with pierced tracery in the spandril, sup- porting a ground ceiling with pendants and elaborate tracery. In Rick man's work on " Gothic Architecture," is mentioned a roof at Willingham Church, Cambridgeshire, where stone ribs rise like the timber ones, the intervals are pierced, and the slope of roof is of stone ; it is high pitched, and the whole appears of decorated cha- racter (1307 to 1377). In smaller examples we often meet with arch-formed timbers serv- ing (otherwise than for ornament) as auxiliaries to the principal ralters, and give no change of direction to the weight. Instances of this are found at South Wraxall (Fig. 12), the Vicar's Hall, Wells, and many other places. Nursled Court, Kent, 1330 (Fig. 2.) At Nursted Court, situated about four miles due south from Graves- end, is a roof of singular interest, doubtlessly anterior to that of West- minster Hall, and attributed, with great probability, to Stephen de Gravesend, Bishop of London, who became possessed of the manor in 1338. In this example the portion of the weight which at Westminster thrown on the inner end of the hammer-beam, is here at once con- veyed by a series of arches and posts to the ground. Mr. Carlos says, "The interior of the hall was distinguished by the singular construc- tion of its roof, which was sustained on pillars standing within the area, in this respect differing from the generality of ancient examples which have reached our day, it is however highly probable that Westminster Hall was originally divided after the same manner. The roof ajipears to have been sustained on a frame work composed of two principal beams and two purlins, and supported by four oaken pillars disposed on two ranges on each side of the area, the beams being converted into arches by the addition to their soffits of arch formed timbers. It is illustrated in the " Gentleman's Magazine," for April, 1 837, where there is a notice of a similar roof at Balsall Temple, Warwickshire. The School House, at Coventry (Fig. 5), is another example. Crosbrj Hall, 1470.— (Fig. 14.) _ Another class of roofs of considerable antiquity, but perfectly distinct in principle from those yet considered, based on the projierty of the triangle to resist racking or change of form, is met with in several of our colleges, at Crosby Hall, and in many later buildings. It is in roofs of this kind that timbers possessing the nature of a tie, or for which a flexible substance, as a rope or chain, might be sub- stituted, are first advanced in English work, all beams in the former examples being either compressed or subjected to cross strains. This roof was well adapted for the oranamental ceilings of the sixteenth century, when the custom of concealing the timbers prevailed, and formed an easy transilience from the steep inclination of the old roof to the flat unbroken plane of " modern instances." Gothic roofs, then, (using the term generically, in contradistinction to those with level ties) admit of an obvious and definite analysis into four classes, to one or other of which any roof may be referred. Three of these have the arch for their basis, and the science of equilibriation is called into direct action; the fourth has in itself a countercheck to lateral pressure. The first class comprises roofs with simple arched ribs as at the Guard Room, Lambeth ; the Moat House, Igtham ; Ackwell Manor House, &c. The second class comprehends those examples that have a grand arch spanning the entire width with axillary timbers, by which part of the weight is suspended from the intrados as at Westminster, Eltham, Boddington, luxon Hall, Lambeth, &c. The third class consists of such as have the arch supported by brackets, as at Hampton Court, Westminster School, &c. The fourth class, or angular roofing, includes such as are formed of two intersecting triangular frames, in which the tendency to press out the walls is counteracted by the longitudinal stress upon the connect- ing beams, as at Crosby Hall. In this latter class we arrive at a point where it becomes difficult to trace the principle of construction, and to determine with exactitude ( the object of the cross beams. In some instances their use as struts is 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 139 apparent as at Old Basing Church (Fig. 3), in Hampshire, in others their usefulness as ties can hardly be questioned, as at Crosby Hall. I mention this ambiguity, because the original application of oblique or inclined ties has been attributed to Mr. Revett, an architect of the last century, and known to the republic of letters as tlie editor of the third volume of Stuart's " Athens." On the one hand it must be confessed that in the older roofs we can hardly be said to meet with timbers in a state of tension. On the other, if we reflect how decidedly the attention of artists was in Mr. Revett's time averted from our natural relics, we shall cease to be surprised if their just pro- tension met with neglect, and, in some cases, misappropriation. OBSERVATIONS ON ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURE. By Henry Fulton, M.D. No. 8. The Farnese or Italian astylar seems likely to gain the ascendant in this country, and, perhaps, all things considered, it is well that it should do so. In tlie mind of every man of taste the Greek style is inseparably connected with a state of purity which rejects all adul- teration, and (whether fortunately or not for the development of our own powers) our climate iind customs require so many changes from the original, that in the adaptation of the style, it too often loses all its value, and becomes flnt, stale, and unprofitable. Exceptions there are to this in favour of a few temples and isolated buildings, where the style may still be exhibited to advantage; and unpardonable indeed is the architect who does not seize on such opportunities when within liis reach; as these must be relied on to maintain and hand down to posterity the true principles of the art. But although the use of the Greek style, as defined by its orgina- tors, must, for the reasons stated, be in a great measure abandoned, yet unless the love of it and a full and entire perception of its beau- ties pervade the whole soid of the architect, it would be better for us mortals that liis proper calling was to build pigeon boxes or hen coops rather than National Galleries, Museums, Royal Exchange interiors, and club houses. If, in the chances of life, Canova had been cast away on some barbarous island in the Pacific, would he not, if obliged to cut jade into idols, have carried out, even with such materials and for such purposes, those principles of his art which he had acquired by studying the works of Fhidins? If our masters — aye, our masters, for we must agree with Sir Joshua, who says, "From the remains of the works of the ancients the modern arts were revived, and it is by their means that they must be restored a second time. However it may mortify our vanity, we must be forced to allow them our masters ; and we may venture to prophecy that when they shall cease to be studied, arts will no longer flourish, and we shall again relapse into barbarism," if the architects of the time of Pericles were now per- mitted to appear amongst us, would they not carry into the designs for our modern buildings the same principles which guided them in designing those structures which ought to be the admiration of the vrorld ? Now it is precisely the lack of this feeling and perception, and not the ditFerence of climate and wants which causes the failure of some modern architects. Take the ancient models to pieces, select, ap- propriate and combine ac/ /;6rtHm, but remember the principles, and do not deviate one iota from them. Invent, if you please, and treat your own inventions as you please, but do not take the same liberty with the inventions of others. Do not take a Greek cornice for the purpose of breaking it up into trifling parts, without reflecting that the Greeks themselves obtained grandeur and simplicity by its integ- rity, and that the same results may not follow a contrary practice. As Sir Joshua Reynolds aptly says, "however contradictory it may be in geometry, it is true in taste, that many little things will not make a great one;" if this be true in painting, much more is it applicable to architectural outline. Do not slick a Greek portico up against a building, because it will then have the appearance of not being part of the original design, but rather an after-thought, which may be easily removed elsewhere, and all the compositions of the Greeks had a monographical character, which gave their most elaborately finished works all the charms of simplicity. If a portico be required on the side of a building, or in any case where it cannot be made to extend the entire front, why not recess it in antis, and thus preserve integ- rity of outline? In truth we have both bill stickers and portico stickers all engaged in the laudable occupation of disfiguring our public and private edifices. Do not let your pediments have the appearance of having been sliced off from some smaller edifice; that is, let the entire extent of the front be crowned with a pediment, or if that may not be, let there be none at all, for if you place more than one in the same line, as in the river front of Somerset House, for instance, then the composition must have the appearance of being so many separate edifices, and not as one design. Windows we must have, although, as far as the Greek style is con- cerned, they are evils, still they are necessary evils, vet it is by no means necessary to make the evil greater and more apparent by means of incongruous ornament, if indeed we may use the word ornament to express any thing when it ceases to be ornamental. Why then do we find two little columns surmounted by a little pediment, which only iippears to be made part of the building by an awkward process of grafting? Little columns and little pediments are little things and little in the acceptation of the term, when it implies mean or insigni- ficant ; they must have magnitude or they cannot have importance. The proportion generally given for windows is that the height shall be twice the width : in the Traveller's Club the columns of the win- dows are 10 ft. 3 in., and the interspace between the columns 5 ft.; taking the columns to be ten diameters high, this would give us no less than six diameters from centre to centre ; in fact, with a little stretch of imagination, these windows look like the porticos of model temples let into holes in the wall, the centre columns being removed for the purpose of showing the muntons of the sash 'ights. In con- sidering the subject of intercolumniation, I had recourse to my old friend PalUidio, not for the purpose of seeing what he did, for I ex- pected no ally in that quarter, but to see what he said, which may have some weight with those who take his works as their standard. He says, "The intercolumniation may be of one diameter and a half, or of two, of two and a quarter, of three, and sometimes more, but the ancients never exceeded three except in the Tuscan order. Great care must be taken to keep a due proportion, because if small columns are made with large intercolumniutions, it will very much diminish the beauty of the former." It is moreover the invariable practice to diminish columns even when engaged, which in the case of win- dows must leave the opening wider above than at the bottom. The apex of a pediment should be the crowning stone of the com- position, the highest point in the picture ; how is this character pre- served in windows which have wall and cornice, and, it may be, other windows and pediments above them? But perhaps it may be asked, "do you require merely a plain opening in the wall ?" for mv part, I can contemplate a plain cleanly finished, unornamented window, without feeling the same horror which arises from one of the ornate description first alluded to, or the shouldered and balustraded ones which are presented to us in great variety; but there is no necessity for leaving these openings destitute of all ornament, for moulded architraves may in almost every case be supplied with advantage. The Roman arch gives a good form of window, particularly for the ground floor; but it must be quite plain, without even a dropping keystone, which, indeed, looks like the con- sequence of a mistake on the part of the workmen, who may have accidentally placed the piers or jams too far asunder, and hence the dropping of the keystone. Mathematicians consider the circle as the. most beautiful of all figures ; the dropping keystone destroys its arc. The Egyptians, by covering their walls with hieroglyphics, sought to convey and perpetuate information and instruction to the people, and their labours have survived the knowledge of the characters in which they were written. Some architects now-a-days cover their edifices not with graven precepts, but with scored lines, which have neither wit nor worth, excellence nor meaning. The New Zealander thus tatooes his face as the American Indian puts on his paint, that he may bear the distinguishing marks of his tribe; but it will scarcely be urged that tatooing is of the same use in distinguishing one class of buildings from another. Mr. Leeds, in his criticism on the Traveller's Club, says, "Rusticating of ditferent kinds contributes in no small degree to variety and character in this style. Contrary to the idea the term itself at first suggests, so far from producing rudeness, coarseness or negligence, it is not incompatible either with richness or delicacy of finish." For my part, I can distinguish no ditt'erence, unless it be that in some examples there is more paring and frittering away than in others. " There is no beauty in straight lines," such as these which break up the surface without giving any breadth of sha- dow. A few lines are easily drawn on paper, but much labour is given to workmen, and consequently not a little expense entailed on those who are to pay; and for what? to make open joints for the re- ception of dust and moisture, without having a redeeming feature. Columns are the most ornamental part of classical architecture, and yet they are quite unfitted for ornament, nor has the attempt to ap- (iropriate them for that purpose ever succeeded ; the explanation of this seeming paradox is that their beauty principally arises from tlie 12* 140 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [April, exquisite vaiioty of liglit and shade which they afford when properly insulated ; but when engaged doing any thing else or doing nothing, we feel the w;int of that they do not give, and the more sensibly be- cause they seem only to recall its absence to our memory. Engaged columns give the substance but not the shadow. We must also notice the introduction of those bloated, stunted, pot-bellied, corpulent things called balusters, (although we regret they do not merit being designated by more elegant terms.) A critic in the March number of a contemporary journal speaking of the Gresham Club, (noticed in Observations No. 7,J says, " That the great merit of club architecture is to make a good kitchen;" and in place of giving any remarks on other points, gives in commendatory terms an account of the " lifts " for the dishes to pass to and fro, and the washing of plates; all this is no doubt very satisfactory to the readers of that journal, and german to the guzzle-ability and gull-ability of the civic members of the club, as well as creditable to the ability of the archi- tect himself, however it may excite the risibility of others. In the fafade of this club we have these architectural wall-_/?OHiers introduced no doubt as emblems of the fat contented state, which the culinary arrangements of the kitchen may probably produce. Sir Robert Smirke has placed these gouty columns (as they have been called) on the College of Physicians, for the more humane and noble purpose, as emblems of swathed podagra, to remind those who are atEicted with one of the most painful maladies which the pleasures of the kitchen bring, that here they may be relieved. Where it is not ne- cessary to set forth on the elevation by means of these pigmy co- lumns either the bane or antidote, if a screen be requisite, the iron founders furnish many examples in much better taste, more Greek and not less classical. In the Travellers' Club, for instance, both may be compared, and we can recommend this without the imputation of flattery because we bestow our praise to its back and not to its face. Balustrades might be made highly ornamental and appropriate on gastronomic principles for "Club architecture," if instead of dwarf columns with their capitals reversed, specimens of fat inflated hu- manity were designed and placed in the same position. It is the practice of some architects to treat their antse and pilasters either to foliated or voluted capitals; now the true and legitimate use of a pilaster in a composition is to connect columns with the walls, that the transition be not too violent, and these connecting links should partake of the nature of both ; which can be best obtained by neither fluting, diminishing, nor giving them capitals other than suitable mouldings. Old women and children (it may be remarked without disparage- ment to the taste of some persons who do not rank as either) invari- ably prefer the Ionic and Corinthian orders to the Doric. This latter order is plain and severe, and can only recommend itself to the eye by its well adjusted proportions. It would almost appear that its inventors had telt this, and laid down an unerring rule, which, like the laws of the Medes and Persians, properly admitted of no change, namely, that two metopes, and two only, should intervene on the frieze between centre and centre of each column. It is true there is one instance of the contrary, but it forms the exception, not the rule, and it is an example rather to be avoided than magnified and taken as a precedent. I am very far from holding the opinion that the pro- portion of frieze just mentioned should not in any instance be deviated from. Jot even so much as the entire space of a third metope may be given and the eye shall scarcely detect it if the index be not given iu the form of triglyphs. In the basement story of Carlton Terrace, facing St. James's Park, an instance of what I mean may be seen. But in the name of good taste, what innate beauty is there in a triglyph ? Is there any form or figure in architecture more devoid of beauty ? Yet as used it is the index either of beauty or deformity ; it is either the index of a well proportioned arrangement, or the indication of a struggling and weak one, which can neither permit the eye nor the imagination to be deceived. In the Roman or emasculated Doric (which is no more a specimen of the noble order from which it is said to have been derived, and whose name in part it bears, than the un- happy modification of the genus homo is a fair example of the class whence he is taken, and whose garb he wears) triglyphs are of the same advantage as false curls are to the shrivelled and withered face of an old harridan, which, as the index respectively of due proportion and youth, only renders deformity, debility, and decripitude the more apparent: and although the age and infirmities of the ancient dame, even when thus indicated, may excite our sympathy, yet the Vitruvian epicene and fibled personification of the other sex has no claims on the extension of our gallantry. An example of faulty metopical arrangement may be seen in the portico of the University Club, as it appears in Leeds' "Illustrations of the Buildings of London ;" there are two columns flanked bv coupled antK, and the triglyph is not placed over the centre of the internal I pilaster, and there are three metopes on the frieze above the centre intercolumniation; these incongruities and irregularities would not have been so evident if the frieze had been altogether naked or en- riched with sculpture instead of the triglyphs. The Universities have some reason to be dissatisfied with suoli an attempt at a classical portico. It neither was the practice of the ancients, nor is it of modern architects to introduce triglyphs into Ionic or Corinthian compositions, yet there seems no reason for not doing so, when the arrangement of the columns admit of it : but we have ancient examples in abundance , and too seldom followed, of sculptured friezes without triglyphs in all the orders. The first and somewhat distant view of an edifice should give a bold unbroken outline; all ornament should from such a point of view appear softened into a mass, merely soliciting a closer inspection : and when to obtain this the spectator advances, the eye ceases to take in the outline, or to feel that it is all interrupted by the most highly finished or minute sculptured details : but if instead of these, broken entablatures, poly triglyphs, senseless rustic lines, and a spongy-looking surface meet his view, better nothing existed to incite a close exami- nation. Of all the ancient architects, the Egyptians first, and after them the Greeks, alone seem to have been aware of the advantages of these principles. On these the beauty of a composition depends; without them an edifice may be ornate but not ornamental ; con- venient but not symmetrical ; well constructed but ill designed ; the work of a skilful builder who understands his trade, but not the pro- duction of an accomplished architect who aims at the highest walk in his profession ; it may induce the groundlings to stare, but it must force the judicious to grieve; the censure of one of which ought, in the allowance of an architect to o'erweigh a whole crowd of others. It cannot be denied that disappointment often arises when a struc* ture is finished, an event which was not expected when the drawings of the design were in the first instance submitted for inspection. Employers seldom look at a design except as a picture, and they are ignorant of what the result may be in the solid. Unfortunately archi- tects are obliged to minister to this state of things, particularly in cases of competition, and I believe that fevf are the instances where the most highly finished and tasty drawings have not been the suc- cessful ones ; and vi'hen once these receive the fiat of approval, the architect is naturally loth to suggest any alteration. A geometrical elevation appears a cold stiff" production to every eye that cannot realize its erection, hence the architect is tempted to set it off to the best advantage, and to give it pictorial effect by the introduction of light and shade, to procure which he must often break up his composi- tion. In short, the efforts of the architect may be directed to produce a design on paper as the primary object; the erection of the edifice itself being altogether of secondary importance, and instead of his conception being (if I may so speak) in stone, it is on paper, and must be viewed from very different points of sight. The architect's whole thoughts are centered on the draught, on the ornamenting of which he spends the might of his mind, careless it may be of the effect, which must result in the solid, from his projecting lines which ornament his picture; and as drawings are generally to the subject what an inch is to ten or twenty feet, features scarcely observable are, when thus magnified, rendered unsightly. It would be most desirable, in all cases, if models were prepared, instead of, or in addition to drawings ; it is true some expence would be incurred by the practice, but in many cases it would tend to save expence. Buckingham Palace, for instance, a great part of which was taken down whilst the works were in progress, I believe more than once; and in others, the National Gallery, for example, it might save us a world of regret and disappointment. This is an inventive age, and as soon as the demand for models shall arise, we shall have suit- able materials discovered for their construction. It is said of Fuseli that on seeing a student in the Royal Academy staring at vacancy, he asked him what he was looking at, "Nothing, Sir," was the reply; "See something," retorted Fuseli, "I always see the subjects I am about to paint;" so it should be with an archi- tect, he ought to think of the solid, and in this respect building cast/is in the air may not be an unprofitable occupation, as regards the ad- vancement of his taste. Drawings ought merely to be the memoranda for the assistance of his own memory, and the means by which he wishes to demonstrate to others the subjects of his thoughts. Some of our readers may be disposed to think that many of the observations in these papers are so trite and self-evident as to be un- called for; I wish thev could show me from modern practice that they were unnecessary ; I wish they could bring forward the erections of the last ten years in refutation of what is here urged ; then, indeed, the labours of "a mere amateur" would be superfluous, and I should gladly lay down my pen, and give myself up to the contemplation of the beauty of 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 141 revived architecture. Mr. Gwilt and others have written and spoken with a righteous horror of the interference of "idlers," but let Mr. Gwilt and the rest not confine themselves to writing and speaking against amateurs, let them also write and speak openly against what those amateurs say. A certain clique are too generous, too candid, too much occupied with ideas of their own importance, to attack, even in self defence, an anonymous assailant! let us see what reply they can give to one who does not shelter himself in ambush, to one who although fully sensible of his want of powers to set forth things as he could wish, yet yields to none in a desire to promote a love and knowledge of the art, and who is thoroughly persuaded that the best method of doing so, both for the interest of the profession and the furtherance of the art itself, is to give the public the means of obtain- ing information. If the writer of tliese papers should have succeeded in the attempt to promote this, then he has written as he would; but if his endeavours have been marred by lack of ability then he has written as he best could, and he hopes that others more highly quali- fied may be induced to come to his assistance, point out his errors, and supply that which is deficient. It has been too much the practice in all ages to meet suggested improvements and proposed deviations from established notions, with other than open and candid argument. Daring is the man who attempts to run counter to the prejudices of his age ; parra componere magnis ; Galileo was put into the Inquisition fur asserting that the earth moves round the sun ; and Harvey lost his practice as a physi- cian for attempting to demonstrate the circulation; still we can now say with Florence's eldest son, " The starry Galileo with his woes." " It moves," as he said, when a ray of light entered between the bars of his prison and fell on a diagram of the Copernican system scratched on the walls of his dungeon. And although worse than monkish bigotry (considering the quarter from whence it came) assailed our own Harvey, still from its citadel, the heart, life's current flows and returns in the very circle which he pointed out. If the immortal con- ception of the Greek architects, buried amidst the rubbish of false taste, must lie neglected and dishonoured, let Resurgeram be graven on its tomb, for assuredly against us also it shall hereafter rise in judgment. II. Mr. Gwilt in his Encyclopedia, 'expresses the laudable desire "to form, guide and correct the taste of even the imre amateur," and he says that " York Stairs, another of Inigo Jones' examples exhibits a pureness and propriety of character which appear afterwards unap- preciated by his successors, with Wren at tlieir head." Will Mr. Gwilt, the learned author of the Elements of Architectural Criticism, have tlie kindness to state what form, figure or feature of this erection "exhibits pureness and propriety of character ?" I am sure the plea- sure and instruction lie can aftbrd by doing so, will be shared with me by all the readers of this Journal, (1 hope a numerous class) who de- sire to have their taste formed, guided and corrected. Clonmtre, Dublin, April 1844. PROGRESS OF ART.-WESTMINSTER REVIEW, No. 80. While the Quarterly, and the Foreign Quarterly Review, both of which used atone time to be rather frequent with architectural topics, together with others bearing upon the fine arts, now never touch them, the " Westminster" here gives no fewer that/bwr articles of the kind, occupying one-third of the entire " Number." Architecture there- fore seems to have turned up "trumps" in that quarter; and whether they be small or high trumps, it holds a most remarkably strong hand of them. The one which may be considered the ace of them, is played off first, viz., that entitled "Progress of Art," which, we may observe, in lieu of the writer's initials, has only ainyslilying, * ?, attached to it. That the writer should not have cared to afford any clue to his name, is not particularly surprising; since he does not take a very flattering view of the Progress of Art, either among ourselves or in other coun- tries,— in fact, he considers the Progress to be in some respects a backward and retrograde one, — to be one not of advance but of falling back upon antiquated forms and models, excellent in their time, and admirably adapted to the spirit of it; yet our time is not theirs: Europe is not China : the lapse of comparatively very few centuries has wrought a complete change in the European mind, — and not only in our social and outward habits, but in our mental ones likewise. Nought does it avail to say that such ought not to be the case, if such it really is ; consequently it is for those who contend that things ought to be otherwise, to show how they can be made so. Surely Art has not yet gone through every possible phase of it, — has not yet revolved through the whole of its great Platonic year. We must not, however, allow such vain questions — hardly less use- less than perplexing — to detain us ; neither can we pretend to notice here what the writer says in regard to the state of painting and sculp- ture at the present day ; accordingly to his comments on architecture, little flattering, or rather, exceedingly unpalatable as some of them are, we confine ourselves. Be they truth or untruth, it is important that architects themselves should be fully aware what sort of opinions get abroad relative to themselves and tlieir art. They may, indeed, shut their eyes and their ears, but they cannot compel the public to do so likewise, therefore it is as well for them to keep a sharp look-out, or they may chance to find the tide rushing in upon, and taking them by surprise when they are quite unprepared. " Though the whole nation," says the writer, " have and always have had an interest, not only in the private edifices, but in the public buildings erected throughout the kingdom, — while the knowledge and enjoyment of the sister arts have been confined to the affluent and the educated, still architecture is with us at present in a worse position than either of the others, its professors have less title to the name of artists, and its best productions can only claim as their highest praise to be correct copies, or at most, successful adaptations of some other buildings erected in former times, for purposes totally different from anything we at present require. The cause of this, we believe, will be found to lie, even more directly than in the other arts, in the system of copying, to the exclusion of all original thinking, or, indeed, of common sense ; and the reason why this should be so fearfully prevalent in archi- tecture will be found to be principally in the anomalous system in which not onlv the patrons of art, but the artists themselves, have been educated in England." We have next some severe but just remarks on "gentlemanly edu- cation" in this country, and the insufficient system pursued at the great schools and the two universities, with some lustily dealt blows at the latter for their utter neglect of art. Then, after some stringent remarks on the miserable sort of professional education which young men receive in this country, when placed as articled pupils to archi- tects, the writer comes to some of the late, and of the living " notabi- lities" in the profession. Among the former, Soane, Nash, Wilkins, are fairly enough estimated by him, — we might say, rather favourably than the contrary, for considering the number and the kind of the op- portunities afforded them, not one of the three achieved what he might have done; each of them was, besides, too much of a mere mannerist, and seems to have worked with a very limited stock of ideas. Mannerism, monotony, and penury of ideas, still more strongly characterize a distinguiisked living celebrity, who, as far as he has any character at all, may be described as the utter " negation of an artist." As such he is spoken of here, " Sir Robert Smirke ha« adopted a safer plan than any of these men ; bis fame rests entirely on the sound masonry of his buildings, and the only attempt he makes at artistic effect is putting up as many funic columns as his employers will allow. One drawing made long ago has served for all his porticos, now about to be brought to the acme of perfection in the British Museum, where forty-four of these useless Ionic columns, placed in various rows, are to form the facade." This is assuredly sufficiently expressive of contempt, in itself, yet we fear, will be taken, both by Sir Robert and many others besides, as very mild reproach, it is, indeed, by far too much so for so very great an offender — one who has injured art most seriously, and that not so muchby his own miserable aborticns,which might well be left to contempt, as by robbing it again arid again of some of the fairest opportunities that have been afforded to architecture among our public and national edifices, nay absolutely nullifying them. If Pecksniffs there must be in the land, at all events let them not be thrust into high places. The man himself might have been a very respectable " carcase builder" but as an architect is the poorest maudlin imaginable: still in his merely being so there would be nothing very remarkable, but that being so, he should have been allowed to go on to the extent he has dune, — to commit failure after failure, is indeed most wonderful and supremely mortilying ; and withal shows what kind of encouragement is bestowed in this country on architecture itself, and how far the patronage it receives is judicious, discriminating and sincere. If towards Sir R. Smirke, the writer in the " Westminster" has been somewhat more lenient than many others, he has not been sparing of criticism towards one who has hitherto been accustomed to have to listen to it only as applause or even homage — we mean Charles Barry. That gentleman would perhaps have been better satisfied, had his works been more briefly mentioned ; still he can bear to hear the truth as well as any body ; while as to the writer, if he has touched one or two vulnerable points in the architect's greatest work, some- what ungently, it shows that he is not over-awed by a reputation which seems to carry all before it. After a few strictures on Mr. Barry's club houses, the reviewer goes on to say — " The Parliament houses are, however, the great architectural undertaking 112 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Aprii., of the present day. Since the rebuilding of St. Paul's nothing so splendid has been attempted in Britain, and indeed, since Versailles, scarce anything on the Continent can compare with them. AVe have also the satisfaction of knowing that the design is the best of our best architect, and that instead of the grudging economy that is said to have spoiled so many of our undertak- ings in art, the expenditure here has been not only liberal but lavish ; for had we been content with a plain, honest brick building, with stone dressings, such as would have satisfied our fathers or ourselves a few years ago, we might have had all the accommodation the present one will afford, and better arranged, for £150,000 or .£200,000, whereas the estimates for this one already amount to .-£1,200,000, and it will not be finished under a million and a half. Here then is at least a million of money spent on pure festhetic ornament, a sum that would have restored to their pristine beauty (if we ■wanted Gothic) every cathedral or church in the kingdom, or would have established schools of art and design, with collections of art, in all the prin- cipal cities in the kingdom ; this it has been determined to expend in realiz- ing the design of one architect, and already the nation are beginning to tire of their bauble before they have got it, and to think they have paid too much for what they begin to find out will not be satisfactory when finished. " The river front is now nearly completed, and as Mr. Barry declares it to he the best part of the design, we may safely assert that the new buildings, tliough clad in the very prettiest and best selected Gothic detail, will, when finished, be as much like the bold, meaning, purpose-like buildings of our ancestors as the very pretty Swiss peasant girls and very polite brigands and Albanians of our ball-rooms are like the rough originals. " Every building of our ancestors expressed in every part the purpose for which it was erected, and with a degree of richness or simplicity suited to its destination ; here, with the idea of producing a giand uniform whole, every part has been made externally to look exactly alike. The speaker's house is the counterpart of that of the usher of the black rod, and though the latter is obliged to share his residence with a librarian, that is not to be discovered from the exterior ; and equal magnificence is displayed in the apartments allotted to the clerks of the House and all the inferior ofBces. Indeed, whether it is the great conference hall or the public libraries or com- mittee rooms, — whether it is the Queen's robing room or a librarian's bed room, each is externally the same ; and whether the room is fifty feet by thirty, or only fifteen feet square, the stories throughout are of the same height, unless indeed, as has been suspected, some of these fine looking windows are to be cut into two by concealed floors, a falsehood no Gothic architect ever was guilty of, and a meanness which two honest windows would never exhibit. " It is Heedless to point out at what an enormous sacrifice of expense and convenience this has been effected ; but what is worse, it is not only not Gothic, but is an attempt at the same silly pretension which induced Nash, in the Regent's Park terraces, to group together a number of small houses into one design, to make them look like a palace. The truth peeps out at every corner there, and so it does here ; and if any one will take the trouble of clothing any of them in Gothic detail, Chester Terrace for instance, he will be surprised how nearly he has re-produced the river front of the Parlia- meut Houses." Long as is the foregoing extracti we must immediately follow it up by another still longer : — " It must always appear strange how an architect could have gone so much out of his way to obtain this uniformity, and produce a prevalence of the horizontal lines over the vertical, for not only is this utterly abhorrent from Gothic in every case, but here, where he had a front about eight times the length of its height to deal with, all his ingenuity should have been exerted either to break the horizontal lines, or by bold projecting masses (as at Versailles), to prevent the eye following them, and thus take oft" the low street-like appearance the building now has; but, as if to make this still more apparent, the towers, instead of being parts of the river front, so as to give it height, are placed behind it, and disconnected, as if by contrast to make it still lower. It is lucky for the architect's fame that the land front, in spite of his worse judgment, will be broken and varied by the projections of Westminster Hall and the law courts, and will thus much surpass the river front; but it is painful to see the great tower placed so as by its mass to depress and overpower the Abbey and Henry the Seventh's chapel. It would have been diflicult to invent anything that could be more prejudicial to them than this feature, which, if admissible at all, should have been placed where the speaker's house is, at the angle next the bridge. Had this been done, we should not have had the architect coolly asking for £120,000 to rebuild the superstructui'e at great temporary inconvenience to the public, and per- manent detriment to the navigation of the river, and this merely because he forgot the existence of the bridge in making his design, or had not wit enough to know how to counteract the effect of it on the building. It is besides here, where there is a great thoroughfare and a fine open space (it is understood that the houses in Bridge Street are to come down), where pro- cessions and shows can be seen from the square, the bridge, and the river, that the Queen's and Peers' state entrances, with the Peers' House, should have been placed ; not as they now are, in a back street of Westminster ; and had this been done, and the south end devoted to the Commons, there would have been good grammar and good taste in building that part of a plainer and less pretending style than the north, half devoted to royalty and the peers. This would have been more appropriate to the confined situation, and the saving of expense as great as the additioual convenience. " If, however, the exterior shows all these defects, and many more, which it would be tedious to point out, the interior is far worse, which will be easily understood when it is stated that one-fourth of the whole area is occupied by eleven large and seven small courts ; and as these are all entirely surrounded by high buildings, they will be at best but damp, ill-ventilated well holes, whose floors the sun will seldom see. They increase the expense of the building to an extent not easily calculated, not only by spreading it over a quarter more space, but they actually present more lineal feet of stone- faced wall than the whole exterior of the new building put together. " Had t'ne architect adopted one great court, with a glazed roof, running behind the river front, and divided into four compartments by the two houses and the central hall, these compartments forming four halls might have been surrounded by three tiers of arcades, something similar to the galleries of our old inn court yards, thus affording easy and cheerful access to all the apartments, and doing away with the tunnel-like corridors which at present occupy half the building. If, in addition to this, he had raised the roof of his ground floor about ten feet, and lighted it with good honest windows, instead of the loopholes which at present scarce admit light to render it habitable, a much smaller building would have afforded far more accommodation. " It is not easy to conceive anything that would, architecturally speaking, have been more magnificent than this range of halls, extending at least 700 feet in length, and broken by the arcades supporting the houses and central hall, so as to take off every appearance of narrowness ; and had something like fan tracery been adopted for the roofs, but with the fairy lightness that cast iron would have enabled the architect to introduce, and the interstices glazed with coloured glass, we might fairly have challenged the world to produce anything like it. In these halls, too, might have been placed the memorials of our great men ; one court might have been devoted to our literary men, another to our men of science, whilst the others would have been occupied by our heroes and statesmen. Their statues might have stood in the centre, and their illustrious deeds have been painted on the walls. " By bringing the ground floor into use, it would not only have given the building more height, which it much wants, but have provided space, in con- junction with the halls, for coffee rooms, committee rooms, waiting rooms of all sorts ; and by adopting four covered courts instead of the open ones, so much space might have been attained that the building might have been set back fifty feet from the present line of front, and a good broad terrace road obtained, from which the river front might have been seen ; at present it is entirely lost, and cannot be seen near enough to be examined from a boat ; the present terrace, of thirty feet wide, is too narrow to admit of the building being viewed from it, besides not being accessible to the public." The terrace is, in fact, not only too narrow, but much too low : it ought to have been raised twelve or fifteen feet more, or tn about the same level as the foot of the bridge ; that front of the building being still of the same height as at present, consequently loftier than those on the west side. Of course this would have caused material altera- tion of the plan within, because the principal floor rooms towards the river, must have been on a proportionably higher level than the rest ; yet so far from being attended by inconvenience, that circumstance might have been made to contribute not a little towards interior effect, the ascent to those rooms being arranged somewhat after the same manner as will now be that leading up from Westmin?ter Hall into St. Stephen's Hall. Beyond the two last-mentioned portions of the future "Palace of Westminster," we apprehend, the scheme for fresco-painting and other decoration can hardly be carried out, — at least not so that the public cau derive much advantage from it. No provision has been made by the architect for what was not contemplated neilberby himself nor any one else, when he first formed his plans. The fresco painting scheme has been entirely an after-thought, and hardly practicable to anything like the extent that has been talked of. Little less than preposterous is it to suppose that decoration of the kind can be adopted for corridors, which, great as will be their extent, will be merely passages of communication — not at all too wide even for that purpose, and with no more light than what is absolutely necessary; yet, it is to be hoped that, come when they may, our English frescos will endure to be seen to advantage without being shown in twilight. After Barrv, Pugin comes in for some share of the critic's notice and animadversion, for while it is admitted that he not only under- stands the style he follows, but enters into the spirit of it, he is charged with wrong-headed enthusiasm, in endeavouring to dress us all up in the costume of the fourteenth or fifteenth century. " It might please some enthusiastic persons," says the writer, " that we should give up our science and civilization, and return to the barbarous igno- rance and simplicity of those days; but it requires no great sagacity to fore- see that, so far from retroceding, we cannot even stand still, but must advance; and although, because we have no other art to admire, we are now wild after correct copies of old churches, it is quite evident that neither the symbolism nor the monkish superstition of the middle ages can have any permanent hold on an enlightened people." So, too, think we: neither religious feeliog, nor feeling for art, is 1S44.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 143 likely to be in the slightest degree benefitted by the ecclesiastical mummery now so largely affected, and accompanied with no small share of hypocrisy on the one side, and of stupid credulity on the other. SUGGESTIONS CONNECTED WITH THE ANTIQUITIES IN ASIA MINOR. [The Government determined in 1S43 to send out a fresh expedi- tion to Asia Minor, under Mr. Fellowes' direction, to procure further marbles, and to investigate more thoroughly the antiquities of the neighbourhood of Xanthus. The Trustees of the British Museum appointed Mr. Hawkins, Jun., to assist Mr. Fellowes in his architec- tural researches among the monuments of the country ; and the Council of the Royal Institute of British Architects having been ap- plied to for instructions and suggestions to aid the travellers in their investigations, Messrs. Donaldson, Vice-President, Angell and Scoles, were requested to draw up a paper on the subject; the following memoranda were furnished to Mr. Hawkins.] Most of the [monuments in this country are either of the time of the successors of Alexander, or were erected during the Roman dominion. But if there be any of a remoter period they are of very great interest in connexion with the history of art and the usages of the earlier times. Those of the higher antiquity will doubtless be of ruder execution, and the proportions not so graceful as the later ones of the Alexan- drine period. The monuments of this latter epoch will generally be found to be purer in conception and execution than those erected either previously or subsequently; but not so refined as those of Grecia Propna of the time of Pericles. Under the Roman rule the wants and luxurious habits of the people increased, and some of the Roman usages were adopted. In these buildings, therefore, there will be found greater intricacy of plan, and frequently a mixture of brick and stone or of brick and marble construction, and the use of the arch more frequent. Examples of the early use of this important feature will be very interesting. The edifices of the ancients in Asia Minor were frequently subor- dinate one to another ; and their Agorfe, Temples, Theatres, Stadia, Gymnasia, &c., form very interesting groups. It should, therefore, be an especial study of the architect in Asia Minor to observe these combinations, and to mark the reference which one building has to another. The temples will generally be found to be placed in the centre of a peribolus, which will have the usual propylea. Observe also the cir- cumambient porticos, if any, of the peribolus; whether the inner range of columns, if there be two, be higher than the outer one. Remark, likewise, if there be any arrangement immediately in front of the temple, as for an altar, canopy, pedestals, seats, &c. The in- terior arrangement of the cella will doubtless be found peculiar in some examples, as for instance in that of Apollo Didymeus at Branchydae, near Miletus. There is no complete plan of an Asia Minor temple known; those at Magnesia, Teos, &c., being so encum- bered with ruins as to preclude investigation, without more means for excavation and removal of blocks than usually possessed by or- dinary travellers. There are many particulars still" required respecting the ancient theatres, especially as regards the scene, proscenium, pulpitum, or- chestra. For the lower portions of the theatres are generally piled up with the ruins of these parts. Observe whether the floor of the pulpitum be of stone or has been of wood. Remark whether there be any traces of the chambers or recesses for the echeia in the koiAov or cavea as mentioned by Vitruvius — also the decorations of the scene — of how many orders it consisted, whether it had three or five doors, and any subterraneous passages, and how constructed. Details of the arrangement of an Agora are desirable, showing the disposition of the shops and general form of the whole, whether square or oblong ? Did there exist honorary pedestals or other monu- ments in the area? Were there two orders of columns one above the other? What temples or other edifices had immediate connexion with the agora? Its propylon — was it traversed by a road ? If any roadways still exist, observe whether they are paved with oblong blocks or polygonal stones — are there stepping stones in the streets as at Pompeii ? Some of the palestrae, gymnasia or baths were of large proportions, as those of Alexandria Troas, and Ephesus already published. But more particular details of such edifices are required; as not only plans but elevations and sections and mode of construction. Remark^also any aqueducts or triumphal arches — take details of tn« water channel or gallery (specus) and observe, if they have any coating of a strong stucco or cement, or whether they have merely a natural calcareous deposit resulting from the water itself. So complete have been the illustrations of the details of Greek buildings in the several works on Grecian architecture, that mere de- tails of mouldings and parts are now of less consequence, unless there be any striking peculiarity in them. But the general arrange- ment of edifices and the disposition of the halls, porticos, vestibules and various chambers in any group demand the especial attention of the traveller, which should be directed to these desiderata and also to the general plans of cities. The walls, towers and other warlike defences and fortifications may afford great novelty, particularly the entrance gates. Sometimes there are burial places outside the torfns at some dis« tance with tombs, sarcophagi and other funeral constructions in a group ; at others these sepulchral erections line the roadways leading to a city. Remark how the summit of the tombs was finished, and whether there be signs of a pedestal or statue on the top. C;irefully note all indications of colour on the architecture of thia country — and if possible put at once on the drawing corresponding tints — if not write them down — and try to scrape off some of the colour and preserve it in a packet, carefully inscribed with the name of the monument, date and place whence taken. If any temples should be discovered with the columns still standing endeavour to ascertain whether their axes be perpendicular or in- clined either towards the cella or outwards. In any cases where it may be practicable to excavate and clear away the accumulated earth from the ruins, care should be taken to note down and observe tlie precise situation of all the fallen blocks, ])reviously to removing any of them, and an endeavour should be made on the spot to design a satisfactory restoration. In some in- stances the ruins of temples may be found prostrated in almost symme- trical order, and the columns, entablatures, pediments and acroterise, may be traced in regular succession. A careful examination of the situation of the fallen masses will also assist materially in ascertaining the causes of the destruction of the edifice, which in many cases will be found to have been occasioned by earthquakes, or by the hands of the conqueror. All blocks of an irregular form, and which throw any light as to the construction of the masonry, should be measured, and a perspective sketch made of them, after the mode adopted by Mr. Cockerell, as shown in his contribution to the additional volumes of Stuart's Athens. The mortice holes for the inseition of timbers, cramp holes, the mode of tooling, the manner of working the beds, and all points relative to the construction will be found of great use. Observe also as to the mode supposed to be adopted for raising the masonrv, for instance, the grooves at the ends of blocks or any other similar contrivance. Examine the description of marble or stone, and as- certain, if possible, the quarries from whence it was brought ; these are often in the immediate neighbourhood of the cities and should be visited. Remains of unfinished columns and entablatures may some- times be found in them. Notice the mode adopted by the ancients in disengaging the blocks from the rock — if by wedges, by fire, by sawing, &c. Where practicable, examine the foundations and lower courses of the buildings ; notice the method and age of the con- struction, as it frequently happens that temples (as in the case of the Parthenon) have been erected upon foundations of a prior date to the buildings themselves. Any Cyclopean remains and works of the heroic ages, which may be discovered, should be carefully examined and described as subjects of paramount interest. It will sometimes happen that fragments, wanting for the purpose of completing the restoration, may be found built up in an adjoining modern building, or in the walls dividing the fields. The forms and construction of modern buildings should not be al- together overlooked. The resemblance between the modern con- structed wood huts and the representation of beams and timbers in several of the ancient monuments is highly curious, and without doubt many ancient forms and modes have been handed down with but trifling alterations from century to century. Marble doors are common in Asia Minor in the tombs. The mode of hanging them by pivots or other means should be noticed. At Antiphellus are numerous curious tombs — a reservoir, theatre, &c., worthy of a visit and attention. Among other indications of the site of an ancient city the exist- ence of wells is often a guide to travellers in their researches. Tanks for the reception of water from the mountains also exist ; and at An- tiphellus (nowCastelarizzo) is a circular reservoir, which also had the advantage of preventing the town below from being inundated. Thomas L. Donaldson, V.P., Samuel Angell, J. J. Scoles. 144 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Apkil, THE PHILOSOPHY OF TERRA FIRMA. Having devoted the preceding chapters to a brief outline of tlie chief primary Causes of Effects manifest within the primitive ocean, and the phenomena of primitive eartlis of exclusive oceanic origin, I will now pass on to the consideration of earths of Terra Firma, elabo- rated by animals and vegetables, as produced by secondary causes, by the moving force of waters, and atmospheric affections, produced and still producing by a regular unbroken sequence of events, being the continuance of the one great chain of life, and still ascending in the scale of development. The primitive soils of the ocean, or more plainly speaking, those which are the exclusive products of the ocean, are silicates, and the eartlis of calx, and soda, forming sands and pebbles, marls of varieties, limestones, calcarious matters, salts, sulphates, muriates, carbonates, nitrates, and other characteristic fossil and mine- ral bodies : these several matters being (separately, and under nume- rous combinations,) the foundations of Terra Firma, and being the secondary and co-operative causes of all terrestrial phenomena em- bracing the living, fossil, and mineral kingdoms. Professor Brande, in his lectures, given in this Journal, has told you that the presence of alumina is necessary for the generation and maintenance of almost all vegetable species ; but he has not, neither can he inform you, under what conditions aluminous earths are formed. The oceanic earths of which I have previously spoken, have no aluminous clay, nor traces of this earth in their composition, unless they have been subjected to those influences by which this earth is generated. The island, and the district apportioned to the main continent, have not only no alumine, which is absolutely necessary for the maintenance of species, but the soil when first elevated above the waters, is wholly inimical to land vegetation, abounding with bitter acrid salts, mechanically and confusedly mixed with the alkaline earths. The conditions of change are atmos- pheric influences, thus the virgin lands disposed within the hot rain- less regions continue bare and desolate for a long unbroken succession of ages, but where the rains fall or the lands are periodically or for any prolonged period of time covered by the freshes, the acrid salts rapidly disappear, contending acids and alkalies uniting, form neutral bodies, and the soil rapidly acquires the generating power. Again, there aie secondary causes of fertility, such as sea birds resorting to the newly formed land, or masses of vegetable matter being conveyed there by the tides, or thrown thereon during storms. The species first generated on these desolate soils are uniformly species of man- grove, being aquatic plants, nurtured and fed by saline waters, con- taining much soda, and sinking within the waters in consequence of their consolidated nature : with these we find rank coarse grasses almost wholly composed of silica, and thorny shrubs of a dry brittle nature : neither the one, or the other, produce the black vegetable soil common to older strata, their chief constituents similating with ocean plants. In the course of time, the soil undergoes a change more favourable to vegetable existence, the dung of aquatic birds and vast quantities of fish brought by them and continually spread upon the soil contributes to increase this favourable disposition, and if rain, onlv occasionally fall, new species more exclusively belonging to the earth simultane- ously or in- succession make their appearance; acacias, gum trees, aromatic shrubs, replacing the trees and plants and grasses of a more decided character, as the former occupants die away, or diverge into new species, in conformity to the change of soil and local inHuence. The law of nature in spontaneous generation is climate and association : the deserts being disposed within rainless regions continue bare and desolate, except in those regions where the rains fall, where rivers and fresh waters spread over the soil, or where these waters find their way by percolating through the porous beds : on the other hand the countless islands of the Pacific derive a rapid fertility from the rains that periodically fall, as well as from each other by a variety of secondary causes, such as the conveyance of vegetation from the one island to the other, by the sea, by birds, and by man : — the gene- ration and increase of vegetable earth depends therefore upon the generation and increase of vegetable species. Soils of Terra Firma are the resolution of ascesent vegetables generally combined with variable proportions of animal matter; of a black colour; eagerly combining with the atmospheric volumes and with water, by which combinations various known products are gene- rated; they are bibulous, reducible to dust, inflammable, and com- bustible, converted into clay, and from thence by transition into schist, again decomposing and jjassing into earths and ochres: sometimes ])assing into coal. Chemists by the tortuous means of fire produce Jrom pure vegetable earth a definite compound, which they term humus, but the student must bear in mind that this compound is arti- ficial, not existing in the natural state, and can only be obtained by causing the separation of those acids, whicli are part and parcel of the soil, and by oxydating the remainder by means of heat of fusion. While the living inhabitants of the ocean are continuously occupied in generating consolidated gaseous and volatile products, the archi- tects of Terra Firma, awakened into existence and local action, become in time equally effective elaborators of earths of other quali- ties than those previously existing; and in climates favourable to vegetation the earths gradually accumulate, forming vast aggregate masses in union with those oceanic products which they abstract from the ocean soil, or that are united with them by the moving force of waters. Of the numerous varieties of animal and vegetable existences peculiar to the earth, to fresh water lakes, streams, rivers, and even to the air, but very few retain their primary form on the cessation of vital action ; of those few, some enter into the fossil state, but tl'.e great majority are either devoured by animals and pass through the digestive process, or they decompose, their atomic particles and peculiar compounds being received by the earth, the general parent and nursing mother of all — disseminating and combining with each other, and with oceanic substances, as the accident of locality and local influence may determine; the result of change being earths, fossils, and minerals, and also aggregate masses, termed mineral beds: the results produced by purely atmospheric influences, varying from the results manifest in oceanic beds, the material of the animal and vegetable structure being peculiar to the element under the conditions of which it lives, and is enabled to propagate its kind. We have seen the polypes existing by sufferance only, of latitude, dip, and inclination, and such, in fact, is the general law of nature, applicable to all living forms of the eartli ; and as the polypifus flourish most, and as all oceanic creatures are most abundant beneath tropical waters, so do we find animals and vegetables most abundant in those lands situate within the tropics which are favoured with excess of heat and moisture : many individual species having scarcely any limits to their growth or the multiplication of kind. Time, under all circumstances, is necessary for the full development of species, as it is for the full development of the earth : generations elapse ere the coral reef rears its head as an island or main portion of a continent : generations elapse ere the forest tree attains its maturity of growth, multiplies its species, and thereby generates those vast beds of vegetable matter and clay which meet the view in local por- tions of the earth. We have, it is true, no hills or mountains of bone, the reliques of terrestrial species ; but we have masses of vegetable matter equalling in extent many of the coral formations of the deep. Beneath the Equatorial Band, in those localities which favour the rapid generation, destruction, decomposition, and change of organic bodies, these depositions of vegetable earth cover many thousand square miles of the surface of the earth, and contribute in many places to fill up the unfathomable depths of the ocean, being carried therein by rivers of vast magnitude. The trees of the forest possess, it is true, greater longevity than any known animal species, they stand for ages ere they become impaired by time or general accident, but during this prolonged period they are active agents of change, absorbing carbonic acid and atmospheric air, and thus adding to their consolidated structure, producing foliage, fruit, and flowers periodically — nay, perpetually changing — the leaves, flowers, and fruits falling to the earth, and adding to the vegetable earth pre- viously formed, their volatile products dissipating and finally entering into new combinations, and being the proximate Causes of new Results. Again, vegetables constitute the food of ruminating and granivorus animals, of locusts, and varieties of the insect tribes, of worms and other creeping things of the earth, and of many of the birds of the air: man draws largely upon it for his subsistence, and myriads subsist upon vegetable alone; all adding, by the digestive process, to the animal matter of which they are composed, and also to the earth ia the form of soil, cast out at the draught; and, added to the soil, unite with and become a portion of numerous consolidated bodies. Again, the roots of plants continually decay, and are as continually regenerated and extended ; thus under whatever form or disposition vegetable matter is deposited on the earth, it adds its portion to the earth, and thereby increases the general sum of inorganic matter. Animal and vegetable species of Terra Firma maintain their existence on the same tenure as species of the ocean: vegetables exist by the carbon elaborated by animals, as well as by the elements of air and water; they also abstract matters from the soil in which they exist ; and they propagate by seeds or separation of parts : animal species are generated, are enabled to exist, and multiply their species by devouring animal or vegetable species: thus it is, in and throughout universal nature an interminable war is carried on, the strong devouring the weak, the weak preying upon and existing bj 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 145 the strong, death and the digestive process of the living continually adding to the soil, and the soil abstracting matter continually from the atmosphere and the waters ; the fossil kingdom enlarging as species generate and decay ; the mineral kingdom increasing in every vibration of Time, as generations rise and decay, and as matter composing the beds of earth changes in its character and qualities. As the n.iked polypes elaborate silica, as stony polypes, crustaceous, and molluscous animals elaborate calx and soda, so the vegetable species elaborate the elements of potash, many peculiar acids, and a variety of vegetable products, so animals elaborate oils, animal matter, iron, &c. ; the elements of the one, and the elements of the other, uniting in death and contributing to form beds of the earth, in which, although every organic form is obliterated, individual character exists sufficient to enable man to identify its previous condition as a product of the earth. Place a bed of black mould by the side of a bed of chalk, how great is the contrast, how diversified the material, trace each to the fountain head of production, and the like phenomena are observable, countless species, differing from each other in form and character uniting in death, and producing one result: blend the one with the other, after subjecting them to climate and consequent chemical action and change, and the results are the varied beds and mineral aggregates of this earth. " It is generally considered," says Professor Brande, " that lime is elaborated by animal species-," such, indeed, is the expressed opinion of Linnffius and other writers, but it can scarcely yet be said to be the general opinion of geologists. Still, qualified as this admission is, it leads the way to admissions still more important — to a knowledge of facts still more essential to the elucidation of the enigma of nature : it is also admitted that vegetable earth is produced by the decomposition of vegetables, that much of its material is abstracted from the compounds air and water, and much more is formed by the digestive process of animals which feed upon it. The vegetable body, springing from a basis of vegetable and animal matter, is found, on ultimate analysis, to consist of the elements of air and water, and of carbon, the latter con- stituting the bulk of the vegetable body: the union of these com- pounds in definite proportions, determining, of necessity, the character of the plant, and the link in the chain of vegetable life extending in a graduated scale from the tremellae, which have neither form nor size defined, nor appearance of organic structure, to the fungi, mosses, lichens, grasses, plants, and, finally, to fruit and forest trees. In all climates we observe the first manifestations, the gradual increase, and the vast local accumulations of vegetable earth : the pulverulent lichens, requiring no vegetable soil in the first effort of vegetative life, clothe the barren rock, and in the gradual decay of portions of the roots and minute branches an exceedingly fine earth is formed, gradually accumulating and concealing the rock on which they grow from view : by this continuned increase the plant is eventually destroyed by a too rich soil, it perishes, and in its place foliaceous lichens, plants of larger growth, spring up, destroying all that remains of their humble predecessors, and these in turn give place to mosses. In the plains the acrid grasses and plants yield gradually to species of a more succulent and generous nature, and terrestrial animals always follow in the wake of the vegetable creation. The fossil kingdom is inimical to vegetable life, but as the mineral kingdom forms by and in the decomposition and recombination of these bodies, so the vegetable kingdom, when favoured by warmth and moisture, increases in extent and variety. Humboldt has remarked that in the Canary Islands, Guinea, and the rocky coasts of Peru, the pioneers of vegetable life are succulent plants: in the Pacific, vegetation forms very rapidly, from a variety of causes, and favoured by heat and moisture : in the deserts, as previously observed, the earth remains barren and unpro- ductive age after age, and every region of the earth presents not only mineral and geographical features peculiar to itself, but also peculiar vegetation: "Thus," as Lamoreaux remarks, "the bason of the Atlantic, the west sea of the Indies, comprising most of the Gulf of Mexico, the East coast of South America, the Indian Ocean and its gulfs, the shores of New Holland and the adjacent isles ; the Mediter- ranean and the Red Sea, all have a marked vegetation of their own, differing from each other." In form, in matter, and in motions. Nature is equally variable: the production of one day disappears in the next; the ethenal fluid becomes atriform, vaporous, or aqueous; the aqueous becomes con- solidated as rock. Again they change, and again and again, as locally affected, without regard being had to their usefulness or to their utility. All things are Produced, all things are Producing, all things are perpetually changing in tlieit parts and qualities. A stratum is formed to-day, it is destroyed on the morrow ; the ocean retires before the earth; the earth is overwhelmed by the flood ; the innu- merable phenomena constituting earth being necessarily produced by uniting and contending motions, and uniting and contending matters, originating in one and in many causes. In the changes continually taking place among inorganic bodies, elementary principles, and gaseous compounds, the like difficulties stand in tlio way of the man of science when he attempts to generalize upon particular phenomenon. Life departing, the passive clothing of life becomes a portion of the soil to which it is accidentally consigned, and the subject of new forces, the nature of the influences exercised upon it, determining the nature of the ultimate result. A forest is prostrated by tempest or by flood, and the wreck covering perchance several leagues, becomes gradually or suddenly entombed in the earth : it is then, the nature of the earth, and the peculiar influences to which it is exposed, determines the character the embedded fossil remains will assume : thus within an earthy soil, they quickly decompose, be- coming a portion of that soil; imbedded in saline earths, they are preserved from decomposition, and become mineralized as coal; im- bedded in peculiar clays, they perchance mineralize as slate; or, under other circumstances, become siliceous bodies, or proximate causes of the production of basalt; the ultimate result always depending upon the nature of the material in its mixture, and upon the elements to which they are subjected, and by which their changes are directed and governed, the organic body in death becoming the subject of new and peculiar disposition in its atomic parts and qualities, decomposing, or consolidating, as the accidentsof circumstance may determine, their primary qualities being for ever lost in their new dispositions. Again, in the more complex organizations and combinations of nature, we see the folly of generalizing upon single phenomenon ; for particular fossil species may be found in certain strata which bear a striking analogy to each other, but the Causes of Eflects thus manifest may widely differ from each other; thus land animals maybe, and often are found in oceanic beds : found, for instance, in the chalk and lias of England are often the relics of elephants and other terrestrial animals, formerly carried therein by running streams : and, again, oceanic animals are abundantly found in terrestrial strata, not only as primarily forming these strata, but also generally diffused through terrestrial earths by the moving causes of flood and fire : the accidents of a day, of an hour, may in a few fleeting moments have produced this complicated state of affiiirs: but, if the primary causes of many terres- trial vegetable species being locally generated and produced, forming noble forests, verdant savannahs and plains still exist, it follows as a necessary consequence, that the sum of terrestrial earth as vegetable soil still continues to increase; for in all bodies decomposition and re- combination is rapidly going on, and all aluminous earths are the results proceeding therefrom. In the rainless regions, particularly the great deserts of the earth, immense local areas are nearly or wholly devoid of life, and as a necessary consequence vegetable earths are not to be found unless deposited in the line of rivers, in deltas, and narrow valleys, such as the Oasis; and this alone is a great testimony that the earths which cover the valleys are not produced as is generally asserted by the disintegration of ancient rocks, for the nature of the silt of rivers is always coDsonent to the nature of the soil, thus in some streams it is almost wholly composed of salts and vegetable earths, whereas in the absence of vegetable earth the matters held in suspension are such as charaterize the fossil soil, as magnesia, carbonate of lime, :soda, iron, mucilagine salt, sulphuric acid, and other compounds belonging to fossil soils only. On the other hand, in local areas of the globe favourable for the development and increase of vegetable species, vegetable earths abound also, the local extent of production of the one depending on the increase of the other, for even when deposited in the beds of lakes and rnnning streams, it is necessary that the ratio of increase be continually such as is conso- nent with the increase and decomposition of organic bodies from whence the supply is obtained. Thus it is, primary or fossil soils uncovered with vegetable species, and exposed to the action of run- ning waters, suffer degradation to a very great extent, the hills and mountains become intersected with ravines, and beds of rivers are carried below the adjacent soil : the mountain ranges of Arabia and other parts of Asia, of Africa and Australia, suffer degradation to a vast extent during the monsoms or rainy season, the abstracted ma- terial being carried into and spread over the valleys and plains, or otherwise over the bed of the ocean from whence it was primarily derived, but in those places where vegetable species abound, the earth is protected from abrasion, and not only so, but the decomposed vege- table bodies carried by the waters into'the valleys prevents any furtlier decomposition. It is an error generally embraced in the present day that the earth receives no increase, but merely changes in its parts and qualities, ai.djthat the sum of consolidated matter and of the waters continue the same for ever. This, although in cunlorniity to the opinions of ancient I hilosophers, is as entirely at variance with the nature of things 146 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL. [April, around us, as it is to facts coming under tlie cognizance of even common observers. From the vpaters in the union of oxygen, liydrogen, and nitrognn, aided by light and heat, species are produced, derive their increase, their several capacities and powers, and are enabled to propagate their species: the union of these elements in varying proportions of necessity produces varying results : and, again, vith these results, thus generated by the living, the several elements of bodies, and decomposed portions of bodies, again and again unite, producing a further and indefinite series of resells. Some of the cryptogamia, for instance, derive their nourishment and increase from the atmosphere alone, and thus consolidated matter, termed vegetable earth, is production in inces- sant decay and reproduction of these plants; quantity being pro- duced from the continued generation of atoms in the unity of these atoms, and quality being produced from the varying mixtures of matter with matter, the earth obtaining increase by the processes of genera- tion, dissolution, and change. Every organic body in the ocean abstracts by its mechanical or chemical operations a certain portion from the waters, the oxygen and hydrogen uniting according to the forces of affinity and motion, ammonia, carbon, and other proximate elementary bodies being produced, previously no existence, and when formed maintaining their integrity of character under num- berless combinations, and being incapable of returning to their previous state. In like manner terrestrial species abstract from the waters and the atmosphere — a portion of this abstracted material is acrain returned to these elementary compounds, but another portion is retained by the body which is thereby enabled to maintain its position as a thing of life, to develope its parts, and to propagate its species. The earth teems with countless myriads of animals and vegetables, and life is sustained in and throughout the whole by incessant absortion, and consequent abstraction of atmospheric air, a fourth body carbon being the result, more concentrated in its nature and of greater specific gravity, and consequently having a greater tendency to consolidate ; and the carbon generated by animal life is greedily absorbed and con- densed in form and hody, by vegetable species of simple organization and ot simple elementary qualities. The laws of nature, in production and reproduction, are regulated by the force of circumstances; orders are produced by local action and re-action and local influences; genera and species diverge there- from by local action, accidentally or casually manifested ; the genera, order, or species produced, the multiplication of like from like, depending entirely upon the accident of circumstance, over which they liave no defined control: thus under favourable circumstances, and in the absence of destroying agents they rapidly increase and multiply, the trees become a forest, the polypes form chains of hills, and loco- motive animals assemble in shoals — flocks and herds, or swarms, obscure the face of day. Under less favourable circumstances they be- come the sport and prey of hostile species, or of the elements; thus the forests are laid low, the flock and herds are destroyed by disease or bv carniverouSanimals, innumerable enemies thin the shoals of fishes, and storms destroy the gathering insect tribe; brought into being they become immediately the sport of circumstance, destroying and de- stroyed : the frog feeds upon the insect tribe, the serpent feeds upon the frog, the cormorant and the wild hog feed upon the serpent : each of these has its enemies, and last of all comes man, before whose wishes and desires Death marches terrific, mowing down all in his wav. The law of nature is warl — war! — species arranged against species — life against life ; — such is of necessity, otherwise the ocean water would become stagnant with the living and the dead, and terrestrial earth would for ever remain a desert. There is, it is true, apparent harmony in the economy of nature, both in the ocean and on the earth, |iroceeding from the local distribution of animals and vegetables, arranged in group's and families, and also in the local disposition of inorganic matter, which, although produced by many, contains elementary principles and proximate principles, sunilating and in common with all : but, upon a close examination and analysis, we find that all aggregate masses of matter differ widely from each other, and, although the general aspect of the mineral com|JOund may be such as to enable us to classify and arrange them, still there is a marked diBFerence in the composition, structure, and qualities of aggregates bearing the same name. Motions and matter siuiilating and prolonged to a certain period of Time, produces an apparent but no real regularity of disposition of strata, this apparent arrangement proceeding from similar Causes, by a series of disposi- tions of like qualities, and of like compound atomic particles, the matter thus brought together, producing one result, the stratum thus formed having qualities peculiar to the class to which it owes its origin. In the union of matter inert there is no fixed law, for countless organic bodies of the animal and vegetable kingdoms are confusedly united together after the functional operations of life have ceased, and the nature of these bodies, and of the elementary principles with which they unite in the mineral kingdom, determines the nature of the strata ; thus some, in union and general decompo- sition, form clay — others marls, varying in their qualities, according to thei r mixtures — others sands, or limestone, or other kinds of rock, or compound bodies. In all these Changes the Causes of effects pro- duced may be many, but the result is one ; the material of the stratum may differ in its local distribution, but the difference escapes the cognizence of the senses as we review the one whole. In the union of particles and proximate principles, of which terres- trial earth is composed, crystaline and cemented masses are produced, and even the jetherial and volatile principles loosely disseminated in the atmosphere, and in the earth, decomposed by the action of light and heat, unite in quantities with the particles and aggregates of matter: thus the bulk of earth receives a continued accession to its parts and quantities; the wafers and the air enter into the composition of fossil and mineral aggregates: this being the case, it is not neces- sary to ensure the continual increase of the earth and decrease of the waters and the atmosphere, that the elementary constituents of organic bodies should be preserved together as one whole after the functions of life have ceased and the body has mingled with the dust; for were the leaves of a forest to volatilize entirely, even then, the volatile principles in their ultimate recombinations become constituents of the rocks, earths, metals, or gaseous products. This ditference in quantities and qualities would have no ex- istence did Nature act by unerring rules: a compound aggregate mass of inorganic matter is naturally formed, but the object for which it is formed, or the intents and purposes of it application, are alike un- certain: there are peculiar kinds of rock, which man can seve- rally and usefully employ, but, at the same time, it will be acknow- ledged that there is no necessity for any one particular kind of rock, for man could do without it, the earth could do without it, and its ab- sence would very often be an advantage to production and re-pro- duction, and more particularly to man, whose brief career is passed in rendering nature subservient to his wants and purposes. Again, strata are produced, but there is no necessity for strata having pecu- liarity of form, composition, and character, for the use of a thing does not constitute its necessity, even admitting for a moment that it is useful ; and this applies even to the precious metals, for, however desirable gold may be in our eyes, still it must be acknowledged there is no necessity for gold — man perhaps would be happier without it. The stratum forms by the mere accidents of union of matter with matter ; it disunites once more, and is irrevocably separated by the accidents of flood or fire, and new results are produced by the mere accidents of union. In all the changes manifest in tins planet, Life is subservient to the building of consolidated matter, and this consoli- dated matter is in turn subservient to life, the accidents of production and the accidents of destruction equally afl'ecting both. The laws of Nature are the laws of Forces, which regulate the distribution of Forces and consequent Action, and the union of bodies proceeds from the forces of affinity and cohesion which invariably govern the dispo- sition of matter uniting with matter : thus, bodies unite with bodies, similating, or bearing relationship to themselves. Again, aggregates unite by the force of specific gravity and lateral pressure, or upon the cessation of motion, or the disposition of those forces imparted. It is from these necessary consequences of matter united, uniting, and contending with matter, that rocks, strata, and other compound mine- ral bodies are produced. Philosophers of the present day have placed a record before us, facts the most astounding, of vast aggregate masses of terrestrial earth, being formed of minute animalcula: thus Ehrenberg speaks of his discoveries of chalk, earths, tripoli, and other compounds, being wholly composed of animal life: "At Swienemude in the Baltic," he observes, " where about two millions and a half of cubic feet of mud were recently removed in one year, one third of that entire mass consisted of microscopic animals. The Moors of Leinburgh present accumulations of fossil inlusoiia 28 feet in thickness. In the peaty layer of Berlin tunnel-shaped deposits of eggs reach in some places to the depth of CJU feet; there is no doubt," lie says, " they are still alive, and capable of increase." The like phenomena are mentioned by American writers as manifest on that continent. M. Fossil Oak in a Freestone Quarry. — A few days ago, some workmen engaged io exciivaUng freestone from a quarry near Darlaston, iliseovered an oak tree, nearly 15Ieet in length, in a complete fossil slate, imbedded in the Ireestone. This matter is worthy the attention of geologists, it being a very rare occurrence tliat such specimens are fouuU in freestoue, 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. w PROFESSIONAL POLICY, Sir, — There is by far more truth than there ought to be — perhaps, not quite so much as there might have been — in the reflections throvfn out against architects, in page 123 of your last No. Taken as a body, they do show themselves to be both too supine and too self-confiJent ; and they seemingly take no other interest in their art, than what is suggested by a concern for their own personal and immediate interests. It would be folly to look for either among them or any other class of persons, such Quixotic public spirit as would induce them to neglect the latter for the former; still tliey might manifest something like a disinterested affection for art for its own sake, — supposing they really entertain any; or if they do not, they might, out of mere policy, assume some appearance of liberality of feeling, and might also pay some deference to public opinion. On the contrary, by doing nothing to- wards the encouraging extra-professional study, they appear rather desirous to check it, and to show themselves determined neither to countenance, nor to pay any attention to what is done or said by any section of the general public. Science can shift for itself, because its services cannot be dispensed with; but art stands in a widely different position: it depends upon public sympathy and favour, upon u general disposition to encourage it, — which is likely, it may be presumed, to be in proportion as a taste for art is generally diffused and cultivated. If they do not perceive this, architects must be very obtuse ; if perceiving it, thry do nut shape their course accordingly, they must be very disinterested — dis- interested at least as far as their art is concerned. But what they do not perceive or now shut their eyes to, they may ere long very sensi- bly /ul. Indeed, they might have found out ere this some of the consequences which are resulting from their own negligence and supineness. By standing aloof, and refusing to take any share in the task of enlightening the public on the subject of their art, architects not only betray an unworthy jealousy, but by their own incominunica- tiveness and silence, they actually surrender up to laymen and extra- professional writers a very important influence — that derived from the power of promulgating their opinions unchecked, and of guiding public taste, whether in a right direction or a wrong one. And though, individually, some of the writers of this class may be feeble enough ; as a body they are not to be despised. If no one else, Mr. Gwilt is, perhaps, now fully sensible of this, be- cause so far from awing — as he, no doubt, flattered himself he should do — Reviewers, Amateurs, et hoc genus oiiuie, into silence, his sneers and reproaches seem to have stirred up their blood, to have rendered them more daring and active than ever. He lias certainly made himself conspicuous by rendeciiig himself obnoxious, and a mark for their shafts, some of which are likely to remain sticking in him ; neither does the poor "stricken deer" meet with any show of sympathy from the rest of the herd, whose maxim on such occasions is, sauve qui pent. Another circumstance which does not say much for the con amore feeling with which architects apply to their art, is that, notwithstand- ing the extraordinarily great numerical increase of the profession, as far as they are concerned there is less encourag(>ment than ever for architectural publications. Were it not for purchasers of a difl'erent class, there would scarcely be any sale at all for them. It is the same, too, in regard to works of the same kind imported from the Continent: not one copy in twenty — perhaps not even a single one, finds a pur- chaser among professional men; it may thereture be questioned whether the latter are even aware of the existence of many foreign publications of the sort, unless they happen to have seen thein on the library table of some amateur. It may be that those among the pro- fession who can best afford to purchase expensive architectural books, are those who least of all need them for any infurmation or instruction to be derived from them. Still it might be presumed that whether they have actual occasion for them or not, they would be glad to possess them, just as they do pictures and other productions of art : nay, even if only in evidence of their own art'ection for their own art, and of their willingness to encourage it in every possible shape. But, pudet ha;c opprobia tantis Et dici potuisse et non potuisse refelli, — such is not the case : some of those who can afford lo do most in the way of bestowing such encouragement on architectural literature and illustration, are precisely those who show themselves most nig- gardly; and that, sometimes to a degree quite incredible. Shocking as It may be to say all this, it is still more shocking that there should be any occasion for saying it at all ; and to think of suppressing it is perfectly useless, because if it does not reach the public througli one channel, it will through another, and the attempt to keep it back will only cause it to burst forth at last with uU the greater violence. As to myself I own that I might honour professional men much more than I now do, did I honour architecture much less. I remain, &c., Censor. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. By Professor Brande, F.R.S., &c. Lecture VI. — Delivered at the Royal Institution, March 3, 1844. (Specially reported for this Journal.) The great bulk of a vegetable consisting of carbon, hvdrogcn, oxyRen, and nitrogen, the question arises, are these contained in the water, carbonic acid, and ammonia of the air, and the table given of the compoiition of these answers in the affirmative ; the carbon is in the carbonic acid, the hydro.;en in the water and the ammonia, the oxygen in the water and the acid, and llie nitrogen in the ammonia. But it may be said that there is carbon in the soil as humus ; true, but not in a fit state to act as food for the plant, wdiich would starve when surrounded with these four elements, if ihey were not in a state of combination proper for its consumption. Carbon is of no use to the plant without it be combined with oxygen as carbonic acid, nor hydrogen without it be combined with oxygen as water, or with nitrogen as ammonia, nornitrogen except, with hydrogen, it exists as am- monia. These gases are all evolved during the decomposition of animals. In a similar condition is man, for though hercijuires little else than the elements they contain for his life and growth, yet it is of no use offering him, water, carbonic acid, and ammonia as food ; for him these must be elaborated by the plant into gum, starch, sugar, gluten, fibrin, 8cc. Thus it is seen that the plant feeds upon unorganised matter, but organizing it, converting it into its own tissues, it renders it into a proper condition to become the food of the animal, which, in its turn, converts it into its own substance ; and then, to complete the circle, when the animal dies, his decomposing body passes again into those gases which are the proper food of plants. First, as regards the water. This is always present in the air in large quantities as moisture, but is very variable, depending principally upon tem- perature and pressure, the supply being always kept up by the evaporation conlinually taking place. The greater the heat the greater the evaporaijon, and the more water the air can take up. When the air has not, for its tem- perature, the proper quantity of moisture, in passing over a field itdcprives the crop of some of its water, by increasing too mucli the evaporation from the surface of the leaf, and is called a parching wind. When, on the con- trary, the air is very moist, plants take water from it. Capillary action lakes place continually in the juices of a plant, and the evaporation at the surface of the leaf, like that in the soil, causes the thin sap which rises into the leaf to go out of it thick and syruppy. This will serve to explain why the leaf con- tains so large a per centage of ash. When water is cooled down to a temperature of 40°, it begins to expand, and continues expanding till, at 32°, it freezes. This expansion takes place with gi^'antic power, rending asunder the hardest rocks into which water has infiltered, .and bursting leaden and iron pipes with facility. Phials, and (hick iron tubes, filled with water, may be heard to burst if immersed in an artificial freezing mixture. In this manner the frost acts in disintegrating the sell. In passing from the liquid to the solid state, water gives out heat until it is solid, heat which was not previously sensible to the thermometer, termed latent heat. This heat, wbiLli is always evolved when liquids Ix^come solid, may be rendered evident by crystallizing a solution of a salt, such as sulphate of soda. If a hot saturated solution uf this salt be corked up in a Hask whilst steaming, the vapour condensing forms a partial v.acuum, and the solution remains liquid ; but sn soon as the air is admitted, crystalliza- tion takes place rapidly, beat is evolved, and owing to the expansion, the liquid rises up the neck of the flask. This may be considered to represent w hat takes place during the freezing of water. Water is useful also as a sol- vent of air, as it will take up l-3Cth of its bulk. The air which rain or snow contains has been found to have more oxygen than is in the atmosphere, as though they had a greater .attraction for the oxygen than fur the nitrogen. The proportion is increased from 21 to 32 per cent. It also has fri m one to six per cent, of carbonic acid. Thus it supplies to the plant air of much more favourable composition than the atmosphere. It also carries down with it a portion of ammonia, which gives to it the feeling of softness. This is of use to the plant, and though 1,U00 gallons of rain water is nothing to be evapo- rated from a field, yet the amount of animoniacal salts left behind is by no means trilling. As in the passage from the liquid to the solid, water gives out heat, so in vapourising, or in the passage from the liquid to the gaseous state, water abstracts heat. Wet cloths are irequcnlly wrapt round the head fur thi purpose, the water evaporating .carries with it heat, which it renders latent, taking it from any substance near it. It is essential for its cliange_of condi- 14S THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [April, tion, and yet can not be ilelcclccl by the thermometer ; deiirive It of it, and it is again liquid. By absorbing its vapour as quiclcidIto contain 17 grs. of carbon, it will be found that the air on each acre contains about seven tons of carbon, and therefore, if the whole earth were cultivated, it could only support vege- tation for 14 years. But as no proof exists that the quantity of carbonic acid in^the air is lessening, and as it is being removed so enormously by vege- tation, whence can come Ihe supply which maintains the equilibrium. There are at least three sources that can be pointed to as supplying vast quantities of carbonic acid, viz., animal respiration, volcanoes, and combustion of fuel. 1. After respiration, the quantity of carbonic acid present in the air, will be found to have increased a hundredfold, it forming one-filth of the expired air. It will not then support either life or combustion. Passed through lime water it renders it turbid, from the formation of carbonate of lime. It is calculated that the carbonic acid exhaled from the lungs in 24 hours contains from 5 to 8 oz. of carbon, or from 100 to 160 lb. in the year, the difference de- pending upon the amount of exercise taken. ' With increased exercise more carbon is consumed in the system, and more beat produced, exactly analo- gous to the consumption of carbon in a charcoal fire, carbon when being oxidised always evolving heat, whether it takes place quickly or slowly. Animals, such as horses and cows, would, from their bidk, be expected to ex- hale at least twice as much as man, but it has been shown by Boussingault, that they exhale very little more than man. The inhabitants of Great Britain being taken at 20 millions, and supposing that other animals expire about the same quantity of carbon, it will be found to amount to about two million tons, or sufficient for about four millions of acres of cultivated land. 2. Volcanoes, both active and extinct, are continually pouring into the air torrents of carbonic acid. From one in the neighbourhood of Coblentz, it is reckoned that 90,0001b. of carbonic acid are dally evolved. 3. The combustion of 20 millions of tons of coal, which is the annual con- sumption of Great Britain, adds to the air 14 millions of tons of carbon, and as each acre of vegetation is reckoned to require half a ton, this alone is sufficient for 28 millions of acres, or nearly seven-eighths of the arable land, as it is considered that there are about 34 millions of acres in culti- vation. By such means as these, then, is the carbonic acid restored to the atmos- phere as fast as it is abstracted by plants, and thus the balance is maintained. With regard to the ammonia. This is always present in the air, and is carried down in some quantity by rain. It is considered to be the source ■whence the plant derives its nitrogen, and not from the air. When its con- stituents, nitrogen and hydrogen, are mixed together, they do not combine, nor can they be made to combine directly, but it is formed invariably during the decomposition of substances containing these two gases. If horn sbavinf,s or other animal matter are heated, ammonia is evolved, and it is even given off during the burning of a cigar and the distillation of coal, thus having both an animal and vegetable origin. It will neither burn nor support com- bustion, is rapidly absorbed by water, and being an alkali, renders turmeric paper brown, and restores the hlue to liquids that have been reddened by acids. It may bo made to combine with excess of oxygen and then is con- verted into nitric acid and water; in this manner nitrate of ammonia is formed during lightning, and Faraday considers it likely that the points of trees, being silent dischargers of the electricity of the earth, in this way 1 According to this calculutiou, the carbon of the daily food, amounting to about 1 lb., 19 one b.ilf returned to the air as carljonic acid. contribute to the formation of nitrates in the air. Rain water, evaporated along with an acid to prevent the ammonia from volatilizing, vill be found to contain nitric acid, sulpliuric acid, and ammonia, thus supplying to the plant its necessary ingredients. The quantity of nitrogen in plants varies, but is always present, even when the soil contains none, and therefore in such cases must come wholly from the air, as must also be the case with wild plants and trees. Boussingault, to whom science is much indebted for the laborious manner in which he has investigated these subjects, testing theories by practice on a large scale, found that in five years' rotation of crops the nitrogen as well as the carbon, was present in greater quantities than the soil could possibly yield. A crop of .lerusalem artichokes, which gave 23,300 lb. to the acre, contained 381b. more nitmgen than the soil could have <'iven. The quantity of nitrogen that various crops contain, and its proportion to the carbon and other constituents, is well seen in the followin" table : Carbon .. .. Hydrogen Oxygen . . Nitrogen . . Ash Water .. .. Hay. Red Clover Hay. Potatoe. Wheat. Wheat Straw. OatB. Oit straw. 458 50 387 15 90 1000 158 1158 474 50 378 21 77 1000 210 1210 440 58 477 15 40 1000 759 1759 461 58 434 23 24 1000 145 1145 484 53 390 3 70 1000 260 1260 507 64 367 22 40 1000 151 1151 501 54 390 5I . 1000 287 1287 Although the quantity of ammonia contained in rain water is very small, one pound containing but a quarter of a grain, yet when the total annual quantity of rain that falls is considered, it will be found to yield a consider, able amount of nitrogen to the plant. The average number of inches of rain that falls in Great Britain is about 22 inches and four-tenths, which will give a weight of 1171b. to the square foot, or 5,096,5001b. per acre, ami at a quarter of a grain of ammonia per pound, is equal to about 1201b. of nitro- gen. Nitrogenous substances are useful to plants, not only as forming part of their substance, but as acting as a stimulant, enabling it to draw the same substance in greater quantity from other sources ; in a similar manner sail, muriate of lime, and other substances, arefsupposed to act, as by their agency the gluten or nitrogenous part of wheat is always increased. It has thus been [shown that plants require two classes of food, organic and inorganic. The inorganic must be rendered soluble, and must be the same as are found in the ashes of plants, which are separated from the other parts by burning. The organic food, composed of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, must be presented to it in the form of water, carbonic acid, and ammonia. Having thus then considered the constituents of wliicli all other parts are built up, it remains to examine the subject under three heads : — 1st. The products elaborated by the functions of the plant, known as the proximate elements. 2nd. The mode in which, by its vital force, it eliminates them.'; 3rd. The mechanical conditions of the soil requisite to enable the plant to carry on these operations in the greatest health and vigour. Ellis's Improved lum-TaUe. — The objection to placing turn-tables of the ordinary construction on the main line of a railway, is, that, by the nature of their construction, they are rapidly destroyed, by the frequent passage of heavy trains over them, besides the injury done to the carriages, and the un- pleasant motion and uoise. Mr. Ellis has constructed a turn-table, which, when not in use, rests firmly on the curb, and thus allows the train to pass rapidly over it without injury. The iron pintle of the table on which it turns being kept well oiled, works with a loose collar round it in a vertical iron case ; which case is supported and kept in its central position by two cross arms of cast iron, at right angles to each other, and attached to the curb. The lower end of the pintle passes through the bottom of the case, below which is a stirrup attaclied to a cross lever passing at one end through a chase in the circular masonry, or brickwork, supporting the table : attached to the external end of the long lever, is a second lever, working in a vertical direction, and connected with a third, or handle lever, by which the table is put in motion or fixed, as required. FotjNT.MN ExTRAORDiNARv.— The great fountain now in progress at Chats- worth, is expected to jilay to a height of upwards of I'OU feet. The fountain that l)lays the highest jet of any fountain in the world at present is in Germany, but the proposed fountain at Chatswortfa is expected to surpass it in height about I'D ft. — Derby Wercury. 180 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [April, MESSRS. BOULTON & WATT ON THE STEAM ENGINE. WATT S SINGLE ACTING ENGINE FOR PUMPING. A, Cyliniler. b, Nozzles niid passages, c, The cross or stenm pipe from liilcr. d. Perpendicular steam pipe, c. Eduction pipe. F, Condenser. G, Condenser or air pump. H, Condensing cistern, i, Injection valve. j. Hot water cistern. K, Hot water or feed pump. L, Cold water pump for supplying condenser cistern, m, The plug tree and working gi'ar. N, The great lever or beam. 0. Spring beams, p. The great chains and arch head. I), Pump rod or spear. R. Main lever wall. S, Masonry or stone platform. T, Wooden platform and bearers to carry masonry. We now resume this important subject :— Directions for Putting the Enginf' together. Sect. 21. Put the working beam together, and having fastened the gudgeon to it, rest it on the plummer blocks; but do not fasten these to, until the cylinder be fi.\ed. 22. Level the top of the stone platform, and put the outer bottom of the cylinder down in its place ; level it truly ; and let it correspond with the holding down screw boxes. 2.3. Apply the inner bottom upon the outer one; and set its upper joint level, by wedging between it and the outer bottom, if required. Then cut out s gments of pasteboard, such as is used for boards of books, and not such as ii composed of paper pasted together. Let these segments be of such thick- nesses as the dillerent parts of the joints may require, accordingly as they be more or less open in diHerent places. Soak the pasteboard segments in warm water, until they become quite soft ; then lay them upon boards to dry, and, wlien quite dry, put them into a flat pan, with a quantity of drying linseed oil. Warm the oil, until the pasteboard ceases to emit bubbles of air ; but take care not to heat the oil much hotter than boiling water, otherwise it will harden, or burn, the pasteboard. Anoint the segments on both sides with tliin putty, made willi fine whiting and some of the linseed oil. Let tlie whit- ing be very dry, otherwise it will be very difficult to mix with the oil. N.K. White lead will not answer in place of it. Avoid, as much as you can, using more than one thickness of pasteboard. The segments should ije a little broader tlian tlie llanth. All the holes should be cut out by a chi.sel ; Ijul not quite so large as the holes in the iron. The segments should also be thinned at the ends, where they overlap each other, that they may form a circle of pasteboard of uniform thickness. 24. Lift up the inner bottom, and lay your segments regularly round vipon the flanch of the outer bottom ; then jilace the inner bottom upon them> taking care, at the same time, to put a proper thickness of pasteboard in the joint under the pipe, which proceeds from that inner bottom. In like manner prepare pasteboard for the joints between the inner bottom and the cylinder ; and proceed, as has been directed, for the other joints. 25. Having the cylinder ready suspended, lower it down in its place ; and in such manner that the square pipe, at its upper end, may be exactly over the pipe of the inner bottom. Thrust a square taper piece of iron, of proper size, into each hole, to enlarge the holes in the pasteboard, and admit the screws. Put in the screws, and screw up the joint, gradually, all round ; and do not screw up one side faster than another, or you will be apt to crack the flanch of the cylinder, or bottom, or make a bad joint. No screws must be put through the cylinder flanch over the pipe ; therefore that part of the joint must be made with the utmost care, and the pasteboard must be a trifle thicker there. The general thickness of the pasteboard for these joints should be three-sixteenths of an inch. 26. Put in the holding down screws, which should have screws and nuts at both ends ; then set the cylinder truly upright, which is done by putting one piece of wood across the bottom, and another across the top, and marking upon both of them the centre of the cylinder at their respective places. Then hang a plummet from the upper centre, and examine if the line be in the centre below ; if it be not, you must wedge under the outer bottom, until you bring the line to hang truly in the axis nf the cylinder. The holding down screws should be screwed tight, so as to keep the cylinderin its true position after which the screws of the joint must be again screwed up, then taken out one by one and lapped round with a rope yarn and some putty, both under the head of the screw and under the nut, so that each screw may be air tight of itself. 27. Carefully scrape, or rather scour, the rust from the sides and bottom of the cylinder; clean it well out, and grease the sides with tallow. Hang the chains, and put the piston rod cap in their jilaces. Put the piston rod into the cylinder ; suspend the piston by two half links, fastened to one of the crosses, and lower it down upon the piston rod. But previous to this, the rod should be tried into the piston ; and if the hollow and convex cones do not fit one another, they must be made to do so by chiseling and filing the cone of the rod. A lead ring, an inch square, exactly fitting the inside cir- cumference of the cylinder, must be laid upon the small rim of the inner bottom, to save it in case of drop)iing the piston ; and an iron gland, an inch thick, must be screwed across the base of the cone of the piston rod, by means of two screws passing through the bottom of the piston, and screwed into the gland. The joints of these screws should be cut o(f, that they may not strike the bottom, when the piston strikes the ring. 28. The piston being lowered down upon the rod, the lid of the cylinder should be laid on without the stuffing box. The end of the working beam must then be lowered down, and the piston rod cap put on the rod, and fore- locked fast. The be.nm must then be raised, ami the lid also, and an exami- nation be made, whether ihe piston has dropped truly down to its place upon the rod. If so, ihe lid or cover must be let down, and by lowering and raising the beam and the piston, you will perceive whether the rod always moves up and down truly in the axis of the cylinder. It must be made to do so by shifting the plummer blocks out or in ; or by shifting the martingales to one side or the other. The utmost care should be taken that the plummer blocks be placed both of one height, and after the beam has been some days in place, it should be examined if the gudgeons be truly horizontal, as othcnvise it will cause a most disagreeable motion in the piston-rod. 29. Caulk the joint round the inner bottom, between it and the pipa of the outer bottom, with roi'e yarn or oakum, as hard drove in as possible. Screw the nozzle to the pipe of the inner bottom; making the joint as has been directed, and with the utmost care, so that the nozzle may hang a quarter or half an inch lower at the point than at the joint, that any water condensed in it may run to the exhaustion pipe. Put a strong wooden prop from the ground to the lower side of the nizzle, right under the perpendicular steam pipe ; and care should be taken that the inside of the bottom of the nozzle be even with, or rather lower than, the inside of the bottom of Ihe pipe which comes from the inner bottom of tlie cylinder, so that no water may lodge. 30. Put on the steam case, screwing the panels together with a few screws. If found to be too short, it may be lengthened by means of a lead flanch put in the middle joint, with a thickness of pasteboard on eacli side of it ; but if found too narrow, and the deficiency, upon being divided equally .amongst all the joints, amounts to more than a quarter of an inch, to each joint at the inner side, then a bar of iron must be prepared of such breadth as will make up the whole deficiency, and as thick as it can be received between the screw holes, in the perpendicular llanches of the steam case, and the rings on the cylinder. This Ijar must be put into a joint of the stei:m case, on the back- side of the cylinder, and be made tight hy caulking, or hy pasteboard. Re- 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 151 member to put the middle of a panel opposite to the perpendicular steam pipe. 31. When you have found that the steam case is of a proper diameter and lenp;th, or have adjusted it as has been directed, it must be made tight. Ma!rovements in the construction of furnaces and Jlues" — Granted September 28, 1843 ; enrolled March 28, 1844. This inventiun relates firstly to a peculiar mode of arranging the flues of furnaces that the smoke and other vapours shall previously to passing up the chimney be made to pass over a clear fire, which fire is in a furnace entirely distinct from the ordinary or original testing fires; secondly, in forming a double flue in the chimney, for the purpose of conducting a current of warm air down the same to the fire. The drawings which accompany the specification show the improvement as being applied to a marine boiler constructed with five furnaces ; the smoke and healed vapours from the two side fires pass through tubes (whicli the inventor prefers to be made square instead of round) in a direction from front to back of the boiler, and then in an opposite direction (from back to front) through flues, which conduct the smoke to the centre or clear fire; the smoke and vapours after passing over the cle.ar or consuming fire pass along a flue, which :a a short distance branches off right and left ; at right angles to the furnaces, towards the sides of the boiler, the flues then return and join the chimney, which is at the back and in the centre of the boiler. The chimney is made double, or in other words, is surrounded with a water space, for.the purpose of supplying the boiler with a hot feed instead of a cold one ; it is also constructed with a double passage, one being for the emission of such smoke as may be unconsumed, and the other for the introduction of air, which air becomes heated in its passage previous to being introduced into the clear fire. The patentee describes two modes of introducing such air into the clear fire ; first, by letting the air pass through a perforated plate situate at the front of the fire, and secondly, by way of the ash pit, and through a number of longitudinal openings, at that part of the clear fire or furnace usually occupied by the dead plate : these plates are supported at each end by axis, the arrangement being similar to the Venetian blind, so that by means of a lever the openings can be enlarged or diminished, and the supply of air regulated at pleasure. When applying the improvements, as above, to boilers on land, it will be necessary to place the boilers as near together as practicable ; and for coppers, 8cc-, the inventor proposes to construct the flues in such manner, that the smoke from the first fire after passing rounil the copper, passes over the fire of the next copper, and the smoke of that one over the next fire, &c., and finally over a clear fire of charcoal or coke, other unconsumed smoke and other vapours from the various furnaces then pass off to the chimney. RAILWAY WHEELS. Jon.\tiian .Saunders, of Soho Kill, Birmingham, Gentleman, for "Improve- ments in the manufacture of tyres of railway and other wheels, and in the manu' facture of railway and other axles'' — Granted October 5, 1843; enrolled April 4, 1844. This invention relates to a mode of so combining iron and steel in the manufacture of tyres for railway and other wheels, that the steel may be at those parts of the surface of the iron most liable to wear, after the steel and iron has been rolled into bars for the purposes above described. In order to carry out this invention the steel and iron is piled togetlier, and then heated to a welding heat, after which they are passed under the hammer and formed into a bloom, and then passed between suitable rollers for forming it into bars adapted for tyres for railway and other wheels ; by this means the steel is intimately combined, and is said will possess many advantages over the pre- sent mode of applying steel to the face of tyres for railway wheels ; the patentee in some cases makes the pile so as to present a surface of iron, with steel underneath, the former being removed when turning up the wheel in the lathe in the construction thereof. The claim is for the mode of manufac- turing tyres for railway and other wheels, by rolling them from piles of iron and steel, in such manner that the steel is at the wearing surface, j CANNABIC CONrPOSITION. Benedict Albano, of Piccadilly, Middlesex, Civil Engineer, for " Im- provements in preparing materials and applying them to the manufacture, oforna- ments. and other useful purposes." — Granted October 5, 1843; enrolled April 4, 1844. The fibrnus material to be employed, whether the same be cotton, flax, or hemp, is in the first place to be opened out and then carded, so as to lay the fibres into one even and uniform sheet ; a number of these sheets from the carding engine are then laid upon an endless cloth, commonly called a feed cloth, and moves towards a pair of wooden rollers covered with felt, between which the sheets of fibre pass, but previously to entering the rollers, the sheet is copiously sprinkled with boiling water, and then compressed by passing them between the rollers, after which the sheet may be rolled up and laid aside, ready for the next operation, which is as follows : — The dry sheets of fibrous material are to be saturated with a compound consisting of 71 parts by weight of gas tar. and 30 parts of resin, melted together, to which is to be added 15 pnrts of oxide of manganese. There is also another mixture or compound which consists of 75 parts of linseed oil, 25 parts of resin, and 10 parts of o.\ide of manganese, which are to be mixed together as before. These two mixtures are then put into a suitable vessel or trough and intimately combined by agitation and gentle heat ; the sheets of fibrous material are then placed in the trough (at one end of which there is a pair of j rollers), and well saturated with the mixture, they are then passed through 1 the rollers, and as much of the mixture expressed as possible, after which the ' ' sheets are conveyed upon an ojien frame to a hot air stove and dried ; they are in the next place subjected to a mixture of linseed oil and yellow ochre, and again passed between the rollers. The sheets are now in a suitable state (after being softened by heat) for being embossed for ornamental moulding, which is effected by means of dies and an hydrostatic or other press. The impressions thus obtained are then to be dried in a stove, and aftenvanls coated with a composition of resin, dissolved in about one quarter its weight of linseed oil, to which is added a little turpentine and yellow ochre. If the impression is not sufficiently sharp and complete, another coating may be given, and again pressed in the dies. The impressions after being allowed to dry for two or more days, may be coated with a strong animal size and Spanish white, when they will be ready for use. The inventor also claims a peculiar method for making the counter die. 1S44.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 153 CHIMNEY FLUE3, William Denlet, of Hans Place, Sloane Street, Middlesex, -Bricklayer, for " Improvements in the construction of fire places, flues and chimnles. '—Granted September 21, 1843; enrolled March 21, 1S44. This invention consists first in an improved method or methods of sup- plying air to the fire place, to support combustion and draft, and also in the construction of a hollow breast plate for the fire place, which hollow breast plate is placed above or at the upper part of the fire place, and is sup- plied with cold air, which air becomes warmed therein and is then allowed to issue into the flue, and thereby assist or increase the draft up the chimney, and prevent it from smoking; and secondly, in constructing flues or chim- neys, or flues of a series of earthenware tubes or pipes, either round, ovular, or of any other convenient form, and set in brickwork in a peculiar manner; these tubes or pipes the patentee prefers to make of Stourhndge clay or other suitable material, glazed inside to prevent as much as possible the ad- hesion of soot ; and thirdly, in the peculiar construction of downward flues leading from each chimney and fire place to the basement story of a house, whereby the chimney can be swept, and the dust and ashes from the fire place removed, without the necessity of entering the room. FiB. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 1, is a sectional elevation of four fire places constructed according to th's invention ; a a n a, are the fuur fire places, and b b b b, the ascending flues tor smoke ; c c c, the descending flues for soot and ashes, all ot which are connected together, and empty themselves of soot, &,c. into the bo.\ d ; e e, is an air pipe which passes underneath the flour of the basement story, and communicates with the atmosphere; this air pipe is provided with branch pipes, shown in dotted lines, for supplying the fires with air. Fig. 2, shows a transverse section of one of the fire places ; /, is a perloratcd plate, which the inventor terms a hollow breast plate, and communicates with the air pipe t, the object being to increase the draft, by a current of air passing through the perforated plate, situate just at the entrance of the chimney ; g, is a branch pipe fixed to the end of the branch pipe leailing from tlie air pipe for regulating the supply of air, which it will be seen is admitted under- neath, and at ihe back of the fire grate, as well as in front in the ordinary manner. When it is required to sweep the chimney it will be necessary to turn the register plate so as to cover the fire place, when a communication will be formed between the ascending and descending flues, and the operation of sweeping the chimney commenced at the top and swept downwards, driving the soot into the box d. The inventor claims first the construction of chim- nies or soot flues and downward flues, as above described, ofan ovular, cylin- drical, or other conveniently shaped earthenware tubes set in brickwork. Secondly, the employment of a hollow breast plate above the fire place, and supplying it with air, as above described ; and also the peculiar method of supplying air to the fire for combustion, and to the soot flue or chimney for increasing or assisting the draft. DRYING OF BRICKS AND TILES. John Ainsue, of Redheugh, near Dalkeith, North Britain, Farmer, for " A new or improved mode of drying tiles, bricks, retorts, and such like work made from clan "nd other plastic siiis^awces."— Granted September 30, 1843 ; enrolled March 30, 1844. The object of this invention is to dry tiles, bricks, &c., made from clay, during the winter and unseasonable parts of the year, by means of artificial heat and a current of air, which removes Ihe vapour from the tiles and bricks as it accumulates, thereby preventing the evaporation being checked. The bricks, &cc. to be dried ate placed upon carriages provided with shelves ; these carriages, which may be placed upon a railroad, are then run into a closed shed or chamber, heated by means of flues passing underneath the floor, or by steam, or the circulation of hot water, or the admission of heated air through small apertures, to about 80° Fahr. The close chamber being heated by any convenient means as above. Cold air may be admitted at certain apertures so as to regulate the temperature of the room , and in order to re- move the vapour as it rises from the tiles, &c., an artificial current may be formed by means of a fanner, worked by steam or horse power, or other me- chanical means, as will be well understood. The patentee prefers the current of air to be worked about six feet per second ; but this, together with the temperature, may be increased, taking care that it be not too high, so as to crack the clay when drying. IMPROVEIMENTS IN FURNACES. John George Boomer, of Manchester, Engineer, for "Improvements in grates, furnaces and boilers, and also in manufacturing or working iron or other metals, and in machinery connected therewith."— Grmled October 5, 1843 ; enrolled April 4, 1841. The first improvements consist in making moveable fire bars, which tra- verse from front to back of the furnace, carrying the coals along with them, and which are supplied by means of a hopper situated in front of the fur- nace. At each side and parallel with the ash pit there is a pair of screws, one of which is placed a few inches above the other ; these screws are made of cast iron and answer the purpose of bearings for the furnace bars, the ends of the bars resting within the threads of the screws, which threads are cut at the commencement of the screws regular and true, but on approaching the farther or opposite end they are made irregular, commonly called " drunken threaded," so that on giving a rotary motion to the screws, the furnace bars will he simultaneously and steadily carried along, from front towards the back or farther end of the furnace, until they come to that part of the thread in the screws which is made drunken, when they will have an undulatory motion, and which will have the efi-ect of preventing the clinkers accumulating, and free the embers Irom ashes. At the ends of the screws there is a cam which presses the bars as they arrive at the end of the screws from the upper pair of screws to the lower pair, which latter carry the fire bars in an opposite direction, or from back of the furnace to ihe front, at which place they are elevated again and placed upon the end of the upper screws. The second improvement is for a metallic packing, consisting ot a number of conical rings of brass and tin, or other suitaljle metal, which packings are calculated to resist a l.igh pressure. The third part of these improvements relates to a screw cutting machine for forming the screws suitable for the purpose above described. The fourth part relates to a furnace similar to that above described for convening iron into steel and smelting metals The fifth part relates to the application of the description of furnace above described to blast furnaces, and also to puddling hearths. And sixthly, relates to a mode of rolling saw blades, which consists in forming the piece ot steel from which the blades are to be made into a hoop, and then passing it between rollers and rGHing it to the required thickness without taking it from the rollers. ARTinCIAL FUEL. FERniv\ND Ch.\rles Warlich, of Eccleston Street, Middlesex, gentleman, for -'Improvements in the manufacture o//«e(."-Granted October 5, 1843; enrolled April 4, 1844. The object of this invention is firstly, the submittins fuel composed Q 13 154 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [April, small coal, (ar, pilch, or olher bituminous matter to a high temperature in a retort. Secondly, the peculiar construction of retorts for effecting the same ; and lastly, the application of an exhausting apparatus to such retorts, toge- ther «ith the introduction of air into re'.orts where fuel of the above de- scription is undergoing the process of drying. The patentee commences by staling that it is not necessary to enter into any description of the manufac- ture, or mode of combining pilch, coal, tar, and other matter into fuel, as the invention does not apply to the compounding of such fuel ; at the same time the inventor states that he prefers the compound of coal and bituminous matter to be as follows ; 15 per cent, of pilch and coal tar and 90 of small coal, in which may be employed a little "heavy oil" to the extent of from 2 to 5 per cent. ; and in order to prevent smoke when such fuel is being consumed, about the same quantity of common salt may be added or alum dissolved in water. The mixture after being moulded into convenient sizes IS placed in a retort for six or eight hours, and subjected to a heat of from' 400° Fahr. and upwards, by uhich means gases and certain other matters are driven off, which, if permitted to remain, would produce prejudicial effects to Hhich sui-h fuel is said lo be subjected. The retorts, which are of the D form, are built of brick, and are provided with an aperture for the escape of gases, which pass off in the same manner as in the manufacture of gas into an hydraulic main, to which is connected a pipe leading to an exhausting apparatus, which consists of two cylindrical vessels suspended at each end of a beam, and inverted in a tank containiii" water, so that by raising and depressing the vessels in the water tank, the gases and vapours are exhausted from the retort or retorts, which gases pass off' into the atmosphere. At the lower part of the retorts there are a number of apertures which admit a current of warm air, which previous to entering the retort passes through the furnace, so that as the gases are exhausted by the apparatus above described a fresh supply of hot air is continually ad- mitted, which efleclually drives off the damp and vapours from the pieces of fuel, which appears to be the object of this invention. The inventor claims the su'jmitlmg manufactured fuel, containing bituminous matter to a hi»h degree of temperature ; also the introduction of highly heated air, togetirer with the exhausting the products from retorts when applying heat to manu- factured fuel, which is placed and inclosed in the same. ORNAMENTAL POTTERY AND MOSAIC WORE. Richard Boote, of Burslem, Slaffordshire, Manufacturer's Clerk, for " Im- provements in pottery mid mosaic wort."— Granted October 5, 1843 • enrolled April 4, 1844. The specification described several methods of impressing devices on pot- tery, which are as follows. First, in order to produce a coloured desi-n upon a ground of different colours; the device is first made in a mould°of the form required, "commonly called figuring:" the devices or impressions thus obtained are then to be put into the mould m which the ware is to be made: the material of the ware when poured into the mould will be found to adhere very closely round the edges of the device, and the same will be imbedded therein. The second method consists in cutting the device in pieces of paper or parchment, which are then to be put in the mould • the two halves of the mould are then fastened together, and the matter which is to form the ground of the ware is poured in ; after having stood the neces- sary time, the parchment or paper forming the device is to be removed and the colour intended for the device poured in, which will fill up the spaces previously occupied by the paper device. Thirdly, in order to produce raised figures of a different colour from the ground, the figures are first of all en graved or otherwise formed in low relief in a plaster mould : this being done the colour intended for the raised figures is poured into those parts of the mould which form the figures; the halves of the mould are then put toBe- ther. and the slop intended for the ground pcuied in and allowed to stand a sufficient time to form the body cf the ware. If the slop is of an expensive nature it will only be necessary to let the slop remain a sufficient time to form a thin coating, after which it may be withdrawn and the substratum tilled in with a commoner slop. Lastly, in producing devices of a mosaic character, the designs are fixed on the halves of the moulds with a composition of the required colour; the halves of the mould are then fastened together, and the slop intended for the body of the ware poured in: after having stood a short time, and the slop adhered the required thickness, the remaining liquor can be withdrawn. AXLES FOR WHEELS. John George BRinos, Of Leicester, Coach Proprietor, for - Improveme„ts «i axles. -Granted Octolwr 5, 1843 ; enrolled April 4, 1844. solT,i*L'lT"™/°"i'"!f "f ^°™''"e '^' ^^'« of two parts or shafts, one ^ aka^e is 1 7 , ""', "'""^^ «"^'" ^"™8tl'. and less liability to breakage is obtained, in order to carry out this invention the patentee pro- vides a tubular or hollow axle sufficiently long to pass through the bosses of each of the wheels when at the required distance from each other, the calibre or bore of this tube being sufficient to admit the solid axle passing through It, which axle consists of a solid shaft having bearings turned at. each end to fit the steps or journals In the frame side of the carriage The wheels are firmly fixed upon the ends of the hollow axle by means of keys j the solid axle is then passed through the tubular or hollow one, and fixed therein in like manner, by means of keys. When the bearings are withiri the wheels it will be found necessary in forming the journals to weld two collars upon the hollow axle, so as to obtain greater strength. The claim is for the construciion of axles, by combining together solid and hollow shafts one within the other, as described. SLATE COVERING. William North, of Stangate, Lambeth, Surrey, Slater, for '• Improvemen m covering roofs and flats of buildings with slate. "- to prevent the steam passing to either side. It will theref Te be understood, that the steam onlv acts on the projecting part of the sliding pistons, between the inner and outer cylinders. The steam in coming from the boiler through the steam pipe F, has first to pass the slide G, which is worked by the handle H; it is used for regulating the speed of the engine, and also for stoppingit, when required : after passing the above slide it enters the steam tight jacket J, the bottom of which is the slide face having the four cylinder ports K, L, M and N, and the eduction port Q, on it; a slide O, worked by a handle P, passes over these ports lor the purpose of reversing the motion of the engine: there are two posts 0' and 02. on the slide, one of which, 0^', (in the position the slide is shown on the drawing) is open to the steam port L; the port N, is closed, and the two ports M and K. are op n to the eduction port Q. so that when the slide is in this position, the engine will necessarily move in the diiection indicated by the arrov^■s, and by moving the slide along until the port 0' is above the steam port K, then will the port M, be closed, and N and L. open to eduction, so that the steam will act at the opposite side of the cylinder and conse- quently the motion be reversed. It will here be observed that the lower cylinder ports M and N, are never used for admitting steam, but only for leading off the eduction ; the object in placing them so low in the cylinder is to allow the vacuum to act upon the pistons sooner ; it will be kept in mind then that, in whatever direction the shaft revolves, the steam is always .admitted at one of the upper ports K or L, and the eduction Ipd off at iis opposite lower and upper ports. All these ports where they lead into the cylinder, are divided into bridges placed diagonally across them so that the pistons may pass freely over them. From the relative position of the two cylinders, the distance between their circumferences gradually increasing from contact at the upper point /i', to the greatest distance at the lower point h", (which in this case is one-sixth of the diameter of the external cylinder, but may be varied according to cir- cumstances,) it will be seen that in whatever direction the engine revolves, the area of that part of the pistons which is acted on by steam and vacuum gradually increases, so that the principle of expansion is carried out to its fullest extent, without the aid of expansion valves and gear. The steam passing through the eduction passage Q, is conducted by the eduction pipe R, to the condenser S ; T, is the inspection slide, placed at the lower end of the eduction pipe, and conducting the water up Ihe pipe, so as to act fully on the steam in passing downwards: it is worked by a lever and rod connected to the handle U, which is placed in proximity with the other starting handles H and P. V, is the blow through valve. W, is the air pump, which is a double acting one, the interior arrangement of its valves &c., is shown at Fig. 1 ; it has a metallic packed piston which is worked from the main shaft by a crank and connecting rod, and the piston rod is. kept parallel by two slide guides bolted on the air pump cover. X, is the hot well, and Y, the discharge passage. The pumps are worked from the main shaft by an eccentric c, connected by rod and lever to a rocking shaft d, on wliich are keyed two levers, e and /, which are connected by rods to the pumps, g and h • the pumpg, is intended for the bilge water (supposing this to he a marine engine), and the pump h, for feeding the boilers, the latter has its valve chest 7, bolted on the hot well. Among the advantages which render this improved steam engine 50 pecu- imOiBH liarly well adapted for locomotive and marine purposes, may be mentioned the following, viz. ; — Small cost of construction, great economy of fuel, the space occupied by it is very little in proportion to its power, and also its com- parative lightness, the weight of the engine being only about 2 cwt., per horse power, and that of the boilers only about 21 cwt. per horse power, so that the whole weight will only be about one half of the lightest engine hitherto constructed. I herewith annex the following analysis of the power and economy of my " Patent Revolving Steam Engine." In the above figure, 3, the revolution of one piston is divided into 32 equal parts, and the annexed table shows the quantity of steam consumed ; the mean area of the piston, the distance the centre of pressure of the piston travels; the direel, opposite, and effective pressures on the piston ; the num- ber of times to which the steam is expanded ;and the number of llis. lifted one foot high in passing through each of these divisions. Tlie external cylinder is 3 ft. 6 in. diameter, and 1 it. 6 in. long inside, and the greatest distance be- tween it and the intf inal cylinder, is 7 in. The steam is supposed to be at a pressure of 30 lb. on the square inch, above the atmosphere, and the vacuum to be equal to 121b. on the square inch, the shaft making 50 revolutions per minute. Note.— The direct pressure or force of the steam lo turn the engine round in the required diiection, is marked on the Table, + pressure, and thi opposite ir force resisting the motion in that direction, — pressure, of course, their diHerence, is the elfective pressure. * [We are indebted to our contemporary, the "Mccliauics' Magazine," for tlie use of tlje wood engravings.] 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 157 Fig. 3. TABLE. "JS Pressure 3n Piston. 1 M c a '> a si-s SS.S 33 Sg.H ^ m 21 u y S c .§.2 . 111 S J = •33 ill + Sj3 P. 1 IP Pi m 1 126'0 15-8 0-291 44-5 44-5 0-00 0-00 __ 0-000 2 72.6 21-0 0-291 44-5 36-47 8-03 168-6 490 3 1080 30 0 0-3 44-5 3112 13-38 402-0 — 120-6 4 145-8 40-5 0-3 44-5 27-3 17-2 696-6 209-0 5 194-2 52-5 0-308 44-5 24-3 20-2 1060-5 — 326-63 6 246-2 64-8 0-317 44-5 22-25 22-25 1441-8 457-05 7 304-2 78-0 0-325 44-5 2109 23-41 1826-0 593-45 8 367-2 91-8 0-333 44-5 20-41 24-09 2212-3 736-7 9 380-0 100-0 0-341 44-5 20-00 24-5 2450-0 — 835-45 10 steam cut ofl'. 111.6 0-341 36-47 7-5 28-97 3232-0 1-22 1102-1 11 120-0 0-35 31-12 2-5 28-62 3434-4 1-43 1202-0 12 — 124-5 0-35 27-3 2-5 24-8 3087-6 1-63 1080-6 13 — 126 0 0-358 24-3 2-5 21-8 2746-8 1-843 983-35 14 — 1260 0-358 22-25 2-5 19-75 2488-5 2-0 890-88 '}"> 124-5 0-35 21-09 2-5 18-59 2314-4 211 810-0 'l6 — 120-0 0-35 20-41 2-5 17-91 2149-2 2-18 752-22 117 — 111-6 0-341 20-00 2-5 17-5 1953-0 2-225 665-97 18 100-0 0-341 12-00 2-5 9-5 950-0 323-95 !l9 — 91-8 0-333 2-5 2-5 0-0 — — 20 78-0 0-325 2-5 25 0-0 — 21 64-8 0-317 2-5 2-5 0-0 — — 22 — 52-5 0-308 2-5 2-5 00 — — 23 — 40-5 0-3 2-5 2-5 0-0 — 24 — 30-0 0-3 2-5 2-5 0-0 — — — 25 — 21-0 0-291 2-5 2-5 0-0 26 15-8 0-291 2-5 2-5 0-0 — — 27 — 9-0 0-285 0-0 ^ 28 — 3-6 0-28 0-0 — 29 0-26 0-0 30 — — 0-26 — 0-0 — — 31 — 3-6 0-28 — 44-5 44-5 160-2 — 44-8 1 — 9-0 0-285 — 44-5 44-5 400-5 — 114-1 From the Table the following resitlts are obtained. The quantity of steam required for one revolution of each piston 1944-2 cubic inches. Distance the centre of pressure of the piston travels in one revolution, 10065 feet. Average effective pressure on the piston, 10801b. Greatest expansion 222,0 times. Number of pounds raised one foot high by the revolution of one piston, 10,980. Momentum of one piston .. 10,980 lb. raised one foot high. Number of pistons .. .. 4 Momentum of one revolution .. 43,9201b. raised one foot high. Number of revolutions per.minute 50 Momentum per minute .. 2,19(1, OUOlh. raised one foot high. Deduct for friction say lOpercent. 219.600 Effective momentum per minute 1,976,400 lb. raised one foot highj 1,976,400 33,000 59-9 horses power. Cubic In. 1944-2 4 7776'8 SO The quantity of steam consumed by a revolution of one ptston Number of pistons .. .. .. •■ iSieam required for one revolution .. .. •. .. Number of revolutions per minute .. .. .. .. Steam consumed per minute .. .. .. .. 388840'0 Steam atSOlh. pressure on the square inch above the atmosphere, is 609 times the volume of the water of which it was generated, therefore— 3^8840 ^-^-Tjr^ = 638-5 cubic inches, ot 37 cubic feet quantity of water evaporated for steam per minute. In a common double acting condensing engine of the same power, the cfit'ctive momentum will be the same on 1976400 lb. raised one foot high per minute, and if we take Tredgold's data that the eflective power is "63 of th» power of the steam, it will stand thusi 1970400x100 „,„,, „„ . , .... ^7. = 313a 13 lb. raised one foot higti m THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [April, If the pressure of the sleam on the piston be equal to 35 inches of mercury, or2'41b. on ihe square inch, and the vacuum the same as in llie revolving engine, or 121b., then the pressure on the piston will be H'41b.on the square 3137143 inch, and ■ .^^ ■ = 2178G0 = the product of the area of the cylinder in inches, multiplied by the velocity in feet, and 217860 x 12 = 2614320 The loss of steam in filling the passages and spaces at top and bottom of cylinder, say 1-12 .. .. .. .. 217860 Cubic inches of steam required per minute, equal .. ,. 2832180 Steam at a pressure of 2 4 lb. on the square inch, is 1497 times the volume of the water of which it was generated, therefore, 2832180 14b7 1892 cubic inches, or 1-095 cubic feet, equal the quantity of water required for steam, 1892 per minute, "coTk — 2'96 times the evaporation required for the common engine, as for the revolving engine, and consequently only about one-third of the fuel would be required for the revolving engine, as would be required for a common reciprocating condensing engine of the same power. THE THAMES EMBANKMENT. Rivers of other countries pass through romantic scenery and regions of natural grandeur, the rivers of the new world have a colos- sal extent, in the presence of which our insular streams shrink into contemptible rills; but, as in other things, so here, moral influences contribute to give a rank. The Thames, rich in historical associa- tions, presents a scene of commercial magnificence, to which even the teeming population of China cannot present an equal. On the banks of the silent highway, the largest and most commercial city in the world, is placed the metropolis of the mighty English empire, and it may truly be said the central seat of civilisation. Regarded by na- tives and by foreigners with equal admiration, it has often been a sub- ject of regret that no grand and systematic plan has been adopted for regulating the navigability of the river, aud preserving a consistent stvle of architecture on its banks. The ugly, ill devised buildings, ■which are a blot on its shores, attest the want of a central authority and efficient control. Remembering that it is by commerce London has attained its pre- sent grandeur, and by commerce it is to be maintained, it is self-evi- dent that more regard is to be paid to the useful than the ornamental, at any rate the useful must not be sacrificed. The inhabitants of the Seine and the Litfev can pride themselves on quays, which interfere with no commerce, but we cannot sacrifice for ornament the machinery of wealth which our river afl^ords. A tide river, upon which the largest argosies are borne, and on which many of our war ships have for centuries been launched, cannot be treated like a shallow upland stream, and however interesting the quays of Paris or Dublin may be, certainly, notwithstanding the timber hovels and the misshapen bulks of building, the numerous craft on the Thames are objects not less pleasing. We must not complain, if we do not rival those cities in river promenades, since we surpass them in commercial grandeur. While we make this declaration it must not be supposed that we deprecate improvement, on the contrary, we esteem it highly neces- sary that something should be done for the banks of the Thames, but that whatever is done should be done with caution. The testimony of a man like Wren is of the highest value, and indeed the manifest ad- vantages accruing from a proper direction of the stream would alone enlist our sympathies. We may observe, bv the bye, it is curious that after Wren's plans for the adornment of the metropolis should have been rejected two centuries ago, in the present age his views are re- ceiving full accomplishment, and as we are widening our streets, and improving our buildings, so we are in the same spirit about to rescue the noble Thames from the neglect with which it has heretofore been treated. The subject of embankment is one which has long engaged attetnion, and been the subject of much discussion of late years, and the government having published a report in relation to it, we have been induced to devote a large portion of our space to a question so important, both in its engineering and architectural bearings, for, if on the «iie hand, it is a question of magnificence and ornament, on the other it concerns the improvement of an important stream, the regu- lation ef its channel, and the arrangement of its wharfs and quays, and side docks. We may here, by the bye, observe that the engineer and geologist will in the sections of the river introduced in the report, showing the form of the river bed at various times, acquire most important and interesting evidence, as to the power of running streams, and the changes which can be effected by the agency of water in a few years. The Commissioners have very wisely decided upon proceeding very cautiously, and instead of grasping at once with both sides of lh(! river from Battersea Bridge to London Bridge, they only in the pre- sent instance propose to form an embankment or terrace on the Mid- dlesex side of the river between Westminster and Blackfriars Bridges. It will be perceived by the report that there have been several schemes proposed, but there are only three of them which the Com- missioners think are at all practicable, they are the plans of Messrs. Walker and Burges, plan A; Mr. Page, plan B; and Mr. Barry, (one of the Commissioners) plan C ; and they have selected a modification of Mr. Page's plan, as shown in the accompanying plate. Notwith- standing this selection, we, after mature consideration of the several plans and the evidence given in the report, are inclined to advocate the scheme of Messrs. Walker and Burges with some modifications. We propose to form solid embankments and recesses in the following manner. To commence at Westminster Bridge with a solid embank- ment, and continue the same as far as Whitehall Place, as shown in the accompanying plan, but without leaving a dock at Whitehall wharf, which we propose to abandon, as this would only involve the purchase of three wharfs; to set against which we shall have saved the cost of forming the dock, and likewise have a valuable piece of land which will produce a large rental for building chambers for parliamentary prac- titioners and others, on each side of a handsome communication to be formed from the terrace to Parliament Street. This communication, would not require the removal of a single house excepting what be- longs to the wharfs. From this embankment a recess to be formed for the wharfs of Scotland Yard, and Hungerford Market, with three openings of 150 feet each to be spanned by suspension bridges; then, again, an embankment extending the terrace of York Gate, between Villiers Street and George Street, thence a recess for the wharfs of tlie Adelphi and the Savoy, 870ft. long, partly to be enclosed with a terrace wall, having three openings of 150ft. 'each, as before. Thence a terrace to front Somerset House from the Savoy Wharf to Arundel Street, then a recess for the wharfs near Essex Street, followed up by an embankment for an extension of the Temple Gardens, again a recess for the wharfs at Whitefriars, gas works, &c. 930 ft. long, partly enclosed with a terrace wall, having three openings of 150ft. each as before explained. These large openings will offer facilities for barges getting at the wharfs at all times of the tide as now, and thereby the recesses wi 1 not in our opinion be so liable to silt up as Mr. Page's docks will with the contracted entrances he proposes. The narrowing of the stream by the embankment, and the detached ter- race walls will create a scour in the bed of the river, and which will cause the shore gradually to deepen and slope towards the centre of the river, and that coupled with the continuous washing of the banks bv the swell created by the steamers, will keep the recesses free from silt ; on the contrary, Mr. Page's docks will derive no advantage from the steamers passing up and down the river, as the swell will not enter them, and the continuous wall will prevent the mud or silt getting out. The scouring of the sluices will only force channels through the deposit. We should prefer the terrace being kept down to within 4 or 5ft. of high water mark so that it may pass under the bridges, a slight rise to be given to the suspension bridges spanning the openings of the recesses to admit barges with sails. By our proposed embankments communications may be made with the present streets; first, to Parlia- ment Street, at Whitehall Wharf: second, at Whitehall Place; third, at Villiers Street; fourth, at the Savoy ; fifth, at Norfolk Street; sixth, at Temple Lane; and, seventh, at Chatham Place. We consider it indispensable that the terrace should be continued under Westminster Bridge to the front of the Houses of Parliament, by which means a fine opportunity would be afforded to the public to view that splendid pile of buildings, particularly the sculpture and enrichments. According to our proposal, the lengths of the several embankments and recesses or docks, will be as follows: — Whitehall embankment, Feet. Terrace from Westminster Bridge to Scotland Yard - 2440 Scotland Yard and Hungerford Market recess, with three openings ......-- York Gate terrace embankment . . . - Adelphi and Savoy recess, with three openings Somerset House terrace embankment from Savoy Wharf to Arundel Street ...---- Essex Street recess, with two openings ... 'lemple Gardens embankment ..... Whitefriars recess, from Temple Gardens to Blackfriars Bridge, with three openings . . . - 5G0 340 S70 1250 400 "10 930 Total length, 7500 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 150 We shall now close our remarks by giving some lengthened extracts from the valuable Report of the Commissioners, and heartily wish to see the undertaking brought through the present session of parlia- ment, and that it may not be marred by the narrow prejudices of the city authorities, who, as they did with railways, will attempt to throw obstacles in the way to prevent the Commissioners carrying out the plan, under the plea that it will interfere with the ttndoubted rights and privileges of the citizens of London! The CoMMissioNEEs' Report. Upon a careful review of the many subjects of improvement for which plans had already been before the puhiic, or were subsequently submitted to us, we considered an embankment of the river Thames to have the first claim to our attention. For a considerable period the condition of a large portion of the river in its passage through the metropolis has been the subject of observation and complaint ; and although measures have at different times been submitted to Parliament, having its improvement for their object, yet nothing of a com- prehensive nature has been effected. The causes of the great change which has taken place in the bed of the river Thames, in that portion of its course which lies between London and Westminster Bridges, may be shortly stated. Among the first, if not the ^ very first, of these in recent times, may be considered the removal of Old London Bridge — a measure, no doubt, ultimately beneficial to the interests of the river as a whole, but prejudicial for a time to the navigation imme- diately above it. The operation of this change upon the condition of the river, and especially in the portions between the bridges, though great, and, as already observed, no doubt the immediate cause of the present embarrassment experienced iu the navigation, has been uniform in its effects, and consistent in its character. It has produced, as was anticipated, a higher rise and lower fall of the tide than heretofore, and is producing, as was also to be expected, a general, though not uniform, lowering of the level of the river bed. While the first of these consequences, however, has been immediate and manifest, the second, it is obvious, if left to the operation of natural causes, must necessarily be the work of time; and hence, in the interval, the navi- gation of the river must be difficult at certain states of the tide. The shoals and irregularities, however, which constitute the greater portion of this difficulty, are, in the evidence before us, attributed to other causes. i We are referred to a want of uniformity in the bends and curves of the river, to the disproportion between the breadth and volume of its waters, and pro- bably to the varying nature of the material forming its bed, as natural agents in working out these results, and, as artificial causes, to projections and re- cesses in the shores, irregular dredging, and other evils alleged to have arisen from imperfect conservancy. The conservancy of the river Thames is a privilege and a trust vested in the Corporation of London by very ancient charters, confirmed and renewed at various periods. The exact extent of the rights and of the duties thereby assigned to that body have been the subjects of much diversity of opinion, and of dispute and controversy both in and out of Parliament, strongly show- ing the necessity for some legal decision, or legislative adjustment, upon a matter of so much practical importance. Upon these points, however, it does not appear to us that it is within tlie province of this Commission to express an opinion ; we therefore conceive that we shall sufficiently discharge our duty under this head, by soliciting the attention of your Majesty to the . information furnished on this subject (extracts of which are annexed to this Report) by the Commissioners on Municipal Corporations, by the Committee of Parliament on the port of London, and by the City of London Navigation Committee. Under the authority of the Corporation of London, and, on some occasions, under special authorities obtained from Parliament, the river has been exten- sively, though not systematically, embanked, and its water-way irregularly contracted, as will be seen by a plan, annexed to this Report, of that portion of the river which flows immediately through the centre of the metropolis. Other embankments we find are in progress at the present time, under licenses granted by the Corporation, of which embankments plans are also appended. The effect of these partial and occasional embankment has been from time to time to alter the currents of the river, and to impair its navigable channel. The embankments constructed under the authority of Parliament are few. The first of these was projected by Sir Christopher Wren immediately after the Fire of London. The object of this embankment was " to make a com- modious quay on the whole bank of tlie river from Blackfriars to the Tower:" and under the authority of the Act of Charles II. for rebuilding the city, and a subsequent Act of the same reign, it was partially carried into effect. Under the first of these Acts, no house, outhouse, or other building what- soever, was to be erected from Tower Wharf to Temple Stairs, within 40 feet of the river, cranes and sheds for present use only excepted. Although few traces of such a way are at present to be found, yet a portion of it from the Tower to Castle Baynard was actually executed. Encroach- ments, however, were subsequently made upon it from time to time, and in the year 1821, " notwithstanding a very decided opposition to the measure in both Houses of Parliament, on the part of the Corporatioa of London, and the inhabitants of Upper Thames Street and its vicinity," the Act in question was repealed. No further plan for regulating or improving the banks of the river was entertained till the year 17G7, wlien a measure was submitted to the Cor- poration of London for raising i;.'!()0,0(JO for the completion of Blackfriars Bridge by embanking the north side of the river between Paul's Wharf and Milford Lane, upon a line extending about half a mile in length. Arrange- ments were subsequently entered into with the Societies of the Middle and Inner Temple, and other parties, by which this embankment ultimately in- cluded the frontage of the Temple Gardens. The terms in which this proposal was submitted to the Corporation would apply with very little variation to many parts of the river at the present day; and considering that a century at least had then elapsed since any measure has been attempted for the " regulation and improvement" of its shores, and that another century has very nearly arrived at its completion, the statement is not undeserving of attention. "Tlie wharfs," it is observed, "within those limits, by their different and very unequal encroachments, not only form an irregular and disagreeable outline, hut afford the owners of some an undue preference and advantage over others ; at the same time that the reflected set of the tides, both ebb and flood, throws the force of tlie stream upon the Surrey shore, opposite to Blackfriars, and, of consequence, slackens the cur- rent on the London side ; this, together with the large sewers that empty themselves in the neighbourhood, occasions a constant accumulation of sand, mud, and rubbish, which not only destroys great part of the navigation at low water, but renders the wharfs inaccessible hy the loaded craft even at high water, unless at spring tides ; the mud and filth thus accumulated, not- withstanding the frequent expense the wharfingers are at to clear it away, is, when not covered with water, extremely offensive, and in summer time often dangerous to the health of the neighbouring inhahifants." The Corporation of London, it is presumed, acquiesced in the correctness of these statements, inasmuch as they adopted the plan ; and powers were subsequently given by Parliament for carrying it into efli'ect. The next embankment of importance took place at Durham Yard and the places adjacent, now known as the site of the Adelphi Terrace, and tlie buildings connected therewith. In the years 1768, 1769, and 1770, Messrs. Adam and other parties applied to the Corporation of London for their con- sent to this embankment, but without effect. The Court of Common Council not concurring, the parties applied to Parliament for an Act enabling them to effect a large em'iankraent in that vicinity, not in the lines originally pro- posed, which Act was subsequently obtained, notwithstanding the most de- cided opposition on the part of the Corporation in every stage of the bill, and notwithstanding that the clauses subjecting the ground to be gained from the river to the acknowledgment originally offerred to the Corporation were not inserted in the Act, Within a comparatively recent period further embankments, upon a scale of considerable magnitude, have been efl'ected in the same portion of the river. We refer especially to the embankment which forms a part of the present site of Hungerford Market, and which was sanctioned by the Legislature in con- nexion with that measure; and to the projection devised for the enlargement and rebuilding of the Palace at Westminster for the accommodation of the new Houses of Parliament. '• During the last 50 years," it appears, " numerous grants have been made, under the sanction of the Corporation, for embankments in various parts of the Thames, throughout the jurisdiction of the city of London, by which the general line of the river, to a certain extent," is alleged to have " been re- gulated and improved. It was not, however, until within the last 15 years, and under an order of the Common Council, tliat the balance of moneys re- ceived on this account, and for other accommodations on the river, after deducting the expenses applicable thereto, were brought in aid of the con- servancy. The insufficiency of the funds strictly applicable to the purposes of the conservancy appears to have long formed a subject of complaint on the part of the Corporation, and we presume that to this, among other causes, is to be attributed the fact, that as far back as there is any evidence of the defec- tive condition of the river, previously to the year 1840, there is no trace of any measure for a general and systematic improvement of the navigation, or regulation of its banks, having originated with that body. Of the attempts made in Parliament to apply a partial remedy to this state of things, mention will be made hereafter. They failed, as it appears to the Commission, from causes which need not any longer operate : — in the first instance (in 1825), under an apprehension that the removal of Old London Bridge was too recent to admit of any accurate opinion being formed as to its effects ; in the second (in 1840), from the indefinite character of the mea- sures proposed, and from the opposition of the wharfingers, and others in trade, to the plan upon which those measures were to have been founded. The Report then proceeds make some observations on the schemes pro- posed by Sir Frederic Trench in July, 1841, and by Mr. John Martin, both schemes the Commissioners appear to consider impracticable. The plans to which the attention of the Commissioners has been directed as appearing to exhibit in their details the best mode of effecting an embank* ment of the Thames, were three in number, viz. : A plan prepared by Mr. Walker (A). A plan prepared by Mr. Page the acting engineer of the Thames Tunnel (B); and A plan founded upon the suggestions of a member of the Commission (C), These will be occasionally referred to as plans (A) (B) (C) respectively. 160 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [ApRit, The Commission proceeded, in the first place, to examine Mr. Walker and Mr. Page in reference to the objects, advantages, practicability, and expense of their respective plans. The official opinion of Captain Beaufort, and the professional opinions of Mr. Hartley, Mr. Cubitt, Mr. Gordon, Mr. Rendel, Mr. Macneil, Mr. Rennie, and Mr. Giles, were subsequently obtained ; first, as to those leading and general points which appeared to apply to all the plans, and secondly as to the relative merits of the three. Of these opinions, a portion, it is to be observed, was collected by the Commission in the usual form of oral evidence. It occurred to us, however, subsequently that all the essential questions in an enquiry of this nature might be more effectively condensed, and circulated in writing (an arrange- ment which was subsequently found conducive also to the parties consulted), and the remainder, therefore, were collected in that form. Copies of these questions were also addressed to Sir Isambard Brunei, and Mr. J. K. Brunei, and Mr. Donkin ; but considerations of health in the first case, and professional engagements and want of time in the other two, de- prived the Commission of the assistance of these gentlemen. In addition to the eminent civil engineers above adverted to we had occa- sion to examine, upon separate and distinct portions of the enquiry, Mr. J. W. Higgins, a purveyor extensively employed in London, and ordinarily re- ferred to by the corporation fur valuations, in cases of embankment upon the river ; Mr. R. L. Jones, the chairman of the London-bridge Improvements Committee, ai gentleman possessing great information on many of the sub- jects involved n many of these enquiries; and Captain Maughan, the dock- master of the London Docks, whose connexion with a large commercial body interested in the navigation of the pool, added to his practical acquaintance with the wants and habits of the river generally, made his evidence especially desirable. Messrs. Hay, Peache, and Lucey, barge*owners and lightermen, and Messrs. Tayler, Harvey, and Pocock, coal-merchants, or general whar- fingers, in the line between Westminster and Blackfriars bridges, were exa- mined principally on points not touched upon by the Select Committee of 1840, and upon the probable influence of any measure of embankment upon their respective interests. On the feelings and opinions of the trade, as a body, it appeared to us to be more consonant to the convenience of the parties to be consulted, more conducive to a right understanding of the measures contemplated, and more likely to result in a well-considered judgment upon these measures, if our chairman were to address himself to one of its members in behalf of the whole ; to enclose for their consideration copies and detailed description of the plans; and to express the desire of the commission to have a deliberate opinion from all parties concerned as to the principle upon which, and the mode in which (consistently with the permanent interests of the river) an embankment might be effected in nearest accordance with their own views and wishes. A letter was accordingly addressed, and plans transmitted to Mr. Tayler, of the firm of Dalgleish and Tayler, extensive coal- merchants and wharfingers in Scotland-yard ; and in the appendix a copy of that letter is inserted, as well as of Mr. Tayler's reply. In addition to these various sources of information on the subject before us, we were favoured with the written opinions of Mr. William Cubitt and Captain Maughan, subsequently to, and in extension of their respective oral examinations; a "Memorandum upon Estuaries and their Tides," contri- buted by Sir Henry Thomas de la Beche ; and, finally, with three letters, and various tables and statements prepared by Mr. Page, accompanied by sections of the several bridges, and of the river, presenting a large body of valuable matter not bearing exclusively on the local topics and interests more imme- diately involved in these inquiries, but on the general question of embank- ment in tidal rivers. With these we have inserted in the appendix, papers, the result of inquiries made under our direction as to the frontages and occu- pations of the wharfs on the Middlesex side, with the number of barges and other craft in front of each at certain periods of the inquiry ; and also as to the heights above Trinity datum of the nearest line of communication parallel with the river between Blackfriars-bridge and Whitehall, showing the great irregularity in the level of that leading thoroughfare. The Plan oj Mr. WalJcer.—(A.) The plan of Mr. Walker, referred to in a former part of this report, originally com- prised an embankment on both sides of the river, between London and Vanxhall Bridges. In his evidence before the Commission as to the relative expsdiency of embanking the Surrey and Middlesex sides of the Thames respectively, Mr. Walker stated his attention to have been principally given to the northern side of the river, adding it to be his own opinion (in which, indeea, almost all the authorities subsequently consulted appeared to concur), that *' it would be better to establish a principle, and to show lis working in a portion of the river in the first instance," and to make the first embankment on the Borthern shore. The course of inqnii"y, therefore, pursued in his examination by the Commission, had reference principally to these considerations. The lines of ftlr. Walker's plan are those shown upon plan A in the appendix. It con- templated the forma' ion of quays along the greater portion of the line, at the level of three feet six inches, or four feet above Trinity standard; these quays to become, upon tsrms to be settled, the property of the respective parties owning the present wharfs, of which the embankment was, in fact, to be considered an extension. A continuous solid embanl-ment, however, having been deemed impracticable through- out the whole line, Mr, Walker's plan suggested four exceptions, viz. :— one at North- umberland Wharf j a second above Waterloo Bridge, terminating at the bridge slairs; a third above the Temple Gardens; and the fourth commencing at Whitefriars Dock, and terminating at the Bridge Stairs, Blackfriars. At these places he proposed to leave re- cesses (shown on the plan) varying from 4U0 to 800 feet in width respectively, and bearing together, a proportion »I about one-third to the rest of the embankment. "As the deepening of the navigable channel might tend to draw down the ground of the respective whaifs into the river, it was proposed where required, to support the same by close pilintj in the line of the embankment, the top of this piling not to be above the level of the ground where it is driven." The main body of his embankment Mr. Walker proposed to construct of matgrials to be obtained from the bed of the rivers the embank- ment wall, excepting at Somerset House, where the wall was to be faced with stone, being of brick with stone dressings only. Of Mr, Walker's plan, a roadway fortned no essential feature. In the event of a terrace or a railway being thought desirable, he proposed that it should be at least 5i» feet in width; that, commencing in the neighbourhood of Whitehall, it should be carried over both tiie embankment and recesses, u[)on Hat arches of lOU feet span, at such an elevation generally above the river as would enable the public in the use of it to communicate with Hungerford, Waterloo, and Blackfriars bridges, at the level of their respective roadways. With the last-mentioned of these bridges it would end. Assuming, therefore, the height of Rlr. Walker's embankment, throughout, to be, at high water, four feet above Trinity datum, the elt-vation of the roadway of this terrace above it would vary at ditierent places ; at its commencement at U'hitehall it would be trom five to six feet, at Hungerford and Blackfriars bridges 2^ feet, and at Waterloo Bridge ^7 feet above the same standard. To a spectator from the river, it would in each case present, with the addition of its balustrades, an elevation about three feet higher. As the fall of the tide would throughout the whole line of the embankment, produce, to the eye, a corresponding addition to its base, the river front of the terrace and em- bankment together would, at times of ordinary low water, have gained an apparent addi- tion to its height of about 16 feet ; making its extreme elevation above low water, with the balustrades, about 5(i feet. The estimated expense of Mr. Walker's embankment, as stated to the select committee of 1840, assuming it to be carried to the Horseferry Road, was ;6'^00,0ti0. In his evidence before the Commission no proportion of this amount was assigned to the shorter distance since contemplated ; but it is probable that, upon the embankment above Westminster Bridge, a small portion only of that amonnt would have bean expended. The erection of a terrace (if it were desired) as a separate superstructure, with its piers, arches, and roadway together, would, in Mr. Walker's opinion, involve a further expense of about ^4yO,OUU. ; making the estimated cost, therefore, of the terrace and embankment combined, between ^600,000. and .£700, OUO. The plan of Mr. Walker, as we have already stated, excited considerable opposition In Parliament in the session of 1840, from the wharfingers and others interested in the trade of tiiis locality. It was then directed exclusively to the principle of a solid embankment, ^ subject to the exceptions already referred to, as to recesses in certain portions of the line. The objections urged against it at that period had reference to its alleged interference with the river frontage, of whicti, though a larpe portion, in the opinion of the Commis- sion, might undoubtedly, have been improved by the adoption of such a measure; yet a still larger had been appropriated to purposes dependent upon its proximity to the water side, and adapted principally to the habits of the coal trade. These objections, it should be stated, though the objections of a majority of the parties affected, were not universal. It was alleged by Mr. Walker that many wharfingers were desirous of availiner themselves of the privilege to embank, upon the terms then proposed by the city, viz. — the payment of Id, per annum for every square foot of ground acquired from the river. It was objected, however, that assuming this to be permitted, a measure so partial in its operatiun could not fail te be injurious to a large body of the trade, by creating recesses of indefinite width, uncertain as to the time of their existence, and in the mean time tavouring the accumulation of mud. The evidence of I\Ir. Walker upon all these points, together with the evidence of those who, on these and other grounds, were opposed to the principle of his embankment, has been before the j>ublic now for a period exceeding three years, in the report of the select committee already referred to. No doubt, it appears to us, can exist, upon a perusal of that evidence, that it exhibits a manifest pitponderance of feeling on thn part of the trade adverse to the plan before that committee. The object of the Commission, therefore, in calling Mr. Walker before them, was not to re-open the discussion of 184U, but, lojking to the result of that discussion, his subse- quent survey of the river in 1841, and thi* probability, from these and other causes, of hi"* having communicated with parties interested in the northern shore of the river within the intervening period, to ascertain whether he had seen reason to alter his opinions or to modify his plan, and especially whether he was prepared to bring the question apain under the consideration in a shape that might justify them in recommending its adoption. From our examination of Mr. Walker on these points, his views appeared to have un- dergone no change ; and with reference to the concurrence which his suggestions were now likely to receive on the part of wharfingers and others interested in the line, we found him unprepared to inform us either as to the extent to which such concurrence might be depended upon, or to which the Commission might reasonably consider itself entitled in reviving the consideration of his plan. One of three alternatives appeared to us to be inevitable ; either that such concurrence should be obtained in the first instance, and throughout the whole line, or that considerable sums of money must be expended in compensation? ; or, assuming the impossibility of the first of these alternatives, and the inexpediency of the second, that the embankment must proceed in small and sometimes widely d.rtached portions of the whole line. The latter of these alternatives would justify a revival of all the objections to the pro- posed embankment of 1840, and render the execution of a terrace or river road utterly ira- practicahle. We are not unmindful that Mr. Walker has endeavoured to provide against these con- tingencies by recesses sufficient in extent and so arranged in regard to locality as to meet the wants ol a large body of the triide ; but we cannot but remark, at the same time, that these recesses stood in flir. Walker's plan of 1840; that he would give them no defi- nite assurance as to the time by which they would be completed, or the period for which they mijiht be available; and that, upon being questioned by ourselves as to the grounds upon wiiich he had determined the proportions of his recesses to those of his solid em- bankments, he admitted that " he had calculated upon the feeling of individual proprietors in the line, of which, however, he knew little." In stating to the Commission the origin and purposes of his survey of 1841, Mr. Walker observed, •' The great object of the City in that survey, as it appears to me, has been to determine a river 1 ne, to which parlies making applications might, but beyond which they must not, extend their premises; and, to show how the navigable part of the river may be deepened and improved, without injuring the berths for barges where parties do not wish an extension of solid wharf, which is in no instance proposed to be compulsory." Upon being questioned by the Commission whether that oi)iuioa should be understood as applying to the plan under consideration, he re|)lied, " I have stated that at present there is no intention of anything compulsory, so far as I am aware of. I am not sure that it would not be expedient for a considerable time to leave it to be optional. I think if the measures were now intended to be compulsory, there would be demands from the owners on the banks of the river for compensation ; whereas if the thing were left to work its own way for a time, parties would be allowed to carry out and extend their premises; some in the shap^ of recesses or docks, and some in the shape of embankment the property being then considered theirs in fee. In that way portions being taken in different p;irts all along the river, if it should be desirable after- wards to be made compulsory upon the minority, the mnjority of owners and occupierB agreeing in the plan, or if they got to be all unanimous, there would be an excellent standard along the whole course of the river on which to value the land, or to pay for damages if any were done." The Commission upon this observed, "Then the embank- ment would take place at separate intervals?" To this observation Mr. Walker answered " Yes." The amount of moneys to be paid as compensation under such circumstances, or of other moneys to be raised in consideration of the land embankttd, are subjects, therefore, into wliich it would be obviously Impossible for this Commission to enter with any cer- tainty or profit. According to Mr. Higgins, who was examined before the Committee of 1840, and whose views, like those of Mr. Walker, would appear to have undergone little alteration subsequently, a revenue of about 3.6u0/. per annum might be realised if the embankment were complete; but " he had taken what would be gained by the embank- 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL ICl ment; in no case what would be otherwise lost." He had made no separate estimate of the amount to bee.\pende"l in compensations, and his estimate of the revenue was admitted to be irrespective otany outlay of the kind. The advantages of Mr. Walker's pl:in for a solid embankment, if it were complete, would undoubtedly consist in its simplicity of outline, its freedom t'l om details, and its entire exemption from restrictions and regulations of any kind for its after-management. In making this observation, we desire to apply it either to a solid embankment tlnoughout, or to the embankment with recesses to which Mr. Walker's proposal is at present limited; for, although the objections, on the score of the accumulation of mud in these recesses, and of the insufficiency of the ordinary traffic of the river tor its dispersion, pervade the whole of the evidence taken by the Commission, yet the general tendency of that evidence is to show, that, if they were judiciously constructed in the iirst instance, a moderate application of artificial means, such in fact as is at present resorted to in the best con- structed wharfs on the river, might answer every necessary purpose. The objections to tlie plan, however, on other grounds are not so easily disposed of. According to the evidence before the Commission, the abstraction of the titlal water from a navigable river is in principle objectionable, inasmuch as it diminishes the efficacy of the scour. Various opinions were otfered as to the degree to which this objection would apply to Mr. Walker's embankment Mr, Hartley was of opinion that it would be con- siderable ; and, with Mr. Giles, that its effects, if not felt in the Pool itself, would be more or Itfss injurious in the fiistrict of the river below the Pool : Mr. Rennie, that it would operate both in the Pool and in the river below the Pool. The general temlency of tln^se opinions, indeed, in reference to the plan immediately before us, was that, assuming the navigable current to be improved by judicious dredging, and an uniform course and in- creased velocity to be given to its channel, the loss would, in great measure be lompen- sated. But these opinions were given in reference only to a small portion of the river, irrespectively of any system for its general management, and, of course, without contem- plating that extension ot its present plans, which this Commisiion may feel it right to re- commend hereafter. It was objected as to the recesses, that in proportion as they were favourable to the trade, they would become injurious to the navigation. Mr. Hartley was of opinion that they would a')Stract from the full force of the tidal current, and in a limited or proportion- ate degree affect both the tide and the scour : I\Ir. Cubitt, that an embankment so formed would not be continuous enougli above low water mark to form a good and efficient tit'e to the river : Mr. Gordon, that by causing eddies they would disturb the current of the mainstream, and prevent the establishment of any uniform regimen for the river: Mr. Rennie, that they would have a strong tendency to interrupt the free flow of the tide. Mr. Rendell, speaking in his evidetice of these recesses, observes, '* I cannot imagine any arrangement which would be more likely to make the bed of the river worse than it is at present. If there were a series of long embankments, and a series of long recesses, they would, instea^ of giving an uniform velocity to the stream make it more irregular than it is at present." On the other hand, Captain Beautort was of opinion that. pra(.tic;illy. they would have no effect on the scour of the river, and Mr. Macneil and Mr. Giles that " embankments, with occasional recesses," would conduce to its " improvement,'* and to the *' benetit of the navigation." The mode of levelling these recesses, proposed by Mr. Walker, and of providing them with permanent foundations, is fully explained in his evidence. The objections on this head took a wider range, though intrinsically of less importance, than those above ad- verted to, inasmuch as they involved the use and the construction of these receptacles for trade. Of the persons in trade examined by the Commission in reference to the dwarf piling proposed by Mr. Walker, Mr. Hay (a lighterman) was of opinion that it would be injurious to the craft. The answers of Messrs. Pocock and Peache (the tirst a coal, and the second a timber merchant) were not adverse: Mr. Lncey (a lighterman) gave no decided opinion ; Mr. Tayler (a coal mtrchant) and Mr. Harvey (a wharfinger), buth of them occupiers of extensive river frontages, were generally in favou'- of its adoption. The opinions of these witnesses, it is right to observe, were given in evidence, and without any previous reference to plans, sections, or other sources of information, fllr. Tayler and Mr. Harvey appear to have formed the most correct conception of the course proposed to be pursued. Of the professional witnesses consulted, the attention of the majority aprears to have been diiected to the effect of this dwarf piling upon the navigation, in connexion with the recesses : of those who expressed their opinions with immeiliate reference to the use or convenience of it to the trade, Mr. Cubitt thought that dwarf piling would be inconve- nient, as forming a step or threshold under water, and Mr. Rendel, that barges would be liable to ground upon, and be endangered by it. Tliese opinions, it should be ob-erved, were given, not in evidence, but upon a deliberate examination of the sections which ac- companied Mr. Walker's plan. The objections of the trade lo the general principle of a solid embankment, whether with or or without recesses, have already been adverted to in Uie history of i he proceed- ings upon Mr. Walker's plan before the select comndttee of 1840. Ot the wittiesses in trade examined by the commission. Mr. Harvey objected to a solid embankment, that it would prevent him from getting his barges to the warehouses; that he should have to carry all his goods twice ; that his craft, by being exposed to the swell of the steamers, without proper moorings in the stream, would be subject to increased wear anti tear ; and that any measure which deprived him of his accustomed means ot access would be attended with additional expense in the landing and warehousing of his goods. Mr. Pocock attached no great importance to the wear and tear ajjprehended by Mr. Harvey; butin everyother res- pect concurred in his objections. It was suggested, and assented to by those gentlemen, that piles driven out in the main stream might diminish the difficulty as to moorings, as. suming the extent of these to be equivalent to the accommodations of their present fiontage (in many cases usurped) ; but this equivalent would have involved a jtrojection into the navigable waterway of IGO feet in the one case, and from iHll to 19ll feet in the other, and, allowing for the depth of solid embankment proposed in this particular local- ity (viz., in the neighbourhood of Whitefri*rs), wouid have carried the piling, on the northern shore alone, very nearly into the present centre of the river. The opinions of the lightermen consulted on the last-mentioned of these points had reference principally to the exigencies of their own calling. Assuming a solid embank- ment to be constructed throughout the line, they were agreed that, with the additional velocity to be given to the stream in heavy frosts, and with a channel loaded with ice, the craft would drift at the mercy of the current, and that no system of piling would avail for their security. The professional opinions consulted by the Commission were very nearly in accordance with each other on both of these points. On that of the wharfage. Captain Beaufort, Bfr. Hartley, Mr. Rendel, Mr. Macneil, and Mr. Giles were of opinion that continuous lines of solid embankment shown upon the plans could not be made consistently with the interests of the trade or the convenience of the public j Mr. Ilennie, on the other hand, that the two objects were conjointly practi- cable; Mr. Gordon— that, "after a serious interference with, and breaking up of, existing arrangements, the trade would be ultimately great gainers by a solid embankment." On that of the river— Mr. Hartley thought, that " to force all the craft to moor in the navigable stream would be a source of inconvenience to the trade, and of obstruction to the navigation ;" Mr. Gordon — that, *' as in the preseiit system of traffic on the Thacnes, the bights or buys are indispensable as pbices of rest and refu.e. the solid embankments of plan A would tend to injure t e tiade;" Mr. Rendel— that, '* if the 'Ihames were em- banked with a solid embankment, accoruing to the plan suggested, the wharlingers wouitt find it absolutely necessary for their own jiro'ection not to moor out into the stream;" that ** as the object of making a solid embankment would be to give the Thames such an uniform velocity as would keep open its chiinnel, that velocity would prevent the use of the then shores by those barges ," that " the str jngest run of the tide could not be taken at less than three miles an hour, and that three miles an hour would be quite enough lo prevent the mooring of those craft along the shore ;" that the utmost extent to which such a course would be practicable would be " a coupe of barges in length," and that guard piles carried out to an extent to meet the requisites of the trade '* would not con- tinue a week." The opinions of Captain Beaufort, Mr. Cubitt, Mr. Macneil, Mr. Rennie, and Mr. Giles were addressed rather to the question of recesses, and their convenience to the trade a** shelter from the open tideway, than to the positive difficulties and disadvan- tages connected with solid projections. The foregoing, we think, may be referred to as a faithful summary of the opinions whether for or against the adoption of Mr. Walker's plan, having reference exclusively to its own merits. Its relative advantages and disadvantages, with reference to other plans, will be referred to hereafter. The Plan of Mr. Page.—iB.) The principles of Mr. Page's plan are distinct in character from those of Mr. Walker, and, in some respects, opposed to them. It proposes an fmbankmentwith side channels, the embankment of itself (orming a continuous public terrace. Assuming every abstrac- tion of tidal water f'om a navigable river to be injurious to the navigation below the locality oi the embankment, by depriving a portion of the lirer of its scour, Mr. Page proposes, first, to avoid encionching upon the capacity of the river for the reception of its tidal waters, and to make the prevention of encroachments at any future period, as far as prac- ticable, a leading feature. Secondly, to leave to the wharfingers and others interested in the trade of the locality the possession of their present aLCOinmodatioi s on the river shore ; and, thirdly, to provide increased ficiliiies of communication between the east and west ends of town by a putilic road constructed in the river. The details of a plan professing lo be founded upon these principles must, it is obvious, be far more extensive and complicated in their character tlian tho<:e ot any plan based upon an alternation of solid embankments and recesses only. A river wall interposed between the navigable channel and the shore must hiive openings to atlbrd facilities of intercourse between the two , the position of these openings would furn) one subject for inquiry— their width another — the facililies of access at ditt'erent states of the tide, another. These openings could, of course, be passible only by bridges; antt those bridges, in accordance with one of the leading principles of Mr. Page's plan, shuuld be of sufficient width and height to adnnt of the accustomed traffic of any locality at any state of the tide. On the other hand, Mr. Page's terrace was to pass under the resuective bridges which connect the Middlesex and Surrey shores of the river ; and hence it would appear impos- sible entirely to satisfy one ot these conditions without conflicting, in some measure, with the other. Another peint, the importance of which was not to be overlooked, w.ns the convertibility of these side channels into docks or floating basins. The treatment of this question in- volved the discussion of locks, their pusiiion, their capabilities, their size, and their pro- bable cost. The relative advantages of tidal docks and floating basins, in reference to the trade and the navigable interests ofthe river; the supervision necessary to the legulation of either ; their respective tendencies lo silt, and the facililies for cleansing and keeping them tree from mud, furnished further subject for inquiry, and, the Commissioners are compelled to add, for much conflictingopinion. Of the plan before the Commission a copy will be found inserted in the Appendix, to- gether with a statement of its objects and alleged advantages, drawn up by Mr. Page at our suggestions. As its features were comparatively new, and as we had not before us, as in the consideration of Mr. Walker's pbin, a body ot existing evidence to refer to, we were induced by these and the clauses previously mentioned to examine Mr. Page at great length, and to enter minutely into detail on matters some of them exclusively technical in their clia-acter. and to which therefore it is scarcely necessary to refer in tnis Report, except as to their relative importance to, and bearing upon the main subject of inquiry. Looking to the principles whicli Mr. Page assumes as forming the basis uf his plan, its consideration may he divided, as stated by himself, under three lieads ; viz. — 1. As any embankment constructed upon these principle-i may affect the Thames as a navigable river. 2. As it may aflfect the wharfingers and otlier proprietors on its banks; and ii. As it may improve the means of communiiution in the metropolis by opening new facilities for traffic, and for promotini? generally the health and convenience ofthe public. The firsi of these considerations opened of itself an extensive field of inquiry, and in- volved a class of interests not so much connected witli the locality immediately concrned as with the Pool and lower portions of the river. We trust that the magnitude and im- portance of these interests have not been torgotien. The abstraction of the tidal water from a river, wherever an emliankment is projected upon its shores, and the prejuHicijl consequences necessarily arising from that abstraction, are topics upon which, of course, this Commission can be competent to express an opinion only upon the eviilence before it. The expediency of niainlaining if not increasing the volume of tidal water in the higher portions ofthe Thames, is stated by Mr. Page to have suggested a leadmg feature of his plan, and many of the letters and papeis already referred to as inserted in the Api)endix to this Ki-porl, aie addressed to this inter- esting but necessarily difficult branch of the inquiry. Of the soundness of the prin- ciple which it is the object of these papers lo enforce, and looking to the embankment of the locality under consideration as part only of a lai ger system ul im;(rovement, which is at this moment professed to be in operation in various i)arts of the river, of its great practical value we can entertain no doubt whatever; and, if the evidence before us is not altogether so concurrent as might have been desired as to its applicaii.)n to that particular locality, irrespective of other ijoitions of the river, yet the very conflict of opinions has had its use in impressing upon us the necessity of can iun. The plan under consideration was, of course, open to little positive objection on this head. Captain Maughan, indeed, considered even Mr. Page's embankment as invulving prima facie a violation of his own principle, inasmuch us it wuu'd displace by its own bulk a portion of that water, and, pro tanto, abstract it from the sccmr of the river below. In the letter, however, addressed by Captain Maughan to the Chairman of the Commission, he observes, that, assuming the water in the side channels " to pass in and out with the tide, Mr. Page's plan, compared with the other plans, would curtail in a lessened degree the tidal water; while one of his propositions being to remove the mud banks and other inequalities of the river above low water mark, it is probable tliat the cubic spaces so gained would equal those lost by the terraces, and that thus the river below would bustain no injury." Its merits, therefore, are to be tested, in the first instance, with reference to the trade of the river shore. The principal objection to which it is obnoxious may perhaps be best stated in the words of Mr. Harvev,a general wharfinger, in considerable trade, occupying the Grand Junction Wharf, Whitefriars :— *' I consider that any obstruction, whether by wall or otherwise, which would i)revent me from getting my barge into tlte slieain, at any time while she was afloat, would be a disadvantage. The embankment itself would be an obstruction ; wherever a barge lies i:ow, whether we want to go up or down, we have only to put her a tern and get into the stream. If there is a flooil-gate, and we have to go out at ontf particular spot, we must .iccnmmodate the othf-r craft, so as to come out at that funicular place. At present it req'Jires a good deal of contrivance to place a large barj^e alongside of our wharf; and, if the room were much les^^ent d, it would be almost impracticable." To a question whether his objections were coidined to the inconvenience of access, he rep.'ied, ** The iiicmvLnience of access is one point. Then it shortens my water-way. If the embankment take place outsine what we consider our present water- way, I could not of course complnin, except as to the impediment ot access." Mr. Po- cock, tlie ownei- of an extensive coal-whaif in the same neigh!»ourhood, concurred in tliese objections of filr. Harvey. The outer pile > f Mr. Hai'vey's wharf was stated to be I'iU feet — that of Mr. Pocuck's wharf to tie from iHLt to i; ught there would be no difficulty, " unless the speed of the tide were very much incredsed. In the flow of the tide it would then require some very experienced bargeman to bring up, and ring-holts or piles must be resorted to for the purpose." Assuming an increase of l.'i per cent, upon a velocity of three miies an honr, he anticipated no difficulty whatever. Mr. Harvey had conversed with intelligent lightermen, and inferred, from the same causes, that admission would be more difficult. Mr. Pocock adverted to the increase of existing diffiultie? since the removal of Old London Bridge, and was also of that opinion, attaching little importance to the dritt or eddy anticipated by Mr. Lucey ; and Mr. Peache, referring to the fact thtt a great portion of ihe craft was worked by only one man. considered that there would be difficulty, in such cases, in getting in without further assistance. On this point ,t is obser^•ed by Captain Beaufort, " the entrance to the docks in plan B would be often difficult when the tide might be strong; and. if these entrances were converted into locks, great inconvenience Ws»uld probably arise from several barges arriving at the same time. At the docks which are used by large vessels, specific times of the tide are selected for letting vessels In, and they are then attended by a sufficient number of men to overcome all difficulties; whereas a barge is moved about the river by a single man, who would be quite incapable of conducting her into a narrow gate or lock." Looking to this question as one having rather a practical than a scientific bearing, the opinions of the engineers consulted were, perhaps, not unexpectedly, discordant. Mr. Hartley and Mr. Cubitt disapproving of the partiiular entrances shown in plan B, were nevertheless of opmion that there would be no difficulty in designing entrances such as should afford entire protection against strong currents and high winds; the first, however, saw no necessity for locks, the second admitted locks in deep recesses. Mr. Gordon also was of opinion that there would be no difficulty, thought the gates in the plan "judici- ously placed,-' and recommcntied the addition of otheis. Sir. Rennie, observing that all the entrances to the various docks at present on the river are occasionally affected by currents and hi^h winds," assumed that " a careful observation of the prevailine winds would determine their position ;" Mr. Gdes, that " they would be affected by the same causes, but that these would not impose gruater difficulties than exist at the entrances of the various docks on ihe river, and which might, by the means resorted to In these cases^ be overcome." On the otfier hand, Mr. i\Iacneil nas of opinion, that " these entrances would impose difficulties and obstructions such as do not now exist at the entrances to the various docks or w' arfs on the river ;" and Mr. Rendel, that " they would he difficult, if nut dangerous, except for an hour and a half, at most, before and after high and low watwr." The experience of Captain Maughan may here be again of se; vice in elucidating a prac- tical question. To questions whether the entrances should he at right angles with the stream, he replies, ''As regards facility of entrance, I think that is of very little impor- tance. The craft will have to stop outside first oi all, and, if there is no tide, which I ap- prehend there will not be, close to the embankment wall, they will go in ■■s they like ; I do not think the st-eam will lun rapidly close to the terrace, so as to prevent the easy ingress of barges. " He apprehended no difficulty in getting in, no pressure of the tide upon the vessels at the entrances. In his letter he observes, " The difficulties which have been raised abtiut entrances at right angles I confess I cannot understand ; they appear to me very much exaggerated. With a floating platform or dumb-lighter, and [dies driven down at proper distiinces to check the barges, any lighterman could pass in his craft, even should the stream run up rapidly outside, but which I very much doubt its doing, as stated in my evidence." The discussion of these entrances, without reference to the principle involved in the one or other of the modes of appropriation already sugges'ed, involved a further considera- tion of some difficulty. The sufficiency of their width was generally ad.-nilted, but their height above high water mark, assuming moveable bridges to be dispensed with, afforded suloect for much difference ot opinion. Mr. Tayler and Mr. Pocock considered, as coal- merchants, that from six to eight feet headway wo.ild be sufficient for their purposes ; but for straw barges, and other description of craft engaged in simiUir traffic, and, in short, for general uses, Mr. Hay regarded, 10 ; Mr. Lucey. 11 ; Mr. Penche, 12 ; Mr. Tay- ler, 14 or 1.^ ; and Mr. H^irvey, lii) feet, as the smallest allowable reservation. The diver, sity of opinion upon such a point, between parties whosa interests and daily habits should make them conversant with these details, is sufficient, we think, to justify a doubt as to the reuson^bleness of some of these requisitions. As the object of any measure for the improvement of the river should be obviously to get rid of the mud at present accumulated upon its shores, the attention both of Mr. Walker anil Mr. Page had. of course, been directed to these points: Mr. Walker trusted chiefly to the inclination of his recesses towards the river, and to the tide in cleansing them ; Mr. Page, to an inclination to 1 e artific ally given in the first instance, and to the subseijuent operation of culverts and sluices. The relative advantages of, and objections to, Mr. Walker's recesses in regard to this question have been already stated in referring to his plan. The tendency to such an accu- mulation in the side channels of Mi. Page, ami the efficacy of the n'cans devised for its prevention or removal, gave occasion to much diversity of opinion, and incidentally involved the discussion of a point already adverted to, viz. the relative merits of open flocks and floating basins. Upon the former of these points, it is observed by Mr. Cubitt, " I think the docks proposed by plan B. with single pairs of gates only at their entrances, and sub- ject to be tilled up and emptied at every tide, for the purposes either of navigation or scouring, would be very subject to silt up with mud." — Mr. Gordon's opinion was to the same effect, though qualified ; Mr. fliacneil's, that they would have a greater tendency to silt than the recesses of plan A ; Captain Beaufort's, that tiie tendency would be at least as great ; Mr. Hartley's and Mr. Rendel's, that it would be less. Captain Beaufort and Mr. Cubitt were of opinion that, by the conversion of these docks into floating basins, the evil would be diminished ; and all concurred in stating that either by the means imme- diately recommended, or other artificial resources, they might be rendered practically un- objectionable. The necessity of resorting to these means, however, even upon the simplified basis of side channels, as originally proposed, implied at the same time a ne essity for supervision, and this supervision an expense, to which any modifieation of the plan in the shape of floating basins with lock entrances, would of course involve some addition. Assuming, therefore, the plan B to give to the wharfingers in common the use of large reservoirs of water, and to require the supervision ot officers, whose duty it wonid be to regulate the scour, and the ingress and egress of craft at particular states of the tide, we submitted to the profes- sional gentlemen consulted, whether this supervision, if restricted within proper limits, would entail any serious expense, or offer any obstruction to the trade, or injuriously atfect the interests, or trench upon the convenience of the owners or occupiers of the ad- joining property. We submitted, at the same time, a second question ; viz., whether it would give them any advantages which they do not possess at present ? In reply to the first of these inquiries, Mr. Rennie answered simply, and generally, in the affirmative; Mr. Giles, *' that it would become an objectionable restriction upon the freedom of the navigation of the river;" and Mr. Rendel, " that the interests and views of the numerous owners and occupiers of wharfs would make the supervision and police of such docks difficult and expensive . that supposing the entrances to be made sufficiently commodious and numerous, and the docks kept clear ol mud, the owners of the wharfs would have no reasonable ground of (.omplaint." Captain Beaufort, Mr. Hartley, Mi. Cubitt, Mr. Giles, and Mr. -Macneil, were of opinion that the supervision ueed entail upon the parties aff^ected no injur>', serious trouble, or expense, or none, at least, for which its advantages would not attoid ample compensation ; and concurred with Mr. Rendel, that the conversion of the side channels into floating basins, notwithstanding its attendant in- crease of expense, would give them a positive accession of advantages. The remaining considerations connected with the plans before the Commission involve a discussion of their relative claims to adoption. With the plans of Mr. Walker and Mr. Page, a teirace and public thoroughfare are undoubtedlv consistent. In both plans the sewage is treated upon the same principle— viz. by extending the sewers to the outer Une of the embankment, and connecting it with the river under low water mark. After an attentive examination of the plans of which we have thus explained the principal features and detaMs, and also of the evidence adduced in support of each of them, ihi first question upim which we felt called upon to exercise a judgment was, whether an embankment of the Thames between London and Vauxhall Bridges be indispensable to the improvement of the navigation of that part of the river; or whether, referring to the means by which an embankment might be made available for other objects of Dublic utility, it should be treated as a question of expediency, having reference to other interests combined with those of the navigation. Upon the urgent necessity which exists for some measure having the improvement of this portion of the river for its object, we th nk there can be no doubt whatever. It is a fact open to daily observation and complaint, that in this part its bed presents an altera- tion of deeps and shoals, prejudicial to the navigation; and that its shores, on the Mid- dlesex side especially, exhibit lor the greater portion of every 24 hours, accumulations of mud which cannot fail at certain seasons to generate disease, and at all times to become a powerful auxiliary to it wiien arising from other causes. An inquiry into the the cause of mischief, at the present period, offers no practical advantage, except as leading to the suggestion of a remedy. Whether natural or artificial, it falls under the supervision of that body in which the conservancy of the river is vested, and whose especial duty it is to investigate and to cure these evils. Of the causes to which the present state of the river between London and Vauxhall Bridges IS to be attributed, the number of its projections and recesses, especially on the Midiilesex side of the riv^-r, is undoubtedly the most prominent. The discrudiiable state of the shore in the neighbourhood of Hungerford Market and the Adelphi was first occa- sioned by large embankments in the river in the neighbourhood of Whitehall and Privy Gardens, and these parts bave, In their turn, been subsequently embedded in rau^ by the 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Ids Btill greater projection of the site of the new Hou-es of Parliament higher up the river. We think it evident, with such irregularities still existing, and with their prejuditalefi'ects before us, that no system of dredging can alone be looked to as ensuring a permanent liiiifermity In the b«d of the river in this neiyhbonrhood ;— that, dredging itself, unless very carefully and systematically performed, becomes a source of fvii ; — tliat the necessity for such operations should he as much as possible avoified ; — and ihat the obvious, if not the indispensable course under such circumstances would be, after giving the bed of the river the best possible form, so to regulate the natural agencies that they should maintain its condition. On reference to the " Questions" already referred to in this Report, it will be seen that our earliest inqv^iries were aildressed to this portion of the subject. Adverting to the shoals and irregularities at present existing in the navigable channel of the Thames, we submitted to ihe Hydrograjiher of the Admiralty and the civil engineers consulted, the following question: " Do you think it desirable to remove them, and, if yon do, ate you prepared to suggest any plan less expensive than that of a general embankment lor accomplishing this object, consistently with the pievenlion of future shoals and irregular deposits, and the maintenance of the river at a proper and uniform depth?" \Vc have stated the precise terms of the qnestiim, in order to show that our inquiry had reference to the navigation, and the navigation aliuie. The ansivers, it is true, iu some instances, glanced at objects to which, t n other grounds, an embankment might be rendered of uti- doubted public utility; but the result of tliese opinions generally, in reference to the navi- gution alone, may, we think, nevertheless, he fairly collected. In Mr. Gordon's opinion, " a system of embankments is the only certain means of establishing an uniform regime." Mr. Rendel is " not prepared to suggest a complete plan for effecting the desired object short of an embankment." Ulr. Macneil recommends *' walls and embankments, with dredging, so as to ensure such a sectional area, and such a regular velocity of current, as will neither make a scour nor allow a deposit." Mr. Giles ''considers the plan of a general embankment, coupled with dredging the channel to a proper and uniform depth, to be tha legist expensive and most etfectual means of accomulisibing the object." Capt. Beaufort, — " if there were a sufficient fall from London to the sea," — and Mr. Cubitt, — probably assuming such a fall already to exist, consider "the sinking of anew bed and the raising of new shores" would be sufficient for all the necessary purposes-, — Captain Beaufort, however, concl'ides "the only resource to be embankment." Mr. Hartley and Mr Rennie incline to *' a judicious and well organised system of dredging." With the exception of Mr. Hartley and Mr. Rennie, thereibre, the uhole of these authn- rltles make the improvement of the river dependant upon an altered cundilion of its out- linei Captain Benufort, Mr. Gordon, Mr, Rendel, Mr. Macneil, and Mr. Giles, by the erection of embankments ; Mr. Cubitt, '■ by formiuR newshores in a lessexpeusive niduner llian by continuous walls of masonry." " Taking Into consideration the other subjects of navigation, trade, and communications along either side of the river." I\Ir. Cubitt, "in- deed is not aware of any plan short of a general embankment that could, at a moderate expense, effect all thes- objects ;" Mr. Hartley observes, " I do not assume that an em- bankment must be constructed for the proper navigation of the Thames; but in a ^^eneral point of view. I consider that embankments would be very desirable ," and Mr. Rennie does " not think embankments necessary, but only in the light of auxiliaries, and not of equal importance to the river with dredging." A second question suggested itself to us in connexion with the foregoing, which was »s follows: viz. — If an embankment be deemed expedient between London and Vnuxhall Bridges, is it necessary that the river should be embanked on both sides at the same time, and as a part of the same plan of operatiiins ; or. looking to the necessarily experimental character of any proceeding for regulating the current of the river, and maintaining a proper uniformity in its bed, should it begin on the Middlesex side, as that which, accord- ing to the evidence before the Commission, would attbrd the best means of working out this result? The opinions of I\f r. Walker upon these points have been nlrea-Jy stated. With lefer- ence to the navigation of the river, the expence to be incurred, and the engineering dirH culties to be encountered, '' his feeling upon the whole was in favour of the MidillesfX side," and his conclusion, that "it would be better to establish theijrinciple.and to show its working on a portion of the river before embracing too much." To the questions ad- dressed to the several civil engineers consulted, the answers were, in their general tenor, consistent and unilorm. Rlr. Rennie assigned the priority of importance, if embankments were to be executed, to the northern shore, ftlr. Hartley, Mr. Cubitt, Mr, Gordon, Mr. Rendel, and fllr. Macneil, were also of opinion that preference slioukl be given ta the Middlesex side of the river. Mr. Gordcn, however, qualihed his opinion of this alterna- tive by describing it as one "excluding every consideration save the mere regulation of the river." He thought it " highly expedient," and Mr. Giles " deemed it equally neces- sary," that embankments should be constructed on both sides of the Thames, and that they should be carried out as part of the same plan, and at the same time, Mr. Cubitt, Mr. Gordon, and Mr. Rendel were further of opinion that, nf the nortliern or Middlesex side of the river, the portion between Westminster and Blackfriars Bridges demanded the earliest attention. A third question which it became necessary' for us then to consider was, wliether looking to the frontage of that portion at present occupied tor the purposes of river trade, the requirements of that trade were incompatible with an improvement of the navigatii n > Upon this point we found no diversity of opinion whatever. The whole of the profes- sional a ithorities consulted concurred with us in believing the two objects to be peifectly compatible. The interests of the navigation were lirst to be considered : secondly, those of the trade ; and the mode ot embankment was to be determined as far as practicable on the principle of combining a due jirovision lor the former, with the utmost possible accommodation to f'e latter. A fourth, and. with reference to the objects of tliis commission, an important question to be considered was, whether the interests of the trade and the exigencies of the naviga- tion between Westminster and Blackfriars Bridges were incompatible with an extension of the present means uf land traffic in the same locality ; or whet' er, locking to the demand for new and improved thoroughfares in the line of the river, especially on the Rliddlesex shore, an embankment could be so constructed as to combine these objects by ihu appro- priation ot the superstructure as a public terrace or highway? On this point, also, iliere was great concurrence of opinion amongst the professional authorities consulted by the commission, as well as in assigning the greatest ueci ssity for such a communication to the northern side of the river. It then remained for us to consider whether, assuming the objacts to be attained by an embankment, in whatever part constructed, to be — 1. To improve the navigable course of the river; 2. To insure to the river side trade its present accommodation to the greatest possible extent; and, 3. To extend the facilities of intercourse between the two extremities of the town; the several plans before the commission were buth in principle and in their respective de- tails, equally adapted to satisly these requirements : or whether the weight of evidence before the comnission gave a preference to any one of thtm. as being belter adapted than the others for effecting all these objects by reason of its principle or its details, or on the ground of the greater economy with which it might be carried into execution. With reference to the lines of embankment laid down on the respective plans, and their probable effect in improving the navigation of the river, Mr. Hartley, Mr. Kennie, Mr. Giles, and Mr. Macneil, considered those of Plan A to be the best . fllr. Gordon, on the contrary, observes, " Of the three plans before me, A has the least reference to the prin- ciples which ought to guide the choice of lines." On the other hand, it is observed by Captain Beaufort, " There is but little choice between the lines presented by tiiese plans, all being sufficiently continuous ;" by Mr. Cubitt,—" There is great similarity in the lines of all the thiee plans, and, as regards the question of navigation, only, the adoption of either, as permanent lines of bank, \vould be a great improvement;" by Mr. Macneil, — " I have no doubt that any one of the lines would be found, with some partial modilica- tion, to answer the purpose intended ;" by Mr. Hartley, in answer to the lifth question, — *' There can be no doubt that any of these plans would tend much to benefit the channel of the river and Improve its navigation." The relative value* therefore, of the embank ments proposed, as agents in working out such a result, is undecided by these obierva tions. There seeems little reason to doubt, from the evidence, that a terrace or roadway could be usefully and consistently made upon the embankments projected in all these plans ; of course with the same qualification as to the relative facilities and advantages of either. Rut there is not the same concurrence of opinion in reference to the accommodations of the trade, combined with the furtherance of these objects; and in this respect there api'ears to us to be a material difference in the relative merits of the three plans. 'i'lie inquiries of the Commission on this part of the subject were not limited, as we have already stated, to the opinions of professional men. They involved points, it Is ob- ffious, upon some of which science could throw no light whatever, and upjn which, if a choice of opinions were indispensable, the practice and experience of thoot path, balustrades, &i-. from Middle Scotland Yard to Blackfriars Bridge. The whole outlay upon this portion of Mr. Page's plan would hive amounted to .. .. .. -. ^'192, 72b Add for gas fittings, lamp posts, irons, &c. . . .. -. 2,450 jtl95,17H Add for contingencies, 10 per cent. ^■2Ufi9b The further estimate which Mr. Page was directed to prepare and lay before us, was to comprise an cmbiinkmeiit and terrace 20 teet in widtli from Westminster Briilge to Whitehall Place, and bli feet in width for the remainder of the distance, varying in height from 3 feet 6 inches to 10 feet above Trinity datum ; and to show the relatve expense of constructing these— 1st. With brick walls faced uith granite; and 2nd, With brick walls and grjuite dressings oidy. The following was the result; For an embankment anl terrace 50 ft. in width and varying from 3 ft. 6 in. to 10 ft. in height, having brick walls and a facing of granite .. £36G,409 For a like embankment and terrace, having brick walls with granite dres- sings only .. .. .. .. .. .^;l01,.'i91 As the mode of connecting the general line of the proposed embankment with the frontage of the premises now occupied by the residents in Privy Gardens, and also with that of the Temple Gardens, may be subject to modifications of various kinds, with a view to meet the convenience of the respective parties, the foregoing estimate maybe affected by the ultimate determination respecting thcso portions of the work, probably so as to diminish the cost of it to the public. A decision upon these, and upon many of the less important details of this plan may, we think, b- profitably leserved for the present until your Majtsty's Government shall have determined, after a perusal of our Report and its accompiuiying evidence, and estimates, upon the expediency of adopting and bringing under the notice of Parliament, the measure to whi h these relate. To that evidence we think we may confidently refer in proof ot our desire to enter into all the beaiings of this difficult, anil, as far .is regards the general character of metropolitan improvements, somewhat novel inquiry; to test the accuracy of the estimates laid before us, and ultimately to obtain for the inhabitants of the metropolis, as large a measure of improvement, ot its kind, as could be effected, consistently with the extensive ancl important cla>s of interests involved in its accomplish-ment. We have advened to the manner in which the funds required for the improvements in the City of London, connected more or less, with tlie approaches to London Bridge, and also the great alterations more recently sanctioned by Parliament, and now in progress, have been provided ; iind although it may not appear strictly a part of our duty to acconi- piiny our recommendations of such further improvements as may appear to us to be the most desirable by suggestions of pecuniary resources for defraying the cost of them, we trust that we shall not be considered as transgressing the limits of our Commission if we submit to your M jesty our views of the means which appear to us the most readily avail- able, and with the smallest degree of pressure and inconvenience to the inhabitants of the metropolis and its vicioityi lor the immediate object of our present Report, and also for 164 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [April, some of those further improvements which it will be our duty hereafter to submit for the approval of your Majesty and of Parliament. ..,„.,, j We have stated that tlie coal duties ot 8d. per ton in the Port of London are now charged until the year I8IW. with the improvements already made or in progress. The whole rate of duty upon this article, as now collected, is 13d. per ton ; viz. 8d. charged as before !nBnlioned,-4d. received by the Corporation, in lieu of certain rights and interests, —and Id also collected by them for compensation to be paid to individuals, and other ex]ienses incidental to the coal market, on the occasion of the new regulation of the coal trade under the Act of lB:il. ■ j j . r , i . -n i. It is estimated that the charges upon the last- mentioned duty of Id. per ton will be eTtinguished in about three years from the present time. Such beirie the existing state of these duties, it is our opinion that it may be advisalde to augment the total rate of the tax collected from l:^d. to 18d. per ton ; making the du- ration ol the wliultf contemporaneous witli that of tile duty of Hd. per ton, as above- mentioned— excepting of course the duty of 4d. per ton belonging to the City of London, which is permanent. By these means there would b« at tlie dispesal o- Parliament, for Metropolitan improvements, and more immediately for that whicli is the subject of our present consideration, the produce of a duty of ."id. per ton until the duty of Id. per ton, appropriated to the coal market, is set free, and ot fid. per ton for the remainder of the term. It is estimated that the annual amount would be, in the former case, jt'b-i,S7b, and in the latter, .iti;.5.B,')l. We are anxious tliut your Majesty should be assured that we should not lightly recom. mend even tliis comparjtivaly inconsider^ibie augmentation of local taxation, nor without a careful consideration of the interests of that great community on which this aiditional temporary burthen would be im|)Osed. We should not, indeed, venture to otfer this suggestion except under thestrongest conviction that benetits much more than equivalent to the sacrifices thus proposed would resrit from the adoption of the plans now submitted for your J\laj.;sty's ap[)roval. The labours of successive committees of the House of Commons who have puisued elaborate inquiries, and have expressed decided epinions on the subject, have spared us the necessity of setting forth in detail the grounds upon which we consider that an addition to the coal duties is (within certain limits) the most equitable nu'l llie least burtliensume mode of providing for improvements of tins descrip- tion ; and we tticrefoie cannot hesitate to recommend it as the best resource for the ac- complishment of a measure having for its object to secure to the metropolis the advan- tages of an improved and better regulated navigalior. of a great portion of the noble river which flows through it ; and calculated at the same time to contribute largely to the convenience, the recreation, and the health of its inhabitants. Appendix — Description of Mr. Walker's Plan (A.) This plan (A) proposes, as a final measure, — First, to bring the river Thames to a more uniform width than it is at present, by means of embankments, in the lines shown on tlie accompanying plan. Secontily, to improve the present river lines where the ground is nut built upon, by easing tlie present quick curves. Thirdly, to remove the shoals by dredging, and to form the bottom of the navigable channel to a regular line, (Plate VI. Figure 1,) the excavated material being applicable to filling in behind the embankments, and thus to form quays at the level of 3 feet 6 inches or 4 feet above high water. Trinity standard. These quays to he, upon terms to be settled, the private property of the parties owning the present wharfs, of wliich they may be considered as an extension. Fourthly, to continue the covered sewers out to the front of the proposed embankment, where they may discbarge below the level of low w,ater. Fifthly, to avoid the heavy claims that might be made for interference with the coal and timber merchants, if a solid embankment were at present formed in front of their premises, it is proposed not to inter- fere with such at present, if the parties object to an embankment, but to leave them, forming open docks or recesses. (Plate VI. Fig. 2.) It is sup- posed that four of these docks may at present be required between Westmin- ster and Blackfriars Bridges, viz., one at Northumberland Wharf, one above Waterloo Bridge, terminating with the Bridge Stairs; one above the Temple Gardens, and one commencing at Whitefriars Dock and terminating with the stairs at Blackfriars Bridge. There may be modifications in the sisuation of these, at the request of parties. As the deepening of the navigable channel may tend to draw down the ground of those wharfs into the river, it is pro- posed, where required, to support the same by close piling in the line of the embankment, the top of this piling not to be above the level of the ground where it is driven ; tlie loose mud to be taken out from these recesses or docks, and small chalk and gravel, laid in a regular slope, to be substituted ; this, and the wash by the winds and steamers, will, it is supposed, keep the bottoms clear of mud without much trouble. The dotted lines upon the plan show the proposed future margin of the river on both sides; but as it is proposed first to embank the north or Mid- dlesex side, between Westminster and London Bridges, the number and po- sition of the docks or recesses on the Surrey side have not been considered. Tv'or is it intended entirely to preclude barges from lying oulsidc the em- bankment ; but the stations there will be less convenient than the recesses for such trades as coal and timber. Should a terrace, or even a railway, be thought desirable, the marks upon the plan (coloured yellow) show the position of piers to support flat arches, 100 feet span. The roadway, which is shown by dotted lines, might enter on the embankment at WhitebiiU and terminate at Blackfriars Bridge, crossing Hungerford and Waterloo Bridges at the level of their roadways, and thus communicating with these thoroughfares. (Signed) James Walker. [We have not been able to give an engraving of Mr. Walker's plan, but it will be sufficiently understood, wiih the following explanation, by a reference to the annexed engraving. Mr. Walker's plan has a solid embankment from Westminster Bridge to Scotland Yard, then a recess ; then embankment in front of Hungerford Market to Salisbury Street, then a recess to Waterloo Bridge; then embankment in front of Somerset House to a little below Arundel Street, then a recess for the wharfs at Essex Street; then embank, ment fronting the Temple Gardens to Whitefriars Dock ; and, lastly, a recess to Blackfriars Bridge. The dotted line on the Surrey side of the river is Mr. Walker's boundary for an embankment. — Editor.] Appendix. — Description of Mr. Page s Plan (B.) Mr. Page's plan pre-supposes terraces and side channels, and may be re- ferred to under three heads: — First, as any embankment constructed upon this principle may affect the Thames as a navigable river. Secondly, as it may affect the wharfingers and other proprietors on its banks. And, Thirdly, as it may improve the means of communication in the me- tropolis by opening new facilities for its traffic, and for promoting generally the health and convenience of the public. In the first case, the arrangement is based on the principle that any ab- straction of the tidal water from a navigable river by embanking or otherwise, must injure that river to a certain extent below the locality of the embank- ment ; and although the injurious efi'ect of embankments may be greater in estuaries which depend for their depth of water on the tide alone, it is a known fact that the reservoir of water in a river at any particular spot now availahle for the scour, operates to that efli'ect as far as it runs out with the ebb tide. Taking as an instance the locality of Hungerford, the water in the broad expanse of the river in that part operates iii scouring the hed of the river as low down as Woolwich, according to the duration and velocity of the ebb ; and it is assumed, therefore, that any abstraction of this water must, to a certain extent, deprive that portion of the river of its present scour. It is further assumed that it is desirable in all navigable rivers to attain great depth and moderate velocity ; that the permanent and efficient scour is produced by depth of water and moderate velocity combined, as is instanced in the beds of all rivers as they approach the sea ; and that, therefore, the greater capacity of a river at high water at any particular spot, the more im- portant is that water for scour, because it then acts with the greatest effect, namely, when the greatest body of water is passing down, say from high water to half ebb. It is therefore also assumed, that the loss of water at the sides and bays of a river cannot be compensated for by deepening its raid-channel,' inasmuch as the water so gained, if any shoal or shelf occurred below it, would not fiow away in the ebb, remaining in fact in the reservoir dredged for it ; or, if being higher than the surface of the water below, it did flow down, would be available only towards low water, when, though the current is stronger, yet, for want of body of water, it would be ineflicient in producing scour. It would appear to be admitted, from the observations of engineers of ex- perience, that the river Thames has been injured by sohd embankments ; that in the case under notice the effect of such embankments from Hungerford to Milhank is shown by the accumulation of mud banks below them ; that not only the tendency, but the practice in every alteration by the river side, has been to encroach upon the river, even by projections beyond a straight or a continuous line ; and in the few cases where engineering authorities have been consulted, it would appear that the principle of non-abstraction of the tidal water, tliough fully acknowledged, has been perverted to suit particular cases. It is also assumed, therefore, that in any alteration of a public nature, the condition of preventing further encroachment should, if practicable, be a leading feature. Secondly, With regard to the wharfingers, the object of the proposed plan is to leave their wharfs, warehouses, means of unloading, &e., in tlieir present state; in fact, not to interfere with their property, and to allow all the accommodation for their barges, &c., in the very places they now occupy, as may be consistent with the width required for the main stream of the nver ; and, Thirdly, With these provisions for the river, and for the wharfingers, the plan provides for increased facilities of communication between several points of the metropolis, and extensive promenades by the river side. For obtaining a more uniform boundary for the main stream of the river, it is proposed to construct lines of terraces from Milbank, where the river is 600ft. in width, to Queenhithe, where itistioOft. ; the width between the terraces varying from 650 to 750ft., and leaving side channels between the terraces antl the wharfs varying from 303 to 150ft. in width. The width of the terraces is 40ft. ; 10ft. of which on the river sideis appropriated for foot passengers, and the remainder for carriages. The areas of these side channels are, on the Middlesex side, 37 acres, and the Surrey side 4O2 acres ; together 77^^- acres, or more than double the area of tlie London and St. Katharine's Docks, exclusive of the basin. The lengths and widths of the side channels are shown by the following table : — 1 This may he illustrated by supposing that in the part to be deepened there are five feet water at the lowest run of the tide, and the hed of the river he then dredged lour tijet deeper ; there would then be nine feet water at the lowest run uf the tide; but no portion of tins water would run out and scour the river below. It is asauiii .d, tbeieioie, Ihat all the water which does scour the river below anylocaitv, is contained betuceu low water mark and higli water mark; and that tlie greater cubic quantity uf water bet-.veen ihOKd wo points, the more eflicient will be the scour. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 165 Middlesex Side. From Westminster Bridge to Blackfriars Bridge - ' From Blackfriars to Trig! Stairs J Surrey Side. Lsngth. Av. Width. Feet. Feet. 520 250 1,150 245 500 325 200 230 323 360 900 280"! Opposite Waterloo 830 140 ^Bridge & Somerset 600 240 J House. 1,950 ISO 1,300 From Lambeth to West- minster Bridge . . . From Westminster Bridge _ to Blackfriars Bridge From Blackfriars to Bank- side 160 1,000 140 600 160 800 170 300 230 350 180 1,250 210 1,910 220 1,900 230 1,000 170 600 120 The entrance to the side channels would he by openings as conveniently situated for the admission of barges on the flood tide as circumstances will admit. They may be increased in number for greater facility of entrance, but, from observation at other entrances, are concluded to be fully equal to the wants of the wharfingers. The openings are 40ft. in width, capable of admitting two barges abreast, and are provided with gates for the purpose of enabling the wharfingers, of course under proper regulations, and subject to the supervision and control of properly appointed persons, to retain the water after high water if requisite ; secondly, for preventing the overflow of the river at high runs of tide ; and, thirdly, for providing for the cleansing of the side channels by means of sluices in the cross walls of communication with the streets. These communications are proposed to be solid and provided with sluices for the sole object of retaining the water in any one division of the side channels, and cleansing the adjoining division by an easy flow of water through them, say once a week, probably at wider intervals, but the period would necessarily be very much subject for after regulation. As the object is to enable the wharfingers to carry on their business in the same manner as they do now, these side channels are not provided with locks, it being assumed that with these, although additional facilities for sending away barges at all times of tide might be gained, there would be an increase of trouble and expense ; and they are to be regarded, therefore, merely as side channels, and the gates are not to be closed except for the purposes above mentioned. The retention of the water for two hours after high water, for the purpose of expediting the unloading of the barges and giving this a--^diiional quantity of water for the scour of the river is only provided for, but is not an essential part of the plan. The height of the terrace generally, although first proposed to be four feet above Trinity high mark, is, for the more easy entrance of craft, and for pre- serving uniformity of transit on the terrace, proposed to be 10 ft. ahove that line, except in front of Whitehall Gardens and tlie Temple Gardens. The height of 10ft., however, is not to be considered as any essential portion of this plan, but as having been suggested since the plan was first brought before the Commission, and to meet a difficulty applying only to a particular de- scription of craft, not very numerous, it is believed, on the river. The width of the side channels is considered amply sufficient for the ac- commodation of the barges in front of the respective wharfs. From Black- friars to the Grand Junction Wharf, a distance of 600ft., some of the whar- fingers state that they require 200ft. in front of their wharfs, and the distance from the v\barfs to the terrace allowed by the plan at this particular spot is not more than 180 ft. ; this is considered to be as large a waterway as could be strictly insisted upon, and more than would probably be asked for if the plan proposed were properly carried out. It is not an object of the design that wLdth for the general passage of barges should be provided in the side channels, the main stream of the river being the proper and more desirable channel for their transit ; but sufficient space is attainable for ingress and egress without inconvenience to the harges unloading, and two harges abreast might be moored outside the terrace to the mooring-rings and piles provided for their accommodation. This provision, and the space in other parts of the side channels forming receptacles for barges, would, it is believed, amply accommodate the various craft, on the spot they now occupy. For the etficient action of the water from the sluices on the shores at the wharfs which may require cleansing, it is proposed to bring the shore of the side channels to a regular inclination as per diagram, disposing it in three planes : the first, with a slight inclination of say three inches in sixty feet towards the wharfs ; the second, an inclined plane sloping towards the ter- race ; the third, horizontal. When the shores are to be cleansed, the barges would be removed to the sloping bed A C, and the upper sluices being opened, the mud on the first bed, the accumulation whatever it might be, would be washed away by the flow of water, the excess of water above the point A flowing down the sloping bed to the lower level, the sluice of which being afterwards open would clear away all the remainder into the main steam. At present the sewers discharge at the line of the wharfs, leaving a deposit of filthy mud, and discharging noxious effluvia at every outlet. In the plan it is proposed to continue the sewers under the bed of the side channels and under the terrace into the main stream, so that the sewage would be dis- charged below low water mark. As the wharf property would be relieved from any deposit of sewage, the mud which might collect would consist of the general sediment of the river water, and although provision is made for clearing away any deposit, it is anticipated that very little would take place, as there would be a stream in the side channels at both flood and ebb tide. By this arrangement the wharfs and warehouses are left undisturbed ; the same facilities the wharfingers now possess for carrying on their business they would retain ; their craft would be better protected from damage and depredation, and from the losses occurring during drifts of ice ; and thesi advantages it is considered would far outweigh any difficulty in passing the openings to the side channels. As there are several slips and docks on the wharf property, these, it is assumed, might be increased in number and area as occasion might require. The general tendency to encroach on the river would give way to a general tendency to set back, and every alteration on this principle would he beneficial to the port of London by increasing the reservoir of tidal water for its scour. By the proposed plan, it is intended that communications for the public should be opened from Blackfriars Bridge to Whitehall on the Middlesex side, without purchase of any property, except a small gaiden and one house ; and that the crowded thoroughfare of Fleet Street and the Strand should be cleared of much of the lighter class of traffic which at present obstructs it. On the Surrey side the same communication from Blackfriars to Nine Elms would he attained without the purchase of any property, and below Blackfriars a foot communication, as shown on the plan. Embankments for pleasure ground, with capacious culverts running through them, are proposed in front of Whitehall Gardens (Crown property), and in front of the Temple Gardens, leaving to the former a private river front, and opening to the latter a desirable communication to the western part of London ; but inasmuch as these embankments would form expensive portions of the plan, and to a certain, though not important extent, abridge the space for water between the terrace and the shore, the tide might, in the first in- stance, be allowed to continue its present course past both of these localities, and the conversion of them into pleasure grounds might, if necessary, be efl'ected hereafter. Note. — Although these observations are intended to apply principally to the terrace as an embankment, including a carriage way and promenade, it is not out of place to state, that instead of filling up its contents with solid matter, it is proposed to construct a continued reservoir within it, equal to a circle of 28ft. in diameter (Fig. 3), into which the pure waters of the river Wandle may be conducted, for the supply of those four water companies which now provide their respective districts with water from the Thames (mixed with the sewage), and for the gener.al use of such establishments as may wish to avail themselves of it. But into the particulars of this proposition it is not considered necessary to enter at the present time, as the plans are quite independent of each other. (Signed) Thomas Page. [We have not given Mr. Page's plan (B), but we have given the modified plan of the Commissioners, founded upon plan B, which will sufficiently illustrate Mr. Page's description. — Editor.] Reference to Engraving, Plate VI. The plan exhibits the river wall or terrace on the Middlesex side of the river between Westminster Bridge and Blackfriars Bridge. The dotted line, L. W., is low water mark, and the dotted line nearly parallel with the bank on the Surrey side is the extent of Mr. Walker's proposed embankment and Mr. Page's proposed docks. Fig. 1, one of Mr. Page's transverse terraces of communication with the streets, with culverts for sluicing and openings for the passage of barges. A, terrace wi:h proposed reservoir for pure water; B, gates with sluices, the gates to be closed and sluices worked when the side channels lequiie clean- sing; C, culvert for iluices; D. section of present wall : E, continuation of sewer; F, present sewer; H. W., Trinity high water mark, and L. W., low- water mark. Fig. 2, a transverse section of the river with Mr. Walker's embankment wall A, to te filled in behind, B present wharf, h. w. high water , I. w. low water; the irregular line c. the present bed of river, d bottom of river of the proposed deepening. Fig. 3 shows a transverse section of the river with one of the recesses, e; bed for barges as at present;/, guard piles; g, duarf piling the top to be driven down to the level of the bed of the river; c. I., cen- tral line of river. >66 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [April, RBVICWS. FARADAY AND THE ELECTRICAL SCIENCES. Lectures on Electricity, comprising Galnanism, Magnetism, Electro- Magnetism, Magneto and Tkermo-Electricitg. By Henry M. Noad, Author of Lec- tures on Chemistry, &lc. London : George KniglU & Sons, Foster Lane. Mr. Noad has published a new edition of his Lectures on Electri- city, which give succinctly an account of each department of elec- trical science, with the forms of illustrative experiments and the history of the mi)st recent discoveries and improvements. In peru- sing this work we have seen v/ith gratification how much Dr. Faraday has contributed to every branch of these sciences, and we thought we could not give a much better example of the value of Mr. Noad's book, nor a more interesting selection for our readers, than to extract some account of Dr. Faraday's valuable labours. It will not he forgotten that it was by means of an apparatus, in some de- gree resembling the Electrophorus in principle that Faraday succeeded in demonstrating that induction is essentially a physical action, occurring be- tween contiguous particles, and never taking place at a distance without polarizing the molecules of the intervening dielectrics. The conclusion seems to be that induction is not through the metal of the apparatus, but through the air in curved lines. In fact, as Mr. Noad puts it, it is an action of the contiguous particles of the insulating body thrown into a state of polarity and tension, and capable of communicating their forces in all directions. With regard to the theory of electro-chemical decomposition, in his second ecture, page 77, Mr. Noad remarks — "The following beautiful experiments, made by Faraday (See Exp. Research, series v. 462 et seq.), prove that, so far from electro-chemical decomposition depending upon the simultaneous action ot two metallic poles, air itself may act as a pole, decomposition proceeding therewith as regularly and truly as with metal. " A piece of turmeric paper, not more than 0'4 of an inch in length, and 0'3 of an inch in width, was moistened with sulphate of soda, and placed upon the edge of a glass plate opposite to and about two inches from a point connected with a discharging train arranged by connecting metallically a sufficiently thick wire with the metallic gas pipes of the house, with those of the public gas works of London, and with the metallic water pipes of London. A piece of tin-foil resting upon the same glass plate was connected with the machine and also with the turmeric paper by the decomposing wire a (Fig. 1.) rig. 1. The machine was then worked, the positive electricity passing into the tur- meric paper at the point p, and out at the extremity n. After forty or fifty turns of the machine (a plate fifty inches in diameter), the extremity n was examined, and the two points or angles found deeply coloured by the pre- sence of free alkali. " A similar piece of litmus paper dipped in a solution of sulphate of soda (Fig. 2) was now supported upon the end of the discharging train a, and its extremity brought opposite to a point p, connected with the conductor of the machine. After working the machine for a short time, acid was developed at both corners towards the point, that is, at both corners receiving the elec- tricity from the air. Then a long piece of turmeric jiaper, large at one end and pointed at the other, was moistened in the saliue solution and immedi- ately connected with the conductor of the machine, so that its pointed ex- tremity was opposite a point upon the discharging train. When the machine was worked, alkali was evolved at that point; and even when the discharging train was removed, and the electricity left to be diffused and carried off al- together by the air, still alkaU was evolved where the electricity left the tur- meric paper. " Arrangements were then made in which no metallic communication with the decomposing matter was allowed, but botti poles formed of air only. Pieces of turmeric and litmus paper, a and b, (Fig. 3,) moistened with solu- tion of sulphate of soda, were supported on wax between the points, con- Fig. 8. nected with the conductor of the machine and the discharging train, as shown in the fijure ; the interval between the respective points was about half-an-inch. On working the machine, evidence of decomposition soon appeared, the points b and a being reddened from the evolution of acid and alkali. "Lastly, four compound conductors of litmus and turmeric paper were ar- ranged as shown in Fig. 4, being supported on glass rods ; and on working Fig. 4. the machine carefully, so as to avoid sparks and brushes, evidence of decom- position was obtained in each. " Notwithstanding, then, the absence of metallic poles, we have here cases of electro-chemical decomposition precisely similar to those effected imder the influence of voltaic battery ; and we appear to have direct proof also that the power which causes the separation of the elements is exerted not at the poles, hut at the parts of the body which is suffering decomposition. " The arrangement shown in Fig. 5 was employed by Faraday for effecting electro. chemical decomposition by common electricity. On a glass plate, raised above a piece of white pig. 5. paper, two small slips of tin- foil, a, b, were placed : one was connected by the insulated wire c with an electrical machine, and the other by the wire g with a discharging train, or with the negative conductor. Two pieces of line platinum wire, bent as in Fig. 6, were provided, and so arranged that the part d,f, was nearly upright, while the whole rested on the three hearing points,/), e,f. The points JO, H, thus became the decomposing (/^ Fig. 6. poles. They were placed on a piece of filtering paper wetted wilh the solution to be experi- mented upon. When litmus paper, moistened '^V^l \j j in solution of common salt or sulphate of soda, was employed, it was quickly reddened at 7; ; a similar piece, moistened in muriatic acid, was very soon bleached at the same point, but no effects of a similar kind took place at n. A piece of turmeric paper, moistened in solution of sulphate of soda, was reddened at n by two or three turns of the machine ; and in twenty or thirty turns, plenty of alkali was there evolved. On turning the paper round, so that the spot came under ;u, and then working the machine, the alkali soon disappeared, the place became yellow, and a brown alkaline spot appeared in the new part under n. When pieces of litmus paper and tur- meric paper, both wetted with solution of sulphate of soda, were combined, and put upon the glass, so that p was on the litmus, and n on the turmeric, a very few turns of the machine sufficed to show the evolution of acid at the former and alkali at the latter, exactly in the manner effected by a volta- electric current. (See Exp. Researches, third series, 309 et seq.) " In these experiments the direct passage of sparks must be carefully avoided. If sparks be passed over moistened litmus paper, it is red- dened ; anil if over paper moistened with solution of iodide of potas- sium, iodine is evolved. But these effects must carefully be distin- guished from those due to electro-chemical powers, or true electrolytic action, and must be carefully avoided when the latter are sought for. The effect just mentioned is occasioned by the formation of nitric acid by the chemical union of the oxygen and the nitrogen of the air: the acid so formed, though very small in quantity, is in a high state of concentration, and there- fore reddens the litmus paper, and decomposes the iodide. " It does not appear that Faraday was more successful than Wollaston in effecting a true electro-polar decom|)osition of water. He says, ■ there is reason to believe that when electro-chemical decomposition takes place, the quantity of matter decomposed is not proportionate to the intensitj, but to tlie quantity of electricity passed; hut in Wollaston's experiment this is not the case. If wilh a constant pair of points the electricity be passed from the machine in sparks, a certain proportion of gas is evolved ; but if the sparks he rendered shorter, less gas is evolved ; and if no sparks be passed, there is scarcely a sensible portion of gases set free. On substituting solution of sulphate of soda for water, scarcely a sensible quantity of gas could be pro- 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 16T cured, even with powerful sparks, and almost none with the mere current ; yet the quantity of electricity in a given time was the same in all these cases." " I believe at present that common electricity can decompose water in a manner analogous to that of tlie voltaic pile. Cut when I consider the trite effect only was obtained, tlie quantity of gas given off was so small, that I could not ascertain whether it was, as it ought to be, oxygen at one wire and hydrogen at the other. On substituting soUition of sulphate of soda for pure water, these minute streams were still observed ; but the quantities were so small, that on working the machine for half an hour, I could not obtain at either pole a bubble of gas larger than a small grain of sand ; and if the che- mical power be in direct proportion to the absolute quantity of electricity which passes, this ought to be the case.' In paragraph 359 he says, ' It is doubtful whether any common electrical machine has yet been able to supply elec- tricity sufficient in a reasonable time to cause true electro-chemical decom- position of water.' " Mr. Goodman, of Salford, near Manchester, who has published a very ingenious essay ou the ' Modifications of the Electric Fluid," has, however, succeeded in decomposing water by current alone, and with imr/uarded poles." We think it will be interesting here to give Faraday's views of induction and conduction. " According to this philosopher, both induction and con- duction ought to be considered the same in principle and action — every body appearing to discharge in a greater or less degree, which makes them better or worse conductors — worse or better insulators. He considers the first effect of an e.\cited body upon neighbouring matters, to be the production of a polarized state of their particles, which constitute induction ; and this arises from its action on the particles immediately in contact with it, which again act upon those contiguous to them; and thus the forces are transferred to a distance. If the particles can maintain this polarised state, then insula- tion is the consequence ; and the higher the polarised condition, the better the insulation ; but if the particles cannot maintain their polarized state, if they possess the power to communicate their forces, then conduction occurs ; and the tension is lowered, conduction being a distinct act of discharge be- tween neighbouring particles. Thus, as the higher the polarized condition which the particles of the body can assume, the better insulator is that body ; so is a body a better conductor in proportion to the inappetency of its particles to retain a state of polarity. The discharge which takes place between two conducting surfaces is termed disruptive ; it is the limit of the influence which the intervening air or dielectric exerts in resisting discharge ; all the effects prior to it are inductive, and it consequently measures the con- servative power of the dielectric. It occurs not when all the particles have attained to a certain degree of tension ; but when that particle which is most affected has been exalted to the subverting or turning point, all must then give way, since they are linked together, as it were, by the influence of the constraining force, and the breaking down of one particle must, of necessity, cause the whole barrier to be overturned. In every case, the particles amongst and across which the discharge suddenly breaks, are displaced — the path of the spark depending upon the degree of tension acquired by the particles in the line of discharge. The spark may be considered then, as a discharge, or lowering of the polarized inductive state of many dielectric particles by a particular action of a few of the particles occupying a very small and limited space : all the previously polarized particles returning to their first or normal condition in the inverse order in which they left it, and uniting their powers, meanwhile to produce, or rather to continue the dis- charge effect in the place where the subverssou of force first occurred." Mr. Noad also says : — " It was with an apparatus constructed on the principles of the Leyden phial, that Faraday suc- ceeded in proving by the most decisive experiment that induction has a particular relation to the diffe- rent kinds of matter throuyh which it is everted. A section of this ingenious contrivance is shown in Fig. 7. a, a, are the two halves of a brass sphere, with an air-tight joint at 4, like that of the Magde- burgh hemispheres, made perfectly flush and smooth inside, so as to present no irregularity ; c is a con- necting piece, by which the apparatus is joined to a good stop-cock d, which is itself attached either to the metallic foot e, or to an air pump. The aperture within the hemisphere / is very small : jf is a brass collar fitted to the upper hemisphere, through which the shell-lac support of the inner ball and its stem passes; A is the inner ball, also of brass: it screws on to the brass stem i, terminating above by a brass ball B ; I, l,is Sl mass of shell-lac, moulded carefully on to i, and serving both to support and insulate it and its balls h, B. The shell lac stem / is fitted into the socket p by a little ordinary resinous cement more fusible than shell-lac applied at m, m, in such a way as to give sufficient strength and render the apparatus air-tight there, yet leave as much .is pos- sible of the lower part of the shell-lac stem un- touched as an insulation between the ball h, and the surrounding sphere a a. The ball h has a small aperture at n, so that when the apparatus is exhausted of one gas and filled with another, the ball h may also itself be exhausted and filled, that no variation of the gas in the interval 0 may occur during the course of an experiment. " The first substance submitted to examination was shell-lac, as compared with air. " On making the experiment with all the care and attention that could be bestowed, an extraordinajy and unexpected difference appeared, and the con- clusion was drawn that the specific inductive capacity of shell-lac as com- pared with air is as 2 to 1. With glass a result came out, showing its capa- city compared with air to be as r76 to 1 ; and with sulphur a result showing its capacity to be as 224 to 1. With this latter substance the result was considered by Faraday as unexceptionable, it being, when fused, perfectly clear, pellucid, and free from particles of dirt, and being moreover an excel- lent insulator. " During the experiments with shell lac, Faraday first observed the sin- gular phenomenon of the return charge. He found, that, if, after the ap- paratus had been charged for some time, it was suddenly and perfectly dis- charged, even the stem having all electricity removed from it, it gradually recovered a charge which in nine or ten minutes would rise up to 50'' or 60°. He charged the apparatus with the hemispherical cap of shell lac in it, for about forty-five minutes, to above 600° with positive electricity at the balls h and B, Fig. 7, above and within. It was then discharged, opened, the shell lac taken out, and its state examined by bringing the carrier ball of Coulomb's electrometer near it, uninsulating the ball, insulating it, and then observing what change it had acquired. At first the lae appeared quite free from anv charge, but gradually its two surfaces assumed opposite states of electricity, the concave surface, which had been next the inner and positive ball, assuming a positive state, and the convex surface, which bad been in contact with the negative coating, acquiring a negative state ; these states gradually increasing in intensity for some time. " Faraday was at first inclined to refer these effects to a peculiar masked condition of a certain portion of the forces, but he afterwards traced them to the known principles of electrical action. He took two plates of sper- maceti and put them together, so as to form a compound plate, the opposite sides of which were coated with metal. The system was charged, then dis- charged, insulated, and examined, and found to give no indication to the carrier ball : the plates were then separated, when the metallic linings were found in opposite electrical states. Hence, it is clear that an actual penetra- tion of the charge to some distance within the dielectric, at each of its two surfaces, took place by conduction : so that to use the ordinary phrase, the electric forces sustaining the induction, are not upon the metallic surfaces only, but upon and within the dielectric ; also extending to a greater or smaller depth from the metal linings." Mr. Noad in discussing the subject of chemical phenomena, page 196, says, " Chemical Phenomena. — Before entering upon this interesting branch of our subject, it will be necessary that we describe the new terms introduced by Faraday, and state his reasons for adopting them. According to the views of this celebrated philosopher, electro-chemical decomposition is occa- sioned by an internal corpuscular action, exerted according to the direction of the electric current, and is due to a force either superadded to, or giving a direction to the ordinary chemical affinity of the bodies present. He con- ceives the effects to arise from forces which are internal, relative to the matter under decomposition, and not erternal as they might be considered if directly dependent upon the poles. He supposes that the effects are due to a modification, by the electric current, of the chemical affinity of the par- tides through or by which that current is passing, giving them the power of acting more forcibly in one direction than m another, and consequently making them travel by a series of successive decompositions and recomposi- tions in opposite directions, and finally causing their expulsion or exclusion at the boundaries of the body under decomposition, in the direction of the current, and that in larger or smaller quantities according as the current is more or less powerful. " What are called the poles of the voltaic battery are merely the surfaces or doors by which the electricity enters into, or passes out of, the substance suffering decomposition ; Faraday hence proposes for them the term electrodes from riAfKTpov and o5os a way, meaning thereby, the substance, or surface, whether of air, water, metaU or any other substance which serves to convey an electric current into, and from the decomposing matter, and which bounds its extent in that direction. " The surfaces at which the electric current enters, and leaves a decom- posing body, he calls the oHOcfe, and the cathode ; from oro upwajds, and o5os a wiiy,' — the way which the sun rises ; and Kara downwards, and o5os a way, — the way xchich the sun sets. '•' Compounds directly decomposable by the electric current are called electrolytes, from 7j\6KTpoi' and Auw to set free, — to electrolyze a body is to decompose it electro-chemically ; the elements of an electrolyte are termed iiins, from mv, participle of the verb fi^i to go ; anions are the iiins which make their appearance at the anode, and were formerly termed the electro- negative elements of the compound, and cations are the ions which make their appearanc at the cathode, and were termed the electro-positive elements. Thus chloride of lead is an electrotyte, and when electrolysed evolves two ions, chlorine and lead, the former being an anion, and the latter a cation: water is an electrolyte, evolving likewise two iiins, of which oxygen is the anion, and hydrogen the cation : muriatic acid is likewise electrolytical, boracic acid on the other hand is not." Another of Faraday's grand discoveries is that of definite electro-chemical action. In the experiments on this subject he proved that water, when Bub- 168 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [April, ^ Z:. • >.A *^ ti,p infl.ipnce of the electric current is decomposed in a quantity jected to tbe '"''"f""/' ,; „ua„tity of electricitv which passes through it, exactly proporUona e «; ^^ q^^j'^'y;,, ,„„aitions and circumstances under l^hT^rv^'e Placed andThis is generally true of all electrolytic bodies. We reJret ilLt while on tlm subject we cannot give the interesting summary r lie „t miTp 209 of Mr. Noad's work. n , ,e s nbkct of the voltaic pile it is well known that Faraday has given hisslort.o the chemical theory, and the evidence adduced by him has ntuV^nntiihutcd to its reception in this country. ^" The source of the electricitv of the voltaic- pile was made by Dr. Faraday the subiect of the 8th, 16th, and 17th series of h,s Experimental Researches. Ilavinc succeeded in producing electricity guite independent Fig. 8. of contact, a plate of zinc (Fig. 8) was cleaned and hen in the middle to a right angle; a piece of platinum, about three inches long and half an inch wide, i was fastened to a platinum wire, and the latter bent as in the figure. These I r-±^x two pieces of metal were arranged as shown in the sketch ; ji^ J ^ at xa. piece of folded bibulous paper, moistened m a solu- <-! ^=> tion of iodide of potassium, was placed on the zinc, and ^^•as pressed upon by the end of the platinum wire ; when, under these circumstances, the plates were dipped in the diluted nitric and sulphuric acids, or even in solution of caustic potash, contained in the vessel c, there was an im- mediate effect at .r, the iodide being deconiposed and iodide aopearing at the anode, that is, against the end of the pla- finnm wire As long as the lower ends of the plates remained in the acid, Z electric current proceeded, and the decomposition proceeded at ^. On removing the end of the wire from place to place on the paper, the eflfect "as evidentlv very powerful ; and on placing a piece of turmeric paper be- Tween the white paper and the zinc, both papers being moistened with a so- lution of iodide of potassium, alkali was evolved at the cathode against the zinc in proportion to the evolution of lodme at the anode; the galvanometer also showed the passage of an electrical current; and we have thus a simple circle of the same construction and action as those described in the last lecture, except in the absence of metallic contact. "The mutual dependence and state of the chemical athmties of two dis- tant portions of acting fluids, is well shown in the following experiments. Let P (Fig. 9) be a plate of platinum, Z a plate of amalgamated zinc, and y a drop of dilute sulphuric acid ; no sen- sible chemical action takes place till the points P Z are connected by some body capable of conducting electricity: then a current passes ; and as it circu- lates through the fluid at y, decomposi- tion ensues. " In Fig. 10, a drop of solution of iodide of potassium is substituted, at x, for the acid : the same set of eftects occur ; but the electric current is in the opposite direction, as shown by the arrows." , ^ , ^ ■ -i / He has also shown that electrolvtes can conduct a current of electricity of an intensity too low to decompose them, and has given his support to the che- mical theory of galvanism. We wish much we could enter at length into Faraday's views with regard to the magnetism of metals. He considers all metals'as magnetic, in the same manner as iron, though not at ordinary tem- peratures or 'under ordinary circumstances. His opinion is that there is a certain temperature for each metal (as in the case of iron where it is well known) beneath which it is magnetic, and above which temperature it is devoid of magnetic power. He thinks too that there is a relation between such point of temperature and the magnetic intensity, which the body can acquire when reduced beneath that point. Upon the subject of magnetism, Dr. Faraday, reasoning on the relative motions of tbe needle and electrified wire, "Conceived that the pole of a magnet ought to revolve about the conductor, and the conductor about the pole of a magnet, and by the fnllowing ingenious apparatus he succeded in proving this to he the case : — Into the centre of tbe bottom of a cup, as in the vertical section, Fig. 11, a copper wire c, D, was inserted, a cylindrical magnet 71, s, was attached by a thread to the copper wire c, and the cup was nearly filled with mercury, so that only the north pole of the magnet projected. A con- ductor, a, b, was then fixed in the mercury, perpen- dicularly over c. On connecting the conducting wires with the opposite ends of the battery, a current was transmitted from one wire, through tbe mercury to the other. If the positive current descended, tbe north pole of this magnet immediately began to ro- tate round the wire, a. b, passing from east through the soutli to west, i.e., in the direction of the hands of a watch ; hiit if the current ascended, the line of rotation was reversed. Conversely, a magnet was fixed in a vessel of mercury, and the conducting wire hung from a hook above it, the end just dipping into the fluid ; the electric current being then transmitted through the moveabl a'jnductor,Faradayfound Fig. 9. Fig. 10. S Fig. U. Fig. 12. that the free extremity instantly began to revolve round the pole of the magnet, in a direction similar to the last. ^^ A good contrivance for exhibiting this is shown in Fig. 12." To conclude — " The direction of the current of electricity which is ex- cited in a metal when moving in the neighbourhood of a magnet is shown to depend upon its relation to the magnetic curves. Faraday, with his usual happy method of illustra- tion, has given us this popular expression of it. Let A B, Fig. 13, represent a cylinder magnet, A being the marked, and B tbe unmarked 'pole; let P N, he a silver knife-blade, resting across the magnet with its edge upwards, and with its marked or notched side towards the pole A ; then in whatever direction or position this knife be moved, edge foremost, either about the marked or unmarked pole, the current of electricity produced will be from P to N, provided the intersecting curves proceeding from A, abut upon the notched surface on Fig. 13. the knife, and those from B upon the un-notched side ; or if the knife be moved with its back foremost, the current will be from N to P, in every pos- sible position and direction, provided the intersected curves abut on the same surfaces as before. A little model is easily constructed, by using a cylin- der of wood for a magnet, a flat piece for the blade, and a piece of thread connecting one end of the cylinder with the other, and passing through a hole in the blade for the magnetic curves ; this readily gives the result of any possible direc- tion." We must observe that Dr. Faraday has given to the world a laborious work, entitled Experimental Researches on Electricity, embodying the results of the papers he published from 1831 to 1810, and he is a constant contri- butor to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, and to the scientific periodicals. DESIGNS. Original Geometrical Diaper Designs. By D. R. Hay, Decorative Painter to tbe Queen. London : Bogue. Part I. Those who take up this work must closely attend to its title, for it purports to give no more than what it does give, geometrical diaper designs. Those therefore who may fancy that they are to have ex- amples of general decoration will be disappointed, and have only themselves to blame. The restriction of the work to diaper designs shows the importance which is beginning to be attached to decoration in this country, a movement which has been in a great degree for- warded by Mr. Hay himself, and before which movement it would have been quite hopeless to have expected a work on a single branch of decoration, and still more hopeless to have brought it out. As it is there are many who will look at Mr. Hay's lines and circles, and marvel what there can be in them, or why people should ever buy such worthless trifles. Design however in no department can be sately neglected in a commercial country, and still less in this country, where we have suffered and are vet suffering in a high degree the conse- quences of our disregard for art. The raeclianical genius ef our countrvmen, their unequalled manual skill avail iis nothing, the mo- ment any degree of taste is required in the production of a marketable article, and we have as it were abandoned many of the most lucrative br.inches of manufacture to foreigners who labour with our own ma- chinery. The foreign trade of France in manufactured goods entirely consists of articles of taste, fine silks, fine cottons, jewellery, orna- menls, stained paper and decorated articles of every description, ol which they have the monopoly in foreign markets. So it is witli the Swiss the Prussians, the Belgians, and other competitors, they exist mainly bv our ignorance and' our neglect, at the same time that tUey absolutelV imnort largely into this country. The consequent loss is not to be reckoned bv" thousands or hundreds of thousands, but by millions, which, had we the requisite instruction, might be spent in the employment of our own operatives of every description. Here too we see that this is no matter, dependent for its importance on the whims of connoisseurs, or the fancies of dilettanti, but one which affects all classes of art. In truth the Nasmyths, the Bramahs, he Rennies, have a much deeper interest in it than Sir Martin Archer Shee or Sir Richard Westmacott: the latter indeed have rather a jealousy as to the field of art being still more overcrowded, but it is evident that if we increase our production of textile or other fabrics in the same ratio must a demand be created for steam engines, lor 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. 169 power lonins, and for tlip various innchinerv hy wliich miinnfacUires are in tliis cmintry carried on. Willi llie s.une feeling, we s:iv, it is a miilter of interest even to tlie inacliine nrikers that smnid in- struction in art should be given in the scliools of design. 'I'liey form ttieir [lursuits, and wiih the idea, as they imagine, of benertting their own workmen, have a prepossession for mechanical drawing, drawing from cbjscts a la Butler Williams, and all the various artilicial cork- swimming contrivances which convert designs into a malter of rules and compasses. On the other hand we maintain that they have the strongest interest in sufjportiiig instruction in design on the basis of art, and we hope that in Manchester, Glasgow, Liverpool, E linburgh, Newcastle, Birmingham, and other places, the inacliioisis will nutonly he forward in subscribing to the schools of design, but that they will he foremost in promoting the due cultivation of taste in design, which, altliough it is to be aided by geometrical study, can never be attained on such a basis. The independent instruction of the eye is the grand thing, and lines and compasses so far from effecting that absolutely de- tract from it most seriously. Nay so strongly do we feel this that we say it is better for the mechanical draftsman himself to begin with the delineation of the human figure, and that he will profit more by such studies in his own branch than he would under Ihe ordinary curriculum. Here however the change is hopeless, for if you could convince ilie employer, you can never convince the self-satisfied mechanic, whose preconceived ideas are an invincible obstable. It is with such impressions of the importance to all classes of our readers of the study of design, that we are pleased to see Mr. Hay's work as one useful in itself and gratifying as an evidence of Imb pro- gress which has been made. These designs are in'ended (or the use of decorative painters, weavers of carpet'., damasks and shawls, printers of calico, paper stainers, stained ({I 'ss inanidacturers and others, and will, we have Utile doubt, prove of value, for Mr. Hay has paid particularatlention to this branch of desi:^n, which is of extensive application, and as to which few accessible exam .les exist. For the classes to whom it is addressed it is ess>-ntial that ■■ur.li a work should be iii a cheap form, and in this res.ect Mr. hay has nut been neglectful, while it will from its intrinsic interest |irove an attractive woi-k fur the study and the drawing room. Each plate is of a largf' foolscap size, and each d"sign in du|>licate,one plate being an oulline and the other with tinted c, art and learning have become dissociated, and art has become a poor relation, so neglectful of appearances as not to command respett. Undoubtedly one main reason why you have not lecturers in art at London, Oxford, or Cambridge, is because you have not gut painters, sculptors, or architects, who have the decent rudi- ments of letters to qualify them fur the task they would have lo per- form. What an expositor of Homer, of Sophocles, -jr Herodotus, would he be who could not read liiui, and how could one, fathoms iii acquirements below the dullest freshman, command respect. Lec- tures from such men wou.d be farces, in which students would be more occupied in criticizing the ignorance of the exhibitors than in acquiring any other degree of instruction from ihein. We liave heard attempts within a metropolitan college, and we mustsay they were sick- ening. It IS very true, the lectures were not attended by the body of the college, or there would have been much to disgust. Now, it is under these circumstances, we conceive any kind of brushing u[i will do good, and even the humble studenis of declarative an, having healthier sympathies, and a greater love lor knowledge, will be able to read a uselul lesson to their sophisticated soperiurs. We sincerely hope this will be dune, for we wish well to art, and sliould not have lahoured so m.my years for its advancement, il we had not felt that there aie the elements of iinproveinent, and that art is nut at the pre- sent moment dulv pursueil, nor Its possessors in that elevated posi- tion winch, from the right exercise of their acquirements, they would derive. RAILWAY ADMINISTRATION. A Letter to the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P., Prts/dent of the Basilica siyle, particularly for interiors; we say "made oj" it, because it requires some mind to be brought to it, and not merely taken and copied just as it is found. Canina, we are told, is disposed to classify early Ecclesiastical Architecture, into three leading divisions or families: viz., 1. The Eastern, or Byzantine, strictly so called; 2. li'tsltm, or Romanic Byzantine, otherwise termed— and not without great |ir(iprielv — Lombardic; 3. The NurlJitni, Ihe Pointed or Gothic style: lurliier, however, our dej ouent siveth not. The ^rchilecfural Nomenclature of tht Middle j3gts. Bv R. Willis, M. A.. F.R.S.,&c. In this essay, which forms the ninth number of the publications of the "Cambridge Antiquarian Society," Professor Willis has treated, in a manner entirely new, a subject of great intere-.t tri the architect. In connexion with the study of the architecture of the middle ages, it is impossible to appreciate too highly the numerous existing docu- ments relative to the original const ruction of the buildings of that period, and considering how long such documents, and the works of our old writers, have been in request as a means of illustrating the antiquities of English architecture, it is extraordinary how little has hitherto been done in good earnest toward the indispei, sable measure of collecting and explaining the teclinical terms with which they abound, and which are indeed their very pith as regards this purpose. The fact is, the course of study requisite to conquer the difficulties of reading and con- struing the jargon of ancient MS. rolls, is seldom to he found in union with Ihe practical knowledge necessary to digest and apply them, and when documents of this nature have, from time to time, found their wav tothe public, it has too often been in forms so cruile and imperfect, as to have rendered "black-letter man" almost a term of reproach. The labours of Professor Willis in the essay before us, differ from those of either the collector, the glossarist, or the etymologist. "My object, in the following pages," says the author in his preface, "has been to draw up an account of the mediaeval nomenclature of architecture, as far as it can be deduced fiom the remaining documents, and from the comparison of them with existing buildings. The words are princi- pally to be found in indentures and accounts relating to the expenses of buildings and monuments, which are necessarily expressed in the language of workmen. Other terms, but not so strictly technical, may be picked out of the monastic chronicles and biographies. Several well-known collections of these terms have been already made, of which the first strictly architectural one was that of Mr. Willson, appended to Pugni's "Examples of Gothic Architecture," in 1S23, and winch is a most admirable performance, to which I am under great obligations. But many documents h;ive come to light since the ap- pearance of this Glossary, and the subject has been more closely in- vestigated. Also, the alphabetical form of these collections is not the best adapted for the illustration and comparison of terms like these, whicll are commonly of a strange and capricious kind, defying the nsual processes of etymology, and some of whose meanings can onlv be deduced by collating every pass.ige that contains the term, and comparing it with the entire nomenclature of the architectural member in question." And he adds in conclusion, "that he proposes not to consiruct a complete nomenclature, but to elucidate those words that either remained in obscurity, whose meanings were doubtful, or which hail been misapplied." The first chapter, and not the least interesting, is on the nomen- clature of mouldings, and is princifially directed to an examination of the terms to be found in the "Itinerarium of William of Worcester," the most complete specimen of ihe n e "The fact that stone panelling was first called bv a name that im- plies a blank window, would explain the historv of its introduction into mediaeval architecture, even if the existing examples did not show il." The familiar terras mullion and tracery seem to be traced no higher than to Sir Christopher Wren. The original form of the former word (sometimes written munnion) seems to be monial, derived from the French " moyen, qui est au milieu," the old form of which is meian or menel. They are called " menaux or croisillons des fenctres," in that language. " These words (mullion and lr..c#ry) were adopted by Bentham and Milner, both evidently deriving ihem from Wren, from whom they quote largely with admiration. Dr. Plot, his cotemporary, also uses the word ; and from these authorities the words derive their present universal employment. Other early antiquarians make use of awkward circumlocutions for tracery. Thus Wartort, one of the first admiri-rs of Gothic architecture, can yet find no better terms for this beautiful and characteristic principle of decoration than 'Ramified windows divided into several lights, and branched out at the top into a multiplicity of whimsical shapes and compartments.' But soon after he introduces a description of 'fret-work thrown like a web of embroidery over the old Saxon vanlting of Gloucester.' Instead of tracery every mediaeval account relating to windows contains an abun- dance of stones calledybrm ^/eces, and allusions to ybrms, which, as I shall proceed to show, was their proper word for the tracery. " In France the stone frames of Gothic windows are to this dav termed ybrmes de vitres, forms or seats for glass ; for, as is well knowii, the word form (pronounced with the long o) bears, amongst others, the sense of a seat or receptacle, as a long bench or the seat of a hare. Bailey definesybrm (in mechanics) to be a kind of mould whereon a thing is fastened or wrought ; and we have examples of this in the printer's forme of types. In French and in the mediaeval Latin the stalls of a choir are so termed, and the French use it for a stone drv dock." Professor Willis approves of Sir James Hall's term of cusps for the points in tracery, which Rickman has misapplied to the curve, and not to the point, the mathematical cusp being the point formed bv two parts of curves meeting. On the authority of William of Wor- cester, gtrdese appears to be the mediaeval term for these pointi. The application of this term was first made by Mr. Willson, but he writes the vioxd gentisc, being misled by the printed edition of the " Itini- rarium." Finial is proved to apply to the entire pyramidal portion of a pinnacle, and not to the extreme termination. The proper me- diaeval name for the latter seems to be the croppe, which means also the top of a tree, and corse or body, is the square shaft. We must not, however, extend the limits of this review. The paper concludes with some very curious particulars respecting the herses or canopies placed over the coffins at royal obsequies. A com- plete account of four herses erected at the funeral of Anne, Queen of Richard II , is extant, from which they appear to have been elaborate architectural compositions modelled in wax. Every part of the work is minutely described, and the terms evidently apply to a profusion of tabernacle work, to which the immense quantity of four tons and a half of wax was applied, independently of that consumed in tapers and links, amounting to above two tons more. The herse set up on that occasion at Westminster is described as containing "280" but- tresses of different sizes, 72 " botants," or arch buttresses, and 96 bodies, besides housyngs, &c., and 428 tapers. We must conclude by thanking the author for this valuable ad- dition to the many obligations under which he h;;s already laid the friends and professors of architecture, by his researches and publica- tions. ROYAL EXCHANGE CLOCK. Sir — A copy of a letter in reference to the clock and chimes making for the New Royal Exchange, dated Brighton, 21st July, and signed E. J. Dent, of 82, Strand, and 33, Cockspur-street, addressed to Mr. Whitehurst, of Derby, having been very generally circulated among the members of the cor- poration of London, in wbich it is stated that I was a competitor to be em- ployed to make the clock and chimes for that building, I beg to say that statement is wholly incorrect, the direct contrary being the case. In a letter I had occasion to write to R. Lambert Jones, Esq., the chairman of the building committee, so long since as the 8th of February, 1843, I staled my determination not to be a candidate, and repeated the same to Mr. Tite, the architect to the building, in a letter dated the 27th ofu Jly, in answer to «n appUcation from that gentleman to furnish a tender and estimate ; and in a letter dated two days subsequent, he expressed his regret at my determina- tion. Your insertion of this communication will much oblige, Sir, your most obedient servant, B. L. Vdlliamt. Pall Mall, Jpril 16, lS4i. 174 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [April, TIMBER VIADUCTS ON THE SOUTH EASTERN RAILWAY. Fig. 1. — Transverse SectioB. Fig. 2.— Eleration. The annexed engravings show a transverse, section and elevation of tlie timber viaducts ado|)ted at the South Eastern R.iilway on the branch from New Cross to the Bricklayers' Arms, and also at the Shakespere Viaduct, between Follieslone aud Dover, under the direc- tion of Mr. William Ciibitt the engineer in chief. The parapet or railway A stands '1ft. above the platform, the top rail is 4 in. by 3in. rounded on the top, the upright posts 4 in. by 4 in. with intervening cross-rails; the guards or timbers B, lying alongside the iron rails, are Gin. square. The platform c on the top is 30ft. wide out to out, and consists of timber laid close together 4 in. thick. The 4 longitudinal bearers in the centre D consist of 2 pieces of whole timber 13 in. square, and 1 piece of half timber 5ft. long, 13 by 6Ain.. lying on the top of the transverse beams; the two outer bearers E; are half the scantling horizontally and the same verlically. The transverse bearer F consists of 2 pieces of timber 30ft. and 2G ft. long, and 13 in. square. The posts or pjles G, H, are 13 in. square, the two outer piles H are placed 23 ft. apirt from out to out on the top, and are driven in with a batter of 3 in. in a foot. The piles are prevented from spreading by two horizontal ties I, 30 ft. long 12 by 6 in., and are bolted on each side of the piles ; there are also 2 dia- gonal struts J, above 9in. square abutting at the feet on cleets nailed on the inner side of the outer piles. It will be perceived that the whole of the timbers are well secured with iron bolts. The distance in the middle on the top of the platform, between the centre of the rails is 6 ft. 2^ in., and between the centre of the railings 4 ft. Uin. The horizontal dotted line at the bottom is Trinity Datum. DECORATIONS OF THE PALACE AT WESTMINSTER. WOOD CARVING, STAINED GLASS, 8lC. The present exhibition, under the authority of llie Royal Commissioners of llie Fine ArtS; is held in the St. James's Bazaar. Kins Street, St. James's, a very convenient room. Notices, it will be recollecled, were issued last year calling for specimens of designs in relation to the decoration of the new Houses of Parliament, under ihe several heads of wood carving, stained glass^ arabesque, and heraldic decoration, ornamental paving, metal casting, 8tc. The call seems to have been well responded to, so l^ar as number is concerned,, and proves the existence, in this country, of an adequate number of artists engaged in such pursuits ; but although the works sent in are respectable, they do not impress us by their originality oi conception, or by their superior merits in execution. Much evidently remains to be done, though a greatgood has been effected by calling public attention to departments of art little known, much neglected, and not adequately appreciated. If we look to the designs, we find a want of historic appreciation, an inattention to jwlitical and historic propriety, and the most common-place sources of illustrative detail. One artist brings Lycurgus into the English Hiuses of Parliament, another Moses, a third King David of ScotlanJ, and the Princes of Tara, while more tlian one artist has made the Queen's husband, Prince Albert, a prominent personage, introducing his statue or his arms. We may observe of the wood carving that it shows great respectability of attainments in the exhibitors, and the extent to which the art is now culti- vated, owing to the increased encouragement of ecclesiastical decoration. Exhibitors have sent in from many parts ol the country, and particularly from the cathedral towns, the wood-carvers being about 25 in number (the designs and specimens 57), the glass painters 20, and the decorative painters pretty numerous. Most of the leading artists in each branch are contributors. To resume the subject of wood carving, the subject of which is a door for the House of Lords, the general defect we observe, beyond the want of origi- nality in the designs, is the appearance most designs convey of being copied from tombs, altar screens, and west windows, having an air too ecclesiastical, neither have the apjiliances of Gothic art twon well directed. The resources of varied tracery, have, except in rare instances, been neglected, while many- works exhibit a poverty of ornament ; lew artists seem to be aware what a door ought to be, and some have covered their doors with panels in high and low relief, representing various events; none seem tohavestudied the numerous and interesting' specimens which are to be found in Holland, Belgium, and Germany. 'Ihose of Italy do not, we think, aflord stich good studies. We shall not speak of the carved specimens generally, as they are for the most part respectable, and no more. * ' No. 1 is a poor affair of peer's coronets, and mitres, a wretched idea, which several artists have adopted as their sole emblems and illustrations: No. 3, by William Ollett, of Norwich, has four compartments with deco- rated headings, surrounded by a hordurc of the shields of English sovereigns. Mr. Ollett, as well as some others, has, without discrimination, introduced the arms of the Saxon kings, which are an invention of the mediaeval monks, and armorial bearings also were of much later introduction. If they must represent the early princes, as indeed they ought to be represented, let the white horse of fhe Saxons and the raven of the Danes be employed. No. 5, by John Steel, is in a modern style, quite out of character. William Freeman, jun., has the Barons demanding the Charter of Liberties from King John, a constitutional subject, but one (fa violent character, and calculated to meet with little favour from the Royal Commissioners, who have it is said refused to place among the statues of chief magistrates, that of Oliver Cromnell, the acquirer of Jamaica. No. 9. by Samuel Pratt, jun., is a very original design, and one of the most gratifying. He has shown that something may be done with tracery. The coronets are. however, a poor idea. S. A. Nash's, No. II, is a very good subject. On the panels of the doors are on one Henry III. (from his tomb in Westminster Abbey) under whom the first traces of a Parliament in the present form exhibited themselves, on the other panel her present Majesty, apprppriaiely uniting the present and the past. In a panel over the door is represented the sitting of 3rd May, 1253, in Westminster Hall, when the peers obtaincdjfrom Henry HI. a solemn confirmation of the Great Charter of Liberties.— No. 13. by John Thomas is a good work, the details rich.— John Wolstenhome, of York has contributed No. 15, which is modelled from York and Beverley Minsters, and is too mtich like an altar screen or tomb.— No. 17, by F. W. Brown, is in a tlorid style, bad and inappropriate. His carving is however good.— Wm. Thomas, in No. 19, has some strange work, twelve panels in which figuie the Death of Ananias, the Inqusilion, and similar un-English imaginations. Tills artist has been led astivay by works of the time of the revival. His has relief of Trial by Ordeal, we must say is well executed.— Henry Ringham, of Ipswicb, has a thing like the raullions of a parish church window, and paltry.— The carve to the Cambridge Camden Society, Joseph Rattee has an allair with modern detEuls, and Prince Albert's arms. His carviSg is better. ' William Allan, of Edinburgh, has a design very ill chosen, comprising 58-14.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 175 Cranmer and his Biblp, David I. King of Scntland administering justice^ and St. Patrick before the Kings and Princes of Tara. His wish to illustrate the union of the several countries is a laudable one, but he should have selecteion of the governor and turnkeys, and so arranged as to afford the means of walking one hour in the day to each prisoner. From a central inspection station, the governor has a view of all the doors of the cells, the galleries, the turnkeys' rooms, yardf, and indeed all the points where he may wish to exercise a supervision. LIST OF NEW PATENTS. fFrom Messrs. Robertson^s List.) GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM MARCH 30, TO APRIL 24, 1844. Six Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed. Jolin Robert Dicltsee, of Old ComptOD Street, Soho Squara, artist, for " Improvements in ttie nianufattiire ot mosaics." — Alarcli 3U. William Crosskitl, of the Iron Works, Beverley, for " Improvements In machinTy for making wtieels lor carriages." — March 311. Henry Clayton, of Upper Park Place, Dorset Square, Regent's Park, plumber an'l n>a- chlnist, for *' Improvements in the manufacture of tiles, drain pipes, or tubes and brii ks." — Warcll aO. John Bigg7, of the borough of Leicester, manufacturer, and Richard Harris, the younger, of Leicester, aforesaid, manufacturer, for " Improvements in the manufacture of looped, woven, and elastic fabrics." — March 311. Leonard Bostwick, of Fen Court, Feochurch Street, London, merchant, for '* Certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for sewing all kinds of cloth or other materials.." —April 2. William Stace, of Berwick, Sussex, farmer, and Philip Vatlance, of the same pl.nce, farmer, for ** Improvements in applying p wer for (irawing or workini; ploughs dud other implements and carriages used for agricultural purposes." — April 2. John Parsons, of Sehvond Ter'ace, Brompton, gentleman, for "Certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for cleansing or sweeping chimnitys and tiues." — April 2. James Murdoch, of Staple's Inn, London, mechanical draughtsman, for "Certain im- proved apparatus and processes for preparing the Pbormlum tenax, or New Zealand tlax, so as to render it applicable to various useful purposes." (Being a communicaoon.j — April 2. Frederick Brown, of Luton, Bedford, ironmonger, for ** Improvements in stoves." — Apiil 10. James Murray, of Gamkirk Coal Company. Scotland, for "A new method of usine ;ind applying ariificial gas made from coal, oil, or other substances, for lighting and venu it- ing caverns, pits, or mines, or other pits where minerals or metals are worked or exiiMCt- ed." — April 10; four months. Richard Barber, of Hotel Street. Leicester, confectioner, for " Improvements in a])pa(a- tus for giving quick rotary motioi to mops and such like instruments." — April lu. John Aitken, of Surrey Square, for '* Improvements in water machines, or engines and steam-engines, and the mode of traction on, or in canals or other waters or Wiiya." — April 10. George William Lenox, and John Jones, of Billiter Square. London, merchaiits for " Improvements in the manufacture of sheaves and shells for blocks, and of bolt rinys or washers, for the purposes of shipwrights and engineers." — April 10. James Kennedy, of the firm of Bury, Curtis, and Kennedy, of Liverpool, engineer, and Thomas Vernon, of the same place, iron ship-builder, lor "Certain improvements in the building or construction of iron and other vessels for navigation on water"— Apiil 16. John Lawson, of Leeds, engineer, and Thomas Robinson, of the same place, flax- dresser, for "Certain improvements in r.achinery for heckling, dressing, combing, and cleaning flax, wool. silk, and other tibrous substances," — April Ifi. Edgar Heale, o( Brixton, gentl' man, for " Certain improvements in the construc'ion of carriages for the conveyance of pnssent;ers on roads and railways." — April 18. Donald Grant, of Greenwich, e?q.. for ' Improvements applicable to the ventilation of apartments in which gas and oilier combustible matters are consumed by ignition." — April 18. John Bailey Denton, of Gray's Inn Square, land-agent, for " Improvements in ma- chinery for moulding or shaping clay and other plastic substances, for draining and oiher purpose?." — April 18. James Murdoch, of Staple's Inn, roochaDical draughtsman and civil engineer, for " Cer- tain improvemenls in the construction of vessels for holding aSrated liquids, and in Iho means tor introducing such liquids into the said vessels, and retaining ibeni ibeieili." (Being a cominuiucalion.) — April 18. John Smith, ot Bradford, Vork, worsted spinner, for " Improvements in machinery for tentering and stretching cloths or fabrics."— April 18. Richard Roberts, of the Globe Works, Manchester, engineer, for " Certain improve- ments in machinery or apparatis, for the preparaliim of cotton and wool, and also for spinning and doubling cotton, silk, wool, and other tibrous substances." — April lo. Joseph Woods, of Barge Yard Chambers, Bucklersbury. gentleman, for " Improvements in regulating the power and velocity of machines tor communicating power.*- Being a communication.) — April 18. M'illiam Hodson, ol New King Street, Klngston-upon-HuIl, estate agent, for a machine for " JIaking and compressing bricks, tiles, square pavers, and ornamental bric-s." — April 18. Henry Frearson, of Arno Vale, Nottingham, lace manufacturer, for " Improvements in the manufacture of warp fabrics."— April 1;3. Peter Lear, of Boston. Sufl'olk, of the State of Massachusetts, America, gentleman, for " Certain new and useful improvemenls in machinery for propelling vessels through the water." — April .3. William Taylor, of Birmingham, door spring manufacturer, for " Improvemen s in the niantifacture ol axle pulleys, and in pegs or pins for hanging hats or other garments."— April 24. ^ Bene Allaire, of Charlotte Street, Fitzroy Square, dyer and cleaner, for " Improvement* a cleansing gentlemen's garments." — April 24. PL VU J.R.JcVhns. S.Warwici i 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 177 THE IRON ROOF AT THE BRICKLAYERS ARMS* STATION OF THE DOVER AND CROYDON RAILWAYS. ClTilh an Engravini;, Plate VII.) Reference to the Engraving. Fig. 1. Section of roof; and Fig. 2. Girders or bearers, both figures drawn to a scale of \ in. to 1 ft. Fig. 3. Parts at large, drawn to a scale of \h\n. to the foot. A, King head, with ridge piece over. A B, Skylight. B, Flashing piece foot of skylights. C and D, Abut- ments of stays at the principal. E, Foot of principals, with half of a gutter, and a shoe. F, Abutment plate of stays, showing the connexion of the feet of the two stays and the tie rods. Fig. 4. Sec- tion of principal rafter. Fig. 5, Section of stays, D F, and C F. Fig. 6. Plan of station. In our last month's number we mentioned that, notwithstanding the accident, which had destroyed a considerable portion of the roofs of the sheds, that tlie station would be opened on the 1st of May, the day appointed ; this was realized, by the spirited exertions of the sub- contractors for the roofs, Messrs. Fox, Henderson and Co., of the London works, Birmingham, and the indefatigable energy of Messrs. Grissell and Peto, the contractors for the whole of the works of the station. In the annexed plate fig. 6 is a plan of the station which sufficiently explains the general arrangement. The arrival shed is paved with wood and the platforms laid with the Seyssel Asphalte in a very superior manner; the Colonnade columns are of the Tuscan order, and support a heavy entablature, the roof over the booking offices is covered with large Italian tiles, and the front of the building is in the Italian style with massive iron gates in each of the openings opposite the ends of the rails. The roofs which cover the arrival and departure platforms, rails, and carriage shed, extend in length 405 ft. by 157 ft. 6 in. wide. The space is formed into 3 divisions with iron roofs spanning each which it is our present object to explain. The roofs are of a remarkably light construction, but by a judicious distribution of the material ; they have been found, upon actual experi- ment hereafter reported, to be of ample strength. Fig. 1 shows the framing of the roof, one half of one span is only shown as the other half is but a repetition, the total span is 52 ft. G in., and the rise above the springing at E, is 11 ft. and above the centre horizontal tie bar 9 ft., the framing of the principals or trusses shown in fig. 1 are placed 6 ft. 4 in. apart from centre to centre without any intervening rafters, the coveringaswillbepresently explained is laid uponthis framing. There are 195 pair of principals ; each may be divided into five distinct members. (1) The two rafters A E; (2) the two outer tie bars, E F; (3) the central tie bar, F F; (4) the two suspension bars, F A; and (5) the four struts, F D and F C. The rafters are com- posed of two wrought-iron bars A E, each the whole length of one side of the roof, and are 2f inches deep by -nr thick ; between these two bars, a flitch of deal 3 in. deep by If thick (four pieces are got out of a 2J inch batten) which projects below the iron work and forms a bead as shown in fig. 4, these iron bars and deal are bolted together with iron bolts 15 inches apart; the deal not only stiffens the rafters, but aflbrds a nail hold for securing the boarding, the rafters abut at the top on to a cast iron king head as shown at large at A, fig. 3, and at the foot they abut on iron shoes to which they are bolted as shown atE., these shoes are merely bedded on the wall or girders and are not in any way bolted down, this allows for the free expansion of the metal. The suspension bars A F, and central tie bar F F, are of wrought iron 2 inches deep by | thick, and the outer tie bar is 3 in. deep by f thick ; the struts C F and D F, are of cast iron 5 ft. 6i long of a section as shown in fig. 5, three inches diameter in the centre, and two inches diameter at the ends, the ends of the bars it will be seen by reference to fig. 3, A, C, D, and E., p;uis in between the two iron bars of the rafters, and are there rivetted together by f rivets; the ends of the two tie bars at F, and the suspension bar are first secured by means of wrought iron cheeks with two | and i inch rivets to each end as shown at F, and over these is a cast iron abutment piece which clips the wrought iron cheeks, and allows the ends of the two cast iron struts to pass between ; a | inch nut and screw bolt is then passed through the eyes and secures the whole together; it should be here observed that these struts together v»ith the abutment pieces, are all made alike so that it makes no difference whether the diagonal struts be for either the right or left hand abutments — at the top and under the skylights, there are i wrought iron stay bolts between each pair of rafters which cross each other, and give great stiffness to that part of the roof. No. 81.— Vol. VII,— May, 1844. Between each pair of principals is a skylight, 6 ft. 3 in. wide and 4 ft. 2 in. long, of cast iron, A B, Fig. 3, the bars are 2 in. deep and 1 in. wide, across two rabbets, and between each skylight is a cast iron gutter 2^ in. wide and 2i in. high ; the top of this gutter is secured by a bolt to the king heads, and at the foot by an iron stud bolted to the principal : on each side of the skylights there is a rabbet cast which turns down into the gutter just described, and at the foot are cast iron flashing pieces, which are overlapped at the top edge by the skylight. Over the top of the skylights is a ridge piece, of cast iron, as shown at A, in length of about 5 ft. ; each end has a fillet cast on the top, these ridge pieces leave a space between the ends, over which is fitted a cast iron ridge capping with a fillet on the underside of the ends so as to clip over the fillets cast on the ends of the ridge pieces, and in the centre is a boss with an eye which passes over the end of a bolt eye cast on the top of the iron king heads, and there secured by means of a key passing through the eyes as shown at A fig. 3. By a little attention to the description of the construction, it will be seen that although the parts are put together with great simplicity, considerable judgment has been bestowed upon them to allow for the free expansion and contraction of the metals, and at the same time to give stiffness to the several parts. The covering of the roof consists of 1^ inch boarding, (out of one-cut battens,) planed, grooved, and tongued with hoop iron, and nailed down to the principal rafters ; they are laid longitudinally, and are stiffened by plates of fender iron 4 in. wide by ^^t'ls. nailed on the top of the boarding i n a diagonal direction: the external cover- ing is of queen's slating ; the gutters between the roofs at the eaves are of cast iron, as shown at E, the joints of which are secured with iron cement. The feet of the principals, as we before stated, are se- cured to iron shoes, which are of various forms, either for bedding on the walls or the iron girders. The roof is supported on cast iron girders, as shown in Fig. 2, of an elliptical form; the centre is 12iin. deep, and the ends 2ft. 8 in. ; they are let into grooves in the stand- ards over the iron columns, and there secured longitudinally by iron bolts. The distance between the columns is 25 ft. 4 in. from centre to centre ; the standards above the columns are 6| in. square in the middle and Sin. square at the biise and top, and are 2 ft. 8 in. high ; they are let into a socket cast on the top of the column. The columns are 13 ft. high and 6i in. diameter at top, and 8 in. at bottom : they stand on iron bases 2 ft. square and 4 in. thick, bedded on brick piers 3 ft. square, taken in all cases down to the gravel; 12 columns are cast hollow and form pipes to convey the water from the gutter to the drain. The carriage shed and engine house have a similar roof, as just de- scribed, excepting that they are not covered with boarding, conse- quently there is no flitch of deal between the wrought iron bars of the principals, but they are kept apart by small pieces of cast iron, and a rivet passes through it and both bars; the slates are laid on iron laths 1 in. deep by i in., placed edgeways. Instead of the skylights over the engine house being laid on the principals they are elevated 2 ft. to allow for the free escape of the smoke and steam from the en- gines. The exyerimml. — In order to prove that the accident occasioned by the tailing of the roof was not in the slightest degree caused by defective construction, the contractors ordered two principals to be framed and boarded, and so placed that railway bars could be turned from an overhanging scaffolding placed on the other side of the wall near which the experimental rafters were placed ; the bars were then gradually lowered so as to evenly load one of the two principals until the load was equal to 40 lb. upon the square foot, that being double the load intended to be carried by the roof in ques- tion; the principals were then left for 24 hours fur the inspection of the Inspector General of Railways (General Pasley) and other gen- tlemen interested, when their ultimate strength was to be tested ; which was done on the IGth of April, in the presence of General Pasley, Messrs. J. and L. Cubitt, Messrs. Grissell and Peto, Mr. Ranger, Mr. Fox and other gentlemen connected with the railway ; the same plan of lowering the bars was adopted, and they were luaded until the weight of 65 lb. per square foot broke the cast iron king head, the wrought iron ratter then buckled, but did not sustain the slightest fracture. Every one present expressed the greatest satisfaction at the result of the experiment wliich fully carried out the statements of the contractors, respecting the sufficiency of the roof. Enmneerikq Honours. — It is wiih great satisfaction we have to announce another engineer, Dr. MacNeil, has been honoured by a knighthood, there is not a member in ilie jirul'ession whois more respected than .Sir John MacNeil, and we feel assured it will be a great gratificalion tolhe profession generally. We have long since advocated lor honours being granted to the Engineering Profession, and it. now affords us much pleasure to see that our desires are being gradually fulfilled. 15 17S THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [M. TO FIND THE MAGNITUDE AND FIGURE OF THE EARTH, WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF RAILWAYS; Without presupposing it to he any particular form.^ By Oliver Btrnjs, Mathematician, &c. To find the lengtli of a degree in any position on the surface of the earth, with the assistance of railroads, presents no obstacle whatever to the mathematician. In England, America, and on the Continent, there are at present a considerable number of railroads long enough for the purpose, so that we can have a sufficient number of examples. The lengths, bearings, elevations, and depressions, &c., of the several planes which compose each railroad, may be had from different companies or their respective engineers, and if the dimensions thus obtained, are not considered accurate enough, they can be easily taken over again. When this in- formation is acquired, the length of the arc on the surface of the earth between any two given points in the line of road may be very readily determined, on account of the approximant of the general line of most railroads to levelness. By astronomical observations the latitudes of both ends of the road, or any point in it may be determined, and also the length of a degree upon any arc passing through either extremitv, and a point in the line of road; as the bearings and length of such arc can always be found. Then supposing a railroad selected of such a length, that from a point in it the length of a degree is known on the arc passing through that point and the beginning of the road, and also that of a degree on the arc passing through the said point and the termination of the road, and the arcs to be oblique ; or it n ill answer the purpose as well to have two roads in the same latitude or nearly so, such that the length of a degree on the arc passing through the extremities of each is as- certained ; from which it is required to find the length of a degree on the meridian, and also that of a degree on an arc perpendicular to it at the same point. This may be done as follows : — EWA Let LAR be an arc of the meridian, SAP an arc of the curve at right angles to it, AT one of the arcs upon which the length of a de- gree is known = L ; and A Q the other upon which the length of a degree =:/; also, let the bearings of these arcs, or the angles LAT and Q A R, which are known = o and 6 respectively ; again, let g = 57'^'295779,5 the arc equal in length to the radius, therefore the radius of curvature at A in the arc AT = Lg; and that at A in AQ = i^. To find the radius of curvature of the arcs R A L and SAP, let the radius of curvature of the meridian at A = .r, and ihat of its perpen- dicular or of the arch S A P at the point A ^ y. Take A C, an inde- finitely small portion of AT==s, and AE, an indefinitely small por- tion of A Q = s'. Then A B =: s cos. a, and B C = s sin. a, as AC is supposed to be indefinitely small. Now from the nature of the osculating circle at A, in the arc R AL, the distance of the point B from the horizontal plane passing through A, for A' B', fig. 2, stands in the same position as A B, fig. 1, and may be considered as a perpendicular from the right angle at A or A', falling between radius of cuivature O B, and the depression m B' of the point B' below A', or that of B below the horizontal plane passing 1 This articles is extracted from Mr. Byrne's extensive unpublished work, entitled, * A New Theory of the Heavens and Earth." through A ; and the depression of C below B is =: ^ — ^'"' " for the y radius of curvature of the arc B C is ultimately the same with that of SAP at the point A, the total depression of C below A is equal, n. 'a _ 5 /cos. 'a sin. -a\ y ~ \ X y /■ Again, by the property of the circle above quoted, = the radius of curvature of the arc AT, at , /cos.^ a I sin', a \ the point A =z L^; 1 L.sr = xy y cos.' a ■\- X cos.- a (!•) (COS.- a sin.' a\ ^ y ) By the same process of reasoning, we find, ^y 7 ^ z^ I g y COS.' h -\- X sin.- h In (1) and (2) for the sine and cosine of a, substitute s, and c le- spectively; and s' and c' for the sine and cosine of h; let L^ = r', and I g= r'. Then equations (1) and (2) become (2.) xy and 1/ c' -\- X »- xy y' c\+ ;;;' s' (3.) (4.) - from (3) T % X y = ;r - r' c" ^'■'"" ^'*^ ;— p, hence we find x^ : c'« — c' s'2 _, , s'- c- ■ -; — ^T- X '■ r and y = - T s'' — r' s " ■ r c^ — r c - By restoring the values of r and r', we have sO c'= — c- s'- - , , 's'- c- — c" s' X r r. , the radius of curvature of the meridian, and that of the arc perpendicular to it at the poinc A. - =: length of a degree on the meridian = -z — s p— ^ X L /. X g y _ s c' — c s^ - .= length of degree on arc perpendicular = , „ . ,., X h I. By restoring the values of s, s', c, c', we have sin." a COS.- h — sin.' h cos.' a L sin.- a — I sin." A in." h cos.' a — cos.' A sin." a meridian : and. X L /, ^ the length of a degree on the X L i = the length of L cos.' a — / COS." h a degree on an arc perpendicular to the meridian at the point A. By the help of this problem the true figure of the earth, with very little trouble, might be ascertained, as we are not obliged to imagine the earth to be any known form, because be it of whatever form it may, the planes which compose a line of railroad must be in its sur- face or very nearly so : nor is it very hard to find a degree or more of road in the same direction. An Explosion of Subterkaneocs Water took place lately in the district of Vizeu, in Portugal, by which the soil was torn up, and earth and stones flung to a great height into the air, for the distance of more than a league, between the small river Oleiros and the Douro. All the cultivated land over which the water flowed was de- stroyed, and in many places it created ravines forty feet in depth, and thirty fathoms wide. It carried away and shattered to fragments in its course, which was of extreme rapidity, no fewer than fifty wind and water mills, choked the Douro with rubbish, and caused the death of nine persons, including one entire family. On the same day a similar explosion took place in the mountain of IMarcelim, in the same district, arising from the same source, but branching off in the direction of the river Bastanza. It carried away a farm-house, four cows, and some sheep and goats. A similar occurrence took place here last year and the year before, and 18 months since in Madeira.— Times. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 179 ALTAR -SCREENS. (From the Eccksiologist.) There are two wavs of ornamenting the Eastern wall of a Chancel, which we had not space enough to mention when arguing in our last number against the admission of stone or wooden Altar-screens in a parish church. First, there is ample authority for hangings of costly materials and suitable colour. There can be little doubt that this was a very common way of re- lieving the plainness and ugliness of plaistered walls: the use of tapestry and embroidered work is mentioned repeatedly both before and after ' the Reformation. Many of our readers will remember, that a hanging of crimson is at this day (o be seen behind the Altar in Jesus College Chapel : would that the present state of that beautiful structure could be quoted, for any other particular, with approbation by the Eccksiologist. Hangings are in use also in Merton College chapel, Oxford. It is obvious how simple and inoffensive this plan would be ; a rich effect of colour will be obtained without any solecism ; shall we add as an additional advantage, at a trifling cost ? The chief excellence, however, of such a plan is, that it is but temporary ; it inflicts no permanent blemish or absurdity on the church. The hang- ings, easily varied or renewed, will be always rich and in keeping; and can at any moment give place to a more correct (if it may be) or a more substantial method of decoration. We have before had occasion to observe, that at present our wish to restore has gone beyond our knowledge : as was remarked in a paper read before the Society at its last meeting, the restorations of the nineteenth century may be classed with the sacrilege and indif- ference of the preceding, as scarcely less dangerous to the consistency and original beauty of our ancient churches. To connect this with our present subject. We doubt if there is anything so hard to design as a screen. Assuming the usual axioms of reality and the like, we believe that many ancient and universally admired screens will be found faulty when tried by such canons. And this is the place for another caution ; staunch as we are for adhering to precedent, bigoted as we are called in our admiration of ancient works, we protest strongly against being supposed to admire irrationally and indiscrimi- nately all that is clearly original or even of the pure period. We believe, indeed, that in perhaps all exceptions and anomalies of the old church- builders, some great genius, some counteracting and preponderating principle, something even to be admired will be found. But in the attempt to revive ancient architecture, we have no safe course but to find out by induction some (at least) general rules, and to lay down some general principles: by which we must try our own attempts at imitation ; by which, should thev be confirmed by use and experience, we may test the truthfulness and excellence even of the ancient remains themselves. It will therefore be of small use to bring forward a soli- tary example of a detail or arrangement as authority tor its imitation. Is it right according to canons which have been carefully drawn up, and are as yet undisputed ? Is it defensible upon the principles which we believe to be the life of ancient art? If not, it is no more to be followed than any exception in the iEiieid, however striking or beau- tiful, is allowed to be parodied in a school-boy's copy of verses. But if even ancient screens, in particular, may be thus criticized, it is easy to infer the great difficulty of designing modern specimens; a diffi- culty much increased by our unwillingness to introduce, or our igno- rance in executing, the fair imagery which is necessary to the proper effect of a stone reredos. Can anything be more absurd than to make deep niches, with canopies complete, to hold a brass plate engraved with the Commandments ? It were even more sensible to enniche the officiating clergy, as we mentioned in our last paper. We would refer to the expensive stucco reredos lately placed in Holy Trinity church, Brompton, as peculiarly open to such objections ot principle. For a failure in stone parclose screens, take tliat of the choir at Canterbury. Until then we know more about designing in this branch, what is more reasonable than to adopt the temporary arrangement of tapestry and hangings? , . „ .,, • „ We next come to the consideration of pictures, as " Altar-pieces. We premise by expressing our own great preference of fresco or dis- temper-work for the decoration of churches to the use of paintings on canvass. The latter are almost always incongruous, and oiten become, bv their unwieldy size and frames, rather eyesores than ornaments. What, for instance, can be worse than the setting of the Altar-piece in St. John's College chapel ; or the huge picture of St. Michael, with its cumbersome pagan frame-work in the Trinity College chapel i But I We may refer to the " Hienirgla Anglicana" for a copious and interesting collection of extracts in proof of this assertion. where there is no other reredos, and where the church has an oil- painting, we wish strongly to recommend the re-mtroduction of trip- tychs. A triptych will always give a fitting dignity to an Altar, and besides keeping the size of the picture within bounds, provides it with a suitable frame. An ancient example is preserved at St. Cross's hospital, though now removed to the Hall. "Triptychs are still to be seen in two churches in Worcestershire. One advantage consequent on the revival of Iriptychs, would be the cultiyation af a severe school of painting. Far less money than is ex- pended on many showy screens, would procure a good devout picture, the leaves of the triptych, in ordinary cases, being simply diapered. A demand for ecclesiastical painting would soon command a supply. And if such encouragement did not find out some English disciples of Overbeck, (though there is little doubt of this in the present improved state of feeling,) what should hinder that foreign artists of the new Catholick school should supply us with what we want ? How simply by means of a triptych and hangings, could the barest East end be made not decent merely, but rich and dignified. The triptych will stand behind the Altar, "forming alone a sufficient background ; on each side, hangings, plain or embroidered, from a moderate height, will hide the rough wall, with no disguise, and add beauty and colour to the whole. Connected with this is the consideration of fresco or distemper painting as applied to internal walls. We are persuaded that deco- rative colour will ultimately win its way even with the most obstinate. It is sincerely to be hoped that the example maybe soon and well set. Take the worst East end, which the removal of a revived-Pagan framework has left bare and rough : why not make this good and richly paint it? Thus you avoid solecisms, you make a really substan- tial restoration, you gain a. beautiful coloured enrichment, you encou- rage one of the noblest of arts. What might not be hoped for, if the Church would once again make Painting her handmaid ? Instead of the " portraits" of the "Exhibition," we should have a national school of art working for the holiest of services; and perhaps (it may be) rivalling those English painters, who in 1350, under Hugh of St. Alban's, made St. Stephen's chapel in Westminster, the glory not only of England but of Christendom itself. There is another point upon which we wish to offer a few remarks. Much difficulty has been felt by church-builders and restorers respect- ing that part of the 82nd canon, which enjoins "that the Ten Com- mandments be set up on the East end of every church and chapel where the people may best see and read the same." Let us confess at once that we believe this injunction to have lost its meaning and force ; yet at the same time let us boldly declare that we have no wish to evade, on our own responsibility, what may be shewn to be its real obligation. The difficulty is to know what is really enjoined. There are indeed many at this 'time, who, despising the one hundred and forty other canons, are forward in putting forth the claims of part of this one. For ourselves, we merely intend to suggest some consider- ations, which may help to explain this ordinance, and hasten on per- haps the adjustment of what is certainly a difficult question. What we chiefly, however, wish to shew is, the impropriety of niches, or any permanent construction, behind the Altar, to receive the tablets. Firstly. This is the only place where the arrangement is ordered. It is an incidental detail, rather than part of a system. It is not recon- cilable with what we know was the usual treatment of the East end at that time. It is not ordered (we believe) either in the Irish or Scotch canons. Secondly. It is doubtful what part of the church is meant— whether the East end of the Chancel or the Nave. 'Church' has often been interpreted to mean the Nave, as distinguished from the Chancel; which latter is a technical name recognized in the rubrick. Now, if the Chancel were meant, the object of the injunction is defeated ; for how can " the people best see and read the same" when they are ex- cluded—as there is ample evidence our Church intended them to be— from the Chancel, and are kept off by the Rood-screen some thirty or forty feet from the Tables ? If the Nave be meant, then there is not the shadow of an excuse for placing them behind the Altar, or for spoiling reredoses in order to admit them. Again, if the Nave be nieant, where is its East end ? It can only be above the Chancel-arch ; so high, in most cases, as to be out of people's sight. Thirdly. Is it not reasonable to suppose that this order- was meant only to be temporary ; like others of the canons, such as those relating to preachers, to canonical dress, &c. ? For now almost every poor man that can read— and if he cannot read what is the use of painting up the Commandments for him?— has his Prayer-book: so that, to re- enact the Canon, with the practical reason there assigned, would be absurd ; as if now, when Bibles are so common, we should sLill chain a large Bible in the church for publick reading. Fourthly. If we set them up in obedience to the canon, it is clearly 180 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [May, necessary to write them in plain Roman type, " that the people may best see and read them." To use the extraordinary alphabets in which we now so often see them, illegible black letter rendered inge- niously still more illegible by rubrications and flourishes innumerable, is a mockery. We may observe also that it is not easy to see how people should be able to read Roman type, when set up over the Altar; since the Altar itself, and in most cases the rails, must hinder a sufficiently near approach ; in cases even wliere the Chancel itself is accessible. Fifthly. There is no rule low they are to be set up ; so that there can be no excuse for making niches to receive them a part ofthe con- struclion. But Archbishop Grindul and Bishop Cox recommend them to be " written on fair sheets of paper, and pinned up against the hangings ofthe East end." If the canon may be thus complied with, the stone tablet system becomes still less excusable. Sixthly. Our own belief on the subject is that the Commandments were intended to supply the blank left by the demolition of the Great Rood. In all probability the head of the arcli above the Rood-loft was often, however bad this arrangement certainly would have been, blocked up. The ancient painting of the Doom still preserved in St. Michael's, St. Alban's, was originally in this position. So in Bettws Newvdd, where the Cross remains, and in Llangwm Ucha, Monmouth- shire, the head of the arch is panelled up. Now something was wanted to supply the place of the defaced Rood or Doom ; and thus we believe the Commandments came to be set up. This, be it remem- bered, would be at the East end of the church (Nave), and would be within sight of the people both from position and height. But we should scarcely defend the boarding up of the head of the Chancel arch, either as a point of taste or expediency. This plan really would seem to shut the Chancel off from the Nave, which is never the effect ofthe Rood-screen, however high. In short, the boarding remaining, the Communion-service must still be read from the reading-pue ; as was almost universally the case a short time since. At any rate, if we block the lieads of our Chancel-arches for the Commandments, we must have the service intoned again : or the people may read the Commandments, but will not hear them from the Altar. Seventhly. Confirmatory of the last theory is the fact, that the oldest tables of Commandments are found blocking the head of the Chancel-arch and not at the Altar. For instance, a very early example is so found at St. Margaret's at Cliflfe, near Dover. Indeed it is little known how few examples of any antiquity are to be found at the Altar. In looking through twenty-live church-schemes from dift'erent counties, in which the article "Commandments" is filled up, the writer finds twenty in other positions, of which nine cases are over the Chancel-arch . In one, St. Mary's, Lambeth, an old copy exists in this situation, and a more modern copy at the Altar — a significant f.ict. Two of these churches have no/ie .■ in five th.ey are north and south of the Nave ; in one, north and south of Chancel ; in one, north and south of Chancel-aisle : in one, north of north Transept ; in the last, west of Nave. So much for uniformity in the interpretation of the canon. It is well known indeed that many churches, and particularly cathedrals and college chapels, never had them ; also that in many they have disappeared without question ; and that many new churches have been consecrated without tbem. Eighthly. It is remarkable that in any early pictures, known to the writer, e.g. the curious engraving given by Mr. Markland of the dese- cration of a church by the Puritans, the Commandments are not repre- sented as over the Altar : in the case referred to, indeed, there is a triptych. On the other hand, Mede (folio, 1677, note, p. 396) inter- prets the canon to mean " over the Communion-table," but seems to wonder at the Injunction. Finally, for the setting up of the Creed and Lord's Prayer tbere is no authority whatever. In conclusion, were we called upon to suggest a course to church- builders to whom this subject presented a ditticulty, we should recom- mend that the case be submitted to the Ordinary. We can scarcely believe that the canon would be enforced, or at least be ruled to mean the East end of the Chancel. In either case the Ordinary would pro- bably sanction the distempering the Commandments in scrolls upon the wall: thus making no construction necessary for them, and allowing them to bear a part in the decorative colouring of the building. Atmospheric Railway System. — Herr Sichrowsky, Secretary of the Em- peror Ferdinand Railway, w/io was last ytar in Ireland studying the atmospheric system, has just obtained a grant for the execution of a railway on that system, uniting Vienna with the beautiful palace and gardens of Schoenbrunn, the Windsor of that locality. It win follow the banks of the river W'ien, on vrhich are a number of large commercial esta- blishirrents, and which route during the summer is much frequented by the holiday folks. The distance Is five miles, and the estimate, including seven stationary engines, is 2,000,000 florins (^200,000), In 200 shares of 10,000 Uorius (4t lOOOj each, and which were subscribed in 2G hours. FOREIGN QUACKERY AND BRITISH CREDULITY. It appears that in so far as decorative Art is concerned, the people of England are destined in all ages to be the dupes of Foreign quacks and quackery. Fifty years ago an Italian, who assumed the high sounding name of Michael Angelo Pergolizi, was extensively employed in decorating the palaces and mansions of the English nobility and gentry. And in this present year a German adventurer, ycleped Mister or " Herr Sang," to naturalize whom a bill has been hurried through Parliament, has been employed to decorate the new Royal Exchange — and rumour whispers that it is not unlikely he may also be employed to Germanize the pure English Architecture of Barry in the New Houses of Parliament. The resemblance between Pergolizi and Sang is remarkable, and it may help us to form an idea of what effect tlie produciions of the latter is likely to have in the present day, if we revert to the debasing influence which the works of the former had at the time when he exercised unbounded sway over his patrons and admirers. A glance at Pergolizi's book of ornamental design, which by the way was dedicated to a number of his noble patrons, will show what a wretched imposter he must havebeen. He compounded and distorted ill-drawn patches from Ra|jliael, Watteau, and others, and produced an admixture of bastardized abominations which he had tact enough (o palm upon hisemployers as original and novel designs, and through the extensive influence and patronage which he commanded he was enabled to poison the stream of English Decorative Art, and sweep away every portion that then remained of pure national taste, in connection with decorative house painting. Instead of the massive and graceful geometric and foliated ornament, with which in ancient times cathe- drals and palaces had been decorated, there were now to be seen in- congruous assemblages of trumpets, drums, vases, and monsters inter- woven with meagre and unnatural foliage. Every ornament intro- duced, whether on ceiling, walls, or wood, was of the smallest, the leanest, and the most unsatisfactory kind, and architects, plasterers, wood carvers, and iron masters, imitated the style and aped the man- ner of the great Ilalian master, Hignor Angela Pergolizi. Thus by the introduction into England of this trifling and meretri- cious style of ornament was the national taste depraved; and it was not until within these few years that there were any symptoms exhibited of a desire to return to the first principles of design, or any prospect of us being able to invent ornamental decorations in keeping with the characteristic features of our ovin country. Just, however, when we had begun to move onward in the right direction. Mister Sang was im- ported from Germany, with a spick and span new set of German pat- terns, or tracings ; and he and his pupils have commenced lo adorn the interiors of some of our principal buildings with a superabundance of German leaves, plants and flowers, together with German conceits and monstrosities, as far removed from the indigenous plants and flowers ol Britain, and as alien to the feeling of Englishmen as were the productions of Michael Angelo Pergolizi. Is this to be tolerated with impunity? What are our native Artists and Decorators about V Are they so lost to every sense of shame as to sit tamely down under such an'insult? What have our Schools of Design been doing? Was the late magnificent display of Cartoons not a proof of the rising cha- racter of British Art? Does not the present exhibition in St. James* Bazaar, wherein the celebrated Herr Sang cuts so poor a figure, tri- umphantly prove the superiority of our home bred House Decorators ? lu that exhibition, those London houses who have employed French artists to execute their dt;signs must see the poverty of their Anglo- French productions, when compared with the specimens of British Art by which they are surrounded. In the Club Rooms and other places of fashionable resort, the decorative house painting is equal to what can be found in any country ; while to a house painter in a pro- vincial town (Mr. Hav of Edinburgh,) we are indebted for the most complete and satisfactory digest which has yet been given of the primary laws that govern form and colour. Notwithstanding all this, however, native talent is thrust aside to make way for German hum- bug and quackery. Shame on't! shame ou't! Let all interested in the cultivation of the national intellect protest against such a practice. Let a demand be made for genuine British decorations, ornaments composed of forms or subjects peculiar to the country, and we will soon not on.y equal but surpass other nations in Art, as we have al- ready done in Science and Literature. 844 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 181 OBSERVATIONS ON ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURE. By Henry Fulton, M.D. No. 9. In Observations No. 3, Vol. VI., page 403, I luid the honour to call attention to the circumstance of the British Institute of Architects being engaged in forming a collection of the different editions of the works of Vilruviusj and to express ii hope that as soon as the col- lection was complete, it might, with the addition of Palladio and Sir William Chambers' works, be committed to the flames. We could mention other works published since " the end of the reign of George III.," did we not fear that by so doing we might, as Mr. Gwilt says, " come into contact with our contemporaries and their con- nexions, and that our office if not dangerous and fearful, might be un- pleasant." The Institute and our readers generally can be at no loss in making a numerically respectable list of culprits for this literary auto da fe. As to the propriety of the measure there can be no doubt. Has not Professor Hosking unanswered, stated that geography and history might be as well learned from Gulliver and the Seven Champions of Christendom, as architecture from Vitruvius I But in order to satisfy the most sceptical, we beg now seriously to propose that a subscription be made for the purpose of giving a medal for the best essay on the subject, and if the Institute will have the kindness to receive the subscriptions and act as judges, we shall gladly con- tribute our mite. Institutions as well as individuals often involve themselves in dilemmas, and if the Institute should take in Vitruvius, they must turn out Professor Hosking himself, which, " if not dan- gerous and fearful, might be unpleasant," as there are those who esteem Mr. Hosking's works, and yet are so purblind, as not to be able to recognise any merit in those of Vitruvius or his admirers; besides, the Professor has already engaged the services of Captain Gulliver and the Seven Champions, who no doubt will prove themselves to be valuable auxiliaries in the event of hostilities. Of course especial care must be had not to include in the index exptirgalorius, those orthodox works which attempt to write down " mere amateurs" and " literary idlers," if it must be, let them have a milder sentence, on their covers let " flames be represented points downwards" and the rather as it is desirable not to add too much fuel to the flame, let them then be consigned to the trunk makers according to the suggestion of Horace, not Horace Walpole, bu: the other one, (Quintus H. Flaccus:) Walpole's pauegyricks on Lord Burlington's architecture have already performed the grand tour in trunks. If authors themselves do not find it convenient to go on their travels, by these means they can send their works as proxies. There is one author, however, to whom 1 would beg to recommend a trip to Germany, either in person or by proxy, if only to see the edifices erected by Schinkel and Klenze, some mention of which he may find in the article at page 445 of the 6th vol. of this Journal. But if the Institute be averse to discarding their collection of the works of Vitruvius, fortu- nately they have still an alternative, namely, to collect the travels of Gulliver and the exploits of the Champions, for the purpose of brushing up their knowledge of geography and history. II. Mr. Frederick East, at page 354 of the third volume of this Journal, on the authority of Strabo states that, the earliest record of the existence of the arch relates to those supposed to have supported the hanging gardens at Babylon, which were constructed about twelve hundred years before our era. Mr. East is followed by another writer in the fifth volume, page 251, under the signature of O. T., who takes the same view. I have not found any writer who seems to be aware of the discoveries of Mr. Hoskins in Ethiopia and Egypt, which throw much light on this long disputed question. At Meroe, the ancient capital of Ethiopia, and the ruins of which he fairly supposes to be of much greater antiquity than any of those existing in Egypt, he found in one of the pyramidal tombs, the stone arch, of which we give a diagram, it is taken from the vault or porch of the entrance, and this vault con- sists of alternate courses of four and five blocks; of course, where, as in the annexed cut, there is only four, there is no keystone : the arch at the spring measures five feet, and the joints are truly given. No. 81.— Vol. VII.— May, 1844. / \ '■—3.0. ■> The next are a circular and a pointed arch, from the interior of pyramids at Gebel el Birkel ; the date of which Mr. Hos- kins does not suggest, al- though he considers them of great antiquity; they are situate near the fourth cataract. The pointed arch consists of six stones slightly hollowed out to the shape of the arch, and are supported by lateral pressure ; they are not joined by cement, but above the roof are a quantity of small stones, which are kept together by a soft cement. The scale of both these is an inch and a quarter to twenty feet. We give, in the annexed cut from the same author, a viev»r of the brick arch from the tomb of Amunolph I. at Thebes, who reigned 1550 years before our era. There is a vacant space between this elliptical arch and the rock, as may be seen in the cut. The span is eight feet six inches; its height is four feet eight inches. As the Ethiopians taught architecture to the Egyptians, who in- structed the Greeks, from whom the Romans derived their knowledge of the art, by the discoveries of Mr. Hoskins, the question of the claims of the Greeks and Romans is in a great measure set at rest. It re- mained in abeyance almost with the Egyptians, and with the Greeks also, except as a mere shadow in the corbelled roof of the tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae; still the Romans may be entitled to be called inventors just as Europeans were the inventors of gunpowder, printing, and the mariner's compass, although all these were previ- ously long known to the Chinese. In the second series of Sir William Gell's Pompeiana, Vol. IT., Plate LXV., House of the Dioscuri, a doorway is given in the back- ground, which has a close resemblance to the lancet arch. I do not recollect anything of the kind at Pompeii: perhaps some person whose eye this may meet can throw s»me light on it, or may have the means of making enquiry on the subject. A very general feeling exists against the introduction of arches and columns in the same composition; certainly, as far as the columnar arcades of the Palladian School go, nothing can be worse : but this arises more from the wide, straggUiig, and unequal intercolumniations than any thing else, and also from the practice of imposing arches instead of architraves, and also placing them on other and lesser columns; when these anomalies can be avoided the objection would loose most if not all its force. Arches behind insulated columns would have a better effect than either pilasters or square headed windows. I agree with Mr. R. C. Long, of Baltimore, Maryland, (see fifth volume. Journal, page 370,) in his very judicious remarks relative to the capabilities of the Roman arch, which he considers has not yet beeu fully developed as a beautiful feature in architectural composi- tion. What in the architectural world can exceed in sublimity and grandeur the long unbroken line of arches in the Roman wilderness? But there must be no higgling, sniggling, paring, frosting, tinkering, and the rest of the little tngs and things with which our modern arches are ornamented, I verily believe that the man who spoils an arch with 16 183 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [Mat a dropping keystone could be guilty of inserting a ring in the nose of the Venus de Medici, and although it might be merely his own bright idea, he might think all the while, persuading himself that others thought so too, that it had been selected by the fair hand of science to set off the Queen of Beauty to advantage. I have seen, or perhaps only think 1 have seen, sculptured keystones which had a good effect, the sculpture alone being in relief. By the bye, sculpture is too seldom called in aid by architects to embellish their works, I do not mean the Paul Pry intruding or protruding keystone with mere glyphs, but something like what is to be found in nature relieved on a smooth ground, appearing like a single star in the firmament, or to speak of things terrestrial, a single and well selected ornament on the arched and unwrinkled brow of beauty. For the history of the arch one naturally looks for information to the Encyclopaedia of Architecture, but the information there given is scanty enough. Who indeed would suspect Mr. Gwilt of taking a leaf out of the travels of any "mere amateur" or "literary idler?" No, no, such small fry must not be encouraged to travel, or at least to ■write, with the object of throwing light on the history or practice of the art; besides, Mr. Gwilt seems to have been seized with a Rip Van Winkle sleep commencing at the end of the reign of George III., (which he says was also the end of the 18th century,) and to have remained from that epoch in a state of imperfect clair voyance, from which he has aroused at the end of nearly half a century, for the pur- pose of compiling his Encyclopsdia: but although he seems to have slept profoundly, he did not sleep soundly, for he appears to have been disturbed by dreams of mere amateurs and literary idlers thoughout: it is to be hoped that he is now wide awake and has thrown off the night mare from his breast. If not, the sooner he does so the better. III. In a very sensible letter written by Censor, page 147 of this volume, it is stated that very few of the profession purchase foreign architectural works; it might have been added, or domestic ones, or even read one or the other. I did not wish to be the first to call at- tention to this subject, but I firmly believe that there are many ar- chitects who never read professional works. Vitruvius gives a goodly list of accomplishments which he considered necessary for an architect, but he carries it to one extreme by requiring too much- modern practice to the other by requiring too little. Although it be unnecessary that an architect should know everything, which the pro- fessors of other branches of science and art should respectively be acquainted with, yet it is absolutely necessary that he should read every thing which bears on his profession ; and if he do not, he might as well, like Mr. Rip Van Winkle or Mr. Joseph Gwilt, be asleep, ■whilst all the rest of the world are wide awake; and after sleeping orty years, rouse up and think he could compile another Encyclo- pedia without filling up the hiatus. One man or one profession cannot stand still whilst other men and professions are progressing, without being left behind in the race of knowledge. I know that in some professions tho?e who in the estimation of their brethren are placed at its head, are amongst those who consider themselves only students. Nature gave to Hogarth a genius which was calculated to make him the finest painter the world every saw; but the gift was marred by education, (or rather the want of it,) and vanity, fostered by ignorance, prevented him from profitting by the knowledge and labours of others, whilst, by availing himself of these advantages, he might have eclipsed them all. " Knowledge is power," said a person called Bacon, or some such name. Buy books of merit, gentlemen, and read them; let it not be said of arcliitects — " But knowledge to their eyes its ample page, Kich with the spoils of time, did ne'er unroll ; Chill penury repressed their noble rage, And froze the genial current of the aoul." Depend on it a good use of a good library is essential to make a good architect. " The more extensive your acquaintance is with the works of those who have excelled, the more extensive will be your powers of invention; and what may appear siill more like a paradox, the more original will be your conceptions," {Sir Joshua.) From what I have myself seen of the nakedness of the land, I greatly fear that if some "Devil on Two Sticks," were to escape out of his bottle, he would give a sad account of the empty shelves in the studios of modern architects, I have heard that in a city which I could name, there is only one architect who possesses a respectable professional library. As Sir Joshua says, "It is indisputably evident that a great part of every man's life must be employed in collecting materials for the exercise of genius. Invention, strictly speaking, is little more than a new combination of those images which have been previously gathered and deposited in the memory ; nothing can come of nothing : be who has laid up no materials, can produce no combinations." Every man is not born a genius; but no man who has not talent and desire to profit by the works of others, has any right to consider himself an architect. No doubt it is owing to a want of the right perception of this, that architecture does not non occupy in the scale of art the commanding position which it should. A knowledge of the diseasf is a step to the remedy ; on the profession depends its successful application. Clonmore, Dublin, May, 1844. CAMDENISM AND PAGANISM. Such is the ultra intolerance and bigotry of the Cambridge Camden Society, that it professes almost a mortal hatred for every thing par- taking of classical architecture, and would not only henceforth exter- minate all such styles in practice, but even interdict all inquiry and discussion relative to them. That the Ecclesiologist should be sadly wrath with the article "On the present condition and prospects of Architecture in England," in Part 111. of Weale's Quarterly Papers, is natural enough — is no more than was to be expected, because the writer has been not a little bitter in his remarks upon the Camden and similar societies. Yet wherefore it should protest against as "mischievous" another paper entitled "Outlines and characteristic? of Styles," is not so apparent; or it is apparently for no other reason than because it treats of the Characteristics of those styles which the Camdenists re- gard as profane. For having accomplished well, as much as he under- took to perform, and for having explained more lucidly than is gene- rally done, a great many seemingly insignificant but really important matters in classical architecture, the writer obtains no credit from the Ecclesiologist; which not only severely condemns all practical appli- cation of classical architecture, but would even suppress the study of it, and no doubt, would commit to the flames all publications and writ- ings connected with such study. If therefore Mr. Weale is at al' solicitous to propitiate the Cam- denists, he will in future exclude all similar heretical essays and topics from his "Papers," and confine them exclusively to subjects of Eccle- siastical architecture and decoration. That being done, the next step on the part of the Camdenists may be to take the Royal Academy to tiisk for rewarding architectural paganism with "gold medals," and for admitting designs in any other than the ecclesiastical style, into its exhibitions. Luckily the Ecclesiologist does not pretend to interfere in matters of Painting, or it might exclaim against the enormity of exhibiting subjects from heathen mythology, — perhaps might object to the somewhat too liberal display of female loveliness in Etty's pic- tures. Neither would the pictures in the National Gallery escape reproach for their naughtiness, — for instance, Rembrandt's lady pad- dling in the water, which was formerly in the collection of a clergy- man/ If the Camdenists are quite right, then the nation has been exceed- ingly wrong, and has acted very foolishly in purchasing the Elgin marbles, and in now endeavouring to obtain a fresh stock of paganism of the kind from Lycia. But to come to the main point, — it is pleasant to hearPugin inveigh against the scandalousness of an architect's daring to paganize at the Universities, and University men thundering against pagan architecture, since of all persons in the world, such reproaches do not come with the very best grace possible from them. It is not to be denied that Pa- ganism does infect modern literature and art to a very great extent, and sometimes very fantastically. The odour of it mingles even with the strains of Milton; the taint of it is imbibed with almost the very first elementsofeducatioD.atleastofgeMWtmaH/^ education. Andwhomhave we to thank for this ? truly, no other than our venerable ecclesiastical institutions — our so greatly extolled seats of piety and learning — our Universities, Colleges, and endowed Schools, which have made Heathen Litebature not only a part, but one of the most essential parts, the absolute sine qua non in liberal education I Now, to our dull apprehension, this sort of actual Paganism, which mixes itself with our very thoughts and feelings, is infinitely more dangerous and mischievous than thatwhich Camdenists and Puganists so lustily complain of. If we can tolerate Paganism in poetry, in painting, in sculpture, all of which bring more or less vividly and actually before us the gods, and the idols, and the extravagant, often shockingly impure, fancies of Greek and Roman mythology, it be- comes over-acted, farcical prudery to be scandalized at our admitting anything partaking of, or reminding us of Paganism into our architec- ture. In this last all the moral uncleanness and pestilential virus of heathenism either evaporate or are neutralized. It may be very bad taste to prefer Grecian — which we ourselves do not do, otherwise 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 183 than as we prefer a good Grecian design to a bad Gothic one ; but that is chiefly matter of taste — certainly does not amount to a very flagrant moral delinquency. However, we are quite ready to join the Camdenists, and that too most cordially, in a crusade against Paganism; but then we do not agree to their half measures, but insist upon 'going the wliole hog!' if Paganism is really to be rooted out from the land, let us lay the axe to the stem of the tree, and that right vigorously. Let not pagan poets be any longer made the studies, and the corrupters of Christian youth ; let us have no aspirants to episcopacy employing themselves in editing Greek tragedies ; let us not hear Homer spoken of with as much reverence as if the Iliad were a book of Holy Writ and Christian doctrine. Let us purge not only our libraries, but also our galleries, botb. public and private, of the rank paganism there hoarded up as precious works of art. If art sanctities what is heathen and profane, when it comes in such shape, it may also render us tolerant of such comparatively innocent paganism as that of Greek and Roman columns and entablatures ; — and now, to make use of a not very polite expres- sion, we have flung the Ecclesiologisl " a bone to pick ;" but dare say that it will consider it altogether beneath its notice; the most conve- nient and prudent course which Tartutferie aud pharasaical hypocrisy can take. After all, too, the Ecclesiologist is not even tolerably con- sistent as far as it goes, for if its anger be stirred up against mere literary articles, which according to its own account, are too dull to do any mischief, it ought to empty the vials of its fiercest indignation upon those monuments of architecture which, by their Paganism, (a mighty pretty bug-bear word,) must so shock the pious feelings and the or- thodoxy of Camdenists: — for instance, that flagrant example in Cam- bridge itself, the Fitzwilliam Museum. With what sort of sincerity the Camdenists, and their organ tlie Ecclesiologist, take the interests of architecture to heart is sufficiently apparent from the studious sup- pression of all mention of or reference to the beautiful little cemetery chapel lately erected at Cambridge by Mr. Lamb. No doubt, they would if they could abuse it, as they have done Mr. Blore's church at Hoxton ; for it may, in their eyes, have a far greater defect than even that of Paganism, namely, of heterodoxy, the building belonging to Dissenters; and the Camdenists are wonderfully orthodox, and no less wonderfully liberal, — quite pattern people, and amazingly consistent to boot. Their orthodoxy extends even to their orthography, in which they display a singular affection for, a silly affectation of the now exploded k, in such words as Catholic, Gothic, &c., spelt by them Catholic^', Gothic/t, which may be very proper, yet seems to us very finicAal and very comicAal. ZZ ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS, ROYAL ACADEMY, Almost might we stereotype the remarks with which we have hitherto opened our notices oi the architectural department of the Academy's Annual Exhibitions. But it would seem that the corri- genda are also incorrigibilia : in regard to them, there are not the slightest symptoms of amendment; — not even of there being any de- sire to effect improvement, notwithstanding that it is so obviously needed. We must therefore, per force, conclude that the architects belonging to the Academy are mere cyphers in it, without authority, influence, or interest of any kind; and that their zealous endeavours to abate the grievances and inconveniences complained of, and to obtain for architecture more liberal treatment at the hands of the Academy — so long at least as it continues to form any part of their exhibitions, — have been quite unavailing. If we do not account for matters this way, we are driven to a very ugly alternative — that of supposing that those gentlemen who represent the interests of Archi- tecture— their own jjrofession — ^at the Academy, leave it entirely to shift for itself, well knowing that their own drawings are certain of being hung to advantage. — To give them their due, however, they are tolerably considerate, and do not monopolize a very great deal of space. Only three drawings constitute the entire quota of those sent in this year by the Academician Architects — namely Barry and Hard- wick. As to the Architectural President, Professor Cockerell, instead of doing the honours of his own department, he again keeps away altogether, which may be very dignified, but is not particularly gra- cious or encouraging on his part. — Like Sir John, he is ashamed to march with the ragged rogues through Coventry ; so puts himself to Coventry. Besides the Professor, there are many others whose names we this year miss from the Catalogue, although hitherto they have generally exhibited something each season. No wonder therefore if the average merit of the present Exhibition is below, rather than at all above that < of some preceding ones ; especially as we do not find old acquaintances supplied by new ones of any note or promise. We will break off from our general remarks — crusty ones? — and turn at once to Barry's splendid pair of drawings Nos. 1186 and 1196, the first a " View of the New Palace at Westminster, as it will appear from Lambeth;" the other a view of it " as it mould appear from the Surrey side of the river, near the foot of the new Hungerford Bridge, in connexion with a suggested new Bridge at Westminster." As to the " mill appear" promised for the first subject, that we somewhat doubt, unless Mr. Barry be a second Joshua, and can prevail upon the sun to tarry in the East and light up the river front of his edifice in the same manner as is here shown. Neither will the building ever display itself from Lambeth in the same manner as is represented in the drawing, the station selected by the artist — and extremely well selected it is in itself — being very much nearer. There must also, we apprehend, be some mistake or miscalculation in regard to the point from which the other view is taken, it being immediately close to the " suggested" Bridge, showing the latter as it would be seen from upon the river, therefore not near to Hungerford Bridge. This will proba- bly be thought hypercriticism ; and such indeed it is in regard to the drawings, for there artistical licenses of the kind in order to show the subject to the greatest advantage, are allowable enough; but the case becomes somewhat different when, as in this instance, it is above all things important to calculate beforehand the precise effect of the structure when completed, without any exaggeration or flattery. That Mr. Barry himself professes to be very exact, is evident enough, else he would hardly by particularizing the precise stations from which they are taken, have led us to question the veracity of the drawings in that respect. Be the mistake however either on his part or ours, there can be no mistake as to the magnificence of the architectural ensemble which Mr. Barry here displays to us. He has not at all reined in his imagination, but it is not so certain that John Bull will not apply the curb to it, for we now perceive to what prodigious extent the archi- tect proposes to carry out his plans. According to what is here shown, we find that all the houses on both sides of Bridge Street are to be swept away ; and that the South side of that street will be formed by another extensive range of buildings, similar in character to the other elevations of the "Palace," and entirely enclosing behind it Westminster Hall and New Palace Yard. Then are we to have ter- races and shrubberies on the other side of the street, at least along the river ; also other terraces, and a splendid pavilion or Water-gate, extending from the south end of the River Front. Neither does Mr. Barry stop short here, for there are now additional towers, and the original Clock-Tower, is now prodigiously enlarged and converted into a lofty upright mass, whose ensemble has more of the character of Foreign than of English Gothic, aud which is withal somewhat heavy in outline in its upper part, where there is a most enormous clock-dial — not unlikely to obtain the name of the " Prince of Wales' pocket watch." In comparison with what is now contemplated — at least by the architect himself, the edifice will be expanded to about double the extent of the original plan; therefore what with the pro- digious increase that way; with fresco-painting and other closely de- corations in the interior; with a vast deal of additional external de- coration also ; and lastly with the suggested Bridge, — the sum total will be truly startling. Without wishing any ill to the Palace of Westminster, we should not like to see it entirely swallow up all disposable resources, when some are much needed for other purposes. Mr. Barry's ideas are so elastic, — he has such a superabundance of imagination and invention that we wish he would out of charity's sake, bestow a little of it — some of the mere crumbs and sweepings — upon Sir Robert Smirke, they would surely be acceptable to an architectural Lazarus. It seems, however, that Sir Robert will accept nothing, not even advice : al- though he takes very coolly a pretty large stock of reproaches, and it must be confessed that he does not take them without having fairly earned them. After so much has been said about the Facade of the British Museum, many persons may have supposed that there would certainly be either some drawing or the model of it in the present ex- hibition. So far from looking for any thing of the kind, we should have been as much startled by it as if we had found the Museum itself in Trafalgar Square. Were all others in the profession to take pat- tern by Sir Robert Smirke, and we may almost add the "Professor" himself, there would be ayiVMS to architectural exhibitions altogether. As to Professors, they are rather shy of exhibiting; we get however this year a subject from one of them, whose name is almost a stranger in the Catalogue, and what is more, a subject which challenges direct comparison with Barry; viz.. Professor Hosking's design for "Re- modelling the superstructure of Westminster Bridge upon the present piers," as shown by plans, constructional drawings, &c., in Nos. 1143 and 1 148. " The main object of the design," the Catalogue tells us, 16* 184 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [MaV, " is the illustration, in a familiar manner, of Mr. Hosking's suggestions, in his 'Treatise on Bridges,' for reducing the weight and cost, and in- creasing the rigidity of the superstructure of an arched bridge, by the introduction of an inner transverse arch, groined to the usual longi- tudinal arches." The idea is ingenious, and would be attended with a pleasing effect ; but we cannot say much in favour of the taste shown in the design itself, which is not likely to find many admirers, seen as it is almost in juxta-position with Mr. Barry's. In adopting Gothic, Mr. Hosking had evidently no intention of attempting to vie with the Palace of Westminster, or even to conform at all with the style of that edifice; the Bridge "suggested" bv him, being quite contrary to the principles of decoration observed in any one of the various styles of Pointed Architecture. What should be panels and other orna- mental details, are upon a monstrous scale in comparison with the structure itself. In fact, as far as appearance is concerned, the bridge might just as well remain as it is, without any attempt being made to assimilate or accommodate it to Mr.Barry's edifice. Mr. Hosking seems to have designed his Bridge without taking into consideration at all the excessively ornate character of the adjoining "Palace;" whereas had he wished to convince us how well his Gothic would harmonize, or how agreeably it would contrast with that of Mr. Barry, he ought to have exhibited a perspective view, showing not only the bridge, but some portion at least of the other edifice. If we have been rather prolix in our remarks on Westminster "Palace" and Bridge, it is partly because there are very few other designs for public buildings and improvements — churches excepted — that claim notice. One projet, however, there is for what would form a very desirable and no less feasible improvement at Whitehall, viz., Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon's design (No. 1219) for erecting on the site of Gwydir House, a building (either for government offices or a Club establishment), corresponding with the " Banqueting House," and uniting the whole into one general fafade by means of a central compartment flanked with pavilion towers and cupola turrets. It is somewhat curious that, notwithstanding the excessive admiration — almost might we say vene- ration that has ever been professed for the only part of Inigo Jones's project for Whitehall Palace, that was executed, it has never been thought worth while to finish up the exterior consistently as far as it goes, continuing the design at the ends — which now present only bare brick walls, — and keeping the building quite clear from any others. In its actual state, that piece of Jones' arcliilecture has always struck us as looking somewhat lumpish and monotonous, and evidently in- tended only as a portion or feature belonging to some larger edifice. Whether the project emanates entirely from themselves, or whether aught of the kind is contemplated in other quarters, we know not, but Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon now propose to make such addition to Jones' building as would form a well arranged architectural composi- tion of considerable extent. It is true the centre would be the nar- rowest division of the fafade, and would also recede back a little, but this is almost inevitable, for as it cannot be allowed to project forward unto the pavement, it must either be set back a little, or there could be no break at all in the line of front, consequently no motive for in- troducing the towers, — which are well imagined characteristic traits adopted from Jones' ideas for Whitehall. After this design there is scarcely another in the room, which shows any tiling either proposed to be done or lately erected in the metro- polis, if we except No. 1101, Mr. Turner's "Facade buildings of the Joint Railway Terminus at London Bridge," which design has ap- peared in our journal. We meet indeed with a design/or the new Conservative Club-house (No. 1218, T. Hopper), but it is not the one adopted, nor does it rival it by many degrees ; but of course Mr. Hopper thinks dift'erently, or he would not have challenged compari- son. There are a good many other designs in the same predicament, having been put hors de combat, but how far they have been superseded by any thing better we are unable to judge, there being no drawings or models of the approved ones. For the "Leicester Memorial" alone there are four or five designs, — all of them columns — made ac- cording to order, we suppose — and all so exceedingly poor and in- sipid that they seem to have been sent to the Academy for no better eason than that they were ready to be sent. By way of producing something less hackneyed than the eternal Doric or Tuscan column, one of them substitutes the capital from the Tower of the Winds at Athens! Of Mr. Donthorn's column, which is the one to be executed, the capital is described as being altogether a novel composition, con- sisting of the heads and fore-parts of animals, but whether placed all round, or only under the angles of the abacus, we cannot tell, for he has not thought proper to exhibit the design, or any drawing or model of the capital only. Of Prize Designs we have quantum stiff., things that may deserve the Academy's gold medals, but do not say much for the judgment which proposes such wildly extravagant subjects as are those upon which architectural students are invited to exercise their invention. The one this year is a "Metropolitan Music Hall and Royal Academy of Music," upon such a scale that it seems intended to contain the whole Musical " Million," and to require full a million to erect it. It is quite preposterous to encourage students, to encourage mere be- ginners to attempt such monstrously out-of-the-way things before they can display any tiiste and invention in designing a moderate- sized house, or even a single room. Subjects of the last-mentioned kinds are always, we are sorry to say, exceedingly rare : there is not a single design for the front of a street house or a town mansion. Architects seem to be able to make nothing of such subjects : they accordingly favour us only with cottages, villas, country mansions and castles. Of interiors they are equally shy — except they be merely those of churches — notwithstanding that so much has of late been said on the subject of interior decoration and the study of it ; that in itself it affords such a wide and varied scope ; and that it may be adopted with comparative facility and economy. Promise, however, is now made of what has long been a desideratum among architectural publi- cations, by No. 1134, "The Morning Room, one of a series of designs for Interior Decoration," E. B. Lamb ; yet while so many insignificant and paltry things are allowed to stare us full in the lace, this drawing is put nearly quite of sight, notwithstanding that it is of a kind to re- quire close inspection. Placed where it is, all the detail — all that constitutes decoration is entirely lost; hardly therefore would it have been a whit more preposterous to have hung it upside down at once. Nothing can be made out except the general forms and masses. Its author's name is however a pledge of its merits, since no one under- stands better than Mr. Lamb, the application and adaptation of former styles to actual purposes, in such manner as to retain their character- istics, and that, not merely in bits and patches, but consistently and throughout. Accordingly, we trust that ere very long we shall behold his "Series of Designs" in a published form ; for it certainly would prove a most excellent companion work to those by Joseph Nash, and would be far more generally useful, inasmuch as the subjects would be designed with express reference to what is required for or capable of being introduced into modern rooms, and in spaces of less extrava- gant amplitude than ancient baronial halls. The only other interior of a room — properly so called, is No. 1160, the " Library of the Parthenon Clubhouse," in Regent Street, one of the two mansions built by Nash for his own residence and that of his brother-in-law Mr. Edwards. Never has Mr. Beazley satisfied us so well as in this interior, which although of no great size as a room — in fact a narrow and not very long gallery, is uuusually scenic in its archi- tectural character. It consists of three divisions or compartments covered by as many domes and their pendentives, which constitute the chief architectural decoration, the walls being nearly covered by book cases, on which are placed busts. Each of the end compart- ments is lighted by a lunette or semicircular window over the book- cases on the left hand side; but the centre one is enlarged by a bay window on that side, which gives greater space to the room, and variety to the design. We speak doubtingly, but we suppose that this Library is not an entirely new addition to the house, but a re- modelling of the small gallery shown in the plan of it in the " Illustra- tions of the Public Buildings of London." — This design is not only more than ordinarily interesting as a subject, but also as being sug- gestive of further ideas, and as affording an agreeable " episode of plan." (To be continued.) I MR. J. TOWNSEND'S LECTURE ON THE FINE ARTS. Several of the Greenwich and Kent papers have spoken in terras of very high admiration of this Lecture, which was delivered at the Greenwich Lite- rary Institution, on the evening of May 1st. ; and in so doing some of ihem have indulged in sharply satirical remarks — not it would seem without rea- son—on the want of taste and also of good feeling shown by the people of Greenwich, who instead of encouraging talent in a fellow townsman, left him to address almost empty benches. This is all the more extraonlinary, be- cause the room would have been very decently filled, had there been but a tolerably fair attendance on the part of the members belonging to the Insti- tution. But after wliat fashion it is that they bestir themselves in promoting iniellectual taste either in regard to literature or to Art, is now pretty mani- fest. It will be lucky for them should not the very pointed and cauitic re- marks of some of the newspaper editors obtain for the people of Greenwich, the title of the Kentish ' Bieotians.' By the few who were present the lecture was exceedingly well received, for 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 185 it abounded in original and striking observations, and in highly eloquent passages, which drew forth freijuent applause. This will hardly be ques- tioned after perusing the following e.xtracts from it, which appeared in the " Kentish Mercury " of May 4th, and we think that our own readers will thank us for affording them the opportunity of judging for themselves of the Lecturer's style, and mode of handling his subject. "Influence of Forms of Government on the Fine Arts. " It is the same with regard to that other knotty question— how far the Fine Arts are influenced by forms of government ;— whether they thrive tetter in republics or in monarchies,— whether the spirit of liberty, or that of despotism invigorates them most,— whether they themselves tend to encourage and keep alive the spirit of either the one or the other; or whether forms of govern- ment have nothing to do with the matter. "Those who take the side of republics, and also lay stress upon the in- fluence of climate, will of course, triumphantly refer us to Athens as affording most incontestible evidence in confirmation of their doctrine. But then the instance of another Grecian republic upsets it all again ; for wherefore did not the Lacedemonians distinguish themselves in literature and art just as much as the Athenians ? They were republicans, they were Greeks, and as far as climate is concerned, were jdaced in a more southern latitude. Their temperament and disposition, their manners and institutions, indeed, were different, therefore we may well account for the other ditterence, but this last also shows that republican form of government— for such was virtually that of the Spartans and Lacedemonians— has very little to do with the matter. " Louis XIV has shown the world how much may be achieved by royal despotic will, and how very little that much is. He affected the fame of a second Pericles — or rather that of being Pericles, Augustus, Leo, all in one ; and as the world is not over vigorous in examining into similar pretensions, he for a time, obtained it. Pericles and Louis Qiiatorze! — certainly they re- semble each other just as much as do the Parthenon and Versailles. " Taken under the auspices of Louis, art was compelled to attire itself in a court-dress, and the muses to wear hoop petticoats. It was also expected from art that it should pay in kind for the patronage so bountifully and graciously bestowed upon it. It was hospitably received as a guest, on con- dition of its playing the part of a parasite also, and celebrating a I'oittrance, the bountiful mifnificence and the boundless magnificence of the Grand Mo- narque. '■ The Cliurch and the Fine Arts. " As the Church of Rome increased in wealth and power, she added pomp to pomp, and splendour to splendour, superstition to superstition, till it seemed as if she wished to absorb within herself all the pomps and all the vanities, and all the allurements, and all the illusions of mundane power. Art was honoured, — religion sensualized ; the one was enrobed as a priest, — the other decked like a harlot. •" No wonder therefore that on separating and withdrawing their allegiance from the Church of Rome, and rejecting its traditions and superstitions, the first Reformers— at least their followers, rejected its ceremonies and its pageantries, as mummeries worse than unmeaning ; or that the work of de- struction began afresh. The grievous havoc then committed either by spolia- tion or wanton defacement, has been a theme of bitter complaint with anti- quaries and artists ; hut if it displayed it too indiscrimalely, popular indigna- tion was not altogether unjustifiable. " From that period, art has been greatly circumscribed in Protestant coun- tries, and expelled from that ministry in the temple, «hich it held both in Pagan and Christian times , consequently put upon quite a different fooling. Having no occasion for the serv'ces of art, — -except it be that of architecture, the Protestant church has no employment for, consequently no patronage to bestow on it. This has been deplored — even bewailed ; and not without rea- son—that is, supposing the interests of art are to be held paramount to all other considerations. But with the example of what sort of services it has rendered to religion, in the case of the Roman Catholic Church, before our eyes, there is some reason for being suspicious of it. Were it admitted into the Protestant Church, it would, no doubt, be sufficiently discreet and unas- suming at first; but then, for how long? probably no longer than it had established itself upon such a firm footing that it might bid defiance to those who should endeavour to turn it out again. In such case you have to deal with a servant that will not take warning to leave ; you may discharge him, hut there is no other way of getting rid of him than by fairly kicking him out of doors, and thereby causing a hubbub. "In fact, so far from being rendered more solenm and impressive as reli- gious edifices, and devotional in character, many churches in Italy and other Catholic countries, look more like picture galleries and museums of art, and are visited merely as such by strangers. Instead of asking why we do not admit painting into our own churches, the more proper question, perhaps, would be, why do we not exclude sculpture also? Since of the greater part of it as there found, the most that can be said in its favour, is, tiiat there is no danger of its encouraging superstition. " Many and strong are the reaiaiks which have of late been made upon the public monuments in Westminster Abbey, and St. Paul's, and it must be ad- mitted that while they are but little creditable to us as productions of art, considered as which they are many of ihera both puerile and bombastic, little better than mere stone-carver's jobs, they are the reverse of Christian in their ideas. They are for the most part. Paganism without its poetry, — are made up of frigid and school-boy conceits, where link-boy genii figure with their inverted torches among Britannias and lions, which last are sufficiently numerous to stock a menagerie. " Should it be asked—' what then is to be done ? how is sculpture of that kind to be so christianized as to be completely purified from all taint of Pa- ganism ?' I must confess that I am not prepared with an answer ; neither I believe is any one else. Therefore another question arises, namely, are we justified in persisting to make use of what we acknowledge to be both impro- per and unsatisfactory, merely because we know not how to render it other- wise? Sculpture is all too corporeal for Christian art and for the expression of Christian ideas ; beauty of form is its element ; of mental emotion, of spiritual feeling, it scarcely admits any strong expression, without falling into caricature, and theatrical gesticulation. " Even were such monuments perfectly satisfactory in themselves, both as works of art, and as intelligent and expressive memorials of those to whom they are erected, they would still be objectionable on the score of propriety. " Great would be the outcry, were it now for the first proposed to place within the walls of a sacred edifice — within the house of prayer and Christian devotion, triumphal effigies — as they may well be called — of our fellow mor- tals, not of martyrs for the faith,— not of men who have been a guide to others, in the holiness of their lives, and their earnestness in the cause of truth and religion ; but of men who have signalized themselves far differently, who have, indeed, proved their claims to earthly laurels and earthly renown, but to no more. Were this, I repeat, now first proposed to be done, great would be tl:e indignation excited : we should be told of the shocking desecration — even profaneness. Although Rome deified its emperors, even heathens did not place statues of their distinguished men within the fanes consecrated to their deities. Custom, however, reconciles us, hardens us to what we should else consider glaring and indefensible improprieties ; so much so that the re- fusal to permit the statue of Byron, by Thorwaldsen, to be put up in West- minster Abbey, has been stigmatized by some as an actof ungenerous bigotry. Yet there to have placed the author of ' Don Juan,' would have been viewed by others as a gross indecency. " Even the statue of Watt, the author of the steam-engine, is not particu- larly edifying, although characteristic enough of the steam-engine. Mammon- worshipping times in which we live, and in which steam obtains far more of our cordial esteem than falls to the share of art. No I let us testily our grate- ful veneration for valour, for heroism, for genius, for intellect; for noble achievements in arms or acts — in the senate or in the field! but while we honour them, let us not dishonour the temples of our faith ; let us not, within their sacred walls, be reminded and surrounded by trophies of worldly ambi- tions— of mundane triumphs and mundane glories, which thereby look only all the more abject and pitiful. No, as there is a time, so, also, is there a place for all things ; and a Protestant church is assuredly not the most suit- able place to be made an exhibition room for works of art, or even a pantheon of ' British worthies.' " It becomes a question then, whether it be not more advisable rather to expel sculpture, than to admit painting. It is surely no reproach to Pro- testantism, that its service needs no such material aids to devotion ; that it scorns to entice by amusing the fancy, and addressing itself to the imagina- tion. For a religion of external forms, ceremonies and pageants, of devotiona etiquette and representation, art indeed does much, if only because it is in keeping with, and contributes towards enhancing that sort of spectacle and pomp which is affected in all besides. " But w hat need of art, or wliat can art do for a church constituted like our own, whose solemnities are not intended to impress the outward senses? Otherwise than for monuments^and how objectionable and incongruous they for the most part are, has just been pointed out. Sculpture is almost entirely out of the question ; more especially if it aims at being classical, for in pro- portion as it is antique in gusto, so it is likely to be found Pagan in character and in spirit. • How, again, is painting to employ itself in our churches, if debarred from all those subjects and representations which l>otestantism rejects as super- stitious or profane? It does not tolerate portraits— of course imaginary ones— of patriarchs and saints, apostles and martyrs; much less would it tolerate the embodying of theTrinity as indulged in by Catholic artists— even at the present day ; and the many other representations which are at once shocking and absurd— under human forms. " Protestant artists are interdicted— and justly so— from venturing upon purely celestial subjects and scenes ; they may not attempt to scale and scan the heaven of heavens — obtruding upon us their own puny phantasies, as dis- tinct revelations, of what eye hath never beheld, and which it passeth mortal intelligence to adumbrate ever so faintly in idea alone. ' But fools rush in, where angels fear to tread.' 186 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [May* "'Last jiitigments'— 'assumptions' — celestial visions— saints sprawling upon clouils, or hovering overhead like balloons — are all interdicted us. Scenes of martyrdom woulil be objected to as by far ton disgusting to be suitable subjects for the pencil at all :— nor have we that almost inexhaustible stock of legendary traditions which Catholic painters have availed themselves of, so largely. Consequently nothing remains for Protestant artists to work up but-Eubjects from scriptural history, and no nobler— no higher walk of art, it will be said, can possibly be desired; with the dignity of history it unites the sublime of religious sentiment. Very true, such is— or rather ought to be the case ; but let us for a moment look at the matter as it really stands: now, so far from being what its name implies, historical painting is entirely fiction, without the slightest pretence to literal truth, being worked out by imagination upon no substratum than a bare recorded fact. Be they conceived ever so powerfully,— treated ever so ably, still the images on the canvass are only those of the artist's own imagination. The representation is only a poetic guess— a probability ;— therefore, although as a work of art it may be admirable— even ol surpassing worth, its artistic excellence and the ■vigour of imagination, it may happen to display, do not entitle a work of the kind to be received into the service of the church. At least, if the inspira- tions of genius, and poetic imaginings are to be admitted in one shape, why not also in another — and that a less material — more spiritualized one P Or would it be too daring— too profane an intrusion were the muse of Milton permitted to enter also P most certainly it would be so considered ; yet Mil- ton brought quite as much of pure religious inspiration to his solemn subject as ever did the greatest genius in painting. " In general, the world looks for some degree of consistency between the character of a man and his productions : it has no great esteem for those who can skip not only ' from grave to gay,' but from the religious to profane, and back again from the profane and sensual to the devout, just as the immediate occasion may demand : " ' Now deep in Taylor, and the book of Martyrs, Now drinking citron with his Grace and Chartres.' Nevertheless, the utmost latitude ,in this respect seems to be granted to artists : they are permitted to bs alternately Christian and Pagan ; to take their subjects from the Bible, and from Ovid the next ; — Magdalens or Ledas, Crucifixions or Carnivals, — Bacchanal revels, or the Sacraments of Church, ■ — all are pretty much alike to them, for many of the great masters have dis- playing equal ability in the two extremes of their art, and perhaps have been quite as sincere in the one as in the other. Hence the operations of art are generally considered to be those of the hand rather than of the mind, at any rate to be influenced by the head, rather than the heart; nor can it be denied that such is to a great extent the case. And this is one tolerably sufficient reason wherefore painting and sculpture should not be allowed lo assume in any degree the office of teachers, instructors, and interpreters, in matters re- ligious and spiritual, — intruding themselves into the sanctuary, under such character. If the library — not the church, be the more suitable place for sacred poetry, so also is the picture gallery, for paintings from scriptural subjects. The case might be materially dift'erent, were there artists who de- voted themselves entirely and exclusively to the service of the church, from motives of piety, and out of sincere religious feeling, conscious that they had a high mission and most responsible office to discharge. During the middle ages of Christian art — before the so-called revival of the arts, such was partly the case. In the productions of that earlier period there was, indeed, of real art too little, of superstition too much, but there was also the spirit of Religious Sentiment. After the Revival, there was far less of this last, art became more perfect, more tasteful, more refined, but also more sensual, more worldly. Protestantism, therefore, acts discreetly in excluding painting from its reli- gious edifices. " There is, however, one particular species of painting which it still tole- rates, and which is just now receiving great encouragement, notwithstanding that it seems to be in some respects quite opposed to Protestant sentiments, inasmuch as it partakes somewhat largely of the Icotiology, or Image-worship of the Romish church. Having said this, I hardly need explain, perhaps, that I allude to glass-painting and its stained windows ; presenting a gor- geous display of Saints and Martyrs, many of them blazing in the most vivid colours. The inconsistency of thus admitting in one shape what we alto- gether refuse in another, is if not quite removed, at all events much diminish- ed, when we take into consideration the great difference of character between that and other modes of painting, and the widely different manner in which it is employed. Glass painting makes very little pretensions to being an imitative art ; rather is it a mere emblematic one and altogether conventional and decorative, for painted windows are to be looked at not as pictures, but as a portion of the general architectonic ornamentation of the edifice. The subject contained in them may have little or no meaning, or if any, it may utterly escape attention, such painting being almost entirely hieroglyphical. The details— the individual figures are unregarded ; it is the general efiect — the ' glorious confusion' of colours, which sheds an atmosphere of transfigu- rated light through the whole building, completely filling it, as it were, with an incense of all hues mingling togetherinto solemn radiance— that captivates and charms, and certainly tends to heighten devotional feeling. Such at least is the poetical view of the matter ; but it has also another, and, it must be confessed, a very prosaic aspect ; because although when looked at through ' antiquarian barnacles,' the figures in ancient stained glass may be admired as so many specimens of art native and undefiled, ordinary optica are apt to discernlin the majority of them, more of the grotesque and the ludicrous than is altogether seemly ;— to fancy tliat they bear in regard to drawing a singular resemblance to those in China tea-cups.[and saucers ; besides at the same time a most unlucky likeness to the personages depicted on Court cards — their Majesties of Clubs and Hearts, Diamonds and Spades! " That Protestantism is decidedly unfavourable to art— that is, in imme- diate alliance with religion — is not to be denied; but then it must on the othei- hand, be admitted that art has seldom shown itself worthy of being admitted to such alliance. If superstition be religion, if childish fancies— often most shockingly profane were intended to be most pious, are to be re- ceived as worthily expressing the mysteries of our faith, then indeed, the services of art have been both great and many in the cause of the church, but even so not of our church ; at least quite unintentionally as regards the latter— only as it helped to build up that accumulated mass of superstitions which eventually led to the Reformation," We know not whether Mr. Townsend intends to make another[trial in some less Bi^otian place than Greenwich ; but whether he do so or not, we hope that he will eventually give this Lecture to the world, in a permanent form, by publishing it as a literary composition. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. INSTITUTE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. SCREW PROPELLERS. " Account of some experiments on a vessel called the ' Liverpool Screw, Jilted with Grantham* s engines and Woodcroft^s screw propeller." From the Minutes of Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers, Feb, 13, 20, and 27, 1844. With Eagravings, Figs. 1 to 10, Plate VII. The Liverpool Screw, upon which the experiments, described in this paper, were tried, is a small iron vessel 65 ft. long by 12ft. 6in. beam, and 3ft. 9in. draught of water. She is propelled by two high pressure oscillating engines, with cylinders of 13in. diameter and 18in. length of stroke. The steam, which varies from 561b. to 601b. pressure in the boiler, is admitted to the piston for one-fourth the length of the stroke, the remainder working by expansion. The nominal power was 20 horses, but the effective power rarely exceeded 18^ horses. The cylinders are placed diagonally, at righf angles to each other, and work to one crank upon the main driving shaft, which runs direct to the propeller without gearing or bands. The propeller, which makes 95 revolutions per minute, is on Woodcroft's plan, with a pitch expanding from 10 to lift.; after being enlarged at three several times, from 3ft lOin. diameter, it is now 5 ft. 4 in. diameter by 20 in. long ; it is of wrought iron, and consists of four short arms, whose united area is equal to 16 square feet; of this, only about 13ft. are immersed, a portion of the upper side being con- stantly above the water : the angle of the centre of the floats is 45°, and about 40° at the periphery. The author then gives the details of a number of experiments, and he states that, although the proportions of the vessel were not favourable for speed, her length being only five times the beam, and the sectional displacement 28 ft., the speed was greater than that of all the steamers on the Mersey, except the large sea going steam vessels. That the " slip" of the propeller, when tried by Massey's log, was less than five per cent. That the action of the screw across the way of the vessel, did not appear to aflTect the steering, or have the sUghtest tendency to turn the head of the vessel. The author is of opinion, that engineers in general, fearing a loss might take place from lateral action, with a long pitch, and that the steering would be affected if the propeller was not immersed, have made the propellers too small, and that the short pitch, which had rendered a high velocity necessary, was detrimental. Several satisfactory experiments, in towing vessels, are also mentioned, and it is stated that in a heavy sea, the superiority of the screw propeller was very visible. The dimensions are then given for vessels of war and of commerce, working with screw propellers, driven direct by oscillating engines, which the author anticipates would prove much more serviceable and sea worthy, than any of the paddle wheel steamers now in use. The paper is illustrated by a diagram of the propeller of the Liverpool Screw, and by plans of the machinery and general arrangements of the pro- posed frigate and large steamers. Remarks. — Mr. Rennie observed, that the Institution was mnch indebted to Mr. Grantham, for bringing forward the subject of screw-propellers ; the more particularly as it had now become of national importance, and that every attempt at perfecting the sub-marine propeller merited encouragement. It was difficult, correctly to assign the merit of the first invention of this species PROPELLER S. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. i8i of propeller, as it had been tried at various periods, and with as varied re- sults, on the Continent, in the United States of America, and in this coun- try; ' but it appeared certain that Mr. Samuel Brown, the inventor of the gas vacuum engine, was among the first who applied the sub-marine propeller with any practical eifect. The propeller used by him was on the principle of a regular screw, and consisted of two blades, which were affixed at an angle of 45° to a horizontal shaft, which was placed in the how of the vessel, and he believed that it had also been used in the stern. This pro- peller was driven by a gas vacuum engine, of the nominal power of 12 horses, and actually caused a vessel of GO feet in length, to move at the rate of six or seven miles per hour. M. Sauvage of Boulogne-sur-Mer, had also made several attempts at propelling vessels by the same means, and it was very gratifying to find that his services had recently been acknowledged and rewarded by the King of the French. It was, however, Mr. F. P. Smith who first rendered the screw propeller practically useful ; for his perseverance, being aided by spirited capitalists, induced the building of the Archimedes steamer, the machinery of which was constructed by Messrs. G. and J. Ren- nie, in the year 1839. The results obtained from that vessel were well known, and caused the subsequent construction of the Priticess Royal, the Great Northern, H. M. S. V. the Bee, the Rattler, and the Dwarf, formerly the Mermaid, a model of which was exhibited, with the various forms of screws used in the different experiments. The Great Britain not having yet been to sea could only be mentioned as a projected experiment. Figs. 1 and 2, Plate VII. are drawings of Mr. Smith's Double Threaded Screw adopted in the " Archimedes." The Dwarf was 130 feet in length, 16 feet 6 inches in breadth, 9 feet deep, and was 164 tons burthen. The power of the engines was 90 horses, making from 30 to 32 strokes per minute. Friction wheels without teeth were first tried for giving motion to the propeller; but on account of their sHpping and being very noisy, they were abandoned, and two spur mortice- wheels with wooden teeth, working into iron pinions, were substituted ; the speed thus attained was from 150 to 160 revolutions per minute. The pro- peller was of cast iron, and was moulded in loam without a model, by means of iron templates cut to the required curve, which was formed from a solid cone revolving on its axis, during the perpendicular descent of a tracer. The advantage of this form over the cylindrical screw, was an increasing pitch, so formed, that while the propeller was rotating on its axis, the vessel was advancing and thus producing the least po»6ible amount of " slip." This was exemplified by the form of the various models on the table. The principle point to he obtained in a screw propeller, was a form which should offer but little obstruction to the water, and yet act upon it so as to exert full power in propulsion ; a large portion of a complete screw having no useful eflfect had induced the introduction of propellers with several blades ; thus doing away with the useless part of the surface. A great portion of the centre part of the screw of the Archimedes had been cut away, but the effect had not been so good, on account of the arms of the screw obstructing the free passage of the water ; the propellers with three arms were, he be- lieved, preferred to those with a larger number. The Dwarfs propeller consisted of three curved blades, fromed on the conoidal principle, by vari- ahle curves approximating to angles of from 27" to 30°, and advancing at the rate of 7 feet 6 inches per revolution. It was 5 feet 10 inches in diame- ter, by 2 feet deep in the direction of its axis, and the area was about 15 square feet, which was nearly one-fourth of the area of the midship section of the vessel at light draught ; but since the Dwarf had been transferred to H. M. service, the mean draught had been increased one foot, and the area of the midship section in proportion ; her speed had in consequence been reduced from 12 to 11 statute miles per hour. Figs. 3 and 4, Plate VII. are drawings of Mr. Rennie's Conoidal Screw Propeller. The following were the results of the trials made by Captain Sir Edward Parry, Mr. Lloyd, and Mr. Murray, at the measured mile in Long Reach on the 15th May, 1843 :— 1st Experiment against tide 2nd ditto with tide 3rd ditto against tide 4 th ditto with tide 5th ditto against tide 6th ditto with tide General Average Stat. Miles. 9-890 1 14-400/ 9-7561 14-400/ 9-890 1 14-516/ Mean. 12-145 12-078 12-203 12-142 ^^^^' ^^'^^8 per hour. I The dates of the experiments on screw propellers are nearl) in the foUowiDg Baron Seguier Fulton Shorter Trevithick Millington Lowe Whytock .. Perkins Brown Woodcroft 17!)2 Cunimerow 17962 Sauvage 1802 Woodcroft 1815 Ericson ISIfi Smith 1817 Lowe 1819 Hunt 1824 Rennie 1S26 Blaxland 1S26 Carpenter 1828 1832 1832 18.36 1836 1838 1839 1839 1840 1841 2 In a letter to Dr. Cartwright, dated Paris. February 16, 1798, Fulton says, " I have just proved an experiment on moving boats, with a fly of four parts, similar to that of a Braoke.jack, and I find this apply the power to great advantage, and it Is extremely The draught of water was 5 feet 8 inches. The Dioarf, under the command of Lieutenant Nicholls, left Greenhithe in company with the Hecate, Captain Bower, on the 14th January, 1844, and reached Portsmouth on the following day ; on the 20th she left Ports- mouth accompanied by the Hecate, and although it was necessary to reduce the speed of the engines to 26 revolutions, in order to keep with her consort during the night, they reached Falmouth on the 21st, after an additional run towards the Scilly Islands, making a distance of 200 miles in 23 hours, having burned 10 tons of coals in 27 hours, from the time of getting the steam up. The two steamers left Falmouth on the 23rd, and reached Bear Haven on the following day, having run 1351 knots, or IS^miles by the log, in rough weather in 12 hours, and with bad coal; the engines making from 28 to 29^ revolutions per minute. She anchored during the night at Bear Haven, and on the following day, (the 26th,) reached Tarbert, the total distance from Falmouth being upwards of 400 miles. Mr. Galloway said, that it was extremely difficult, if not impracticable, to arrive at the true amount of the " slip " of the propeller, because from' its position abaft, or in what is termed the deadwood of the vessel, it acted in a current which was continually flowing to fill up the cavity, which would otherwise be formed by her progress through the water. The relative motion of a stream through the arches of a bridge, and in the wake of its piers, was an apt illustration of what unquestionably took place, (and from the same law,) in the case of a moving vessel. The screw, therefore, when acting in this current, might be compared to what would occur, if a paddle- wheel steamer was supposed to be moving in still water, while the floats acted in side canals, which flowed in the same direction as the vessel. Whether the benefits derived from this following current giving resistance to the screw, were not counteracted, by the deduction of so much of what is termed minus pressure from the ship itself, was not at present under con. sideration. His object was to show, that an accurate estimate of the amount of "slip" of a screw, could not be arrived at, until the rate of the following current, was first ascertained. That the " slip " must be much greater than Mr. Grantham assumed, would, he thought, be admitted, both from the cir- cumstance he had stated, and from the fact that screw propellers, when worked with the vessels at their moorings, invariably moved at a ratio at least equal to one-half the speed obtained when running. It was clear, therefore, that the " slip," which was dependent on the proportion of the resistance of the screw, compared to that of the vessel, must always exist in a degree ; but that, it might in the screw, be reduced below that of the paddle-wheel, was evident, because in the best modifications of wheels, or where the immersed segment was small, the paddle must turn in the water, in effecting a change of position from its angle of entrance to that of its emersion, and this unavoidable angular action, even when the upper edge of the float coincided with the rolling circle, was still so much "slip" inevitably encountered ; this " slip " too became very considerable when the vessel was in a sea-way; but the " slip" of the screw decreased with its magnitude, and in the like proportion, its action approached that of a screw moving in a solid. It appeared, therefore, to him, that if the " sHp " was small, the spiral or increasing pitch, would be a disadvantage, because a true screw would under those circumstances create little or no disturbance ; while the spiral in. that case, would have the contrary eflTect, for the same reason that a helix would pass with facility through a solid, in which a spiral or untrue thread would become fixed, or would move with difficulty. In the absence of all " slip," or in so small a slip as Mr. Grantham assumed to have taken place in his experiments, the effect of a propeller witn an expanding pitch, would be like that of a curved plate, moving through the water in a right line ; while the true helix would have acted like a flat plate moving in the direction of its own plane ; that is to say, the opposing forces would merely consist of edge resistance and surface friction, which were common to every kind of propeller. The advantage too, which was assumed to arise from this spiral propeller, merely affected the question of magnitude, for it was clear that, whether the screw acted upon a large body of water at once, or gave a second impulse to a lesser quantity, the result would be similar, as to the sum of the effect upon the vessel. It was true that in certain kinds of fish (he would instance the electrical eel), the impulse produced by the ventral fin, was by an increasing spiral, the length of the curves becoming greater towards the tail ; yet it appeared probable, as we coiUd only see this eel in confinement, that the pecuharity he alluded to, was only developed in pro- ducing a change from rest to motion, for which it was well adapted (because the "shp" was great and the progress small,) and that when in rapid motion, it was probable, that the fin acted in a true spiral. Mr. Rennie stated that the "slip" of the screw of the Dtearfwis from Jth to ^th. That with respect to the general question of ths " slip," he conceived that it depended upon the comparative resistance between the vessel and the propeller. The case was similar to the immersed plane sur- faces of the paddle-wheels of a steamer and of the vessel itself; the re- sistance of the midship section was reduced by the forms given to the fore and after bodies, which gave the vessel what might be termed more " mobi- lity." According to the experiments of Mr. Peter W. Barlow, read before the Royal Society, May 29th, 1834,* the "mobility" of several of Her Majesty's steamers was found to vary from -^th or jijth of a plane surface, equivalent to the area of the midship sections ; or in other words a plane float a " An Investigation of the Laws which govern the motion of Steam Vessels, deduced from Experiments, by Peter W. Barlow, C.E." Phil, Trans., 1834, p. 309, 188 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [May, of 1 foot square was equivalent to the midship section of the vessel, of which the mobilities were from -^th to ^':jth. There could be no doubt, that the im- provements in the forms of the modern vessels, would have produced even Jess resistance, and he believed that it might now be taken at from -^-c:^^ to J-th, so that consequently a less area of float or propeller, would suffice to overcome the equilibrium and produce less " slip." Mr. Smith, of Deanston, observed, that the screw with three blades, vrhich had been used in the Swarf, seemed calculated to produce the best effect. The opening towards the centre of motion, by reducing the arms of the screw blades, as far as the requisite strength would allow, was judicious, as from the comparative slowness of the rotative motion towards the centre, little propulsive effect was produced ; whereas the resistance to onward motion, by the arms, if they had not been reduced, might have been con- siderable ; besides, if the arms were in the part broad, there would have been greater tendency to produce centrifugal action on the water. The gradual alteration of the angle of the blade, to the axis of the screw or onward path of the vessel, was also judicious, as it afforded a greater onward action of the blade at the entrance, whilst it gradually curved round to nearly a right angle with the path, so as to leave the water without causing any revulsion ; it had thus an action in some respects similar to that of the tall of a fish. The salmon, when it " made a run," put down all its side fins, and solely hy the oblique action of the tail, was propelled forward with great force and speed, to which the flexibility and form of the tail, and more especially its curving form to accommodate its leaving the water without causing revulsion, principally contributed. Some years ago, Mr. Smith had made experiments with fans for blowing air, and so far as he could recollect, the form of greatest effect, much resembled in principle, that of the pro- peller under consideration. Mr. Farey said, that in order to continue the series given by Mr. Rennie, of steam vessels, which had been recently constructed with screw (or rather oblique-acting) propellers revolving under water, it would be desirable that the meeting should have the particulars of a vessel called the Napoleon, which had been built at Havre by M. Norman, and fitted with engines and machinery constructed in this country by Mr. Barnes. Whilst at Havre last summer, Mr. Farey had very minutely examined that vessel, and he con- sidered it equal to anything that had yet been executed of the kind, and a fair specimen of the perfection to which that mode of propelling, had (up to the present time) been brought for sea-going vessels. Mr. Barnes and M. Norman were well known in their respective departments, and they had heen accustomed to co-operate during some years past. The engines which had been made and sent by Mr. Barnes to France, and fitted in vessels con- structed by M. Norman had, in most cases, paddle-wheels, with moveable or mechanical paddles, on the plan introduced by M. Cave, which possessed a decided advantage over ordinary paddle-wheels: the loss of power occasioned by the paddles entering and leaving the water too obliquely, being much diminished. In comparing the performance of the Napoleon, with vessels fitted with those mechanical paddles, there was less effect produced by the oblique acting submersed propeller, when considered merely as a mode of employing a given amount of power, to propel a given vessel through the ■water in a calm ; but if the same power, as the engines of the Napoleon, had been applied with mechanical paddle wheels at the sides of the vessel, (such as Mr. Barnes had been accustomed to construct,) the vessel would have had more speed in calm weather and smooth water, than had been attained by one revolving propeller, with oblique acting blades, applied under water at the stern ; and it was possible that a greater amount of speed might have been attained, even with well-proportioned common paddle wheels. Nevertheless, the submersed propeller at the stern, admitted of the use of sails, in concert with steam power, or in lieu of it (when the wind was strong, and in a tolerably favourable direction) with much greater advantage than Gould be done in steam vessels, with the ordinary or even mechanical paddle wheels, although the latter were well adapted for acting in concert with sails, because they would perform well, when the paddles were either deeply, or slightly immersed. The proper and most advantageous action of ordinary paddle-wheels was very greatly impaired, by variations of immer- sion ; the mechanical paddles (when properly proportioned) were less influ- enced, and the submersed propeller still less ; in fact, being wholly under water, at all times, its action did not appear to be sensibly atfected by any such alterations of the depth of its immersion, as were likely to take place in the roughest waves, or the greatest variations of draught. When all circumstances were considered, it might be safely concluded, that vessels fitted with revolving submersed propellers, would answer well for making regular sea voyages, either in winter or summer ; and on an average, he thought, that their passage would be performed at least as well (if not better) than those of any steam vessels now in use, and with an economy of fuel, arising from such vessels making a more advantageous use of their sails, and less use of their engine power. M. Norman, in reply to questions from Mr. Rennie, regretted that his slight knowledge of the English language, not only precluded him from fully comprehending the narrative of the paper, and the statements of the several speakers, but also rendered it ohligatorv that he should communicate to the meeting in French, the few remarks which he could not withhold, after the pressing notice of the chairman. Many experiments had been made m France, with screw propellers by numerous inventors, as far back as the latter part of the 18th ccnturv, and bv M. Cave aud others at recent periods, but the most extensive experiment was that of the NapoUon, for which Mr. Barnes had constructed the steam engines and machinery in England, and which he might be allowed to say had given complete satis- faction. The Napoleon was built at Havre, and launched at the latter end of 1842, for the service of the French Government Post Office in the Medi- terranean. The vessel was built of oak timber, copper fastened and cop- pered. Its dimensions were as under ; — Englisti. Metres. feet. in. Length of vessel from stem to stern . . 47'5 = 155 8 Ditto at the surface of the water . . 45-2 = 148 6 Extreme breadth 8-5 = 27 8 Ditto ditto at the surface of the water . 8"32 = 27 4 Draught of water when light loaded, abaft . 3-6 = 11 10 Ditto ditto forward . 2-26 = 7 5 Sq. metres. Sq. ft. Area of the midship section, at the above draught of water 13"4 = 144 Ditto of the surface in contact with the water, occasioning friction .... 401 = 4320 The revolving propeller, was fixed in a space or opening abaft the usual stern-post, (to which, in an ordinary vessel, the rudder would be hung,) and withinside another stern-post, which was erected on a prolongation of the keel, farther aft, for sustaining the rudder, so as to leave a space between the two posts, for the reception of the propeller. The centre of the propeller was (1'82 metre = ) G feet beneath the surface of the water; its diameter was (2-28 metres = ) 7 feet 6 inches, and the highest point of its periphery was 2 feet 3 inches below the water line, when the mean draught of water aft was about 11 '82 feet. Four propellers of the same diameter, but of difl'erent forms, were made, in cast iron, under the direction of Mr. Barnes, and were tried with various success during the past year. The propellers had been altered several times, and it was found that within certain limits, by cutting away the ends so as to shorten the length of the screw, (which had also the eflFect of diminishing the surfaces of the blades,) the speed of the vessel was increased, and the vibration was reduced ; a portion of this effect bad however been attributed to using four arms. A propeller with three blades, occupying the whole of the circle, was first tried ; others which presented less central surface answered better, and the best, which was still in use, had four blades, which occupied -jSjths. of the area of the circle, when viewed in the direction of the axis, leaving -nrths. of that area vacant, for the free escape of the water between the blades, whose obliquity was such as to produce an advance of (3'12 metres = ) 10 feet 3 inches in a revolution. The steam engines were nominally of the power of 65 horses each, = 130 horses together; their cylinders were 45 inches in diameter, their pistons making usually from 27 to 28 double strokes of 3 feet 6 inches in length per minute. The motion was communicated to the propeller by a spur wheel of 126 teeth, working into a pinion of 29 teeth, which gave nearly 4J revolutions for each stroke of the engine, or about 120 revolutions of the propeller per minute. The ordinary speed of the vessel, without any sails being used, was 10 knots or II5 statute miles per hour. She had three masts of considerable height, the rigging being that of a brig forward and that of a schooner at the main and mizen masts, with as great an extent of canvass as would be used in any sailing yacht. When the wind was favour- able and the sails could be used, the speed increased to 11 or 12 knots per hour. After a series of experimental voyages, the vessel had gone to her station in the Mediterranean, where she was now in constant service, and had gone through some rough weather with great success ; her motion was de- scribed as being remakably easy, she rolled very little, steered better than ordinary vessels, for the propeller appeared to give increased effect to the rudder, and the propeller had never been observed to show itself above the water even in the heaviest seas, when the pitching was at its maximum. Plate VII. Figs. 5 and 6, are drawings of the Napoleon Screw Propeller. Mr. Galloway remarked, that the properties of a screw with an increasing pitch, had been slightly investigated by Tredgold, in his work on the Steam Engine, p. 310, so early as 1827. The author had briefly referred to the subject of screw propellers, and had given some logarithmic calculations of their properties, from which he drew the conclusion, that the true screw could not be carried beyond a single convolution, with any good effect ; whereas by a progressive increase of the pitch, the propelling efl'ort would be continued, until the spiral became expanded into a straight blade parallel to the axis. It was Mr. Galloway's opinion, that more was to be expected from ascertaining the best position for placing the screw, with reference to convenience and effect, than from any slight change in the form or the number of the blades of propellers. Mr. Samuda said it appeared to him, that the action of the propeller tended to drive the water from it at a right angle with its surface, and as it formed a diagonal line with the keel of the vessel, some portion of the force was not efliciently used for propulsion ; he conceived therefore that by a judicious arrangement of shrouding, round the extreme circumference of the propeller, the diagonal currents of the water, might be diverted into a di- rection parallel with the way of the vessel, and thus cause the whole of the reaction to become available for propelling. Such an arrangement would enable propellers of a much coarser pitch to be employed, and their speed being reduced in proportion, they could be more readily driven directly by the engine, without the intervention of bands or gearing. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 189 M. Norman said, that M. Cave had tried a series of experiments on screws of various forms working in cylinders ; and also, he believed, with shrouding on their extremities, and he understood that no advantage had been found to result from such modifications. Mr. Cowper presented an instrument, which he had exhibited when the aerial machine was incidentally mentioned ; it consisted of a fan composed of three or more blades, set at a regular curve upon an axis. When this axis was placed vertically in a socket, and a rapid rotary action communi- cated to it, the fan rose in the air to the height of between 100 and 150 feet. On reversing this fan and using the same propelling force, it would not rise at all. This fact evidently showed that the action of the curved fan upon the air, or of the propeller upon the water, was like that of a screw in a solid, every part of the surface of the blade of a well formed propeller producing its portion of effect. Mr. Cowper directed attention to the contrary effect produced by two fans of similar areas, whose arms were, in the one case, mere planes set at an angle with the axis, and in the other, blades forming part of, and being placed at a given curve around the axis. If it were supposed, that the surface of each blade was divided into a given number of equal parts, when the fan, of the former or angular shape, was set in motion, the first part impinging on the air, communicated a movement to it, and the second and succeeding parts finding no resistance from the disturbed fluid, the body bad no tendency to rise ; but in the latter, or curved shape, the second and succeeding parts, tended to overtake and act upon an undisturbed fluid, and thus had a tendency to rise upon an irregular inclined plane, de- scribed by its gyration through the air. By the law that the resistance in- creased as the square of the velocity, he conceived, that in adapting propel- lers to vessels, their dimensions should be proportioned, not only to the area of the midship section, but also to the speed of the engine. At the same time, the consideration of the form of the blades was very important. In experiments with the revolving fan instrument, he found, that although on all occasions, the same rotative force was applied, a fan with three arms, whose united areas were 3"721 inches, when set at a given angle, did not rise freely ; the same form and area, when set to a proper curve, rose to a very considerable height ; but when a fan of twelve arms, formed from a circle or disc of 28'274 inches area, divided into twelve arms was set in motion, it would not rise at all. With other fans, of intermediate forms, areas, and curves, various results were obtained, which were curious problems for engineers interested in the construction of propellers. Mr. Grantham expressed his pleasure at finding his paper bad so much excited the attention of the meeting, and be hoped it would be followed by communications from members who bad devoted more time to the subject ; for instance, the numerous experiments made by Mr. Brunei and Mr. Guppy, before deciding on the use of the screw-propeller for the Great Britain, and those made in the presence of the Government Engineers, Mr. Lloyd and Mr. Murray, on board the Bee, the Rattler, &c., would be very interesting. Mr. Grantham exhibited a diagram of the propeller used on board the JAverpool Screia, figs. 7 and 8 ; composed of four blades with broad shovel ends, fixed at a mean angle of 45°. This form, although very successful in this case, could not, he thought, be recommended for large diameters. The re- sults of his observations induced him to think, that the blades of a propeller should not be more than four feet apart ; he would, therefore, advise the adoption of Ericson's form, and mode of construction, which he considered the best that had hitherto been introduced ; the ring within the arms per- mitted any number of blades to be affixed, and a large area of acting surface, judiciously disposed, could thus be obtamed. He objected to propellers with three arms, cliiefly on account of the small amount of surface obtained. As to the " slip," which Mr. Galloway had so ably commented upon, he was aware that it did exist in all cases, but he was of opinion that the amount was exaggerated ; he had not only made accurate experiments with Massey's log, but being repeatedly in a small boat, which was towed close astern of the Liverpool Screw, be found that there was very slight disturbance of the water, and that there was not any depression behind the blade of the pro- peller on entering the water; this could be easily observed, as a portion of the upper blade was always above the surface. It bad been anticipated that this arrangement would, with so short a vessel as the Liverpool Screw, have caused a constant tendency to bear over in one direction, but not the slightest disturbance of the steering was perceived, and the vessel's course seemed to be quite as straight as it would have been with paddle wheels. Mr. Grantham wished it to be understood, that his object in bringing forward the account of the Liverpool Screw, was not so much to cite that vessel's powers, as to point out the feasibility of working propellers at a slower speed, and that condensing engines could be applied with advantage, avoiding the bands and gearing, which bad hitherto been found so objectionable. Mr. Braithwaite was of opinion that where deep immersion was not prac- ticable, two propellers would be preferable, in order to prevent any distur- bance in the steering. Captain Ericson had adopted that plan in boats of light draught. Mr. Braithwaite then presented a drawing of the midship section of the Princeton American frigate, showing the elevation of Ericson's engine on hoard. The vessel was 1C4 feet long, with a breadth of beam of 30 feet ; the depth of the hold was 22 feet 6 inches, the draught of water was 17 feet G inches, and the burthen about 700 tons; the propeller was 14 feet in diameter, with six blades, and made from 32 to 36 revolutions per minute, at which rate the vessel's speed was stated to be nearly 14 miles per hour. The engines were about 400 horses power; they were of peculiar oustruction, having two steam cyUnders or chests, containing vibrating pistons or flaps, with cranks upon the ends of the suspending pivots ; both these were coupled by connecting rods to a main crank on the driving shaft ; the length of these cranks being so proportioned, that their alternate vibra- tions should give a rotary motion to the main crank, and thus act directly upon the propeller, without the intervention of bands or gearing." This principle was tried successfully in the year 1839, by Ericson, on the Thames, in a tufi-hoat named the Robert Stockton, " after the projector, who had suc- ceeded in introducing the system to the American navy, and now commanded the Princeton. The boilers of the Princeton were constructed for burning Anthracite ; the whole of the machinery was so placed as to be out of the reach of shot, and the vessel was ship-rigged, so that by unshipping the screw, she could be rendered as effective as any sailing vessel, with a fair wind, or in case of accident to her machinery. Mr. Braithwaite hoped in a short time to bring before the Institution, an account from Captain Ericson, not only of the Princeton, but of several of the other vessels he had fitted with his engines and propellers, since bis residence in the United States. Figs. 9 and 10, Plate VII. are drawings of Ericson's Screw Propeller. Mr. Galloway said, that during the experiments with the Archimedes, a proof had been ehcited that the "following current" had a very considerable effect on the action of the propeller. During one of the trials the vessel was backed astern, when it was found, that the speed of the engine increased three or four revolutions per minute, while the speed of the vessel appeared to have diminished. This experiment was, he contended, conclusive as to the fact that the " slip " was greater than would appear by looking merely at the rate of the vessel compared to that of the screw. He did not, how- ever, think that the "slip" ought to be considerable, with a well-constructed propeller. Increased magnitude in a screw, would have the same effect in creating resistance, as increased magnitude in any other submerged body. The utility of the increasing pitch, however, was involved in, and solely de- pendent on, the amount of "slip" which would be found to be attended with the least disadvantageous results in other respects; and here Mr. Gal- loway would observe that Mr. Cowptr's experiments with the revolving fan instrument confirmed bis view ; for it must be recollected, that there the " slip " was much greater than the rate of ascent; the only condition being thus developed in which the utility of an increasing pitch could be con- tended for. The advantage of turning the propeller by the direct action of the engines, was generally acknowledged. The method of driving it was nearly the only problem remaining for solution, and that difficulty being once overcome, screw-propellers must necessarily, from their vast advantage over paddle wheels, in every respect but that, be universally adopted. Mr. Hawkins said, that about the year 1825, Mr. Jacob Perkins adapted to the stern of a canal boat, a propeller of about 25 feet in circumference, which might be described as resembling two sets of windmill vanes, the solid axle of one set revolving within the hollow axle of the other, the two axles being turned in contrary directions, and the dip of the blades being about half their radius. The propulsive force was stated to have been very effective; the experiments, which were put an end to by the breaking of part of the engine, were never renewed, in consequence of disputes among the patentees; but he considered that propeller as the best that had hitherto come under his notice, and he had endeavoured to draw attention to it by. reading an account of it, at the meeting of the British Association at Cork, in 1843. Mr. Grantham stated, that in order to test the comparative effect of the expanding pitch, Mr. Woodcroft had adapted to the stern of a vessel, two screws of equal area, one being of a regular, and the other of an expanding pitch ; they were connected by a cross shaft, and were worked by manual power, and it was found that the vessel alv/ays yielded to the impulse of the expanding pitch propeller, and was turned by it from the direct course. With respect to the advantage of a large amount of surface, be bad found that the action of the propeller of the Liverpool Screw, which had been en- larged three times, was decidedly improved by the alterations ; the speed of the engines always remaining the same. Mr. Galloway said, that the surface of the propeller of the Liverpool Screw, might probably have been too small at first, and therefore each increase would naturally improve its effective power. The area of the propeller should be in proportion to the body to he moved ; this law was common to screw-pro- pellers and to paddle-wheels. The President expressed the gratification he felt at the useful discussion, which bad been raised on so interesting and novel a subject as the screw- propeller, which bad become one of such importance in steam navigation, that the Government had directed the serious attention of their officers to it; and he trusted that the examination of this question, like that of the action of Cornish engines, at the meetings of the Institution, would mate- rially tend to its elucidation. As soon as any new and really useful invention was matured, and brought sufficiently into use, to enable its merits to be calmly discussed, it was one of the main objects of the meetings, to examine it, and he hoped that in a short time a detailed account of the Atmospheric Railway, would be submitted by Mr. Samuda, for the consideration of the Institution. OXYDATION OF laON. Mr. Perkins stated, that on a recent examination of the Napoleon at Mar- 5 Vide Mech. Mag., 1839, p. 281. vol. xxxii., January, 1840, p. 290. 6 Ibid., vol. xxx., January 190 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL. [Mat, seilles, the cast iron of which the propeller was composed, was found to have undergone considerable change, and to have become so soft, that it could be cut with a knife. Mr. Grantham believed, that circumstance was owing to the cast iron pro- peller, working too near the copper sheathing of the vessel. Iron vessels would not be liable to that objection. The amount of oxydation was ap- parently increased, by the cast iron remaining in a state of rest ; now as screw propellers were usually in rapid rotation, and were also generally so constructed that they could be unshipped, they could be painted and pre- served from any injurious amount of external corrosion, although a chemical change might still be induced, when the cast iron was in contact with copper. General Pasley had observed, in the metal raised from the wrecks of the Edgar and the Royal George, ' that the cast iron was generally soft, and in many instances resembled plumbago; that when small pieces were cut from any of the iron guns, or that these pieces were pounded in a mortar, heat was evolved, but after two or three days the metal cooled again ! some of the shot which had been found had burst into several pieces, under this heating action. * The wrought iron was not so much injured, except when it was in contact with copper, or gun-metal ; some of it appeared to have under- gone an unequal action, and presented a reticulated surface, as if the softer portions had been destroyed, leaving the harder fibres uninjured. ^ Those portions of the wrought iron, which were used by the smiths in the Dock- yards, were declared to be of a better quality than any modern iron. Neither the copper, nor the gun-metal, were much acted upon, unless they were in contact with iron. Mr. Cottam had observed, with great attention, the iron guns which were brought from the Royal George to the Tower ; when they arrived, they were soft, and could be easily cut with a knife ; ' ° but when he examined them some time afterwards, the metal bad resumed its original hardness. This was frequently the case with" pump-trees, which had become soft, from im- mersion in mineral water, but on being taken out and laid aside for a time, they became hard again. Mr. Galloway stated, that this spontaneous development of heat by cast iron, which had been long immersed in salt water, had been frequently ob- served. A striking instance of this kind occurred at Woolwich, when an attempt was made, to preserve the copper sheathing of vessels from corro- sion. Sir Humphrey Davy suggested to the Admiralty, that the decompo- sition of the copper sheathing could be neutralized, by the application of tin, zinc, or any other easily oxydable metal ; the plan was tried on several vessels, by attaching to them zinc plates, and the protection was so perfect, that the ships' bottom became covered with barnacles and weeds. Cast iron was then substituted, on the supposition that the partial oxydation, which would be permitted by the iron, would prevent the fouling of the copper, but that the ordinary rapid destruction would be modified. ' ' The Magici- enne frigate, having been at sea for some time, with cast iron protectors, was docked at Woolwich for examination ; when it was found, that the protection instead of being partial, had been local, for while the greater portion of the surface of the copper was oxydized as usual, the parts contiguous to the iron had been perfectly protected and were covered with barnacles. Mr. Marsh (of the Ordnance department) broke off some small pieces of the iron, which presented the appearance of plumbago, was easily cut, .vas greasy to the touch, and left black marks upon paper ; ' = in a few minutes the heat became so great, as to ignite the paper in which the pieces were en- veloped. The development of heat, was generally supposed to proceed from the rapid absorption of oxygen by the mass, on being brought into the air. 1 The" Edfar" was sunk in 1711, and the "Royal George" in 1782. 8 A similar action was observed, in the cast-iron shot raised from the " Mary Rose," which was wreckad in the reign of Henry VIII. 9 This appearance was also noticed by Mr. Mallet, and is mentioned in his paper, " On the Corrosion of Iron, &c."— See " Journal," Vol. VI., p. 3t)6. 10 Vide Trans. Inst. C.E., Vol. I., p. 20-4. 1 ■ Vide Mr. Willtinson's paper " On the Sh?athlng of Ships," " Journal," Vol. v., p. 169. 12 In Dr. Thomson's "Annals of Philosophy," are the following remarks :—" Dr. Henry states, that ' cast iron having been in contact with muriate of lime, or muriate ot magnesia, most of the iron was removed. The speciBc gravity woa reiluced to 2-15S, and what remained was chiefly plumbago, and the usual impurities.' " Dr. Brande found that * a cast iron gun had uudergoue a like change, from being long immersed in sea-water. To the depth of an inch it was converted into a substance, having all the external character of plumbago. The component parts were— 81 16 Oxyde of iron Plumbago a7 " Mr. Mushet, in his work on ' Iron and Sleel,' states, that wrought iron sometimes, though very rarely, undergoes the same change. " Professor Daniel, in the ' Quarterly Journal of Science," Vol. H., p. 290, says ' I am inclined, under ali the circumstances, to believe that the triple carburet, as it is at first obtained, consists of iron and silicum in the metalline state, united to carbon. When brought into contact with oxygen gas, the metals become convarted to protoxydes, giving out heat, without separating from the carbon.' " Uy analysis, he found the substance to consist of — Red oxyde of iron 7"0 = 6'2 black oxyde 4-9 sllex 11.2 carbon " The same author states an important fact, bearing on the present question, namely, * that it took three times as long to saturate an acid, when it acted on white cast iron, as when it acted on the grey kind.* " from the water, where it had already received a certain amount of oxygen" The production of heat, being in this case, governed by the same law, as that under which animal heat, and the heat of combustion, were developed. Mr. Homersham said, that the water of the Thames, up as high as Rich- mond, had the same effect as sea-water, in rendering cast iron soft. Mr. Simpson believed, that if hard grey cast iron with a good surface, was used for castings, which were subjected to the action of sea-water, but little injurious effect was to be dreaded ; he was so convinced of the fact, that he was about to use cast iron extensively for piles. He had recently examined some cast iron piles, which had been in sea-water for 16 years, without any detrimental effect being produced. Mr. Jordan thought that it was very desirable, to mark the difference be- tween the composition of brass, and the alloy of copper and tin, used in casting guns. With brass, in which zinc formed a part of the composition, it was probable, that the iron would have been acted upon with less energy, because it was more electro-negative than zinc ; hut the gun-metal acted positively upon the iron, and apparently, altered the substance. Mr. Braithwaite said, that the proportions of the mixture, used for the bearings of machinery, were usually 92 per cent, of copper and 8 per cent, of tin. The President said, that although the discussion had taken a direction which had not been anticipated, and was foreign to the original subject, he had not attempted to lead it back again, because the question of the causes of the chemical change in cast iron, in certain positions, and the means of preventing it, was of the utmost importance to engineers, particularly as in all modern works so much cast iron was used. PUMP VALVES. fFrem the Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, wit/i Engravings, Jigs. 11 to 13, Plate VII.) Mr. J. B. Jordan exhibited and described a model, showing the principal pump valves, used by mining engineers. Mr. Jordan stated, that the model before the meeting, was intended to illustrate mining machinery, and was one of a series, now in progress of construction for the Museum of Economic Geology. There were eight difl'erently constructed valves in it, each sur- mounted by a glass valve-chamber and pipe ; the large central pump, served to circulate the water through all the valves simultaneously, so as to show their comparative action ; the water was then discharged from the collar launders over each valve, into that at the head of the puu'.p, so that by repetitions of the pump-stroke, the circulation through the valves might be kept up at pleasure. The valves shown in the model might be divided into four classes: — 1st. Those in which no attempt was made to counteract, or avoid the violence of the beat, or concussion, on closing the valve. 2nd. Those in which that evil was reduced, by dividing the horizontal area of the valve, into several parts. 3rd. Those in which the same object was attained, by reducing the horizontal area of the moving parts of the valve. 3th. That in which the concussion was reduced to any desired amount, by making one side or portion of the column, to a certain degree, balance the other. Valves of the first class were so well known, that they required little de- scription ; they were the common pump clack, moving on a leather joint, and having generally a very small water way — the improved metal joint clack, in which the water way was much increased — and the ' button clack,' or as it was called in Cornwall ' hcantlebury's clack,' which was a disc of metal with a central spill or stalk, which rose and fell in a guide. Of these valves, the second was considered the best, inasmuch as it had the largest waterway (some portion of which was direct), and it was free from some minor objec- tions, to which the leather-jointed clack was liable. This valve was there- fore in very common use in mine pumps, where the area of the pump and the height of the column, were not such as to produce any serious inconvenience from concussion, in closing the valve. In the second class of valves, the injurious efl'ect of a violent beat was somewhat avoided, by the ingenious expedient, of dividing the valve into several rings, or segments. The simplest of this class, was the well known ' butterfly valve,' in which two semicircular parts opened on a central hinge of leather, and the beat was divided into two parts ; but as those closed at the same time, the concussion was principally reduced by the fall not being so great. The next valve was composed of several triangular pieces, opening on leather joints, from the circumference of the valve seating ; it had been much used by Capt. Reed, of the Mold Mines, Flintshire, and was reported of favourably, by several other mining engineers. It closed with very slight concussion, on account of the are of each part being small, the base of each triangle forming the joint, while the water way was large, and nearly all direct, admitting the mass of water to pass forward, in line parallel to the side of the pump. In the other valves of this class, no leather was used, a circumstance which rendered them more applicable to large pumps, where continuous working was of the utmost importance, particularly in the case of deep mines. The two annular valves shown, were invented by Mr. Hosking of the Perran Foundry, and Mr. Jenkyn of the Copper-house Foundry, (Cornwall). The first of these, was composed of a series of rings working on a vertical spill, each ring having its seat on the one beneath it ; (see figs. 11 and 12) ; there rings have different areas, and fell in succession through a small space, compared with that which would be requisite, if the valve were in one piece, 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 191 so that the concussion was much reduced, while the water way was in- creased J but the latter being all lateral, it was requisite to have a large valve ehaniher. The beats of this valve were formed of tin. Mr. Jenkyii's valve, differed in construction from the one just described, in having the rings con- nected with each other by shackle-joints, instead of their working on a ver- tical spill ; the mode of forming the beat was also peculiar ; it was composed of two thicknesses of leather, between which, wedges of wood were driven, into a groove, cast for their reception in the rings ; these materials were so placed, that the edges of the leather, and the end grain of the wood, might form the striking surface of the beat, after being turned off in the lathe. In the third class of valves, which avoided concussion by reducing the ho- rizontal area of the moving parts, were Messrs. Harvey and West's, and Mr. Hosking's double-beat, (See Journal, 1840, vol. iii. page 41 and plate 1,) and Mr. Darlington's cylindrical single-beat valves. The first of these was a modification of the double-beat steam valve, so long used in the Cornish engines ; the second named was similar in principle, and was only slightly different in construction. They were both good valves, each giving large lateral water ways, and therefore they required valve chambers of correspond, ing size, to ensure their perfect action. Mr. Darlington's cyliudiical single- beat valve, was contrived for a large set of pumps under his management, at the Alport Mines (Derbyshire.) The rising column of this pump, was 38 inches diameter and 22 fathoms in height ; it was therefore desirable in such a pump, to reduce the concussion, as much as was consistent with the power of closing the valve in proper time ; this was accomplished, by causing a cylinder to rise over a metal-ring packing in the seating of the valve, so much, as to give a large lateral water way under the beat, formed by the bottom of the cylinder. This valve was found to act well, but it required a very large chamber for the water to enter ; the reason for adopting one, in- stead of two beats, was to avoid or lessen the leakage, caused by chips getting between either of the beats. The only valve belonging to the fourth class, was that of Messrs. Palmer and Perkins, (See Journal, 1841, vol. iv. p. 335); it consisted of au elliptical disc, moving on an axis placed parallel with, and near to, the minor axis of the ellipse, and closing at a considerable angle, against the interior surface of a cylinder. In a valve so constructed, it would be readily perceived, that the concussion might be reduced to any extent, by bringing the working axis nearer to the geometric axis of the ellipse; because the force with which it closed, must depend on the difference of area, between the upper and lower portions of the disc. It possessed an advantage in the extent and character of its water way, over all the other valves described, nearly the whole of the water-passage being parallel to the side of the pump. On the other hand it was objected, that the axis would be liable to rapid abrasion, and conse- quently the valve would become leaky ; but Mr. Jordan did not concur in the opinion, of that being an insurmountable difliculty, and he hoped that the valve would be tried, under circumstances vihich would put its merits to a severe test. Remarks. — Mr. Taylor said, that the subject of valves for pumps, had been so ably treated, by Mr. Homersham, in his paper, (which was read before the Institution last session, (See Journal, 1843, vol. ii. p. 42J,) ) and in the dis- cussion upon it, that there remained but little for him to say. He could not, however, allow the model, which had been exhibited by the permission of Sir Henry De la Beche, to pass without a few remarks. In Cornwall, after the improvements in steam-engines had made consider- able progress, attention was directed to the more perfect construction of the pumps. The plunger was introduced aljout that period, and the merit of it has been claimed by different parties;'" its use was attended with many advantages, and had now become almost universal. Some of the benefits derived from its substitution, for the common piston or bucket, had no re- ference to the subject of valves, and therefore need not be mentioned. In one point it was of great importance ; for as the size of the water-way of the valves in the bucket, was necessarily limited by the diameter of the working barrel, an arrangement like that of the plunger pump, which permitted both valves to be fixed in soatings, of which the areas might be increased to any convenient extent, became the more desirable ; it was therefore eutraordinary that such tardiness had been exhibited, in taking advantage of such an ob- vious improvement, when the principle had been long known, and the loss of power, consequent on the former system was admitted. The model which had been explained by Mr. Jordan, showed how much the attention of engi- neers, had now been directed to the subject. In the discussion of Mr. Homersham's paper, Mr. Taylor had mentioned the advantage which had resulted, from the extension of the water-way of some large pump-work, by having two suction-pipes, or wind-bores, and thus doubUng the passage through the valves. It appeared important, for all the valves that discharged the water laterally, that more space should be provided, round the seatings in which they were placed, and for want of that precaution, some excellent valves had not answered so well as they would otherwise have done. That which was invented by Mr. Darlington, to avoid some inconveniences in the use of the double-beat valves, would have been improved by an enlarged space around it. As mines increased in depth, and the volume of water became larger ; as steam-engines came into use, having a rapid and sudden motion, as compared with that of water-wheels, which were formerly univer- sally employed for puiuping, a great inconvenience was felt, from the con- 13 The plunger was used by Sir S. Morland in 1683, tor the force-pumps at the Machine de Marly. cussion in the columns of the pumps ; this was occasioned by the beating of the valves upon their seats, and in pumps, of the diameter needful for drain- ing some of the mines, this evil became very serious. Almost all the im- provements in valves were made with that view; the division of the old butterfly valve into segments was an obvious first step; it had succeeded ex- tremely well, and was still not much excelled. The annular valves of Hos- king, Jenkyn, Simpson '" and others, were based on the admitted principle, of dividing the falhng clacks into several parts, that they should not rise so high, and that they might collapse in succession, and thus avoid concussion. Harvey and West's double-beat valve partook of that principle, but was stated to have the advantage, of presenting a small area, to be acted upon by the pressure of the column of water upon it. Darlington's valve, which was contrived to avoid the inconvenience, arising from the leakage, from both the beats of Harvey and West's valve, when any substance obstructed its perfect doling, presented also a small area for the pressure to act upon ; but as it discharged the water laterally, it required an increased space around the seating. The model exhibited a valve, introduced by Messrs. Palmer and Perkins, upon a principle, by which concussion might be considerably reduced, by bringing into action, a part of the superincumbent pressure, to check the descent in closing the orifice. This valve had not yet been tried in large pumps; but the opinions of practical men appeared to be in its favour.' ^ In the construction of all valves, it was of importance, not only to attend to the points which had been mentioned, but also to their durability, and their facility of removal and repair. The actual cost of the valves was of little importance, when compared with the labour and hindrance in removing, or changing them, where the influx of water was great. Serious expense, and loss of time, were frequently occasioned by such stoppages, and the deeper parts of the mines, were exposed to obstructions, which were overcome with great difficulty, notwithstanding many ingenious and well-arranged contriv- ances, to render the process of repair easy and exp^editious. Very powerful capstans and other means were provided for these emergencies, and as the labour of fifty or sixty men was someiimes required to work these machines, it would be easily conceived, how important it was, that such operations should occur as seldom as possible, and that the most perfect and durable construction should be aimed at. Mr. Perkins observed, that although at the first view, a certain degree of resemblance might appear to exist, between Belidor's valve and the disc valve of Palmer and Perkins, there existed in reality, but little similarity between them. The former was placed horizontally, whether used as a clack or as a bucket ; in all cases it required to be adjusted to a seating formed of reversed cones, like the ring of a steam throttle valve ; and it was always attached to a packed bucket or piston. Whereas the latter worked at an inclination of about ^ of the diameter of the pump ; it was adjusted within the bored pipe without any seating; and it formed a piston witliout any packing. Its form being that of an oblique section of a solid cyhnder, whose diameter was equal to the interior of the working barrel, and the line of its suspension being beyond the diameter, the areas of the two portions of its surface were un- equal ; consequently, there was more pressure on one side of the line of sus- pension, than on the other. By this extra amount of pressure, the disc was turned on its axis, allowing a free passage for the water, parallel with the sides of the pump. The closing of the lower valve on the return stroke was, for this reason, without noise or concussion. It was evident also, that as packing was not necessary for the disc piston, and as the rubbing surface of its periphery was very small, the friction must be greatly diminished. Messrs. Bramah and Robinson, made an experiment for comparing a pump, with a packed bucket and butterfly valves, with one having a disc piston ; the diameter of both pumps was 10 inches, with a stroke of 8 inches, a lever of six to one, and a lift of water of o feet ; it was found that the former required a force equal to 460 lbs., and the latter 196 lbs to complete a stroke. As re- garded their duration; a disc pump 7 inches diameter, with a .stroke of 8 inches, and a lift of 40 feet, drawing its water through 600 feet of suction pipe, rising in that length 28 feet vertically, and worked by a steam engine 26 strokes per minute, had been foimd, after working nearly night and day, at the Equitable Gas Works, during fifteen months, without repair, to exhibit but little appearance of wear in the piston, and both it, and the clack valve, were perfectly tight. As the subject appeared to interest the Institution, he promised to present, on a future occasion, a more detailed account of some similar pumps, with the actual results obtained. Mr. Lowe corroborated the statement, of the efliciency and duration of the valve, used at the Equitable Gas Works ; its friction was necessarily very 1 4 The annexed engraving of a treble ring valve, tig. 13, is a section of Mr. Simpson's valve described by Mr. Homersham, in his pa;ier of last session before referred to. It is a conical valve formed of rings, shutting down upon separate seatings, allowing a passage for the water both inside and outside the rings. Valves of this construction have been introduced at the Lambeth and Chelsea water works. The valve at the Lambeth works is 3I> inches diameter, the perpendicular rise or lift when fully open does not exceed 12 inches. The clear uninterrupted aiea through which the water passes is more than two thirds of the whole area of the valve, the internal diameter of the scaling being 27 inches. The valve at the Chelsea works is -43^ inches diameter, and the greatest height to which the rings of the valve rise, does exceed '2\ inches. 15 A valve of a very similar construction is described in Belidor's "Architecture Hy- dralique," vol. iii., p. 2S1, as having been int'-oduced by him in 1737, for the improvement of the waterworks at the Pont Notre Dame, Paris. The situation of the pivot of the valve, is described to be, at one-twel'th part beyond the line of the geometrical diameter of tbe pump-barrel. 192 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [Mat, small, for as it formed at the same time both piston and Talve, and in the return stroke, from its nearly vertical position in the working barrel, the parts in contact, were reduced to the area of the points of the minor axis of the disc, the friction was in proportion to that area. As a seat valve, he thought it less liable to become defective, than any other, as it was scarcely possible for any sand, or other foreign matter to lodge upon it, and the valves which he had seen at work did not show any symptoms of being so affected. Mr. Farcy said, that it was an axiom relative to steam engines, that their action became more perfect as their size increased, but that this could not apply correctly to pump valves ; for as their size had augmented, the difficul. ties in their construction had been more fully developed. With small valves it had been considered, that the vertical height of the lift of a clack, should be one-fourth of the diameter of the barrel, but it was evident that rule could not be adhered to with large valves. Other forms, allowing a free passage for the water, had therefore been resorted to, and with great success, but there was still room for improvement. He had a high opinion of the valve, which had been used originally by Messrs. Boulton and Watt, and which was called, from its form, the 'Bishop's cap,' It consisted of four triangular flaps of leather, hinged on the periphery of the valve and meeting in the centre ; the number of these flaps had l)een, he believed, increased to six and eight for very large sizes, and they afforded a very free passage for the water. Much yet remained to be done, in improving the valves of the air pumps of steam engines, especially in adapting them to the speed of the engine, so as to avoid the loss of power, consequent on drawing, or forcing the water through contracted passages. Mr. Jordan was happy to find his opinion of the disc valve corroborated. He had viewed it almost entirely as a clack valve, on which the whole weight of the column of water would rest, and for that purpose he thought it particularly suited, lie could not agree in the opinion that chips of wood or other sub- stances, would be liable to accumulate near the axis, and render it leaky. He thought, on the contrary, that it would clear itself very easily, and as the faces or seats were vertical, it was not possible for anything to rest upon them. It had been urged that these valves were difficult of construction, and would scarcely be found tight, under a very heavy column. He conceived however, that with modern machinery, there could not be any trouble in making them perfectly accurate, and that the simple addition of a beard of leather, fixed on the upper side of the longer portion of the valve, and to the seating at the shorter part, would render the valves quite tight. Mr. Homersham observed, that any particular form and proportion of a valve, which enabled it to answer well, in one situation, was no criterion of its doing the same, under other circumstances ; for instance, the suction and delivery valves, of the pump of a Cornish mine engine, required to be dif- ferently proportioned ; as in order to follow the speed of the plunger, the water was oliliged to move through the former, more rapidly than through the latter ; for the velocity of the down stroke of the steam piston of a Cornish engine, was chiefly regulated by the portion of the stroke at which the steam was cut oft", whereas its velocity in going out, was most usually ad- justed by varying the period of the pause at the end of the stroke ; although it was also somewhat governed by the number of strokes per minute, which were required to be made. Therefore, as the plunger always moved quicker in the former, than in the latter case, the velocity of the passage of the water through the suction valve (unless its area was increased), was greater than through the delivery valve, and the moving part of the valve, against which the water impinged, required to be heavier in the former than in the latter, to insure its closing, before the return stroke of the engine com- menced. This had been pointed out in his paper on valves, which was read in the last session, and a rule was given '^ for their relative weights, which should always be in proportion to the velocity of the water passing through them ; if this were not attended to, and they were both made of the same weight, the delivery valve would not open freely, and thus more weight would be required to carry the engine • outside,' and the duty would be diminished. He was therefore of opinion, that every valve required to be adjusted expressly for the situation in which it was placed, and the duty it was required to perform. Mr. Galloway drew the attention of the meeting, to a pump which was in- troduced by Mr. Jacob Perkins in 1820, " and was rewarded by the Society of Arts. 'The barrel consisted of four boards, nailed together, so that its horizontal section formed a square. Tlie bucket-rod was enlarged to a broad end, intersecting the square diagonally ; to this, two valves were affixed by leathern hinges. Their form was that of an isosceles triangle, the base of each being united to the rod, and the other sides resting, in an inclined position, against the inner sides of the barrel, filling the entire area. In the down stroke of the bucket, this form offered little opposition to the water, and was sufficiently tight for common purposes, with but little friction. Mr. Galloway subsequently constructed a pump with a wooden barrel, in which the valve was in one piece ; the preponderating action, like that of the oval 16 The following is the rule refered to by Mr. Homersham. " The mean velocity of the water in feet per second through the valve being ascertained, one half more is added, and considered as the ma.ximum velocity of the water through the valve, and the height of the head of water being found that would produce the velocity, every 13 inches of such height is then considered as equal to an ounce weight avoirdupoise acting upon every square inch contained in the area of the valve, against which the water impinged in its passage to the pump barrel, allowance lieing made for the ditference of the weight ot the ring when immersed in water, compared with its weight in the air." 1 7 Vide " Transactions of the Society of Arts," 1820, vol. xxxviii., p. 106. disc pump, was effected, by giving the barrel the form ot a trapezium, the valve being suspended by an axis, which crossed it at the bases of the two unequal parts. Neither the trapezium valve, nor that of Jacob Perkins, were, he conceived, generally applicable ; their utility would not extend beyond domestic purposes, or those countries, where the means of boring cylindrical barrels were not attainable. Mr. Galloway was of opinion, that the principal objections to the eUiptical disc valve were, first, that as the axis of the valve, did not coincide with the minor axis of the ellipse, the spindle would either benp, on the valve being raised to a vertical position, or it would not fit the cylinder when it was shut; secondly, that there was no compensation for abrasion, across the minor axis, so that when the valve was worn, either by the friction of sand or from other causes, it would become leaky. Mr. Gal- loway then exhibited a form of valve, by v\'hich he submitted these objections would be obviated. If an ellipse was intersected diagonally, at an angle of 45° with the major and minor axes, and one portion was turned over, so as to produce a heart-sbaped figure, when joined to the other portion by a hinge ; it was obvious that these two leaves, when placed in a cylinder, would fill the cavity as the original ellipse had done ; both the minor and major axes being at different angles. These leaves being supported from beneath by rods with ball and socket joints, the wear in any direction, would be com- pensated by the extension of the leaves, as their constant tendency was to become horizontal. The rocking rods, acting at points on the leaves, where the preponderance of surface was in one direction, enabled the water to open and close them, with that easy motion which was so much desired in heavy lifts. Mr. Jordan wished it particularly to be understood, that he hal directed attention to the disc valve, hoping that from its simplicity of action, it might be tried and found serviceable, for the clacks of deep mine pumps, of large diameter, and working under a column of from 10 to 50 fathoms in height. There was little doubt of the valve being tight under ordinary circumstances, and with short lifts, but when a heavy column of water, was allowed to rest upon a valve, the slightest inaccuracy was detected. Mr. Homersham differed in opinion with Mr. Jordan, as to the applica- bility of the disc valves to deep mine-pumps. He conceived there would be a certain amount of difficulty, in constructing them so as to be perfectly tight, under a heavy column of water, and the spindle or pivot of the valve, would require to be of large diameter, to insure its being strong enough to bear the pressure. It was also necessary, for the perfect action of the valve of a pumping engine, that it should be closed, by the time the piston of the pump arrived at the top, or the bottom of its stroke ; this could only be ac- complished, by the weight of the valve, balancing the maximum velocity of the water put in motion through it, so that it should begin to close, as the flow of w.tter diminished, and be quite closed, when the motion of the piston ceased ; this, he conceived, would be difficult to accomplish, with the valve then under consideration. Mr. Palmer remarked, with reference to these objections, that the opinions given, were clearly in opposition to facts, deduced from fifteen months ope- ration of this pump, raising water under a vertical column of 40 feet, during which period, the slip or loss of water, approached nearer to the calculated result, than any pump duty that had come under his observation. In refer- ence to the second objection, it was quite clear the valve-spindle must be of adequate strength, to support the column of water the pump had to lift : he believed that no greater evil (considered in an abstract sense) could result from the use of a large spindle, than an increased friction at its bearings, and a corresponding loss of velocity in the fall of the valve. These evils were, however, neutralized by increasing the excentricity of the spindle, and thereby enlarging the valve's area above the spindle, which increased area would always be considered, in reference to the altitude of the column of water above the valve, in order to insure the least loss of water, and at the same time to avoid the percussive action, so detrimental in other pumps. As regarded the third objection, namely, that there woidd be great difficulty in keeping the disc-valve perfectly tight ; he would remark, that in the pump referred to, the minor axis of the piston was not sensibly worn, while the major axis was shortened T^Tttl'S of an inch, but still preserving the true ellip- tic form, and fitting the pump as accurately as when first put into action, although the piston had made upwards of 16,800,000 double strokes, and had travelled over a rubbing surface exceeding 2,100 miles, during the up- ward or effective stroke. The wear of the clack-valve at the major axis was less than ^^jth part of an inch, while at the minor axis it had undergone no change, although the number of beats it had made equalled the number of strokes of the pump. The modifications of the elliptic disc piston and valve into the trapezium form, as proposed by Mr. Galloway, appeared to him to be attended, not only with a considerable increase of cost in the manufacture and the fitting of the trapezium valve, and the working-barrel, but also in- creasing the amount of rubbing surface, with a corresponding amount of wear and tear, as compared with a pump having the elliptic valve performing the like amount of duty. The two semi-elliptic valves proposed by Mr. Galloway, were ingenious, but they were contrived with the view of remedy- ing an evil that did not really exist in the discelliptic piston valve, namely, wear and tear of the minor axis, and leakage at the parts supposed to be worn ; nor would the action of the two elliptic leaves, he conceived, be as efficient as the simple elliptic disc piston valve. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 193 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. By Professor Brands, F.R.S., &ic. Lecture VIII. — Delivered at the Royal Institution, March 10, 1844. (Specially reported/or this Journal,) Quitting now the consideration of the ultimate elements of plants, attention will be directed to the substances elaborated from them by the plant, into which, by its vital functions, it converts the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, by grouping them together in various proportions. This operation, which is the peculiar province of the plant, and which the animal is com- pletely unable to perform, is an operation almost as yet beyond the skill of the chemist, who can in some cases, change one of these elaborated substances into another, but cannot, except in some small isolated cases, construct them from their elements. It has been shown iliat plants do not feed on carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen in their crude state, nor until Ihey have com- binfd into forms which may be considered as intermediate between organic and inorganic matter, viz., water, ammonia, and carbonic acid, and decom- posing and recombining their ultimate elements, produce these secondary products, which are termed the proximate elements of plants, and are known by the names of gum, starth, sugar, gluten, fibrin, albumen, lignin, resin, oil, &c. These are of the greatest importance to the agriculturist, because it is on these that animals live, and therefore on their relative proportion depends the value of a crop. The proportion in which two of these pro.Nimate elements aie present in some of the commonest crops, is shown by the following list : Starch. Gluten. Wheat flour, from 39 to 77 8 to 35 per cent. Eye 50 „ 61 9 „ 13 „ Barley 67 „ 70 3 ,, 6 „ Oat 70 „ 80 2„ 5 „ Rice 84 „ 85 Buck wheat 50 „ 60 Peas and Beans . 40 „ 50 Potatoe . 10 „ 15 The proportion varies according to mode of growth, soil, climate, &c. The manner in which the plant takes up the carbonic acid, the water and thj ammonia, by the roots and leaves, regulated by light and heat, will be con- sidered at the next meeting. The proximate elements thus produced, having contributed to the support of one generation of animals, by decomposition become the substances suitable for the food of plants, which are again de. voured by the animal, and in this manner the chain of creation is kept up. In the ultimate analysis of the organic constituents of plants, we arrive bu' at one result, the oft-told tale of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen ; but in the proximate analysis we arrive at an infinite variety of substances' in which the fecundity of nature, in producing from four elements so great a diversity of distinct bodies, is powerfully shown. By burning and other destructive means the ultimate elements are separated ; but to procure thg proximate elements, much milder processes are adopted. As an illustration of the ordinary methods adopted, the examination of the composition of wheat flour may be taken. If this be put in a muslin bag, and agitated in water, it will be seen that a white powder, which is the starch, will separate from it and fall to the bottom of the water, whilst a peculiar adhesive fibrous substance will be left in the bag, resembling birdlime. This, which is termed gluten and on the relative quantity of which in flour its value as food depends, in- stead of being a simple substance, is a very compound one ; for hoi alcoho digested on it, takes up some substances and leaves fibrin, as it cools it de- posits caseum, and if evaporated, will leave glutine. Ether digested on this, dissolves from it some fat. The water in which the flour was washed holds gum and sugar in solution, and after filtration from the starch, on boiling, a substance is separated analiigous to white of egg, termed albumen. In this manner can be separated, from an apparently homogeneous substance, the following proximate elements ;— gluten, fibrin, caseum, glutine, fat, starch sugar, gum, and albumen. In this manner are the processes conducted for separating organic substances into their several proximate parts. These may be grouped under four heads, according to their ultimate elements. Class I. Where the carbon has hydrogen and oxygen in the exact propor- tion for forming water. Class II. Where the oxygen is in excess over this proportion. Class III. M'here the hydrogen is in excess. Class IV. Where, in addition to the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, nitro- gen forms a part. The first class, which may be considered as composed of carbon and water contains gum, sugar, starch, wood, and other neutral bodies. The second class, in which there is excess of hydrogen, contains the resinous bodies, such as resin, wax, oil, fat, &c. The third class, with excess of oxygen, contains the vegetable acids. The fourth class, characterized by the presence of nitrogen, contains the alcaloids, gluten, albumen, gelatine, 8ic. The peculiarities of each group must be next considered. The first giou^j can be converted the one into the other slightly by art, but readily by nature. And when tlie similarity of their chemical composition is con8i'hich form axles to the rollers c, e ; these rollers are bevelled oflf at each end and made to fit against corresponding bevelled parts as"will be clearly seen, thereby preventing the axle a, b, moving endways. The carrier c, c, and rollers e, c, being put together are in the first place slipped into the box g, g, the rollers together with the box are then slipped over or upon the axle a, h, and secured by the nuts h, and end plate i. The axle being put in motion, the rollers e, e, besidi'S having a rotary motioniwill be carried, together with the carrier plates c, c, round the main axes a, b. The inventor claims the application of friction rollers or wheels to axles, such rollers having rounded or bevelled ends, and mounted or supported by carrier plates, which fit loosely upon the axle and revolve round the axle as well as the rollers, some being kept together by means of caps, screws, or other contrivance. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MANUFACTUEE OF ZINC. James Graham, of Wapping, Middlesex, for ' Improvements in the construc- tion of pots and vessels, and furnaces used in the manufacture of zinc, and in other manufactures, and also improvements in the treatment of the ores of zinc, in the process nf manufacturing zmc."— Granted October 18, 1843 j Enrolled April 18, 1844, reported in the Mechanics' Magazine. 1. The improvement in the construction of pots and vessels. The mould for the external surface is composed of a number of staves bound together with hoops, which, instead of being rivetted together at the two ends are joined by screws, whereby they are readily slackened to allow the staves to e withdrawn when the vessel has been formed inside. This mould is dropped upon a core placed in an upright position, which regulates the internal form and thickness of the pot or other vessel ; the core being secured at the base by means of stays, leaving an open space all round, into which the composi- tion for the formation of the pot is rammed by a tool made for the purpose. In the top of the pop, as thus moulded, but which subsequently becomes the bottom, tl'.ere is an aperture left which serves to receive a pipe to convey off the metal into the receivers in the manner next described. 2. The imiiroveraents in furnaces. Each furnace consists of an arched oven, jn which a number of the pots or crucibles before described are set ; the flues being so arranged, that the action of the fire may come into play all round their external surfaces. Every pot has a pipe perforated throughout its whole length with small holes, inserted into the^hole in the"bottom of the same, and standing up on the inside to nearly the same.height with the sides , through these small holes the vapour of the metal, as it is driven off by the heat, escapes, and is conveyed downwards by means of another pipe attached to the bottom of the pot on the outside, into receivers placed in a chamber formed below the furnace, where it is collected as condensed. The vapour cannot ascend as the pots are furnished with lids, which are securely luted on after the charge has been put in. 3. The improvements in the treatment of the ores in zinc. The products arising from the distillation of the ores of zinc are retained by another set of pipes leading from the bottom of the pots. When blende is distilled, the sulphuric acid is collected in chambers, such as are commonly used in the manufacture of that acid ; and when calamine is being reduced, the carbonic- acid gas may be collected for any of the purposes to which it is applied. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MOTIVE POWER. Lectures on Electricity. By Henry M. Noad. Loudon : George Knight & Sons, 1844. (.Second Notice. J On the previous occasion, in advertmg to this useful work, we availed our- selves of some of its more general features, we shall now refer to tliat part wdiich is particularly interesting to our readers, the application of the electro- magnetic sciences to mechanical purposes. The connection of electricity and magnetism, on the phenomena of which the practical applications are based, hail been long suspected ; the German philosophers in particular, devoted their attention to this subject, though in the last century great diversity of opinion jjrevailed. In a memorable discussion, promoted by the oifering of a prize on the part of the Electoral Academy of Bavaria, it was maintained by Professor Van .'^winden that the resemblance between the operations of elec- tricity and magnetism was apparent only, and had no real basis. He conse- quently considered the power of each was distinct in its nature. Pro- fessors Steigelehner and Hiibner took the opposite side, and contended for the doctrine now received, that both sets of phenomena are derived from the same cause. It was not, however, until 1819 that this ijuestion was set at rest by Professor Oersted, of Copenhagen, to whose important discovery we have since been so much indebted. " The fact observed by Oersted was, that when a magnetic needle was brought near the connecting medium, (whether a metallic wire, or charcoal» or even saline fluids, of a closed voltaic circle,) it was immediately dellected from its natural position, and took up a new one, depending on the relative positions of the needle and wire. If the connecting medium was placed hori- zontally over the needle, that pole of the latter which was nearest to the «c- gative end of the battery, always moved ivestivard ; if it was placed under, the same pole moved to the east. If the connecting wire was placed parallel with the needle, that is, brought into the same horizontal plane in which the needle was moving, then no motion of the needle in that plane took place, but a tendency was exhibited in it, to move in a vertical circle, the pole nearest the negative side of the battery being depressed when the wire was to the laest of it, and elevated when it was placed on the eastern side. Fig. 2 represents Fig.l. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. a convenient arrangement 'for exhibiting the action of a wire conducting a current of Electricity on the magnetic needle, a a, two turned wooden pil- lars screwed into a base board B, and surmounted by two mercury cups c c. n, a copper wire, the ends of which dip into the mercury, as do also the wires connected with the opposite extremities of a simple voltaic battery. A cur- rent of Electricity can thus be made to pass either way along the wire D : c is the magnetic needle nicely poised on a wire, which by the screw G may be elevated or depressed, and the needle thus set either above or below the wire D, or it may be removed and replaced by the dipping needle 6 fig. 1. As in all electro-magnetic researches, it is necessary to bear in mind these affections of the needle and electrified wire ; several contrivances have been made to assist the memory respecting the details. Fig. 3 , represents the plan of Dr. Roget. .1 BSsa. slip of card, on each side of which, a line rt 4 is drawn along the middle of its length, the end n being marked + , the end b — , and the cen- tre c being crossed by an arrow, at right angles to it, directed as in the figure. Through the centre, and at right angles to the plane of the slip of card, there is made to pass, a slender stem of wood, [at the two ends of which, are fixed in planes, parallel to the slip of card A B, the circular discs of card marked respectively with the letters N and S, and with arrows parallel to, but pointing in a contrary direction to the one at c. Tlie same marks must be put on the reverse of each of the three pieces of card, so that when held in different situations they may be seen without turning the instrument. "If the line a b, be supposed to represent the connecting wire, (the direction of the current of Electricity being denoted by the signs + and — at the ends of the line) the arrow at the centre will point out the direction in which it tends to move, when under the influence of the north pole of a magnet, situated at N ; or of a south pole situated on the other side, as at S; and vice versa the arrows JVand S, will indicate the directions in which the north and south pole respectively tend to revolve round the connecting wire in its vicinity, with relation lo the direction of the current of Pilectricity, that is pa^ ing through it. It must be observed that the poles N, S, are not consi- de d as in connection with each other, or as forming parts of one magnet ; th r operations are exhibited singly and quite independently of each other- T c advantaj^e of the instrument consists in its being capable of being held in any situation, and thus easily adapted to the circumstances of any fact or peijmtnt ol which we may wisli to examine the theory," 200 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [May, It was Amptrc who first succeeded in effecting the rotation of a magnet round its own ;ixis. He effected this by placing a magnet without support in a vessel of mercury, hut kept in a vertical position by a weight of platinum, attached to its lower end. The object in this experiment was to make the electrical current pass through one half of the magnet, and then, having diverted or broken it from its course, to make it pass away in such a direction as not to affect the other lialf. The reason assigned for this is that supposing a positive current is made to descend a magnet placed vertically, with its north pole uppermost, it would tend to urge that pole round from right to left, but it would have the reverse influence on the south pole, for it would urge it round from left to right. Taking another supposition, that there are two electrical currents, corresponding to the vitrious and resinous electrici- ties, still the tendencies would bo the same. In the experiment just alluded to of Ampere, the electric current after passing through the upper portion of the magnet, then goes into the mercury, through which it is diffused, and in no sensible respect affects the lower portion, nor interferes with the rotation produced by its means on the upper pole. A better mode is, however, now- employed for effecting this object by carrying off the current in a different channel, which is effected by means of an apparatus constructed by Mr. Wat- kins. A flat bar magnet is supported in a vertical position by an upright metal wire, fixed in the base of the apparatus, and having a hole in the cen- tre, containing an agate cup, to receive the lower pointed end of the magnet; its upper end turns in another hole, made in a vertical screw with the milled head to turn it by. This is passed through a screwhole made in an arched piece of wire screwed to the upper part of the platform or base. Around the vertical wire first described a cistern is placed to hold mercury, and another cistern is provided having a hole in its centre, to allow the magnet to pass through, and revolve within it near the middle of the magnet. The cisterns have metal wires projecting into them, through their sides.and supports, cups of mercury, for the purpose of completing the communication by connecting wires with the voltaic battery. Two small curved and pointed wires are fixed to the magnet, and the ends of the wires dip into the mercury in the cistern. The voltaic circuit having been completed the magnet begins to revolve within Ihe electricity, which it conducts itself, forming indeed a part of the circuit. In the.se experiments, the rapidity of the rotations of the magnet depends upon the delicacy of the point of suspension, as much as on the strength of the magnet itself, or the power of the voltaic battery combined. To act upon a large magnet, a cup, to contain mercury, must be provided and fixed to the vertical screw, by means of which and another battery an electric current can be passed from Ihe top of the magnet to its equator, and an opposite current from its lower end to the equator, so that an additional force is obtained. The vibratory tendency of electrified « ire is a step beyond this. Mr. Marsh employs a slender wire, suspended from a loop and capable of free motion. Its lower end is amalgamated, and dips into a cistern of mercury. A cup at the top of the wire, and another below it are also filled with mercury, and through them the electric current is passed down the loose wire, but no motion is perceptible until a horse-shoe magnet is placed in a horizontal position on the platform, with its poles enclosing the wire, when the wire is instantly moved backwards and forwards, according to the position of Ihe poles and the di- rection nf the current. The wire thus thrown out of the mercury the circuit is broken, and the effect ceases until the wire falls back by its own weighty when the operation is resumed, and soon produces a succession of vibrations. By employing a spur wheel, with a similar apparatus, this motion can be converted into one of rotation, though after all the division of the wheel into rays is not absolutely necessary, for a circular disc of metal will do quite as well. This is a very interesting and a very pretty experiment, when tried on a considerable scale, as the wheel revolves with immense velocity, and streams of coloured sparks burst from it. The rotation of coils, wires, helices, &c., is well illustrated by an appara- tus of Messrs. Knight, of Foster Lane. In Ihe usual plans, mercury is em- ployed, but Messrs. Knight dispense with it, and produce a useful modifica- tion of Ritchie's rotating magnet. "In Fig. 4 a horse-shoe magnet is represented supported on a Iripod stand .^'K- ^- withlevellingscrews. .:/ .^ is the mag- net ; B the tripod stand, C C two cir- cular wooden cisterns for holding mer- cury and capable of being adjusted at any reqnjrej height by binding screws, E E are two light w ire frames, F F two helices, // a Ritchie's rotating magnet ; on the tops of the wire frames and helices are small cups to contain a drop of mercury, G is a piece of brass wire bent twice at right angles and terminated at each end by a fine point to dip into the globules of mer- cury : it can be raised or depresst-d without disturbing Ihe general arrange- ment of Ihe apparatus as a simple inspection of the figure will show. " When the rotating magnet is set in aclion in this apparatus a loud hum ming noise and sometimes a loud musical sound is excited by the rapid vibra- tory motion assumed by the fixed magnet during the rapid revolution of the electro-magnet. This musical sound is best observed when the levelling screws of the tripod are placed on a mahogany table in the middle of a large room. For tlie electro-magnet i/^ a simple coil of wire maybe substitued, the rotation of which will be exceedingly rapid, its faces becoming alternately attracted and repelled by Ihe poles of the magnet." The power of the electro-magnet is a great consideration, and in order to Fig. 5. produce the greatest effect of electro-magnetic induction onsi.ftiron, thecurrentmust be made to encircle it by passing through a considerable length of insulated copper wire wound round the iron. A great length of wire is, however, found to weaken the effect of the current, and it is considered better that the total length of the wire intended to be used should be cut into several portions, each of which, covered with silk or cotton thread to prevent lateral commu- nication, is to be coiled separately on the wire. Tile ends of all Ihe wires, Mr. Noad directs, must then be collected into two separate parcels and made to communicate with the same voltaic battery, taking, however, precautions that the current shall pass along each wire in Ihe same direction. The accompanying engraving shews a simple arrangement of the electro-magnet, mounted on a wooden stand with a small scale pan attached to Ihe bit or keeper of Ihe magnet. So intense is the magnetic power thus induced on the iron that weights of upwards of half a Ion can be sustained. Mr. Noad's large magnet, weighing one hundred- weight, will sustain, when excited by an energetic compound battery, from 10 to 14 cwt. ; but Mr. Richard Robert's magnet, weighing 35 lbs., with an ar- mature 23 lbs. in weight, when excited by a battery of eight pair of Sturgeon's cast iron jars, is reported to have sustained a weight of 2950 lbs., or upwards of 26 cwt. Mr. Noad's magnet supported a weight of 14 to I, but Mr. Ro- bert's of 84 to I without the armature, or 50 to 1 reckoning the gross weight. We should like to sec such a magnet under the oper.alion of Armstrong's hydro-electric battery at Ihe Polytechnic Institution. At any rate there are indications the sustaining weight is very great. Mr. Radford's magnet, weighing 18J lbs. and with an armature of 14}lbs., e.xcited by a battery of twelve of Sturgeon's cast iron jars, sustained a weight of 2500 lbs., or 22 cwt. The results are as follows :— Weight of \V,;ight of Magnet. Armature. Noad's magnet Roberts's . . Radford's , . Joule's . . . lb. 35 m 23 Hi Total Weight. 111. 112 58 32* m '' Weight sustained, lb. 1568 2950 2500 2710 Proportion Proportion to Net to Gross Weight of Weight of Magnet. Magnet. 84 137 lb. 14 50 76 236 The intensity of a magnet of the weight of Mr. Noad's, constructed on the same principle as Mr. Radford's, and excited by an adequate power, would sustain at least twelve tons weight, if Ihe power do not increase, indeed, in a much greater proportion. It is singular, however, that in these experiments the power should be inversely as the weight. Mr. Noad thus describes Mr. Joule's magnet. ■■The third electro-magnet alluded to, is that of Mr. J. P Joule, and is Fig. 6. affixed to the lower rin; Fig. 7. be very conjiderably augmented." shown in Fig 6. B iJ, are two rings of brass, each 12 inches in exterior diameter, two inches in breadth and one inch in thickness ; to each of these pieces of iron are affixed, by means of the bolt headed screws, s s,_&ic. : 24 of these are groovcdi and fastened to the upper ring ; 24 are plain and A bundle, IV IV, consisting of sixteen copper wires, each of which was sixteen feet long, and one-twentieth of an inch thick),coveredwithadoublefold of thick col- ton tape, was bent in a zig-zag direction about the grooved pieces. Fig. 7 represents the method adopted for giving, the electro-magnetic ring a firm and equable suspension : a, a, arc hoops of wrought iron, to each of w hich four bars of Ihe same metal are riveted and welded together at Ihe other end into a very strong hook. The hoops are bound down to the brass rings by means of copper wires. The weight of the pieces of grooved iron was 7-025 lbs., and that of the plain pieces 4-55 lbs. ; and when excited by 16 pairs of the cast iron battery, ar- ranged into a series of four, a w-eight of '2,710 lbs. was suspended from the armature, without separating it from the electro-maguet ; and Mr. Joule -thinks, that by the use of some precautions, which have occurred to him since making his first experiments, the actual power will 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL 231 The application of electro-magnetic power to a practical purpose has occu- pied the attention of many able and ingenious men, and it has been carried to such an extent that its ultimate success may be foreseen, although, at the present moment, economical difficulties stand in the way. The number of these inventions is very great, so that we may anticipate, from the amount of time and talent devoted to the subject, a practical solution of the problem is not far distant. To give anything like a connected history of this subject would take up far more time than it is in our power to afford, neither is it necessary to do more than allude to some of the more prominent plans, which exhibit the principles on which the inventors have proceeded. In 1837, Mr. Davenport, of Vermont, U. S., took out a patent for a rotary engine, thus c nstructed : the moving part is composed of two Iron bars, placed horizon- ally, and crossing each otherat right angles, these are covered with insulated copper \vire, and sustained by a vertical axis, and having proper connection with the voltaic battery in the usual mode. Two semicircles of strongly mag- netized steel form an entire circle, interrupted at the two opposite poles only, and within this circle, which is placed horizontally, the galvanized iron cross moves in such a manner that its iron segments revolve parallel, and very near, to the magnetic circle and in the same plane. The axis of the cross at its upper end is fitted by a horizontal cogwheel to another larger vertical wheel to the horizontal axis of which the weight is attached, and raised by the winding of a rope. By the galvanic connection these crosses and their con- nected segments are magnetized, acquiring north and south polarity at their opposite ends ; and being thus suljjected to the attracting and repelling force of the circular fixed-magnet a rapid horizontal movement Is produced, at the rate of six hundred revolutions in a minute, when a large calorimotor is em- ployed. The movement is stopped in an instant by breaking the contact with the battery, and then reversed by simply Interchanging the connexion of the w ires of the battery with those of the machine, when it becomes equally rapid in the opposite direction. We should remark for the benefit of our readers that Mr. Noad's eighth lecture contains much useful information as to electro-magnetic motive power, and electro-magnetic locomotion, from which lecture we select the following list of some electro-magnetic machines, with the references to the periodicals in which descriptions are contained. " Sturgeon's Electro-magnetic Engine for turning Machinery. ' Annals of Electricity.' Vol. i. p. 7-5. "Jacobi's valuable paper on the application of Electro-magnetism to the moving of machines, with a description of an Electro-magnetic Engine. 'Annals of Electricity.' Vol. 1. p. 408-119. Mr. Joule's Electro-magnetic Engine. 'Annals of Electricity.' Vol. il. p. 122. "Mr. Davenport's Electro-magnetic Engine. ' Annals of Electricity.' Vol. ii. p. 257. "The Rev. F. Lockey's Electro-magnetic Engine. ' Annals of Electricity. Vol. iii. p. 14. "Dr. Page on Electro-magnetism as amoving power. 'Annals of Electri- city.' Vol. iii. p. 554. " Mr. Joule's second Engine. ' Annals of Electricity.' Vol. iv. p. 203. " Mr. Uriah Clarke's Engine. ' Annals of Electricity.' Vol. v. p. 33. " Mr. Thomas Wright's Engine. 'Annals of Electricity.' Vol. v. p. 108. " Mr. U. Clarke's Electro-magnetic Locomotive Carriage. ' Annals of Electricity.' Vol. v. p. 304. •' Jacobi on the 'Principles of Electro-magnetical Machines.' Report of the Meeting of the British Association in Glasgow in September, 1S40. ' An- nals of Electricity.' Vol. vi. p. 152. (This is a most valuable paper, and is well deserving of attentive study.) " Mr. Robert Davidson's Electro-magnetic Locomotive. ■ Engineers' Ma- gazine,' &c. Part 15, p. 48. " Mr. Taylor's Engine. ' Mechanics' Magazine.' Vol. xxxii. p. 694. " Mr. Watkln's Electro-motive Machine. ' Phil. Mag.' Vol. .\ii. p. 190. "An Inquiry into the possibility and advantage of the application of Elec- tro-magnetism as a moving power, by the Rev. James William M'Gauley. " Report of the Proceedings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at the Dublin Meeting, August, 1835.'' In 1838, as it will be remembered, Capt. Taylor's eleclro-magnetic engine was exhibited. It is thus described: — "Mr. Taylor employs as his prime movers, a series of electro-magnets, which are alternately and almost Instan- taneously magnetized and de-magnetized, without any change of polarity whatever taking pl.ice, and In bringing certain other masses of iron or electro- magnets successively under the influence of the said prime movers w hen In a magnetized state, and in de-magnetizing the said prime movers as soon, (or nearly so.) and as often as their attractive power ceases to opei'ale with ad- vantage; or in other, and perhaps plainer words, his Invention consists in letting on or cutting off a stream of the electric fluid in such alternate, quick, and regular succession, to and from a series of electro-magnets, that they act always attractively or positively only, or with such a preponderance of positive attraction, as to exercise au uniform moving force upon any num- ber of masses of Iron or magnets placed so as to be conveniently acted upon. Mr. Henley constructed a very large electro-magnetic engine, on Cap- tain Taylor's plan, at the time that that gentleman took out his patent. The wheel was 7 feet in diameter, and weighed 4 cwt. This machine did some work, but at an enormous expense, 6 cwt. of suljihate of copper having been consumed in one week, in experiments alone. The battery employed con- tained 13 cwt. of metal." In 1837, Mr. Davidson had also applied himself to the subject. His machine dlders little in construction or principle from that of Capt. Taylor. In 1842, Mr. Davidson constructed a large electro-magnetic locomotive, and tried it on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway. " The carriage Is sixteen feet long and six feet broad and weighs above five tons, including batteries, magnets, &e. The electro-magnets are not one solid piece of iron, nor are they rounded behind. Each of the side parts or arms Is constructed of four plates of soft iron put together, so to form as it were a box for the sake of lightness. The arms are twenty-five inches long and joined together behind by plates of iron. Their rectangular poles measure eight by five inches, and at their nearest points are only about four inches asunder. The colls with which they are surrounded do not consist of a single copper wire, but of bundles of wire wrapped round with cloth to insure insulat'on. According to Mr. Davidson's first arrangement these magnets were placed so that their poles were nearly in contact with the revolving masses of iron in their transit: but su prodi- gious was the mutual attraction, that the means taken to retain the magnets and Iron in their assigned position were Insufficient." This machine only realized four miles an hour, being less than that of a single man, who could on a level railway move a carriage of the same weight with equal velocity. Professor Jacob!, of St. Pelersburgh, tried In 1838, at the expense of the Russian government, the experiment of propelling a boat by electro-magnet- ism. The vessel went at the rate of four miles an hour with the stream and three miles against it, which as Mr, Noad remarks, is more than was realized at first with tlie steam-boat. The accompanying engraving represents a small working model of an electro-magnelo-motive engine, constructed by Mr. Bain and improved by Messrs, Knight and Son. Fig. 8. ",0n to a stoutimahogany board'are fixed the brass uprights £ £; to these are attached the electro-magnets A B, covered with stout wire \ through the upper part of these uprights, and above the magnets, the two endsof the steel spindle c work ; this spindle carries about its centre an Iron bit, which is alternately attracted by the t«o magnets .1 and B, but prevented from abso- lute contact by pieces of paper ; another spindle in, at right angk s with c, and supported by the uprights /i //, carrying at one end the fly mIiccI /,-, and on the other a small pully. Is cranked In the centre and connected with c by the spring and hook b. At li are seen two brass springs bearing lightly on the spindle, which Is divided In the middle by a small piece of Ivory, so that one only is in contact at the same lime. The connections are formed thus : — one termination of the eleetru-magnet./ is connected to one of the upright springs bearing on the spindle, and the other termination to the binding screws seen at the end of the board. The one termination of theelectro-rnagnet/? is con- nected with the otiier spring, and the oiher extremity to the same binding screw to which one end of A was attached, the remaining binding screw being in connection by means of a wire with the brass box In which m works. The working of this machine Is greatly assisted by two spiral springs fixed under- neath the board attached to the moving bit. The whole arrangement per- forms extremely well, and no doubt if made on a large scale would be very powerful. 202 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [Mat, NEW LINES OF RAILWAY. We bave in the last number made some generalj'remarks on the state of the railway interest, and here it is our intention to give some account of the new lines, which are now before the public. In under- taking such a task many difficulties beset us, for some have only been jiaper plans and have already disappeared from the scene, and some have sustained defeat in the House of Commons. The number of projects, moreover, is so great as almost to defy complete enumera- tion, and to prevent any concise view being taken of their general bearings. We must, therefore, do the best we can with them, begin- ning wilh the north. The Dundee and Perth Railway is to have a capital of £250,000, and is chiefly supported by the local interests. It is to be connected with the chain of railways at Dundee, including the Dundee and Ar- broath, and Dundee and Newtyle, and Arbroath and Forfar, and is to run to Perth, a distance of 20 miles. The estimate is £250,000. At Perth, the line is taken up by the Scotch Central Railway, which runs by Stirling to the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway at Falkirk. The capital is £700,000; the line a light line 40 miles long, and the estimate £15,000 per mile. The local aristocracy and authorities strongly support it. A circuitous line is thus formed between Dundee and Edinburgh, andadirect line between Dundee and Glasgow, which is of great importance, for Dundee is engaged in the Eastland and linen trade as Glasgow is in the Western and cotton trade. Commu- nication is in fact opened up with the North Eastern Scotch counties to the rest of the country. A line is also talked of from Arbroath to Aberdeen, but many deep rivers have to be passed, though at the same time it must be admitted the coast is thickly covered with flourishing seaports. A bill is in the house for a short line called the Glasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridge Railway; and a line is re-agitated to proceed from Glasgow to Dumbarton and Loch Lomond, being20miles, and requiring a capital of £300,000. A more interesting arena is, however, the country to the south of Edinburgh and Glasgow, where many lines compete for the communi- cation with England. As Yorkshire and Lancashire on one side, and Glasgow and Edinburgh on the other, require lines on their own sides it is quite futile to think of a single line to serve all. In fact, the Gor- dian knot is cut by the introduction into the House of Commons of a bill for a railway, from Edinburgh along the coast to Berwick, called the North British. As this is a line required for local wants it can scarcely be objected to, and will be highly valuable to the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway proprietors as a continuation of their East and West line. From Berwick the associated Southern English lines are prepared to carry a line to Newcastle, thus providing for the commu- nication between Yorkshire and Edinburgh, but giving no adequate accommodation to Lancashire and Glasgow, much busier localities. A line is therefore in the field, following much the same route as the one surveyed by Mr. Hyde Clarke in 1S36, which goes from Glasgow by the existing railways to Paisley and Kilmarnock, and thence by Cumnock, Sanquhar, Dumfries' and Annan to Carlisle, a distance of 92 miles, costing £13,000 per mile. The capital proposed is £1,300,000. One of the competitors to this latter plan is called the Caledonian Railway, and follows Mr. Locke's line, and that adopted by the Go- vernment Commissioners, from Carlisle, by Lockerby, Symington, and Lanark. Here the line would diverge on the right to Edinburgh, and on the left to Glasgow. The capital proposed is £1,800,000. This would be a short line for the Lancashire people to Edinburgh and Glasgow. This line is promoted by the Grand Junction and Asso- ciated Lancashire Railways. The Scotch or Central Union Railway is to favour the views of the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway people, starting from Gilsland on that line and proceeding through the inland districts, with branches to Glasgow and Edinburgh. This line is scarcely likely to be a favourite, being supported by no strong interest, and promising benefit only to one party. From Carlisle a line is to be carried direct to Lancaster. This is supported by the Associated Lancashire lines, and the hill is before the House of Commons. Of the Cumberland West Coast line a further portion is proposed to be effected by the Whitehaven and Maryport line, which is connected with the railway system by the Maryport and Carlisle Railway. This Whitehaven Extension unites the coal ports ol Cumberland, and is certain of completion. In Furness, another joint of the West Coast or Morecambe Bay line is proposed to be effected, by means of the Furness Railway, "which is also before the house. With regard to the plan for the embankments of this line nothing at present is being done. In Lancashire, a line from Blackburn to Preston is before the legis- lature. The length of line is 9^ miles, the capital proposed £120,000. This will have a beneficial influence on the Preston lines. To Bury two lines are proposedi'one'called the Rossendale, another from the Manchester and Leeds. To join the Rossendale project a line is pro- posed called the Blackburn, Burnley, and Accrington, capital £400,000, which would advantageously open up the North-West district of Lancashire. These are the principal Lancashire lines, but many others interest the district. We must not, however, omit to notice a report that Lord Francis Egerton is about to turn the Bridge- water Canal into a Railway. Here, too, we may pause to mention that the Manchester direct line is about to be revived. This line would be 185 miles long, leave London at Battle Bridge, and proceed by Barnet, Luton, Bedford, Ket- tering, Harborough, to the Midland Counties Railway near Leicester. Following the railway to Derby, from Derby a direct line would be taken to Manchester. Looking at the West Midland Counties, heretofore a neglected dis- trict, we find the Chester and Holyhead line, with a capital of £2,100,000, supported by the London and Birmingham Railway Com- pany, and deserted by the Grand Junction Railway Company. A part of this plan is to buy up the Chester and Birkenhead Railway. The communication to Shrewsbury, providing fur a very great line of traffic, has at last been taken up, and some dispute is going on as to the course to be pursued. The Grand Junction want a line to Stafford, which although a good line for Manchester would clearly be a bad line to the South. Others promote a line from Shrewsbury to Wolver- hampton. Such a line would of course take the North Wales traffic. It is also proposed to form a direct communication between Shrews- bury and Birmingham by Wolverhampton and Dudley, which would certainly entirely avoid the Grand Junction line : and if another con- templated line be carried forward from Shrewsbury through the mining districts, Oswestry, Ellesmere, and Wrexham, to Chester, (thepart be- tween Wrexham and Chester, 1 1 miles long, is before Parliament,) vphich is, we understand, supported by the London and Birmingham Railway Company, a direct communication will be made between London and Birmingham, with the Holyhead and Chester line, without running on any part of the Grand Junction Railway, or the Chester and Crewe line; and also by the branch from Chester to Birkenhead, already agreed to be bought up, a direct communication will also be formed with Liverpool, without running on either the Grand Junction or the Liverpool and Manchester lines, consequently there will be two most formidable competing lines of railway between Birmingham and Liver- pool. A line is talked of from Wolverhampton by Dudley, Stourbridge, Kidderminster, Worcester, Evesham, and Banbury, to Oxford. From Oxford and Banbury a line is also proposed to Rugby, by the London and Birmingham Railway, as likewise one from Banbury to Warwick, and so by Leamington to Coventry. A plan called the Trent Valley line is well supported, and is to have a capital of £900,000. This line is under the auspices of the Man- chester and Birmingham Railway, and is to start from Stafford, pro- ceeding by Rugeley, Lichfield, Tam worth, Atherstone, and Nuneaton, to Rugby. It will be seen this line cuts off a great corner between Rugby and Stafford, saving a considerable distance, and of course com- peting with the London and Birmingham and Gfrand Junction, yet it is strongly reported to be favoured by the latter Railway. The danger which has always threatened the Birmingham line, from its being a Birmingham line and nothing else, is now imminent. Passing through a thinly-peopled, inactive district, it has, perhaps, less local traffic, in proportion, than any part of the country, and is always liable to be turned on the right and the left, depriving it of its lateral feeding traffic, and the traffic beyond its Birmingham terminus. The Birmingham, however, has long been a favourite line — it was the best inthecountry — it was the head of the railway interest — it could do wrong and receive none — such seemed to be the popular feeling, but those more distrustful have always looked forward to the day when the London and Birmingham line would have to fight for its traffic inch by inch. The immediate quarter from which that danger was most imminent, the eastern side, is for the moment apparently secure, Mr. George Hudson, the railway dictator of the north, having for the time being entered into league and alliance with the Birmingham di- rectors. That this will not last for ever any one who considt-rs the position of the parties, and the great ability of Mr. Hudson, must feel convinced ; nothing would astonish us less than to find Mr. Hudson next year abandoning the Birmingham, securing himself, and promoting a new line to London, for a line to the east must be carried. Does it, indeed, stand to common sense that a district 150 miles long and from 50 to lUO miles broad, containing 10,000 square miles and 2,000,000 of people is to be neglected, or that its population will be contented to go 50 miles out of their way to fill the pockets of the Great Midland and London and Birmingham Directors ? It does not— the local interest and the public interest are both opposed 844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 203 to such a statP of things. We, therefore, place no confidence in the siift'ty of the Yorkshire traflic of the Birmingham, and we think the ■present truce a hollow one. If, however, wo consider the Yorkshire alliance a hollow truce what shall we think of the warfare with the Grand Junction. The London and Birmingham, it is true, is not so much bound up with the Grand Junction, but the Grand Junction cannot do without the London and Birmingham, while after all neither of them has got anything to gain by hostility. If the London and Birmingham, by the Trent Valley line, make a shorter route to Stafford and Manchester, the Grand Junc- tion may give a Manchester direct line a shorter route between Lon- and Liverpool than by the Birmingham, and also a more convenient line to the north. The Grand Junction have now not got the Man- chester traffic to lose, and a slight modification of the Trent Valley line, carrying it by Leicester, Kettering, Bedford, Hertford and the North Eastern to Loudon, would leave the London and Birmingham but little to boast of, while it would please all other parties much better. The London and Birmingham, of all parties, are the least able to engage in offensive warfare, for they have nothing to gain and have much to lose. Indeed, the best thing for them would be an amalgamation with the Grand Junction, although we are aware there is a difficulty in settling the claims of London and Liverpool to the seat of management. If, however, this be not done, it is by no means beyond probability that the Grand Junction may amalgamate them- selves with a line to London, such as we have mentioned, to be worked right through, and which would have many attractive features. The Great Western have again countenanced the Forest of Dean line, which starts from Stonehouse, on the Cheltenham and Great Western, and Bristol and Gloster, crosses the Severn, proceeds near Monmouth, crosses the Wye, and then extends into South Wales, communicating with the numerous collier lines which extend up the vallies of South Wales ; undoubtedly the traffic on this line from that seat of wealth, the iron district, to London, Birmingham, and Man- chester, would be considerable, tbe advantage to the ironmasters of communication with the manufacturing and commercial districts being self evident. At the same time this project will provide for a rapid communication from Milford and Fishguard with the South of Ireland and Dublin. It seems well conceived and likely to add much to the traffic of the Great Western Railway, though it may pare off a little of the Bristol traffic to the South of Ireland. The capital is to be £2,500,UUO. We shall now proceed further south, still keeping westerly. Here the line from Exeter lo Plymouth is the main ground of contest, one line proceeding inland and the otiier by tbe coast. Funds have, however, been promoted by the associated Western railways to make a commu- nication between the two towns. The continuation to Cornwall is in agitation but is not adequately supported. The Great Western sup- port an extensive plan for a line into Wiltshire. This line, starting near Corsham on the Great Western, this side of Bath, proceeds by the populous and active towns of Troubridge, Westbnry, and War- minster, to Salisbury, having a branch from Melksham to Devizes, and another from Westbury to brome. The length of line is reckoned at o2 miles, and the estimate is £10,000 per mile. It has been suggested by the Railway Record that this is done out of spite against the South Western, but we do not see how it is to aftect the legitimate traffic of the South Western, while we believe it would be a most re- munerative line, as providing for the traffic of the North Wilts towns with London, and for the traffic of the whole district with Bristol, its natural port. There is now before Parliament a line from Salis- bury to the Bishopstoke Station on the South Western line at the junction of the two lines, Southampton and Portsmouth, which will tend materially to promote the interests of Southampton, for we are convinced that an extensive system of railway com- munication is essential to its commercial prosperity. In North Wilts considerable manufactures are carried on, and access to this district would enable the merchants of Southampton to extend their trade. The line proposed would also give them the benefit of a supply of coal from the Bristol field, a supply which they much want. Altogether we consider the Salisbury and Great Western a valuable line. The Bristol and Exeter have proposed a branch to Crediton. This is a short line, but seems likely to be profitable and useful. Agitation is going on lor lines from the South Western to Poole, Dorchester and Weymouth; and we hope the demands of the local interests will be complied with, for we are sure the realization of these plans will be for the benefit of all parties. The South Western branch from Basingstoke to Newbury has been approved by the House of Commons, while, most unaccountably, the ' Great Western branch to the same place has been rejected. By the Newbury branch, and the proposed London and Birmingham line from Rugby to Oxford, it may, however, be considered that the communication from Southampton to the north is provided for, an object of great importance to the port of Southampton, conse- quently essential for the developement of the local traffic on the South Western Railway, and giving that company a stronger hold on the mail traffic. A bill is before the House of Commons for a railway, on Prosser's wooden principle, from Guildford to the Woking Station on the South Western Railway. This must be considered an experimental line, and one of much interest. It will most likely hereafter be extended to Godalming. A line which is started by the South Eastern and Croydon Railway Companies is called the London and Chatham and Chatham and Ports- mouth Junction Railway. The hne is formed by the Kingston and Epsom, Epsom and Croydon branches, and thence by Bromley to Chat- ham, with a branch to Gravesend. This line does not seem to be a favourite. The Brighton and Chichester line, under the auspices of the Brighton Railway Company, is to have a capital of £300,000. It proceeds from Shoreham, through Worthing and Arundel, to Chichester. On the other side of Brighton the same company propose a line by Lewes to Hastings, with a capital of £475,000. These two lines together will form a long extended line along the coast. From Hastings the South Eastern Company support a line by Hastingj, Rye, and Tenterden to their line. We should, however, provide for a coast line differently. Let the Brighton proceed with their lines from Brighton to Hastings, and from Shoreham to Chichester, thus forming a continuous line of 70 miles along the coast ; let the South Eastern abandon their branch from Headcorn to Hastings, and instead form a continuation of the Brighton and Hastings line, through Winchester and Rye to Ashford, by these means there will be a direct communication with Hythe, Folke- stone and Dover, and also through the proposed branch from Ashford, to Canterbury, Ramsgate, Margate, and Whitstable. Let the South Western form a line, from the Portsmouth branch through Fareham and Havant to Chichester, and unite with the Brighton branch ; also, let the Southampton proceed with the line projected to Dorchester, along the coast ; then let the Great Western and Exeter run a line along the coast through or near Sidmouth, Lyme Regis, and Bridport, to join the South Western extension at Dorchester ; also, let the Exeter proceed with the line to Plymouth and Falmouth, then we shall have the whole Southern coast of England accommodated, and we may say protected, by a continuous line of railways — now become imperatively necessary since steam power will enable the French to invade our Southern coast suddenly at any point. Branches to Maidstone, and from Ashford to Canterbury, Ramsgate, and Margate, are taken up by the South Eastern Railway Company. With regard to metropolitan lines, the projected lines to Manchester and York are the chief features. The Bricklayers's Arms branch of the South Eastern and Croydon line is now finished ; the West London Extension has been rejected by the House of Commons. The Mid- dlesex and Surrey Grand Junction Railway does not appear to make any way. Us proposed capital is £000,000, and it is projected to run from Harrow on the Birmingham Railway, to Merstbam on the Brighton and Dover lines, crossing tbe Great Western at Southall, and the South Western, and consequently the Thames, at Kingston. The Richmond and Staines Railway is being revived. It starts from the West London Railway to Stainse, throwing off a branch to Richmond. This would be rather an expensive affair; but we believe a Richmond line, if properly managed, would pay well, for the traffic is very great and could be much increased. The Blackwall have brought forward a railway to Gravesend. It is to begin on the Kentish shore, opposite to the Blackwall terminus, and thence be carried along the north shore of Kent, through a populous and trafficking district to Gravesend, having a branch of about a mile long to Dartford. The squabbling of the South Eastern lines is lulled for a time, but is ever ready to break out again. Experience and the force of cir- cumstances have now produced a strong bias against short lines ; and the necessity of amalgamating these four lines, for the purpose on the one hand of staying Wie misctiievous bickering which has prevailed, and on the other augiueuting the general income by consolidation, has become more and more apparent. The ill-feeling of a few narrow- minded and litigious individuals may for a moment stand in the way, the ambition or interest of directors and officials may induce them to withstand any measure which will shear them of emolument, but com- mon sense and common arithmetic must prevail in the end. The ces- sation of competition, the abolition of a plurality of offices, the energy devoted to a general development of traffic, the economical conduct of one grand operation instead of four small ones, must inevitably and 204 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Mat, undoubtedly tend to a diminished expenditure, :m enlarged receipt, and a divisible profit much more considerable. This requires no lengthened argument to prove it, facts have established it, no one doubts it, and he who runs may read its import. We therefore urge on the shareliolders of the South Eastern, Brighton, Croydon, and Greenwich Railways the question of amalgamation, feeling convinced, that the sooner they can carry it into effect, the sooner they will reap the benefits of it. We are aware that at present there is a difficulty in ascertaining the real value of each line, and settling the final quota of each party, but even a provisional amalgamation would be no bar to the eventual interests of any party. The Eastern Counties Company are engaged in a number of new lines. They have revived the Stratford branch, the estimate of which is i;45,000. They propose a Harwich branch, cost i:320,000, for which they have a competitor, and the Brandon and Peterborough line, 72 miles long, the estimated cost of which is about a million. They have also to provide for the extension of the Northern vnd Eastern line to Cambridge and the north, and of the Brandon and Peterborough to Norwich. The old Thames Haven has been revived, with a branch from the Eastern Counties Railway to Tilbury. About the Harwich competition we need say nothing, between the two parties we suppose the branch will be made, though both bills have been refused this Session. The Eastern Union scheme is one for an extension of the Eastern Counties Railway to Ipswich, but its fate is uncertain. The line from Yarmouth, by Norwich and Brandon, to Peterborough gives a long lead, but the communication by Peterborough and North- ampton is too circuitous not to foster a better communication with Derbyshire and Leicestershire. A line must subsequently be taken either from Peterborough to Leicester, or by the Manchester direct route, from the Northampton and Peterborough near Kettering, to Lei- cester. At present, Mr. George Hudson, the railway dictator of the North, is in close leagne with the London and Birmingham, but such an alliance cannot last for ever. The East and West SufTolk, in which some of the Eastern Counties' oflacials are concerned is a circuitous line from Colchester to Ipswich, Bury St. Edmund's, and Cambridge, the proposed capital of which is £450,000, and the benefit of which we do not very well see except as a local Suffolk line for promoting the interests of the port of Ipswich, and providing for the traffic of Bury St. Edmund's, The Lynn and Ely, capital £200,000, is a very promising branch line, Lynn holding a very high rank among the secondary ports, and the outlet for a very rich and extensive district. If this plan provided for a convenient communication with Norwich, Lynn might prove a competitor for the Norwich traffic with Yarmouth. We have now to allude to another great and important field for competition, the communication between London and York. Several parties have started distinct lines, of which one is the Cambridge, Lincoln and York, capital £2,500,000. This proposes to carry out the original Northern and Eastern line between Cambridge and York, but with a distinct line from Cambridge to London. The Great Northern is to go by Hitchin, Biggleswade, St. Neots, Huntingdon, Stamford, Grantham, Newark, Gainsborough, and Doncaster to South Milford on the York and North Midland Railway, and having a junc- tion with the Sheffield and Manchester Railway. Another route, the Direct York line, follows much the same route, but a little more to the west in its Southern parts. A coast line is also promoted. A fierce opposition to any line in this direction is to be expected from the London and Birmingham and Great Midland interest, and strong sup- port from the local parties, who are not disposed any longer to be de- prived of the benefits of direct railway communication. The East Midland district is very extensively traversed with pro- jected lines. One line, and an excellent one, taken up by the Midland Counties, is Mr. Laxton's old line from Nottingham to Newark and Lincoln. This opens a communication for Lincolnshire with Leicester, Derby, Birmingham, and the West and South of England. The capital proposed is £350,000, and the length of line 33 miles. From Lincoln a line is projected to Boston, its southern shipping port, and to Gains- borough, on the Trent, its northern port, and now carrying on a thriving and extending trade. A line from Lincoln, Gainsborough, and Don- caster to Wakefield, is the subject of much controversy. The capital proposed is £750,000, the length of line 54 miles. From Lincoln to the South shore of the Humber, opposite Hull, a line is also contem- plated, and which would form an easier communication with that port from most parts of the country. The Sheffield and Chesterfield Railway was projected as a direct route from Sheffield to the South, and as a competitor with the North Midland, and under an enlightened system of legislation will be author- ised as a great benefit to the public. The Barnsley and Peniston Junction was proposed also by the Sheffield and Manchester Railway Company as a shorter route from Manchester to Barnsley, Leeds and York, and must in the end be carried. The Huddersfield and Manchester Railway and Canal is one of the plans for making usi- of existing lines of canal, and would prove a serious competitor with the Manchester and Leeds Railway. The capital proposed is £000,000, and arrangements have been made with the Canal proprietors. The Leeds, Bradford and Halifax line has been proposed as afford- ing a shorter route between Manchester and Leeds than is at present afforded, and will, we hope, ultimately be carried into effect. The length is nine miles ; the capital proposed £300,000. We should observe, however, there are two competitors for this line. The Leeds and Thirsk line is proposed as a means of saving a con- siderable distance between Leeds and the North, and is vehemently opposed by the York and North Midland parties. Several lines are projected from the up country to Goole; and something of the kind is essential to allow this rising port effectually to compete with Hull. The interests however of the Don Navigation are in the way. The Harrogate and Knaresborough line is a short branch from the York and North Midland. The capital proposed is £140,000, ana the length of line 10 miles. The York and Scarborough line, joining the Whitby and Pickering, is one of the favourite plans of Mr. George Hudson, on which he has guaranteed 10 per cent. It proceeds from York to Pickering and Scarborough, and will undoubtedly prove a valuable line. With regard to Ireland a good movement is going on there. The completion of the railway communication between Dublin and Belfast by way of Drogheda, may be considered as secure. A branch from Drogheda to Kells is proposed, and a line from Dublin to the North West through Kells. The Great Leinster and Munster, from Dublin to Kilkenny, is being revived, and a line called the Dublin and Cashel seems likely to be pushed on. A line from Dublin to Mullingar, one from Portadown to Monaghan, and another from Carlow to Wexford, are also projected. TtEVIE-wa. Architectural Biography : — News Allgemeines Kunsller Lexicon, von Dr. G. K. Nagler, I— XIV. Band. Miinchen 1835—44. At first sight, this work appears to be one of great labour and in- dustry, and is certainly very far more comprehensive in plan than any other we are acquainted with, inasmuch as it gives the artists of all ages and all countries, living ones included. When, however, we come to put it to the test by examining and consulting it, we very soon discover that performance by no means keeps pace with pro- mise, and that it is little better than a mere omniiim-gatherum, very slovenly executed, without any sort of judgment, discrimination or diligence ; wearisomely diffuse and prolix where compression would have been desirable, the very same information having been given over and over again in other works; and provokingly unsatisfactory and meagre where information is most of all desirable. As we can best estimate this extensive Biographical Dictionary by its architectural articles, and as those are likely to have most interest for our readers, we shall chiefly touch upon that department of the work. In every department there are a number of exceedingly ob- scure names — such as will hardly ever be searched for by any one, or if they should be, will, when found, be discovered to be mere names, it being in many instances honestly confessed that nothing whatever is known of the individuals themselves; or else we are told that they are "said to have been," or are "supposed to have been," so and so. Surely then that would have been an all-sufficient reason for not en- cumbering with them a publication which has swelled out so enor- mously beyond the limits at first assigned to it, that instead of being completed as was promised in six volumes, the first Lieferung of the fourteenth does uot reach to the end of the letter R.! Yet although, it would seem, omission was on no account to be thought of, although — provided it could be got at all — no name, how- ever utterly insignificant and null, was to be passed over, omissions there have been after all, and many of them — for they are not a few — ■ are most startling and incomprehensible ones. It does seem quite incre- dible that while Dr. Nagler has literally opened the door of his Tem- ple of Fame to so many of the oi iroAAoi, hoi polloi — the ragtail and bobtail among the followers of art, he should have slammed it to, in the face of one whose name would be a passport into more select company than he would here have found, for as we have already, 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 205 hinted, it does not consist entirely of the worthies of art. Neverthe less, so it is: — Charles Barry has been passed over altogether! sort uf omission to be matched only by that of Byron and Canova — two names with which — they being recently dead — all Europe was then ringing — in Crabb's Historical Dictionary, notwithstanding that the work is crammed with hundreds of names now fallen into utter oblivion ! If, however, Charles Barry's fame had not reached Dr. Nagler, thut of another English architect has, and has travelled post-haste to him, without stopping anywhere by the way. Until apprized of the fact by Dr. Nagler, we were not aware that Mr. Leitch Ritchie was an architect ; for we never heard of him but as an Editor of, and writer for Annuals. The pains-taking accuracy which leads him to dub Leitch Ritchie an arcliitect, leads him also to de- scribe Professor Hosking as an engraver! than which blunder he could have committed no graver and more grievous one in that gen- tleman's opinion. Out of th'" two Pngin's, the Doctor has contrived to make one, hashing up the father and son together in the most whimsical manner, and s'Tving up to his readers what is a mere tissue of blunders from be- ginning to end. The blunders seem sometimes to be very malicious ones, as for instance, when he calls Gmilt, Guilt, he is thereby himself guilty of a most awkward mistake : — no wonder, therefore, that Gwilt should bear the Germans a grudge. — Britton is described both as an architect and as one of the most learned writers on the subject of architecture — in evidence of which last, perhaps, his unlucky " Dic- tionary " is mentioned as one of his literary achievements. We do not, however, mean to say that he might very well have been omitted — certainly not ; fur in a work of the kind, not only artists alone, but also those who have written and published upon art ought to find a place, and their productions should be recorded. Had, therefore, consistency of plan Ifeen oliserved, we should have had Bentham, Dallaway, Thomas Hope — if only as the author of the " History of Architecture ;" Sir James Hall, on account of his very fanciful but ingenious treatise on Gothic architecture ; and the late J. C. Loudon. The last-mentioned was certainly entitled to notice if only on account of the extensive influence some of his publications have had in popu- larizing the study of architecture. The author of the valuable work on the Picturesque, Sir Uvedale Price, is another who was fairly en- titled to notice as a writer ou esthetics. John Burnet, ;igain, is men- tioned mi rely as an engraver, without a syllable to apprize us of his excellent treatises on "Composition," &c. Thes ■, however, are but a very few of tie omissions of the kind that might be instanced — neither are such omissions confined to English writers of the class; on the contrary, we have detected so many in regard to foreign ones of different countries, that we are warranted in describing this de- partment of the work — which, if executed with decent care, might have been rendered an eminently serviceable one— as grossly de- fective. Besides this, and besides being more or less defective in regard to architectural biogr.iphy generally, the articles belonging to it are for the greater part exceedingly meagre and unsatisfactory — in fact, treated as if of little or no interest to any one. Now, al- though in planning the work, it might have been a question whether ^'.rchitectural biography should be admitted or excluded — once ad- mitted, it ought to have been quite as carefully and diligently exe- cut'-d as the rest; or rather a great deal more carefully than any part of the work now appears to be. Even when we cannot com- pl: in, as we so frequently have to do, of positive omission, we some- times obtain a bare name, without even so njuch as determined dates. Will it b^ believed that only two lines and a half are allotted to Ventura Rodriguez, the Spanish architect par excellence of the last century, the mere list of whose works forms a catalogue of several pages in Llaguno, and of whom there is a very extensive memoir or " Elojio," by no less a writer than Jovellanos? Had all the rest been in the same proportion, the whole work would not have exceeded a single volume ; whereas' at present no sort of proportion at all has been observed, for there are some articles of most extravagant and outrageous length. By way of contrast to the instance just quoted, and the very scanty and imperfect information to be derived from the architectural articles in general, we refer to those on Rembrandt and Rubens, both of whom have been so amply spoken of in innumerable biographical works of every description, that condensation rather than extension in regard to them, would have been a merit. Never- theless, to the former of these no fewer than one hundred and thirty si> pages are assigned; and to the other ninely one, ov together 227 pages : thus more space is given to those two artists than to upwards of One Thousand ! and so far from being exaggerated this number might be even doubled, there being a prodigious quantity of names which do not average in length above one-tenth of a page. After all, those two special articles consist chiefly of descriptive catalogues or lists of the etchings of the one, and of the numerous engravings from the works of the other — useful no doubt to print- collectors, but altogether misplaced in a work of this kind. Consis- tency, indeed, there is in respect to lists of engravings, for they are given most liberally in every case, nothing being easier than to extract them rea.fy prepared from Bartsch and other works of that kind, and so fill up page after page by mere " scissors-and-paste " industry. But while print-collectors are likely to be already provided with the inform;ition thus diligently collected for them, others, who are not particularly interested in it, have good reason for complaining that it occupies a very undue space, and that while this Kunstler-Lexicon is rendered greatly more voluminous and expensive than there is any occasion for, by the insertion of such lists of engravings, it fre- quently does not afford them at all the information they seek. At all events the work does not fairly answer to its title; greatly exceeding in one particular the promise made by it, but falling very far short of it in all the rest — in the architectural department more especially ; where the only additions of any interest, to that species of biogr.iphy and history, are the articles on some of the living architects of Germany. By aiming at univemality, this " Lexicon of Artists" has been ren- dered far less complete than it might have been, by contracting the plan of it. The quantity of names is so enormous that in very many places it looks like a mere catalogue ; and of the rest there is a good deal that seems mere dry indiscriminate compilation — and frequently very slovenly performed, into the bargain — to say no- thing of egregious blunders. In regard to these last, we do not know whether there are any more such flagrant ones as those above pointed out, but they are sufficient to destroy all confidence in the work as an authority: all that we do not know to be correct, or cannot verify for ourselves, lies under the suspicion of being wrong. The whole is a sort of chance-medley, done according to no other principle than that of taking without inquiry — without either selection or rejection, whatever was most come-at-able. Being done, however, this Kunstler Lexicon will now for a long vt bile stand in the way of another undertaking of the kind, at least in Germany; and as fur expecting anything of the kind in this country, it is almost entirely out of the ipiestion : else we should recommend for it a divi- sion into separate publications of special biograpiiy. A dictionary of architects only, or of both architects and sculptors, is a desider- atum, and likely \^ remain so, because it would be most unpromising as a bookselling speculation. If to be done at all — at least so as to be done satisfactorily, such a Biographical Dictionary ought to be brought out by some " Society." There is, indeed, one body from whom an undertaking of the kind might be looked for — the Royal Institute of Britsh Architects, were it not so un-ambitious and so modest that it seeks no other fame than that which it now derives from its Royalty. Original Geometrical Diaper Designs, by D. R. Hay, Decorative Painter to the Queen, Edinburgh. London: Bogue. We have now a second part of Mr. Hav's designs before us, with a continuation of his essay on ornamental design. With the practical remarks in this on carpet ornament we concur, but page 5 abounds with rank heresy, partly arising from looseness of expression, but cal- culated to impress very incorrect doctrines on taste. It is to be in- ferred from what Mr. Hay says, that ornament is something used to conceal defects. "Wherever, therefore, we observe an ornament, we may suspect a defect," His divarication of ornamental design is rather trenchant. "There are two distinct classes of ornamental design. The one belongs exclusively to architecture, and the other conjointly to architecture and manufactures." What will be thought of this by the archaeologists and polychromists — '• all merely architec- tural ornaments are sculptured." We could accumulate notes of this kind, and make a long comment on them, but we shall reserve our remarks until the work is more advanced. Ancient and Modern Archiitcture. Edited by M.Jdles Gailhabaud. Series the Second. Parts 18, 19, and 20. London: Didot. Part 18 is more interesting from the associations connected with th*' buildings, than from their architectural merits. The cathedral of Bile, in Switzerland, cannot be regarded as a fine composition, nor the Palazzo Foscari at Venice. The latter is very meagre in its pro- portions. Part 19 contains the Temple of Arveris at Edfu, and that of Jupiter Olympus at Selinus. The plate of the latter contains a good many details, but the subject is interesting enough to admit of more copious illustration. Part 20 is by far the most pleasing of the 18 206 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [May three it contains plates of two buildings at Venice, the Procuratie Nuove and the Library of St. Mark, the hUter the work of Sansovmo. These are undoubtedly designs of great merit, and though having mmv technical defects, undoubtedly showing much taste, and had they ten times as m^ny faults we should prefer them to the insipid and mindless copies of our modern architects. , t%- j It has struck us in looking at this valuable work that as M. Didot has given English letter-press and English titles to the pUites, it would increase their value much if a scale of English feet were in- scribed in addition to the one of French metres. STAINED GLASS EXHIBITION. SiR,_The Stained Glass Exhibition as a national exhibition is cer- tainly'disgraceful— but still it is what any person acquainted with the circumstances attending the art of painting on glass might expect, for it is the only branch connected with the arts which has not a fair chance of advancement. In the first place, the orders which are given are generally given to shopkeepers, who will only employ men who wiil work cheap, for they expect to get four and 6ve hundred per cent. Drofit on the works, consequently they must be badly executed to enable the artist to exist at all ; and what is very strange, the architects encourage the ancient stvle of glass painting; not the best examples, but the worst absurdities of the ancients, abounding in nondescript heads and animals in the bad drawing of the 12th and 14th century ; as for instance, in the Temple and Savoy Churches : if men in those re- mote periods could have drawn better they certainly would have done so If you attempt to do better in the way of drawing, Sec, many ol the architects say it is too good for glass, which I think is very ridi- culous for it forces the artist to make his figures cripples to please them— they speak of the colours used by WiUement and others who know nothing of the practical part of the business. Mr. WiUe- ment has at present two glass painters at work, who are reputed to be the worst workmen in the trade, while the work of those two men employs twelve glaziers to work up. So much for the artist s part ot the work ; with respect to the colours, upon which they pride them- selves if you will take the trouble to walk round the Exhibition, you will find that all the glass painters have the same colours in common ; —the colours are an article manufactured by the glass maker, and sold at a certain price per foot to the trade ; therefore, no merit is due to the glass painter, as he does not produce them himself, but merely paints on the surface with brown and passes it through the hre to hs that colour, which is the ancient principle. The modem style is to pro- duce all the colours on one piece of glass, without the assistance ot lead, which requires great experience in the glass painter to attain, and is the only way in which a perfect representation of Nature can be obtained; by having the real light shining through vour picture, vou may obtain effects which no other style canaccomplish. But to return to the Exhibition— I certainly do not think it right that trades- people should be allowed to send in specimens of painted glass, as it they were the artists ; if so, the Commission is rendered useless— lor instance, Cobbet & Son are glaziers. Chance & Co. glass manufactu- rers, Grace & Co. paoer haiigeis, and, Mr. Wailes a grocer at Newcas- tle-on-Tyne, who has turned glass painter, and is filling our churches with his ancient rubbish wholesale, introducing plenty of briglit colours and figures with vellow faces as if they had the jaundice, as may be seen in the figure'of the Pilgrim on the staircase at the Exhibition. I am, Sir, your obedient servant. May, 1844. W. N. considered as probable that the reducing agent in this process is alde- hyde, formed from the alcohol by the agency of the oils employed. It has been previously noticed that aldehyde will reduce silver from its solutions, and indeed a solution of this metal has been proposed by Liebig as the most delicate test for the presence of aldehyde in a liquid. This explanation we believe to be correct; for if we examine the composition of oil of cloves, as given by Dumas, it seems very probable that it would reduce the ether of the alcohol to the state of aldehyde ; for one proportion of oil of cloves and one of ether, are exactly equal to six proportions of aldehyde minus water : thus Oil of cloves =:C=°H'=0 = Ether . =£JJ112. QC--* H"0° C *H =0 which, with one of water, forms aldeliyde, or, when oxide of silver is present, reduces it by abstracting its oxygen, the aldehyde being con- verted into aldehydic acid combines with another portion of the silver present. It might be imagined that silver being the metal used, instead of, as at present, the cheaper alloy of mercury and tin, the expense of this process would prevent its extensive use ; but when it is known that 12 grains of silver are sufficient to cover thoroughly a square foot of glass (as stated by Mr. Warington), that there is no pressure em- ployed, and therefore no risk of breakage, that the operation can be carried on any where, no expensive level tables being needed, that it is performed very cjuicklv, half an hour being sufficient to complete it, and that when done:, there is no chance of its running, or crystallizing, which is frequently the case with the present method, besides its far superior brilliancy, we think there can be no doubt of its general adoption. NEW PROCESS OF SILVERING GLASS. At a recent meeting of the Chemical Society, Mr. Warington, the secretary, gave a description of Mr. Drayton's patent process of sil- verine crlass, and exhibited a beautiful specimen. The method em- ployed °s, to add to a solution of nitrate of silver, sufljcient ammonia to precipitate a little oxide of silver to the solution thus formed, to add some oil of cassia mixed with spirits of wine ; this forms the silver solution, which must be poured over the surface of the glass to be silvered, and which must be previously well cleaned, a tllet ot putty having been laid round the edge to retain the liquid ; on to the sur- face of this must now be dropped a small quantity of the reducing solution, which consists of oil of cloves dissolved in spirits ot wine, when the reduction of the silver will take place, it being deposited on the glass, the surface next to the glass assuming a splendidly brilliant face, more resembling a pohshed speculum than an ordinary mirror. In the course of the interesting conversation which ensued, it was BEALE'S ROTARY ENGINE. Mil. Editor — Some time ago you gave a drawing of Beale's Patent Engine and Boiler, now I shall feel greatly obliged if you could give or procure a candid reply to ray questions, (. e., is the boiler a good or bad one — are the tubes (above the water line) dangerous and liable to burn out or crack, and does not the boiler piime very much ? The engine (though simple) of course is bad, like all other rotaries, as it wears itself more at the periphery than at the centre on the sides. I am exceeding pleased witli the information about boilers, for it is a subject very much neglected, and is in my opinion of as much consequence as the engine. Mr. Buck's article on tubes is good, but nothing is said about the length, and therefore it is incomplete ; he would find 3 in. tubes in a locomotive of the present construction very extravagant of fuel, which is the main point in all boilers. You say plenty about marine engines, but nothing about boats, which is worse than engines without boilers ; could you not give the lines of some of the fastest river boats with full parti- culars,' commencing with the boat, then the boilers, then engines, paddles and speed. Such information would be very acceptable. Youi's, respectfully. Patience. Birmingham, April 11, 1844. [We gave a drawing and description of Mr. Beale's engine and boiler in the Mirnal, vol. 5, pp. ISl and 182, and if our correspondent wdl refer thereto, he will perceive that we then noted the exposure of the upper ends of the tubes to the fire as a great objection, as so much surface was lost. In practice the water is kept nearly up to the top cock. Although we had a somewhat lengthv trial with the boat and engines, we did not experience any inconvenience from "priming;" this description of engme would not be effected thereby in the same manner as a common reciprocating one. VVe believe Beale's engine to be the best of aU the rotaries ; at any rate, the best that has come practically under our notice. Its power is very great and con- stant— the generality of rotaries are mere toys, incapable of heavy work. J Editor. ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS. April 29.— Mr. C. H. Smith on the Magnesian limestone.— Tais paper was a continuation of those formerly read treating on the sandstones and oolites : on the present occasion Mr. Smith proceeded with the subject by describing the great beds of magnesian limestone, which he, with ittle m- tervals, from Nottingham and Tynemouth,and more especia ly those between Mansfield to Knaresborough, an extent of about seventy miles. In this dis- trict stone is found combining the carbonate of Ume and magnesia from the lowest amount of the latter to proportions comprising pure dolomite— ol course they vary greatly, both in appearance and quahty, and that even in cases where the substances are, chemically speaking, the same ;-among the best of these stones, as building materials, are the Bolsoyer, Roche Abbey, Barnham Moor, and Huddlestone. The first-named has been tested m the Norman Church at Southwell, which remains in a state of high preservation ; 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 2or but much, as Mr. Smith particularly insisted upon, depends upon the situa- tion of the beds from which the stone is raised : the remains of Koche Abbey, for example, and the church at Tukhill, both built with the stone which Sir C. Wren distinguished as second only to Portland, are in a perfect state with all the sharpness of the mouldings preserved, whereas buildings in the neigh- bourhood erected with the same material during the present century, but without due regard to the choice of the beds, are already in a state of decay ; so also with regard to the Barnham Moor stone, many Roman remains at York are in a far better condition than the works of the middle ages in that city, not excepting the cathedral, and others at Hull, Beverly, and Tadcaster, built with the same stone. The Cadeby stone is found to decompose rapidly ; a specimen used in London, perished in about fourteen years, and yet this stone is found within a short distance of Conigsburgh Castle, which was budt with a similar stone from an adjoining hill, and remains the most perfect specimen of masonry of its age existing in this climate. The characteristics of durable magnesian limestone are its compactness and high crystallization ; those which appear earthy, and powdery, and leave white on the lingers, on being handled, are not to'be trusted. The Anston quarries, which supply the stone for the Parliament Houses, were left to be the subject of a final com- munication. At the annual general meeting held May 6, Earl De Grey was re-elected President — Vice Presidents, Messrs. Papwortb, Kendall, and G. Smith. Honorary Secretaries, A. Poynter and G. Bailey.— Honorary Secretary for Foreign Correspondence, T. L. Donaldson. ROYAL INSTITUTION. April 27. — " On the Recent Researches in Electrical Decomposition." — By Dr. Miller, of King's College. The lecturer, after showing by experiments that liquids when conveying the current are capable of extricating heat and inducing magnetism, and in these respects resembled solid conductors, proceeded to state that they differ from solids in the motion which their particles visibly exhibit ; he asserted that most liquid bodies capable of transmitting the current consist of two or more chemical elements in combination, and that when subjected to the in- fluence of a voltaic battery they are decomposed ; one portion of the elements accumulating at one pole of the battery, whilst the other portion collects at the opposite pole. Water, he remarked, had always been considered one of the substances most easily thus decomposed : yet he showed that a spark may be obtained under water from two charcoal points forming the poles of a batterv, of nearly as great brilliancy as that produced by bringing them in contact in air, which is admitted to be an extremely bad conductor; he also interposed at one point of the circuit a small quantity of distilled water, and showed that no electricity passed ; on adding a solution of sulphate of soda to the distilled water, immediate decomposition ensued, and abundance of gas was extricated, an experiment from which he inferred that the presence of a little saline matter confers conducting power upon the water. After re- calling attention to the discovery of Dr. Faradav, that the power measured at any one point of a voltaic circuit is a measure of its force at any other point, so that the proportion of a substance decomposed at one point is a measure of the quantity capable of being decomposed at any other point in the same circuit, he stated, that when saline solutions were electrolyzed. an apparent exception to this law was observed, and the current appeared in this case to have twice the power ; so that a proportion of the salt was decom- posed, and at the same time gases from the decomposition of an equivalent quantity of water were set free, whilst a voltameter included in the circuit only indicated sufficient electricity to decompose either the salt or the water, not both. This apparent paradox he explained by stating that the salt alone is in any case decomposed, and that the decomposition of the water is an accidental circumstance. All salts, he said, might be considered as composed of a metal, or something tantamount to a metal, in combination with a sub- stance or group of substances possessed of equal but opposite electric power (in contradistinction to the common notion that they consist of an acid and a base in chemical union). When subjected to the decomposing action of the battery, the metal, he said, appeared at one pole, while the whole re- maining elements were transferred to the opposite pole ; when the metal, like potassium, was capable of decomposing water at ordinary temperatures, gas was given off, consisting of pure hydrogen, an oxide of the metal was formed, while at the other pole oxygen was given off from its separation from the bodies in combination with which it was transferred under the influence of the current, at the same time, an equivalent of acid was set free ; when, on the contrary, the metal, like lead or copper, was not capable of decomposing water, no hydrogen was extricated, but the metal itself was deposited in tlie solid form. Experiments were shown in proof of this assertion, the salts being in some cases dissolved in water, in others melted by heat alone ; when melted nitrate of silver, for instance, was thus treated, the metallic silver was obtained in beautiful crystals. After adverting to the value of the voltaic battery as a powerful means of investigating the molecular grouping of com- pound bodies, and aiding in the examination of disputed points in theoretical chemistry, the lecturer concluded by describing some curious results ob- tained relative to the transfer of the bodies disengaged under the influence of the current, and by stating that, contrary to the usually received opinion, such transfer did not take place in equivalent proportions in opposite direc- tions ; but that some substances, on the contrary did not appear capable of transfer at all ; among this number was copper, and he referred to this cause the impoverishment of the solution around the electrotype plate where the process is long continued. May 3. — " On the appUcatiott of the Microscope to Geological Research." By Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S. Dr. Carpenter pointed out how much the progress of science depends upon the perfection of the instruments employed in the observation of its pheno- mena ; and that even to geology, whose facts are for the most part obvious to the unassisted senses, the achromatic microscope has afforded, of late years, the most efficient aid. He noticed the researches of Messrs. Witbam, Nicol, and others, on the structure of fossil woods, and the light which these had thrown on the origin of coal. The investigations of Prof. Owen on the structure of teeth were next glanced at, and illustrations of their application to the determination of fossils were given. The identification of the Laby- rinthodon as the gigantic Batrachiaa, whose footsteps are preserved to us in the sandstone of the Stourton quarries, was noticed as one of the most in- teresting results of this kind of investigation ; and a sketch was given of the train of reasoning by which Prof. Owen has established the true character and habits of the Megatheroid quadrupeds. Dr. Carpenter then gave a sum- mary of the researches, on which he has been himself engaged, on the struc- ture of the shells of the Mollusca, Crustacea, and Echinodermata. With the aid of highly-magnified dehneations, he explained the ceWH/nc organization of the shells of Pinna, and other allied genera belonging to the family Margari- tace^, by which the fossil forms of that group are at once distinguished (even by the examination of the minutest fragment) from all others; — the very curious plicated membranous structre, which is characteristic of Terebratula and its allies, and distinguishes them from all others ; — the true character of the lines upon nacre, to which its iridescence is due ; — and the tubular structure, analogous to the dentine or ivory of teeth, which is found in cer- tain other genera, and is distinctive of them. After describing the peculiar cancellated structure of the shells of the Rudistes, and stating that, by his microscopic test, the perplexing Cardium /libernicum should be referred to that group, he briefly explained the structure of the shells of the Crustacea, the inner portion of which is tubular, and strongly resembles dentine, whilst its surface (beneath the horny structureless epidermis) is covered with a layer of cells, in which the colouring-matter is deposited ; and gave a brief account of the structure of the shells, spines, &c. of the Echinodermata, pointing out the difference in pattern between the stems of different species of Pentacrinus, which rendered the microscope a very easy means of distin- guishing them. The lecture concluded with a notice of the researches of Ehrenberg on Fossil Animalcules ; of which the sdicions remains form a large proportion of the chalk-marls of Southern Europe, besides abounding in other deposits ; whilst the calcareous species make up a great portion of the chalk itself in many localities. Of these species, whose minuteness is almost inconceivable, many of those now living appear to be identical with those which existed at the early part of the tertiary epoch. May 10. — Lord Prudhoe, President in the Chair. " On the Chemical and Mechanical processes, and the social influences of the Penny Post." By Rev. John Barlow, Sec. R. I. Mr. Barlow said that he took this subject because it exhibited one of those instances where immense mental labour, ingenuity, and applied science were required to produce the most familiar articles of common use. The notion of separating, by a system of stamps, the financial department of the Post- office from the transmission and delivery of letters, originated with Mr. C. Whiting, fourteen years since. This gentleman has been rewarded by the government for the taste and mechanical skill exhibited in the method in which he proposed to adjust his plan to the penny-rate adopted at the re- commendation of Mr. Rowland Hill. With tliis notice of the history of letter-stamps, Mr. Barlow entered on the manufacture of the adhesive label. These are executed by Messrs. Perkins, Bacon, and Petch, on Mr. Perkins's principle of steel engraving by transfer. The process depends on the pro- perty of iron to become hard or soft as it receives or loses a small quantity of carbon. This was demonstrated by experiment ; and the description of the process was illustrated by the exhibition of hard and soft steel rollers, plates, and impressions furnished by Messrs. Perkins & Co. Mr. Barlow laid great stress on the absolute identity of every engraving, however numerous, produced by this method. He then observed, that the engine-work on the adhesive labels is of so close a pattern that it cannot be taken off by litho- graphy or any similar contrivance, while on the other hand, the eye is so ac- customed to notice sUght differences between one face and another, that the most skilful imitators of a minute engraving of a human countenance (as that of the Sovereign on the label) could not possibly avoid such a deviation from what he was copying as would ensure the detection of a forgery. Mr. Barlow next adverted to the qualities of the coloured inks with which the labels are printed. Though sufficiently permanent to withstand the effects of sun-light, rain, Sec, they would be discharged by any fraudulent attempt made to remove the obliterating stamp, for the purpose of issuing the label a second time. The gum used for fixing these labels to letters, Mr. Barlow described as being probably derived from potato-starch, and therefore per- fectly innoxious. The manufacture of the postage envelope is effected by many powerful, yet accurate machines. The paper is pervaded by coloured threads as a security against fraud. Wlien sent from the manufactory of Messrs. Dickinson, it is delivered to the firm of Messrs. De la Rue. It is there cut into lozenges by the engine of Mr. Wilson. One of these was ex- hibited, and its power contrasted with that of the old bookbinder's plough. 18* 208 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [May, Thirteen thousand five hundred lozenges for folding were cut in a few se- conds. To exhibit the precision of this engine, 1000 strips of paper, each gLth of an inch in width, were cut in the same short time. Previously to being stamped, each lozenge has a notch cut in each side, for the convenience of folding : this is done by an angular chisel. The envelopes are then stamped at Somerset House. The machine used for this purpose, combines the operations of printing and embossing, and was invented by the late Sir W. Congreve. Air. C. Whiting enabled Mr. Uarlow to exhibit tiie whole process, by sending one of these machines, which executed several stamps, slightly ditfering in device from that on the postage envelope. One of Mr. De la Rue's folders also attended, and showed the rapidity with which the envelopes are folded and gummed after they are stamped. The government envelopes employ at Messrs. De la Rue's thirty-nine folders on an average, and a quick hand can fold 3,500 in a day. Mr. Barlow then noticed some ttatistical conclusions. One engraving on Mr. Perkins hard steel roller will -fford 1,680 transfers to soft steel plates : these again will, when hardened, admit of 60,000 impressions being pulled from each, so that one original will afford 100,800,000 impressions of labels, enough to paper one thousand apartments of 24 feet by 15, and 12 feet high, making allowance for door, two windows, chimney, pier glass, and dado. Twelve years ago, common envelopes were sold at Is. the dozen : now, the postage envolope, with its medallion, may be bought wholesale at half a farthing (exclusive of the stamp), and yet though the manufacture is peculiarly costly, it returns a small profit to the government. More than two hundred and twenty mil- lions of chargeable letters were posted in 1843. Now, taking a common sized letter as an unit, this quantity would pave a road 25 yards wide (the average width of Oxford Street, pavement included) from the General Post Office in London, to the entrance of Oxford. Or, supposing all the letter- boxes in the United Kingdom to be open, and to communicate with one large spout, the letters would keep flowing through it at the mean rate of 14 in a second. Mr. Barlow then briefly noticed some of the social advantages of the penny post. He touched on the strength and permanence it afforded to the influences of home — on the motives for self-education which it sup- plied— on the aid it ministered to the inquirer after truth. He stated, that at present about five millions sterling are forwarded through the Post Office by money orders, and noticed the advantage of this arrangement to all, but especially the humbler ranks. He asserted that nothing is too valuable or too fragile to be trusted to this cheap conveyance : birds' eggs aud diamonds, living insects, and watches, pills, plaisters, and bills of exchange, are com- mitted to it with equal confidence. Mr. Bagster sends each sheet of his Polyglot edition of the Holy Scriptures ten times through the Post Office, some of th.. se transmissions being to learned men residing at a distance from London, so that under the old system the postage on each volume of this work would have amounted to .€105. Mr. Barlow concluded by a short but expressive quotation from an anonymous writer, declaratory of the manifold benefits of the Fenny Post, and of the obligations which the country owes to the originator of the system. NEW IRON LIGHTHOUSE. Triumph of modern Engineers in the construction of Lighthouses, — The first lighthouse that we read of, was erected on the island of Pharos, near Alexandria, which was looked upon as one of the seven wonders of the world. This tower was built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, in the hundred and twenty fourth Olympiad, under the direction of the famous engineer, Sostratus of Cnidus, in Asia Minor, at the expense of eight hundred talents. The archi- tect was held iu such esteem with Ptolemy and other mouarchs, that by Strabo he was called the friend of Kings. He was allowed by Ptolemy to inscribe his name on the tower. M'hat would the contemporaries of the Egyptian Monarch have said, had they seen the modern masterly constructions for the useful purpose, as the lighthouses at the Maplin in the estuary of the Thames, and at the Point of Air, in the county of Flint, both upon sand banks ? The latter stands at the mouth of the Dee on quaggy sand, within an hundred yards of the channel, where the tide rises about twenty feet. This most necessary Pharos will annually save a multitude of lives and much property ; and was built by the Honourable Corporation of the Trinity House, (always attentive to the safety and welfare of seafaring men), from the design of Messrs. Walker and Bur- ges, engineers, London, who are widely known over every part of the king- dom. It rises upon nine strong iron pillars, most firmly secured in their naturally unstable foundation, and promises to resist the rage of the windy storm and mighty tempest. It has every possible convenience for the light-keeper, and exhibits a most brilliant white light, fifty-five feet above the ordinary level of the sea, up the Dee towards Chester, and to the west, as far Point Elianus in Anglesea ; and a red light towards Hoyle Bank, thus furnishing an unerring guide to the vessels traversing those intricate waters, where so many valuable lives have been lost, and so many riches buried in the ocean. The building is entirely constructed of iron : the principal framing and pillars are oi cast iron ; the inclosure of the sides forming the habitable part of the building of wrought iron, corrogated plates. The lantern framing is cast from one of the brass guns recovered from the wreck of the Royal George at Spithead. The entire weight of metal employed in the onstruction of the lighthouse and lantern exceed 120 tons. The interior of the building above the reach of the waves affords ample accommodation for two light- keepers, and also for such stores as are in immediate demand. The light was first exhibited from this building on the evening of the 11th of February last. — Chester Chronicle. TR.A.FALGAR SQU.\RE. We may say of this " Public Improvement," — " Better late than never ;" for at last — after we know not how many years — the hoarding has been re- moved, and the area thrown open ; but we cannot exactly say in regard to it, " All's Well that End's Well," since we must confess to being disappoint- ed. Even in what he has done, Mr. Barry has fallen short of our expecta- tions : it is, indeed, comparatively good, yet does not come up to what we looked for from him. As it seems to us, he has fallen into strange delin- quency of taste, in carrying the parapet walls on the East and West sides of the area, not horizontally and parallel to the pavement of the area, and to the horizontal lines of the buildings on those sides, but incUued and follow- ing the slope of the ground on the outside of the level area. This occasions a very disagreeable and even paltry eft'ect as far as the area itself is concern- ed,— which it may be presumed was tlie point chiefly to be studied. Could it have been done, we should like to have seen those sides of the area en- closed by screen walls of such height as would have shut out the buildings to the East and West, for they are a very sad drawback on the architectural ensemble of this P/flce. At present it is too much of a jumble; and has, besides, the look of being ?»a«yi(p', by being quite out of symmetry, where symmetry has been intended. The regular architectural arrangement of the "Area" itself called for a corresponding degree of uniformity in the whole Square or Place. As to the two basins we do not greatly admire them at present, thinking it would have been better had they been sunk, so that the surface of the water would have been on the same level as the pavement. What the Fountains will be, we know not, but hope they will prove some- thing vastly superior to the mere squirts we have hitherto had. In speaking of Trafalgar Square, we cannot forbear reprobating the bar- barous taste which has disfigured the portico of the National Gallery, by in- serting most vulgar looking iron fences — or offences — daubed over with vile green paint, between the columns ; and that, too, just at a time when so much is said about decorative design in all its branches. Such a fragrant in- stance of vile taste in the entrance to a temple of Art, and a Royal Academy, is truly shocking, and even dispiriting, since it shows that we do not make any systematic advance in taste, but take a step forward one day, to go back another, or perhaps even two, on the following day. Besides which the stingy paltriness manifested in this instance is perfectly scandalous and dis- graceAd. While no hounds are set to extravagance in any thing connected with the Palace of Westminster, — winch after all is not exactly the most suitable place for the exhibition of works of art, — -any thing seems to be considered quite good eno\igh for National Galleries and British Museums. ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. Report on the Atmospheric Railway. Addressed to the directors of the Chester and Holyhead Railway, by Robert Stephenson, C.E. Weale, High Holborn. This report which has been anxiously expected for some time past was re- ceived by us shortly before we went to press, we are therefore precluded from making any observations or any systematic selection. We shall now confine ourselves with a selection of what we consider the practical part of the report, founded upon the numerous experiments made under Mr. Stephen- son's directions, by his valuable assistants Mr. G. Berkley and Mr. W. P. Marshall, at the Dublin and Kingstown Railway. The first practical application of the Atmospheric Railway was in June 1840,atM'ormboltScrubs,the particulars of which will be found in om Journal for July 1840, Vol. III. p. 253, and likewise a drawing of the apparatus, in the following number, p. 259, Vol. III. The first part of the report enters very minutely into tlie loss of power occasioned by the leakage in the air pump, the vacuum tube, and the con- necting pipe, under a variety of circumstances, the result shows that the average amount of leakage at the density of the external air is 219 cubic feet per minute, for the air pump and connecting pipe 478 yards long and 15 in. diameter, and 252 cubic feet per minute, for the vacuum tube 2490 yards in length and 15 inches diameter, or 471 cubic feet together, but if a vacuum be formed equal to 15 inches in height of the barometer, or the air twice rarefied, the effect of the leakage will be doubled. Mr. Stephenson has given five tables ; one of them is 3 ft. 6 in. long, full of details of observations made to ascertain the amount of leakage, &;c., and also to show the actual velocity of the train compared with theory. He has also given another table, which we here insert, showing the weiglit drawn by the trains, tlie resistance due to friction and gravity, the velocity, &c. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. 209 LOSS OF POWER WITH DIFFERENT WEIGHTS OF TRAIN. — TaBLE VI. Power in- Power in- Loss of power in- Loss by resistance dicated by air pump Power absorbed ill Httaining the dicated by maximum dicated by maxi- mum uniform Power in- dicated bv ot atmoiiphere and friction of Maximum Total Friction uniform Height of power of during vacuum. uniform velocity of Train. friction piston and valve. No. of Weight. and velocity. vacuum. working motion of Per velocity of Per and gravity Per Tons. gravity. Miles Inches.- Train. centage Train. centage centage lb. per hour. sq. inch.' H.P. H.P. H.P. of total. H.P. H.P. ot total. H.P. H.P. of total. 4 26-5 781 34-7 18-5 9-2 322 176 146 45 150 172 53 72 78 24 5 30-8 907 32-0 19-0 9-5 336 181 155 46 143 193 57 77 66 20 7 34-7 1023 29-0 200 100 454 184 270 59 137 317 69 79 58 13 8 36-8 1084 28-3 20-7 10-4 350 186 164 47 139 211 60 82 57 16 9 38-3 1129 28-3 210 10-5 381 186 195 51 140 241 63 85 55 14 10 42-0 1253 25-7 22-1 11-0 389 134 205 53 133 256 66 86 47 12 H 43-8 1292 25-3 22-5 11-2 386 181 205 53 133 253 65 87 46 12 12 45-5 1341 25-2 22-7 14-3 427 181 246 58 134 293 69 90 44 10 14 51-0 1503 22-7 23-3 11'6 396 173 223 56 124 272 68 91 33 9 15 53-5 1576 21-7 24-0 12-0 460 170 290 63 123 337 73 91 32 7 17 58-0 1709 20-4 23-8 11-9 506 170 336 66 114 392 77 93 21 4 18 59-8 1763 18-0 236 11-8 390 170 220 56 100 290 74 85 15 4 20 64-7 1907 16-7 24-4 12-2 415 162 253 61 96 319 77 85 11 2 la this table those trains are selected from the experiments detailed in the large table, (3,) which present the most uniform and valuable results. We now come to what we consider the practical part of the report ; Mr, Stephen.son proceeds — Having now, I trust, cleirly explained the abject and results of the experiments insti- tuted upon the Kingstowu and Dalkey Railway, I will proceed to draw a comparison between tlie working of the atmospheric system, and of other descriptions of motive power which liave long been in use, witli the view of showing their relative advantages or disidvantages. For this purpose I have selected the stationary engines at Camden Town, because they present a case which is similar to that at Kingstown; or, at all events, the disparities are not such ai will materially interfere vvitli the comparison. Table No. VII. represents the gradients and length of the Eustoii iucline, witli the weight of the rope there used, the dimensions ol' the engines, and a description of the various trains tha t are most commonly drawn uj* the incline; the total power given out by the stationary engines 13 then given, and divided into the power absorbed by the resistance of the engines, rope, train, and atmosphere, separately, from which are deduced the proportioo of loss arising from this application of the rope as a means of communicating motive power. TABLE No. VII. The constant upon which this table is faunded, au average gradient -j-^ ; length worked by rope O'iH mile; weight of rope 7 tons; area of both cylinders of engine, 21104 square inches, and velocity of pistons 224 feet per minute. Train. Horses Power Absorbed by 1 .-3 5 3 > "5] o c •1 It .2 '^ 'o ^ Friction and Gravity of Train. Resistance of Atmosphere. Train excluding Engine and Rope. .i 1.1 41 a. o Hi JH a o o Miles 1 lb. lb. lb. 1 Per lb. lb. per Hour H. P. H. V. per H. P. H. P. V" H.P. H. P, ton of train. ton of train. ton of train.: of total. 35 350 740 20 13 45 24-1 58 31-1 13 7-0 71 116 39 40 400 845 20 13 45 21-1 67 311 15 7-0 82 127 36 45 450 951 20 13 45 18-7 75 31-1 17 7-0 92 137 33 50 500 1057 20 13 45 16'8 83 311 19 7-0 102 147 30 70 700 1479 20 13 45 12-0 116 31-1 24 65 140 185 25 90 900 1902 20 13 45 1 9-3 149 31-1 29 60 178 223 20 no 1100 2324 20 13 45 1 7-7 183 311 32 5'5 215 260 17 Statwnary Engines and Ropes. Before I proceed to institute any comparison between the results presented in this Table, and those obtained by the experiments on the Atmospheric Railway, I am anxious fully to explain the data upon which the former are based, and the more so, as all the re- sults are calculated, with the exception of the power absorbed by the friction of the en- gines, and of the rope. An indicator was applied to the Camden Town engines, to ascer- taiu this amount, and from these result'* we arrive at the fact that about 53 h. p. is required for working the engines and drawing the ro[ie alone, at a velocity of 20 miles per hour. From experiments upon the friction of the engines and machinery on the Black- wall Railway, where there is the opportunity of disconnecting the rope and drums, and taking the proportions of the power on the two railways, I Jiave considered 13 h. p. of this to be due to the friction of the engines and machinery, which leaves 45 h. p. for the friction of the rope. The friction of the several trains taken at 101b. per ton, added to the gravity due to the average gradient, is multiplied into the velocity previously mentioned of 20 miles per iiour, and expressed in horses' power in the Table. The power absorbed by the resistance of the atmosphere is calculated from the experiments of Lardner, previously referred to. The total power given out by the engin^s is thus obtained, from which is deducted the power required to overcome the friction of the engines and machinery, for the purpose of making a more correct comparison with ilie power expended on the Atmospheric Railway at Kingstown, as in that case the power required for this purpose is also omitted. The power required to work the rope in the cases specified amounts to a loss varying from H9 to 1" per cent, of the total, decreasing as the weight of the train is .mgmented. In proceeding to compare with these the results of the experiments on the Atmospheric Railway, it is my object to select a case in etch, which shall present the closest analogy in the amount of their resistance and velocity. The 4th train in Table No. VH., and the Ibth in Table No. VI. correspond very closely in these particulars, the total resistance of the former, including the friction, gravity, and resistance of atmosphere, being equal to 102 h. p., and of the latter 100 h. p., and the respective vdocities being 20 and 18 miles per hour. The loss of pon'er from the working of the rope in the former case is equal to ;jO per cent, of the tutal, while the loss rn the latter, arising from raising the vacuum, leakaee, and imperfections of the apparatus, amounts to 74 per cent, of the total power. In order, however, t > institute a correct comparison between these two cases, the total power in the former must be increased in the proportion of the mean to the maximum velocity, which in this Instance is ascertained, from experiments made, to add o" h. p. to the total, and the comparison stands thus : the loss of power on the Euston incline amounts to 45 per cent., while that on the Kin>;stown and Dalkey Hiiilway is 74 per cent. This result is obtained with a train which represents the average working of the Euston inchne ; it is therefore evident that iu this particular instance the rope is very consider- ably more economical than the atmnspheric system. If we assume other weights of train, we siiall perceive, that as they become lighter the proportion of loss by the atmospheric apparatus will be diminished on account of the reduction in the effect o"* leakage accom- panying the reduction in pressure, but the proportion of loss by the rope will be increased as the power required to work the rope itself is the same with a light as with a heavy train ; while on the other hand, with heavier trains the proportion of loss by the rope will be diminished, and that by the atmospheric system greatly augmented, from the increased effect of the leakage, and the additional power required to raise the vacuum to a greater height. This comparison may be carried further by examining the quantity of fuel consumed per day on these two lines; and this I am enabled to accomplish trom the observation of a fort- night's working of the Euston incline, and from an experiment on the Kingstown and Dalkey Railway, in which the number of trains, the exact weight of each, and the c->nsumptioa of fuel, was ascertained during an entire day. The result of the Ibrmer was, that 1.'^ trains avera£;ing 44 tons each, the mean resistance of which amounted to ISltOlb., were drawn up the incline of 0*91 mile length, at a mean velocity of about 17 miles per hour, in one day of io hours, with a consumption of iiO cwt. of coal; and the result of the latter was that tea trains averaging 44 tons each, the mean resistance of which amounted to 129.) lb., were drawn up the incline of 1"22 mile length, at a mean ve'ocity of about 14 miles per hoar, in one day of eight hours, with a consumption of 29 cwt. of coal. The consumption of cojI per mile ot the trains in these two cases amounts to 284 lb. on the Euston incline, and 2*3t) lb. at Kingstown ; and dividing these by their respective amounts of irietion and gravity, we obtain the comparative consumption per lb. oi tractive force as '18 lb. in the former case, and '21 lb. in the latter. The result of this c^omparison corresponds very closely with the previous compaiison of h. p. and the slight inconsistency is accounted for by the circumstance that I have not taken into consideration the times the fires were alight, the different construction of the engines, &c. But these I have purposely omitted, as it was not my object to enter into a comparison of {letails, but only to illuatrate generally the main features of the working of the two systems > and this cannot fail to be interesting, inasmuch as it is an instance which allows of a fair parallel being drawn between the two systems of motive power, the amount of work performed in the two cases being nearly alike, and the trains in each being drawn only in one direction, descending in the other direction by the force of gravity. If, however, we take some of the trains which are drawn up the Euston" incline, amounting to fully 100 tons weight, we shall find that the total resistance exceeds the caoacity of the tube which is employed at Kingstown namely, 16 inches diameter; for supposing the pressure to be equal to 22 inches height of the barometer, or 1 libs, per square inch, the train just named upon the gradient of 1 in 75, which is near the upper end of the Euston incline, and continues for about one-third of its length, ivould otfer a resistance, at a velocity of 17 miles per hour, of about 4500 lb., and would there- fore require a tube of 23 inches uiameter. Such an increase of tube, it must be observed, immediately implied a great reduction of velocity with the atmospheric system, or an increased size of air pump, involving a cor- responding increase of power, because the ratio between the areas of the air pump and vacuum tube is affected j and it has been clearly shown that, working at a high vacuum in a small tube, or increasing the size of the tube and lowering the vacuum, if tiie same amount of power be employed, involves equally the sacrifice of velocity. Here we per- ceive a decided proof, that what is termed good gradients is not a matter of indifference to the atmospheric system, and that we shall not be justified in attribunng to it the p^wer of economising the construction of railways to any considerable extent by avoidiiig th^ necessity of levelling the face of the country. By the comparisons we have entered into, we see, that in the case of the Euston inc'ire, a rope is considerably more economical as a means of conveying motive power than a vacuum tube; but if the incline were increased to a length of 3 or 4 miles, this would become rery questionable, as ttie loss of power from the friction of the rope iucreases exactly in the proportion of the length ; but in the atmospheric system the loss from the leakage does not increase so rapidly, as a large portion of it arises from the air pnmp and tube piston, and is the same with all lengths of tube. This it was my intention to have illustrated by referring to the circumstances of the Blackwall Railway, which is a case deemed by the inventors of the atmospheric system peculiarly advantageous for its aj^ili- 210 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Mat, cation especially in point of power, where they consider the economy resulting froni its adoDtion would be found most t-onspicuous and decisive. But as the circumstances nt this case are pecuhar, and their introduction here would interrupt the natural course of investigation I shall append to this Report a few observations on the subject, furnished at my request by Mr. G. P. Bidder, who has particularly devoted his attention to the appli- cation ot the atmospheric system to that railway. Locomotive Power. I will now proceed to inquire whether the capacity of the locomotive engine and the loss of power by the locomotive system exceed or fall short of that indicated by the expe- riments upon which this Report is based. The 4th Train in Table No. III. being that in which the greatest velocity was attained, it is taken as the most advantageous to the new system under discussion : the load in this case was 2t5-5 tors, and the velocity 34-7 miles per hour was attained on a rise of 1 in 115, presenting a resistance of 1311 lb., including the friction, gravity, and resistance of the atmosphere. In overcoming this resistance, the experiment shows a loss by the atmospheric system of 53 per cent. Now a locome- tive engine under these circumstances, in addition to the 13111b., must ove'^come the friction, gravity, and atmospheric resistance of the engine and tender, which ia about 900 lb., together with a further resistance arising from the pressure of the atmosphere against the pistons, peculiar to the working of a locomotive, as it is a non-condensing engine ; these will amount to 32 and 22 per cent, respectively, or togsther to 54 per cent, of the total power developed by the engine. In this comparison, I have neglected the friction of the working gear of the engine, as this is also omitted in the stationary engine, the indicator diagrams at Kingstown being taken from the air jiump and not from the steam cylinder. I have also not noticed the loss that would arise from the slipping of the wheels, when a locomotive eng ne is worked upon so steep a gradient. The loss of power, therefore, by the use of the locomotive engine under such circumstances, appears somewhat to exceed that shown by the atmospheric system ; this is, however, a most dis- advantageous comparison for the locomotive engine, because the gradient far exceeds that upon which it can be worked economically. When the load is augmented, the loss by the locomotive engine is slightly decreased, and the per centage lost of the total power is therefore diminished ; while \vith the at- mospheric system, thp per centage of loss is considerably increased, amounting to 77 per cent, with a train of tU-7 tons. These considerations show that with small trains the expenditure of power by the atmospheric system is less than by locomotive engines on this gradientof 1 in 115; whilst on the other hand, whenever the resistance of the train is such that a high vacuum is required, the locomotive has the advantage over the atmos- pheric system, . . The Ughtest trains taken upon the Kingstown and Dalkey incline at the velocities re- corded probably exceed the capabilities of locomotive engines, and so far prove that the atmospheric system is capable of being applied to somewhat steeper gradients, and that on such gradients a greater speed may be maintained than with locomotive engines. It must be observed, however, that this advantage is not peculiar to the atmospheric system, but necessarily accompanies every system consisting of a series of stationary engines, in which the gravity of the moving power forms no part of the resistance to motion. If we convert the loads moved in the experiments into equivalent loads on a level, we shall then find that in no case they exceed the duty which is being daily performed by locomotive engines. Thus, taking experiment No. 4, the load being 26-5 tons, the resist, ance per ton upon an incline of 1 in 115, at a velocity of 34.7 miles per hour, estimating the resistance of the atmosphere according to Larduer's experiments previously referred to, will stand thus: — Gravity . . .20 lb. per ton. Friction . . . 10 „ Atmosphere . . .20 „ Total resistance . . 50 And the resistance upon a level will be, Friction . . .10 lb. per ton. Atmosphere . . . 20 „ Total resistance . . 30 Therefore, this train of 26*5 tons, on the incline of 1 in 115, will be equivalent to 44 tons upon a level, at the same speed of 34*7 miles per hour. This duty, which is indisputably the utmost given by the experiments at Kingstown, is much exceed' out the great object of affording appropriate end highly-finished works uf sculpture for the embellishEient of the building were voted by the Joint Gresham Committee. Tjie Iron Duke. — M'e have previously noticed thft extriiorJir.ary speed of this splendid steamer, and we have now to r^-eord the result of her first Kingstown voyage, which we should hope would satisfy the most sceptical and prejudiced that she is unrivalled The most curious circumstance connected with her passage tc and from Ire- land is the fact, that both occupied precisely the same time, proving, as her voyage to Douglas had previously done, that her velocity is uniform under different circumstances. We give some details, whieh have been kindly handed to us by Mr. J. C. Shaw, who ac- companied her. and we doubt not that but nautical men will appreciate them as affording data for comparisons \vith other vessels. To those who are not nautical, we beg to state, that the distance from Clarene Piur, Liverpool, to Kingstown outer pier, is 114 nautical, or 130 statute miles : — Clarence Pier to Rock Light Rock Rifht to N. W. Light-ship . N. W. Light-ship to Great Omishead . Great Ormshead to Point Lynas . Point Lynas to Skerries Skerries to the Kish Light . Kish Light to Kini;stown Total passage . . 8 44 .. 8 44 She derived no aid from wind, inasmuch as she made a " head wind" both going and re- turning. The above passages are considerably the shortest ever made between the two places; and we ought to be prou'l of a vessel which is entirely indebted to Liverpool talent for her success. She was built by Mr. T. Wilsou. Her engines are from the cele- brated works of Fawcet & Co., they have wrought iron standards for the framing instead of cast iron. — Liverpool Paper. To Kingstown Return crip May 2. May 3. h. m. h. m. (1 10 0 9 0 4L' 0 45 1 26 1 35 1 6 1 1 0 50 0 44 3 51! 3 64 0 35 0 ;~6 LIST OF KTEW PATENTS. (From Messrs. Robertson^s List.) GR.\NTED IN ENGLAND FROM APRIL 27, TO MAY 23, 1844. Six Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherivise expressed. Pierre Armand Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, of Skinner's Place, Size Lane, merchant, for *' A new mode of constructing barometers and other pneumatic instruments." (Being a communication.) — Sealed April 27. John Dixon, of Wolverhampton, iron master, for "Improvements in heating air fer blast furnaces, and for other uses." — April 27. '^Arthur Wall, of Bistern Place, Poplar, surgeon, for *' certain Improvements in the manufacture of steel, copper, and other metals." — April 27. Josiah Clarke, and Samuel Fletcher, of Hulme, Lancaster, machine makers, for "C3r- lain Improvements in wheels to be used in slubbing or bobbin frames, and in roving or jack frames, and for other purposes, and also in the engine by which such wheels are or may be cast," — April 27. Isaiah Davies, of Birmingham, engineer, for " certain Improvements in ste^m engines, part of which improvements are ap:'iical>le to impelling wheel carriaces," — April 27. Edward Cobbold, of Melford, Suffolk, master of arts, clerk, lor " Impav.-ments in the preparation of peat, rendering ii applicable to several useful purposes, particularly for fuel."— April 27. William Clarke, of Nottingham, lace manufacturer, for " Improvements in machinery for manufacturing ornamented bobbin net, or twist lace."— April 30. William Jeffries, of Little Sussex Place, Hyde Pari; Gardens, for "Improvements in sweeping chimneys, and in apparatus to prevent chimneys from smoking."— April 6\K Robert Gordon, of He.iton Foundry, Stockport, millwright and engineer, for '* Improve- ments in grinding wlieat and other grain, and in dressing flour or meal, which improve- ments in gnnding are also applicable to grinding cements and other substances."— April 3(1. William Fairbairn and John Hetheington, of Manchester, engineers, for "certain im- provements in stationary ste'^m boilers, and in the furnaces and flues connected there- with."—April 3'). Jacob Samuda, of SouLhwark iron works, engineer, and Joseph D'Aguilar Samuda, of the same place, engineer, for "certain Improvements in the manulacture and arrange- ment of parts and apparatus for the construction and working of atmospheric railways,'* —April 30. John Melville, of Upper Harley Street, esquire, for " Improvements in the constniation and modes of wurking railroatis.'* — April ^0. James Kayman, of Mount Street, Lambeth, corndealer, for "An improved construction and arrangement of certain parts of omnibuses and other vehicles." — April 3(J, Robert Corden, of Nottin^'ham, tobacco manufacturer, and Sidney Smith, of the satna place, engineer, for " Improved economical apparatus for making gas for illuminations." —April .iO. Jolin Constable, of Lime Street, London, merchant, for " certain Improvements in the manufacture ol sugar." (Beine a ci^mmunicaiion.) — April 30. William Colborne Cambridge, of Market Lavington, Wilts, agricultural machine maker, fur " certain Improvements, first, in machinery for rolling or crushing ground ; second, for cutting and thrashing agricultural products j and third, an improved adaptation of horse power to threshing machinery, which may also be applied to other purposes." — April 30. Charles Watterson, of the firm of Macguire, Watterson, and Co., Manchester, soap manufacturer, for " certain Improvements in the manufacture of soap." — Way 8. Joseph Wright, of Gough Street, Gray's Inn Lane, coach builder, for "certain Im- provements in railway and other carriages." (Being a communication.)— ftlay H. James Grant, of Vine Street, Westminster, gas-litter, for " Improvements in the means of ventilating buildings and other places where a change of air is required."- May 8. William Vose Pickett, of Tottenham, esquire, for " certain methods for preparing in metal, or other substances, the parts and features of architectural tonstruction and de- coration, and for applying the same in the construction and arrangement of houses and other buildings." — -May S. John Loach, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for " A certain improvement in corkscrews, which improvement is also appliLMble to cocks or taps, and valves." — iday 8. Alfred Toy, and Edward Hanson, of Castle Street, Hoiborn, lamp manufacturers, for " Improvements in consuming tallow and other lalty matters in lamps."— May 8. Thomas Grimsley, of Oxford, SL-ulptor, for "A new method of constructing a self-sup- porting bre-proo" roof, and other parts of buildings, with bricks and tiles formed from an improved machine." — May 14. John Browne, of New Bond Street, esquire, for " Improvements in apparatus for pro- tecting the human face, or part of the human face, from the inclemency of the weather, part of which improvements is applicable to protect birds in cages." — May 14. Edward Hill, of Hart's Hdl. M'oicester, iron manufacturer, for *' Improvements in the manufacture of railway and other axles, shafts," and bars." — May 14. William Walker, jun., of Brown Street, Manchester, hydraulic engineer, for " Improve- ments in warming and ventilating apartments and buildings." — May 14. William Palmer, of Sutton Street, Clerkenwell, manufacturer, for " Improvements in the manufacture of wicks tor candles and for lamps, and in the manufacture of candles." May lo. Charltfs Hancock, of Grosvenor Place, Middlesex, esquire, for ■' certain Improvements in cork and other stoppers, and a new composition or substance which may be used as a substitute for, itnd in preference to cork, and a method or methods of manufacturing the said new composition or substance into bungs, stoppers, and other useful articles." — May 15. Hesketii Hughes, of Chiswetl Street, Middlesex, gentleman, for " An improved machine for crimpling, fluting, and quilling musHn and other fabrics." — May 15. Peter Armand le Compte de Fontainemoreau, of Skinner's Place, Sise Lane, London, for '* A new and improved mode or method of paving and covering roads and other ways or surfaces." (Being a communication., — May 16. Kenry Holmss, of Derby, cutler, for "Improvements in the manufacture of bricksi tiles, and other plastic substances." — May 15. John iM'Intosh, of Glasgow, gentleman, for "certain Improvements in revolving en- gines, and an improved method of producing motive power, and of propell'ng vessels," — May 17. James Pilbrow, of Tottenham, civil engineer, for " certain Improvements in the ma- chinery for, or a new method of propelling carriages on railways and common roads, and vessels on riveis and canals, &c." — May 17. Thomas Martin, of Withybush, Haverfordwest, Pembroke, for "certain Improvements in the construction of slated roofs, flats or floors, tanks or cisterns, or reservoirs for water, and in pipes , tubes, or channels of the same material, for the conveyance of water," — May James Petrie, of Rochdale, Lancaster, engineer, for "certain Improvements in steam engines." — May 22. James Perkins Chatten, of Saint Martin's Court, gentleman, for " Improvements in the manufacture of dearl eyes for the purpose of setting up the rigging of ships and other sail- ing vessels." — May 22. James Bremner, of Pulteney Town, Caithness, civil engineer, for " certain arrange- ments for constructing harbours, piers, and buildings in water, for cleansing harbours, and for raising sunken vessels." — May 22. George Gwynne, of Princes Street, Cavendish Square, gentleman, and George Fergusson Wilson, of Belmont, Vauxhali, gentleman, for " Improvements in treating certain fatty or oily matters and in the manufacture of candles and soap." — May 22. Joseph Meeirs, of Ludgate Hill, for '" certain Improvements in weanug, and in weaving machines." — May 22. John Henrj' Moor, of Lincoln's Inn Fields, gentleman, for "certain Improvements In the construction of carriages generally." — May 23. William Johnson, of Bury, Lancaster, agent, for "Improvements in machinery or ap- paratus for preparing cotton, wool, flax, and other fibrous substances." — May 23. Richard Wilson.of Newcastle, builder, for " Improvements in the manufacture of tiles." —May 23. John Wiikie, of Glasgow, mechanic, for *' Improvements in machinery or apparatus for working wood into the various forms requ'red for making doors, window-shutters, window- sashes, mouldings, flooring, and other purposes." — May 23. John Taylor, of Duke Street, Adelphi, gentleman, for " certain new mechanical com- binations, by means of which economy of power and of fuel are obtained in the use of the steam engine." — lHay 23. William Archibald, cooper, of New Mills, Ashbourne, Derby, gentleman, for " certain Improvements in machinery for spinning cotton wool, and other tibrous substances."— May 23. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 213 A FEW PLAIN WORDS TO THE CAMDENISTS. Br Candidus. The two Universities sepni of late to have been bewitched, and to have entered into a very extraordinary kind of flirtation with Roman- ism. Wliile Oxford has been endeavouring to edify us by means of Tractarianism and Puseyism, Cambridge is zealously exerting itself to correct and enlighten us with its so-called Caradenism — a sort of theologico-politico-architectural "movement," conducted in such a manner as to betray very ominous yearnings after that strange com- pound of hyper-spiritualism and materialism which is so prominent a trait in the diameter of the church of Rome. And along with it, it seems to have been borrowed from the same quarter, no small quan- tity of priestly intolerance, and of dogmatism and Jesuitism. The architectural "revival" seems to be the least part of the matter, for that such very virulent zeal as is that of the Camden Society and its adherents, should be excited merely by a regard for the interests of art and antiquarian taste, is highly improbable. No doubt, it is all very proper and commendable on the part of the clergy that they should pay greater attention than they have been wont to do, to the buildings committed to their charge, and endeavour to rescue them from the clutches of churchwardens and " beautifiers." Commendable also is it that they should apply to the study of Eccle- siastical Architecture and Antiquities, as one, if not absolutely indis- pensable to, sufficiently becoming to their profession, — quite as clerical pursuits as fishing, hunting, shooting and whist-playing. But the satisfaction we might else feel at seeing the clergy of the Church of England taking an intelligent interest in such matters, is greatly abated when we also find them banding themselves into Societies and Asso- ciations which, as it now appears, have an ulterior and covert object, they claiming paramount authority not in regard to church architec- ture alone, but in such manner as must greatly affect both the study and practice of architecture generally. The characteristic Odium Theologicum manifests itself very naturally perhaps, yet somewhat indiscreetly in the bitter enmity they show towards, and the reproach- ful terms tliey bestow on, every style and mode of building other than Gothic: and in their utter intolerance of all views of art that do not precisely accord with their own. Whatever it does not suit their purpose to countenance or approve of, must be formally laid under ban and interdict, and be excommunicated iis heterodox and heretical. Therefore, to do the Camdenists justice, they so far act up to the spirit which prevailed in the church during those very excellent and "pious" times, which they now held up to us as an express pattern for our imitation and edification. In fact, architecture is looked upon by them as being edification in the figurative no less than in the primary meaning of the word. To speak of it ;is an art or a science, as a matter of taste, or even as a matter of feeling, influenced by associations, is according to them highly reprehensible, for they regard it as something intimately connected — almost in a manner identified with religious belief and sentiment. Invariably are we reminded that, as an art, architec- ture originated in, and was fostered by, religious worship. Yet the argument endeavoured so to be established in favour of the pre-eminent excellence of architecture is but a lame one, the art being but a mere passive instrument ready to be employed in the service of any reli- gion, and by the followers of any creed who choose to employ it. To remind us of its antiquity, is only reminding us of what it has done for False Religions, and what a lustre that and the sister art of Sculpture shed around that Paganism of which the Cambridge exorcists are now endeavouring to expel even the remembrance from us, as something polluting and unclean. False religions stand in need of the aid of art and all other appliances in order to render them imposing, and to dazzle the eyes of the multitude. Superstitious creeds again, require to be kept up by all the pomp, the ceremonies and the spectacle of religion, and accordingly inculcate the grossest fl'/eroZd/r/a,— an almost equal reverence for the material church and all belonging to it, as for the spiritual one. Shall we say that it is just the same in regard to Protestantism ?— that it cannot afford to dispense with those externals which have proved so eflScacious in the cause of Romanism ?— Let the men of Cambridge solve for us such question. Our reverence for the peculiar sanctity— so to call it— attributed by some modern mystics to architecture— at least to Gothic architec- ture as the expression of religious feeling, is somewhat lessened when we reflect that it flourished most in the palmy times of Priestcraft and Superstition, and when the Church of Rome was most profligate and corrupt. We do not say that the style itself is one whit less admirable on that account; but let us be content to value and admire it for what it is, without striving to recommend it by cant and maudlin claptrap. " The Piety of our forefathers"— the "Faith of our forefathers" are No. 82,— Vol. VII.— June, 1844. very pretty phrases, and serve very well to grace and give emphasis to a period ; but to be taunted, as we sometimes are, with the re- proach of having departed from the faith of our forefathers, is intoler- able— at least absurd, when such accusation comes from whom it does. While it is no more than natural and consistent on the part of such writers as Welby Pugin to stigmatise the Reformation as an awful heresy ; it becomes not a little contradictory and startling to hear those who actually boast of having shaken off Romanism and all that belongs to it, as a cunningly and craftily devised system of religious policy rife with superstition and hypocrisy, fraud and deceit, — holding, when it is convenient for them to do so, nearly the same language. Of course we have renounced — Camdenists, it may be presumed, includ- ed—the faith of our Popish ancestors and Roman Catholic forefathers; and of course also, by some it is called an awful heresy, by others orthodoxy and a return to pure Christian faith as it existed before it became defiled by the carnal inventions and delusions of a tyrannical priesthood. The Reformation may be matter for either great sorrow or great joy; but that it should be both the one and the other at the very same time, in the estimation of the very same persons, is not a little strange. Having so lustily applied the shears to the garment of Popery, and lopped off its train and its skirts, to regret the loss of the trimmings and fringes, is childishness and idle affectation. After having willingly parted with so much, and even congratulating ourselves upon having got rid of it, why should we now all at once be so eager to recover some of the mere remnants and semblances of it? It may be said, in excuse, that the forms and observances which some are now exerting themselves to revive, are in themselves per- fectly harmless — not to say unmeaning — and matters of indifference. Perfectly so : — then why make so much stir about them ; why make them the subject of so much contention, scandal, and heart-burning? Why treat them as grave and serious questions, if they are only fri- volous ones? — frivolous, at least, as far as religion is at' all concerned with or interested in them. Appeal to our taste, if you will, openly, honestly, fairly: call upon us to admire — and who is there so dull as to be insensible to? — the varied beauties and excellences of Gothic Architecture — so copious and consistent as a system, and so capable of powerfully captivating both the eye and the imagination. Hardly does it stand in need of other claims to our regard, therefore if we no longer look upon the noble structures which it has bequeathed to uj, with exactly the same sort of admiration and veneration as did those by whom they were erected ; if we no longer appreciate that abstruse architectonic mysticism which their builders sought to impress upon them, and inform them with, let us be thankful that the superstition which attached importance to such hidden meanings and hieroglyphic conceits has passed away as well as the intelligence of them. In endeavouring to revive the latter, there is also some danger of our backsliding into the former; or if the " intelligence of the age" is such as to render all apprehension of the kind quite chimerical, it is not likely to receive with much gratitude or respect, the zealous exhorta- tions and instructions of the Camdenists. Such " intelligence" is any- thing but favourable to the efforts of that centaur-like compound of religious and antiquarian quixotism which would fain reinstate discard- ed, exploded, and all but quite forgotten ordinances and usages, that are unfitted for us in proportion as they were suited to the temper and the belief of the times when they prevailed, — times which, as far as religion is concerned, certainly well deserve to be called the " Dark Ages," notwithstanding that they are apt to dazzle those who look at them only through poetic and antiquarian s/)ecs, and contemplate them as the palmy days of ecclesiastical splendour, and of knightly chivalry and romance. It has been made a bitter reproach against the architects of the present day that they pay no attention whatever to, — in fact are ut- terly ignorant of, ancient architectural symbolism. Yet that such should be the case is no more than quite simple and natural, symbolism itself having gone altogether out ot fashion, and being neither thought of nor understood, or if thought of at all, put into the same category with judicial astrology and witchcraft. Now, however, a sort of en- thusiasm in favour of it has been got up all of a sudden by certain "learned clerks," who are endeavouring to impose their own hobby- horsical fancies, and quaint mystical riddles and conceits upon us, and to make the observance of them binding upon architects. Henceforth, the latter must renounce allegiance to their arch-pagan luminary Vitruvius, and must guide themselves by the light of, and become spiritually enlightened by, that mystical Doctor and worthy, Durandus. From him they may learn how pregnant with meaning, how luminously significant, the architects of former days, working in faith and animated by zeal for the honour of the Church, contrived to render every part of their fabrics. To the eyes of us unenlightened people at the pre- sent day, there appears to be no other meaning in the plan of a cloister than its architectural one : we see indeed, that it has four sides, but 19 214 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [June, so hasevervotherquadrangular space, therefore liaveno suspicion tliat there can be .my sort of symbolism hirlcing in what is so very common- place a circumstance as Hs/our-sidcchicss, until we learn from Duraii- dus, that those four sides are expressly intended to signify — 1. Con- tempt of Self. 2. Contempt of the World. 3. Love of God. 4. Love of our Neighbour! — whether the fourth would not be more pro- perly expressed by that being made much the shortest side, is not saidi Again, the Refectory means — not, as might be supposed, carnal appetite, but the love of Holy Meditation! the Cellar — even nothing less than the Holy Scriptures! ! and the Dormitory a clean Conscience. This may suffice to give some idea of the architectural spirituality and devout mysticism inculcated by Durandus, and now promulgated under the auspices of the no less intelligent than zealous Cambridge Camden Society, to wliom two of their own fraternity not long ago dedicated a translation of Durandus' mystical rigmarole — almost too strong a dose, we should fancy, for the strongest Caondenist stomach among them. If to be matchod at all in his crazy fancies, the Durandus of old is most nearly approached by a modern and living mystic who thus ex- pounds to us a profound piece of symbolism : "The /Aree buttresses below and the three sides of the triangle above, give the s;.r days of the creation, and the light in the centre is the sertnth. The buttresses in Trinitv, support tlie Light, which is the Law. The triangle or upper part in Trinitv supports the Law. From the apex of the trian- gle, the cross is made to appear an emanation of the Trinity. Also the cross is shown by the centre buttress at the shaft, the base of the triangle as the arms of the Light for the Head, denoting that the Cross was from the Beginning ! ! " Almost might one suppose that this was intended as a wicked caricature or quiz, instead of being penned in seriousness, and recommended with earnestness as being a notable ex- ample of Christian architecture in regard to perfect " intelligence of design," and spirituality of meaning. In regard to such " intelligence of design," being novsf revived in practice, were there no other objection, it is to be apprehended that it would be completely thrown away upon the uninitiated, to whom it would be as unintelligible as were Irving's Unknown Tongues; and that instead of contributing to edification, it would be looked upon as a sort of religions mystification any thing but in character with the spirit of Protestantism. The ideas and the feelings which once gave meaning and value to such enigmatical language in ecclesiastical architecture, having utterly passed away, the imitation of it at the pre- sent day would be only mere make-btliere and architectural masquerade. It avails not to say that such allusions ought to be revived, if the time is quite gone by for them. The merely putting on the costume of former ages when the institutions themselves to which it belongs are extinct, would be only solemn mummery, and disguise. It would be like dressing up a child to personate its grandfather, — pleasant as a brief joke, but preposterous if intended in earnest — sincere but moon-struck. To lament that we no longer continue in the "faith of our forefathers," is very much like saying that the Reformation ought not to have happened,' — as perhaps it would not but for the foul and barefaced iniquity of the Romish church, and its abominable supersti- tions. Happened, however, it has ; and it is now all too late to think of repairing the mischief. Even if we are so far to return to the usages of our forefathers as to revive " Christian principles of de- sign," and symbolism, in our church-architecture, it must be a work of such time, that in the interim the zeal which now so loudly calls upon us to do so, will have sunk to the freezing point. That the present generation of architects are utterly unfit for the task cannot be doubted, after no less an authority tbanWelby Pugin himself has told us : "The student of Christian architecture should also imbue his mind with the mysteries of his Faith, the history of the Church, the lives of those glorious Saints and Martyrs that it has produced in all ages ;" and among other things be acquainted with the " liturgy and rubrics of the Church ;" — meaning, we suppose, not of the heretical Church of Eng- land, but of that of Rome. It is therefore, perhaps, out of compassion to the ignorance of architects, that the Camden Society have kindly come forward of their own accord to instruct and indoctrinate them in tiie profound mysteries of canonical architecture. The Camden So- ciety must not, however, expect too much from their pupils; because if tliey reckon upon their ready docility, their implicit obedience, and their sincere gratitude, they may find that they have reckoned with- out their host. The Camdenists would do well also to reconsider some of their own arguments. By identifying Gothic architecture in a special manner with religion — that is the religion which prevailed when tbat particular style of ecclesiastical building (for which the epi- thet Chsistian is now claimed no less exclusively than emphati- ally) attained its perfection, the Camdenists set up as argu- ment ^br, what should rather be an argument against it. For why should we be at all anxious to recover the hiero-mystical language in architecture belonging to an exploded Faith whose altars we have banished, whose shrines we have desecrated, and in whose Saints we put no trust i From the manner in which the Pointed style is spoken of by them and some others, it might naturally be supposed that it was actually part and parcel of Christianity itself, and appeared to- gether with it, whereas, in fact, full ten centuries of the Christian era had elapsed before it began to manifest itself at all as style, that is not till after Christian doctrine had become defiled by the numerous and gross superstitions engrafted upon it by wily and ambitious priests. To use the words of Sir Widter Scott, "the primitive Church differed as much from that of Rome, as did light from darkness ;" consequently it is the Church of Rome and our own Anglo-Romish Church in the middle ages which may more justly be charged with having departed from the l<'aith, than we who have renounced their corruptions and their superstitions. Why then should any among us — more especially those who profess strict allegiance to the Protestant Church of England, excite idle yet, perhaps, dangerous — at any unseemly disputes in regard to matters which are entirely conventional at the best. To retain and keep up is one thing, but to revive customs and practices which have long since fallen into desuetude, and now lost all meaning, is a very different one, in fact nothing less than positive innovation. If we are to be guided in such matters by Christian Antiquity and its precedents, we may as well go back to what was the original Christian style, which prevailed for many centuries, and of which so many noble and interesting examples remain in Italy. Although the Baistlica be un- doubtedly of Pagan descent and origin, it may be allowed to be suffi- ciently consecrated to us as a style and mode of building strictly ecclesiastical, in consequence of having been the one adopted by, and — so to say, converted to Christianity, in such manner that the stain of its former paganism was completely obliterated, and an entirely new and solemnly religious character impressed upon it. Still, it may be argued, however such style may be recommended by historical traditions and associations, it is not at all so, as far as we ourselves are concerned, by any national ones. Neither is the style alluded to, at all to be compared with the Gothic for its intrinsic merits and qualities. Very true : but then this is entirely shifting the argument, and what we are called upon to reverence implicitlv out of zeal for the pure Faith, is thus, after all admitted to be prefer- able, rather upon ^sMe//e than Religious grounds! We do not say that the preference is therefore wrong in itself; we object only to the shamming insincerity of those who make Religion a stalking horse to architectural and antiquarian taste; or else, on the other hand, affect a prodigious zeal in behalf of the architecture and arts of the Middle Ages, in order to mask some ulterior policy of their own. It does look somewhat suspicious that, not content with endeavouring to im- prove Church architecture among us, the Camdenists should insist so strongly upon an observance of symbolism and other antiquated fancies; and likewise that they seem quite as eager to arrogate to themselves a dictatorial authority over professional men, whom they treat as incapable of thinking for themselves, unworthy of being trusted to themselves, therefore requiring to be held in a state of close pupil- age to the Cambridge Conclave. Yet on what is the self-assumed infallibility of the latter founded ? They seem to have no other standard or test of architectural merit than Precedent; — to have no suspicion that a building may be concocted according to precedent, with authority for every part, and nevertheless prove entirely naught as a piece of architecture, — a mechanical compilation in point of de- sign, and feeble, perhaps even mean in its general character. As well might our Fresco-painters offer up their prayers to St. Luke to grant them success in their operations in the new Palace of Westminster, as our architects look to being iusnired by the precedent-recipes of Cam- denists, and the mystical lore of religious freemasonry. It is idle to expect at the present day that artists of any kind should be animated by the same motives, or partake of the same enthusiasm as is gene- rally imputed to those who dwelt in cloisters, and devoted their talents to the service of their church. Were such enthusiasm at all felt, it would inevitably be chilled by the reflection that the public have no sympathy with it, and that even were its sincerity not ques- tioned— than which nothing is more likely — it would be regarded with cold indifference by all, except those constituting a special party. The tendencies of the age lie in a different direction. We cannot possibly revive the mental habits,.the feelings and purposes belonging to other creeds and to other states of society ; why, then, should so much pains be taken to resuscitate the mere phantoms of by -gone things? There are ultra-Revivalists and Restorers who preach up almost as if it were an express duty, that of refashioning our architecture alto- gether,— of discarding every other style of the art, except that which prevailed prior to, or just about the time of the Reformation; and of employing this last on every occasion and for all sorts of purposes, both J844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 215 in town and in country. This is so egregiously preposterous — so thoroughly impracticable, thit to otFer objections to its being done would be a waste of words. SufKce it to observe that however defi- cient it may be in "the expression of faith and of country," our pre- sent domestic style is upon the whole f;ir more of a piece with our actual habits and ideas than would be the antiquated black-leUer fashions which are so outrageously cried up by Welby Piigin. Even in regard to Church Architecture, if a fresh impulse is now to be given to it, it must be not so much by scrupulously copying an- cient precedent and patterns, as by studying them artistically for the purpose of modifying such examples so as best to adapt them to actual and altered circumstances. Instead of this, the Camdenists would enforce literalism — a plodding-observance of canonical etiquette in ecclesiastical architecture, which, in their opinion, is to be principally attended to, and makes ample amends for all deficiencies in other re- spects. They seem to make Precedent and Symbolism the very Alpha and Omega of their architectural creed, and to merge all criti- cism— all EEsthetic considerations in them alone, as if they operated with the power of some holv charm and sanctifying spell. Great as is the horror of Paganism which the Camdenists profess to entertain, as good Christians, thev feel no reluctance, as Prot''stants, to revert to practices which now look very much like the remains of Popish superstitions. Their so-called Ecclesiology busies itself most curiously about such orthodox matters as orientation, couplets, triplets, rood- lofts, candlesticks, vestments, church-furniture, and even church needlework, as if " tromperie" of that kind conduced to edification, or insured purity of doctrine. Pity ! that nothing has yet been SAid as to the extra-ecclesiastical purpose to which a Vestry may be turned by being made to do double diitv, serving the reverend person or parson himself as a business-room or office on week-days. That such has been the case before now, we well know from oar own experience, having attended by appointment on a reverend Doctor, in the vestiy of his church, then and there to discuss some matters of literary busi- ness ; — the upshot of which proved that promises made in a church are very much like promises made elsewhere. Whatever be the intent, or ultimafelv the effect of the ecclesiologi- cal fancies which the Camdenists exhort us with so much unction to observe, and would so bigottedly compel us to believe, — whether they ought or not to be met by a " No-Po])ery" cry, the "No-Paganism" cry now raised by that party is very needless alarm. As well might they warn us against Judaism or Mahometanism, at the present day, as against Paganism. We are, no doubt, more familiar with the last, but not at all as connected with any religious sentiment or creed, therefore its orthodoxy or lieresy is altogether out of the question. For the degree and kind of Paganism, too, which exists among us in relationship to art, we are indebted to those who make classical, alias pagan literature and antiquities so very considerable a portion of a liberid education — both an indispensable one, and the prime one. A stranger utterly unacquainted with European civilization, might rea- sonably enough suppose th;it the writings of the pagan ancients were our sacred books, so great is the veneration with which they are spoken of, and the pains taken to indoctrinate youth in the study of them, from their tenderest years. Instead of being restrained by scruples of any kind — moral or religious, as to the impropriety and danger of familiarizing unformed and susceptible minds with pagan fancies and pagan principles, — with the detestable impurity, the gro- velling brutality, and the fiendish ferocity, which distinguish the deities and heroes of heathen mythology, — and which, to express our- selves in the very mildest terms, are eminently Anti-Christian, — the pious instructors of youth seem to consider a knowledge of the classics the basis of all knowledge, and as something that cannot by any possi- bility be too highly extolled, or too diligently applied to, insomuch that a proficiency in such studies is termed Xewxmn^, jiar excellence. Of late years, indeed, the world have discovered that there is other knowledge, and some have ventured to speak rather disparagingly of the system of education pursued at Eton and Westminster and other schools of that grade, as tending very little to either the intellectual or the moral improvement of the pupils. But it was reserved for the Camdenists to aim a parricidal blow at their Alma Mater, by fiercely denouncing Paganism, and therefore by implication calling that worthy Old Lady, no better than an old Jezabel,who together with her no less worthy sister of Oxford, does all she can to keep the spirit of Pagan- ism alive in a Christian land. If any thing derived from, partaking of, or in any way associated with Paganism, is to be tolerated at all, surely the most innocent, the least dangerous, and least exceptionable form' in which it can be now admitted, is that of architecture. Nevertheless, it is precisely this which the Camdenists make their scape-goat, making it to bear all the iniquities of Paganism. In all other respects, the Camdenists, give us, it seems, full license to indulge in as much Paganism as we please. It is only Greek and Roman columns and pediments which excite their holy horror, and are accordinglv put into their Index Ex- purgatorius, as unpardonably heretical and Anti-Christian. Such is the meek theological hatred which they entertain against classi- cal architecture and every style derived" from it, that they would fairly extirpate it, and blot it out from recollection altogether, by prohibiting the very study of it. Could they have their own orthodox way, they would establish a censorship over the archi- tectural press and allow nothing to be published except what related to Gothic Architecture and that alone, and perhaps not even on that unless the writer entertained precisely the same views as themselves, and treated the subject with all due unction. That this is something more than a gratuitous conjecture on our part, is tolerably obvious from their organ, the Ecclesiologist having treated as a high misde- meanour the insertion of other articles than upon Gothic architecture, in Weale's "Quarterly Papers." Did the title of that publication im- ply that it was intended to be exclusively on the subject of so-called Christian architecture, there would have been some grounds for the complaint, whereas, since it does not, some may think th.it Gothic ob- tains more than its fair share of attention. Another complaint on the part of the Eccesiologist is, that all the articles are not written in the same tone, and do not advocate the same opinions, although they (jroceed from difterent pens ; — a rather curious accusation seeing that the most orthodox High-church reviews do not scruple to allow them- selves the utmost latitude as to variety of subjects and the mode of treating them, for it is by no means unusual to find a heavy article of polemical divinity immediately followed by ono on the "Novels of the Season," and a dissertation on the Poor Laws or Political Economy succeeded by a sprightly paper on the Opera, or on Cookery. The Camdenists, however, are most orthodoxly and virtuously iu- toIer;inf, and we sincerely rejoice that such is the case, because now their narrow-minded bigotry altogether overleaps its mark, and must cause them to be regarded as canting enthusiasts and fanatics, and to be looked upon with suspicion by those who might else give them credit for being actuated by a sincere love of art. If not their sin- cerity, they certainly do leave their moral courage to be questioned, for else they would show themselves in earnest by boldly attacking the architectural hrresy tlu-y afiect to deplore, in its head-quarters, whereas their valour now seems to be of that sort whose better part is discre- tion. They are of that godly race who are never scandalized at wick- edness when it happens to sit in high places; who are "shocked and amazed" at the iniquity of an old woman's selling apples on a Sun- day, but can wink at the doings of noble and honourable Sabbath- bre.ikers. Since the Camdenists claim for themselves indisputable authority, let them assert it boldly, without respect to persons or re- gard to consequences. Instead of snarling at petty offenders whose dulness must counteract the " mischievousness" of their opinions, and who are therefore hardly worth powder and shot, let them hurl the thunderbolt of their godly ire against the nurseries of Paganism — against Academies and Professors, against galleries and museums where the spoils of Pagan art are treasured up by an enthusiasm no less besotted than profane — in their opinion at least — as precious re- lics. Let them publicly excommunicate Athenian Stuart and Athenian Elgin; let them sentence the works of Pausanias and Vitruvius, of Winckelmann and Visconti, to the flames, let them denounce Jones and Wren as apostates and arch-heresiarchs. Let their motto be Delenda est Carthago : let them bravely assault the citadel of Pagan- ism, exterminate its garrison, aud raze its foundations. In their sub- lime wrath, as Champions of the Faith, let them spare no one, nor tolerate any thing connected with the adverse cause. Soldiers of the Church Militant, let them not quail at the sight of that liydra Pagan- ism, which is not to be slain by lopping off its heads one by one, but by stabbing it in its vitals. Not even the semblance of Paganism ought to be tolerated in any shape among a Christian people : it must be expelled not only from our churches but our houses ; not only from our museums, but our drawing-rooms. Wedgewood's pagan pottery, and Hope's heathen furniture, must be destroyed; casts from the antique must no longer be permitted ; plaster of Paris must no longer be employed in manufacturing miniature Apollos and Venusses as ornaments for chimney-pieces, but the Italian boys may now return to their former innocent trade of hawking about poll-parrots. Adieu to Anacreontic poetry, Pindaric odes, Bacchanalian songs — to Cupids and Hymeneal Altars,— to gallant Sons of M irs, and Sons of Neptune, and to all the pagan slang of the newspapers. Certes! there is a pretty Augean stable for them to cleanse out, if the Camdenists intend to sweep away all that according to their opinion partakes of Pa- ganism. Luckily for their credit, they do not purpose to engage in any such herculean task : we have their permission — at least their examples for retaining as much paganism as we please, so long as we eschew it 19* 216 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [June, and shun all similitude of it, when it presents itself ip the terribly profane and pestilential character of Architecture. Of course, Camdenists are at liberty to entertain and maintain their own opinions ; and if they really think that they are at this time of day promoting the cause of religion by endeavouring to bring symbol- ism again into vogue, and by busying themselves about trivial exter- nal formalities, as if they were not less than matters of vital import- ance; they stand excused ybro conscientice, however ridiculous and extravagant their devout fancies may appear in the eyes of the vrorld. But they greatly exceed such liberty when they actually band and confederate together for the purpose of assuming to themselves a positive, direct, and irresponsible control over Architecture and those who make it their profession ; — when they form themselves into a HOLY ALLIANCE, invested, it would seem, with despotic authority; — when they erect themselves into a formidable tribunal from which there is to be no appeal, — and when not satisfied with recommending Gothic Architecture for its own merits, they insist not only upon our admiring that, but upon hating and detesting every other style of the art. In order to terrify into submission thuse whom their arguments fail to convince, they resort to the ultima ratio of their Holy Inquisi- tion—the terrible charge of "Paganism," and denounce all those who differ in opinion from them, as little better than apostates, infidels, and scoffers. Although it may serve to scare old women, to talk of Paganism-in Architecture as if there was something actually profane and unholy in employing a style of the art which has descended to us from pagan Greece and Rome, is mere paltering with words and names; and as argument is most contemptible, and disingenuous, most Jesuitical, and hypocritical ; — of a certainty it is ludicrously inconsistent on the part of those who hug Paganism with such unholy fervour as they do, when forgetting their own legitimate orthodoxy, they take for their favourite doxy, (hat very same Paganism only in a different dress. Still to give the Camdenists their due, they are sufficiently consistent in one re- spect, for while they labour to revive and re-instate among us the recondite architectural mysticism, and ecclesiological etiquette of our forefathers, they themselves display all the bigotry of Monkish times, and a spirit worthy of the Dark Ages. ^ OBSERVATIONS ON ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURE. By Henry Fulton, M.D. No. 10. It has been said that "architecture is a creation of the mind," the sister arts have subjects and models in nature, but architecture is almost entirely dependent on invention. The accounts which we have of the paintings of the Greeks raise them in our estimation; in their sculptures which time has left us, our admiration is still more excited, and in them we realise the perfection of art, which the page of history alone would fail to convey to us. But still it is in the ruins of their temples that we read the lesson of a people's grtatness. Let us ask ourselves the question, what will posterity conceive of us, judging of us merely by the architectural monuments of the age ? When our railroads and our numerous improvements in science and arts shall be mentioned with honour, a blank must be left for our achievements in architecture. But it is easier to foresee all this than to furnish a remedy. When a knowledge of the art was confined to the Freemasons, and the people for whom they constructed must have been incapable of appreciating its beauties, a certain esprit du corps, or perhaps we should rather say esprit des ar/i, existed, which produced the happiest effects. Would that something of this mind existed amongst archi- tects of the present day; and that even although they might combine and confederate to keep all the knowledge and information in their own body, still that they would let us feel that knowledge and infor- mation really did exist, and that their works were fit to be handed duwn to posterity to show the proficiency of this age in architecture as well as the other branches of science and art. It must be admitted that the architects are few in number who have the opportunity of erecting large edifices ; but still even in erections of the smallest description, and of every day occurrence, the architect can show what he is capable of doing, had he a more extended field of operation — but what is the fact ? if the edifice be on a small scale, he too often makes it also trifling in character and insignificant in de- tail; and if the scale be large, as in the National Gallery, it is merely a multiplication of trifling parts, shewing that he is unable to conceive any thing grand or noble on any scale whatever. Few are the archi- tectural features in London, at least in the Greek stvle or its imme- diate derivatives, which exhibit the character of nobleness and gran- deur. Mr. Rennie's three bridges are every way worthy of admira- tion, but they are rather the works of an engineer than an architect. We may mention Mr. Barry's cornicione on the Reform Club House, Mr. Hardwick's London Terminus of the Birmingham Railway, Mr. Wilkins' portico of the London University, and Mr. Tite's of the Royal Exchange, and a work of much less importance, yet still show- ing considerable good taste, Mr. G. Smith's facade of the New Corn Exchange in Mark Lane. There may be other works in the horizontal styles which I overlook in the crowd of paltry, tasty, tawdry erections of the Palladio-Vitruvian school, or the cold, stiff productions a la Smirke. Wax figure workers copy nature, yet their copies are not pleasing; the Greeks unable, Pygmalion-like, to give life to tlie pro- ductions of the chisel, compensated for the deficiency by an ideal beauty which is not to be found in the model ; the compositions of the Smirke school hold the same place in the scale which characterise those of the wax worker^they want the life or beau ideal of the original, if I may so express it, they are mere copies, above censure perhaps, but certainly below praise. But although the bold cornicione of the Reform Club merits unqua- lified approbation, yet it covers a multitude of sins ; and the misfor- tune is, that these architectural peccadilloes having been perpetrated by the great Mr. Barry, all the little Messrs. Barry will follow in his wake, and as men are more apt to copy the vices than inclined to imitate the virtues of others, we shall have little columns, little pedi- ments, little pulvinated friezes, and vile, ugly little balusters, to the end of the chapter, all because by such devices has the Reform Club been ornamented, and it is to be feared that little use will be made as a precedent of the redeeming feature, the noble cornice. Of Mr. Barry's designs for the Houses of Parliament as yet it is hard to judge, the scale of the drawings is necessarily so small ; but the fact of his having the courage to introduce so bold a cornice, as well as the style for the Houses of Parliament admitting of a combination of trifling parts, and therefore more likely to prove successful in modern hands, gives us great promise, which I trust may not be disappointed, not- withstanding fears have been expressed on the subject. The Railway Terminus is a specimen of good taste for this or any other age, and although there is nothing of novelty in the design itself, yet the taste and ingenuity of its architect are not, on that account, to be less highly appreciated. In one sense it is altogether new, it pre- sents us with a successful adaptation of an ancient model, the Pro- pylsa, to modern use, and I trust that long after the harfclof time shall have swept away the rubbish which ornaments our metropolis, this ' terminus shall stand a monument to the fame of Mr. Hardwick. In this example, the exception as regards the number of triglyphs has been followed, and perliaps justifiably so, as sufficient breadth might not otherwise have been obtained in the composition with only two columns in antis, and the aerial effect of it as a detached structure and mere screen, render the introduction of the additional one on the centre intercolumniation, less objectionable than it would be in any other case. Still it is the exception, not the rule. It should be men- tioned that for this structure, so creditable to the architect and the directors of (I believe) the best conduct«d railway in the kingdom, that there was no competition. But the cry is still iox something 7;ew, and even Candidus, with whose views on many points inine so much coincide, talks (if memory serves me right) of things being stereotyped without stopping to draw a proper distinction. I think the cry should rather be for something good, which in itself (as in Mr. Hardwick's Terminus) would be some- thing new : and as soon as we are satiated with good examples, then there is no doubt of our appetite for wholesome variety being duly gratified. For my part I would rather see good architecture cover the length and breadth of the land than any novelty which the most exuberant fancy could suggest, if deficient of that quality. It was the love of novelty which occasioned the decline and fall of architecture, and it is not by the same means it is to be restored again. In other things as well as architecture, a longing after novelty irrespective of intrinsic merit indicates a diseased state of mind, which is increased by a supply of the food it desires. When good taste, which in many respects with us is yet in its infancy, shall have arrived at manhood, then, but not till then, shall we be able to appreciate novelty without the danger of being dazzled by its meretricious charms : in the mean time the production or reproduction (if you will) of such works as this Terminus, will do more towards placing architects and architec- ture in a proper position in the scale of public estimation than all the works of all the ancient and modern Palladios, Inigo Joneses, Wrens, and Chamberses put together. The porticos both of the University an^ the New Exchange present a goodly array of columns in front, but they. want the depth and 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 217 solidity of the ancient phalanx, so much to be admired in the Pantheon of Agrippa, and which might and should be attended to in the portico of the British Museum, as pointed out in Observation No. 3, vol. Vi. of this Journal. Our knowledge of the facade of the New Corn Exchange extends no further than the view given of it in Mr. Leeds' Illustrations of the Buildings of London (a work by the way we should rejoice to see con- tinued), but we promise ourselves much gratification by a pilgrimage to Mark Lane to see the reality. Mr. Smith appears to have been very happy in selecting a substitute for triglyphs ; but over the inter- nal pilaster of the coupled or rather grouped anta, which flank the four angles of the wings, there is none, nor could there well be ; there- fore, they ought, for the sake of uniformity, to have been omitted in the centre of the wings altogether, and some appropriate piece of sculpture should have been introduced on the frieze instead. The Roman and not the preferable Greek method of arranging tlie orna- ment at the angles of the frieze has in this case been pursued — still it is a chaste and beautiful composition. II. It is indisputable that all knowledge of the principles of taste in architecture can no longer, like the secret of the Freemasons, be con- fined to the craft; men will now think for themselves, and unless guided in the right course, most probably think erroneously. On the profession it must depend to give a proper bias to public taste. Why does not the British Institute stand forward in the cause, and. instead of making a collection of the works of Vitruvius (which it would have been well for good taste had his works never been dis- covered) give the public a popular guide to instruct students, just as far and no further, than would be necessary to ground a perception of the beauties of architecture. This field in architectural literature is almost untrodden, and promises a rich and abundant harvest. Of all the works which we have of this description, Mr. Hosking's Treatise is the best, but it does not go far enough for the purpose. If that accomplished architect could be persuaded to remodel it on a more extended scale, the work could not be undertaken by one better qua- lified ; of which, in the treatise alluded to, he has given ample proof. III. I fear that a glorious opportunity may be lost in the facade of the British Museum. I don't know how it is, but the tone (as painters would say,) of Sir Robert Smirke's compositions is cold, the Post OflSce for instance — this does not occur in the facade of the Terminus, already alluded to in this paper. I think it must partly arise (though not in the case of the Post Office,) from the columns not being fluted, and the absence of sculpture on the frieze; indeed, it would be better to omit columns altogether unless they can be fluted. It is worthy of observation that in a drawing the want of fluting is not felt, as the draughtsman can easily give shade enough to the picture, but which shall in vain be looked for in the solid. In this respect models have a great advant.ige over drawings, more particularly with those who profess "to understand nothing of architecture;" and, unfortunately, committees of selection are for the most part composed of professors of the science of ignorance, men perfectly innocent of any knowledge of the subject on which they are called to sit in judgment. Sir Robert himself who is attacked from all quarters on account of the Museum, if deficient in the talent of pleasing, h is at least, it must be admitted, like Lord Burleigh, a great talent for silence. Ctunmore, Dublin, June, 184 i. MR. BARRY— THE LORDS, and the PARLIAMENT HOUSES. Mr. Charles Barry, the Architect of the Xew Houses of Parlia- ment, has it seems, incurred the displeasure of some members of the Upper House of the Legislature, and for aught we know, of some of the Lower One also, on the subject of some matters connected with this building. For the greater part of five days has be been subjected to the trying ordeal of a Select Committee of the House of Lords, ap- pointed to inquire into the progress of the works. The complaint against Mr. Barry would appear to be generally comprised under three heads : first, they are impatient for the com- pletion of their house, and seem to think that if a proper number of workmen were employed in the various departments connected with the fitting up of the interior, that they would be able to sit in it bv the nest Session of Parliament. Secondly, they have taken objection to various details connected with the internal arrangements of the building, more immediately connected with their own portion of it, which ihey alleged invoh-ed considerable deviations from the original plan ; and thirdly, they came to the conclusion that Mr. Barry had not authority for those alterations. After a careful perusal of all the evidence given upon that commit- tee, we confess we think Mr. Barry has fully justified himself for all he has done — has successfully defended all the interior details which subsequent circumstances had caused to be introduced, and though the Committee came to a resolution to the contrary, we say it with much respect, established that he had suflicient authority for the cer- tain modifications, additions and alterations, made in the plan now being carried into execution. With regard to the question of time, it was said that their lordships might use their chamber next February, but it could onlv be done with temporary fittings, which as they could not be ultimately used in the final completion of the interior, would be so much additional expense. The great quantity of rich wood carving that was to be done by hand rendered it difficult to procure a sufficient number of skilful workmen to execute it as expeditiously as it was considered it might be donej and besides a good deal of time was necessary to complete the draw- ings and designs for this interior decoration, it was inexpedient to hurry that part of the work. And it is rather a curious illustration of the contradictory mode by which humanity will sometimes endeavour to accomplish a direct object, that notwithstanding their impatience to have tlieir house finished, the very proceeding of this committee have considerably retarded the building, a number of hands having been discontinued in consequence of some contemplated alterations which their lordships intended to make, and which, if carried into execution, would require a total change in the ornamental designs for the proposed internal decorations. So much for the question of time and expedition. Now with reference to the charge of making deviations from the original plan, without authority, it will tend to make such extracts of the evidence as we may hereafter lay before our readers, more intelli- gible, to enter into a brief preliminary history of this original plan, which from all that subsequently occurred, must be admitted now to possess but a very shadowy sort of existence, and also a very vawue sort of indictment upon which to found any accusation. After the memorable conflagration which rendered it necessarv to erect a new edifice for the legislative business of this empire, and when a site had been fixed upon, a commission was appointed to examine the various plans that might be submitted to it, and to select one from the same. Of the various plans contributed by the competi- tors for the building of the New Houses of Parliament, Mr. Barry's design was the one finally approved of. It is not easy to trace the complicated history of this original plan, through all its stages, but we will endeavour to be as clear upon the subject as we can. The area of this plan which at first only comprized an extent of 5^ acres, was afterwards increased to 7i acres, and a great deal of additional accommodation for various public offices not contemplated at the com- mencement, was required to be provided. In addition to this, the application also of the new and approved system of warming and ven- ti.atiug, invented by Dr. Reid, was to be introduced ; and subsequently a further consideration was to be entertained with respect to the ren- dering of the New Houses auxiliary to the encouragement and eft'ec- tive display of works connected with the Fine Arts. All these ulterior matters necessarily and naturally led to great subsequent chang'S in the carrying out of the details of the plan ; and as during the progress of these works, a throne changed its occupant, governments were going in and out, —public departments altering their heads — commissions terminating, committees of parliament non-existent, it was not we think just to expect that Mr. Barry should be running about here and there, consulting perhaps inexperienced or incompetent individuals as to the details of the plan which he was carrying out, exercising the discretion which he believed, and which ought to be left in his hands, to the best of his judgment and ability, and still however keeping in view the main features and leading principles of the plan subsequently sanctioned by Parliament. However, we do not by any means wish to convey that he did not consult the competent authorities when it was necessary — for he did do so, and furnished thera with special estimates of any new alteration that was generally ordered. But we contend for it, he was substantially right in reserving to himself the conception and execution of the details. As he observes himself in a statement he made to the Committee, and which we shall furnish by and bye, he alone would be responsible for anything faulty in the building when completed, and that in his opinion all great works were brought to a proper termination only on an individual responsibility. On the first day of his examination before the Committee, which was the 21st of March last, Mr. Barry having said that the house might be ready for their Lordships, but with temporary fittings, by the fol- lowing February, proceeded to apprize them that he expected the works would be ready for the iron roof in about six weeks fioni that time, and that they would be covered in in six weeks more ; the cl'iI- ing was to be of painted deal with a fire-proof flooring above. There 218 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL. fJuN-B', never had been any intention of having an iron ceiling in consequence of the great weight, and not being so good for hearing. The Committee then began to question him willi respect to the de- tails of the interior, and particularly on the subject of a great apart- ment proposed to be called the Victoria Gallery, to which some of their Lordships expressed considerable objection, in the following terms : — You have put two side galleries inside ? — Yes. Do you apprehend that there would be any thing unsightly in the height of the wall not being broken by the gallery ? Is it for ornament or for use ? — It is for the purpose of getting the required accommodation withiu the ■walls of the building, and to assist the voice of speakers on the floor of the house. Without the galleries, bow many peers could be accommodated on the floor ? — I can answer that question by a reference to the plan. This is a plan of the ground floor of the liouse fproduciiir/ the same), which will be entirely devoted to the accommodation of the peers, and the number which can be accommodated, according to tlie arrangement of the sittings there shown, will be 310. The original instructions were for 300. Supposing there is room for 300 members on the floor, at the allowance of two feet for each member, crowding their lordships a little, how many more would the same space hold without any very great inconvenience ? — Perhaps fifty or sixty more. If on those benches where I have provided for seven sittings you were to consider them to be for eight, that alteration alone would accommodate forty more. Was it determined that there should be a gallery simply for the sake of the plan, or was it not determined that there should be a gallery on account of the sound ? — No ; I do not think that sound was in the first instance a con- sideration in adopting them ; but I do think they would assist the voice of speakers upon the floor of the house very materially. How far do you propose the projection of the floor of the gallery to ex- tend ? — It would be about three feet beyond the line of the wall. How many of these benches will it cover over ? — Only one. Will it not add to the appearance of the room as a deliberative chamber to have a gallery ? — I think so ; it will diminish what would otherwise he an excessive height below the windows. If you were to remove that gallery you would require to change the orna- ments of the wall ? — Entirely ; it would involve an entire change of the in- ternal design. The committee wish to call your attention to the plan of the Victoria gal- lery, which, according to the present plan, opens directly to the House of Lords, and the bouse opens into that. Now several of tiieir lordships think that there will be great inconvenience in such an arrangement, in consequence of the necessity of having this gallery always lighted and heated to the same temperature as the bouse, if there is no intermediate lobby ; and the com- mitte wish to know from you what evil there would be in making ^a perma- nent separation of the gallery, by a continuation of the corridor across the end of the gallery ? — Under any circumstances I imagine it would be neces- sary to heat this gallery, because as it is proposed to make it the chief place for paintings, it would be necessary always to keep it heated. As to light- ing, if it was merely for the purpose of passing across it there would be no difliculty, for by means of candelabra placed across the end of the gallery it might be made light enough for passing from one corridor to the other with- out lighting the whole space. I would, however, beg to say, that any screen placed across the end of the gallery would very much injure the effect and importance of the room. The dimensions are 120 feet by -to ? — They are. Do you see any objection to having the entrance for the Queen by West- minster Hall .' — The only objection that might be urged would he, the great distance that the Queen would have to walk from the entrance in New Palace Yard to the house. There would be no other difficulty ? — I am not aware of any other diffi- culty. In what manner do you propose to secure the throne from the draught that would come in from the Victoria gallery ? — The door at the back of the throne, as proposed, would only be opened when the Queen came to the house. It would not be one of the ordinary entrances to the house. Supposing the gallery remains without a lobby behind the throne, would not the air from that gallery, if it be not heated, circulate through the pas- sages so as to enter the ordinary doors of approach to the house ? — I should say not. Would it not be constantly open ? — The door at the back of the throne would be constantly closed. Is your reason for supposing that the cold air in this great hall, if it were not heated, would not aflfect the house through the doors of entrance, only that it is cut off from the passages to the house by folding doors ? — The tem- perature of the house would not, I think, be alfected by the temperature of the Victoria hall, in consequence of two pairs of intervening folding doors at a considerable distance from each other. After observing that it was not yet decided on whether the painting of the walls was to be in oils or frescos, and giving his opinion as to the degree of temperature necessary to preserve either, the examination is then directed to the subject of warming and ventilating of the build- ing, which is not very interesting to the general reader, and then the question of expediting the preparation of the fittings is thus pursued: As to fitting up the seats, the seats ia the plan are divided into forty, each of which is fourteen feet long ? — Yes. Each of these seats will be made separately .'—Yes. Then if one could be finished by the 1st of next February, could not the whole forty ? — Yes ; if a sutficient number of skilful hands can be found, unquestionably they might. The Committee will very soon have an oppor- tunity of seeing the specimens of the carving that have been delivered for exhibition in St. James's Street, and they will then be better able to judge. In the same way with respect to the doors ; the doors will be folding doors, will they not ? — Yes. Then, in the same way, if a proper number of hands were employed, if one door could be done, the whole might be done by the first of next Feb? ruary ? — Yes ; if a sufficient number of ikUful hands could be procured. How many doors will there be to the bouse ? — -Five double doors on the floor of the house, besides the door at the back of the throne. And there are some more in the surrounding corridors? — Yes; as many more at the least, in the surrounding corridors and galleries. Do you think it would not be possible to find a sufticient number of skilful hands for the execution of those works by the 1st of next February ? — Yes ; I think it is possible they might be executed before the month of February next. Have you a drawing of the doors ?— No. Have you a section of the interior of the bouse ? — No. I thought it quite unnecessary to bring it, as the model is before the committee. You are talking of the lower part of the house. We have neither a sec- tion, nor is it in the plan ? — That I could show the committee when the drawings are completed, which will be the case, I expect, in about a fort- night or three weeks. But if the committee are thinking of any alteration in the design of the house it would be better to defer going on with these drawings. Are the committee to take the plan as exactly what is intended ? — As far as it goes, they are. After Easter I shall be in a condition to lay before the committee, I hope, the whole of the details of the fittings of the house; but I cannot undertake to be responsible that they will be ready by next February. All I can say is, that no effort shall be wanting on my part in expediting them, and I am in great hopes that by the month of February they will be all ready ; but they will take a considerable time to fix. And so ended the proceedings of the Coramiltee for their first day's meeting, — and it must be apparent to any that their object of expe- diting the works is not likel}' tu be the result of their Lordships' efforts, namely the 24th of April. On the second day of the meeting of the Committee, one of its own members Lord Sudely, a nobleman of considerable experience and taste in architectural matters, was examined at some length. Having said that as one of the original Commissioners appointed to decide upon the plans sent in for their approval, he had made himself master of the details of that of Mr. Barry, so far as the House of Lords was concerned. In the opening part of his evidence he speaks as follows, and his observations require no comment with respect to the posi- tion of the architect, " and I must observe, in justice to Mr. Barry, that it never was t/ie idea, the expectation, or the icish of the Commis- sioners that Mr. Barry should be confined to the plan that was approved of, because in our report, although we stated that the plan of Mr. Barry, as a design altogether, was one that we most approved of, yet still we knew full well that it was susceptible of great improvement, and we recommended to the Crown, that some alterations should be made, which in consequence were adopted, and they were of trifling im- portance." Was it in your recommendation that alterations implying alterations of the plan, should be made without any reference to you for your appraval .' — Certainly not. Was it your intention that these improvements should be submitted to you severally ? — I can hardly say that we knew nothing of the plan, from the moment the alterations alluded to were made — we were from otiice from the time our report was made. From this it will be tolerably clear that Mr. Barry could not be ex- pected to look about for individuals to consult as to all the details of such alterations and additions, and increased accommodation as were ordered to be made, even supposing he thought he could meet any one as capable of properly arranging and considering them as himself, which was by no means likely. The noble' Lord then proceeded to read to the Committee extracts from the evidence given before a Committee of the House of Com- mons by himself and others of the Commissioners, in explanation of these reasons for selecting Mr. Barry's plan in preference to any of three others also submitted to them, and showing that the Coramiltee were unanimous in that selection, at the same time that they thought some improvements might be made in it. The only objection which he saw in that plan was to the Victoria Tower, into which he thought 184^.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 219 it next to impossible, for the great st;ite carriage to pass without great inconvenience, then turn round a pillar, and then out by the southern gateway. That portion, however, had been since materially altered, but then a great increase of area had been added to the site. Lord Sudeley's examination is then continued as follows, and it will be seen that he states at length all his objections to the plan as it at present exists. Then your objection to what has been done is, not that there has been an alteration, but that tliat aheration, considering tbe increase of area, has not been suthciently effectual to accomplish its purpose ? — Yes. I object to tlie present plan, because I think it is not nearly so good a plan as the one before you ; and, secondly, I object to it because tbe architect has not carried out his own idea in tbe best possible manner. But perhaps I bad better now ex- plain the second plan, taken from the Illustrated London News, and which is now_being carried into execution. The committee now perceive that the Queen will enter the Victoria Tower precisely as she did in the former plan, but, instead of going round a pillar, tlie royal carriage will now pass through the tower, and under the Queen's robing room, into the royal court. Your lordships will recollect that the plan before you is not that of the basement, but the principal floor. The royal carriage drives through the tower, the Queen is set down on the left-hand side, aud ascends a flight of nine steps to the first landing ; she then ascends three steps to the second landing, when, turning to the right, she has to ascend a further tbght of twenty-five or twenty-six steps into the lobby ; from tbe lobby she enters the Victoria gal- lery, and thence into tbe robing room on the right, and from the robing room proceeds through tbe Victoria gallery to the House of Lords. Such is the present plan of Mr. Barry executing at tliis moment. Now my objection is to every part of this plan except the tower, which is very much improved. But I leave it to your lordships to consider whether the stairs is a fitting one. even for a common mansion. An ascent of five or six and twenty flyers without any landing is inconvenient, and any thing but ornamental. Y'our lordships can scarcely supply any instance of that in any mansion where ap- pearance has been studied. Are the steps six inches ? — Six inch steps, as I am informed ; but if they were four and a lialf, or five, I should still object to it. I am not aware of any instance of a mansion in which ease, beauty, or convenience has been considered where there is any such objectionable ascent to be met with. AVould it be practicable to alter this ? — I will show the committee pre- sently that in my opinion it is. My next objection is, that in the lobby, on looking at the plan, you wiU observe that in tbe centre of it there is a pillar, intended for groining the ceiling ; at least I presume so. If a line is drawn from the centre of tbe stairs to the centre of the door it will be seen that the pillar stands directly in the way of the peers' approach. I now come to the Victoria gallery itself. I object to the Victoria gallery on several ac- counts. There was a gallery, but that was of very diiferent character ; that was hterally a gallery : whereas I contend that this is neither one thing nor the other. It is too short for a gallery in proportion to its width, and it is too long for a hall. Therefore, as a matter of taste, I olyect to its propor- tions. But that is not the only objection. It deprives the Queen of her robing room immediately adjoining tlie House of Lords. Another very im- portant point is, that in consequence of this gallery there will be a con- tinuous roof from tbe House of Lords to Little Abingdon Street. The roof wdl be from 90 to 100 feet in height ; contrary to Mr. Barry's own princi- ple, as stated in his prospectus or paper which he delivered with his plan ; for he there observes that he has carried up the houses of parliament greatly above all the rest of the buildings, for the benefit of air and light. Now I need not observe to your lordships, that both the light is obstructed aud tbe air is impeded by this arrangement. Besides, we shall be deprived at one end of tbe House of Lords of the power of lighting it, if it should be required. Then, as I before observed, the Queen is deprived of her robing room imme- diately behind the House of Lord ; the very situation which Mr. Barry him- self by bis former plan recommends that it should be placed, but which has since been altered. In fact, as it appears to me, everything has been sacri- ficed to this Victoria gallery. There is no communication whatever from north to south, or from east to west, except through this gallery. And if there was no other objection to it, the circumstance that the gallery must be lighted and must be ventilated the same as the House of Lords tliiougbout tbe year, although it would otherwise be required to be used only on state occasions, would be a sufiicient one. You are aware that it was stated by Mr. Barry that it would be necessary to keep up a certain temperature on account of the fieseo paintings .' — If the buildings of the bouses of Parliament are meant for the fine arts, I think then that Mr. Barry's observation may be perfectly right; but I consider tbe houses of parliament are built for no such object ; that the fine arts ought to be called in to embellish the houses of parliament, and that no necessary architectural arrangement shall be sacrificed for their display. I have now endeavoured to show the difference between the two plans, and I believe I have staled all the objections I have to the present one. Are there any other differences besides those you have mentioned ? — There is. The plan is all re-cast. The committee will see that in my evidence, in answer to Sir Robert Peel, reference is twice made to alterations that might take place, in addition to what the commissioners had suggested. Now the word " suggested" requires some explanation, because it might naturally be supposed that when the commissioners were suggesting some alterations, they might as well have suggested others as well as those they did suggest ; but the reason was this, we confined our objections entirely to such parts of the elevations aud the ground plan as might be altered without any recasting of the plan. Assuming tbe plan to be substantially preserved? — Y'es; because we thought we should do injustice to the others, if we went upon any other principle than that of removng actual objections. You preserved in each case tbe principal plan, and suggested alterations in the detail ? — Precisely so. There is one great objection to this plan which does not apply to tbe original. Y'onr lordships will observe that there are no corridors from one end of the house to the other along either side of the Victoria gallery. Weie there in the old plan ? — There were. It may perhaps appear to be vanity in me to state to your lordships that I think I see a remedy for this evil. No doubt Mr. Barry could find a much better one than I can suggest. At the same time it is necessary, before I state what it is at all, that your lordships should be convinced, with me, that there is an inconvenience de- manding a remedy. If you are so convinced I will lay before you a plan o£ the alteration I would suggest. fHis lordship proiliiced another plan.) The Victoria hall, according to this alteration, is, although not so long, in my opinion a very fine room. It is 100 feet long by forty-five. You have made it avowedly a hall, and not a gallery ? — Avowedly a hall , and not a gallery. Would you light this Victoria hall by skylights ? — It may be done by a skylight, if it is necessary ; but it is unnecessary, because there are sufiicient means of lighting it without having recourse to any. Y'ou make the ascent much more gradual ? — Much more gradual ; and there are two additional landings. Have you any other observation to make ? — I am not aware of any, except upon one point. I am very sorry that this investigation should take place at the eleventh hour. These plans ought to have been settled years ago. It is going on nine years since tbe commissioners made their report. From that hour, until lately, I have never seen the plan. During the Easter recess I was anxious to see how matters stood, for as the buildings grew up I per- ceived that many alterations had been made, and having obtained a copy of the plans, by which I became better acquainted with the intentions of the architect, the result of my observations I have laid before your lordships. I have only now left to state to you the situation of tbe work when I last looked over it, and to request your lordships to attend to the plan. I went to the top of the walls of the Victoria gallery, which are raised to the line of the floor of the House of Lords, the heads of the windows of which to the West were nearly set, and the windows to the east going on very rapidly, and I have no doubt that in the course of another month we may consider that the walls will be fit to receive the roof. With regard to the corridor that immediately adjoins the house at tbe back of tbe throne, I found that there the springers for the groining of the roof had been set. All on the South side of the buildings, barri)ig the river front, which is now roofing, is in the same state of forwardness; some parts of it rather more advanced than others. Of the staircase, I regret to say that the side walls are nearly up to the flooring of the A'ictoria gallery, and therefore if any alteration takes place in those stairs that part of the building must be taken down. Taken down to what extent ? — To no very great extent, and when we are expending near a million the cost of such an alteration is not worth a consi- deration. It is, however, a great pity, that from the advanced state of the work we are placed in this position, that we must either put up with what we consider a defect in tbe plan, or pay the expense which its removal may occasion. So terminated his Lordship's examination, after which Mr. Barry is called in, and on being questioned with respect to the alterations alluded to in the foregoing evidence, maintained that whatever had been done, and he admitted it had been done without consulting any other authority than his own judgment, had been alteration in details only, and that tbe main features and principles of the original design had been adhered to, but in bis opinion very considerably improved. There had been a staircase originally as well as be could recollect, but not so imposing a one as that now contemplated ; and there hati also been an approach through a gallery, but such as did not deserve the name in comparison with tlie present. With respect to the distance of tiie robing room from the throne, that objection could be easily met, for there would be no difficulty in getting space for one at the back of the throne. As to the staircase of twenty-five or twenty-six steps in one flight, he could give instances of the same in some of the most celebrated palaces and buildings on the continent. Mr. Barry here handed in the original instructions which he received with respect to the interior accommodation and proportions of all the various depart- ments and subdivisions of the building, which he said were the only instructions generally that he had ever received. Then entered ne- cessarily into many statistical details which would too ranch burden our columns and be totally uninteresting. When the Committee next assembled, three days later, Mr. Barry said he wished to hand in a certain document as evidence, which he had drawn up since the last day's meeting, as there appeared to be an impression on their Lordships' minds that he was open to censure for alterations made in tbe plan originally adopted by Parliament. He 220 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [June, is then questioned as to the extent of ground gained from the time the original plan was selected, and having stated that it was from 5^ to 7^ acres (as we have already mentioned,) he informed the Committee that any departures vthich had taken place from the original sealed instriictions, were done upon the authority of Committees of both Houses of Parliament. The following was then read — Mk. Barry's Statement. " My Lords, — At my last interview with the committee, I admitted that alterations had been made without authority ; hut, I must beg of your lord- ships to bear in mind, that that admission extends merely to the mode in which they have been effected, as they have generally been the consequence of express orders received from government. Your lordships must, I am sure, be convinced upon reflection that the original design, recommended for adoption by the commissioners, for a building of such extraordinary magni- tude and complication of detail, as the New Palace at Westminster, could in the first instance (for want of all the practical information requisite, and the time necessary to devote to the study of it,) consist only of leading principles ; and although the design, after the commissioners had made their report upon it, and the committee had ceased to exist, underwent a very considerable modification and enlargement, in consequence of the suggestions of the com- mittee of both houses, before whom it was laid, yet the time allowed to me for effecting the change, was far from sufficient to enable me to improve it so much in detail as I have now been enabled to do from the continued and deep study which I have ever since devoted to it, aided by the information which I have been able from time to time to collect from the heads of de- partments, and other officers connected with the practical working of the houses of parliament. 'Ihe modified design which was ultimately adopted by parliament, by the recommendation of a committee of both houses, was, therefore, still in a crude state, as regards many of the internal arrangements ; and as, upon being ordered to carry this design into effect, I was not in- structed to adhere strictly to the details of it, I conceived that it was in- tended by the committee that I was to be left at liberty to improve them as much as was in my power, provided I did not depart from any of the lead- ing principles and features of the design, diminish the accommodation and convenience of the building, or cause any ultimate excess in tlie estimated cost ; and in the correctness of this impression I have ever since been con- firmed, inasmuch as that whenever I have been required by the government to make any addition or alteration in the building, I have never been called upon to dehver any plan to show in what manner 1 proposed to effect it. In all the alterations which I have made in the internal arrangements of the building, which have not been the consequence of express orders given to me by government, I have strictly adhered to the conditions to which I have adverted ; and in all those which have been expressly ordered by the govern- ment I have invariably delivered estimates of the extra cost previously to re- ceiving authority to execute them. With regard to the latter class of aUera- tions, I beg to observe tliat in the first place I was required to make the ne- cessary arrangements for the new system adopted by parhament forearming and ventilating the entire building, which alone has caused many serious and important changes : then to provide accommodation for the A division of Police — then to provide a residence for the Librarian of the House of Commons — afterwards to provide a residence for the Clerks of the House of Commons — then to provide accommodation for the Clerk of the Crown — and lastly, to make arrangements for the whole of the public records of the kingdom, and their future increase ; together with the requisite accommoda- tion for the establishment connected with them. All these orders alone, have necessarily caused very important changes in the distribution of the building, and many others have been the consequences. •' Your lordships can scarcely, I think, be aware of the enormous extent of labour, responsibility, as well as anxiety of mind, which I have to endure in conducting this great national work, which, when complete, if there should be anything faulty, I shall be sure to he visited with the entire blame. I am not, however, disposed to shrink from the almost appaUing task imposed upon me, as I am firmly persuaded great undertakings are best accomplished under an undivided responsihility. On the contrary, I am ready, as I have hitherto ever been, to devote the best energies of ray mind to the perfection of a work, which it is my earnest desire to render an honour to the country, but unless I am supported, nay encouraged, in the performance of my task by the cordial and kind indulgence of your lordships, and all who are in- terested in the success of this the greatest undertaking of the kind of the present or any former period, it is quite clear to my mind that it cannot be brought to a satisfactory termination." The proposition here laid down, that " all great undertakings are best accomplished under an undivided responsibility," is most incon- trovertibU'. The observation might be used as au apothegm. Every example of ancient and modern times will prove its truth. Would Alexander have perfected his Indian conquests under a divided respon- sibility? Would Hannibal have carved his course through the Alps had he to send to Carthage for instructions how to proceed every other tliousand paces ? Would Ccesar have conducted his army across the Rhine, bv his simple but ingenious and effective bridge, had he to wait for advices from the Roman Senate how to construct it? Would llechelangiolo Buonarotti have built St. Peters, had he been obliged to go gossiping amongst the College of Cardinals about every portion of his stupendous design ? Would Sir Christopher Wren have reared so glorious a monument to his fame and genius, as St. Pauls, had he allowed himself to be influenced by the worthy alder- men of the good city of London ? (^But even here the interference of petty minds prevented the original colossal design from being more ihan half carried out.) Would Napoleon have achieved the brilliant military and engineering results which marked his career, bad he to send expresses to tlie French Directory for further orders in every emergency ? Would Wellington have won Waterloo under the con- straint of restricted authority from the War Office or the Horse Guards? And we trust that posterity will add to the category of queries, would (Sir) Charles Barry have covered seven acres and a half of the north bank of the Thames at Westminster, with that splendid and extensive, and complicated pile which adorns it, had he been forced to go to my Lord This or my Lord That, for his opinion as to how he might best manage its various details ? The first question Mr. Barry is asked after the foregoing statement had been read, is a specimen worthy of even forensic ingenuity to entrap a wituess into a self-condemnatory admission. We give it, as well as a portion of the subsequent examination. Y"ou mention that you departed from the principle on which you set out. Was not it a recommendation which you gave to the Commissioners, in your statement to them of the prmciples of your plan, that the two houses of Par- liament should be carried up much higher than any ot the surrounding build- ings, for the sake of air and ventilation ? — I have not said that I haic departed from the pruiciple upon tvhich I set out. Not having the original plans and the memuranila I delivered, I air. not able with confidence to answer the latter part of the question ; but I will refer to a paper which I hold in my hand, in uhich is detailed the principles on which the original plan was formed, and which, 1 imagine, will answer the question. The passage referring to the houses is this : " That the situation of the bouses be in the centre of the mass of the proposed building, for the sake of convenience, quietude, and freedom from all disturbances from the exterior ; that all the lobbies and corridors adjoining them be only one story high, to admit of the houses being well lighted and ventilated, also for afibnling the means of making them ot the forms and size best suited to the wants of each h^u^e, without interfering with the imity of character maintained throughout the exterior." That is the best answer 1 can give to your lordship's question. In the plan, as you are now execting it, that principle wiH not be main- tained, because it is intended to have the Victoria Gallery of the same height as the House of Lords ? — It is intended to be so ; but laterally the house vt-ill be above its adjoining corridors. Perhaps I may be allowed to state why it is '.hat the house is not perfectly insulated ; that is one of the changes which has been brought about by the arrangements absolutely necessary for the warming, ventilating, and carrying off the smoke of the building. Arc the Committee to understand you, that the Victoria Gallery has been carried up to as great a height as the House of Lords itself merely for the sake of ventilation ?— No ; not merely on that account. That is only one of the reasons which has induced me to carry it up to that height. What is the other ?— The other reasons I will explain to your Lordships. Exercising the discretion which I have alwaysdone, within the limits before adverted to, as to the internal arrangements of this building, I w ill proceed to point them out to your Lordships on the plan adopted by parliament. Is the plan you have just shewn precisely that now shown to you which was approved by the Committee?— Yes, I apprehend it is, as it appears to be a copy ; but, whether it is or is not accurate as a transcript of the plan put before the Committee, 1 beg to say that this plan which I now pro- duce is the identical plan approved by the Committee, and from which the estimates of the building have been made. Referring to the plan sanctioned by P.arliament. I will now state [to your Lordships the reasons which have induced me to raise the Victoria Gallery, The objections to the state entrance in Ihe plan adopted are as follow: loss of space in the principal floor by Ihe heij;ht of the inner hall , loss of space in the passage to the re- freshment rooms ; inconvenience of situation of refreshment rooms ; diffi- culty of accommodating spectators to witness processions on Ihe staircase ; necessity of lighting inner hall by lantern, rendered impossible by means of ventilation arrangements ; impoisibility of duly lighting transverse corridor at head of stairs, as well as the robing room at the back of the throne, in consequence of the ventilating arrangements in the roof; want of a large hall adjoining the house, as in all former houses, for the convenience of Peers on great pubac occasions, the Commons being much better accommodated in that respect Ihan the Peers. These appear to me to be the objections that applied to this plan. Having been asked why h" had not communicated these arrange- ments when he thought of them to some authority, be answers— I have already stated the reasons why I have not communicated the details of .this and other changes to the government; but the plan exhibiting them 1844.1 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 221 lias been ilcjiosileil in your LordsIiips'Library for more han twelve months I will now stale the ailvanta^es which I suppose to accrue from the alteration in question. First of all, a great economy of space, othenvise wasted ; the removal of the refreshment rooms to a more convenient situation near the libr.iries; the acr|uisition of a pirand hall of apiiroaeh, suitable to the dignily of the House of Peers, and available for state trials, which seems desirable, since M'estminstcr Hall is now to become the main public entrance of the new palace, for the due accommodation of spectators in witnessing the pro- cession of the sovereign to and from the house, for conferences of the whole houses, and for the purpose of affording the means of encouraging the higher departments of art in the decoration of its walls > the acquisition of two fine rooms to the south on the principal floor, being available either for the Queen's robing room andante-room, or if the ordinary entrance to the house be by the Victoria Tower, one might be for marshalmen and others in attendance upon Peers, and the other for a committee room or writing room ; also the acquisition of several rooms and other accommodation on the ground floor for the record establishment. Those are the advantages which I pre- sume to accrue from this alteration of plan. On being questioned as to the authority he bad for any alterations which were not tbe immediate consequence of direct orders from the Government, Mr. Barry informs the Committee tliat he bad the authority of the Woods and Forests Board, in writing, and that he could produce the same. And here it may be as well to state at once, that at a subsequent stage of tbe investigation, Mr. Barry did hand in a quantitv of correspondence with different public boards and func- tionaries, as well as give evidence of tiu'a race communication with, and instructions from others, fully substantiating bis assertion that he had received orders to make certain additions and alterations, and that all the subsequent ones in detail, against which the present out- cry was made, had been the necessary and inevitable result. Over and over again did he reiterate that be had received general orders to do certain things and make certain arrangements, but that he did nlo think himself cidled upon, nor was he required to explain to any one bow these orders were to be managed in detail. Yet still did some members of the Committee, with stolid pettinacity, persevere in ask- ing him what right he had to make tliis change, and by what authority he introduced that alteration, and whom did he consult on thi' other deviation from the original plan, which original plan we have already observed was as vague and ill-defined a matter to ground an inquiry on, as it is possible to conceive. Oh! but tlien there is a staircase which is the greatest stumbling block in the whole concern — their Lordships cannot get over it for the life of them; and they ask liow many steps are in it, and what deptli is each step, and the length of the tread, and the height of the top from the ground floor; and they are dissatisfied with it because it consists of 2tJ steps, of a rise of 5 inches, and a tread of 16 inches each, without a landing or break in tne middle. And although Tdr. Barry tells them that in tlie Palace of Caserta was tlie finest staircase be had evi'r seen with a flight of 27 steps unbroken ; and in the ScaLi Reggia, in the Vatican, considered the finest staircase in the world, there were two flights of 40 steps each, and that in tbe University of Genoa there was a staircase of 24 steps, and in the Ducal Palace of the same city, one of 39 steps in one flight; their Lordships will not "seriously incline" unto this unlucky staircase in the New House of Peers, and challenge Mr. Barry to point out a single instance of such a one in London. Will our readers believe, that any man, or any set of men, could require iu this metropolis a precedent for any extraordi- nary matter of architectural taste ? This question of the staircase has haunted the Committee through all its proceedings — up it will start like a ghost in tbe middle of every other detail, and its tread and height, and unbroken flight come over their Lordships with as many anticipations of fatigue as a pickpocket's dream of the treadmill. On the very 2nd last day's examination down comes the staircase again after the following fashion. And we crave our readers' admiration for the brilliancy of the architectural imagination that could faucv an analogy between the stairs under the York column and that intended for the House of Lords. And you slill persist in saying that a flight of twenty-six steps is not at all objectionable ?— I should prefer leaving itentirely as it is. I have given the subject a great deal of consideration, and I am satisfied, under all ihe cir- cumstances, that it is better to leave it as designed. You have mentioneit a great number of instances abroad ; but you have not mentioned a single instance of one in London "—Because it has not oc- curred to me ; but those noble lords who have been in Italy »ill doubtless recollect the fine staircases I have mentioned, particularly that of tbe Vatican. But the Committee must know the size of the steps, which you did not mention the other day. Can fyou mention any staircase in London which you would recommend the Committee to, look at, to show that your opinion is good ?— I am not aware of any staircase in Lon Ion where the width and rise of the steps accord with those which I propose. I could give your Lordships a correct idea of what the proposed stcircase would be, by having a model erected on the spot. I could have it done in wood, so that your Lordships might juilge for yourselves. Is not the reason why this slaircase under the Duke of York's column, going out of Saint James's Park is han.lsome, and does not offend the eye, first, that it is broken two or there times, but, secondly and chiefly, that it forms a grand pedestal to the column ; and would not that staircase, even Willi tlioe breaks, be an unsightly object, if it were not a pedestal to the column ?— I should say. with deference to your Lordship, that the steps alluded to are not convenient, owing to their want of width in the tread, and that if the two landings which divide the flights had been given to the increase of the width of the treads of the steps it would have been far pre- ferable. Mr. Barry defended his staircase, step by step, to the last, an- nounced bis intention of leaving it unaltered as be had planned it, provided the discretion was left in his hands, and told their Lordships that having ascended staircases in all parts of the world he had found that the most convenient of all was one with a rise of 5 inches and a tread of IG, and this, he contended, required scarcely more ett'ort than was necessary to walk from one end of a room to the other. The ab- sence of any landing in the centre, be also thought was calculated the more to prevent the possibility of tripping. Amongst the others objections taken, was one to the position of the Queen's Robing Room, but this Mr. Barry proposed to meet by providing one not ex icily at the back of the Throne, but adjoining the lateral corridor of the House ; his reasons for such an arrangement are explained in his reply to the following question. How comes it that you never made these inquiries respecting the import- ance of having the robing room in a pariicular place until the plans were so far advanced that you could not place it there without an inconvenience? I beg to stale the inquiry was made in time, as the plans are not so far ad- vanced but that tlic change may be made wiih the greatest facility. I had the honour the other day of going over the whole building with Prince Albert, and it was a .source of regret with His Royal Highness that there was a great want of large spaces for fresc.i paintings. On my pointing out, however, to his Royal Highness, that an opportunity might be afibrderl of obtai ing large spaces in the now proposed roUn.g room at ihe throne end of the ho se , he was pleased to express his satisfaction at the change. That is one reason I have for proposing a room of this magiiituile, which is much larger than the room required by tbe original instructions, whicli w.as to be tliirty-sii feet by twenty-four feet. The room which I now propose to be called the painted chamber, or Queen's rofjing room, will be fifty feet by thirty-two feet, and thirty feet liigh, and it would immediately ailjom the throne end of the ijouse. That their Lordships' proceedings upon this enquiry have probably been the cause of serious inconvenience and loss to many parties, may be suspected from tbe intimation here conveyed. It appears to be highly desirable that the works of the Victoria Gallery should be stopped till the Coramiltee has decided upon the plan ?— I h ive the pleasure lo state that I have aniicipated your Lordships' wishes in that le- ,';pect, by stopping that portion of the work ; but it is right that I should at the same time state that I have done so at considerable inconvenience to ihe contractors, in consequence ofthenuml)er of hmids they have now in em- ployment, and the vast quantities of stone which are continually pourmg in ; and therefore if any change is to be effected in that portion of the building it is of absolule importance that it should be decided upjn as speedily as possi- ble. After another question or two on the old subject of the authority he had for making [be alterations referred to, and again explaining that they were the consequence in details of direct orders received from Government, the examination goes on thus : — For what object have tlie alterations with reference to tlie Victoria Gallery and the staircase been made ? — That alteration has been made for ihe reasons I have already staled, but mainly with reference to tlie waiming an i venu- laiing arrangements. It is necessary the roof should communicaie in ihe same level from the outside of tbe building to the central toner, rather rising than otherwise, but forming one continued communication in the roof. The whole way from the outside walls to the cen reol the building? — Yea. 1 m^y liere perhdps lie allowed to state, that I think the governmeNt lia:, ex- ercised a sound discretion in not interfering with the mode of eflecting various changes that have been made in the internal arrangemenis of ihe building, and in leaving the entire responsibility with me. as being better acqua nied than any one else with the principles and details of the plan of ihe entire Ijuildmg, to carry them inio effect in tbe most judicious and eScetive manner. { jln the contract made with Messrs. GrisscU and Pelu is it not stated that no •20 222 THE CIVIL EiNGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [JUNE) alteration sliull be made without the sanction of the Commissioners of Woods or the Lords of the Treasury ?— Yes ; without the sanction of the Lords of the Treasury, or the Commissioners of Woods and Forests, or myself. Mr. Barry then hands in as evidence an extract from the contract for the works, entered into by Messrs. Grissell and Peto, which fully bore out tlie statement above made by Mr. Barry ; and at this portion of the investigation, which closed the architect's examination for the third day, we have only one more observation to moke, and that is, that we fully agree with Mr. Barry, that the Government exercised a sound discretion in leaving to him the carrying out of the details of the internal arrangements of the building, and all the alterations con- sequent upon the subsequent additions and the increased accommoda- tion which was required. Dr. Reid, whose inventions in warming and ventilating buildings are intended to be applied to the New Houses, was called on then to give his evidence, and though his examination consisted very much of wliat lawyers call "leading questions," evidently with a view of endeavouring to make him impugn the practicability of the perfect application of the principles of his invention, to certain alleged ar- rangements of the structure referred to, he does not admit the exist- ence of any difficulties that might not be overcome even in the cases put to him. his testimony went generally into an explanation of the principles of liis plans of heating and ventilating, and he concludes his evidence by observing that all the smoke of the building, none of which would he at all seen, would be carried off by one shaft, except from a few apartments of great altitnde and minor importance, if the plan formerly adopted by the Committee was carried into execution. During the greater portion of the time of the sitting of the Com- mittee on the next day that it re-assembled, they were occupied in readitig over the correspondence and documents handed in by Mr. Barry, to which we have above alluded, and which were received by him from the respective boards, authorizing the general alterations and changes to which reference had been made so often in the course of the present enquiry. The following few little facts relative to the comparative height of different parts of the building, as stated by Mr. Barry towards the close of the fourth day's proceeding may be interesting to our readers. The general line of the building was not intended to be the same throughout ; there was a difference of between three and four feet, to be on the ground level between the north and south sides of the houses, which we take it means the river side and the land side. A height of about sixteen feet was to be maintained between the ground floor and that of the |)rincipal one. The principal floor was to be twenty feet above Trinity high water mark, but a portion of the base- ment story which was to be called the crypt was to be in part below Trinity high water mark, but not below the river. On the last day upon which the Committee met, which was the 6th of May, Mr. Barry's examination was again resumed by a series of questions, directed as heretofore with a view of eliciting from liim an admission if possible, that the alterations which he had made, and about which so much had already been said, had been done without authority, because he had not consulted any one with respect to their details. But their Lordships did not succeed in extracting any such concession from the witness, who maintained all through that any al- terations he had introduced, were either in pursuance of direct orders, or the consequence of them. If he had not any direct authority, he had, as he conceived, an implied authority for his acts ; and as he had never been called upon to consult or explain to any person as to how he was to effect the changes proposed, in detail, he had not conceived himself bound to do so. With reference to another subject connected also with the subse- quent arrangements which he was expected to make, and devote con- sideration to, he is asked ; Have you made, up to the present moment, any alteration in consequence of ciimmunicaiion .\ith the commission of fine arts? — I have proposed an alieraiion. in consequence ol a regret expressed by the Commissioners of Fine Arts, ihat there were not sufficiently large spaces for paintings ; name- ly, tlmt a chanpe slinuM be made in the design of the Victoria Hall or Gal- lery to aHord the large spices lor pictures which are wished for. Docs that occasion my material alteration ? — It makes no alteration in the arrangement of tin' plan ; it is only an alteration in point of taste. I beg to take ihis opponuni'y to observe, iliat there are various reasons which in- duce me Ui shift ihe roLjing roum : one the difficulty of lighting it, in conse- quence of I lie roofs being coniinueil from the south front to the central tower upon 1 ne levtl, tur ihe purpose if carryi g cut the adopted mode of ventila- lion, and the siill greaier cliBiculty of lighting the cross corridor. I beg to F ly that in my opinion ihe^e are alterations exceedingly to the advantage of I he building. We shall trouble our readers with only one more extract from the evidence given upon this occasion — it comprises the termination of these proceedings. It is the raciest, as well as the Last scene of all That ends this strange and eventful history And furnishes a very fair specimen of the spirit in which the entire investigation was carried on, as well as the spirit and independence with which the inquisitorial style adopted towards the individual as- sailed, has been so manfully met. While their Lordships were deliberating on the evidence, of course Mr. Barry was orderecl to withdraw. The Report however goes on to inform us that in a brief space afterwards, — The witness is again called in, and is informed, that Ihe Committee have come to the folloHing resolution: viz.. Resolved, that it appears from the evidence of Charles Barry, Esquire, that during the progress of the building of the Houses of Parliament certain departures have taken place from the original [dans approved of by the Committees of the two houses of Parlii- ment, and ordered to be carried into execution, under the directiun of the Boards of Treasury and of Works, which alterations have been made by Mr. Barry without any authority from either of those Boards, to which circum- stance they think it right to call the particular attention of this House. (^fr. Barry.)— I beg to be permitted to say that it is not true that I have made alterations without authority. I have only admitted that as to the mode of making those alterations I had no authority. Your argument is, that because you were directed to provide certain things there was an implied authority to do other certain things which became ne- cessary ; but you have not submitted those plans?— Yes. Did any of the original plans which were laid before the Commissioners (ontain the column in the very centre of the Victoria Tower round which the Queen's carriage w as to turn, landing Her on the eastern side, and then going out through the archway to the south? — In the plan approved by the Com- missioners ihat was the case, but in the plan approved by the Committees of Parliament that was not the ca.se. Did not Lord .Sudeley often converse with you on the impractibility of your plan, and did not you as often say that you were correct? — Very likely, and 1 am not sure now that I was not right. Then why was a change made ? — Because I have since had the means of ascertaining all the difficulties of the case. I have communicated with the Master of the Horse, anil have had an opportunily of ascertaining cor- rectly the space in which the horses of the state carriage can turn j and though I beleive they might have been made to turn in the space originally allotted tor the purpose, yet if the horses were restive there might perhaps be some difficulty. Still you told the Committee you thought you were right ? — I still think that the carriage and the horses might have gone round the pillar, but from tlie information since received 1 thought it better to give up that arrange- ment, and avoid all risk. You say that it is not true that you made these alterations without any authority ? — I do most explicitly. Supposing the Committee were to insert any "sufficient" authority?— That of course is a matter for your Lordships to determine as you may think fit. I conceive that I had sufficient authority, and have fully stated the grounds upon uhich I think so. On that point you will have to defend yourself to the Board of Works? — J am quite prepared to do sii, ii' necessary. And so ended this prolonged and extraordinary investigation. It will be for the public to judge how far their Lordships were justified by the circumstances in arriving at the conclusion to which they came, or agreeing to the resolution they have adopted. That Mr. Barrv has passed most triumphantly through as trying an ordeal as one man could well be put to by his fellow man, we have not a second opinion. That he has told the Committee bluntly and boldly the truth, thewhole truth, and nothing but the truth, can hardly be denied. And he has as bluntly and boldly told them that it mas not true that he had made altera- tions niihoitt authority, and that he should be prepared to defend him- self, if necessary, to the Board of Works. For ourselves we have but little to add to what we have already observed on this subject. The entire case resolves itself into a very narrow compass — it may be briefly summed up thus. Mr. Charles Barry drew a plan, for an erection upon a space of ground of 5^ acres, which was approved of. That area has increased by 2 acres, and changes came in governments, and new ideas struck the powers that were, and increased accommodation for various persons and things not before thought of was required, and then came the application of new principles for warming and venti- lating, and subsequently the consideration of the embellishment of the house for the purpose of encouragement of the Fine Arts. All these matters necessarily called for great and important changes, and as Mr. Barry well knew, that he alone would be held responsible in the end, for anything defective in the whole, he gave all these changes his 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 223 most serious consideration, and devoted deep study to their desio;ns, and as lie could find very few able to instruct liini, and was not called upon to ask any one's advice, lie used liis own best discretion in the matter. We have no hesitation again and again in saying, we think he was perfectly riglit, and we firmly believe tliat the public, and pos- terity will think with us. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS, ROYAL ACADEMY. (ConcliiJcdfrom p. 184.) No. 1 144 is an interior of a different class, namely, that of a design for a Chapel at Nunhead Cemetery, in which Mr. AUom treats us with a ri/acciamento of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, preserving and refining the original idea, enriching yet simplifying it by rendering the whole more of a piece and more uniform in taste. To say this will, no doubt, seem verv bad taste on our part, to those who have been taught to consider the interior of that church as Wren's chef-d'oeuvre, and so perfect a piece of architecture that the very notion of improving upon it, or altering it in any way except for the worse, must strike them as preposterous. Still it may fairly enough be suspected that Walbrook church has now fewer and less enthusiastic admirers than formerly, and that many others besides ourselves feel it falls short of the high reputation which has been established for it. Should the species of plagiarism which Mr. AUom has here ventured upon, not incur re- proach— his design will nevertheless scandalize those tender con- sciences which will be shocked at its paganism. They will therefore rejoice to learn that neither this, nor No. 1240 has been accepted for the Nunhead Cemetery. The last-mentioned design, which is by Mr. R. Brandon, is shown in a model, and therefore in such a manner as to convey an adequate and most satisfactory idea of the peculiar character arising chiefly out of plan and richness of columniation, which are such as to occasion great variety and apparent intricacy, and striking effect both of [)er- spective and light and shade, notwithstanding that the general ar- rangement may be termed simple, at the same time such that clearly to describe it with the pen would be rather difficult. For its unusually picturesque quality — this design is by no means indebted to positive decoration, it being very unostentatious and sober in its style, which is a very plain Roman or Italian Doric. The body of the structure or Chapel' itself is comparatively small — no doubt large enough for its actual purpose, but the whole exterior would form an architectural ob- ject of considerable magnitude. Whether the merits of this model as a design were appreciated by the Directors of the London Cemetery Company, is questionable, but at all events they have given the pre- ference 'to separate chapels (1195 and 120G, T. Little), one to be erected on the consecrated, the other on the unconsecrated ground at Nunhead, both of them in the "Decorated English" style, and of far better quality than the average of our modern " ecclesiulogicul" architecture; nevertheless we would rather behold Mr. Brandon's idea realized as being a greater novelty in design. Among the designs for mansions and villas there are comparatively few in the Italian style.and those for the most part rather mediocre, — hardly deserving to be so termed, could any other epithet be found for them. Of Ultra-Italian, however, we have an egregious instance in No. 1204, which though it professes to be a design for a " Villa," ex- ceeds in ponderousness and mass such piles as Caprarola and Blen- heim. Mr. Batson's ideas are all upon a very Titanic scale : such was his "Street Architecture" last year — with which he then made his debut among the exhibitors, — but his present subject is still more extravagant — in fact a piece of mere architectural rodomontade and bombast, yet not manifesting much invention or originality. No. 122S "The Belvedere, proposed for a Residence in the Isle of Wight," E. B. Lamb, manifests a happy medium between the hyperbolical Italianism of the preceding, and the prosaic quality of most of the other specimens of modern villa architecture. Among them is one which we hope is not of recent date, for it must be a most strangely perverse taste wWch could at the present day adopt as Italian such a mongrel jumble of uncouth and amorphous features as is No. 1057, with its Venetian windows of most absurd and detestable shape, — namely, with little square holes over the lateral openings and their entablatures. In the Catalogue, this precious sample of design is de- scribed only as a "View of a Nobleman's residence near Hampton," therefore it is not very clear whether the name attached to it be that of the architect, although it is not very likely that any one else would have been so smitten with the building as to delineate it secundem ariem— it being, apparently, put into perspective from an elevation. For mansions or residences on a larger scale than the term "villa" generally implies among us English, the Tudor style seems to be most in request ; and Mr. Hard wick gives us a good specimen of it in No. 1145, "The Hall at Barnstable, as proposed to be rebuilt by Robert Chichester, Esq.," with some intermixture of our English renaissance, but chaste and sober in its ensemble. No. 1170, " Knebworth, Herts., the ancient seat of the Lyttons," attracts notice if only as being now the property of that distingiu' litterateur Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, who intends, it seems, to alter his mansion according to the present design by H. E. Kendall, jun. ; but there being no sketch of the house in its present state, we are unable to judge of what kind or to what extent the suggested alterations are, — whether this drawing shows a complete renovation of the exterior, or whether any portions of the original design are retained. We must also be satisfied with perceiv- ing that the style and general character are rich and imposing, the drawing being so placed as not to favour critical examination. No. 1225, "Manley Hall, Staffordshire, the seat of John Shawe Manlev, Esq.," (T. P. Wood,) is another Tudor mansion of considerable extent, sober in style and decoration, but rendered more than usually striking owing to the line of front being broken and brought forward in the centre, and to there being great variety in the outline of the eleva- tion; consequently it tells well in perspective, although here shown so much foreshortened that some portions of the general elevation are concealed. The name of the architect is quite a new one to us, therefore, we cannot say what else he has done, as nothing, however, is said to the contrary we presume that this drawing is not an unex- ecuted design, but a representation of an erected building. Still we will not be positive that such is the case ; for in regard to architec- tural works of this class scarcely ever do we receive any information, or does any intelligence reach us ; wherefore we take this opportunity of reminding our professional readers that communications relative to such subjects will always be highly acceptable to us ; for though the buildings themselves are private property, it does not therefore fol- low that secrcsy should be preserved in regard to them. Designs lor Churches and Chapels are numerous, and all of them are Norrnaii or Gothic, with the single exception of No. 1099, "St. Mary's church, now erecting at St. Peter's and St. Paul's colleges, Prior Park," J.J. Scoles, giving a sectional perspective of the interior, which is in the Italian style, and of the Corinthian order. As a draw- ing this is very poor, and even in point of design not very much belter — certainly not at all calculated to find favour in the eyes of the architect's Catholic brother artist, Mr. Pugin. Among the other designs for churches there are none remarkably prominent for any peculiar merit; the average quality shows improvement, but what is good in them appears to be borrowed, and confined too much to the same ideas; the two interiors. No. 107G of the Church now building at Notting Hill, and No. 1149 of that building at Turbiton, Surrey, by Messrs. Stevens and Alexander, are among those most deserving of particular notice, being very tastefully yet soberly decorated, and altogether free from side galleries, which totally destroy the effect of ailes, and derogate from the character of a Gothic interior. We now take leave of this year's exhibition, hoping that the next will prove more satisfactory — and as far as it depends upon the Aca- demy they have certainly the power of rendering it so, by merely re- ceiving no more drawings than can be properly hung. Were that done, such as were worth looking at would not be thrust out of sight, and the absence of such as are not, would not at all lessen the attraction of the Architectural Room. Aerated Sea Water. — Long since the inhabitants of the sea-coast have employed salt water either as a purgative or as a laxative. Several physicians, and cspe- tially Russtfll, have written on the advantages which might be derived from its internal use. But the exneriments have been fe\V in number, and entirely limited to localities situated near the coast, because the sea water could not be preserved and trans- ported without undergoing alteration. M. Pasquier has, by overcoming this difficulty rendered great service to tlierapeutics. Being moreover convinced that the disagreeable taiite of the sea water was the principal cause which prevented its general use, he has en- deavoured to disguise and destroy it, without in the least altering its chemical composi. tion. For that purpose lie takes his sea water from a certain depth, and at several miles distant from the coast; he th.'u filters it, in order to remove ait tlie animal and vegetable substances which it holds in suspension, and which are the cause of its rapid decomposi- tion ; and lastly he charges it with carbonic acid gas, in order to destroy the disagreeable taste. One hundred bottles thus prepared by M. Pasquier ivere placed at the disposal of the Commission ; they had been kept from four to six months, and we found that they had undergone no change whatsoever. Being requested to verify the exactitude of the facts stated by M. Pasquier, I have employed sea water prepared by him in the Hopital de la Cbarite, and I have been able to confirm — 1st, that it is a powerful laxative: that a bottle of sea water acts more strongly than a 32-grm bottleofSeidlitz water ; IJd, that the patients took it without repugnance, and found it agreeable to taste ; 3d, that no accidents, no inconveniences, have resulted from its employment. We consequently believe that the puriljed and aerated sea water prepared by M. Pasquier may be employed with advantage in all cases where saline laxatives are recommended. We have moreover observed that it has a special and favourable action on individuals atfected with 9crof«loua diseases,— - " Chemical Gazette." 20* 224 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [June, NOTEON THE STATEOF THE NAVAL TOWER OF FRANCE, CONFORMABLY WITH THE ORIGINAL TEXT. Note sur I'Etat des Forces Navaks ele la France, conforme au texle original. Paris: Paul Masgana, Libraire, J2, Galeric de I'Odeoii, 1844. [We have availed ourselves of the deep interest now felt in the pamphlet of the Prince de Joinville, oji the ste;mi power of France, to present our readers with a translation of a work more peculiarly afFeciinR all connected with marine engineering. The remarks of a personage, like the Prince, of some experience, considerable ability and high rank, cannot fail to exercise much inttnence immediately in France, and indirectly in this country, and the marine engineer is of all men most deeply concerned in the progress of the question. It has been the endeavour of the translator to give as c lose an idea at nossible of the author's style, particularly in the commencement where the Prince de Joinville has in- dulged in declamation. This will account for the apparent want of freedom in some parts, and the peculiarities in diction and punctuation.— Editor C. E. & A. Journal.] The object of the present note is to call the attention of serious and reflecting minds to our navy. The country, to which the instinct of its true interests is never wanting — the country requires a navy; it requires one strong and powerful. This wish reveals itself by many incontestable facts. Only we do not well know what are the essential elements — the true conditions of tliat force of which we see the necessity; we do not sufficiently enquire into what is going on; we do not sufficiently study the manner in which the funds voted by the Chambers are em- ployed. We always live on the old prejudice, that one must be a sailor, tliat is to say possess all the purely special theoretical and practical knowledge to be able to understand nautical affairs. And this prejudice, kept up by several circumstances, has prevented until now nmny good minds from applying themselves to the study of the real state of our naval power. The author of this note, would wish by certain fads of the clearest evidence, by a few very simple calculations, and in fine bv reasoning within every body's comprehension, to dissipate the obscurity in which this question has been enveloped as if willingly; and if he succeeds thus in rendering it accessible and familiar to each of those, who may be called to decide upon it, he will consider that he has rendered a true assistance to the service, to which he belongs. I believe that I can establish, without fear of contradiction, that the popularity which the navy enjoys in France, that the ardent and so often manifested design of having a strong and powerful navy, take their source in a sentiment, wliich may be rendered thus: — ** By sea as by land, we wis1i to be respected. There, as elsewhere we wish to be in a condition to protect our interests, to maintain our independence, to defend our honour, from whatever quarter mav come the attacks which may threaten it," And before going further I wish that it may be well understood that I do not pretend to enter upon politics in this note, devoted onlv to the aff.iirs of the navy. If 1 speak of England, as of every other power, it will be in no narrow spirit of animosity or even national riv:d» vy,^ but only for the purpose of showing, from what passes among foreign nations, what we ought to seek, what we ought to avoid.- If I speak of war, it is not that I wish to see my country change the benefits of peace for ruinous hazards : — No, 1 believe only tliat to make peace honourable and durable it must repose on a force always capable of making itself respected. Taking then the case of war as the groundwork for my argument, I will seek an example which explains my idea, and I will suppose France" obliged to defend herself against the strongest of the mari- time powers — that is to name England. That assumed, and proceed- ing in a manner quite abstract and quite hypothetical,'^ I enter on my subject. 1 We are bound to believe the royal author, when he asserts that ha is animated by no narrow spirit of hostility or of national rivalry, but he is not only unfortunate in the time he has chosen for giving any stimulant to the prevalent Anglophobia, but in the measures he suggests. He could have alluded generally to the value of a steam navy in Invading an enemy's country, but there was no call to make the special application, and propose the invasion of England for the express purpose of destroying the conlidence of her peo- pie In her insular position and maritime totnmerce. Kucha measure is no necessary con- comitant in any general war, and must perforce be taken as emanating from the bitter I'eeings of malice and revenge. 2 If the author were so desirous of eschewing any feeling of political animosity, he could have illustrated his position equally well by the example of the United States or Holland, each of which has a commerce equivalent to that of France, and equivalent in- tercstB of maritime policy. » It weuld be just as e;isy to suppose the United States or Holland engaged in a war of defence with England, as to suppose France in such a position, yet the politicians of the former countries have not, when discussing such a contingency, been seized with such morbid fnntaey for humiliating the English, coute qui coute, nor attempted froc tike to make their navies equivalent to that demanded by the commercial wants of England. The weakest maritime powers, Naples, Austria, Prussia, Sardinia, Denmark, have equally the possibility of contending with the first class naval power, yet they have not the in- sanity of lUlempting to make a navy of tlu- first class. 4 This nbstract and hypothetical manner will be best appreciated by the practical ap- plication, for France has just as much reason to fear a maritime war with the United States as with Enghnd, and such war has occurred, while it is not so many yean ago since it was again imminent, yet the Urdted States are not used to furnish forth practical exemplifications. One fact of immense import, which has been accotnplished of late years, has given us the means of raising our fallen naval power, and of making it re-app^ar under a new form, admirably adapted to our re- sources and national genius.^ This fact is the institution and progress of steam navigation. Our navy could only be an artificial creation when the empire of the sea belonged to the one who put afloat the most seamen. Our mined mercantile navy no longer furnished us seamen enough;" we should have vainly struggled to avenge affronts, to eft'ace melancholy remembrances;' but when even temporary success had attested the courage of our seamen, numbers would in the end have stifled our exertions. The steam navy has changed the face of everything ; now it is our military resources which are about to take the place of our impoverished naval personnel.*^ We shall always have enough officers and seamen to perform the part still open to a seaman on board a steamer.^ Machinery will supply the place of hundreds of arms, and I need not say that we shall never want money'" to construct engines, still less that we shall never want soldiers wheu the honour of the country is to be maintained. With a steam navy, the most audacious war of aggression is per- mitted by sea. We are sure of our movements, unshackled in our actions. Time, weather, tide, no longer disturb us. We can calcu- late to the day and hour. In case of continental war, the most unexpected diversions are pos- sible. In a few hours the armies of France may be transported to Italy, Holland, or Prussia.' ' What has been once done at Ancona with a rapidity which the winds seconded, may be done everyday without them, and almost against them with still greater rapidity. As I said just now, these naval resources become us admirably,'^ and the form of war thus modified no longer leaves chances such as they were, thirty years ago, between France and enemies she may meet.^" So too it is curious to see to what extent the progress of steam and its probable occupation excite the attention of our neighbours. The Duke of Wellington in his evidence before the C(uumittee on Shipwrecks appointed by the Honse of Commons, said, iti relation to the coasts of England opposite the coasts of France : — " In case of war, I should consider the want of protection and re- fuge now felt would place the trade of that part of the coast, and the coast itself in a very precarious situation." s The author who when he chooses is a man of much common sense, a« he tubae- quently shows, ia at this present mnment engaged in a declamation !i la jeune France, but he figures here marvellously like Scaramouch. How any one, even a Frenchman, could conceive that a steam navy Is marvellously adapted to the resources and national genius of France baffles conjecture. The mineral resources of France, its mines of coal, Iron and copper have been too little turned to account as yet to bear this out, and certainly no one but themselves will give them credit as being an engineering naUon. They have, in- deed, as little genius for the engine factory as they have for tlie trader's Bhsp, and the Prince's grave njipeal to liis countrymen as murine engineers puis us ridiculously In mind of Elliston's application to the Duke of Newcastle to be put into parliament for one of His Grace's boroughs. *' What," said the Duke, " Punch wanting to be iu Parliament; Punch in Parliament' I can never stand that." So it will be said " Punch have natural resourcesandanatlonal genius for iron niinesand steam engine factories !" — It Is too rich' 6 It is to lye observed, that no benefit is gained by the French under tlie new slate of aflairs, lor if their merchant navy be unable to aft'ord theui seamen, so 'hey liave not fac- tories and mechanics to .ilford them marine engines, and they can compete with England neither in seamen nor mechanics. " ' Efi'acer de trisies souvenirs.* Effacing melancholy remembrances of defeat, does look marvellously like the emanation of political spleen. Englishmen do not talk of effacing the * tristes souvenirs' of Walcheren, Corunna. Rosettn, Buenos Ayres, or New Orleans I the Americo-English do not talk of eftacing the * tristes souvenirs' of Washing- ton and the Chesapeake, ' ces sont des fails accomplis;' but a Frenchman can scarcely endure the ' souvenir' of St. Vincent or Trafalgar, though we have almost forgotten them, and left the monument of the victor of one battle incomplete and neglected. We say, whatever may be the will of the author, his expressions are but too well calculated to keep alive feelings of national animosity. fl Surely the author must have forgotten that the population of England, 29 millions to S4, 1b not BO disproportionate to that of France, and that England has military capaciliei tuo for the invasion of France, as Poitiers, Cressy and Agincouit, the victoriei of Marl- borough, the days of Toulouse and Waterloo, still attest. We are not a small peoplt*, to be walked over by military force, and the author confesses our superiority in naval resources. It is much more easy fer the English, as they have before done, to occupy Paris, tban for the French to occupy London. 0 The author has here forgotten that us seaman are still necessary, though in a dimin- ished proportion, on board of steamers, that this only gives England additional power, instead ot diminishing it. If five thousand men now are only required, where eight thou- sand formerly were requisite for the armament of a tleet, the effect can be, not to give the French greater resources, but to enable the English to equip a still greater number of vessels, and turn out a greater weight of metal with the myriads of men at their disposal, that is to say, supposing the Engli-h with 10,000 seamen can now tit. out a force equiva- lent to <;0 sail of the line, under the steam system, with the same number of men. accord- ing to the Prince's calculations that 4529 men with steam are equivalent to 7767 men in sailers, the English wo'dd be able to fit out a force equivalent to 100 snil of the line, so that the Prince has nothing to gain on that store. Then it is.to be remembered that steam will give the English better opportunities for boarding, an operaiion to which they are much attached, and which they practice with success. 1 o Money alone Is not enough to build marine engines, skill is a great thing, and the French have not yet come up to the English in that. 1 1 What right have the French to calculate on attacking Holland or Prussia, no poh- tical or commercial interests are involved, which can justify such a contemplation ; but as to transporting troops to Holland by stwamers we should like to know how they are to get ashore, the coast of Hulland being rather to strongly defended to authorize the idea of war steamers being supretqely successful. 1 2 See note 5. 13 See notey. 18-14.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 225 In the sitting of the House of Commons on the i'Jth Feb., 1844, a motion was made relative to the establishment of harbours of refuge on the English coast and it is said in that motion :— " That it is the duty of Her Majesty's Government to provide the means of safety, not only for English trade, but also for the coasts of England. We are of opinion that if at the time of the camp at Boulogne, steamboats had been in use. Napoleon would easily have had the means of land- ing fifteen or twenty thousand men on the coast." It was added that they would not say such would have had much effect, but the effect it would have produced would have been " to have destroyed that confi- dence which we derive from our insular position." It concluded by adjuring the legislature to take into consideration the great changes effected in the last few years in steam navigation and the use which might be made of it in a new war. The hint is a good one for England, it is also good for all those whom it teaches that her strength lies in that confidence, which her insular position inspires. "* Unfortunately we do not profit by it. Those cries of alarm uttered in the midst of the English Parliament should have in our Chamber and in all France a salutary echo ; our line of conduct should be traced to us by the hands of our neighbours themselves. But it is not so ; we fold our arms — England acts : we debate on theories — she carries out facts. She creates with activity a formidable steam force and reduces the number of her sailors, of which she has found out the powerlessness. We, who should have preceded her in this reform,'^ and who at least should follow her in it with ardour, — it is as much, as to number of steamers, if we have six fit to be put in comparison with those of the English navy. It is lamentable to say this, but they lull and have lulled the country with flattering words and erroneous figures ; we are persuaded and they have succeeded in persuading us that we possess a strong and respectable steam navy. Deplorable error, source of a still more de- plorable confidence. I am not one of those who in the illusion of national self-love, believe we are in a condition to contend at sea as equals against equals with English power, but I do not on the other hand wish to be understood as saying that in no case can we resist it. My firm opinion is that we can carry on war against any power whatever, even were it England, and that, re-establishing a sort of equality by the judicious employment of our resources, we can, if not achieve brilliant success, at least move surely towards our end, which ought to be that of maintaining France in the rank which belongs to her.i" Our successes would not be brilliant, because we should take very good care not to compromise all our resources at once in decisive actions. But we should make way safely, because we should attack two things equally vulnerable ; the confidence of the English people in their insular position, and their maritime commerce." Who can doubt that with a steam navy strongly organized we should have the means of inflicting on the enemies, coast losses and sufferings unknown by a nation which has never felt all the miseries which war brings on ? and at the end of these sufferings vfould come the evil, equally new to her, of confidence lost. The riches accumulated on her coasts and in her ports would have ceased to be in safety.'" And that whilst by cruisers well managed of which latter I w ill deve- lope the plan, we should act efticaciously against her commerce distri- buted over the surface of the sea. The; struggle would then no longer be so unequal. 1 keep on reasoning on the hypothesis of a war. Our steam navy would have thentwo very distinct theatres inwhichtoact; theChannel first where our ports could shelter a considerable force, which issuing out under cover of night would brave the most numerous and closely 1 * If no political views of national animosity were involved, why should so mudi anxiety be felt about destroying the confidence of the English in their insular position, any more than destroying that of the Sicilians in their Insular positiou, or of the Hol- landers in their dilies and inundations? 15 Oh, Punch ! Punch! we shall burst with laughter— "we of France, who ought to have taken the lead of England in the establishment of a steam navy !" This is almost as good as the national genius of the French in the mechanical arts, for which no one gives them credit. It is long since France could talk of taliiog the lead of England in anything, but now that France is a tUird-rute power, raniting after Russia, the idea is rich. I ti What the ranli of France might once have been is one thing j in these days, when she does little and next to nothing* for the advancemeut of civilization, it is a very mode- rate rank, and never can be anything else while Frenchmen go to work at the wrong end , grasoing at more, instead of turning to account that they have. I 7 Why should France attack our insular position, and our maritime commerce > We do not injure France, and it is open to France by fair means, to eclipse us in maritime commerce, as we and our American brethren, by fair means have eclipsed the Hollanders. Lei France build up her own pinnacle of the hill to the height of ours, and not attempt to pull down our pinnacle to Iier level. 1 6 The author forgets one thing or is not aware of it, that with our immense resources it would take us very little trouble to cover the coasts of England with a million ot 64 lb. iron carronades, were such a provisi(m requisite. Our iron works would turn out such an immense arteiiEd iu a year and hollow shot for it to boot. ; planted cruisers. Nothing would prevent this force from concentra- ting before daybreak on any point agreed on upon the English coasts, and there it would act with impunity. A few hours were quite enough for Sir Sidney Smith to do an irreparable injury to us at Toulon. In the Mediterranean, we should reign as masters;"" we should secure our conquest of Algiers, that vast field opened to our commerce and our civilization.^" And then the Mediterranean is too far from England ; it is not the arsenals of Malta and Gibraltar-' which could maintain a steam fleet, so difficult and expensive to provision,^- and always in fear of being reduced to inaction by want of fuel. Free then for France to act victoriously upon that theatre ; all her plans, she could accomplish them with steamers, without troubling herself about sailing squadrons, of which »11 the vigilance would be deceived, of which all the speed would be surpassed. To the steam navy and to it alone is reserved the part of patrolling our coast.s, and giving notice of the approach of enemies, covering our coasting trade, and opposing by main force, when it could be done, any landing or bombardment, and all agressions of the enemy, for it is a matter of course that the steam navy cannot give us advan- tages which cannot be turned against us.''" The half of our frontier is sea frontier. Formerly this vast extent of coast could be defended by our land armv ; almost everywhere inacccessible or at least of dan- gerous approach for sailing vessels, disembarkations were little to be feared, and the important points, the great parts and those places for the defence of which nature had done nothing art stepped in and put them beyond attempt. Now everything is changed ; with steamers, our coasts may be approached in all their vast extent; from Dunkirk to Bayonne England can attempt against us all that we can attempt against her. In a few hours an army embarked aboard a steam fleet at Portsmouth and in the Thames would appear on some point of our coast, would penetrate into our rivers, would effect a landing or would destroy with shells, our cities, our arsenals and our commercial riches. The rapidity of its movements would ensure its success. The French army its forts and its artillery cannot be everywhere at once, and we should learn at the same time the appearance of the enemy, the ac- complishment of his plans, and his departure. At this moment if war were declared, we should perhaps learn to-morrow the destruction of Dunkirk, Boulogne, Havre, &c., which nothing can defend against a bombardment. W"e should have the grief of seeing the English flag flying in Brest Roads, our great arsenal, until now protected by the multiplied difficulties of navigation in its neighbourhood, difficulties which the employment of steamers would get rid of. Thus by means of a steam navy England is in a condition to threaten all our coasts on the ocean, and to reign in the Mediterranean by cutting off all our communications with Algiers ; she can besides closely and efficiently blockade all ports, and that from to-day, if she so thinks good. And to resist her, we have only one resource, only one means, that which she could use against us, a steam navy. Well ! it must be repeated, that is the lamentable side of the ques- tion ; notwithstanding all the illusions with which we love to satisfy ourselves, notwithstanding all the facts asserted, all the figures put forward, we have only an impotent force, a force of which ihe purely nominal existence is on paper. Upon what indeed do they depend to console France, and prove to her that her navy is in a respectable position ? On a squadron of sailing vessels perfectly armed 1 confess and certainly I am not the one to deny its merits and its glory; but if it be true, that by the mere progress of things, what was the main 1 9 A few lines lower down the author shows that he has here made a blunder, and that we ought to read for " iu tlie Mediterranean we should reign as musters," " in the Medi. terraneau the English would reign as masters ;" for as he subsequently says, in case of war the English would immediately cut oB' the communication with Algiers, and sweep the seas of the French flag. 20 The misfortune that France has not been able to promote effectively either the com- merce or civilization of Algiers, and never will on the present system. Had the English had It, they would by this time have made it a most productive colony. 21 The English have also their arsenals in the Ionian Isles, commanding the Levant and Adriatic, and have too great a stake in the Mediterranean as the route to India to abandon it. Supposing, an absurdity that they could not supply fuel as cheaply to Malta as the French do to Toulon, they would soon find means to obtain fuei from the numerous countries communicating with those seas. If it came to the worst Corfu, Zante, Cetigo. and Malta must become depots fur the wood of the Wolga, the Don, the Uanube, odd -'2 We do not find any dilBculty with Malta, Gibraltar, and the Ionian Isles, and are not likely to do so. i;) This is the real (ruth of the matter, the beginning was declamation to amuse the Spiders and badauds of Paris, but the naked truth lies here, France has much more to fear from a steam navy than England, and has no interest in going to war. There is such a thing as federalism, symptoms of it were shown in France soon after the Kevolution. and it might be possible to promote the designs of local demagogues in forming the United or Independent States of Lyons, Marseilles, Nantes, Bordeaux, Brittany, or La Vendee. France is not yet so consolidated as to be active thus far, and the game has been effectually played elsewhere. Brittany would make a nice Celtic republic under the auspices of an EuBlish army of co-operation, turned more effectually to account than French intrigues in Ireland. The old provinces of France might find it to their account to throw off the yoke of centralization, and carry on governments on their own uccuunt. This is one among many purposes in which an English stcanj navy could be turned to account, as the author will see. 226 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [June, thing, what was the all in all twenty years ago, is now no more than an accessary to naval force — that fine squadron will be very near being only a useless expense. Let us investigate a little the facts, which have passed before our eyes, it is a cotemporary history, which every one can appreciate from his remembrance. Since the progress of navigation has caused gallies to be abandoned (this is old enough), each state has had squadrons or reunions of sailing vessels, as the expression of its naval force. The French and English fleets, have during a century and half disputed with each other the empire of the sea,= ' and after long and sanguinary struggles, the Eng- lish flag has been carried from one end of the globe to the other as a conqueror and a master. The French navy might have been thought to be annihilated. It was not however and peace bringing back tranquillity, confidence and commerce, our merchant navigation employed and formed sea- men enough in 1S40 to allow of a squadron of twenty ships carrying with honour the French flag in the Mediterranean. Many minds were dazzled with these brilliant results ;-= they saw with grief this fine fleet condemned to inaction at the moment when the national sentiment was in them so deeply wounded. We had at that moment over the English squadron a superiority in organization and number. Our seamen commanded by an able and active chief, were well-exercised, and everything promised them victorv. I do not invoke on that point my own recollection, but that of one of the most able oflicers of the English navy. Let us admit that a quarrel had then broken out; let us admit that the god of battles had been favourable to France ; cries of joy would have been uttered all over the kingdom ; it would not have been thought that the triumph was of short duration. It must be allowed in a conflict between two squadrons, French and English, victory will be always strongly disputed ; it will belong to the most able, the most persevering, but it will have been paid for most dearly, and on both sides the loss will have been enormous, many vessels destroyed or crippled. It follows that each will return to its ports with a maimed squadron, deprived of its best officers and best seamen. But I will suppose what is without precedent; I will allow tliat twenty English ships and fifteen thousand English seamen could ever have been brought prisoners iuto Toulon by our triumphant squadron. Would the victory be thereby more decisive ? Should we have sub- dued an enemy who is cast down by the first blow, who wants re- sources to repair a defeat and who in wiping ofFdisgrace, is accustomed to calculate the expense ? To every one who knows the English peo- ple it is evident that in sucli circumstances they would be found ani- mated with an immense desire of avenging a check unknown in their annals, a check which affects their very existence. We should see all the naval resources of that immense empire, its numerous personnel, its material riches, accumulated to wi))e off the blot on the English navy, at thi! end of a month tv!o or three fleets as powerfully organized as that which we should have carried off would be before our ports. What have we to oppose them ? Nothing but wrecks. And here is the place to tear oft' the veil under which the secret of our weakness is hidden from us. Let us proclaim it aloud, a victory, like that seemingly promised to us in 1840, would have been for the French cavy the commencement of a new ruin. We were at the end of our resources; our materiel was not rich enough to re])air from one day to another the mischiefs whicli our ships would have suffered and our personnel [our crews] would have presented the spectacle of an ira- puissance still more distracting. It is not enough known what efforts it took to arm then those twenty ships, which gave France so much confidence and so much pride ; it is not well enough known that the exhausted muster rolls of the inscription could furnish no more sea- men. And what must be added is that on the first rumour of war, the nuisery so impoverished of our merchant navy would have been re- duced to nothing ; the few liands which might have remained would immediately have taken to the profitable speculation of privateer- ing.^" Many times in the course of its history, France, when tliought to be without troops, has sent out thousands from her bosom, as by magic, but it is not so with fleets ; the seaman cannot be made off-hand, he is a work of art, which if not modelled from his infancy, to the sea *■* iEsop's cock was^a much more ratiooal animal when he scratched up the pearl on the dunghill and rejecte'd it as of no use to him. The Gallic cock according to his own account, must contend for the empire of the sea, which would have been of no use to him when he had got It. 2 3 The author would have done well had he reprobated this insane practice of making a show of force without any grounds for its exhibition, or resources for its maintenance. It is this vile pandering to popular vanity whicii is doing so mucli harm in France and the United Stalen. Let the French set to work to make tliemselves a commercial power, and then and then only talk about their naval force. The Hollanders now that their supremacy is lost, .ire too wise to waste their thoughts in display, bnt exert tliemselves soberly anil steadily to improve their position. 26 All ihiH soi-iiiils liliL' common sense, why tlien sliould the author address himtelf to engage bis counlryintu in a war, ^rhii-h could only biinsjs them riiiu and disgrace. business, always exhibits an inevitable inferiority. From the time since we have been trying to make seamen, we have succeeded, it must be allowed in getting men, who are not sea-sick, but (he name of seaman is not to be acquired so cheaply. There then is the wreck of our victorious fleet either blockaded or attacked with numerous forces, which to the power of organization join the ardent desire of avenging defeat. The fruits of victory and of the blood shed is lost. It is no longer permitted to call by the name of victory a temporary superiority, which has only left behind it the certainty of defeats near at hand, and that because, without fore- sight for the morrow, we should have ventured all our resources at once. No, we must not accustom the country to play in time of peace with fleets, and flatter itself with tlie false idea that they give it power. Let us never forget the effect which the recall of the fleet in 1840 pro- duced; it was however what was necessary then, and what would be so still on the first threat of war. It is clear therefore that the part of shipping can no longer be henceforward to form even the main body of our naval power; the employment of steamers reduces it perforce to the subaltern occu- pation of siege artillery in a land army. They will be carried in the train of a steam fleet (when sailers) the expedition has a determinate object, when employed against a fort, or a sea town, which must be attacked with a large mass of artillery brought to bear on one point. Beyond that, services will not be required ot them, which they cannot, ought not to render, and we shall be cautious of persevering, from an exaggerated respect for ancient traditions, in a dangerous path, at the end of which there might some day have to be rendered a very serious account to France, disabused. I should not hesitate myself, to strike at once into a contrary path, and I should put to myself plainly the question whether maintaining eight armed ships and eight in commission to obtain no other advan- tage thin that of striking afar off the eyes of superficial observers is not a great deal too much. I shall be answered perhaps that these ships are schools of officers and discipline. But every reunion of ships, either sailers or steamers, would attain the same end. It is not necessary to have for that ships of the line, the most costly of all floating machines, ships, which on the approach of war, we should be obliged to disarm. Would it not be better to employ the leisure of peace in preparing and sharpening a blade which would give certain blows in time of war ? I am not afraid of affirming that from the formation of a steam squadron would arise more new ideas and true progress that there has been from all the lessons of the last war. In fine, and everything lies on that, let us look across the channel, and see what England does : let us see the decision with which that country, so sagacious, and so enlightened as to itsinterests, has known how to give up the old instruments of its power and seize the new arm. (See Appendix A.) Certainly if in any quarter sailing fleets should be kept up we should expect it in the English Admiralty, which has derived profit and glory enough from them. But they have followed the march of events, they have listened to the voice of experience, and have comprehended that sailers would be useless when a new naval force, capable of doing everything in despite of them, had come into the world. So too lot us look at our fleet, nailed up by the force of circum- stances in the Mediterranean, what do the English Government op- pose to it? Three ships,* but on the other hand they have eleven steamers, of which nine are of large size, and with this force, they have enough to make their flag rule and their policy triumph. Our budget, I know, gives us an effective force of forty-three steamers ; that is something; but in England they know what to make of the naval value of these vessels, and this is the total they have to set against ours. In all, England now reckons one hundred and twenty-five steamers. Of this number, seventy-seven are armed, and to these must be added two hundred steamboats of superior quality, fit for carrying heavy guns and troops, which the merchant navy coidd furnish to the state on the very day they were wanted. = ' * The English Government reduces this year from sercnteen to nine the number of its armed vessels. Three first class (three-deckers) will be employed as guard ships in their ports, Sheerness, Portsmouth, Plymouth ; three in the lHeditterranean,onein the Pacific Ocean, one in China, one in the West Indies and North America. Seven of these nine ships are to carry the flags of Admiralty. -'7 The autiior must have a strange idea of his countrymen to give them the soundest view of the resources of England, and show the impossibilityof competing with them, and at the same time to recommend them to engage in an enterprize so worthless. There can be little doubt indeed that this is an appeal to mob prejudices, and the author knows That it they will, tbey will you may depend on*t. And if they wont, they wont and there's an end ou't. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARUiJITECT'S JOURNAL. 227 That is not all : to form an idea of flie real force of this steam fleet, we must have seen close at hand how formidable its eqaipment is, we must have seen the care and skilful foresight with which everything has been designed. The English war-steamers have not been designed warranted good for every kind of service witliout distinction, in their construction only one idea, one end has been in view — war. They conjoin with a marvellous fitness for sea purposes, high speed, power- ful artillery, and plenty of stowage for passenger troops. Yes this armament is formidable; yes, this exclusive care which England devotes to increasing and perfecting tliis branch of her mari- time service is a warning which we should not neglect under pain of seeing some day in peril, all that is most dear to a people, the integ- rity of our territory and our national honour. Then, I repeat, there is a very simple means we have of warding off this danger, iind rendering the chances of the struggle if ever one should happen; that is to arm ourselves as they arm against u?,== it is to give our steam navy which still languishes in the uncertainty of experiment a powerful impulsion and a large developement. With the resources which this navy thus perfected would supply for attack and defence, France could legitimately rely on the opinion of her strength. But, I must necessarily say it, in that as in everything, to do well, we must busy ourselves with it, and busy ourselves seriously with it. Our steam navy dates from 1829 : the expedition to Algiers was the theatre of its first essays. People were then struck with the advan- tages it was possible to gain from it, and we hastened to cast in the same mould a sufficiently large number of vessels, similar to these which had served in that expedition. However such was the daily increasing importance of the Algerine service, that these boats hardly finished were obliged to be immediately appropriated, and without ceasing urgently required, and often obliged to move without their repairs being completed, they could not furnish the basis of any fruit- ful experiment, or any amelioration. What they particularly wanted was to be employed on stations where they could be put in comparison with foreign vessels. This inconvenience together with the prejudices exclusively prevailing in favour of the sailing navy, was the reason why the progress of our steam fleet from 1830 to 1840 was nil. Science however had progressed. The royal navy of England having the leisure for experiments, and further, having under its eyes a merchant steam navy in which number and competition produced daily progress, turned out some magnificent vessels.-" The men who governed our affairs in 1810 were struck with this progress, and felt the bearing of it : an energetic attempt was made to give France a true steam navy, by the creation of our transatlantic packets. Unfortunately this attempt has been the only one ; notwithstanding the laudable and persevering exertions of the treasury to point out a path of improvement to the steam navy by the example of its packet boats, thare was an obstinacy in leaving it to vegetate, and now it is not even sufficient for the wants of peace, and far from offering the re- sources which it should present in war. And the Chambers cannot be accused of this lamentable insufficiency. Every time that funds have been asked to endow France with a steam navy, they have been voted with patriotic ardour. The money has never had to be waited for; but it was hoped that there would be some result equivalent to so much expense and so many sacrifices. This result is now apparent to our eyes. By an excess of foresight too common with us, the administration has thought fit first of all to create repairing establishments for the new navy. In all our ports now rise magnificent factories enclosed in stately monuments. These factories are for the purpose of repairing the damage, and providing for the wants of the steam navy, and this navy is only in its infancy. However as these large factories cannot be left without employ- ment nor the workmen without work ; as besides in the nature of things, all the steamers we have are employed at Toulon, and that there are only steamers to repair at that place, what has been done with the factories constructed in the ports of the ocean? They have been employed in manufacturing engines, instead of giving the con- tracts for them, as a premium to private industry.^" We had already Indret and its costly productions. Was it neces- 2 8 Why should the author iningloe that the English or nnyone else arm against "us," against France. France is not a power so formidable as to excite English or Americo- English suspicion, and the latter nations have quite enough to do in looking alter their interests without troublinn themselves about France. 20 This is the secret ot naval supremacy, the French have always begun at the wrong end, instead of beginning by nialdng a strong miliiary navy, it should be by making a strong merchant navy. 3 o The advice of the author is here very good, it is by the developenient of private in- dustry that Fiance is to be advanced, and England will never grudge the real advance- ment of France, nor even its superiority should it be gained by fair means, ^nd in con- formity with the great interests of mankind and of civilization. sary to add to this luxury of establishments ? Was it requisite to employ the money destined for the increase and improvement of the fleet, ill raising monuments of which the immediate utility is far from being demonstrated ? We have always been inclined to increase without limit the im- moveables of the navy, to the detriment of everything efficacious and active in the department.^' It would be good to try the other plan, and I am convinced that we should readily find the means of arming a true steam fleet and encouraging a useful trade, by requiring from private establishments, fine and good machines, such as they knov? how to produce. If I were here to trace the true state of our steam navy, if I were to say that of this number of forty-three steamers afloat borne on the budget, there are not six fit to compare with the English vessels, [ should not be believed, nnd Isliould still have asserted the strict truth. The greater number of our vessels belong to that class good in 1830, when they were turned out, but now, must certainly much behind pre- sent improvement. These vessels subjected in the Mediterranean to a navigation without repose, have almost all reached a premature old age. As I poii;ted out just now they are no longer sufficient for the service of Algiers and the political missions on which they are sent, for want of better vessels. The officers who command them blush at seeing themselves weak and powerless, I will not say along- side the English only, but the Russians, the Americans, the Dutch, tne Neapolitans, who hive better steamers than ours. I shall be accused of decrying with pleasure our war resources, if I did not reckon our transatlantic packets and those belonging to the post otiice. Doubtless there is some use to be expected from these vessels, but in the first place they do not belong to the navy, which does not require them in vime of peace, and it is deceiving ourselves besides if we believe that by their construction and equipment we can at once appropriate them to their own service and that of war. (See Appendix A.) The objection of expense is raised against the general employment of a steam navy. My first answer will be that so far as precautions are to be taken for the guard of her power and the defence of her territory, France has often proved that she did not reckon expense. But I accept the ob- jection, and I allow that engines and boilers cost very dear ; I add only that nothing obliges ns to pay all the expense in a single year, for in the interest of such an extensive manufacture, it would be ad- vantageous to distribute the expense over several consecutive budgets. We must consider then that engines properly kept in order will last a very long while, from 20 to 25 years, and that if the boilers are worn out sooner, it is possible to render them less costly, by substituting copper for sheet iron ; not but the first metal is dearer than the other, but it lasts longer, and after the apparatus is worn, still preserves some value for sale of old material. 1 have endeavoured to m»ke some calculation as to the cost of establishment and maintenance of the material of steamers compared with sailers ; unfortunately I have not been able to give to these cal- culations all exactness requisite, having no ether basis to furnish them than hypotheses ; the official publications only exhibit uncertain data in this respect. Baron Tupinier in a work full of interest* has formed, with the same purpose as I have, some calculations which are only learned probabilities, and which, like mine, are exposed to error in their basis, since they only rest on supposition. In this unfortunate impossibility of giving results mathematically accurate, 1 have left out of the account the cost of the material of the steamers, confining myself to the observation that sailing vessels have also a materiel which wears out and at all times, while that of steamers only wears while the engine is going and doing work. I have therefore taken the pay and clothing of the crews, and the consumption of fuel, the only appreciable data, and from these data I have drawn this conclusion, that a second rate entails an expense equivalent to that of four vessels of 220 h. p. That therefore our present fleet at Toulon costs as much as a fleet would cost of 5 steam frigates of 450 h. p. each. 22 steam corvettes of 220 h. p. 11 steam boats of 160 h. p. 38 steamers capable of transporting 20,000 troops. I now ask to compare the services, which on the one hand could be rendered by 8 liners, 1 frigate and 2 steamers, slow and imcertain in their movements, and absuibing an effective of 77ii7 seamen; and on the other hand 38 steamers manned with 452'.) seamen and capable of 3 1 This is a very good hint, and shows up a very prevalent feature of French adminis- tration. * Cousiderations sur la Marii-e et son budget. 228 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [JuNK' ransporting 20,000 troops. Let war come, and we must disarm the former of these squadrons, while the second is always serviceable. (See Appendix B.) I could have dwelt further upon tliese considerations relative to a steam n..vy, but I limit myself to general ideas, leaving to others the care of enforcing my views, and bringing out all thev suggest. I be- lieve however that I have demonstrated in a satisfactory manner that a steam fleet is alone good at the present day for offensive and de- fensive war, and alone good for protecting our coasts and acting against those of the enemy, and for seconding efficiently the operations of our land armies. It now remains forme to speak of a means of action, which we should have to employ in case of a war with England. Without having been engaged in the long struggles of the French navy with tlie English navy in the time of the revolution and the em- pire, we may have studied its history and gathered its experience. it is a fact well ascertained now that if during those twenty years the war of fleet against fleet was always fatal to us, almost always also the cruises of our corsairs were successful. Towards the close of the em- pire divisions of frigates, issuing from our ports with the mission of skimming the sea without compromising themselves against an enemy superior in number, inflicted considerable loss on English commerce. To touch that commerce (hen, is to touch the vital principle of Eng- land is to strike her to the heart.=- Until ihe time of which 1 spoke our blows did not strike there, and we allowed the spirit of English speculation to increase by the war its prodigious profits. The lesson should not be lost to us now, and we ought to put ourselves in a condition, at the first shot which would be fired to act |jowertully enough against English trade to shake its con- fidence. This end then France would obtain by stationary cruisers skilfully distributed in every quarter of the globe. ^^ in the channel and tlie Mediterranean this part might very well be entrusted to steamers. Those which are employed as packets during peace would from their high speed make excellent corsairs in time of war. They might come up with a merchantman, plunder it, burn it and escape even war steamers, of which the progress would be retarded by their heavy construction. It could not be thus on distant seas; there it is frigates which must be specially destined as cruisers, and although apparently there is no- thing new in what I am about to say, I would wish to call attention to this point. My opinion with regard to frigates is not the same as with regard to liners. Far from reducing the number I should like to increase them ; in peace as in war, good service can be got out of them, and they would be obtained increase of expense by only distributing our stations in a better manner.^' The frigate alone appears to me proper to represent France at a distance, and moreover tlie frigate of the most powerful dimensions. It only can, in eft'ect with an adequate force and a numerous crew carry provisions enough to keep the sea for a long time togetlier; it only can, as I shall hereafter point out, bend itself equally to the wants both of peace and war. A thousand or two thousand leagues distance from the shores of France 1 admit of no distinction between these two conditions; distant stations, which mav learn of a war some months after it has been declared, should always be constituted on the most formidable footing. Motives of economy should here disappear be- fore greater and move elevated ideas. We must never by a ruinous parsimony, allow the forces of France to be sacrificed or even com- promised. Until now our distant stations have been composed of a frigate bearing the flag of the admiral in command and of several corvettes or brigs. Two reasons have produced this result ; the demands of consuls, always desirous of having a vessel of war within reach of their residences; and secondly the great reason of economy so often ap- pealed to, which has caused the force and class of vessels to be re- duced, which could not be reduced in number. It follows that wishing to be everywhere, we have everywhere been weak and impotent. It IS thus that we send 40 gun frigates* with a crew of 300 men 3 2 Ttiis is another exemijlilicalion of the author's soi-disant non-polilical bias. Like most other Frenchmen he is however wrong in his view, it is not toninterce whicll is the vital principle of Knyluuti, but the spirit of energy and enterprise of which comniwvce is the exttrnul nianifesution. The aullior might destroy our silips, chectc our commerce, and yet lt.ave the vitals of Knyland's power unscathed. ns This amiable i^roposition has excited much attention and much reprobation. The author however forgets that there is hardly a part ol the world where the English flag does not fly, and where England has not resources at hand to check those cruisers. In all our colonies now, even in Australia, are merchant steamers, which might be found a nuisance even to French frigates. a* It will be observed that this JB the American system. The Americo-English have only 10 ships cJ the line t4 building), but have 10 frigates (4 building). They seem how- ever to be increasing their squadron of the line. ;^ * Thui on the Brazilian and l.a Plata station we have a frigate bearing the flag of the where England and the United States have frigates of 50 guns and more, with 500 men aboard. Each is however only a frigate, and if it happened that they one day met in conflict it would be said every- where that a French frigate had been taken or sunk by an English or American frigate ; and although the force would not have been equal our flag would be no less humiliated by a defeat. As a principle I should say that stations should be formed each of two or three frigates of the greatest dimension. These frigates would move togetlier under the orders of an admiral, and would profit thus by all advantages of navigation in squadron. Constantly at sea com- mander and seamen would learn to know and appreciate each other, and we should not reproach our admirals with tliat lazy immobility which seems to nail them to the head quarters of their station. Every- where where this naval division would show itself, and it sliould be constantly engaged in going over the extent of its district, it would be seen strong and respectable, having the means of repressing imme- diately the irregularities of foreign governments, without those costly appeals to the mother country of which Mexico and La Plata have given us such lamentable examples. We should no longer have those small vessels disseminated over the points where our diplomatic agents reside, and so fit by their very weakness, to bring down insults which our flag should know how to avoid, but never sufter. We should no longer be exposed to see at the commencement of a war, the greater part of these vessels of weak build snapped up with- out firing a shot by the enemy's frigates. Far from that we should have on all points of the globe divisions of frigates, quite ready to follow in the track of those glorious squadrons which have so nobly contended for their country in the Indian seas. They would cruise around our colonies, around those new points seized in distant seas by a provident policy, and destined to serve as a basis to their operations,^' as well as to become the refuge of our priva- teers. I may add that this manner of representing the country abroad would be much more advantageous to our commerce, than the manner in which we now do it. In etfect, the arrival of a squadron provided with all the means of making itself respected would be much more feared than the constant presence of a small vessel, which people are habituated to see and soon forget.^^ Either I deceive myself or this visit always expected, always imminent, would be for French interests a powerful protection, and our merchantmen would find much more benefit from the influence of our flag thus shown from time to time in countries which form an incomplete idea of the strengtli of France, than from the presence often annoying for them of one of our small vessels of war. It may be observed that I have not spoken of steamers for those dis- tant stations; I believe that we sliould only employ them incidentally, and with the determination to shut them up in our colonies on the first rumour of war. In general, it is necessary that our steamers sliould never leave our coasts except for such a distance as allows of regaining them without a fresh supply of fuel. I argue always on the hypothesis agreed on admiral ccininiauding the station. The English and American Governments have also a frigate; but here is the respective force of these ships. France Africaine 40 guns 311 men. Erghmd Alfred 50 „ 445 „ Aiueiica Kaiilau* IJO ,, 470 ,, Tile rest of this station is composed ol small vessels, aud there also we arc in inferiority in number aud rating. Another example^ Our station of Bourbon and Madagascar, destined to protect our infant establishment at Wayotte aud support the Catholics of Abyssinia, of whom the friendship preserves to France one of the keys of the Ked Sea,a 5 js thus composed ;— 1 corvette '22 guns. 1 brig 20 „ 1 Gubarre (transport), 1 steamer of itiO h. p. Whilst the English station at the Cape.su jg composed of ;— 1 frigate of 60 guns. 1 „ 44 „ 2 corvettes of lili „ '2 brigs of 16 „ 1 steamer of 320 h. p. * The Raritan is rated as a 44 gun frigate. — Translator. as This is a specimen of French policy and glory. IVIadagascar and Blayotte ! aggres- sion and not civilization— and intrigues with the Catholics of Abyssinia, these are the staple. What interest France has in the Red Sea cannot be well conceived. The Indian trade of France is not worth mentioning, and requires no key of the Ued Sea for its de- velopement. a 6 The English have not only in that neighbourhood the station at the Cape, but those of Aden, Bombay aud Ceylon, which would clear oft" the French settlements in a twinkling. The English require these stations for the demands of their commerce and steam naviga- tion. 3 ' This is sufficient as a hint. The French have invaded our territories in Tahiti, Hawaii and New Zealand, and those of our ally in the Comoro Isles, not for the legitimate purposes of carrying on their own trade, but with the more banditti-likii end of preying on onrs. as Why France should so constantly desire to make herself feared, we think it should have been for the author to explain. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. 229 of a war ag.iinst Great Britain, and it is evident to every one tliat in such case we should liave few friends on t)ie seas;'" our maritime commerce would not fail to disappear. How far from France then obtain fuel ? Our steamers, deprived of that principle of all their action, would be reduced to muke use only of their sails, and it is known that for the present they are poor sailers; liiey would make but a sorry figure against corvettes or brigs of the slightest mould. Perhaps the use of the screw, by leaving the steamer all the power of a sailing vessel, will some day produce a change in this state of things. Steam will then become a powerful auxiliary to our cruisers, but this alliance of sail and steam would change nothing as to what I have before laid down. The steamer, destined to serve in squadron or on our coasts, should always have a high speed, by steam alone, as the first means of success.'"' I have finished what I wished to point out in this note, and I have nothing to do but sum up in a few words. Taking the chances, however distant they may be," of a war with England, as the basis of our naval establishment, I have said thiit 1 thought it might be thus defined : — ■ PoKtrful organization and developement of our ateam navy on our coasls and in the Mtdikrranean. EHlablishments of powerful and well-managed cruisers on every point of tilt: globe, where in peace our commerce has interests, or in war we can act fcith advantage. To realise the first part of what I require, we must as quickly as possible stop the unfortunate current which drags the navy into useless expenses of material and establishraonts disproportioned to its wants, to the expenses of the fleet, real and living expression of our naval force. This will give us the means of meeting the expenses really neces- sary. We must then withdraw our confidence in ships of the line, and apply ourselves to designing and perfecting our steamers; particularly in trying them, before making a number of the same model, which in case of ill success causes inconveniences of which we have many instances. Give each service its port. Keep up a fleet of at least twenty steamers ready for war. Give up to this fleet the studv of the tactics to be prepared for a steam fleet. Assign to the service of the Algerine packet boats a sufficient part, but rigorously limited as is done for the Levant packet service. The wants of war are not so imperious in Africa as to require all the re- sources of the navy to be sacrificed to them, and every idea of order and economy. The navy might very advantageously get rid of its 160 h. p. steamers by giving them as the cost of establishment of this first service. Create a certain number of light steamers, in which everything would be sacrificed to speed, to carry the orders of the government. Id fine keep at least two and twenty first rate frigates armed for the service of distant stations. Leaving out the expense of creating the vessels, the expense of maintenance will not exceed those of our actual fleet. With a navy thus organized, we shall be able to resist any attempt to wound our honour or our interests and a declaration of war would never risk our being found without defence. In fine, we should have the means of acting immediately, without exposing all our resources to a single hazard. And dwell upon this latter point all these results we should obtain without a serious increase of expense. (See Appendix C.) What if, to belie my assertions, they were called Utopian, a term marvellously adapted to frighten timid minds, and to force them into the rut of routine, I would ask those who answered me in this way to consider attentively all that has been done in the last few years and what is still being done in England, and then to say in good faith, whether it cannot as well be realized in France. It has given me pain, in the whole course of this short writing, to subject my country to an afflicting parallel with a country which so far exceeds it in the knowledge of its interests; it has given me pain to lay bare the secret of our weakness in sight of the spectacle of English power. But I should consider myself fortunate if I could by 39 We should think not. 4 0 The screw propeller is calculnted for reasons before mentioned, to give much greater power to expand. 41 Why should it be assumed that there is even the chance of a war between England and France. There certainly is no reason for it. We have no wish to make an aggression on France, and if France is ever destined to enjoy the advantages of English privilegei, It must be by the moral operatioo of events. the sincere acknowledgement of these lamentable truths, dissipate the illusion in which to many intelligent minds are as to the real state of the naval forces of France, and determine them to demand with me a salutary reform which may give our navy a new era of power and glory. ■ APPENDIX A. The Navy List of the 1st January 1844, bears 43 slenmers aHoat. 18 IjuiMing. 18 transatlantic tteam-packets, of which* several are finished and the others far advanced. Finally, the Post Office reckons for correspondence with the Levant, Alex- andrin, Corsica and England, 24 steam -packets from 50 h. p. lo 220 li. p. Total 103. In all 103 steam vessels, a considerable number, but one which it is neces- s iry to reduce to its real value. We must first of all remove from the list the 24 post office steam packets constructed and fitted for a peace service. Time would he required to adapt these vessels for war. This transformation, it should be well known, cannot be done at once, especially with the necessity of operating simultaneously on 42 steamers, mostly of large dimension. We should deceive ourselves then if we imagined that these steam packets, because they are solidly built and pierced for ports, would have nothing to do on the breaking out of war, than to take on board their guns and ammunition. Do we know besides, since no experiment has been made, whether the weight of the war equipment will not deprive them of the only advantage acknowledged in them till now, that of speed ? We should have to make a clear deck from stem to stern. All those costly fittings, all those objects of luxury and comfort must make way for the severe nudity of a man of war's deck. A warcrew is not to be lodged like passengers who purchase the right of comfort ; there must he large bulk for water, provisions, powder and shot. Every thing would have to be created for a destination so new, and so dif- ferent. It must be repeated such a transformation cannot be made at once ; it can only be slow and successive. We can only then consider these 42 steamers as a reserve, and introduce them as such in the calculation of our naval power. It appears to us that it would be very wrong to reckon on the integrality of this amount, since on the commencement of war, a portion of these steam packets, employed in pursuing their pacific mission, would inevitably fall into the hands of the enemy's cruisers, or even remain blockaded in neutral ports by the mere fact of a declaration of war. It only remains then, after this examination to occupy ourselves with the purely military poriion of the steam fleet, if that which in time of war would present immediate and elfective resources. This still exhibits a total of 61 steamers ; but here we find we have a new deduction to make, for ships building cannot be reckoned among present resources ; like the steam packets we must consider them as a reserve, and still on condition that they be ad- vanced, to the 22—24 [nearly complelel ; that then is what cannot be done with the greater number. Many of these vessels are not commenced ; the Coligny, for instance. In tine we reduce to 43 vessels our steam force now disposable, now effec- tive, that wdiieh on a sudden eventuality, would lie called on to give and ward off the first blows. It is this total of 43 that we propose to examine. ^\■e first of all sec in this list 3 vessels of 4J0 h. p.*, the Gomer, the Asmode'e, and the Inftrnal, rated as frigates. Tlie two first have given satisfactory re- sults with regard to speed, but have not been able to take the equipment in- tended for them. The Guuar «'ith its supply of fuel and its 22 guns, was unable to keep the sea; and it was requisite to reduce either the stock of fuel or the guns. The latter alternative was determined on. The Gomer has worked easily enough, but it is no longer a ship of war, but a packet ; its whole artillery is 8 guns, of which 2; eighty pounders, and 6 thirly pound howitzers, enclosed in narrow ports on the sides of the vessel, an impotent and useless armament ; and still in this condition, the vessel labours a good deal in bad weather. As to the Asmodee it seems to have succeeded better than the Gomer ; but both want power, and in rough weather, their machinery is paralyzed. How- ever this may be, it is willingly acknowledged that by applying to them a suitable mode of armament, they might be converted into vessels truly adapted for war service. Before going further it will perhaps be right to explain what is meant in « See Table, No. 1. ^e THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [June, speaking of war steamers by a suitable armament ; it can be done in a few words. It is known that in steamers, the machinery is placed amidships. That is then tlie vulnerable part, since the vitality of the vessel dwells here, and it is correct to say that in a steamer the centre or midship is the weak point. The extremities on the contrary by their distance fiom the motive power, by the acuity of their forms and their small superficies exposed compared to the broadside, better protect the motive power and expose it less. That is then the strong point. This principle is fundamental, it estaljlishes a marked essential difference between the sailing vessel and the steamer ; between their mode of fighting ; between the armament suitable for the first and that suitable for the second. In the sailing vessel it is the broailside which is the strong side; and a numerous artillery has been develotied on it : it is (hen suitable and rational to fight it by presenting the broadside ; thence, the line of battle and every system of tactics of which it is the basis. But in steam, where the conditions of power are no longer the same, where the broadside is on the contrary the w eak side, it is equally suitable, equally rational to arm the broadside, since by placmg guns there it necessarily fol- lows it must be exposed to tlie shot of (he enemy ? No : unless we deny the principle which has here been laid down, that is neither suitable nor rational. Admitting this principle, it is easy to draw a conclusion ; if the stem and stern are the strong points of the steamer, it is there that we must fi^ht her. attack and defend ; the stem and stern must be armed with guns. The want of space not permitting a numerous artillery to be developed on those points, we must as far as possible, make up for the power of number by that of cali- bre, uniting if it is possible the widest range with the greatest effect. That is, according to us, the general mode of armament suitable for the war steamer. This is no new theory : the principle laid down in its most general expres- sion, has been long since applied in England and the United .States ; and this example has b.id imitators in Russia, Holland, Naples and among all mari- time nations. We alone persist in withstanding it, in pursuing in our new navy an impossible and dangerous assimilation, and this peisistency, we are compelled to say is for our steam il{et a general cause of inferiority. We jioint it out once for all, to avoid returning to it in the course of this enquiry. That laid down, we continue. The hifcrnul, the third of the 450 h. p. steamers, has received from the fac- tory at Indret, a f.mr cylinder engine, a new system of which the first appli- cation was made to a steamer employed in the works of the breakwater at Cherbourg ; a second trial was shortly after made on board the Comtc D'Eu, constructed at the works of Indret, and intended for the King, as a yacht. These two trials, have not been fortunate, and the Comte D'Eu, built at great expense, was judged unsuitable for its occupation. However this might have been, they did not give in as beaten ; two other vessels, the Itifcnia! and Ardent, received machinery constructed on the same system, one of 450 h. p., the other of 220 h. p., and other similar engines are in the course of completion. M'ill this new experiment furnish more results more satisfactory and more decisive ? It must doubtless be hoped for; for if it justifies the mistrust excited by the first results, there will be occasion to regret that in a fit of precipitation, we did not wait for a decisive experi- ment, before applying a new system on a grand scale. The fourth vessel on the list is the Ctivicr of 320 h. p. When in 1838 the Gorgon and Cyclops issued from the English ports, every one was struck with their power as ships of war, as well as with iheir fine sea qualities. There- fore a laudable anxiety was shown to obtain the necessary plans and data to enrich our navy with smiilar vessels, and un those plans, modified for doubt- ful ameliorations, if we arc to judge by the result, the Cueirr was produced. Unfortunately, far from resembling the type from which it was made, the Cuvicr, has a very bad motion, neither can it carry together ils artillery and fuel. AVe may refer to a recent fact which will attest its mediocrity. Having left Brest with the Archimi-des of 220 h. p., which is only a vessel of very common capabilities, the Ciivier was obliged to slacken speed, while the other kept quietly on. Next canie the Gasscndi and Lavoisier of 220 h. p., bad ships and batl en- gines i always under costly repairs, they are far from having rendered equi- valent services, notwithstanding the exertions of the officers who commanded them ; Then the Cameleon, which can only reach 7 knots n itli all her steam up ; lastly, the Pinion, I'ehcc, and Archimedc of 220 h. p., like the preceding one. These three vessels are the best in our navy (although very heavy), if we consider the force of their motive power. They have good qualities and their working, without being superior, is at least satisfactory. Anywhere where they may appear on foreign stations, we shall not be exposed tn humiliating comparisons ; we shall not have, as recently happened on the Levant station, the spectacle of two steamers, one English, the other French, both leaving the Piraeus to give assistance to one of our corvettes and save her from the coast on which she had grounded, Mturning both to the same port, in the sight of the united squadrons, one steamer, the English, towing ihe corvette, and notwithstanding that racing with the French steamer, which thus termi- nated the impotent part which it commenced on the scene of the casually. The U steamers of 220 h. p., are hl;e the 450 h. p. reserved for political and other missions. One of ihem, the Arehimcdes, has just left Brest liound for the China seas, where she will form part of the naval division united there. The five others are almost constantly required for political wants, or to co- operate in the changes which are required in autumn among the troops of Algiers. This kind of vessel seems to us, under actual circumstances, particularly adapted for the war service, which we expect from a steam na\y. A double experiment is now being tried, one on board the Cameleon, the other on board the Pinion. L*>t us hope that the comparative study of these two systems, which both are an homage to the principle we have laid down, may serve to show the superiority of one to the other, or point out a better comb'nation : be it as it may, U is to be wished that every exertion should be made for its general application in the navy, for our present system of armament or rather want of all system, is a serious cause of military inferiority much to be re- gretted. We now arrive at the class of 160 h. p., a numerous class, constituting the majority of our steam fleet. When the Sphinx appeared in 1829, the military navy was just beginning in steam navigation ; it only possessed a small number of steamers, unhappy experiments, fit at the best to be turned to account as harbour tugs. At this period the Sphinx was a progress, and a real progress, which left tar behind all that had been done to that time. During ten years consequently the Spliinx remained the privileged model faithfully copied, but often with less success. During the whole of this period our 160 h. p. were only copies of the Sphituc, and it is believed that even in 1840 a Sphinx came out of our docks. Thus during more than ten years, we remained stationary, restricting our- selves to th'-' exclusive worship of the only type, the 160 h. p. which of itself alone is almost all the fleet. The necessities of the African service sufficiently justified their persistency. It was necessary all at once, almost in the infancy of steam navigation, to hit upon means of tr.ansport proportionate to the wants of a vast military oc- cupation, organize an active and regular correspondence, and it was to the steam navy they applied. Thenceforth all the resources of this growing navy were absorbed by the imperious and ever increasing wants ; no more experi- ments, no mure improvements were possible ; the urgency predominated over every thing ; steamers were wanted, a model existed, a successl'ul tried model, and of which the whole navy employed inithc Algerine cxpeJition proclaimed the excellencey ; in the same model therefore a number of vessels were has- tened to be built. Thence the whole lamily of the 160 horse powers which now make such a number in the budget. This circumstance must be enforced to explain the excessive developement of a model, which was no doubt good, when it appeareil, but which has ceased to be so because it has not participated in improvement, and because we now require in war steamers iither qualifications of force and power. We are no longer contented with qualities which by the force of the imperious circumstances we have explained, have made the 160 horse powers the object of such lasting favour. As a vessel of war, it is now too weak to be rated, and ils inferiority of work makes it unfit for quick service. M'e acknowledge lliat it possesses one qualification, essential it is true, but insufficient when isolated; that is that it bears itself well at sea. Instituted expressly for the African service, the African service is its specialty ; consequently in ordinary times we see that this service absorbs a considerable number. First, three are employed in the conveyance of sick ; they are the Gregeois, the Meteor, and the Cerberc. These three vessels have been fitted to give shelter to their passengers, and have been raised by giving them another deck. It may be easily understood that the construction of this shelter has not added to their good qualities, and that even under certain circumstances it may be a cause of risk and endanger the safety of the heavily burdened vessel. But at that price the sick are sheltered, whilst on board the other vessels, in the continual going to and fro between the two shores of the Medi- terranean, between Algiers and the other points of occupation, our soldiers bivouac on the deck, summer and winter, wetted with rain and spray, and that has been going on for fourteen years ; that is the model condition I Are there no sufferings which come less closely to us, and are less worthy of ex- citing the sympathy and solicitude of the nation ?■•= The ordinary relations with Algeria require the permanent service of 9 steamers as transports and for correspondence with France, Algiers and the several points of coast. In a service so active carried on by vessels of heavy construction, frequently overtasked, damage is frequent. It is generally reckoned that 4 or 5 are kept in port for repair. This number sometimes runs up to 6, especially in winter, when the causes of accident are multiplied. At least 4 or 5 vessels therefore must be kept in reserve to meet these casualties' 42 Ttils is a remark whlcti does much honour to the feeliogs of the author, and one which uo doubt will not be without influence. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 231 under penalty of breakiug the regularity of the corresponjence, and disturb- ing a service ivliich cannot now be done without. Thus besides a permanence of 9 steamers, 4 or 5 must be reckoned as a re- serve; in all 13 or H steamers. Besides, 4 sleamers have been considered necessary for the stations of the Brazils, West Indies. Bourbon and the Pacific, and the 160 horse powers are still applied to for want of bettor. For want of the better, it has been resolved to proclaim in every sea our inferiority, by putting to figure alongside rival steamers, such as the Cyclops, VesutHns, Spiteful, and so many others, our shameful 160 horse powers, only good now-a-days to serve as transports. Let us add to this account the //rrfc!!/ which is making experiments at Indret, the Fullon at Brest, for unforeseen missions, one stationary at Tunis, one at Constantinople, under the orders of our own ambassad()r, another dis- armed and out of service, that is to say 5, and we reach with the three hos- pital ships, a total of 25 or 26, reckoning the reserve necessary to keep up a regular communication with Algiers. The services which we have just enumerated occupy, of the list of our steam fleet, all the vessels comprised between number 11 and number 34, in all 24 ships, tthilst we have just seen that by including in those services a reserve of or 5 vessels acknowledged as necessaay, we should reach a total of 25 or 26. There are then in ordinary occasions, one or two wanting to complete the African service. Thence the state of discomfort and pressure which perpetually tortures that service. Let us now suppose that the four 220 h. p. disposable in the Mediteranean on duly in the Levant or on the coasts of Spain ; if a despatch arrives to be forwarded a pressing mission to Ije accomplished, instead of employing the yismodee which costs too much, and which moreover on account of its draft, is not suitable for all missions, we must, whether we will or no, borrow from the resources already over-worked of tlie African .service. A repair just begun must therefore be tinkered up in a hurry, as well as it can ; as a vessel must be dispatched instanter. What happens in consequence? that under the rule of this system of hurry, steamers have times been known to leave the factory to fulfil missions, returning each time with more serious injury, and at last completely put out of service. This fact which has been pointed out is a reflection at once on the insufficiency of the factories and the means of repair, and the insufliciency of vessels. At Toulon, whore by the force of circumstances, the whole activity of the steam navy is concentrated, this regime of hurry has passed its model con- ditions. To satisfy the ever increasing demands ot policy and occupation, all the steamers alloat have been called in, all the services have been cast in a single agglomeration ; military service, dispatches and transports; all the steamers are employed without distinction, without ever being able to arrive at completely satisfying ony one of them. In this kind of anarchy, every- thing suli'ers, everything is exhausted, and all the current expenses are swelled beyond measure, and still heavier charges are bequeathed to the future, arising from the premature wearing out and decay of a valuable stock. That is one serious cause of expense which ought at once to be taken into account. The economical views of the Chambers are not less interested in this than the future and prosperity of the steam navy. Of two things we must choose one ; we must put bounds to the ever increasing ever insatiable wants, or make equal to its wants the power of this navy of which the elasticity is paralyzed by the abuse made of it. Reckoning from No. SI* there are reckoned 9 vessels afloat, all under 160 h. p. These vessels, too small to carry nuicli fuel, too weak to carry guns, have been constructed for special and local services, either in our colonies or on our coasts. Lot us sum up this inquiry in a few words : first we have shown that the total of 103 steamers is reducible to 43, constituting what may be called the military portion of the steam fleet. Of these 43 vessels 16 or 18 are in permanent request for the African ser- vice ; 9 others, too weak to be rated as ships of war, are attached to local services. There remain then 16 or 17 vessels disposable for casual missions or for foreign stations ; of this number are 3 of 450 h, p., 1 of 320, 6 of 220, and the rest of 160 and under. Such is the stake that at the commencement of a war we should have to deliver to the fortune of war. It may be thought right at the end of this estimate to show the state of the Knglish navy ; from this comparison useful instruction may be drawn. An oflicial publication inlbrms us that the total number of steam vessels was in March last 77. « See Table, No. 1. Of this number, the Mediterranean station employs 10 steamers, 1 of 450h.p, 4 of 320, 4 of 220, and 1 of less power . . .10 The West Coast of A frica 9, I of 700 h. p. (the Penelope), i of 320, 1 of 220and3of 80 to lOOh. p. . . . . . . 9 The Irish station 12, of which 8 of from 220 to 320 h. p., and 4 of less power . . . . . . .12 The North American, Canada, Bermuda and Jamaica stations, 3 of 220 h. p. . . . . . . . . 3 'I he India and China station, 3 of 220 h. p. . . .3 The South Sea station, 2 of 220 to 320 h. p. . . . . 2 Nine oihors of diflii!rent powers, employed on marine stirveys . 9 In all 48 sleamers *' employed on stations . , . . 48 We devote 8 to the same service I The difi'erence of these two totals will he enough to show the part allowed to the steam navy in the two countries, and the degree of importance attributed to it in the employment of naval power. The other vessels completing the total tf 77, are either disposable in the ports for casual missions and local service or employed as transports between the diflerent points of the coast. In the number of 77 are not included either the steamers built on the lakes of Canada, nor those employed in the colonies for local services, nor those of the East India Company. •'■• Neither are there included in it the vessels to the number of 11, in a state of disarmament in port ; a situation unknown, and which, until now, has not in the steam navy, any equivalent among us, where the number is far from meeting our wants , but it is as well to point out, because it has this signifi- cation, that in England the stoam fleet exceeds the demands of the ordinary service, and that this fleet reckons from henceforward a reserve afloat. Our reserve consists if we please in 24 post oftlce steamboats and in 18 transatlantic steamers, since it is on this ground that we have allowed them to reckon as part of our naval power. But who does not know that the great companies founded in England by private enterprise dispose of a considerable number, and that many of these companies receive allowances from govern- ment, and that the vessels tlicy employ, agreeably to the terms of the allow- ance, must be capable in case of need of being converted into w ar steamers. It will not then be objected thiit the Knglish packet boats are not like ours adapted for carrying guns.* It may be considered very moderate to estimate the number of these steam- boats at double that of ours ; but if this estimate is erroneous it will not be the less certain that the English lines will form as a reserve a better contin- gent than we can supply from our transatlantic lines and those of the Medi- terranean. To complete our comparative estimate, it remains to speak of the vessels which are now being built in England.'^ In July 1843, the number was 13, and in the beginning of 1844 we find it 27. Two steamers of 800 h. p. figure in this list ; 11 others are of 450 h. p., and in the course of 1841-1845, there will be 6 vessels of 450 li.p. on the slips. Thus whilst on the list of vessels afloat we only reckon two of 450 h. p., the Devastation and Firebrand, that of vessels building shows us a considerable developement of this class, and which deserves to be pointed out. The 450 h. p. is still in its infancy ; it has been preceded by the 320; which itself came some years after the 220. These three classes mark three distinct periods in the military constructions of England and each of these three periods presents perfect models and of increasing power. In 18^2 ■'« it was the Medea of 220 h. p. which opened this career of pro- gress, and during six years we see it useil as a model for the whole fleet. But before its adoption had become definitive, what wise slowness, w hat prudent reserve ! Four ports were at first called on, as in a competition, to comply with the conditions of a plan laid down j then the four competing vessels were united in a squadron, subjected to comparative trials, and only after long examination was a new model that of the 220 h. p. introduced into the fleet. Later in 1888 the same prudence prevailed in the introduction of the 320 h. p. The first models the Gorgon and Cijclops, were obliged to be modified, and there was every reason for congratulation in not having copied them until they had been well tried. Private enterprise however, taking the lead of the military navy, had opened by bold experiments the way to more important constructions. The military navy, carried on in this path of aggrandizement, did not limit itself to the Cyclops, but the Devastaion appeared an admirable construction, and of 43 Tlie autlior includes Ireland which is a home service, and not ao out station. This mattes the number 3G to 8. 44 Also those of the Ionian Government, Hndaon's Bay Company, &c. * The allowance to these cumpanies is in the budget of the English navy this year esti- mated at.*'432,641. 4 5 No account has been taken by the author of the English post office packets in Eng- land, the West Indies and India. 4« This should be 183V. 232 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [1844. which we have alicady had occasion lo appreciate the biilhantViualificntions. The Devastation has kept all liiat was promised of her. We sec conse- quently in 1813, lliis model reproduced anil occuiiying almost exclusively the slips of the English dockyards, with the ofliuial ratin;; of first class steamers. The construction of engines has followed the same progress, and it » ill not be uninteresting to reproduce here from an official document,* the statement of the contracts made by the government with difl'erent makers from 1839 to 1813 ; for in England all the engines are required from the manufacturers, and the dockyards have only repairing establishments. In 1839 the contracts were l.')6.5 h. p. 1840 „ ., 2100 1841 „ „ 1626 1842 „ „ 5445 However they did not stop at the ncvastation ; the steam navy has not fixed there the limits of its aggrandizement and its progress ; after having suc- cessively created the three classes which we now see figure, and after having gone through the three periods marked for their introduction by tlie appear- ance of the Medea, Cyclops, and Demstation, new experiments are now being made. In fact without speaking of the isolated experiment of the Penelope of 700 h.p.,t which may be considered as out of the regular course of aggrandize- ment, we see figure on the list vessels building of 800 h. p , the IVatt and the Terrible. It may be open to doubt whether such giant masses Hill succeed, and to dispute the principle of their construction, so long as science while reducing the motive power has not been able to shelter it in the submerged portion of the vessel. But science has not said her last word, and if this problem is not yet solved, we cannot at present foretell that it is insoluble. In the meanwhile, the Lords of the Admiralty will take care — the evidence of the past is a guarantee for this — that not to put on the slips other vessels like the Watt and the Terrible before it has been determined by trials duly carried on, what is the value of the new plan. It is with that wise prudence, hut also with that rational continuousness that they proceed in England. It is true it has not always been so, and there as elsewhere, there have been bitter and costly deceptions,! but at least the remembrance of them has been stored up, ami this lesson from tlie past will not be lost for the present. Why have we not to witness ainongst ourselves the same prudent and measured course? Why on the contrary must we blame a precipitation which makes us proceed by tens in experiments at least uncertain, as if in naval architecture, we had the right of believing in our infallibility ? If this precipitation has created for the future a seriou.s situation, Heaven forbid that our thought shuuld be to throw the responsibility of it on a body as learned as elevated, and which is justly envied in us ! ■" No the respon- sibility belongs to the country at large. When we want a navy, a sailing navy or steam navy, it is not only at the mi ment w hen the want is felt that we must wish it ; wc must long wish it, we must always wish it, because in a navy nothing can be done ofl'-hand, cither with regard to vessels or men. This truth lias been outlawed from having been so often repeated, and yet why be weary of telling it, when we are not weary of forming such concep- tions? In 1840, we suddenly wished a steam navy ; we voted millions [of francs]. Why cotdd we as easily vote tried vessels! To reply to this impatience, which would not most surely have accommodated itself to the wise delays of prudence, which would perhaps have condemned them, we have been obliged to hurry on and put on the slips vessels of 450 and 540 h. p., and cover the slips of our dockyards with new and unknown constructions. God will that this impatience, which has had to be obeyed at any cost, that this precipitancy, thus forced on by circumstances, as it always will be, every time we allow ourselves to be surprised, be not dearly paid, and we find ourselves as England once was with our Forty Thieves ! APPENDIX B. If it be true that in commerce, sailing navigation is more economical than steam navigation, it is not so with regard to the military navy. In a military navy, the services of steamers compared to those of sailing vessels are much less expensive than is generally believed. This assertion shall be supported by the authority of figures. The expense of maintenance of a steamer on service is composed ; of pay, provisions and fuel. It may be assumed, that in a steamer on active service, the steam is up one day in five. This estimate is above the average of the returns of the African * Return to an order of the Hon. the House of Commons. Dated 15th March, 1843. I The " Peuelope" is a regular frigate, which has heen fitted with a engine, 700 h. p. after having been lengthened 40 feet. She has made experimental trips without much success, and is now part of the squadron on the west coast of Africa. X During the last war 40 vessels put on the Blips at once were found so bad that they were named the Forty Thieves. . "' y^ '"'* ""' ^"are that England envies this blessing, for weWo not know what por- tion of the naval administration it can be. service, the most active department. It appears from these returns that the mean of the days ste.iming varies from 1 in 5 to 1 in 6. Let it then be 1 in 5, which will give 73 days per year as llie number ol ilays steaming. It may be again assumed that the mean consumption of fuel is 9 lb. (8 kilogo) per h. p. per hcur. This estimate is certainly enough, since under circumstances when wind is favourable or in calmer weather, cutting olV the steam at part of the stroke will make a considerable saving. Further documents have been referred lo which have just been (juoted, and it is not giving theoretical data, but purely practical results from official statistics. As to the price of fuel, according lo the contract price it is At Cherbourg . 24 franc 50c. per ton Algiers . 31 90 Toulon . 32 44 Brest . 23 80 The mean is . 29 40 In round numbers .30 . = 24s. On this basis, and by referring for pay and provisions, to the data given by the budget of 1843, the Table No. 1 has been drawn up. From this table it appears that the cost of a steam frigate of 450 h. p. (pay, provisions and fuel) costs less than that of a sailing frigate of the second cl.iss (pay and provisions)- With the expense of a second rate would be maintained 2 fiigales of 4.50 h. p. or 3 of 320, and with that of a first rate, we should have nearly 6 steamers of 220 h. p. capable of quickly and safely carrying 3,000 men. We have at Toulon a squadron of 8 liners, which reckons besides a frigate, 1 steamer of 450 h. p., and 1 of 220 h. p. This is the gross expense. Is it required to be known what steam power we shall have at the same price, not in a slate of immobility, but w orking one day in five, that is to say employed in a service as active as that of Africa ? By means of that table, the estimate may be easily made. First we have . . . 1 of 450 li. p. And .... 1 of 220 „ which are attached to the fleet. For 1 first rate . . . 5 of 220 „ And .... 1 of 160 „ For 2 second rates . . . 4 of 450 ,, For 3 third rates . . . 14 of 220 „ And lastly for 2 fourth rates . . 10 of 160 „ The frigate may be reckoned as 2 of 220 „ That is to say for the same outlay may be kept in active service. 5 steam frigates of 450 h. p. with 1000 men each . 5,000 22 steam corvettes of 220 h. p. with 500 men each . 11,000 11 steamers of 160 h. p. with 300 men . . . 3,300 38 19,300 men. In all 38 vessels capable of carrying nearly 20,000 men. This is what might be had at the same price. An easy objection may be foreseen to this ; it will be said that the duty of a military navy is not confined lo the transport of troops. Doubtless not ; but when steam appeared with the mission of favouring evasive war, it is just and national, to bear in mind, in face of the continental force of France, this important function of the steam navy. Is this saying that in time of war the duty of this navy will be limited to the work of the transport service, or lo carrying'bardens ? Again we say no. Let the most incredulous, let those who from conviction or interest, persist in denying the military force of a steam navy, be pleased to tell us what would be the issue of a contest between a second rate and tw o 430 h. p. steamers, or even between the same vessel and three 320 h. p. steamers, which offer an equivalent for the same expense of maintenance ; let them oppose sii 220 h. p. steamers to a first rate. Are the chances so unetiual, that '.here must be inevitably success on one side and defeat on another? It is not thought so. It is thought that chances will be at least balanced. The development of this opinion, which now reckons numerous partisans is beyond the limits here laid down. It is suflieient tosay here in ageneral manner, and it is to be hoped it « ill be understood by every body, that even sailers and steamers power is not to be reckoned by the number of guns; that other elements have to be taken into account ; if the sailer have the greater number of guns on its side, the steamer has advantages of Its own. It is alumifs at liberty to accept or refuse an engagement, whilst in almost all eases it can compel its opponent to either ; having the command of its means of motion, it can choose its point of attack and distance, and whilst the mass of its adversary presents a wide mark, to the well pointed aim of an artillery powerful in calibre and ellect, the steamer escapes by the special mode of at- tack suilable to it, from most of its adversary's shot. Whatever may be the solution to be given to this question, it is in these 18-14.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 233 terms that it must now be put, and it is believed that thus put, it is not ne- cessary to bo a seaman to comprehend it, if even to judge it. If, in the comparison attempted to be instituted above, no account is taken of the expences of maintenance and renewal of material, it is because on this point only hypotheses more controvertible could be brought fonvard. How- ever some data exist derived from official documents, and which may be con- sidered suitable to furnish an important element of comparison. Experience proves that in the African service, the mean duration of boilers is five to s\x years. Then, if this duration be admitted, and if it be admitted at the same time that in steamers, the deterioration of boilers is one of the most active and efiicacious causes of expense, it may be asked if sailing vessels subjected to the same duty, on duty summer and winter, subjected moreover to the chances of shipwreck from which steamers are free, if these sailing vessels would not occasion expences for maintenance and renewal of material equally considerable. It is besides to be remarked that the expense arising from the wear of boilers would be materially diminished if the use of copper boilers were generalized on board of the steam navy. Not only do these boilers re- quire almost no repairs, but they last at least three times longer than sheet iron boilers, and when arrived at the limits of workability, the materials pro- duced on their demolition still preserves almost all their value.'" Moreover, on this point [of com[iarative expense] all we ask is equality ; but if it is not thought right to concede this to us, if it be proved to us that we have been deceived, our calculations will not the less have served to de- monstrate our proposition, namely that in a military navy, the services of steamers, compared with sailers are much less costly than is thought. If another thing had been asserted, if it had been attempted to discover which of the two navies, costs the state most, it would have been necessary to have taken an account of the expenses of first establishment, and calculate the primary value of tlie two sets of stock. We however know that for steam stock this primary expense is more considerable than the stock for sailing vessels. But what will that come to? That in ordinary times France must take fifteen years instead of ten to put its steam fleet on a right footing ; that is all. .Such is not tlie end which we have proposed ; we only wished to contest false or exaggerated notions, slill more dangerous as they would naturally have for their auxiliaries the economical views of the Ch.imbers. APPKNDIX C. Eiplimation of Table, No. 3. On the data furnished by the budget for 1843, the exjiense of maintenance in pay and provisions of armed sailing vessels, and sailing and steam vessels in commission have been calculated, and it has been found to amount to 18,.553,616fr. £742,144 From the same data (he expense has next been cal- culated of the maintenance in pay and provisions of armed steamers; to this is added the 1,800.000 francs (£72,000). put down in the same budget as the cost of fuel, and it has been found that the expense of steamers is 5,517,004 fr. £220.080 Total for the maintenance of vessels put down in the budget 24,070,620 fr. £162,824 The expense of a fleet composed according to llie ideas laid down in the preceding note has been sought, always on the same terms, and this is the result : — For Political Pni-poses. [War and Demotistration.~\ I ship of line, first rate 1 „ third *•■> 1 ., fouith 5 steamers 450 h. p. 5 „ 320 „ 10 „ 220 „ 1st. Fleet thus composed. 3 ships of the line. (-20 steamers. 2d. Stalions : West Indies and Mexieo, Brazil^ Pacific, Oreanica, [Tahiit], South Sea, Bourbon and China. Large frigates only have been put down because they only are fit to oppose wilh success the new ;Englibh frigates, such as the Warspite, Vindictive, &ic., armed with 50 guns and also 500 men. 3d. Missions. Steamers lof450h. p. 'J 4 of 220 ,, J- 5 of 160 „ I 20 gun brigs 22 first class frigates. 10 steamers. 5 4 8 Some very good remarks will be found by Capt. Wheelwright on this subject, in his recently published correspondence on Pacitic Steam Navigation. 49 The should be 1 lirst rate, I second rate, and I third rate. 4th. Locnl Service in the Colonies, Fisheries, and West Coast oj Africa. Gun boats, sloops, cutters, &c. . . 27 ,, In time these 27 vessels might be replaced at the same cost of maintenance and wilh advantage to the service by 18 steamers of 120 to 80 h. p. 5lh. African Service — Correspondence, Transport of Troops and Stons. Steamers of 160 h. p. ... 20 Corvettes or transports . . . 13 A considerable reduction on the maintenance of (he corvettes might be eflected by fitting lliem out commercially. Steamers of 120 h 6th. I'- Marine school ship Batimens de servitude. According to this plan. Sailing vessels Steamers Dockyard and Colonial Servica. 7th. Sundry Duties. 10 1 he cost of armed vessels would he 15,219,107 francs £608,764 8,'J16,,565 356,682 24,135,672 96.5,420 The expense of vessels put down in the budget of 1845 is : Sailing vessels . . 18,553,616 francs £742,144 Steamers . . . 5,517,004 220,680 24,070,620 962,824 Balance of increase on the |)lan 65,052 francs (£2,402). Note. The steamer appears to be the most complete solution of a problem now attracting much attention, and which the Minister of Marine is liaving examined by a Commission, and which the budget of 1845 introduces in the composition of armaments. We mean the Commission of road or port duty, (commission de rade,) that is to say, an intermediate position between arma- ment and disarmament, between active service and inactivity, a state which unites at once economy and the obligaliun of keeping up a naval force im- mediately or speedily disposable. On board ship, we must have a numerous crew; the crew, is the engine, and this engine causes a consumption daily, whether in port or at sea. at anchor or under sail. On board a steamer, tlie engine which supplies the place of a number of liands, only consumes while at work, in proportion to the amount of power required, and which when compared with sailing admits of no comparison, as to rapidity and certainty of communication, while it cnnslitvites an element of military piwer; in port this engine costs nothing. This is why by giving a great development to steam power, it has been thought unnecessary to make in prtJvision in the plan for vessels on commis- sion de rade. TABLE NO. 1. List of Steam ships afloat. 23 I.e Papin of 160 h. p. 24 Le PImeton idem. 25 Le Pliure idem. 20 Le Sphinx- idem. 27 Le Styx- idem. 28 Le Tartare idem. 29 Le Tenare idem. 30 Le Tonnerre idem. 31 Le Vaulour idem. 32 Le Rarnier of loO. 33 Le Castor of 120. 34 Le Brazier idem. 35 Le N.. .. idem. 36 Le Flambeau of 80. 37 Le Galibi idem. 38 Le Voyageur idem. 39 LEre'be of 60. 40 UAlecton idem. 41 L'Eridan idem. 42 Le Basilic of 30. 43 Le Serpent idem. 1 L'Asmode'e of 450 h 2 Le (tOiner idem. 3 V Infernal idem. 4 Le Cuvier of 320. 5 Le Gassendi of 220. C Le Lavoisier idem. 7 Le Plulon idem. 8 Le Ve'loce idem. 9 Le Camele'on idem. 10 L' Archimede idem. 11 L'Ache'ran of 160. 12 L' Ardent idem. 13 Le Cerbere idem. 14 La Chimera idem. 15 l^e Cocyte idem. 16 Le Crocodile idem. 17 L'Etna idem. 18 L'Euplirate idem. 19 Le Fulton idem. 20 Le Gregois idem. 21 Le Grandeur idem. 22 Le Met4ore idem. List of Steamers being built. 1 j^e Vauban of 540 h. p. 2 Le Descartes idem. 3 Le Sane' of 450. 4 Le Monge idem. 5 Le Colbert 320. 6 Le Newton idem. 7 Le PlatoH idem. 8 Le Socrate idem. 9 Le Roland idem. 10 ie Cassini of 220 h. p. 11 Le Titan idem. 12 ie Coligny idem. 13 N. . .. idem, iron. 14 Le Chaptal idem. 15 Le Brandon of 160. IG Le Solon idem, iron. 1 7 /.a Salamandre of 80, iron. 18 L'Anacre'on idem. 334 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Juke, TABLE NO. 2. Expences of maintenance per annum of each kind of vessel. Ships of the Line. Crew. Pay. Provisions. Fuel. Total. 1st rate 1087 491,665 fr. 347,954 fr. 839,619 fr. i;33,584 2nd — 916 421,681 292,896 714,577 28,583 3rd — 860 392,977 275,290 668,267 26,730 4th — 077 327,672 216,711 544,383 21,775 Frigates, 1st rate 513 254,623 104,213 418,836 16,753 2nd — 442 225,370 141,486 366,856 14,674 3rd — 311 177,971 99,552 277,524 11,101 Steamers. 450 h. p. 303 166,088 96,991 94,608 fr. 357,688 14,307 320 — 191 107,946 61,140 67,276 236,362 9,434 220 — 100 69,081 32,010 46,252 147,344 5,893 160- 74 50,771 23,687 33,638 108,097 4,324 120 — 50 41,102 16,005 25,228 82,336 3,293 'Ihe expense of fuel is calculated at the rate of 24s. per ton, and the con- sumption 9 lbs. (4 kilogrammes) per h. p. per hour, the number of days steam up being 1 in 5. TABLE NO. 3. Sailing vessels. r 1 first rate 3 liners J. 1 second ditto [l third ditto 22 frigates 1st class 5 20-gun brigs 5 gun boats 7 cutters, &c. 15 ... 13 corvettes for transports 1 school ship Batimens de servitude 71 — The expense of maintenance of 71 sailing vessels on the plan .... Total allowed in budget of 1845 for sailing vessels Difference less on the plan STEAMERS. Pay and Provisions. 839,019 fr. 068,267 544,383 9,214,392 517,453 272,510 414,512 607,453 4,658,455 199,310 282,053 15,219,107 18,553,616 3,334,509 fr. 5 of 450 h. p.] 5 of 320 y Escadre. 10 of 220 J 1 of 450 1 4 of 220 )■ Missions. 5 of 160 J 20 of 160 Algiers 10 of 120 Service of ports and colonies 60 — Maintenance of 00 steamers on the plan Total allowed in the budget of 1845 for steamers Pay, Provisions, and Fuel. 1,788,440 fr. 1,181,815 1,473,446 357,688 589,376 540,486 2,161,954 823,360 Note. The 1 15 flotilla boats Difference more on the plan gun-boats, &c.,on the plan, will cost Together For the same expense 18 steamers might be kept 8 of 120 h. p. 10 of 80 up. 8,916,565 5,516,612 3,399,953 fr. 087,122fr. 607,453 1,294,575 658,688 fr. 625,050 Together . . 1,283,738 The cost of the 10 steamers of 80 h. p. has been calculated with crews of 40 men. TABLE NO. 4. Extracts from the Navy Estimates (England) for 1844-45. Funds voted specially for Steamers. Coal for steamers .... Purchase of engines and repairs Building iron steamers Building wooden steamers, mixed up with the votes for the rest of the tleet Woolwich. — Repairs of steam engines, construction of boilers, enlargement of the repairing factory, re- pairing dock for steamers, wages of men in the steam factory ..... Portsmouth. — New dock for steamers . Plymouth. — Ditto .... Malta. — New basin ; quay and coal depot Allowances and grants to companies for mail service i:i09,559 230,000 36,623 [677,783] 80,000 30,000 30,000 17,000 432,541 Total de937,047 PROFESSOR FARADAY ON HEAT. A course of four Lectures delivered at the Royal Institute. Lectore I., April 20, 1844. (Specially reported for this Journal.) The Professor commenced his lecture by remarking that he did not know which was the more delightful occupation, to receive and apply the laws of science as divulged by others, or by well-devised and carefully executed inves- tigations to assist in searching out those immutable laws by which the uni- verse is governed. It was the object of the present short course of lectures to consider the principal phenomena and general nature of that power commonly called heat; and although there has been but little that is new brought for- ward on this subject within the last year or two, yet it would not be without interest to pass again over the well-bealen path, and familiarly to reflect upon some of its most important truths, as met with in every day life. It will matter little in what order the subject is taken, so that by the end its most important points have been touched upon. It will be of no advantage to follow any particular pedantic arrangement, or rigid scientific order, as we do not find such in nature. The present lecture he proposed to devote to the consideration of the sources of heat. By the sources of heat is merely meant those circumstances which cause the feeling of warmth to the hand, which communicate the same to other bodies, or ignite combustible substances. The common source of artifi- cial heat is what is termed combustion, that is, heat generated by bodies at the moment they are combining by chemical affinity. As one instance of what is meant, a piece of phosphorus may be burned in aporlionof air confined in a glass jar, and will continue to burn so long as the air within contains any oxygen for it to combine with, but when that is consumed it will go out. Just so is it with any other combustible, as a common fire ; cut off' air from it and it is extinguished. In these instances the heat is accompanied with light, which is the case in all ordinary combustions. The heat and light are mo- mentary, but the effects are permanent. Certain substances are produced, in the case of phosphorus a solid, in that of the fire a gas, but in either case no- thing is lost; no such thing as annihilation of either matter nr force ever takes place ; it may be transferred from one place to another, but in most cases it can be followed, and its presence proved. But this 'action can only once produce these phenomena, and therefore it is necessary m fires to keep up a continuous supply. The substance that we now use as fuel, namely coal, is perhaps of all others the best adapted for our wants. Wood is seldom now, at least in this country, thought of as fuel. A piece of charcoal and a bottle of hydrogen gas may be taken as representing the composition of all ordinary combustibles ; whether coal, wood, oil, w:x, or gas, it is for their carbon and hydrogen alone that they are valued. A piece of coal lighted and put in a jar of oxygen gas, will represent the ordinary circumstances of a coal fire, acting with more rapidity, certainly, but in every other circumstance the same. The miniature fire swells with heat, sends out gas, which burns with flame, causing heat enough to expel more gas, and leaving a red hot cinder, which, if there be gas enough, will burn entirely away, leaving a little ash. And now in the jar instead of oxygen is found carbonic acid gas and water, as the whole of the process consists merely in the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel combining with the oxygen to produce carbonic acid and water. The amount of heat produced is perfectly definite. From a given weight of combustible the same quantity of heat is evolved, whether it be burned slowly or quickly, whether under one circumstance or another. The amount of light produced must not be considered as at all indicating the amount of combus- tion or heat, as it Is produced from a somewhat different cause. The flame of hydrogen is very feint, but produces great heat ; the flame of hydrogen, to which has previously been added half of its bulk of oxygen, is scarcely per- ceptible, but its heat, with one exception, is the most intense that can be ob- tained. But bring into this non-luminous flame some solid substance, and it instantly becomes luminous. Not that the substance need consume, for lime, which is unaltered by heat, gives out a light so bright that the eye can scarcely bear it. Light in these cases, then, appears merely to arise from solid substances becoming intensely heated. Coal gas may be burned, and that to any amount, and in the most perfect manner, and yet very little light be evolved, by placing a piece of fine wire gauze on the fop of the glass chim- ney, and lighting the gas after it has passed the gauze. The air is so inti- mately mixed with the gas that the carbon of the gas is consumed before it has been highly heated, and therefore little light is caused. All things are combustible ; everything around will burn ; and yet they are all waiting till commanded, so obedient is nature to man's wishes. Why does the candle wait till lighted — why does gunpowder in the cannon wait? It is because they all want some little necessary condition to set them off: like a spring wound up to full tension, waiting but a touch. Sometimes the condition wanted is a little moisture, or electricity, or heat. A wax taper immersed in oxygen does not burn, though its wax is all ready to consume, and has ever been so, whether taken from the mummy or the bee of last year. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 235 But tthen li^liletl and put into oxygen it falls in a stieam of liquid fire. These are all cases of communication j the taper is lighted from the candle, and then can communicate to any number of combustibles. All combus- tions are similar ; they are all successive; no such thing as instantaneous combustion is known. In a mass of gunpowder, which seems to give but one flash, the combustion travels from particle to particle, noonepiirticle becom- ing ignited but by the flame of its neighbour ; even in each grain the combus- tion is progressive, travelling from the outside to the inside. In a mixture of two gases, where the particles must be in intimate contact, there is the nearest approach to instantaneousness. Still, here, there is progression of flame. If a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen be fired, the explosion sounds instanta- neous. .So also does it if they be divided into bubbles by being made to pass through a solution of soap, though here it is evident the flame from one bubble must light the other. In a long narrow tube full of the same gases, the flame is seen to run from end to end, and scarcely any noise is produced. Still, in all this variety of circumstance, tlie amount of heat produced by the same amount of combustible is always the same. The ignition of the mixture of some other gases takes place more slowly ; with defiant gas and chlorine, the flame is seen to travel slowly along, marking its progress by a dense de- posit of soot. Many other substances are known, besides those commonly used, which burn in the air. A certain preparation of lead, for instance, becomes red-hot on exposure to air, and is called a pyrophorus. But a comparison of this with a piece of charcoal will show the beautiful fitness of common fuel for the purpose of heating. The charcoal continues to glow as long as it has air, and at length leaves nothing but a very little light ash ; a mass of the pyro- phorus, on the contrary, requires constant stirring to expose it to the air. and more ash remains than fuel used. This would be a serious inconve- nience, for before the pot could boil, the grate would be full of ashes, pre- venting entirely the use of such powerful machines as steam engines. But there are other .sources of heat besides the chemical one of combustion, and none more astonishing th.an the heat caused by friction ; there is nothing more puzzling to the philosopher, and he is obliged to acknowledge that it is entirely beyond his power of explanation. In other cases there is a limit to its extent, a cause for its production ; but the heat from Iriction seems inex- haustible, its origin inexplicable. Here there is no case of allinity, nothing consumed. The Indian takes advantage of this source of heat, for he obtains a light to kindle his fire, by means of rubbing together two pieces of dry wood ; and the school boy burns his fellow's hand by a button which he has rubbed on the f)rm on which they sit. In nature, the chafing together of two branches of a tree frequently sets fire to a forest. Count Rumford kept water boiling for hours together by the heat arising from friction. The lec- turer saw an ingenious carpenter melt a small portion of glue by placing it in the lioUow of a gouge and rubbing it a few times backwards and forwards. The same may be done with a piece of jelly in a silver spoon. The fire from a flint and steel is a case of both friction and combustion ; for the friction of the blow of the flint causes a piece of iron to fly ofl' at such a heat that it burns in the air ; ami although the hand can bear it with impunity, it has heat enough to fire gunpowder, as is seen in the flint-lock of a gun. The miner, frequently surrounded by an atmosphere of gaseous gunpowder ready to blow him to pieces, cannot use a common fl ime ; and before Davy's invention of the safety -lamp, a shower of sparks Irom a steel- mill, turned by a boy, was the only light by which he ilare work. A dexterous smith avails himself of the heat of friction to light a match, fur by a few blows of his hammer on a uail, turning it at the same time on the anvil, he will make the point of it red hot. This heat arises from the friction of the particles of iron against each other, and has nothing to do with any alteration of its capacity for heat. Lead becomes heated in the same manner. From heat electricity can be obtained, and from electricity heat; and llie heat from the latter source can be considered as heat from friction, for bodies evolve heat by the passage of electricity, just in proportion as they resist 1 !s progress, or are bad conductors. A powerful current of electricity from a galvanic battery may be made to develope great heat and light, by sending it through various substances. Between charcoal points they are most intense. Passed through wires the phenomena are different, accord- ingly as they are good or bad conductors. In a chain, the links of which are alternately silver and platinum, the platinum becomes red hot, whilst the silver is not so ; and here, as in other cases of friction, there is no consump- tion of any thing to produce this heat, neither the electricity is lost nor the platinum consumed. Evolution of heat takes place in animals to a very great extent. They are always giving heat ofl' to the air from their bodies, losing it by evaporation of moisture from their surface, and giving it off by their breath, ami yet, in the most frigid climate, the same temperature is maintained in their bodies, which in most animals is far above that of the air. And what, it may be asked, is the source of this heat. The answer is, combustion ; fur the burning of charcoal in the animal Irame is supposed to be continually going on, giving out, in this case also, as much heat, though difTused over a longer time, as when it is burning more rapidly in a grate. No less than eight ounces of carbon, taken into the system in the food, is supposed to be consumed daily by a man, for the purpose of maintaining a proper temperature in his body, by being brought into contact with the oxygen of the air he breathes. He ought, consequently, to proiluce carbonic acid largely in his system, and he does so, throwing it off by breathing. The Professor then brouglit forward two pieces of apparatus, to compare the efl^ect produced on the air by breathing with that produced by burning charcoal ; by means of one of which he passed the air from his lungs through lime water, and by the other the air wliich had passed over a piece of burn- ing charcoal, in both cases the lime water was rendered turbid by a formation of carbonate of lime, proving in both a like formation of carbonic acid gas. Lecture II. The power of beat to expand bodies, to make tliem occupy a larger space than they did when cold, is most enormous, in solids, indeed, is almost ir- resistible. But it varies in degrees according to the substance. If two pieces of ditl'eient metals be soldered together and heated, they will curve into a bow, that metal which expands the most forming the outer or convex side. Bad conducting substances act in a similar manner, and are frequently broken by heat. A thick piece of glass, as the bottom of a test glass, if heated sud- denly, is broken, owing to unequal expansion in its various parts, as occurs, also, when boiling water is poured into a tumbler, especially in cold weather. Hence great care is requisite in the laboratory when applying heat to glass vessels. Owing to this it is that a thick glass rod which will bear hundreds of pounds weight of even pressure, is easily broken by beat. A piece of sulphur w hich is strong enough to bear a great deal of even pressure, flies asunder by the heat of the hand. By alternate expansions and contractions rocks are broken up, so as to form the soil for the plant to grow in. Solid metal in- serted into pillars, frequently becomes the means of weakening instead of strengthening buildings, as may be seen at the Bank, .Somerset House, the Custom House, and other public buildings. The linear expansion of some of the metals from the freezing to the boiling point of water, is given in the following table : — Linear expansion of metals from 32° to 212°. Zinc 1 part in . 322 Gold 1 part in . 682 Platinum ,, . 351 Bismuth „ . 719 Tin, pure ,, . 403 Iron „ . . 812 Tin, impure „ . 50U Antimony ,, . 923 Silver „ . 524 Palladium „ . 1000 Copper „ . 581 Platinum ,, . 1100 Brass „ . 584 Flint glass „ . . 1248 In fluid bodies the expansion is greater than in solid, as may be seen by healing water in a tube having a piston touching its surface. The rise of the piston shows the difi'erence between the expansion of the glass and the water. When a solid is heated irregularly, it breaks, but not so with a liquid, be- cause its particles are free to move. But other effects take place, such as the formation of a series of beautiful currents cireulating through the mass of the fluid. These currents can be easily tr.nced by placing at the bottom of the water some light particles of a coloured substance, which on the applica- tion of the heat from a lamp under the flask, are instantly set in motion, rising in the hottest part and descending in the coolest. The particles, be- coming hot, increase in size ; because they are large they are light, and because they are light they rise to the top, till, becoming cool again, they fall to the bottom. If hot water be carefully poured on to the top of a similar arrangement, so that the two liquids do not mix, it forms a strata into which the heated particles cannot rise until they have received the same tempera- ture, and the lamp may be kept underneath for a considerable time, the two fluids remaining quite separate, the hotter colourless liquid floating on the top of the colder blue liquid. This shows the reason why it is not proper to heat liquids at the top. An arrangement such as the following shows the current in a very striking manner. Place a glass vessel full of water up high, and into the top and bottom of it fasten the ends of a long metallic pipe, in the upper part of which is a small chamber filled with a coloured fluid ; heat the lower part of that side of the pipe where the small chamber is, and as soon as the water becomes a little warm, a current is established, which pas- sing through the coloured fluid carries it with it, and pours into the water of the glass vessel a beautiful stream of coloured water. This arrangement will serve to illustrate one of the latest methods of warming buildings, by means of one long length of iron pipe filled with water carried through the various rooms of a building, the bottom part of the pipe being made to lie in a coil in a furnace. Thermometers, also, owe their utility to this property ol expan- sion, the Iieat they indicate being calculated by the height to which the fluid in the tube has risen. All liquids expand by heat and contract on its with- drawal ; but for a wise purpose water has been made to depart, in one portion of its course, from this general rule. When water cools down it contracts until it has arrived at a temperature of 40°, but on continuing to cool, it begins to expand till it arrives at a temperature of 32°, when it is solidified or freezes. BeginniDg at the temperature of 40°, therefore, water is expanded 236 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL. [June, by either heat or cold. This is tlic case with no other known hody, and the reason of it is obvious. If water, when near its freezing point, continiu"! to contract and become heavier, as other liquids do, the colder parts, sinliing through the warmer, would soon reiluce the whole mass into a solid block of ice, which all the following summer's heat would not be suHicient to melt; the world would become ice.bound, .and its inhabitants would perish; but owing to this benevolent exception to the general rule, when it has arrived at a temperature below 40°, it becomes lighter owing to the expansion which then begins, and the surface alone becomes frozen, protecting the water below from further efiects of cold. With gases and vapours, expansion takes place to much greater extent than with fluids. Immerse the beak of a retort in water, and apply heat ; air will be expelled in large bubbles, which may be collected, and will serve as a measure of the expansion that has taken place, which is also shown by the quantity of water which flows in when all is cool again. The glass of the retort does not expand so much as the air within does, their comparative expansion being seen by reference to the following table, where is shown the increase of volume of solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies, from 32° to 212°. At 32' At 212° 1000 Volumes of Air become 1375 volumes Alcohol „ 1110 „ Kther „ 1070 ,, Water „ 1044 „ Mercury „ 1020 ,, Glass „ 1002 „ Tlie expansion of gases, though small in force, is great in bulk ; but that it has force may be proved Ijy heating a small portion of air contained in a bladder, when it will acquire power enough to burst the membrane with a considerable report. There are a great many airs and vapours, all differing from each other in their properties, but it has been found that the rate of expansion is the same with them all. A volume of hydrogen gas which weighs 1 ounce, the same volume of air which weighs 14oz,,or of the vapour of iodine which weighs 125 oz., all expand 10 the same extent by the same quan- tity of heat ; they are all expanded about J of their bulk, by an increase of heat from 32° to 212°. Water, when converted into steam loses the law of expansion of liquids, and acquires that of gases. When air Is expanded by heat, it of course Ijecomes lighter, and rises through the atmosphere, in a similar manner as water, though much more rapidly. Air enclosed in a light body and heated, would consequently carry it up with it, and hence the prin- ciple of the Montgolfier or fire balloon. In a crowded assembly, the air becoming heated by gas and othenvise, is continually becoming li'.;hter, and exerting a pressure against the roof of the building. If from any cause it were suddenly heated from 32° to 212°, every 10001b. weight of air would exert a force of 380° trying to lift oft' the roof; and there are some cases known where, from sudden changes of temperature, it is doubtful whether roofs Jiave not yielded to this pressure. It is this expansion, this rising through the air of the healed panicles, which causes bad air to be dissemi- nated and carried to those places where it uill be puiilicd, thus preventing the accumulation of tainted air ; by this means the air wliicli we respire, and which our systems have just deprived of its oxygen, rises through the atmos- phere and becomes dispersed. That the breath when expelled from the mouth rises in the air may be shown by suspending a bell glass fdled with muriatic acid vapours over ihe head, placing a small vessel with ammonia in it in the mouth, and breathing under the jar; the breath carries with it the vapours of ammonia, which, rising into the glass vessel, combine w ith the acid, and a white cloud of sal-ammoniac is the result. Without this provision vitiated air would be breathed over and over again, and suflbcation would frequently be the resul t. heailed screw having a collar or shoulder, and is made to pass through a hole in the end of the bracket, and afterwards screwed into the underside of the Fig. 1 REGISTER OF NEW PATENTS. (Under this head we propose giving abstracts of tlie specitications of all the moat im- portant patents as they are enrolled. If any additional information be required as to any patent, the same may be obtained by applying to Mr. LAXTON at the Office of this JOURNAL,) SHIP FASTENINGS. Francis Higginso.v, of Rochester, Kent, Lieut. R.'N., for " certain improve- ments in fastenings for parts of ships and other vessels, which improvements are also applicable to other building purposes." — Granted November 21, 1843 ; En- rolled May 21, 1844. This invention consists in a mode of fastening the decks or planking of ships to the beams or timbers, and also in joining together blocks of stone or wood, which improvements arc also applicable to other building purposes. Fig. 1, shows a mode of fastening the [ilanking to the beams or timbers of ships and other buildings ; A A is the deck or planking, and B the beam or timber; C is an iron bracket which is attached to the beam by means of "[multi-threaded,"^ orj other screws hereinafter^ described ; d, is a square - Fig. 3. Fig. 4. planking, thereby fi.xing tlie same firmly to the beam. Another mode of effecting the at)ove is sliown at the opposite side of the beam, this arrange- ment consists of a brass socket F, having a male or external screu- cut upon it ; this socket has also a female or internal screw w hich receives the screwy ; this socket is also provided with a flange / /, through which there are three holes drilled which receive a key or spanner for the purpose of driving the socket into a hole previously made in the planking ; the mode of fastening the planking to the beams as last described, dillers from that first described in the application of a screw socket only as will Ix^ clearly seen. Another mode of fixing planking to cast iron and other beams is seen at Fig, 2, which shows a transverse section of a beam having a longitudinal dove- tailed groove cut through its entire length, B is a bracket having a projection C, which is made to fit the dovetailed groove, this bracket has also a hole drilled through it at A. which receives a screw for the purpose of fixing it to the planking as above described. Fig, 3 IS a Iront view of the beam, showing the mode of inserting the pro- jectiim of the bracket into the longitudinal groove. There are several modi- fications of this last described mode of fixing the planking to beam;, which it would be unnecessary here to detail. Fig. 4 shows a mode of fixing or joining together two blocks of stone or other matter, which is efl'ecled by means of a screw, and screw sockets fixed into each block of stone. Another Fig. 5. part of this invention consists in the peculiar formation of a " multi-threaded*' screw, the general form of which is that of a cone, and is shown at fig. 5; these screws are so made that the lower face of the spiral curve or grooves are at right anges to the convex sur- face of the cone, and the upper face forming an oblique angle with the surface of the cone, the advantage of which is not stated in the specification. DRESSING MINERAL ORES. Alexander Vivian, of Gwennap, Cornwall, gentleman, for "an improved apparatus for dressing ores."— Granted Nov. 25, 1843 ; Enrolled May 25, 1844. This improvement consists in certain mechanical combinations, whereby the operation of dressing and washing ores may, in the opinion of the pa- tentee, be carried on with less expence than with machines hitherto con- structed and applied to that pur|iose. The machine described in the specifi- cation consists of a rectangular or oblong trough or " huddle," at one end of wdiich there is an inclined plane, and at the top of this inclined plane there is a cistern, having stop cocks or plugs at intervals in its side for letting out the water during the operation of dressing the ores ; just below the cistern there is a hopper, which extends from one side of the inclined plane to the other, into which the work or ore to be dressed is placed, at the bottom of he hopper there is a number of angular or "saddle back bars," placed trans- 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 237 versely with regard to the hopper, and firmly fixed by their ends to a frame supported by anti-friction rollers -, thus, by giving motion to the frame, which is effected by means of a lever, the " saddle hack bars" will have the efl'ect of dividing the ores contained in the hopper, the smaller portions of the ores, after passing through the bars, are delivered upon the inclined plane, and are carried from thence to the huddle by the streams of water running from the cistern at the bottom of the inclined plane ; and before coming to the buddle there is a perforated plate or grate upon which the ores fall, the object of this plate is to arrest and more effectually separate the earthy matters from the ores. The ores after leaving the inclined plane as described, are received in the buddle, where they may be further washed with a broom or other conve- nient means. The slime and water produced from the washing and dressing of the ore passes through a perforated plate at the opposite end of the apparatus, and into a cistern, where it is allowed to settle, the water is then raised by means of a pump and is allowed to pass along a trouL'h to a cistern, in which the slime and water are to be deposited, the residue being afterwards subjected to the process of trunking. A PROFILE DELINEATOR. OcTAVios Dellingham Mordadnt, of Clifford .Street, Bond Street, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, for ^^Improvements in apparatus/or obtaining the profile of various forms or Jiguresy A communication. — Gi'anted Nov. 2 1 , 1843 jKHroUed May 21, ISM. This invention consists in an apparatus for copying or taking the profile of a moulding, cornice, or other article of similar figure ; a plan and edge view of which is represented in the accompanying drawing, fig. 1 being the plan. Fig. 1. and fig. 2 the edge view; a a are two bars of wood or other suitable material Fig. 2. d 1 a r^ -tt 'i i.' '■ ' b Y -lln a •' which constitute the frame of the apparatus ; b h represent a number of sliders, consisting of thin slips of wood, which slide between the bars, a a ; c c are also two sliders of the same length and depth as the others, but con- siderably thicker, the object of these sliders being to keep the sliders, h b, together, and in close contact with each other, thereby serving as a support to the same. In using this apparatus, the ends of the sliders are placed against the cor- nice or moulding inteniled to be copied, then by pressing the apparatus against the same, the sliders will recede more or less according to the several projec- tions of the moulding, and take the configuration of the same ; the sliders being afterwards fi.xed by turning the binding screws, d d, which bring the two bars, a a, closer together, the insides of which are covered or lined with a thickness of leather, e e. The form of the moulding may now be taken by laying the apparatus upon a sheet of paper and moving a pencil thereon, ob- serving to hold the point of the pencil against the end of the sliders. The apparatus is sometimes provided with a spirit level, g ; asijuare,/; and slide )i, carrying a pencil, the object of which is to get a true horizontal and ver- tical line to work from. A similar apparatus on a larger scale may be used for taking the profile of a horse's back or a statue. SIGNAL LIGHT. Wm. John Hay, of Portsmouth, Operative Chemist, for " Improvevients in producing light by percussion for signals and for other purposes,'''' — Granted Nov. 25, 1843 ; Enrolled May 25, 1844. This invention consists in a mode of constructing the tube, and apparatus connected therewith, for containing the prepartion which is to form the signal light, the invention having no reler- ence to the compounding or m'xing of such pyrotechnic preparation, or giving the desired colour to the light, the nature of the invention being clearly shown by the accom- panying drawing and following description ; that is say, fig. 1 is a sectional elevation of a signal light constructed according to this invention, and fig. 2 an end view thereof. « « is a tube made of paper or other suitable material, b a disc of wood forming a bottom to the tube, a; c c is a small tube attached to the side of the tube, a, by folding and cementing a piece of paper round the two tubes, a and c, which may be further secured by tying a piece of cord round them at intervals ; rf is a piece of wire, which passes through the small tube, c, which piece of wire is bent at (» the top so as to pass through a slot formed in the tube, a, and in like manner at the bottom end, as at b', which part is turned round in the form of a scroll ; and in order to keep the wire, d, in its place apiece of paper is pasted over the slot at the lower part of the tube, which prevents the /" ~ Tefcv wire, d, from moving, c is a metallic plate fixed to the ' p'-'r top of the tubes a and b ; on the underside of this plate there is riveted a steel spring, the outer edge of which is made to rest upon the end of the wire, d ; betwixt this spring and the metallic cover, e, is placed the percussion matter, which consists of a small globule of glass containing sulphuric acid, and covered on the outside with a mixture of chlorate of potassa and sugar, or other carbonaceous matter ; between this spring and the composition (marked f) which is to form the signal light, there is placed a little cotton impregnated with gunpowder. ^ is a circular piece of paper or cardboard having a projecting edge similar to the lid of a pill-box, and cemented to the bottom end of the tube, a, the object of which is to secure the light from ac- cidental firing. When it is required to ignite one of the signal lights, it is only necessary to hold it firmly in one hand, or fix it in any convenient situation, then by inserting a stick or other instrument in the lower end and forcing through the lid,,?, the wire, d, will be forced upwards and by its raising the spring will burst the small glass globule containing the percussion matter, which will have the effect of igniting the composition forming the signal light. IRON SAFES AND LOCKS. Edward Ta.\n, Sen., Edward Tann, Jun., and John Tann, of Minerva Terrace, Hackney Road, Middlesex, Iron Safe Manufacturers, for " Improve- ments in loclis and latches, and in iron rooms, doors, safes, chests, and other repO' sitories." — Granted November 25, 1843 ; enrolled May 25, 1844. The improvements in iron safes, rooms, doors, &c., consist in constructing the safes with two or more cases or chests, that is to say, with one or two intern,al cases and an external case, these cases being east of such dimensions and so placed together as to leave a space between each case or box forming the iron safe, which spaces are afterwards to be filled wilh a chemical com- position, which on the safes being subjected to fire is intended to melt and fill up the crevices, and also to be a bad or non-conductor of heat. The composition intended for this purpose consists of finely pounded alum and Austin's cement or gypsum, either of vihich are to be taken in equal quan- tities and placed in an iron vessel with the alum and then sulijfcted to heat and ebullition, taking care to stir the mixture so as to have the alum and cement perfectly incorporated, after which it is to be poured out upon a flat iron tray and allowed to cool, when it will form a flat cake. This cake is afterwards to be reduced to a coarse powder. The cases or ir^n boxes in- tended for the safe are then to be put togeiher so as to leave a space between each box forming the safe, which space or spaces are to be filled and tightly rammed with the pounded composition, and in like manner with the door of the safe, which is also constructed with a hollow space for the purpose above described. It is stated that should a safe constructed as above be subjecteil to fire even to a white heat, the composition will melt and fill up the inlersliccs formed by the fitting of the door and other parts, and thereby eflectually preserve any deeds or other documents which may be contained therein from being scorched or in the slightest damaged by the fire. The improvements in locks and latches consist in the application of a number of levers, or "tumblers," of peculiar shape and placed alternately upon two studs, upon which the bolt of the lock slides, and are acted upon by the various projections or wards of the key, on the lower edge of each tumbler, in such manner as to shoot the bolt of the lock backwards and for- wards, but in what manner is not clearly described. 21 238 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Junk, CONSTRUCTION OF PIERS, ETC. Lawrence Holker Potts, of Greenwich, Kent, Doctor of Meilieine, for " Improvements hi the construction of piers, embankments, breakwaters, and other similar s/ruc/mes."— Granted Dei ember 5, 1843 ; enrolled June 5, IS")*. Tliis invention is divideil into four parts, and consists firstly in the appli- cation of holloH' piles of iron in the construction of piers, embanKments, breakivaters. Ike, «liieh piles may be of a circular or oilier convenient form, and are sunk by wiibdrawinfi from their interior the sand and other matter occupying the space upon which they sand. Secondly, in the application of skeleton frames or cases in connexion with hollow piles. Thinlly, in forcing cr inji cling by hydraulic pressure around the feet of the piles such chemical solutions as will solidify or consolidate the sand or other matter upon which they stand ; and fourthly, in the application of cements in a state of dry powder. «hich cements are intended to solidiiy under water, and form an artificial rock. The mode of driving hollow piles, as related in the first part of the speci- fication, is as follows. A hollow pile is provided, open at both ends; pre- suming the place in which it is to be driven be of a sandy nature and covered with water, the pile is placed on one end in its destined place, such end being open, the upper end being closed by an air-tight lid or cover and connected by means of a pipe with a receiver. Another pipe also branches off from the receiver anil is connected with a three-barrelled air pump, which on being set to work exhausts the air from the lioUow pile and raises the sand and water from the Ijottom thereof, and thereby causes it to sink to the depth required, the sand and water passing through the pipe which is connected to the top of the pier or pile and into the receiver, w'hich can be emptied as occasion may require. In some desrr ptions of soil the inventor states that it will be found neces- sary to lorsen the soil, «hichmay be done by passing an instrument down the pile adopted for the purpose, and should it be required water may be applied in the same manner. When the piles meet with a hard substancg the inventor proceeds to sink them by boring down the tube in the manner of boring Artesian wells. When the piles to be driven are of large diameter the same mode of driving may be adopted, by the application of a moveable tube, which the inventor calls an "elephant or operating trunk," which will be scon in the annexed sketch, and marked Fig. 1, in which a a. Is the pile intended to be driven, by removing in the '^' ■ manner above described, the sand and water as it accumu- lates, 'ihe sand and water being raised through the ope- rating trunk bb, which is con- nected at its outer extremity by means of a fie.'iible tube to a receiver, from which the air is exhausted by the air-pumps, the operating trunk being guided by a man, who, for the sake of security against the bursting-up of the, loose sand stands in a tub or " cobble,'' where he is enabled to move the operating trunk round the foot of the pile. In order to secure the piles, which may he driven at any convenient distance from each other, the inventor employs what he terms skeleton frames, two of which are shown at Figs. 2 8i 3 ; these (rames are cast with holes to receive the ends of the piles, so that when applied they embrace and bend the whole together. After the piles have been sunk they may be « holly or partly filled up with rubble stones or concrete, but belore doing so, should the soli be of a yielding nature, it will be necessary to consolidate it, which Fig. 2. Fig. 3. oooooo the inventor does by forcing or pouring down the hollow piles such chemical solutions as the nature of the soil may require, which may be ascertained by analysing a small portion of it, and according as silicious or calcarious mailers predominate, it will be ascertained what chemical substances will be best calculated to consolidate and solidify the same. Another mode of forming piers and such like structures is represented at Fig. 4, in which view a a represents the end vieiv of a rectangular or oblong Fig. 4. Fig. 6. trunk, one side of which is attached by bolts bb ; cc are bolts which screw on to the end of the tie bolts dd. In constructing a pier a number of these trunks are placed side by side as ///, Fig. 5, and at a distance apart, de- pending upon the width of the pier, being bound together by the bolts d d d. The whole being firmly fixed, the space between the two rows of iron trunks is filled up with lime stones, and other matters, which are to be cemented together so as to form one mass of artificial ruck. When the mass has be- come sufficiently set, the bolts c c, may be loosened, and the parts a a, of the trunks removed, leaving the plates a' and the tie bolts standing. The cements to be used in a dry state, are those known as hydraulic ce- ments, and may be used alone or mixed with stones, sand or shingle, and may be delivered at the foot of the pile or other structure by means of a hopper having a tube leading from it to the structure intended to be cemented, at which place the cement mixes with the water and consolidates the whole mass. WOOD PAVING. John Bishop, of Poland Street, Westminster, Jeweller, ffor " Improvements in paving roads, streets, and other places." — Granted December 8, 1843 ; En- rolled June 8, 1844. This invention consists in combining blocks of wood together so as to form a surface or covering for the streets, road or other way, in efl'ecting which it will be necessary when using blocks of the description hereinafter mentioned, to have them all of the same size except at tire edges of the street, at which place filling pieces in some cases will be required. Fig.-. Fig.l. Fig. 2. r « __^_ Tiff. e.. Jf (I m 1 — r T 1 Fig. 4. Fig. 1 shows a plan of one of these blocks, and figs. 2 and 3 two edge view of the same ; each of the blocks consisting of two pieces a and b, which form an upper and under surface, and of equal sizes. These two pieces forming the upper and under surface are fiimly fixed together so as to cross and overlap each other as shown in the plan view, the part overlapping being in all cases less than half the widlh of the block in the narrowest part. The severa blocks when constructed as above described, and represented In the drawing form a surface by partly joining side to side and partly side to end. Fig. 4 shows an edge view of five of the bincks, and a filling piece joined together, and overlapping each other. Instead of cutting the block square at the side or edges, as represented in the foregoing, the same may be formed with be- velled edges of any desired angle, as shown at figs. 6, G'. Fig. 7 shows a plan view of a cast iron curb and gutter, which constitutes the second part of these improvements. Fig. 8 being an end view of the same, and shown as 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 339 being joined up to the blocks, forming the wood pavement ; the side or filling blocks being bevelled o(T as at/, in order to allow the water, &c. to pass freely Into the gutter ; the upper side of the curb is formed with a number of grooves in its surface, as shown in the plan viev\', to ensure better foothold. ORNAMENTAL COVERING FOR FLOORS. Henky Pdrser Vaile, of Blackfriars Road, Surrey, gentleman, for " Im- provements in manufacturing metal comVmed with other ■materials for covering of floors and otiier SKr/oces."— Granted Dec. 13, 1843 i Enrolled June 12, 1844. In carrying out this invention the patentee takes a sheet of lead or other suitable metal and perforates it with holes, which may be of a round, scjuare, or other form and in right lines, leaving a narrow piece of metal between each hole, or the holes may be so arranged in the plate as to form some device or figure ; but as the figure or device can be worked in the same manner as the Berlin goods, that is, by filling up the little squares on the pattern card or paper with various colours, the holes may be in right lines as will be hereafter described. A perforated metal plate being provided the holes are to be filled up with a plastic cement which may be applied in various colours, and in such manner as to form any desired pattern ; the cement being of such a nature as to dry sufficiently hard to bear walking and treading upon, the invention not being confined to any particular composition, although Mr. Vaile mentions one which he has found to answer the purpose well, and consists of about two-thirds of pulverized glass with about one-third by weight of dry ground colouring matter, which ingredients are to be mixed up with copal varnish to about the consistency of putty. This cement being provided, the inventor proceeds by laying the perforated metal plate with its face downwards upon a Hat table and then filling up the holrs in the plate with any suitable instru- ment and with various coloured cements, so as to form the required des'gn or pattern, after which the metal plate is to be turned over and the back side is to be covered with strong canvass or other suitable material cemented thereto. For this purpose the inventor employs a cement made from a matter known and sold by the name of mastic, mixed with one-fourteenth by weight of bees'-wax, melted together and reduced to a fluid slate, or the consistency of oil paint by means of turpentine. This mixture is to be applied with a brush to the back side of the plate, and also to the canvass ; the canvass is then to l* placed upon the plate, and the same pressed together, after which the plate will be ready to be laid down upon the floor, any inequalities on the face side being removed with a pumice stone. There is also another mode of filling the perforations in the plate with caoutchouc, or India rubber. For this purpose the patentee provides a sheet of India rubber somewhat thicker than the metallic plate, which in this case may be perforated so as to form various devices, which will be seen in conse- quence of the India rubber, on being exposed to the air, turning black and thereby forming a contrast with the metal plate. Tlie plate being provided, a sheet of India rubber is to be laid upon one side thereof, after which the plate and India rubber are to be passed between a pair of pressure rollers, which will have the effect of pressing the India rubber into the holes or per- forations of the plate, thereby filling the same, leaving a thin covering of India rubber on the back side of the plate, which when laid down will be next the floor. India rubber mixed with cork or colouring matter may also be used for the purpose above described. DEPOSITION OF METALS. < Julius Schottlaender, of Saint .Swithin's Lane, in the City of London, Mercliant, for certain *' Improvements in the deposition of metals upon various felted and other fabrics.''— Gvantei December 8, 1843 ; Enrolled June 7, 1844. The mode of effecting the deposition of metals upon felled and woven fa- brics is as follows. A plate of copper is in the first place to be provided of the required dimensions, one side of which is to he covered with plumbago, and the other rendered inactive by covering it with varnish or other suitable material, the piece of cloth or linen fabric to be metallized is then to be stretched tightly over that face of the copper-plate which has received the plumbago, and secured by its edges in any convenient manner. The copper plate and piece of fabric to be metallized are then to be immersed in a solution of sulphate of copper, and the plate connected with the zinc end of the bat- tery ; another copper-plate is then to be immersed in the solution, and con- nected with the copper end of the battery, when the action of the battery will commence and the metal will be deposited upon the copper-plate between such plate, and the fabric to be coated, and by continuing the operation the metal will begin to penetrate the pores of the cloth, and will appear on the opposite or back side of the cloth in small globules. Wlien the operation has been continued a sufficient length of time, the metal plate and cloth may be taken out of the solution, and the metallized cloth removed from the cop- per-plate, which will be very easily done, and should the plate employed have a smooth surface, the face of the metallized cloth>ill have a polished surface. but should the copper-plate have an engraved or embossed surface, the me- tallized cloth will also have an embossed surface, and be a fac-simile of sucli surface, the copper-plate forming the die or matrix. Ornamental designs may also be produced by drawing upon the copper-plate with some non-con- ducting substance, or portions of the plate may be cut away ; by these means various ornamental designs may be produced, which may be afterwards sil- vered, gilt, or otherwise finished. W'hen it is required to metallize a piece of cloth of considerable lengtli, the inventor employs an apparatus consisting of a vessel a, within which is put the sulphate of copper or other solution, 6 is a copper roller supported by the ends of the vessel, a cis the piece of cloth to be metallized, and which piece passes over the roller d, down and under the copper roller and up over the roller e, / is a copper-plate connected with the copper-p'jle of a galvanic battery, the copper roller b being connected with the zinc pole of the battery, the parts of the apparatus being connected to the battery by copper wires, and the vessel a filled with the solution of copper, a slow motion being im- parted to the roller l>, the deposition of metal takes place between the cloth and the roller in the manner above described, and should the roller be en- graved with some ornamental design, a fac-simile will be obtained. It will be found of great advantage previously to operating upon woven or felted fa- brics, to wash over the surface of the cloth with clay and water mixed to about the consistency of cream, and then allow it to dry, after which the cloth may be washed with water, which will leave some of the finer particles of clay in the cloth, and will thereby render it more porous and better adapted in other respects for the purpose above described. When the surface to be metallized consists of glass or glazed earthenware, the surface is to be roughened by mechanical or other means, such as grind- ing. The parts to be deposited upon are then to be surrounded by a matrix of metal, which is to be connected with the zinc end of the battery, its inner surface being made conducting by means of plumbago. The article to be de- posited upon is then to be immersed in the solution, and also a copper-plate, which latter is to be connected with the copper pole of the battery ; the metal contained in the solution will then begin to fill up the parts between tlie ma- trix and the article to be deposited upon, and by these means any design may be copied and firmly fixed upon the glass or glazed surface of earthenware. These are the improvements which consist in the arrangement of batteries for the purpose above described, one of which consists in arranging horse shoe magnets so as to form two circles, with their poles opposed to each other, the outer circle of magnets being wrapped with copper wire, covered with silk ; a rotary motion being given to the inner circle of magnets, the electric fluid will pass from one wire to another throughout the whole, with a power de- pending upon the speed and size of the magnets. BRINE APPARATUS. John Sylvester, of Great Russell Street, Engineer, for " Improvements in applying heat to brine or other matters contained in vessels." — Granted Decem- ber 13, 1843 i enrolled June 13, 1844. The object of this invention is to obtain and maintain a regular and uni- form temperature above 212 degrees, Fahr., to brine or other liquid matters contained in vessels, which the inventor proposes to effect in the following manner. In place of exposing the vessel containing the brine to the immediate action of the fire, such vessel is placed within another, which latter forms a jacket to the brine vessel, lire outer vessel or jacket being of such dimensions as to leave a space of from 3 to 4 inches between the vessel containing the brine and the external vessel or case, which is made to form a water-tight junction with the brine vessel. The space between the two vessels is then filled with water, which fluid is to be subjected to a pressure which must be varied according to the temperature required to be maintained. The pressure transmitted to the fluid, contained in the space formed by the two vessels, is regulated by a pipe, which may be of small diameter and attached to some convenient part of the external vessel, and extending in a vertical direction to a height of 30 feet or upwards, and filled with water. This tube may be pro- vided with a stop cock, at or near the bottom end, so as to regulate the 21* 240 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [June, pressure of the fluid contained in the space according to the temperature de- sired lo be maintained and transmitted to the brine, which is efTectcd through the medium of tlie water contained in the aforesaid space, the fire for heating the same beinj; immediately below and in contact with the external vessel, the heat being transmitted to the brine through the medium of the interme- diate fluid contained within the jacket. Joseph Robtnson, of Old Jewry, London, Solicitor, for certain "/(nprowe- mevts in the construction and mode of worldng engines hy the agency of air or gases for obtaining or producing inotii'e power.''' Communication. — Granted December 5, 1S43 ; Enrolled June, 5, 1844. This invention consists in an improved inflammable gas, or vapour engine, by means of which power is obtained by expansion consequent upon the com- bustion of vapour of spirits of turpentine, or other evaporable and inflamma- ble liquids, which are to be mi.\ed with atmospheric air, and admitted into a cylinder similar to that used in the steam engine. The cylinder of this engine Is supported in a horizontal position, and is similar to that of a double acting steam engine. At one end of the cylinder and just below it there is a reserv> ir which contains the naphtha, spirits of turpentine or other evaporable liquid ; but when resin or other matter is employed, from which the inflammable gas is to be obtained, the inventor employs a retort or evaporating vessel, which is placed below the cylinder and heated by a spirit lamp or other means, or the same may be placed in contact with the cylinder. This healing apparatus although necessary in the commencement of the action of the engine, may be dispensed with, after the engine has been set to work, by allowing the liot air from the cylinder (afier having made its stroke) to pass into the returt, which is surrounded by chambers lor that purpose. To the side of the cylinder there is a valve-box so constructed as to give a supply of the combustible gas or vapour, and at- mospheric air to each end of ihe cylinder alternately, and in the same manner as in which steam is admitted or supplied to the cylinder of a steam engine. The inventor here describes a cylindrical valve of peculiar construction, but sliding valves of the ordinary construction may be used, for governing the supply of inflammable gases. This engine is also provided with a double acting air pump, the air from which is made to pass through a tube into the retort, where it is made to commingle with the inflammable matter, which may be eflected by means of an agitator, or the air may be admitted to the retort through a perlorated plate, and in order to regulate the supply of air it is made to pass through a trunk, on the top of which there is an air regu- lator, its sides being made of leather or some other elastic material, and hav- ing at the top a valve through which the air escapes, when the pressure be- comes too great ; the whole apparatus being so constructed as to regulate with great precision the quantity of atmospheric air, and also combustible or inflammable gases. At each end of the cylinder there is a valve contained in a circular valve bos, which valve, as Ihe piston moves backward and forward, is acted upon by means of the piston touching a small spring or projection, thereby allow- ing the ignition to take place, which is eflected by means of a burning lamp, the flame of which comes in contact with the holes at each end of the cylin- der, thereby efiecting alternate action of the piston, the motion of which can be transmitted to the crank in any convenient manner. The inventor claims the mode of arranging the air pump, retort, and air regulator, which governs the admission of atmospheric air into the valve box and by which the .supply of inflammable gas may be regulated so as to produce, within the cylinder, a pressure little exceeding that of the atmosphere, at the time of opening the valve for the admission of inflammable gas. Also the mode of heating the retort by placing it in contact with the cylinder; together with the mode of employing the heated air which passes from the cylinder through the eduction tube, thereby rendering such air eft'ectivein heating the retort for converting the combustible fluids into vapours, previously to admitting the same into the cylinder in Ihe manner described. Communication with France.— The Princess Mary steamer, which has been built for the South-Eaitern Rallivay Company by Messrs. DUchburn and Mare, and fitted witli Messrs. Maudslay and Field's annular cylinder engines, made her trial trip on Wed- nesday. June 18. She left Blacliwall at .13 minutes past 10 o'clock, and arrived off the east end or the Isle of Sheppy (a distance of 6U miles) at 7 minutes past 2, being at the rate of IC miles an hour, against the tide the whole way. Everything that could be de. sired concurred to give her an opportunity of testing her power: the. till now, fastest steamer, the Prince of Wales, leaving Blackvvall some minutes before her; the Isle of Thanet also preceded lier by 20 minutes; they were, however, both passed in gallant style at tiie point above stated, the Princess Mary crossing their bows, making a circuit around thera, and returning on her homeward voage. The Princess Mary, on the Bou- logne station, must have immense inHuence in determining the continental traffic to the South. Kastern Ime. There can be no doubt, from the known energy and skill of the Oireclors of the railway company, that this important branch of the service will be tho- oS fV" .K°'^'-- ''''"' '""lei'ce of the railway is already telling well in this particular. i.r 1 n , ' ' Prmcess Aliee. Dover the Magician, Folkestone the Princess Mary ; and tL P ■ ^^ ""n? '"n'rised if the latter do not bear away the palm from its competitors, eonal .l„a ^ ' ""J'^eriron steamer, built for and by the same parties; and of T^mes «»P«ted to be completed for the Folkestone station in a few weeks.- GREEK MASONRY. Extract of a Letter from Walter Long Granville, Esq., Asso- ciate R. I. B. A., to Dr. Granville, read at the Ordinary General Meeting of tie Royal Inst, of B. A., June 17, 1844. "On a former occasion, I wrote you the impressions produced on me by the monuments of Athens, and you will remember that in one part of my letter I told you, how forcibly I was struck with the high and elaborate finish given to all the sculpture and architecture v;hicU surrounded me ; a pleasure which was in such perfect unison with the other feelings their contemplation aroused, as to assure me that per- fection is intimately connected with the qualities of beauty ; although, assuredly, the latter may sometimes exist separately. " ' Smoothness,' says Burke, (Essay on Sublime and Beautiful, part 3, sect. 14,) 'is so essential to beauty, that I do not recollect anything beautiful that is not smooth.' Now the ;tncient Greeks were appa- rently impressed strongly with the same natural idea, as the extraor- dinary amount of attention and labour bestowed on their works of art testify. When we consider the perfection to which Greek art attained — that it was arrived at, only after the experience of more than eleven centuries — and th;tt its glorious improvement was chiefly owing to the united eflbrts of generations concentrated upon one particular object, namely the erection of temples to their protecting divinities ; it be- comes an interesting subject of enquiry to ascertain (from an exami- nation of the structures themselves,) those principles and contrivances which, even in the most trifling or minutest matters, were the result of that improvement. There are few books, that I am aware of, which treat fnlly of the methods employed by the ancient Greek masons in cutting and work- ing marble or stone. Vitruvius, to whom we first look, is almost silent upon the point. We then turn, to supply the deficiency, to the living books themselves; and, fortunately, there are many points that can be gleaned from them, which would serve to compose a complete treatise. I shall first observe that the ancient Greeks were as empirical in their rules upon the proportions of each stone they employed, as upon the proportions of the whole design. Thus it may be observed, for example, that the size of the stones in the Erechtheum and in the Par- thenon differ in ;tbout the same ratio as the one building differs from the other. For the actual proportion of the stone itself no direct rule can be given, nevertheless I have found that the geometrical r;itio of 1. 2. 4. is by no means unfrequently employed. Symmetry, also, was considered as necessary in the position of their joints, as in the composition of the plan, or the position of their triglyphs and mutules; and these may be observed as occupying the same place in nearly every similar construction. The Greek joint, whether it be executed in marble or in stone is a thing really to marvel at. It is indeed scarcely visible. Great ;cs is its perfection, which arises from the amount of skill and labour bestowed upon it, and from the peculiar method of working the two surfaces, whicli I shall presently describe to you, — I do not see why the same degree of perfection should not be attainable at the present day hy following the same means. My attention was first drawn to the subject upon remarking the beds of the stones in the Temple of Minerva at Athens; and since my examination of other Hellenic works in Greece, Sicily, and elsewhere, I have grounds for believing that there was an universal system ;idopted in all ages by that nation ; nor was it confined to the Greeks alone, it having been handed down to, and practised by the Romans also, as I observed but yesterday in the Coliseum and Arch of Sep. Severus. It, however, at length became either lost or disused in the series of revolutions and changes, which, with their other modes, the masonry of the middle ages experienced. You well know of the predilection of the Greeks for constructing with large sized blocks of marble or stone. They were extnicted from the A.aTo/.tin, or quarries, in the following manner. In order to procure the square stones — after the top and front faces of a given m;iss of the rock in the qu;»rry bad been brought to a plain surface — incisions, usually from four to five inches wide, were made on the top surface, marking out the boundaries of the intended size of the block. These incisions being continued down to the required depth of the block, there remained nothing more to be done than to separate it from its lower bed, which operation was performed, as there is every re;tson to think, by the expansion of \WOoden wedges saturated with water. The cylindrical courses for the shafts of the columns were extracted (as may be observed at the quarries of Selinus, in Sicily, a plan of which, as well as of its elevation, I herewith send you in confirmation of my statement) by means of a circular passage-way 2 ft. S in. in width, being hewn out of the rock, and t;iking the entasis of the in- Creek masonry fc Quarries. PLATF, IX PIO.l, '^^^^fWli^k Plan and View of Stone Quarries at SELINUNTUM Plan & Section of Parthenon Column I FIG". 3. Blocks of Stone at SEGESTA. -J FIG. 5 ~~~ .If" ,-'' ,*r-""f^ riaa & Section of Column with Wedge. \' I'^xi IMl Mm FIGr. *. IS44.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 241 tended column : thus leaving an insulated mass of stonp in the centre, the exact shape and size of the required shaft. (See iig. 1, a, b, c, d, e, and view fig. 2, a, b.) I should here add, that the stone columns of every temple occupy almost invariably the same relative position in the building which they occupied in the quarry. This circular mass of stone has now, like the square blocks, only to be lifted from its lower bed, and the method employed, which, from the examination of the quarries at Selinus, can be no longer doubted, bears me out in a con- jecture I had previously made on the square blocks. A hole or deep incision, wedge-shaped (see shaft figs. 3 and 4, and fig. 1), was made in the lowest part of the insulated cylinder, in the direction of its centre, but considerably to one side, for reasons which will be obvious to you. Into this hole, I presume, a wooden wedge was inserted, which was saturated with water, and which being suffered to expand whilst in that position would, at no great distance of time, heave up the mass, on the same principle applied to the splitting of slate and millstones in France, and so separate it in the direction of its bed. Nothing, I think, appears more likely, from the consideration of the facts ob- served at Selinus, than that such was the method employed : and since I see from my memoranda, that I observed the branch of a shrub, not one inch in diameter, which by its growth in a crevice of the rock had split a mass of stone weighing about fifty tons, — I can readily conceive that the small orifice, as shown in the drawing, with its wooden wedge would have been sufficient to loosen the required mass. The mode by which these cylindrical masses or courses were trans- ported to their places of destination is fully described by Vitruvius (Lib. x. cap. G), where you will find it attributed to Ctesiphon, archi- tect of the Temple of Ephesus, and his son Metagenes. In a flat coun- try it might have succeeded well; but it is difficult to conceive how such masses could have been transported by those means only, over a rugged and mountainous district wholly destitute of roads. We must regret that we have no farther elucidation of the subject, than that given us by Vitruvius, which is very limited, since — anterior to the building of the famous Ephesian Temple in the seventh cen- tury before Christ — monoliths were transported from place to place of proportions as large as those used in that temple. There are some cylindrical blocks of stone for columns near the quarries of Selinus in a field lyingin a position which makes it highly probable that the method described by Vitruvius was adopted in regard to them. They have, moreover, the square hole already worked on the ends, which, inde- pendently of its use for other purposes, served as a means of fasten- ing the wooden wheels. It is interesting to remark, from the signs still remaining on the stone, the shape of the tool employed in working the material. The consecutive cuts which are seen in the steps of the Segesta Temple, show that the instrument used for rough work was 3h inches in width, being slightly curved or hollowed like a gouge. The use of a saw to cut the stones is instanced in the 7th chap, of Kings, verse 7. "All these were of costly stones sawed with saws." Now those tools, I presume, were of iron, since iron was found in Crete by the Dactyli priests of Cybele, as far back as HUG B.C., about which time Dadalus is said by Pliny (Nat. History VIII.) to have invented the axe, the saw, the wimble, the level, and many other mechanical instruments or tools. It is certain, however, that these tools were of iron 40U years after; for, in the description of Solomon's Temple, it is stated, that " the house when it was building was built of stone made ready before it was brought thither, so that there was neither hammer, nor a.re, nor any tool of ikon, heard in the House of God while it was in building." (1 Kings vi, 7.) Now the examples of temples from which my no- tices were taken, were erected many years subsequent to the above date. The next process of the Greek builder, after procuring the stones and columns, was the construction of the stylobate, or the sub-struc- ture with its three steps, my remarks upon which are taken chiefly from the Propylaea at Athens, and the temple at Segesta in Sicily, both of which structures were never totally completed. Although the former structure is of marble and the latter of stone, and erected at a different period, still my remarks are applicable to both. The stone steps around the temple are in large blocks, generally from five to seven feet long, placed, as usual, with the greatest regard to symmetrical arrangement, every joint coming over the centre of the bottom and top stone. The stones, therefore, are all precisely similar in size. Each block is, previously to its being set in its place, worked on four sides to a smooth face, the top surface being only worked on that part which has to receive the bed of the stone above. The re- maining side, or front of the step is, like the top left rough, a small fillet or band only being worked all along the edges, to indicate the true surface to which the stone has afterwards to be finished. It is on this side that the small rough block used for heaving the stone is frequently found in the centre (see fig. 5). Every joint must neces- sarily be composed of two substances in contact; and it is the degree of contact which constitutes the amount of perfection in any joint. The two neighbour stones, whose surfaces together form the joint in Greek masonry, are worked differently from each other. One of the surfaces is tooled down to a very slight depth, (rarely visible to the eye, if the material be marble, though generally sensible to the touch,) until there is left only a third (I have seen it as little as a sixth,) por- tion of the surface of the stone for actual contact. The sole points of contact are a band along the two sides (see fig. 5, a,) in the direction of the stone's length, with, sometimes, another band in the centre. The surface of the other stone remains perfectly flat; as it would seem to be superfluous to work any off, although, as regards the case of columns, this extreme precaution has been deemed necessary. On that stone whose surface remains plain, the edges are sometimes chamfered off, as is the case at Segesta (see b, fig. 5). But this does not occur in every building. J am unable to explain its use, unless it was a kind of distinguishing mark for the foreman, after the stone was placed, to detect inaccuracy of position ; or for the slave who performed the laborious and heavy work of laying the stones. As their skill was of a subordinate kind, the position of the several square stones, columns, and other work were invariably marked out for them, by means of some sharp tool, with a thin line, as I have noticed in more than one instance which l could mention. With respect to the columns, each course, of which the entire shaft is to be composed, being brought to the building, has then to be worked at the top and bottom in the following most elaborate manner, as an inspection of the drawing (see fig. 6) (taken from the Parthenon columns,) will fully show. After the two surfaces had been smoothed to a most exquisitely true plane, radiating lines marking out the divi- sion of the flutes were next indented by means of some sharp tool. Such lines may be especially noticed on the Propytea columns. Next three concentric circles were drawn out, also with some sharp instru- ment, the common centre of them being the axis of the column. Now be pleased to refer to the drawing (fig. G,) and its letters and figures to understand more readily my description. The area comprised be- tween the external surface of the shaft. A, and the circle, B, is the smooth bed left untouched, and is to form the only surface of contact when the column is raised. That between B and C is made a degree lower than the surface of actual contact, by being very slightly tooled or scratched over. In the like manner, the surface of the ring, C D, is made lower than that of B C, by being tooled over very roughly. As to the remaining portion round the centre it is retained smooth, but is made as low as the surface B C. You will perceive from this what systematic fellows the Greek masons were, and what precautions they observed to ensure the accomplishment of their object. Every one of the 11 courses which compose the shafts of the 5S exterior columns that belonged to the Parthenon, had the top and bot- tom surfaces worked in this manner, and with the same care and at- tention, which are so remarkable throughout the whole structure, whether the parts were to be covered or to remain visible. Each course had now to be lifted into its destined place; an operation which was accomplished, it is supposed, by means of a machine called the trochlea — an assemblage of puUies, fastened to a pair of sheers, or other scaffolding, and which, according to the number of such pullies, was denominated rpunrcKXTos, TtefTosiraaTos, -woKvuamos, &c. At the end of the rope which passed through the pullies, were fastened the ifaAiSfs, or Forfices firreo, described by Vitruvius (Lib. X.), an instru- ment somewhat like a pair of large scissors, in use even at the present day. These forfices (for I believe there were more than one pair employed if the stone was very large,) were made to lay hold of the two or four rough masses' projecting from the block and left for the express purpose of raising the stone. When the circular stone or first course was lifted [it was set into that place which had been marked out for it, by a circle nearly the size of the column itself, on the stylobate. It was then, according to the evidence which innu- merable concentric circles display on the stylobate of the Temple of Hercules at Agrigentuni, turned round and round (on a pivot of wood as some suppose) and giound down to a fine surface. I must doubt, however, if this operation of grinding was performed with each successive course, as I could find no other traces whatever 1 The rejected marble drums found in the Acropolis, and identified as those which were to have sen'ed for the Parthenon columns have four projecting masses round the stone. The shafts which still remain in the quarries at Selui'is have, on the contrary, no masses whatever, and must therefore, have been lifted at the building in a difterent man- ner. I have before observed that the square hole left in the centre of the shaft, at top and bottom, was worked at the quany ; in some cases this square hole has two sinkings, as may be noticed in the Tetnplc of Hercules at Agrigentuni, and in no instance have I found that these cavities are in the slightest degree dovetailed, but rather the reverse. This circumstance rendersiit a matters of doubt, if not altogether, at least in the present case, whether the use of the Lewis was at all known to the Greeks. 242 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [June, of it in the same temple. The material of which the Temple of Hp.t- cules is built, is of an exceedingly coarse porous nuture, and would leave, perhaps, but a few marks, which the weather might have obli- terated. On the other hand, the Parthenon columns, respecting which I saw no traces of the grinding, are composed of a material supposed to be too_;?He to leave any such marks. Certainly none remain. With regard to the flutes, they were, as at the present day, considered with the finishing of the building and worked up wholly after it w;is erected, with the exception, in some cases where they are began, at top and bottom, as a guide. The method employed was this. After the vertical lines were drawn down from the points given by the ra- diating lines marked on the bed of each course, as previously described, the first stage was to work the column from top to bottom into a polygon — leaving a broad band where each arris of the flute is to come. The flutes themselves were next worked out to a curve, not their final ones, but very nearly to the required depth — still preserving untouched the band where arris is to come. The final stage was to work away the band to a sharp arris, and bring the flutes to the desired depth and curve. This description of the flutes is taken from the columns of the largest temple at Selinus, and of the Temple of Apollo Didymsus, near Miletus, which temples were never finished, and reveal several distinct stages of their execution. I will not detain you any longer upon the shafts of the columns ; but before proceeding upwards to the entablature, I will merely state the impression I, with many others, have had of the extreme likeli- hood of the capitals being worked in a lathe ; for, as Mr. Cockerell observed in one of his lectures, Pliny tells us, that in the Labyrinth of Lemnos were 150 columns turned in a lathe ; thus testifying to the Greeks' knowledge of such a machine as early as the Sth century before onr Saviour. Now as regards the architrave, my observations of its structure, in the several edifices I have had an opportunity of examining with the eye of a builder, in these parts, are recorded in my note books under the following memoranda. Generally speaking the architrave is composed in its thickness of three stones, though, sometimes, of lico separate stones only. It is, however, always of one stone in height. The proportions of these stones, ovfing to the extent of bearing and height, are much thinner than in the ordinary square shaped stones. They are placed so that the laminae, or lines of cleavage of the mate- rial, are in a vertical position, like a book standing on its front edge — the strongest position for a stone supported only at its extremities. They do not touch one another, — having a space of about I of an incli left between them, so that each performs its work independently of the other. Hence, should one of them fail in any part, it would not necessarily bring ruin on the others. On the outside and inside vertical joints, over the centre of the columns, there is, generally, a raised band left, which was not worked off till the finishing of the temple. The same occurs (in many cases 1 have observed) to the vertical joints of the mouldings. It is an excellent precaution,, where the stone is very porous or fragile, as it preserves the edge from in- jury ; and not being worked off until the last, a fair face at the joint is ensured. The singular method employed in nearly all the temples at Agri- gentum, for joining the stones together, in the entablature, has been well illustrated by Mr. Cockerell, and is too generally known to need any comments of mine. The same has been the case with the series of cramps and contrivances employed on the top of the Parthenon. To the person who beholds them for the first time, amidst the vast quarries of stone there, their sight independently of the effect which the scenery around him may produce, is truly bewildering, In fact, the mechanical construction of the Parthenon presents a series of studies and reflections to the architect which would fill volumes, and for which we look in vain elsewhere. ******* I pass now to another subject, connected more with the ornament- ng than with the construction of temples. It is well known that the Greeks, in a great many instances, con- structed their temples of a very rough and intractable stone ; espe- cially is this the case in buildings of an early period, as at Corinth, jEgina, the old Hecatompedon at Athens, Psestum, &c. This was owing to the natural character of the stone in the locality where they built — preferring the material at hand to a better kind the procuring of which would occasion difficulty. It is equally well ascertained that they covered the stone with a thin coating of stucco ; whether for the express purpose of hiding the faultiness of the material, or for receiv- ing the polychromic painting, which could hardly be executed on a rough surface, or for both those purposes, has not as yet been decided. For my own part, I am inclined to imagine, that it was for the express purjose of receiving the painting, since I have found instances where the buildings have been covered with a fine stucco, or other coating, even though the stone was of a smooth and excellent quality, and the workmanship of the most perfect kind. This is the case in the tem- ples of Jupiter Panhi-llenius injEgina,and Juno LucinaatAgrigentum. in works of a later period, the stucco itself, instead of being allowed to remain of its natural tint, was dyed before it was put on as an easier expedient than painting it afterwards. I have collected together several specimens which prove this to have been the case. Judging, . then, from the universality of the employment of colour on temples, ] may we not suppose that it was a custom derived from practices which co-existed with the mode of worship at the time ; it was first introduced into Attica by Cecrops' colony, from Egypt, and cherished from generation to generation, as if it had been a part of the pre- scribed ritual. It is, however, from Egypt that we must look in future for a better elucidation of this question. In the middle of the 15th century before our era, Moses was com- manded to build the Tabernacle, the materials for which, it was espe- cially directed, were to be procured through the free-offering of a portion of those possessions and articles in general use, which the Israelites had brought with them from Egypt. By referring to chap- ters 25, 26, 2S, and from 35 to 39, inclusive, of Exodus, we shall there find that an abundanceof blue, purple, and scarlet linen, and rams' skins dyed red, were employed in its constr\iction. So much of them, in fact, was then used for that purpose, that that structure must have presented almost altogether, at a little distance, an aspect of blue, purple, and scarlet. I do not wish to lay any particular stress upon this fact, but cite it only to evidence the very general use of those three colours among the Egyptians. The monuments of ancient Egypt tliemselves in the present day are witnesses to the truth of the text. Now, it was in 155G B.C., or about the same epoch of the building of the Tabernacle, that Cecrops left Sais for Greece, upon settling in which country, it is not at all improbable that he and his colony would adhere to the practices of tlie coimtry they had left, in which case they would, as naturally, have followed the custom of decorating the temples with co/oh/' and other ornaments. If the origin of colour in Crreece is to be referred to the East, we have next to inquire into the reasons of the Egyptians painting their own temples, and when once those are demonstrated the question will be set at rest. Now people have never thought that colour spoiled the Egyptian temples, but the contrary ; and they attribute the practice to a fancy only for decoration. But the moment that the discoverv of polv- chruniic painting on the Grecian buildings comes to show, that certain cherished notions, previously conceived respecting these buildings, were wrongly formed — and that in reality the Greeks, as well as the Egyptians, coloured their temples — these same individuals, rather than agree with such a notion, adopt another, which separates alto- gether the painting from the building of the temples, referring the practice of the former to a ditferent period of that of the latter. Is it not much more natural to think that the motive which inspired the j Greek was none other than the same which influenced the Egyptians? ' and that the custom was, as usual, moulded by the former into such definite principles, as not to be departed from even when a Parthenon was constructed. Mr. Hittorf s hypotheses on polychromic painting are exceedingly interesting, and I believe that very shortly the public will be made acquainted with them in a very elaborate work which that gentleman has been for many years preparing. Your alfectionate Son, Rome, April 26, 1844. Walter L. Granville. STEAM NAVIGATION IN THE EAST INDIES. The introduction of steam boats into India was, in the first instance, attended with ditliculties almost insurmountable, and scarcely to be accounted for by the common mode of reasoning upon political expe- diency, or upon the speculative habits of our then princely merchants of the East : its extension since its first introduction has been so trifling, so wholly inadequate to the rapidly increasing requirements of the local government in the time of war, and to the immense and widely disseminated commerce of that country, that it is a matter of still greater wonder, and naturally leads to a train of reflections, not in the highest degree favourable to the political sagacity of the one party, or to the enterprising spirit of the other. The first introduction of steam into India, to be locally applied, was in 181S, when Captain Davidson, of the Bengal Engineers, brought to Calcutta an eight-horse power engine, purchased by Messrs. I. and W. Gladstone, of Liverpool, and designed for a river boat. From some unexplained cause or other it remained neglected in a Godown, until Major Schalch purchased it for a dredging boat, which Messrs. Kyd 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 243 & Co. were employed to build for governnipnt in 1822. Tliis boat (the Plato) was builf, being f'urnislied witli a double set of buckets to dredge on both sides; but, on the breaking out of the Burmese war, these buckets were taken off, and she was fitted up as a floating bat- tery, and sent with the expedition to Aracan, where she rendered services the most important, passing the troops over the creeks and estuaries of that coast. The original form was that of a barge, flat bottomed, and square at both ends ; but when fitted up as above described, a false bow was attached to her and other alterations were made. The boat built at Lucknow, by Mr. Wm. Tuckett, for the Nawaub, was the first vessel in India propelled by steam; the plan and engine were brouglit out by Mr. W. Jessop, in 1819. The engine was eight- horse power, giving the boat a speed of 7 or 8 miles per hour ; the total cost, including freight, was about .£7000 when landed in China. This boat, originating in the caprice of the late king, was soon hiid aside and suffered to go to ruin. The Diana, one of the steam boats still in active service, was ori- ginally sent out on a speculation of Mr. Robarts, a member of the Factory at Canton : the Directors, on the unfounded representations of some individuals, declining to employ it. Mr. Robarts obtained a pair of 16-horse engines, boiler, and other requisites, of Messrs. Maudshiys, and having fitted it out employed it on his own account. The vessel, 110 tons burthen, found its way to Calcutta, and after re- maining there some time it was purchased by subscription, and en- tirely altered and enlarged at a cost of 75,000 rupees. This vessel was also purchased by the Indian government for the expedition to Rangoon, and employed as a transport, rendering the most important service and being mainly instrumental to the success of that expedi- tion; the novelty of this engine of war producing, says Mr. William Prinsep, an effect analagous to that of the Spanish liorses in Mexico. During nearly the whole time she depended almost entirely upon wood fuel which was found to answer very well. The Entcrprize, launched in 1825, cost 43,000 rupees, was con- sidered a failure, disappointing public expectation ; the Burmese war relieved the proprietors of, to them, a bad speculation, and after per- forming important services at Rangoon she was consigned to the Bombay government. The Comet and Firefly, two vessels still in active service, were launched separately in 1826 ; these vessels were built by native car- penters,'the engines and fittings being supplied by Messrs. Maudlays ; the engines 10 horse power have a stroke of 2 feet, and make 32 to 36 revolutions per minute, consuming 480 lbs of coal per hour ; the vessels draw from 4 to 5 feet, and have capacity for nearly 11 tons of coal. These vessels are competent to ascend the river in the rains and during a great part of the dry season. A short time after this a steamer on a smaller scale was constructed at the Fort Gloucester Mills (below Calcutta) for the use of that establishment, and furnished with a single four horse high pressure engine, made at that factory, and this was followed up with another boat 50 ft. in length, with (3 horse power engines working upon a pressure of 45 lb. to the square inch, draught 17 inches, with a speed of 0 miles per hour, and carry- ing fuel for 13 days. The next vessels built in the country were the Hooghly and Bur- hanipootur, carrying engines of 25 horse power, the latter having her service assigned to her in the Assam Valley ; the former, after her experimental trips, was found so wholly insufficient for the navigation inland as to be laid aside, a new vessel having been built on a plan better adapted to encounter the shoals and shallows of the navigable river. It had also been discovered that the draught should in no in- stance exceed four feet, and it was therefore necessary to construct vessels accordingly, and which experience has proved enables them to navigate in the upper provinces during the whole period of the dry season. The necessity of having vessels of small draught led to the idea of employing iron steam boats, and the material of two boats was sent from England to be put up in that country. These vessels have since been serviceably employed on the river. The Indus is a much less navigable river thau the Ganges, its shoals are more numerous, and are said to be moreoften shifting their position, and the currents in many parts are exceedingly rapid. On tile other hand, it intersects a country occupied by barbarian tribes, who are more desirous to gratify their love of plunder, than to aid in the ex- tension of commerce; but this latter circumstance is a very powerful reason for steam navigation on the river, as the best and most effectual check to those unruly people, and a sure and certain source of power, to which the Indian government can apply, should disturbances break out, or should operations in some future day be directed against the Punjaub. It is along this river the cotton districts spread, and it is from the want of speeily conveyance to Sural or Bombay, that the cottoD, by undue and protracted exposure to the atmosphere, becomes depreciated in value, and sometimes totally spoiled. The annexation of Scinde to the territorial government of India will also be prode.ctive of immense benefit, by insuring greater safety to our commercial in- tercourse with the upper country ; and by becoming, under European superintendence, the productive fount of great agricultural wealth, the whole country being wonderfully fertile and productive, and the in- habitants relieved from the tyranny of their rulers, will soon gladly exchange their feudal thraldom for the more profitable and lasting benefits derivable from their hitherto neglected lands. Of the extent to which navigation may be carried in Bengal, by the powerful agency of steam, some judgment may be formed, when we state, in the words of Mr. Prinsep, that it is not the Ganges only, as a single stream, that confers these benefits which are derived from com- merce, but all the large rivers that bring down the waters of the northern hills are navigable more or less throughout the year, and almost to the foot of tlie first range ; these, too, are sufficiently nu- merous to sweep the commercial produce of all that track, without its needing any land transportation, except the Ghauts were it is em- barked. Taking the limits of the Ganges and Jumma to the West and South in Hindostan and the Burharapootur and Megna to the East, the country completely intersected with navigable canals, and within which both trade and travel are mainly carried on by water, may be computed to cover an area of not less than forty square degrees. With an extent of available water communication like this, inter- secting in all directions a variety of rich and fertile soils, influenced in their produce by a variety of climate, passing through lands occupied by nearly one hundred millionsof people, the greater part of whom are industriously inclined, and only await British capital to produce the staple commodities to any extent, to compete with America with her cottons, the Brazils and other slave states with their sugars, to re-open the now closed silk factories, and to grow the thousand necessary require- ments of life ; is it not wonderful that steam navigation should here labour under such disadvantages in its extension ; and that advantages tested and approved by experience, should be suffered to escape those whose individual or conjoint interest it is to embrace them. The late Burmese war is a practical illustration of the political ad- vantages derivable from small river steamers in the time of war, and the still more recent military operations on the banks of the Indus, demonstrate, in the strongest manner, the necessity there exists of the Indian government having an effective steam force always at their disposal, in order to overawe the turbulent, protect the navigation of their rivers, facilitate communication, and open new sources of com- merce, and consequently of revenue. The appeal to the mercan- tile community is equally strong, and in fact much stronger, it is to their vast individual advantage that a further extension of river steam navigation takes place; the merchants of the upper provinces, as formerly, know nothing of the trade of the lower provinces ; the merchants of the lower provinces know nothing of what is passing above Merzapore ; the goods transmitted by the common country boats, whether up or down, are liable to so many accidents that the rates of insurance are much higher than between India and Great Britain; and these dangers, arising from their being continually exposed to eddies, sudden and violent gusts of wind, shifting sands, sunken trees, and fallen banks, are necessarily encountered by the present system of tracking, and prolonged by this tedious and uncertain mode of travel- ling ; added to this is the continual danger of robbery, and the impos- sibility of guarding against it, from the circumstance of being compell- ed to bring to every evening close in shore, and the increased expences entailed and constant damage done to the goods. It is surprising to us at home that the lesson set by the Americans has not been followed by the merchants of the East. India, like the Western country, is the land of lakes and rivers. The American boats somewhat resembling the floating baths at Paris, and differ little from the first class budgerow of Calcutta, other than having an upper deck for the accommodation of passengers, the funnel being placed in the fore part of the boat; a description and drawing of one of these boats is given in Mrs. Trollope's work on America. There is a striking analogy between the rivers of the two countries, and although the American maintain a greater depth of water all the year round, the difficulties of navigation arising from natural causes are common to both. Captain Hall, speaking of the steam boats which ply up and down the Mississippi, observes — " Thirteen vessels of this description were lying along the banks of the river. One of them, called the Amazon, was just setting off for Louisville, in Kentucky, upwards of 1,-100 miles distant, in the heart of the continent, which they hoped to reach in ten or eleven days, though they had to go in the very teeth of the current." "These boats are employed exclusively upon the river, where the water is always smooth, and where, also, they are well sheltered by the woods. These circumstances allow of their accommodation being 244 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [June, raised to (he lieight of 20, and sometimes 30 feet above tlie water. They have two complete aud distinct tiers of apartments. The upper one is appropriated to what are called deck passengers, who pay a very small sum of money, have no very luxurious accommodations, and provide themselvhs with food. The cabin passengers, or those who live in the apartments, fare differently, and are, of course, re- quired to pay a higher sum for their passage." These are the very boats best adapted for our Indian rivers, modi- fied by giving them greater length, so as to ensure the smallest draught of water, they would more immediately suit the wealthier classes of the Indian community, and the conveyance of high priced or perish- able articles, or those which are liable to spoil in the common sailing boats. Objection has been made to the use of high pressure steam engines ; and the many accidents on the American rivers have been quoted to show the impolicy, if not inhumanity, of employing them; but we think these fears over-rated, as they have been with railway steam engines ; and certainly since steam has become so universal in its application, vast improvements have taken place in the machinery, so much so, that it is now of rare occurrence to hear of the blowing up of a river boat, aud when this is the case it is generally found to be more the fault of the parties managing the engine than from any defect in her construction. It is true that steam tugs answer the pur- pose, but this to a limited extent only, and they are totally unfit for the more extended purposes of commerce. The results of experience show that extended accommodation is required ; that under the pre- sent system, the benefits of steam power, while they answer all the purposes of the government in times of peace in carrying bullion, stores, &c., to and from the presidency, the mercantile community aud the multitudes of Europeans and natives continually travelling to and fro, are either wholly debarred from sharing in these advantages, or, otherwise, they are made to pay these exorbitant rates of freight which are always the accompaniments of monopoly. The Select Committee recommended tugs of low pressure, in order to decrease the draught and furnish more space in regular built boats ; but had steam tugs answered the purpose in America, on the Missis- sipi, better than the boats, they would assuredly have adopted them. On the Mississipi, river boats are propelled, against a strong current, at between eight and nine miles per hour, averaging the voyage from New Orleans to Louisville, which is 1680 miles, and vthich has been performed in eight days. In India, up to the present day, they have attained nothing like that speed, although it is certain that the current of the Ganges is of much less force than the Mississipi. The Reports of Select Committees have invariably recommended the employment of steam boats in our Indian rivers: the advantages, says one of them, given in so far back as 1829, are self evident ; tirst for expedition, secondly their power of moving up and down the rivers at a greater draught of water than at present; thirdly, less risk of grounding, and they might have added, the application of their power to back them olf the shoal when grounded ; fourthly, a saving in anchors and cables. Again, it is maintained by them that the Indian government will themselves be the greatest gainers by it, and recent events have testified to the correctness of these calculations. The heavy losses sustained by disaster and plunder by the native vessels of every class are wholly unknown to steamers in the present day. We know of no instance where they have been plundered, and for this ten years past of any vessel of this kind having been lost. On the other hand, in common with the sea steamers, they have laid the foundation of a vast moral revolution in the commercial, agricultural, and political state of society, bringing all parts of this vast empire into one narrow circle of communication, and the country itself within a few days pleasurable sail of Great Britain. Two manifest causes exist for the non-adoption of river steam navigation in India. The first is the Indian government having as many steamers as they desire under existing circumstances, they are indisposed to add to the load of debt with which they are already overwhelmed by any considerable outlay beyond that which they have gone to advance steam navigation via the Red Sea: the other is, the European merchants have so many calls for their caoital, as merchants, bankers, agriculturists, brokers, and agents, that with them it is im- possible, irdividually or collectively, to speculate to any extent in this way, and the natives are either too poor or too timid to embark in anything requiring a large expenditure, when the returns are not directly manifest to them according to their strict rules of mathema- tics. It is, therefore, left to the capitalists of this country to unite and subscribe the necessary funds ; and attempts have been made time after time to get up a company for this purpose, but the tempo- rary derangement of commercial affairs, and the little encouragement given by the East India Company, who were content to enjoy their monopoly, proved insurmountable barriers to success. Times, how- ever, are altered, money is superabundant, and the direction of East India affairs is beginning to distinguish itself by a more liberal line of policy than has been displayed in bygone times ; it is, therfore, to be hoped that British capital will not only be employed largely in the extension of steam navigation in the rivers of India, but also in deve- loping those vast resources which India is known to possess to a far greater extent than those lands upon which we are now dependent for our cotton, sugar, tobacco, indigo, and other staple commodities, which, to the millions at home, have become, from long usage, absolute ne- cessaries. The following rates of hire for the large boats will give an idea of the expence of travelling on the Ganges. Assuming a voyage to Allahabad to last 2s mouths, the charge would be for a Dacca pinnace, 1st class, at IS to 20 rupees per diem, or for the trip 1,200 to 1,400 rupees, about £140; ditto, of the lowest class, at 12 or 14 rupees per diem, or for the trip, 900 to 1,000 rupees ; Budgerow, of the 1st class, for the trip 050 rupees; ditto, of lowest ditto, 450 rupees; Patella, of 500 maunds (about 18 tons), 150 rupees ; Oolak, of ditto, 150 rupees ; Pulwar, of ditto, 150 rupees. Of the distance to be traversed from Calcutta to Allahabad, we have 232 miles from Calcutta to the mouth of the Moorshedabad river Bhagratta, 248 from thence to Patna, 127 to Ghazeepore, and 200 to Allahabad. The extreme rise of the Ganges at Allahabad is 45 feet, by the loth of October it usually falls to 0 feet. A plan has been suggested for a canal communicntion, by which a vast distance, and consequently loss of time, would be saved ; but the stupendous nature of the undertaking and the expence attending it precludes the necessity of discussing this subject, which probably in some future day will be carried into effect, if railroads do not render such an undertaking unnecessary. It is certain that the want of good roads is most sensibly felt in India. In the Madras presidency there are no roads beyond that city ; around Calcutta the roads are few and very indifferent, and many of the roads in the interior are no other than water courses, laid dry for a greater portion of the year. NUNHEAD CEMETERY. The first stone of the Chapel to be erected in the Cemetery of All Saints, Nunhead, near Peckham, was laid on Monday, the'l7thof June, by the Rev. Dr. Russell, the chairman of the London Cemetery Company, assisted by B. Hawes, Esq., the deputy chairman, and the other Directors. This extensive cemetery containing above 50 acres was enclosed and laid out in the year 183S, since which time the ser- vice has been read in temporary buildings, but the company having resolved to erect chapels suitable to the extent of the ground, and the increasing accommodation required by the populousness of the vicinity, which includes Peckham, Camberwell, Deptford, Lewisham, &c., se- lected the designs submitted by Mr. Thomas Little, architect, under whose direction they are now in progress. Both chapels are iu the style of architecture prevalent in England about the middle of the 14th century, known as decorated English. The principal chapel is an octagon with a high pitched roof, and groined ceiling, modelled after the Chapter House at York ; the exterior is to be built of Kentish Rag and Bath stone. Mr. Winsland is the contractor. With regard to these chapels, considerable interest was excited in the early part of this year among the architectural profession for the result of the competition, which the Directors of the London Ceme- tery Company had instituted, by offering premiums of 100/. for the best, and 60/. for the second approved design, limiting the expendi- ture to 6,000/. Sixty-five sets of designs were sent in. Architectural competitions have almost become a bye word for jobbing of all sorts ; there has been too often " a foregone conclusion." Intrigue and interest have been set to work, and advertisements have so otten been issued for designs, merely to cover a premeditated job, or favour a previously selected architect, that competitions are " caviare to the general." It is highly gratifying, however, in this in- stance, to record the good faith with which the Directors acted ; deeming themselves incompetent from unprofessional experience, to decide upon plans and designs, where it was evident great taste and talent had been displayed, they referred the selection, and submitted all the drawings to Sir Robert Smirke. The report which he made to the Directors was as follows :— TO THE ARTISTS. 15, Bridge Sireet, Blackfriars. The Directors of the London Cemetery Company feel it due to the artists who have favoured them with designs for the Chapels at Nunhead to express their thanks for the exertions made on their behalf, and their appreciation of 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 245 the taste and (alent conspicuously displayeJ. Tliey have much pleasure in presenting to each artist a copy of the letter in which Sir Robert Smirke conveys to them the results of his most disinterested and patient examination of the several drawings, (Copy.) 52, Qiiten Anne Street, February 16«/, ISM. Gentlemen,— I have felt great difficulty in fulfilling the promise made at your request to point out to your notice those designs given for the intended Chapels at the Nonhead Cemetery which are, in my judgment best enlilled to the two premiums proposed to be awarded ; but 1 have examined ihem carefully, and with an earnest desire to make a just selection. Sixty-five artists have employed themselves upon this competition for your favour, and have submitted to you more than four hundred drawings prepareil for the occasion ; a very large proportion of this number shewing a high degree of talent, and made with great care and labour. I hope I have given to each of these drawings the consideration that was due to them, and after weighing every circumstance connected with the designs and the objects of the Directors in regard to the work, I beg leave to say, that I am of opinion the author of the design numbered 10, (comprising thirteen drawings) is en- titled to the first premium, and the author of that numbered 55, (comprising fifteen drawings) to the second premium. Your Secretary informed me that you were desirous I should also select for your notice any three other designs which might appear to me specially de- serving of your approbation ; I trust, however, you will excuse me in declin- ing to do this, for there are so many others which are excellent and well- considered designs, that I should feel much reluctance in offering any farther opinion upon the comparatve merits of the artists wlio made them. I regret exceedingly to know that so much talent, zeal, and industry can have no other reward upon this occasion than the well-deserved expression of your sense of their merits, with which I am persuaded you will favuur them. I remain, Gentlemen, Your very faithful Servant, To the Directors of (Signed) Robert Smirke. The London Cemetery Company, The architect of the design No. IG, was Mr. Tliomas Little, of Northumberhtnd Street, New Road. The architect of the design No. 55, was Mr. Brakspeare, a gentle- man brought up in Mr. Barry's office. The Directors, in order to test still further the impartiality of the decision, formed an exhibition of the designs, in tiieir office at Bridge Street, which was open to general inspection for two days, and gave much satisfaction to the competing artists. Mr. Little was instructed to take the necessary steps for carrying his design into execution, provided the amount did not exceed the estimate which he had reported, and we are gratified to hear that the amount of the accepted tender by Mr. Winsland, is below his esti- mate, and that the works are proceeding. We have given the above details, as we consider it a fair example of the manner in which competition designs should be treated. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. INSTITUTE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. THE PRESIDENT'S CONVERSAZIONE. The annual conversazione given by Mr. Walker, the president, took place on Friday and Saturday, June 7th and 8th, and when the at- tendance was even more numerous than on former occasions. About 300 gentlemen were present on Friday, but on Saturday the assem- blage was much more brilliant, comprising the most distinguished per- sons for rank in science or the fine arts in this country. The worthy host, attended by Mr. Manby, the secretary of the institution, received the visitors on their arrival, and directed their attention to the objects most worthy of notice. Our limits will not permit us to enumerate all the very beautiful and curious things exhibited at this reunion ; we, however, particularly noticed some very good busts by Mr. S. E. Jones, one of Major Blakeney, the other of Mr. Manby, the secretary, both of which were remarkable for their spirit, their good taste, and their striking similitude to the originals; there were some busts of much merit by the same rising artist in the different rooms; as also a very beautiful, and at the same time simple sketch, made at Strathfieldsaye, of his Grace the Duke of Wellington, on horseback, by E. H. Bailey, which was much admired ; some bronzes from the collections of Mr. F. Hodgson, M.P., Mr. Deville, and Mr. Grissell, were in the rooms, as also wood carvings from Rogers, Pratt, and Vincent ; a very beautiful engraving of the Duke of Beaufort's dog, by T. Landseer, from a re- cent picture of his brother Edwin's, aud a Maltese dog by the same clever ^irtists. Scanlan had several excellent sketches ol scenes in domestic life ; the best was an episode from the history of the White- boy in Ireland, an aftecting picture now being engraved by Brown. A collection of rings intended to illustrate the most remarkable events in Grecian history, formed of beautifully carved heads of the ancient Greek philosophers and poets, attracted much attention, as did also some natural flowers coated with metal by the electro-deposit, after Elkington and Co.'s process, and some by the simple electrotype itself from Captain Ibbetson. The principal saloon was illuminated by an elegantly cut-glass chandelier from Apsley Pellatt's. The eJiefs d'ceiwre of the evening, however, were a bust of Lorenzo de Medici, by Michael Angelo, belonging to Mr. Dennys, remarkable for the stern expression of the countenance, and the bold freedom of its style, and a choice painting by Demier, supposed to be a likeness of his mother, the most exquisite thing in its way that we have ever seen ; some very good models of animals, &c., in terra cotta, were exhibited by B. Sangio- vanni, the Neapolitan, of whose works we have often had occasion to speak favourably ; Mr. Dunn, of the Chinese Museum, contributed some very beautiful things, one of them being a cameo, presented to him when in China, by Howqua, and other Hong merchants, valued in that country at 4,U0U/. Advancing further in the rooms, we found some chronometers from Dent and Frodsham ; and also a machine for tracing ellipses, by Mr. Farey, a gentleman well known in the scienti- fic world. In the model-room, which was lighted by two gas chandeliers, on Faraday's principle, were various models of steam-engines, by the Earl of Dundonald, G. Rennie, Maudslay and Field, Boulton aud Watt, and Borrie, and in the centre of the room was a full sized model of Greener's harpoon gun. Around the room were arranged models uf various light-houses; a Russian camel for lifting large vessels over sand-banks ; and some interesting models from the Admiralty ; Brem- ner's apparatus for building harbours in deep and rough water ; models of various forms of screw propellers (from Rennie, Smith, Galloway, and Grantham); Mitchell's screw-pile lighthouse and battery, pro- posed for the Goodwin-sands; Bush's caisson, and a compass of his, intended for the Royal yacht; a model to show the principle of the atmospheric railway from Mr. Vignoles ; Prosser's timber railway, carriage, and locomotive, with guide-wheels for traversing very sharp curves ; Barlow's hollow iron keys for fastening the rails in the chairs ; Wood's soft metal bearings for railway axles; agricultural imple- ments from Cottam ; models of London-bridge with its cofferdams, and part of the centering of Stoneleigli Abbey-bridge, and of Scotney Castle, the latter by Mr. Dighton ; a model of the Dover terminus, by Mr. Salter; a pair of finely turned candelabra, made of slate from Mr. G. K. Pollock's pant-draining quarries near Bangor, North Wales; curious specimens of what can be done with that material. The walls of this room had a very beautiful appearance given to them by some specimens from Mr. Ponsonby, of Regent Circus, Piccadilly, of Mr. Albano's patent Cannabic architectural ornaments, highly gilt and burnished ; they were very much admired. In the lower rooms were the heavier models of machinery, consist- ing of Bunnett and Corpe's concentric ring engine, Bodmer's breaks for preventing injury to heavy machinery, and many other interesting and ingenious specimens, which want of space alone prevents us from noticing. The rooms were exceedingly crowded, but among the distinguished visitors present we particularly recognized the Marquis of Northamp- ton ; the Earls of Lincoln, Devon, Dundonald, and Lovelace ; Lords Blayney and Courteney ; Mr. Baron Parke and Mr. Baron Rolfe ; the Bishop of Lichfield ; his Excellency Ali Efl'endi, the Turkish Am- bassador, and suite ; Sirs R. Peel, G. Murray, H. Douglas, G. Clerk, and B.Martin; Major-Generals Monteith and Pasley ; Colonels Ma- berly, Sykes, Jackson, Herbert, and Sloane ; Lieutenant-Colonels Spottiswoode, Sabine, Alderton and Wells ; the Lord Mayor and Mr. Sherritf Moon : and among the distinguished foreign visitors Meer Jaffir Ali Khan, Hoof Oolah Khan, Mohammed Allee, fromSurat; Counts Lopez, Gola, and de Rosen ; Barons de Linden and de Ger- lache ; Messieurs Horace Vernet, Baugniet, Godesharle, Siemens, Strateneus, Bindewalde, Vanzeller, Mex, and Hebeler ; Professors Brand, Wheatstone, Hosking, Ansted, Faraday, Willis, aud Barlow ; and almost every eminent artist, architect, aud man of science now in London. PORTUMNA BRIDGE.— SHANNON. " Description of a Bridge across the river Shannon at Portumna." Front the Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Feb. 27, 1844." By Thomas Rhodes, M. Inst. C. E. This paper describes a bridge which has been erected across the river 246 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECPS JOURNAL. [Junk, Shannon at Portumna, to form a communication between tlie counties of Gahvav and Tipperary, at the spot where a timber bridge formerly stood. The present structure is composed of straiglit cast iron girders, resting upon piers formed of timber piles, leaving thirteen openings of IS feet 6 inches span each, between the Tipperary shore and Hayes Island, and twelve open- iiins of the same span, between the island and the outer pier of the swivel- bridge, wliich is 40 feet G inches span, and is close to the Gahvay shore. The total length of the bridge is 558 feet 6 inches, exchnive of the width of Haves Island, upon the centre of which are placed the toll-house, and a stone obelisk, commemorative of the building of the bridge, under the direction of the Commissioners of the Public Works for Ireland. The width between the balustrades is 17 feet. The ashlar work and ruhble masonry of the abut- ments, the pier of the swivel-bridge, the toll-house, and the retaining walls, are of Portumna limestone, and are built with hydraulic mortar, the lime of which was burnt from the same description of stone as that used in the building. In the foundations, the sheeting piles are of red pine; tne bear- ing piles of beech and larch ; and the main piles and waling pieces for sup- porting the roadway girders are of Memel timber. The eartli having been excavated down to the solid strata, of sufficient space for the abutments, re- taining walls, counterforts, and the foundations for the swivel bridge (the latter being done by means of two coffer-dams) ; the foundation or bearing piles 8 feet long and 10 inches in diameter, were driven 4 feet apart, from centre to centre, along the foot of the abutment walls, and a capping of Dantzic timber 12 inches by 6 inches was spiked to them ; the whole area of the foundation under the walls and counterforts, was covered with a thick- ness of 12 inches of concrete, composed of six parts of clean gravel and sand, and one of lime. A course of flag-stones 7 inches thick, was then laid and the walls were built, being backed with well pounded clay from the excava- tions, as the masonry proceeded ; the space between the retaining walls was then filled to the underside of the roadway, and levelled to receive the broken stone or metalling. The ashlar work and backing, were laid flush in their respective kinds of mortar, and every course was well grouted, so that the whole might become one solid mass. The mortar was made of Portumna lime, in the proportion of (wo parts of sand to one of lime, fine sifted and wrought in a pug-mill. The main piles, 14 inches square, (after being Kyanized,) were driven at least 9 feet into the solid ground, at distances of 20 feet apart from centre to centre, and w\re cut off level, at the height of 9 feet 6 inches from the surface of the summer water-level. The caps were then tenoued upon them, all the joints having in them a sheet of patent felt saturated with boded tar. The cast iron girders are 20 feet long, 1 7 inches deep, and IJ inch thick, with a flanch at the top 8 inches v\ide, to receive the roadway plates, and another at the bottom of 4 inches in width. They are supported by chairs cast in the caps, and are secured by distance pieces. The roadway plates are J inch thick, secured by bolts and nut>, and the joints made with iron cement. Cast iron fascia plates are screwed to the outside girders, to carry the wrought iron balustrade. Previously to leaving the manufactory of Messrs. J. and R, Mallet (Dub- lin), where they were cast, all the girders were proved, by placing them on supports 20 feet apart, and suspending from the upper edge a weight of 12 tons, which was made to traverse from end to end of the girder, in order to subject each part to the same test. The swivel-bridge is composed of two leaves, with a clear opening of 40 feet for the navigable channel. The ribs forming the arched part of the bridge, from the abutmeiit to the centre, are each cast in one piece, with flanches at the radiating line, to which the cross tie-plate is bolted ; a con- tinuation of each rib is carried across the upper frame, to the circular tie- plate at the end ; these have also flanches to correspond with those of the arched ribs, and are bolted together ; the flanches on the upper edge of the ribs, receive the roadway planking, which is of British oak 2 J inches thick. The leaves turn on case-hardened iron rollers, and require about 15 tons of ballast, to balance them. The construction is minutely described, with the quantity of materials of all kinds employed, the dimensions of the several parts of the masonry, the timber work, and the cast and wrought iron work. , The specifications, the form of tender, and the prices of the various por- tions, are given, and it is stated that the total cost of the bridge, including the extra work, superintendence, law expenses, &e., was ^24,131 8s. \d. Extracts from the journal of Mr. Smith, the superintendent of the works, give the dates of the commencement and termination of the several parts, from which it appears, that the first stone of the abutments was laid on th« I3th September, 1838, and that the whole structure was finished on the 13th January, 1842. WELLINGTON BRIDGE, NEAR AIRE. •' Account of the luilding of the ' Wellington' Bridge, over the river Aire, at Leeds."'^ March 5, 1844. By John Timperley. This bridge was erected from the designs, and under the direction of the late John llennie ; it is situated on the line of road leading from Leeds towards Wortley and Armley, and spans the river Aire at a spot where it is 100 feet wide, and about 6 feet in depth ; the banks rising to between 7 feet and 8 feet above the surface of the water. The borings, which were made to the depth of 30 feet, on each shore, to prove the ground, previously to com- 1 The discussion of this paper was extended through pwt of the meetings of March 5tb and 12th, mencing the construction, showed the strata to consist of fine sand, and then sand and gravel, with thin layers of what was supposed to be stone, but was probably, hard concreted gravel, such as was afterwards found in excavating for the foundations. That on the south bank, was commenced in the middle of September, IS17. The upper part, for 6 or 7 feet in depth, was through fine soft sand ; then came a bed of alluvial gravel, containing, at about 12 feet from the surface, black rotten wood, roots of trees, shells, hones, and horns of animals. The upper part of this gravel was coarse and open, but it gradually became finer and more compact, until it assumed the hardness of a concreted mass, resembling agglomerate, very like (except in colour) the Blackwall rock, which was taken up about forty years since, in deepening the entrance from the Thames to the East and West India Docks. Upon this stratum Mr. Rennie ordered the foundation to be placed, although it was not so deep by 4 feet, as he had originally intended. The coffer-dam, which was formed of a double row of piles of half timbers, from 15 feet to 18 feet in length, was then completed ; the best earth that could he procured for the puddle, was of so liglit a nature, that iu high freshes the leakage became so considerable, as to render it advisable to allow the dam to fill with water, to prevent its blowing up. The details of the construction of this coffer-dam are given. It was kept dry by a steam-engine of C horses' power, which was fixed on the shore, and worked the pumps by an endless chain. The quantity of water was such as to keep the pumps constantly at work, night and day. The coffer-dam for the north bank was constructed after the foundations on the south shore were finished. The details are then given of the sheet piling and wales, &c., in front of the abut- ments, which arc each 30 feet long, by 28 feet wide, at the bottom, dimin- ishing by offsets to 27 feet in length, by 21 feet in width, at the springing of the arch. The abutments are built in radiating courses within, but on the faces they are horizontal ; the stones were from 14 inches to 18 inches thick, cut cor- rectly from templates, made to suit the respective courses. The lowest foundation courses were of large blocks, laid dry, and the joints well grouted ; but the other courses, up to the ordinary water line, were laid in mortar, made from magnesian limestone, got on the banks of the Aire, a few miles above Ferry Bridge : the proportions were, one part of lime, one part of clean sharp river-sand, and one part of forge scale, the whole well mixed and tempered, and used quite hot. The grout was made from the same lime, and was used for all tlie courses, except the lowest, where Parker's cement was employed, which was also used for pointing all the face joints up as high as the water-level. In the other parts of the ttructnre, the mortar was com- posed of one part of lime to two parts of sand, but that for the arch was made of equal proportions of lime and sand. Great care is stated to have been taken with the joints, as no under-pinning was allowed, the beds of the stones being all dressed to coincide accurately. The ordinary allowance was Jth inch for each joint, but on trying the first fourteen courses, from the springing, it was found, that 1 inch only was taken up by the joints, which gave Tjth inch for each. The stones were laid on the south side by a moveable crane, and on the north side from the end of the two-wheeled truck (somewhat resembling a timber carriage) by which they were brought from the stone-yard on the south bank, along a wooden tramway and temporary bridge, extending from the south to the north shore, using either a simple sling, or sheave-blocks, for placing the stones, according to their dimensions and weight. The construction, dimensions, and cost of this truck and of the crane are given in detail. The abutments being finished, the piles were driven, to support the centres, which were fixed so high as to be above the freshes. The lagging was laid 5 inches higher than the proposed arch, to allow for it settlement. The six centres were framed of Memel pine, each rib containing about 370 cubic feet of timber. The striking-wedges were of seasoned oak, well greased ; they were 6 inches wide and 9 inches in height altogether, the middle one, which was the largest, being the striking wedge. They were, however, found to be too narrow, for they were squeezed upwards of an inch into the timber, by the weight of the centres and the masonry. Piiorto framing the centres, one-half of the arch, which is a segment of a circle of 91 feet radius, with a versed sine of 15 feet, was laid down, full size, upon a platform, from which templates were made, for dressing the voussoirs and arcli-stones ; the front voussoirs were 7 feet on the bed, at the springing, diminishing to 4 feet at the crown ; but the interior arch-stones, near the springing, were much wider. The arch-stones were, on an average, 3 feet long, by 18 inches thick. It was customary, in setting the stones, to saturate them with water ; a thin coat of mortar was laid on the under stone, the upper one was lowered, and well beaten down while the mortar was soft ; the surfaces were thus brought closely in contact with each other, and any interstices that remained, were grouted, after the vertical joints had been pointed with cement. When the arch was turned to the extent of one-third from each side, about 20 tons of stone were piled on the crown, as an equipoise for the centres, and the haunches were not loaded until the key-stones were placed. The turning of the arch occupied four weeks ; when that was finished, the haunches were completed, and the centres were eased ; but it was found that the weight, which before the arch was keyed was equal to 1000 tons, had forced the wedges into the timber, so as to render it necessary to cut some of them out, which occupied three days for the first easing. A second easing took place two days after, and after a third easing the centres were removed. During the progress of the work, the arch squeezed down about 2i inches; in a few days after the centres were struck, it settled li inch, which in- creased slonly to 2i inches, after which do further subsidence was observed. 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 247 The arch had thus arrived at the exact dimensions which were proposed by Mr. Rennie. An account is then given of the progress of the remainder of the structure the forming of the parapet, the roadway, the approaches, &e., the whole of which were finished on the 18th of June, 1S19, having occupied thirty-three months in construction. The stone used in the hridge, is a brown coarse sandstone, or mill-stone grit, of great durability, from the quarries at Bram- ley-fall, about four miles from the bridge; they were brought down by water to within 120 yards of the work. The price of the stone in the vessel along- side the work, scappled ready for dressing, was 9rf. per cubic foot ; the dressing and setting, exclusive of the cornice and the parapet, cost iUl. per cubic foot, which, with conveyance and mortar, made in the whole \5d. per cubic foot ; the cost of the cornice and parapet walls was about id per cubic foot extra. The total quantity of masonry was 80,000 cubic feet, and the entire cost of the bridge, including the toll-house, was £7,530. Remarks. — Mr. Rennie concurred in the accuracy of the description of the ' Wellington' Bridge ; it presented an excellent example of theory and prac- tice, not only on account of its strict conformity with the principles of equi- librium, but from the correctness with which the works had been executed, as was evinced by the small subsidence of the arch after the centres were struck. Respecting the theory of the arch, writers were nearly agreed upon the principle established by De la Hire, upon the equilibrium of a loaded chain, or of a series of voussoirs, or wedges, with polished touching surfaces, as shown in his ' Traitu de Mc'canique,' in 1695.- The subject had been variously demonstrated by writers, but witli little effect ; architects were forced to select examples at random, for which no precise rules existed; but any persons on examining the actual state ot an equilibrated arch of solid materials, or of a substantial chain suspended at its extremities by points, would immediately perceive the dilTerence in the curves, or loads on the ex- trados, arising from the want of sensibility in the arch, or in other words, from friction and adhesion. Hitiierto theory had been unable to compre- hend these retarding forces, which had actually been so serviceable to the architect : Verronet was perhaps the first to throw any real light upon the subject ; the experiments that he undertook, on the absolute strength of materials, iu the year 1758, previously to the commencement of the cele- brated bridge of Neuilly,-' and subsequently, those by Gauthey, on the failure of the piers of the church of St. Genevieve,-* at Paris, were very instrumental in the advancement of the art. It was, however, chiefly owing to the good quality of the material, that Perronnet was enabled to surmount the diflicul- ties which arose from the unusual subsidence of the arches, in the bridge of Neuilly. The splaying of the arches, by which a double curvature was given to them, and which had been injudiciously copied iu this country, was neither justified by science nor practice. The results of the French experi- ments were much too slow in reaching this country, and the strength of building materials was but little attended to, until within a recent period. In the year 1824, the late Dr. Thomas Young having engaged to contri- bute the article ' Bridge,' to the Supplement of the sixth edition of the ' En- cyclopedia Britannica,' applied to Mr. Rennie, to furnish the particulars of the Waterloo and Southwark bridges, then just completed ; when, finding the data insufficient, Mr. Rennie undertook a series of experiments on the absolute and relative strength of materials, part of which he communicated to Dr. Young, and he subsequently published the whole in the ' Philosophical Transactions,' for 1818." The results were then applied to the calculations, on the lateral thrust of the arches of those bridges, perhaps for the first time in this country, and which were more amply applied afterwards to bridges in general by Mr. Ware, and his tables of the relative boldness of brick, stone, and iron bridges, were valuable accessions to our knowledge on this sub- ject.^ As regarded the friction of arches, Mr. Rennie found that the arch stones of Waterloo and New London bridges commenced gliding, or pressing upon the centres, at angles of from 33° to 31° ; he beUeved that soon after the adhesion of the mortar commenced, the centres would have very little pressure on them, even from stones at an angle of 45". As to the gliding of the arch stones at the haunches, from the pressure of the upper voussoirs, he had never seen an instance of it ; but he bad seen the haunches so much eased from the centres, by the lateral action, exerted in driving the stones into the vertex of the arch, as to allow the lagging, or cross bearers above the ribs, to be taken out. This proved the correctness of the rotative system of voussoirs, as shown by experiment. With respect to adhesion, Mr. Ren- nie had seen its eft'ect on broken arches of considerable magnitude, among the buildings of Rome, and also in the bridge of Alcantara over the Tagus, where the centre arch, of nearly 100 feet span, had been blown up by the French, leaving the adjoining arches and piers, which were upwards of 90 feet in height, standing perfectly undisturbed. With respect to the magni- tude of arches, M. Perronet expressed himself confident that arches of 500 feet span could be safely executed. The bridge which he proposed to con- struct, over a branch of the Seine, at Melon, consisted of a segment of a circle of 400 feet. The experience he had derived from the length of the primitive radii of the the arches of the bridge of Neuilly, and his experiments on the strength of materials, would appear to justify so bold an experiment. -* * TraitiJ de Mecanique.' De la Kire. I2mo. Paris, 1695. ^ * Decriijtion des projets et de la coustruction des Fonts de NeuilU, de Nantes, d'Or- Ifeaus, &c.' Perronnet. 4to. Paris, 17rt8. 4 'Coustruction desPonts.' Gautliey. 4to. Paris, 1809. 4 Vide • Pliil. Trans.,' 1818, p. 118. s Vide ' A treatise on Arches and their abutment piers.' Sy Samuel Ware. Svo. Iiondos, 1809. Mr. Rennie was of opinion, that with our strong magnesian limestones and hard eranites, arches of larger span than any hitherto built, might be safely constructed. There were numerous examples, both in ancient and modern times, of very large arches. The bridge of Narni, in Italy, of Vielle Bnoude, in France," and of Alcantara, in Spain, by the ancients ; and those of Gignac, and of Castel Veccbio, by the middle ages ; but the most remarkable example of cylindrical vaulting (the remains of which still existed), was the bridge of Trezzo, over the Addu, in the Milanese.' The span was 251 feet over the chord, and 260 feet over the semicircle. The stone beams in the church of the Jesuits at Nismes, and those between the towers of Lincoln Cathedral, the former equal to the segment of an arch of 565 feet span, and the latter to one of 262 feet span, proved how much could be done with materials of small dimensions." In modern times there were examples of bold vaulting in France, in the bridges of Neuilly, Mantes, St. Maixence, and Jena ; in Italy, in the Ponte Sta. Trinita, Turin ; in England and Wales, in the bridges of Llanrwst, of Pont-y-tu-Prydd, of Gloucester, of Chester, and those of Lon- don and Waterloo over the Thames ; independently of numerous arches and viaducts, more recently erected for the use of railways. The radii of curva- ture of the centre arch of New London bridge, taken near the vertex, would equal in boldness an arch of 333 feet ; and the length of the key-stone, at 4 feet 9 inches, would make the depth only ^th of the whole span. The origin of the arch had occasioned much controversy. The subject had been learnedly investigated by Dutens, Le Roy, King, and others, but apparently to little purpose, as the invention of the arch would now appear to be, with more justice, attributed to the Egyptians, as they seemed to hava used it, many centuries before the Christian era. The researches of modern travellers, particulariy those of Sir Gardiner Wilkinson," proved that the brick arch was known in Egvpt iu the reign of Amenoiph I., 1540 years B.C., and the stone arch in the time of Psamaticus II., COO years b.c. " The most remarkable,'' savs Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, " are the door-ways surroundmg the t-iuks of Assassief, which are composed of two or more concentric semi- circles of brick, as well constructed as at the present day, and all the bricks radiate to a common centre." Mr. lloskins was of opinion that arches were constrncted long anterior to the time of the Ptolemies ; for in the pyramids of Ghebel Hirkel and Dunkalie, which were of more .incient date, both round and pointed stone arches were discovered. Mr. Perring stated that he found at Thebes some remarkably well-formed arches of 12 feet to 14 feet span, built in concentric half-brick rings, the bricks of which were marked with the name of Sesostris ; consequently they were upwards of 3180 years old.'" A representation of the tomb of Saqqura and its arched vault of stone, was given in the vignette of the 10 chapter of the third volume of Sir Gardiner Wilkinson's " Maimers and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians." The arch seemed to have been known to the Etruscans; and from the representations of their palaces and their sea- ports, the arch appeared generally to have been employed for moles and jetties. With reference to the knowledge of the arch among the Greeks, opinions were very contradictory. The researches of modern travellers had brought to light many curious remains of Cyclopean or Pelasgic architecture ; but in confirming the descriptions of the ancient cities of Mycena; and (Jrchomenos, they had left us stdl iu ignorance as to their actual knowledge of the arch. Mr. Rennie exhibited a series of lithographic prints, from drawings made by the late Mr. Dodwell during bis travels in Greece. They displayed the various doorways of Pelasgic fortifications, from the lintel of single stones resting on upright jambs, to the overlapping of the stones until they reached each other, in the form of a triangle, as in the gate of the lions, the entrance into the treasury of Atr.-eus, &c. But the most remarkable monument was the subterranean chamber, of which Mr. Dodwell's Uthographic plate gave an imperfect idea ; complete plans and sections of that extraordinary budding were given by Mr, Donaldson in the supplement to the •' Antiquities of Athens,'" ' from which it appeared, to have been constructed in the form of a parabolic cone, of 48 feet in diameter at the base and 44 feet 6 inches in height, by means of rings of regular masonry, overiapping each other until they reached the apex, where the aperture was closed by a flat stone. From this and other buildings of a similar kind, there was reason to infer that the ancient Greeks had very imperfect notions of the arch. Mr. Ivinnaird, in his o ine loiiowing umieiiaiuus VI lui; *u... "^ ^- , \_'?j . . J I. SpRuin to Mr. Rennie (dated Feb. 27, 1827). "The ancient bridge was constructed by the Romans for the use of foot-passengers, pack.mnles, and smaU carts drawn bjr oxen. Metres. English feet. Length of the arch ... 66 = '?'?'''?, Rre.idth .. . . . 5 = Ib'OUD Height ,, . . . IS to 10 = 59-058 to 61-339 "The arch was a segment of a circle, formed of volcanic stone, of little consistence. The bridge save way in the course of lime, but was upheld for fifteen years, by means ot buttress walls, H metres (= 'Jl-BS English feet) in thickness, and 10 metres (- 32-8 Eng- lish feet) in height ; and also by bars of iron, li.\ed in the wing wall, and through several courses of the arch-stones. The structure finally fell, aud a new stone bridge has been erected upon the same site, of which the following are the dimensioDs;— " English feet. Opening of the arch, (which is a semicircle) . 1.5U-9 Breadth of ditto 24-7 Height from the stream to the pavement . . B3'7 7 A section of this arc h is sliown in Part 1 of the " Theory, practice, and architecture of Bridges." Hann and Hosking. 8vo. Woale. London, 1839. B Robinson, in his " Travels in Palestine," mentions the remains of an arch over the valley of Kedron, at Jerusalem, supposed to have been 3.^0 feet span. o " illauners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians." Wilkinson. 3 vols. 8vo. Loudon, 1837. 10 Vide Minutes of Proceedings, Inst. C. E., for 1843, page 170. 1 1 " Antiquities of Athens," &c. Stewart and Revett, Supplement. Folio. Lon- don, 1830. 2i8 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [June, " Description of the Antiquities of Deles,"' -gave a representation of a portal or gateway on the ascent of ilount Cynthus, formed to support the wall of the ancient fortifications. The entrance was constructed with ten large stones inclined to each other, like those at the aperture into the great Egyp- tian pyramid. It was perhaps the earliest specimen of Pelasgic architecture in Greece, displaying the first step towards the principle of the arch. That it was known hy the Etruscans seeuied evident, from the remains of arches and hridges, now existing in the country of the Volsci in Italy ; and the re- searches of travellers in that country, within the last few years, had brought to light many curious examples, anterior to the period of the Cloaca; of Rome, and the tunnel of Albano by Ancus Martius. Mr. Rennie was of opinion, from his examination of the subject, that there existed no sufficient evidence, to establish the knowledge, or use of the arch among the Greeks. Mr. Page presented two sketches made by him of two arches at Cape Crio (Cnidus, Rhodes). These arches were semicircular, built of large stones re- gularly radiating from a centre, without any mortar in the joints, and stood among Cyclopaean remains, of which they apparently formed a part. He was of opinion, that the Greeks were aware of the properties of the arch. They evidently appreciated its form, for it must have been noticed by all travellers, how frequently the flat lintels were cut out on the under side ; several specimens of this existed in the sepulchral remains now in the British Museum. At Athens, he had noticed a very considerable excavation of a regular arched form through solid marble. Mr. Rennie obseived, that as more useful lessons were given by failures in construction, than by records of successful undertakings, he had caused a large drawing to be made, of the bridge of Boverie at Liege, showing its state at the time of the report upon it, by the commissioners appointed by the Belgian Government, when it was condemned, and was ordered to be reconstructed, at the cost of the contractor, which however had not yet been done. The bridge, which was built of hard, compact, niagnesian limestone, consisted of five arches of 78 feet span each, with a versed sine of 8 feet, which was between ith and ^oth of the span. The form of the arch was that of a segment of a circle of 100 feet radius, the angle of the springing was therefore 46° 45'. The abutments at either extremity were of rubble masonry, and were very deficient in weight and dimensions. The obvious con- sequnce of this want of due proportion was, that the abutments gave way, all the arches sunk at their centres, many of the stones nearly falling out, several of them were fractured in both directions, serious dislocations occurred in each pier, above the springings of the arches, and also down upon the cutwaters, and in spite of all attempts to remedy the defects, the bridge was condemned and was taken down, although it had cost upwards of £25,000. It was evi- dent that these flat arches were not well proportioned, and that the abut- ments were insufficient to support their thrust. It appeared also, from the report of the Commission (of which he presented an abstract, No. 672), that sufficient attention had not been paid to the quality of the workmanship, or in the selection of the materials employed. ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS. June 3. — T. B. Papworth, V.P., in the Chair. — Mr. C. II. Smith resumed the subject commenced on the 29th April, (see Journal, p. 200), " On the Magnesinn Limestones, especially u-itk reference to those employed in the New [ Houses of Parliament." — Previously to the Commission appointed to investi- U gate the choice of a material for the Houses of Parliament, the proper selec- tion of stone for building purposes with regard to its quality had been strangely neglected. Public attention was first called to this subject by Sir H. De la I Beche in 1835, and the inquiries, originated by that gentleman, resulted in '! tlie establishment of the Museum of Economic Geology and the Commission, of which Mr. Smith was a member. On the first preparations for rebuilding the Houses of Parliament, efforts were made by our neighbours in Normandy for the introduction of Caen stone, and a great number of specimens were sent, comprising stone of every quality, from the best to the worst, all pass- ing under the same name. In selecting the stone for the Houses of Parlia- ment, the Commissioners had to take into consideration a variety of circum- stances, independent of the mere quality ; as the situation of the quarries, the facility of water-carriage, and the assurance that the supply of stone would not fail during the progress of the work, and that the cost of labour upon it should not greatly differ from that upon the building stones in gene- ral use. Upon comparing the produce of many quarries, the Bolsover Moor stone appeared to the Commission to be the best adapted ; and as beds of stone of nearly the same quality extend over a tract of about fifteen miles from nortli to south, the quarries of North Anston were finally selected, as uniting in the greatest degree all the conditions demanded. In this locality an ample supply of stone lies at a depth of from ten to fifteen feet. Eight beds of stone of the best quality, are found lying nearly level, the uppermost affording blocks of four feet thick, and the remainder from two feet and a half to eighteen inches. The quantity of stone supplied from the Norfol Quarry at North Anston, between February 1840 and April 1844, amounted to 726,893 cubic feet. Mr. Smith made some remarks on the effect of lichen on the surface of stone, which has been supposed favourable to its preserva- tion. His own observation had led him to a different conclusion, as he had 12 •' Antiquities of Atli«ns,"&c, Stewart and Kevett, Supplement. Folio, Lon- don, 1830. found stone covered with lichen reduced to powder to the depth of a six- teenth of an inch on its removal ; and he suggested that the lichen had had the effect of absorbing some of the elements of the stone. In some speci- mens of magnesian limestone the lichen appeared to have taken up the lime and left the magnesian. June 7. — Right Hon. StukGes Bourne, V.P. in the Chair, Mr. Faraday " On recent Improvements in the Manufacture and Silvering of Mirrors,'^ — Mr. Faraday's subjects were : 1 . The manufacture of plate-glass. 2. The ordinary mode of silvering mirrors. 3. The new method of producing this result, lately invented and patented by Mr. Drayton. — 1. Mirrors are made with plate glass. Mr. Faraday described glass generally as being essentially a combination of silica with an alkaline oxide. The combination, however, presents the character of a solution rather than of a definite chemical com- pound, only it is difficult to affirm whether it is the silica or the oxide which is the solvent or the body dissolved. From this mutual condition of the in- gredients, it follows that their product is held together by very feeble affini- ties, and hence, as was afterwards shown, chemical reagents will act upon these ingredients with a power which they would not have were glass a de- finite compound. Mr. Faraday noticed, that as glass is not the result of de- finite proportionals, there are many combinations of materials capable of producing a more or less perfect result. Each manufacturer, therefore, has his own recipe and process, which he considers the most valuable secret of his trade. It is, however, well known, that the flint-glass maker uses the oxides 'of lead and of sodium, the bottle-glass maker lime, (an oxide of cal- cium) and the plate-glass maker, in addition to soda, has recourse to arsenic. Mr. Faraday then adverted to the corrosions which take place in tlie inferior qualities of glass, owing to the feeble affinity with which tlieir ingredients are held together. He stated, that from the surface of flint glass a very thin film of soluble alkali was washed off' by tlie first contact of liquid, leaving a fine lamina of silica, the hard dissoluble quality of which protected the substance which it covered. If, however, this crust of silica chanced to be mechani- cally removed, the whole of the glass became liable to corrosion, as in ancient lachrymatories and other glass vessels. Mr. Faraday illustrated this hy the corroded surfaces of two bottles, one obtained from a cellar in Threadneedle Street, where it had probably remained from the period of the great fire of London, another from the wreck of the Royal George. A still more striking instance of the instability of glass as a compound was exhibited by forma- tions in the interior of a champagne bottle, which had been filled with di- luted sulphuric acid. In this case the acid had separated the silica from the inner surface of the glass, and formed a sulphate with its ingredient, lime. The result was, that the bottle became incrusted internally \»itli cones of silica and sulphate of lime, the bases of which, extending from within out- wards, had perforated the sides of the bottle so as to cause the escape of the liquor it contained. Mr. Faraday referred to the long period of annealing (gradual cooling) whicli glass had to undergo as a necessary consequence of glass wanting the fixity of a definite compound. He concluded this part of his subject by describing the mode of casting plates, and the successive pro- cesses which gradually produce the perfect polish of their surface. 2. Mr. Faraday next exhibited to the audience the mode of silvering glass plates as commonly practised. He bade them observe that a surface of tinfoil was first bathed with mercury, and then flooded with it. That on this tinfoil Ihe plate of glass, having been previously cleansed with extreme care, was so floated as to exclude all dust or dirt ; that this was accompUshed hy the in- tervention of 4 in. of mercury (afterwards pressed out by heavy weights) be- tween the reflecting surface of the amalgam of the mercury and the glass ; and that when the glass and amalgam are closely brought together by the exclusion of the intervening fluid metal, the operation is completed. 3. The great subject of the evening was the invention of Mr. Drayton, which entirely dispenses with the mercury and the tin. (See last month's Journal, p. 206). By that gentleman's process, the mirror is, for the first time, literally speak- ing, silvered, inasmuch as silver is precipitated on it from its nitrate (lunar caustic) in the form of a brilliant lamina. The process is this : on a plate of glass, surrounded with an edge of putty, is poured a solution of nitrate of silver in water and spirit, mixed with ammonia and the oils of cassia and of cloves. 'Fhese oils precipitate the metal in somewhat the same manner as vegetable fibre does in the case of marking ink — the quantity of oil influencing the rapidity "f the precipitation. Mr. Faraday here referred to Dr. Wollas- ton's method of precipitating the phosphate of ammonia and magnesia on the surface of a vessel containing its solution, in order to make intelligible how the deposit of silver was determined on the surface of clean glass, not (as in Dr. W.'s experiment) by mechanical causes, but by a sort of electric affinity. This part of Mr. Faraday's discourse was illustrated by three highly striking adaptations of Mr. Drayton's process. He first silvered a glass plate, the surface of which was cut in a ray-Uke pattern. 2nd. A bottle was filled with Mr. Drayton's transparent solution, which afterwards exhibited a cylin- drical reflecting surface. And 3rd. A large cell, made of two glass plates, was placed erect on the table, and filled with the same clear solution. This, though perfectly translucent in the first instance, gradually became opaque and reflecting ; so that, before Mr. Faraday concluded, those of bis auditors who were placed within view of it, saw tlieir own faces, or that of their near neighbours, gradually substituted for the faces of those who were seated opposite to them. The INSTITUTE have resolved to award the following medals next year, to the Authors of the best Essays on the following subjects i — 1. On the system and principles pursued by th« Gothic architects from the 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. S49 nth to the 15th centuries inclusive, in the embellishment, by colour, of the architectural members and other parts of their religious and civil edifices. 2. On tlie various species and qualities of slates, with an analysis of their component parts, — their relative value and apphcability for building pur- poses, and the best chemical tests for ascertaining their durability. N.B. Each Essay to he written in a clear and distinct hand, on alternate pages, and to be distinguished by a mark, or motto, without any name at- tached thereto. Ihe Soane Medallion to be awarded to be awarded to the best design for a College in an University, of Roman or Itahan architecture, adapted for twenty fellows and four hundred scholars, with chapel, hall, retiring rooms, library, lecture rooms, and a theatre capable of containing one thousand persons. There must be provided a residence for the principal, a suite of four rooms for each fellow, and two rooms for each scholar, with suitable accommodation for the several inferior ofHcers ; likewise kitchen, scullery, buttery, and other requisite domestic offices. The building to be placed in an Area of about ten acres ;— the portion not occupied by the buildings to he laid out in gardens, courts, or terraces. The Council expect a design, the principal buildings of which shall be composed in a noble and imposing style, with the subordinate features form- ing an appropriate group. N.B. The general plan of the buildings is to be as large as a sheet of anti- quarian paper will admit, with two elevations and a section of the entire composition, to the same scale as the plan ; together with such other draw- ings to a larger scale, as the candidate may consider necessary for the perfect development of his design. The block plan may be to a smaller scale. The plans, elevations, and sections, to be tinted in India ink or sepia. The competition is not confined to members of the Institute. DIRECTIONS FOR CANDIDATES. Each Essay and set of Drawings is to be accompinied by a sealed letter, containing the name of the writer within, and on the outside the same motto as that attached to the Essay or Drawings ; this is to be enclosed in a sealed envelope, containing an address, to whicil a communication may be sent of the decision of the Institute, and directed — To the Honorary Secretaries of the Royal Institute of British Architects. Essay for fliedal (or) Drawings for Medal (Motto). The Packet, so prepared and directed, is to be delivered at the Rooms of the Institute, on or before.the 3lst of December, 1844, by Twelve o'clock at noou. The Council will not consider themselvea called upon to adjudge a Premium, unless the Essays or Drawings be of sufficient merit to deserve that distinction ; and, if the best drawings should be by a candidate who has been successful on a former occasion, the Institute reserve to themselves the power of adjudging such other adequate reward as they may think fit, and of awarding the Medals oh'ered to the second in merit. The Essays and Drawings, to which Premiums are awarded, become the property of the Insti- tute, to be published by them if thought lit. In case of the papers not being published within eighteen months after receiving the Medals, the authors will be at liberty to pub- lish them. THE ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS. June 10, 1844.— MuNGO Ponton, Esq., F.R.S.E., V. P., in the Chair. The following communications were made : — 1. " Oh the Uses and Ailaplation of Iron as a material for Building ;" with Drawings and explanation of the construction of the ilrst iron-house built in Great Britain. By William Fairhairn, Esq., Hon. Member, R.S.S.A., Engineer, Manchester. In this paper Mr. Fairbairn gave a detailed account of an iron-house constructed by hiin for the Seraskier Halil Pasha at Con- stantinople, to be used as a corn-mill. It was 36 feet long by 24 broad, and contained 48 tons of iron — ^was completely fire-proof — and, taking advantage of Mr. Hodgkinson's experiments on the strength of iron, he has given the difterent parts the greatest strength combined with hghtness of metal. Ex- cellent drawings, plan, section, and elevation were also given. Mr. Fairbairn introduces an inner coating of plaster upon coarse wire gauze, leaving four inches of space betwixt the iron exterior and the inner chambers, which guards against the extremes of heat and cold. Mr. Fairbairn also viewed the adaptation of cast-iron to architectural ornament, especially where enriched forms have to be frequently repeated — which affords great facility for the in- troduction of ornament at a moderate cost, and where hut for this it would be unattainable, he, therefore, called the attention of architects and engi- neers to the subject, and shewed that as iron is now extensively used in ship building, so it is well adapted in many situations, particularly where stone is scarce, to architectural purposes, and even where stone may be had in abun- dance, iron is well adapted for decorative purposes. — The thanks of the So- ciety were voted to Mr. Fairbairn, and his communication was referred to a Committee. 2. •' Observations on the Railways, and the Flax ond Cotton Manufactures ofBclc/ium." With Drawings. By John Anderson, Esq., Cupar-Fife, F.R.S.S.A. Mr. Anderson's paper was the result of a tour lately made in Belgium. After a few introductory remarks, he described the Belgian system of railroads, and gave the estimated cost of the difterent lines, and the anticipated cost of the whole establishment when the Government project shall have been fully completed. He enumerated the principal works of art, and stated the radii of the most important curves, and also the principal gradients. From this paper it appeared that the fares on the Belgian lines were considerably lower than those in this country, and that in 1839, when they were for a time raised, a great diminution of passengers was the result. The accidents that have taken place upon the difterent links throughout the country are com- paratively few, and when the number of passengers is compared with an equal number who travelled by the common diligence, the calamities by rail- way communication are found to be fewer, and the safety of the passengers in general much greater. The concluding part of the paper described the present state of the ftax and cotton manufactures in Belgium, and compared them with those in this country. Mr. Anderson believed that the Belgians had made great improvement in some of the manufacturing arts ; and he had no doubt that if they continued to show the same spirit of improvement which they had done for these two or three years past, they would soon rank among the most important manufacturing nations of Europe. — Thanks voted, and referred so a committee. 3. Description, with a Drawing, of a new Arrangement of a Canal LocH. By William Galbraith, M.A., teacher of mathematics, Edinburgh. — Mr. Gal- braith proposed a plan which had occurred to him some years ago, for the more speedily filling and emptying of Canal Locks. He proposes two side chambers, the one in connection with the upper, and the other with the lower reach, with sluices upon them, the effect of which is, that when the one is opened the water flows into the lock through numerous pipes of large diame- ter, along the whole length of the lock ; and when the other sluice is opened, and the former shut, the water in the lock is speedily emptied into the lower reach, by which a great saving of time is eft'ected, and the great agitation of the water in the lock prevented.- -It was remarked by the Secretary, that he understood that a lock on this principle had been introduced by Mr. Walker civil engineer ; and this was an instance which frequently occurred, where two ingenious men hit upon the same idea unknown to each other. Thanks voted, and referred to a committee. 4. Jji Elliptograph, on the trammel principle, was exhibited, by which an Ellipse may he formed of any given proportion and size, from half an inch to 18 inches radius. Invented by Mr. D. R. Hay. Communicated bv Mr. Alexander Bryson. — Mr. Hay exhibited the Elliptograph, and described it verbally, showing at the same time its mode of operation. It consists of a plane table of iron, having a trammel cut on the under side, into which two studs work, and these studs can be brought close together, or separated from each other, by right and left handed screws, while at the same time the arm bearing the pencd for describing the Ellipse is pushed outwards or drawn in- wards by another screw, A wooden table is fitted to the iron table, on which the paper is fastened ; and after adjusting the studs and pencil to the re- quired Ellipse, the table is turned round by the hand, and the pencil traces the Ellipse. Mr. Hay promised to give a written description and drawing of the machine. — Thanks voted, and referred to a committee. ON LOUD BEATS OF CLOCKS USED IN OBSERVATORIES. A paper by J. S. Eiffe, Esq., lately read at the Astronomical Society explains a simple and easily applied method of obtaining very loud beats for the astronomical clock. The mode of constructing the apparatus is as fol- lows : — Two pieces of thin brass are placed at the sides of the frame-work of the clock, in length the same as the space between the pillars ; in width, about two inches or more at pleasure ; the pieces are placed horizontally, at about the same altitude from the base as the axis of the escape-wheel pinion, and at right angles to it or nearly so. They should be made of such a size as would insure a sound, distinct, sharp, and short. The little tables can be made to any size. Upon these tables or plates two hammers ply, supported by arbors at the same elevation as all the others. The pivots should be made small for easy motion. The hammers are intended to beat upon the middle of each brass table simultaneously with the drop proper of the escape wheel ; through the agency of the pendulum, they are lifted alternately by the heels of the anchors of the pallets, assisted by a passing spring similar to that used in the chronometer escapement. It has just been observed, that the arbors which support those little hammers are placed at the same eleva- tion from the base of the brass frame-work of the clock as the escape- wheel arbor, hut at the sides, and as near to the edge as possible. About the centre, or midway between them, are affixed brass collets, about ^ of an inch in thickness, and ^ of an inch in diameter. Two slender pieces of spring are secured to the collets by screws passing through square holes formed longitudinally, to secure power of adjustment for bringing the arms into proper contact with the anchor of the pallets. The little hammers beat upon the plates or tables at one end, and at the other the lifting action takes place, assisted by the passing spring. The strokes upon these brass tables have a peculiar sharpness of tone, which can be accounted for in some mea- sure, when it is considered that they are very different from the sounds pro- duced by the teeth of the wheel itself ; in the dead-beat escapement, the teeth have a shding motion in the moment of drop, hut not impulse, for it is well known that that is subsequent to the sound. By such application it is proposed to obtain sound, so loud as to be distinct in the stormiest night ; but as the constant connexion of such apparatus would neither be desirable as concerns the action of the clock, nor pleasant to the ear as a companion, a mode has been introduced of readily detaching it altogether. By a certain method, which shall be explained, the hammers are raised from the tables at one end, and the arms at the other entirely disengaged from the anchor at the pallets, without inconvenience or disturbing action to the clock itself. The apparatus within is immediately, and at pleasure, acted upon through 250 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [June, the agency of a bolt, which is placed vertically, immediately over the GO minutes, or about two inches bacli, sufficiently long to reach a spring of hard brass vfhich is about half an inch wide, and which passes transversely over the frame-work of the clocli, and is fixed securely to the backboard of the clock-case. Now the mode in which tlie spring unites its action with the rest of the apparatus is by sUght cross-bars, wliich extend to the extremities of the sides of the frame, so that the ends are immediately over the ham- mers, with which they are connected by silk threads. Therefore, by pres- sing down the bolt before named, the hammers are allowed to fall into ac- tion, and do their duty simultaneously with the teeth of the wheel upon the pallets. While the little hammers are in action, the teeth of the wheel are no longer heard. The Astronomer Royal has examined the plan, and says that it answers completely for its proposed ]nirpose ; and that it appears likely to be very useful. Moreover, that the rate of the clock will not neces- sarily be disturbed during the time of its connexion — though that will greatly depend on certain conditions. ENERGIATYPE. A NEW PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESS. Mr. Hunt of Falmouth, has communicated to the Jthenietim the follow- ing notice. While pursuing some investigations, with a view to deter- mine the influence of the solar rays upon precipitation, I have been led to the discovery of a new photographic agent wliich can be employed in the preparation of paper, with a facility winch no other sensitive process pos- sesses. Being desirous of aflbrding all the information I possibly can to those who are anxious to avail themselves of the advantages offered by Photogra- phy, I solicit a little space in your columns for the purpose of publishing the particulars of this new process. All the Photographic processes with which we are at present acquainted, sufficiently sensitive for the fixation of the images of the camera obscura, require the most careful and precise manipu- lation ; consequently, those who not accustomed to the niceties of experi- mental pursuits are frequently annoyed by failures. The following statement will at once show the exceeding simplicity of the new discovery. Good letter-paper is first washed over with the following solution — A saturated solution of succinic acid . 2 drachms. Mucilage of gum arabic . . . 4 „ Water ij „ When the paper is dry, it is washed over once with an argentine solution, consisting of one drachm of nitrate of silver to one ounce of distilled water. The paper is allowed to dry in the dark, and it is fit for use ; it can be pre- served in a portfolio, and at any time employed in the camera. This paper is a pure white, and it retains its colour, which is a great advantage. At present,, I find it necessary to expose this prepared paper in the camera obscura for periods, varying with the quantity of sunshine, from two to eight minutes, although from some results which I have obtained, I am satisfied that by a nice adjustment of the proportions of tlie materials, a much shorter exposure will suffice . When the paper is removed from the camera, no trace of a picture is visible. We have then to mix together one drachm of a satu- rated solution of sulphate of iron, and two or three drachms of the mucilaffe of gum arahic. A wide flat brush saturated with this solution is now swept over the face of the paper rapidly and evenly. In a few seconds, the dor- mant images are seen to develope themselves, and with great rapidity a pleasing negatii'e photographic picture is produced. The iron solution is to be washed oft' as soon as the best effect appears, this being done with a soft sponge and clean water. The drawing is then soaked for a short time in water, and may be permanently fixed, by being washed over with ammonia — or perhaps better, with a solution of the hyposulphate of soda, care being taken that the salt is afterwards well washed out of the paper. From the pictures thus produced, any number of others correct in position, and in light and shadow, may be produced, by using the same succinated papers in the ordinary way ; from five to ten minutes in sunshine producing the desired effect. The advantages which this process possesses over every other, must be, I think, appa.ent. The papers are prepared in the most simple manner, and may be kept ready by the tourist until required for use ; tliey require no pre- paration previously to their being being placed in the camera, and they can be preserved until a convenient opportunity otters for bringing out the pic- ture, which is done in the most simple manner, with a material which can be anywhere procured. Anxious to give the public the advantage of this process during the beau- tiful weather of the present season, I have not waited to perfect the mani- pulatory details which are necessary for the production of portraits. It is sufficient, however, to say, that experiment has satisfied me of its applica- bility for this purpose. Prismatic examination has proved that the rays effecting this chemical change are those which I have elsewhere shown to he perfectly independent of solar light or heat. I therefore propose to distinguish this process by a name which has a general rather than a particular application. Regarding all photographic phenomena as due to the principle Energia, I would never- theless wish to distinguish this very interesting process as the Enehgiatype. I incloie you a fevr specimens of the results already obtained. The ex- ceeding sensibility of the Energiatype is best shown hy an attempt to copy engravings or leaves by it. The three specimens I inclose were produced by an exposure of considerably less than one second. REDCLIFFE CHURCH. It will be seen by public advertisement, that the vestry of the parish of St . Mary Redcli9"e again appeal to the public on behalf of the beautiful fabric of which they are the present custodians. They do not feel justified in entering upon so great an undertaking as the substantial repair of the church, until they have obtained a sum sufficient to insure the satisfactory execution of that portion of the work absolutely essential to the stability of the building ; and this sum they have fixed at ^7,000. The amount already raised we under- stand to be about £5,000, and latterly subscriptions have come in but slowly. We believe the public are not fully aware of the nature of the demand made upon them. They do not know that this magnificent fabric is crumbling away with a rapidity that must soon reduce it to ruin, if steps are not speedily taken to check the progress of decay, and support its declining masses. We can speak from observation, having carefully inspected the building; and we are sorry to say that the architects Messrs. Britton and llosking, whose re- port has been published, have not exaggerated tlie dangerous condition in which it stands. Tlie rotten state of the external stone-work is an evil only of second magnitude, yet one not to be fully appreciated without close in- spection. The Crockets, Finials, Ball-flowers and other ornamental works are crumbling away ; but, however, much we might regret their loss, as the stability of the fabric is little dependent upon them, there would be no im- perative necessity for repairs on that account j though it should be known that these do not wear away by imperceptible degrees, but are constantly falling in fragments of considerable size. Almost the whole of the exterior surface of the stone-work consists of a loose crust of soot and sand, the dis- integration of the stone having taken place to a depth of from one to three or four inches. But an evil of a much more formidable nature exists in the declension of the walls themselves from the perpendicular, in their unstable foundations, and the thrust constantly exerted by the roof to push them out- wards. The parts where this is most observable are the Choir, with its South Aisle, and the South Transept. The walls of the Choir (or what is called its clerestory) are supported on the piers and arches that separate it from its aisles, and its heavy groined roof has, of course, a tendency to thrust them outwards ; to this thrust of the roof the architect had applied the usual couu- teracting forces, pinnacles placed over those parts of the wall against which the ribs of the groining converge, to give the outward thrust a more down- ward tendency, and flying buttresses supporting the clerestory wall from that of the aisle, which in its turn was strengthened by strong buttresses, in stages. We doubt whether sufficient support was originally given to the clerestory ; but probably little injury would have resulted, if the stability of the outer walls and buttresses had not materially sutfered from the reprehensible prac- tice of digging graves close to their bases. This practice has destroyed the resisting power the walls would derive from foundations firmly set in the earth ; and the outward pressure of the flying buttresses, wliich convey the thrust of the roof from the walls of the clerestory to that of the aisle, has thrown the wall of the aisle, likewise, and its buttresses, out of the perpen- dicular. The clerestory, as we have already explained, was originally sup- ported from the wall of the aisle ; but as this can now scarcely support itself, it may be supposed it has become incapable of affording sufficient support to the other. Some bungler has been employed to remedy this evil, and has endeavoured to uphold the outer wall by connecting it by iron bars with the inner one ; thus each has now the office assigned it of supporting the other, which, as they both lean in the same direction, and not towards each other, it is impossible for them to do. The transept is in a similarly unstable state, but in that both the walls have an inclination to the westward. The muUions and tracery of most of the windows are so much decayed that it is with diffi- culty they have been held together. On going up the tower and upon the roof of the church, the manner in which the masonry is crumbling away becomes more apparent than from below. We observed one mass of stone, weighing fifty or sixty pounds, which had fallen very lately from the pinnacle at the South West corner of the Church, upon the Leads of the South Aisle ; it was part of a Finial, and the Iron Bar in its centre, which had been used to connect it with the rest of the stonework, had made, in its fall, a hole through the leads of the size of a hens' egg. Within the parapet at the top of the tower was a still larger fragment, which had likewise fallen within the last few weeks. A member of the vestry, who obligingly accompanied us in our examination of the build- ing, stated that it had fallen since he was last up the tower, which was not long since. In another place we observed a split down the centre of a pin- nacle, a large portion of which can scarcely fail to be detached by the first frost occuring after rain, and it will fall on the west side of the tower towards the street. It will be seen from what we have said that the question of the Restora- tion of Redchffe Church, is not merely one of what would be well in an a;s- thetieal point of view, but it is a question of whether the building is to stand or fall. And this being understood, we cannot entertain any doubt as to tlie jiberality with which the dwellers in the weat will come forward to support 1844.1 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 35t the vestry in the exertions they are'so creditably making. Very unjust as- persions have lately been cast upon Bristol for its alleged illiberality, merely from the thoughtlessness of a clever writer, who considered that she could not he wrong in abusing a city with a bad name. Bristol has a, bad name, and though very causelessly, tlie sooner it is retrieved the better. A Bristol merchant built Redcliffe Church; another rebuilt it when decayed; by another the beautiful Church of St. Stephen's was erected ; by another that of St. John; St. Werburgh by a fifth ; the church and convent of St. .lames too were built by private munificence ; and the names of Colston, and Spencer, and Forster, and many others, might be adduced to show what has been the liberality of the wealthy merchants of Bristowe, in times past ; whilst to this day no town is more ready in its support of all pious and charitable purposes, though it may, as yet, be behind some others in its patronage of the tasteful arts. We cannot believe that any real ditficulty will be experienced, in re- pairing, in the nineteenth century, when the wealth of Bristol has increased twenty fold, a church, which was erected in the fifteenth by the munificence of one of her sons, — " The mornyinge starre of Radcleve's rysinge raie, A true maune, good of mynde, and Canynge hight," The object is one in which the pious, and the useful, and the ornamental are all united ; the church has claims every way upon the people of Bristol ; but its claim as a temple worthy of the holy purpose to which it is consecrated, will be sutticient, it may be hoped, to insure it against being allowed to pe- rish through neglect. — Great Western Jdoertiser. MONUMENT IN ST. STEPHEN'S CHURCH, BRISTOL. This Monument is a very pretty subject for antiquarian discussion. It is older by a century than the church ; — it has been built into the wall probably after the erection of the church, and it is composed of parts that do not ap- pear to have been originally conjoined. Costume is not always an infallible guide in determining the period of the erection of an ancient monument, as it was not uncommon for persons to be represented in the dress they wore, though the fashion of that dress had passed away at the time the monument was erected. It is possible, there- fore, that the effigies now lying side by side, were originally so placed ; though several reasons would lead to the conclusion that the male figure formed no part of the original monument ; there may be a difference of 50 years in the date of their costume, as well as in that of different portions of the architec- tural work. From the manner in which this monument is built up, — the figures being on separate slabs, and the table-face of the tomb being without sides or back, and disjoined from the jsmb mouldings of the arch under which it is placed : it is certain that we do not see the parts in their original connection. The male effigy is one of the few specimens of a figure not attired in ar- mour. Such cumbent effigies have been hitherto considered as belonging only to Royal personages, with the exception of ecclesiastics who have their proper costume: but as this figure appears to be of about the year 1400, it may represent some wealthy burgess of Bristol. Wealthy he must have been, as sumptuary laws in Edward III.'s reign imposed restrictions upon such lux- uries as armour and monumental effigies. The female figure is habited in the Costume of Edward III.'s reign, about the year 1350. The architecture of the monument has the usual outline of that period — broad and low. It consists of a flat ogee arch, tri-cusped in the middle, with two smaller hanging cusps on each side — the moulding a simple fillet and hollow with square flowers at intervals. It had a crocketted ogee canopy, and a low crowned buttress on each side, probably similar to the Berkeley monuments in our cathedral. The base is either cut away or sunk under the surface, yet unopened, which is about 18 inches beneath the floor of the church. There seems no reason to think that the floor of the present church has been much raised. Under this monumental arch is no tomb, but only the face of an altar tomb. This face is separated by square buttresses into six very shallow com- partments, which contain mourning figures about 18 inches high — two are male, three female, in ordinary dress, the sixth is much mutilated, but may represent a kniglit by the canonical head dress. The square buttresses ter- minate in plain shields, and at the junction of these spring trefoiled ogee ar- ches with crockets and fiuials, forming canopies to the figures. We have described the arch and the altar tomb as far as their imperfect state will permit, and have only to add that they have been charged with co- lour as well as the figures recumbent on the tomb. As the effigies of two sous of Edward III., one in Vork Cathedral the other in Westminster Abbey, are the only published specimens of figures of the 14th century not in armour, this male effigy deserves enquiry as to the per- sonage it may represent. For the present we can only describe the figures. They are, as was the custom in the middle ages, in the attitued of prayer ; the hands have been placed together palm to palm, but those of the male fi- gure have been broken off above the wrists. The female effigy, which is on the inside, is partly built into the masonry of the wall, under a rough arch of later date than the front arch of the monument. This is the longer figure, and appears to be that for which the monument was erected. The head of the male effigy is uncoyeted— the hgir is patted in the middle and falls down in a single curl over the ears — the face is not that of a young man, though without whiskers, and having the moustache and beard but slightly marked. The dress consists of a doublet, buttoned down in front, fitting close to the body and reaching to the middle of the thighs ; round about the hips is an ornamental bawdrick, from which a dagger has been sus- pended on the right side. This doublet has a small cape over the shoulder, and leaves the neck to be covered by a loose collar ; the sleeves reach below the elbow, and beneath them appears a covering for the lower arm, towards the wrist closely buttoned. The legs wear close fitting hose, and the feet have pointed sandals of similar material. This costume belongs to the latter end of the 14th century. The feet rest upon a lion, and the head upon a diamond shaped cushion with tassels. The head of the female effigy rests upon a square tasselled cushion, and the feet, which are scarcely visible, against a dog. The head dress consists of a netted drapery of square form, beneath which appears the hair, braided each side the cheek. The hood, or veil, falls from the back of the head, and a wimple of linen encloses the chin and covers the whole of the neck and shoulders, except some strips in front of the neck. ITie body is habited in a surcote ; the sleeves are tight and close, up to the wrist ; the hands are without gloves or ornaments. The surcote as far as the hips, fits closely to the shape, but below enlarges in numerous folds ; the dress is not buttoned or laced in front, but two buckles of large size are placed low down the waist in front. The mantle or cloak is short, and stretches round the back and shoulders, being fastened by a cordon across the breast. This costume properly belongs to the date 1350, whereas the cos- tume of the male figure appears to be later. The different sizes of the figures and other things above mentioned, leave little doubt in the mind of the wri- ter that the monument is compiled of two separate ones, which have been put together in their present situation since the time of Henry VIII. Great Western Advertiser, S. C. F. IMPROVEMENTS IN SUBMARIME BLASTING AT S PITHEAD, Lieut. Barlow, the present executive engineer officer, at Spithead, who con- ducts the operations with no less zeal, intelligence, and activity, than his able predecessors, has tried numerous experiments in the firing of gunpowder by the voltaic battery, partly with the service charges used in breaking up the timbers of the wreck, in tin cans not usually exceeding from 441b. to 55 lb. of gunpowder, and partly with small esperimental charges of a few ounces, by desire of General Pasley, who wished to carry out Lieut. Hutchin- son's ingenious plan of firing submarine charges by one conducting wire only, instead of two, (See Journal, vol. vi. p. 337,J using the water of the sea to complete the electric circuit. In these experiments Lieut. Barlow first found that it was unnecessary to let down a piece of wire with zinc plates attached to it from the voltaic battery into the water, as had been done by Lieut. Hut- chinson, for the circuit was equally good when the wire alone was used ; and on repeating those experiments in General Pasley s presence, the correctness of this principle was sufliciently proved, but a difficulty occurred, which had not been experienced before — viz., that it required two plate batteries of ten cells each, to fire a charge at a distance of 200 feet, with the single wire, whereas one of Prof. Danicll's batteries of eight cells only, which is inferior in power to a plate battery of ten cells, had always fired submarine charges instantaneously in former years by the double wire, which circumstance had not been adverted to by Lieut. Barlow, as this was his first season. General Pasley, therefore, concluded that the firing charges with one conducting wire, instead of two, might diminish the power of voltaic electricity more than had been suspected last year, when this change was introduced so very late in the season, that there was not time to investigate the result of it in all its bearings ; and, consequently, he directed that two conducting wires on reels, the same that had failed in igniting a charge when attached singly to less than a twenty cell plate battery, should be attached to one plate bat- tery of ten cells, on the original principle used at Chatham and Spithead, from 1838 to the middle of 1843 inclusive, so that these two wires, well in- sulated, connected that battery and a charge at the bottom, without trusting to the water. On adopting this arrangement, instantaneous explosion took place, as soon as the circuit was completed. Thus the double metallic cir- cuit was proved to be the best for firing gunpowder, whether underground or under water, and will as such be exclusively used in all future explo- sions ; though for the purposes of an electric telegraph, which requires wires to be laid for many miles, and which needs infinitely less power than is necessary for the firing of gunpowder, water or moist earth, especially the former, may be used to advantage for completing the circuit, in com- bination with one wire only, extending the whole length of the telegraphic line. 252 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Junk, Launch of the Gipsy Queen.— The launch of this elegant iron steam-vessel took place on Monday, June 17, from the yard of Messrs. Samuda, at Orchard -pi ace, Blackwall. The vessel was announced to be launched at a o'clock, but the tide rose so fast that it became necessary to let her go at a quarter before 3. by which means a vast number of persons were disappointed in not being in time to see her enter the water. She went off in very trallant style, amidst the usual demonstrations of satisfaction. This vessel 13, we believe, the largest iron steamer ever built on the river Thames. Her length from the figure-head to the taffrail is 197 feet (! inches, and between perpendiculars, 175 feet; her breadth between the paddle-boxes is 24 feet. Her burden is 49G tons. Pre- viously to the launch wtf had an opportunity of examining the engines with which the Gipsy Queen is to be fitted. They were constructed at Messrs. Samuda's works at South- work, and are made in conformity vWth the patent obtained by those gentlemen ; they are of 240 h. p. These engines will be placed fore and aft, and not, as the engines of most steam-vessels are, on each side of the keel ; the cylinders will be directly over the keel, and being in one frame-work, all strain will be avoided on any part of the vessel ; their total weight, including boilers, &c., which are tubular, water and paddle-wheels, is only 87 tons, being little more than half the weight of the engines, Sic, in common use. This saving of weight is n great advantage, and is greatly to the credit of the patentee. The form of the steamer is calculated for great speed. She has a considerable rise of floor, and for a sea-going vessel (she is built for the Waterford Steam-packet Company, and will travel between London and Waterford) her lines are remarkably tine. She was much admired by several scientliic and practical men, who were present, and who examiued her very carefully. New Mode of Tracking on Canals.— It will be interesting to our scientific readers to learn that steam-tugs, with screw propellers, have now been successfully in- troduced on tlie Union Canal. An experiment with one of these steamers took place a few days ago, under the superintendance of the Company's able manager R. Ellis. Esq., in the presence of their chairman. Col. M'Donald, Messrs. Maxwell, M'Lagan, Burns, L'Aray, and Tennant, directors; BIr. Shaw, manager fur the Duke of Hamilton; Mr. Crichton, manager of the Forth and Clyde Canal; Mr. Glennie, manager of Moukland Canal ; Capt. Yuill, H.N. ; together with a number of other gentlemen interested in the result. The boats ave the first of the kind introduced into Scotland. They are built of iron by Messrs. John Reid and Co., Port-Glasgow; and the engines, screw-propellors, &c., are fitted up by Mr. William Napier, sen., engineer, Glasgow, The engines which were much admired, are on the upright principle. They communicate their power to the screws placed on each side of the bow ; and by a very nice arrangement of wheels with wooden and iron teeth (in order to prevent noise and vibration), they are driven at a great speed without creating any of that surge or wash on the banks which has hitherto formed the chief objection to the use of steamers on canals. The result of the experiment gave great satisfaction to all present ; and, independently of the gain in point of speed, it is calculated that there will be a considerable saving in expense, compared with the ordi- nary mode ot tracking by liorses. The steam-boat had attached to her six very large scows deeply laden, but it is capable of towing double the number without any material diminution of speed. The scows to be tracked are connected together by rods having a parallel movement, and all under the control of the steersman on board the steamer, so that the necessity of a separate rudder and steersman for each scow is avoided— the whole train moving along with a steady and uniform motion. After the company had been thoroughly satisfied as to the practicability and success o(* the scheme, which there is every prospect of being very generally adopted, they adjourned to the Star and Garter Inn at Linlithgow, where the Directors handsomely entertained them at dinner. The even- ing was spent in a rational and agreeable manner, the various scientific gentlemen present expressing themselves highly delighted with the experiment they had witnessed.— Glas- gow Citizen. m_' i Safefy Beacon for the Goodwin Sands —Dover, June 111. This clay the Trinity Buoy steam yacht towed off to its station on the Goodwin sands a stupendous safety beacon, designed and executed, we believe, by Mr. James Walker, C.E., under the auspices of the Trinity Board. The beacon is intended not only to be a guide to mariners but also a place of refuge for the crews of vessels cast away on the fatal Goodwin. It will be recollected that a safety beacon, the invention of Captain Bullock, R.N., was placed on the Goodwin Sands some years since, and still l>raves the storm. The one that has been towed out to-day is of larger dimensions, and will be placed on a different part of the sands. This beacon is an experiment, and we understand, should it succeed, it is the in- tention of the Trinity Board that similar fixed erections shall supersede floatings buoys. Mr. Walker's beacon consists of a strong iron column, about 40 feet high, based on a cir- cular platform of solid masonry, the latter being upwards of 20 feet in diameter. The foot of the pillar is bell-shaped, and tapers upwards to the extent of some six or eight feet. About the middle of the column there is a convenience, resembling a vessel's top, surrounded with an iron railing, capable of receiving, we should say, half a-dozen men, and on the summit is placed an iron basket, shaped like a balloon, which is also con- structed to contain about a like number of persons, should they be enabled to reach it, in the case of shipwrtfck. The column is tied down to the the stone-work by ironstays.and on it are fixed steps by which it may be ascended. The whole of the unwieldy machine is incased in a huge timber vessel, resembling a brewer's vat, in which it was built, for the purpose of floating it to its station on the sands. The sides of this wooden building are constructed in snch a way as to admit of their being removed on the beacon settling down in the sand. The bottom, on which the masonry rests, will, however, remain under the beacon. Daguerreotype Improvement. — At the Acadeinie ties Sciences a commu- nication was made by M. Daguerre, relative to some improvements in the Daguerrt^otype process, chiefly for the purpose of taking iturtraits, the ordinary mode of preparing the plates not being found sufficient to enable the operator to obtain good impressions. The improvement made by M. Uaguerrc requires a rather complicated process, but it is a very regular one, and has one decided advantage, for the artist is now trnabled to have a good stock of plates on hand, as the new preparation will remain for a very long time in a per. fectly fit state for use. The new substances of which M. Daguerre makes use are an aqueous solution of bi-cbolrure of mtrcury, an aqueous solution of cyanure of mercury, Oil of white jjetrolenm, acidulated Avith nitric acid, and a solution of platina aird chiorure of gold. The process is as follows ;— the plate is polished with sublimate and tripoli, and then red oxide of iron, until a fine black be obtained ; it is now placed in the horizontal plane, and the solution of cyanure previously made hot by the lamp is poured over it. The mercury deposits itself, and forms a white coating. The plate is allowed to cool a little, and after having poured off the liquid, it is dried by the usual process of cotton and rouge. The white coating deposited by the mercury is now to be polished. With a ball (tampon) of cotton saturated with oil and rouge, this coating is rubbed just sufficiently for the plate to be of a fine black. This being done, the plate is again placed upon the hori- zontal plane, and the solution of gold and platina is poured over it. The plate is to be heated, and then left to cool, and the liquid having been poured off, the plate is dried by means of cotton and rouge. In doing this, care must he bad that the plate be merely dried, not polished. On this metallic varnish, M. Daguerre has succeeded in taking some very fine impressions of the human figure, which were exhibited. The Centurion, 80, was launched at Pi.'mhruke on the 2n(I of May, and was docked on the following morning, and will be ready for sea within the pressnt month. She is a noble ship. The following are her dimensions : — Feet, Inches. Length between perpendiculars .... 190 0 Length of keel for tonnage ..... 155 'i Extreme breadth ...... 56 9 Breadth for tonnage ..... 66 0 Depth in hold ,.,... 23 4 Burden in tons, 2,589 ..... — — Light water draught forwarti .... 15 3 Light water draught aft , . , , . 10 9 LIST OP NB\V PATENTS. (From Messrs, RohertsorCs List J GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM MAY 25, TO JUNE 26,'1844. Six Months allowed/or Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed. William Augustus Guy, of Bloomsbury-aquare, bachelor of madicine, for " certain Im* provements in ventilation."— Sealed May 25. Charles Low, of Robinson's Row, Kingsland, for " certain Improvements in the makiug or manufacturing of iron and steel.*'— May 25. Charles Anthony Deane, of Poplar, for " Improvements in the constructing, propelling and steering vessels.— May 30. Robert Hazard, of Clifton, near Bristol, confectioner, for " Improvements in baths."— May 30. John Lee, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Esq., for "Improvements in obtaining products from sulphurets and other compounds containing sulphur." — May 30. James Fenton, of Manchester, engineer, for "an Improved combination or alloy, or improved combinations or alloys of metals applicable to various purposes, for which brass aud copper are usually employed in the construction of machinery." — May 30. Walter Noak, of West Bromwich, Stafford, colliery agent, and John Noak, of the same place, engineer, for " Improvements in the manufacture of salt, and in the apparatus to be used therein." — June 1. Edward Massey, of King Street, Clerkenwell, watchmaker, for " Improvements in ap- paratus for ascertaining the rate at which vessels are passing through the water, also applicable in ascertaining the rate at which streams or currents are running." — June 1. James Murdoch, of Staple Inn, Middlesex, mechanical draftsman, for "certain Improve* ments in the manufacture of gas, and in the apparatus employed therein." (Being a communication.) — June 4, William Henry Phillips, of Bloomsbury Square, Middlesex, engineer, for *' certain Im- provements in the means and apparatus for subduing and extinguishing fire and saving life and property, and in obtaining and applying motive power, and improvements in pro- pelling,"— June 4. George Chapman, of Claremont Terrace, Strangeways, Manchester, engineer, for "cer- tain Improvements in steam engines." — June 4. Henry Boden, of Derby, lace manufacturer, for "an Improvement in the manufacture of bobbin net, or twist lace."— June 4. Joseph Cowen, of Blaydon Burn, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, merchant, " for certain Improvements in making retorts for generating gas for illumination." — June 4. William Ward, of Leicester, hosier, and David Winfield Grocock, of the same place, framesmith, for " Improvements in machinery for manufacturing framework, knitted or netted work." — June 4. William ElHott, of Birmingham, button manufacturer, for " Improvements in the ma* nufacture of covered buttons." — June 4. Paul Griffiths, of Holywell, in the county of Flint, millwright, for " Improvements in washing the products evolved from furnaces," — June 4. Joseph Woods, of Bucklersbury, London, civil engineer, for '* Improvements in pro- dacing designs and copies, and in multiplying impressions, either of printed or written surfaces." (Being a communication.)— June 6. DaWd Cheetham, of Rochdale, Lancaster, cotton spinner, and Edward Briggs of the same place, hat manufacturer, for "certain Improvements in the manufacture of hats, and in macliinery or apparatus connected with such or similar manufacture." — June 6. William Higham, of Nottyash, near Liverpool, and David Bellhouse, of Liverpool, afore- said, merchant, for " Improved constructions of boilers for evaporating saline and other solutions, for the purposes of crystallization." — June 5. Edmund Morewood, of Thornbridge, Derby, merchant, aud George Rogers, of Stearn- dale, same county, gent., for *' Improvements in coating iron with other metals." — June 8. Elijah Galloway, of Nelson Square, Blackfriars' Road, Surrey, for "Machinery, for connecting axles or shafts, whereby when in motion they revolve at different relative velo- cities."— June 12. Thomas Farmer, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for "certain Improvements in the or- namenting of papier milche, and in manufacturing and ornamenting japanned goods generally." — June 12. George Kent, of Constitution Row, Gray's Inn Road, blind-maker, for " Improvements in machinery for cleaning, polishing, and sharpening knives, forks and other articles." — June 12. lHoses Poole, of Serle Street, Middlesex, gent , for " Improvements in wheels and axles." (Being a communication.)— June 12. John Swindells, of Manchester, manufacturing chemist, for " several Improvements in the preparation of various substances for the purpose of dyeing and producing colour, also improvements in the application and use of several chemical compounds for the pur- pose of dyeing and producing colour not hitherto made use of." — June 12. Alexander Simon Wilcott, of Manchester, machinist, for " Improvements in roving and spinning cotton, wool, and other fibrous substances." — June 18. Charles William Graham, of Kings Arms Yard, London, merchant, for " Improvements in manufacturing pathological, anatomical, zoological, geological, botanical and mineralo- gical representations in relief, and in arranging them for use." — June 18. George Wilson, of Saint Martin's Court, Saint Martin's Lane, stationer, for " Im- provements in the cutting of paper for the manufacture of envelopes, and for other pur- poses."— June 18. William Sutcliffe, of Bradford, York, manufacturer, for " Improvements In preparing, dyeing, sizing or dressing, drying and winding yarns and manufactured fabrics of wool, flax, cotton, silk and other fibrous materials." — June 19. Pierre Armand Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, of Skinner's Place, Size Lane, London, for " A new mode uf Locomotion applicable to railroad and other ways." (Being a comniuui- cation.) — June 21 . Thomas Lever Rushton, of Bolton Le Moors, Lancaster, iron manufacturer, for "cer- tain Improvements in the manufacture of iron." — June 21. Christopher Phipps, of River, near Dover, paper manufacturer, for "An Improvement or improvements in the manufacturing of paper, and in marking, writing, and other pa- pers, or in the machinery employed for those purposes." (Being partly a communica- tion.)— June 21. James Sharn, of Sheffield, manufacturer of Britannia metal articles, for " Improve- ments in the manufacture of metal dish covers and metal dishes." — June 24. Rees Davis, of Yetradgunials, Brecon, gent., for " Improvements in the manufacture of iron." — June 24. William Worby, of Ips\vich, for " Improvements in the manufacture of bricks, tiles and other articles from plastic materials."- June 24. Charles Maurice Elizee Sautter, of Austin Friars, gent., for " Improvements in piano- fortes,"—June 26. o S-' u J :.■ <- -» 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 2b3 GOLDSMITHS' HALL. (IVith Two Engravings, Plates X. XI.) Taken in general, the Halls of the Civic Companies contribute very little to the architectural appearance of the City, notwithstanding tint they are tolerably numerous, and that tlie bodies to whom they belong could very well afford to indulge their taste if they had any. Several of these buildings are so situated — forlunately perhaps, as it happens, rather than the contrary — that it matters very little what they are — externally at least, — they being quite concealed from public view, — buried in courts, lanes, and narrow back streets. It is only an old- fashioned portal or gatewav, with columns and a "crinkum-crankum" pediment and scrolls, that in many cases, gives any indication of any building of the kind being at hand. Old Goldsmiths' Hall, which so long as it existed, was buried in the labyrinthine intricacies of a mass of lanes, was of very frowzy appear- ance, and marked by a sort of quaint and picturesque ugliness. To give any description of it would not be easy, so exceedingly fantastic and outre was it in design — if such an architectural medley could be called design. ' " As soon, however, a? the Post Office was erected, and the houses at its rear taken ilowii, Goldsmiths' Hall made a somewhat forlorn appearance, and looked as if, after being so long pent up in an alley, it did not care to have the sun shine npoii it. What share — if any — this circumstance had in de- termining the Company to erect a new ' Hall,' we are unable to say, hut their former building was taken down in 1829, and the present structure forth- with commenced, from the designs of Mr. Hardwick, who has here produced a very noble piece of architecture, — imposing, both by the solidity of its con- struction, and the dimensions of its order ; dignified in aspect, and remark- ably rich iu character, as regards the sculptured trophies introduced over the five centre windows of the West front. It has indeed been objected, that the ground floor is too plain and too tame to accord with the richness .and boldness of the rest of the design ; a defect, however, capable of being easily remedied at any time, should it be thought worth while to do so. As to the building being so badly situated, as some would have us believe, we do not see any reason for particular dissatisfaction iji that respect. Although it does not stand in a main street, it is by no means shut out of sight, a view being caught of it from St. Martin's Le Grand ; and although it certainly comes behind the Post Office, it cannot be said to be concealed or crowded up by that building, there lieing quite sufficient space to view it in front, nor is it at all a disadvantage that there is not loo mvch. It is more to be regretted that the ' Hall' could not be placed parallel to the Post Office, at least, the degree of obliquity between them rendered less apparent." We fully — or even more than fully agree with what is said in re- gard to the lower part of the design of the exterior : even had the ground-floor been made a mere basement to the upper one, it would still have been quite out of keeping with the latter, had there not been some kind of dressings to the windows; but actually iiicorporaled as it is with the rest by being included within the order, its excessive nakedness causes the upper windows, &c., to look as much too heavy and overloaded as the lower ones are insignificant and mean. We are here struck by a strange incongruity aud perverseness of taste — moderu cockney or quaker-like no-style mixed up willi the bold manner and richness affected in the Roman palaces of the ITth century. Even the most uneducated eye must, we think, be offended at the very glaring discrepancy of parts here manifested. Accordingly we do not give the elevations of Goldsmiths' Hall, that is the exterior, as affording a study of design which may be safely taken as an exam- ple by others, but merely to show what it is, and by pointing out its defects to warn and caution against them. In the interior of his building, the architect has acquitted himself infinitely better, since that deserves almost unqualified praise, not only on account of the general magnificence and sumptuousness of its stale apartments, but also for an unusual degree of picturesque effect. As far as we are aware, the Grand Staircase has no rival in the metropo- lis, either iu any of the Clubhouses, or any other buildings public or private — certainly not in the British Museum, where — if anywhere at all something approaching to it, at least, might be expected. From the pl.ui alone, of course but au imperfect idea can be formed of its beauty, but without a plan even careful description, and that aided by a view, is not sufficiently explanatory. — And for description we will here again have recourse to the writer in the " London Interiors." " The entrance hall itself makes no great architectural show, it being treated merely as au outer vestibule, as which it is sufficiently spacious and handsome; still even here we have something to excite curiosity — a sort of promise of, and prelude to, still greater magnificence to come, as we catch 1 We Imnoiv this and some otiier extracts from the letter-pr*'s3 to Part XX\'III. uf the " London Interiors," uhicli contciins vieu's of the Grand Stairease, and the lian>]uet- ting or Livery Hall, the latter from a drawing by IVlackenzie. Those views, therefore, and our elevations and plan mutually aid each other in atl'urding an aieqnute idea of ttie structure, both externally and internally; and hardly need we recommeiui tile •' London Interiors" for tile manner in wiiich the literary part — if not, indeed uniformly from the hrst, in all the later parts, becaase our extracting so much sulHcicntly attests our gonl opinion. No. 83.— Vol. VII —July, 1844. imperfect glimpses of a splendid back-ground, showing itself — we will hazard the hull — iu lustrous dimness through the glazed oak screen which separates, yet without entirely disuniting, the Hall and Grand Stair- case. Nothing can be better managed than this arrangement, whether as regards effect or convenience ; without being altogether shut out of view even at first, the staircase does not come into view too soon ; and the vesti- bule having first to be passed, gives an idea of greater extent than if that and the Staircase formed a single open space. By being enclosed, the latter is rendered infinitely more comfortable : not only draughts of air, but the noise attending the anival of carriages and the setting down company, is cut off, and visitors can linger on the staircase in their ascent, without being exposeti to the gaze of attendants iu the hall. It certainly is a scene to hiiger in : most striking as is the coup d'reil, on first entering, and it is one of almost magical effect, a fresh architectural picture — a new combination, presents itself at every turn of the ascent ; and as you advance, the space shews itself greater ; nor is the full climax of effect gained until you have reached one of the side colonnades, and thence survey the full extent of the staircase from end to end, across the four ranks of columns." " Standing on this spot," viz, at the bottom of the staircase, the writer goes on to remark, " there is a striking degree both of expanse and loftiness over-head ; to the first of these the depth of the colonnades and upper log- gias contributes in no small degree, for had the design been in all other respects just the same, but with only a single line of columns on each side, the effect would have been considerably less — different, in fact, as to kind, as well as to degree, and of by no means so striking and unusual character. The scenic effect thus produced is considerably enhanced by the mode in which the light is admitted entirely from above — over the centie division, through three large arched windows beneath the dome, on the south, west, and north sides, and over each of the loggias behind the columns, through three compartments in the flat ceiling, filled in with diapered and stained glass, and therefore highly ornamental in themselves, and also tasteful novel- ties in design." This is by no means all which is said in the way of either descrip- tion or comment ou the subject of the Staircase, but we do not con- sider it necessary to quote more, for were we to help ourselves to what would suit our purpose, we should reprint all that is said in the publication. Still we cannot refrain from taking, if n.t the whole, a considerable portion of what is said of the Banquetting Hail, and do with the less scruple, because we think that tve are rather serving the publication which we thus make use of, by making many of our readers now first aware of its existence. " On the west side, or that facing the windows, the two extreme inter- columns are occupied by the doors communicating with the loggias of the staircase, consequently the stylobate is there of necessity interrupted : in the three other intercolutnns are as many full-length portraits, viz., that in the centre of William IV., by Sir Martin Archer Shee ; to the right of him Queen Adelaide by the same artist, and the other, that of her present Majesty, by Sir George Hayter. The north end of the room, wliich is that shown in our view, presents what is both a novel and characteristic feature, as well as a striking one in the general coup d'ceil, as seen on first entering from the op- posite end — namely, the large niche serving as a beaufet. This is hung with scarlet drapery in folds, on which the light falls from above through a glazed semi-dome; yet, although happy in idea, this last does not produce in the day-time all the effect which it might have done, had that opening been filled with warm amber-coloured glass. The appearance, however, is most superb of an evening when, ou the occasion of a han»|uet, this recess is decked out with what has been called ' the very best edition of Goldsmith's Works' — the Company's magnificent array of plate, rendered still more dazzlingly splendid by the intense lustre poured full upon it, by lights which themselves are not seen by the spectator. " Turning now in the opposite direction, to the south end of the room,om- admiration abates very considerably, for that is so difl'erent in design and character from all the rest, as not to seem to belong to it. Here we behold an oak screen, with Corinthian columns and pilasteis, over which is an open gallery : the order, indeed, is the same, hut of very difl'erent material and colour, and being of one uniform colour throughout, this screen contrasts far more strongly than agreeably with the scagliola columns along the sides of the room. The general design or ordonance of the room is, besides, dis- turbed by it, as its order is upon a smaller scale, and quite unconnected with the larger one. This screen carries a quaint old-fashioned look, expressive enough of olden times and civic customs, yet ill assorting with the more re- fined and elaborate splendour of the room. We do not, however, at all attri- bute it to the architect's own taste, but suppose that it was forced upon him as a point of etiquette." It must be confessed that the oak screen mars the general design of this noble room. Far better would it have been had the order, and the screen formed by filling up the lower part of the intercoluuins to the same height as the present screen, leaving the upper parts and the capitals of the columns, insulated, which while it would not have been attended witb any inconvenience as regards the music gallery over the screen, would have been a decided and very great improvement in respect to uniformity and biBauty of ensemble. At present the screen has too much the look of not belonging to the rest, but of being built up into the room ; and the gallery over it, too much like an awkward and unsightly gap in the design. 22 254 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [July, OBSERVATIONS ON ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURE. By Henry Fulton, M.D. No. 11. It must be stated, although it is with grief I do so, yet without the fear of contradiction, that the state of architecture is far behind that of all the other branches of science and art. With us, its character, without possessing anything noble, is almost degraded into the mere art or trade of building. Some architects, fearful it may be of expos- ing their own ignorance, discourage the attempts of amateurs to raise the character of the art, when these latter endeavour to do so by urging the necessity for a more extensive knowledge of its principles, and a closer adherence to the best examples of antiquity ; but, instead of tlieir being hailed as auxiliaries, they are stigmatised, or at least treated, as inlermeddlers and idlers. To prove that a lamentable state of ignorance with respect to useful knowledge prevails, we need only refer to Professor Donaldson's expose of the circumstances attending the eleclion of an assistant surveyor for the Westminster Commission of Sewers : out of thirty-three candidates who were to be submitted to an examiniilion, six oiily were selected as competent to go to the election, all of whom were engineers ; indeed, it would almost appear thi;t the architects feeling their own incapacity had bolted on reading the paper containing the proposed questions. The publicity of such a circiim?tance as this, ought to excite the laudable emulation of the profession ; and although it would be unfair to judge of u whole pro- fession from the deBciency of a few individuals, yet unhappily it may be brought in aid to support a generally received opinion that the architectural profession is behind most others in the acquirements of both general and the higher walks of professional knowledge. Of course, it must be admitted, even by those inimical to the art, (if such indeed there be,) that to this observation there are some bright excep- tions—to such I would now address myself, and beg of them to put their shoulders to the wheel and extricate the good machine out of the mire, into which the incapacity of some, and the apathy of others, have suffered it to sink. That the acquirements of our modern architects, in the merely me- chanical branches of the art, are respectable, 1 fully admit; the pres- sure from the builders sufficiently secures that ; and if the latter class saw, or could persuade others 'to see, that those who assumed the station of directors had no superior qualification to fit them for the office, they would soon throw off all subjection: of this propensity there is a striking example in another profession, which in many in- stances has been too successful. Then to mend matters, Mr. Gwilt (of whom more anon) has made an attack on amateurs, who would naturally be your allies, a force by no means so contemptible as he supposes, a force though small in number they may be, yet possessed of some of the material requisite for such a contest ; that amateurs can write, and write well, I may mention Dallaway, Hope, Willis, Whewell, and other "literary idlers of both Universities ;"— that amateurs can design, I may mention Lord Burlington, and the Noble President of the British Institute, although, from what I have seen of the former, and have heard of the latter, I cannot mention either with much pride, but within these few days I have seen a composition of a non-professional, which I much doubt if there be many architects amongst us who could equal it for the chasteness, simplicity and har- mony which an ornate design should possess. Go to the Hall of Commerce and see what I mean, it is in the immediate vicinity of the Bank of England and the Royal Exchange, both of which buildings probably cost thousands for the hundreds expended on the former, and yet we "have in it what we may in vain look for in the others. It is true Mr. Moxhav has hung a solitary effigy of a cocked hat above the door, apparently in compliance with the Palladian predilections of the profession; if he will take this away, he will remove all that mars a very creditable design. I understand that the Noble President's de- sign, before alluded to, is a Louis Quatorze castle, if so, his Lordship shews great good sense in resisting the solicitations of those friends (?) who have recommended its publication. Architects should be more communicative, they must not be so shy in writing, but let them in every way support their own journal, and through i(, as the best medium of communication, improve, guide and direct the public taste, so as to enable the uninitiated to discriminate. It is a thing much to be wished for that the profession would avail themselves of such a vehicle more than they appear to do. A subject most useful and improving in itself, may not admit of being elongated into a book, vet may make a good paper in a scientific journal, and in such a form be more extensively read and canvassed. Perhaps it may be said that architecture is not a liberal profession, if so, the sooner it ecomes one the better, otherwise it must be a mere trade. I do not want books or papers written with the title of "Every Man his own Architect," I only want treatises to direct the taste of tlie public, not their trowels; if architects will do this, then their own acquirements must keep pace with the improvement they desire to effect in others, which in itself must lead to an advancement of the art far more bene- ficial than wasting time in dreaming over " a collection of all the edi- tions of Vitruvius," or writing works which ought to be placed in the " index expurgatorius," alluded to in Observations No. 9. _ II. Some time ago a writer in the Foreign Quarterly Review be- , stowed some praise on the naissant taste for the revival of architec- I ture in Germany ; no sooner does this meet the eye of Mr. Gwilt than 1 he rushes into print, and fulminates against "amateurs and hterary idlers," on the supposition that the article in question was the offspring of a non-professional pen. In taking up an offensive position against these intermeddlers, Mr. Gwilt serms to have totally overlooked in a military point of view, the necessity for taking care that his own lines should be capable of being defended, in case of an attack, even from so humble an assailant as the writer of these observations. At the end of the article given at page 139 of this volume, a question is put to Mr. Gwilt, which he has not answered, it may therefore be inter- preted to mean that he cannof, answer the question ; and so let him rest; "York Stairs" will do for his monument, but when next he ad- vances to attack " mere amateurs" let him recollect that he has left one unanswered behind. In speaking of monuments, let me beg Mr. Gwilt's pardon whilst I digress to remark the omission of a writer in a late number of this journal on that subject, namely the outrageous violation of propriety in putting the pro Crista insignia of martyrdom on Johnson's monument in St. Paul's; as well might a cross-legged effigy be placed on the tomb of some knight-errant who, under the guidance of a second Peter the Hermit, had engaged in a crusade to drive amateurs out of the would-be preserved field of architectutal knowledge. Certainly the Dean and Chapter of Westminster might have admitted the statue of Lord Byron with more propriety than their brethren of the other Chapter did this— as to Byron, his genius is above all defence, some of his errant writings below it; let us, in charity, whilst we admire and do honour to the one, pity and regret, but not magnify, the others. in. " Architecture" occupies a very respectable portion of the cata- logue of the present exhibition at the Royal Academy, namely, from number 1046 to 1264, thus we ought to have no less than 218 archi- tectural designs; but what is the fact of those which have any thing to do with the art, there is not more- than one fourth of that number. The first exhibit under the head of "Architecture" is the portrait of a General Officer, which has nothing to do with the art except having a cocked hat, which may be considered by some as a model for a win- dow pediment, and the last is a portrait in wax of a lady deceased, who may have worn a pulvinato, such as we see represented above the windows of the Reform Club ; in fact there is only a sprinkling ol stricllv architectural designs, and the greater part of these would have been better at home. We are favoured with a design by Mr. Pap- worth, for a collegiate edifice. He has shewn in this, by his broken entablatures and non-supporting columns, an inveterate leaning to the Palladian school, and by leaving the columns unfluted (even in a fancy design), a total want of perception of the beautiful in architectural composition. It will answer very well, however, as it stands, for a ehattau en Espagne. Another design is a proposed, or as I rather hope only a supposed, addition to the Banqueti'ng House at Whitehall, by Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon. Inigo Jones design is bad enough, and his architectural sins numerous enough, but in the supposed addition they are not only perpetuated, but others are committed from which the Banqueting house is free, namely, broken horizontal cornices and a window like that of the East end of St. Martin's Church and the one in the Gresham Club, spoken of at page 98 of this volume. If I err in condemning this description of window, at least I err in good com- pany ; Professor Hosking, in his excellent treatise, says — " The large circular headed with two conjoined smaller rectangular windo ws found in the later works of the Italian school, and called Venetian' is radi- cally inelegant." Mr. Barry's views of the New Houses of Parliament are by far the best designs exhibited, and on the Palace of Westmin- ster he may base his claims for fame ; but we regret to see in the edifice itself, that in neither his pointed nor four centered arches has he chosen the most pleasing forms; the former are generally too obtuse and the latter not flat enough; the finials on the minarets are, to our eyes, rather too much Byzantine, and not the light srial things which should accompany the pointed style. Tin; machicolated attic of the interior court is rather heavy ; we mention what strikes us as defects, the beauties of the building itself must be seen to be rightly appre- ciated. IV. The Irish Institute of Architects has taken a step in advance of the British; on the 23th ult. Sir Richard Morrison, the Vice Presi- 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL. '^oo dent, delivered a lecture ' as it was called, but which was rather an oration in praise of the art, and indeed with a little variation of names it would answer equally well for an oration in praise of any thing else. It had little which was peculiarly applicable to the art, not a single drawing nor model was exhibited. Many things were stated which were perfectly true, but nothing that was at all new; and we much donbt if any of the small, but respectable and attentive, audience have been more fortunate than ourselves in carrying away a single new idea on the subject. It put me in mind of the late Lord Casllereagh's speeches in the House of Commons, all he said appeared to be to the purpose, but the moment he ceased speaking it was impossible to re- collect anv thing that he ha.l said. Still the Vice President is en- titled to the thanks of the public and the profession for breaking the ice, and setting an example which he intimated would be followed up by others of the Institute. The only point at all forcibly urged (and vjith which we fully agree), was that proper edifices could only be built by properly qualified persons, and that it was not proper to put architects' plans into the hands of builders. He also stated "that a few but surpassingly beautiful edifices have been erected in Dublin," but to our great regret omitted to mention where we could find them out. A high encomium was passed on the late President Lord Vesey Fitzgerald, but we do not recollect any mention being made of our own proper exertions to bring into notice the beautiful facade of his Lordship's Antrim house, see page 97 of this volume. Clonmon, Dublin, July, 1844. 1 A copy of the oration has come into our poaaesBion, which we have giren in another part of the Journal. ON THE GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF ROTARY ENGINES. There has been a prevalent opinion from the time of Watt to the present, that if any grand improvement of steam engines be intro- duced, it will be effected by causing the steam pressure to produce rotatory motion immediately nithout the intervenlion of a crank. This opinion has however received great discouragement from the high authority of Tredgold, and in his condemnation of rotatory engines, he has committed in one instance, such an important error in mechani- cal principles, that attention ought to be called to it. Throughout his great work on the steam engine, Tredgold excuses his brevity in noticing various rotatory engines on the score of prac- tical objections, such as leakage, friction, and the difficulties of con- struction. Not content however with these 7?rac^/ca^ objections, he attempts to prove theoretical objections also ; these are now to be considered — of the practical objections no more need be said at pre- sent, than that he seems to have overrated them, owing to his sup- posed discovery of an error in the first principles of rotatory engines, and that his objections after all can only extend to those rotatory en- gines known and examined by himself. It seems impossible for him or any one else to predicate a priori practical objections to an unex- amined engine. The same objections have been made long ago to reciprocal engines, and arguing abstractedly, there is no reason on earth for assigning greater difficulties to rotatory than reciprocating engines. With regard to the practical difficulties, then, experience can alone guide us ; all we can safely say is, that in all rotatory en- gines Ai/fcrto known, great practical difficulties do exist: this does not affect future discoveries. With regard however to Tredgold's theo- retical objections, something more may be said ; because if those objections were cor- rect, they would affect not only all present, but also all future constructions. His ob- jection, which is not expressed very clearly, is this — " The pressure on an inch at the most distant part C, from the centre of mo- tion is the same as the pressure on an inch at the part E nearest that centre. But since the piston is constrained to move in a circle, the effects of these equal pressures are as their distances from the centre of motion, and limited by the effect of the pressure at the most distant part C. If the centre of curvature were nearer the side of the vessel, the effect at E would be less. Therefore the effect of the pressure to produce motion is less than in a straight vessel having the same base ; and if the bases be the same, the space the pressure acts through will be as the quantity of steam, consequently the quantity of steam being equal the power of rotatory action, will be less than that of rectilineal action." P. 158, sec. IV. He then proceeds with an analytical investigation, and concludes the power in the rectilineal engine to be greater than that in the rota- tory ; his reasoning is however vicious in principle. This error in the analytical investigation cannot be better explained than in the words of his own Editor Woodhouse, whose observation, being among the errata of the work, has frequently been overlooked. "Tredgold has here made use of the moment of the pressure of the steam, instead of the actual pressure on the parts. The force at the distance x from E >s/y, d x, which multiplied into 2 v (r -\- x), the space described, gives 2/' ir )/ d x ()■ + *); and the integrate xs/t a y (2 r-|- a), the power expended at each revolution. It is hence plain that no power is lost, the factor -a a y [2 r -\- a) being the volume of steam employed at the pressure/, risthe distance D E, 2/ the breadth of the piston, y the pressure on a square inch. The above calculation by Woodhouse, shows the quantities of power exerted by equal quantities of steam are the same in rotatory and re- ciprocating engines. To understand the important error of Tredgold, it may be observed that the " moment of pressure," is " the pressure multiplied by the length of leverage by which it acts," and this quan- tity Tredgold has mistaken for the pressure itself. To explain, without mathematical reasoning, we must consider what is meant by the phrase " loss of power." It does not mean that of pistons of equal size, tl'.e reciprocating piston will produce most force. This is not the question — it is rather whether, when equal quantities of steam are employed, the reciprocating engine has most force. This distinction, simple as it is, explains the whole difficulty. The pressure on an inch at E in the above figure, has certainly less force than pressure on an inch at C, and if E were very near the centre D, the pressure at E would produce scarcely any effect whatever. To compensate this, however, the parts at E describe less space in their revolution than those at C, and consequently require less steam. And it is found by mathematical investigation that this compensation is so exact, that •vihete equal quantities of ileam are employed, the force is exactly the same in both kinds of engines; in fact this conclusion might have been suspected beforehand, by considering that if power were lost, it must have expended itself somewhere, and this could only be by one of these two ways — either by the escape of the steam, or by its being employed to produce motion in something else besides the piston — both which suppositions are excluded from the investigation. There is however another way of viewing the matter in which there is a positive gain of power on the rotatory system. It is known that in all reciprocating engines the number of strokes per minute is limited, and the larger the piston, the greater the difficulty of increas- ing the number of strokes. This arises from the momentum acquired by the piston's motion in one direction having to be destroyed before it can return. The direction of the motion is constantly changing, and it is obviously more difficult to make a large body move up and doimi rapidly, than continue the motion always in one direction. Hence arises the well-known contrivance of cutting off the steam before the stroke is completed : if the pressure were not stopped, the piston must violently strain the connecting crank, or must be met by a great pressure of steam on the side opposite. Now although by cutting off the steam, no power in one sense is lost, because no steam is lost, still there is a loss of time, owing to the steam being unemployed during part of the stroke, and the rapidity of the engine is conse- quently limited. In a rotatory engine however, the motion would be always in one direction, and would be constantly accelerated by the steam. There are other advantages which may be expected from a practi- cable rotatory engine. It may be concluded from these already pa- tented, that such au engine would have little external machinery, that is, all the moving parts would be contained in the steam chamber con- taining the piston. Hence might be expected these immense advan- tages— the great diminution of the weight and bulk of the engine — and consequent on the simplicity of the mechanism would be the facility of making it, and the diminution of the danger of getting out of repair. When the great desideratum of a practicable rotatory engine has been accomplished, a new era in the history of the steam engine must commence. Correct theoretical principles must prevail when the practical difficulties have been overcome. That there are no theore- tical disadvantages may be mathematically demonstrated — of the practical difficulties it is illogical to \txeA\c3.\,e generally. It is a com- mon custom to do so, because rotatory engines already tried have failed. But until some proof can be shown of the necessary difficulties of the rotatory principles, this condemnation must be considered an unreasonable generalization. There were full as many in the veay of reciprocating engines, but the perseverance of Watt did that for re- moving the practical difficulty which his genius did for removing the theoretical. H. C. 22* 256 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [JutY, THE WESTMINSTER HALL EXHIBITION. Within the last month has been opened at Westminster Hall, the exhibition of fresco painting and sculpture for the decoration of the New Parliamentary Palace ; the frescos being an extension of the cartoon competition, the sculpture a primary competition. If opinions were very various at to the merits of the cartoons, still more discord- ant are those with regard to the frescos, though when carefully exa- mined they all show the same real result. The large artistic faction, attached to oil and water colour, unwilling, often unable, to try a new medium, have been consistent in decrying fresco and those who have the courage to practice it. Many critics and connoissenrs of extensive learning, well acquainted with the fine works of the great fresco mas- ters of antiquity, have determined to gage the exhibitors by the standard of Michael Angelo and Raffaelle, and to denounce it if, as was sure to happen, it did not in merit come up to the limit so as- signed. These parties too have in many cases vehement prejudices in in favour of oil, and strong misgivings as to the genius and capabili- ties of English art, being generally laudatores tcmpora act), and pre- pared to maintain the supremacy of old masters, because old masters. There are others again who without any pretension to knowledge of art will, more vulgari, apply their noses to the frescos, and finding they have often a coarse plaster surface, pronounce instant condemna- tion. Hence it was a matter of course if there were strong denuncia- tions of the trashy character of the cartoons, the condemnations of the present exhibition would be loud and deep. This, however, as we have before intimated, does not disturb the real conclusion. It must be palpable to the least reflecting that in a country where historic art was uncultivated, and the manipulation of fresco universally unknown, no immediate exhibition could result in the production of master- pieces, neither was it contemplated by the Commission of Fine Arts. The best that could result, and what has resulted has been to show the capabilities of English artists for learning, and to show what they can do with the benefit of time, practice and opportunity. These are exhibitions not to be judged by their immediate effect, but by their ultimate tendency, and it is plain it can be but justice to award to them praise or blame in conformity with the circumstances. Hence while those who had fixed too high a standard of comparison have pronounced condemnation so decided, others not less intimate with art, not less learned in its traditions, or less conversant with its works, have expressed their extreme contentment and their great thankful- ness, that such and so much talent is to be found in the country, capa- ble of making such progress in so short a time, and of doing the greatest honour to the country and themselves in the future. This too is the feeling of the members of the commission, men who have had to contend with all the prejudices of their own predilections and with the insinuations of their artistic a-.sociates and counsellors, mak- ing them in the first instance unwilling and mistrustful ministers of the public voice, but now feeling more confidence at every step, and more satisfaction at the gratifying results of their proceedings. The whole affair has been an attempt to make out a case for the employ- ment of art and English artists— the exhibitions have been virtually legal pleadings to show cause why such a rule should be granted by the supreme authorities, and it is evident with success. When it is considered that the members of the Royal Academy, those by their talents and position at the head of art, have, with about half-a-dozen exceptions, held back from this competition from motives which do little credit to them, and are an insult to the country, it is naturally to be expected that the talent available for a competition will be much restricted in number, while with regard to sculpture an unfortunate indulgence has tended very much to reduce its character. With a view to diminish the labour and expense of those sculptors who might compete, works were allowed to be exhibited, which had been executed within five years prior to May in last year. The effect of this has been not to relieve the poorer artists, but prevent artists of eminence having capacious studios from sending in original works of importance, while it has filled the hall with nymphs sleeping, boys bathing, Greek, Roman and other gods and saints, which are not pro- per subjects for the place of meeting of the imperial English legisla- ture. Artists are, as it is, little enough disposed to execute works of high character, calling forth the resources of intellect, so that instead of encouragement being given in their usual meretricious pursuits, every care should have been taken to exclude those whose works showed want of sympathy with the noble purposes, to which art is called upon to apply itself, in that edifice. Two things should be strongly enforced, the selection of a suitable subject and its proper treatment, or if we are to judge from what we now see, the most aw- ful perpetrations of ignorance will disgrace that very cradle of our history and liberty, an English House of Parliament. To pass over Boadicea and the Britons being represented as Romans, Greeks or English instead of Celts, King Alfred with the countenance of an Athenian or a Jew, and Jews with English features, there are nume- rous works strikingly inappropriate. IBeatrice Cenci meditating the murder of her father, a Roman Contadlna, Recollections of Naples, a Bacchante, a wounded Greek, KUchurn Castle, are wlth"many others equally irrelevant in character to be found among the frescos. There are also numerous scripture pieces, the relevancy of which to the Eng- lish constitution, may very well be questioned. What principle of English law, administration or glory, is illustrated by Samson slaying Philistines with the jawbone of an ass, we cannot^conceive, neither do we find greater appropriateness in its courtiers. We question too the propriety of such works as the deeds of Cassivelaunus, Boadicea or Caractacus, because they have nothing to do with the national history, however rightly they would be introduced in an illustration of local history. If we rightly comprehend the subject, the Palace of West- minster, the seat of the Imperial Legislature, is to be appropriately decorated in accordance with its history, its character and its func- tions. Ancillary to these are decorations illustrative of the national glory as expressed in deeds of arms, the works of poets and authors, the discoveries of philosophers, and the inventions of mechanics. The functions and actions of individual members of the legislature, how- ever trivial, may in this case be appropriately represented, while many important local actions must be excluded. While the pageants and personal deeds of Kings of England and Scotland, make legitimate pictures, the deeds of King Cassivelaun, Vortigern, Brian Boru, or Llewellyn, are strictly inappropriate. Thus too we may admit a Council of Ancient Germans as exhibiting the germ of English liberty, while the councils and legislative bodies of Ancient Britons and Irish, as having no connection with the constitution and no influence upon it, would only suggest solecisms and anachronisms. Strictly speaking the conquests of Ireland and Wales would be appropriate constitutional subjects, but a feeling of delicacy would suggest the exclusion of such. We think it necessary to make these remarks, as artists generally show such deplorable ignorance of the national his- tory, and particularly of its constitutional bearings, hence such lament- able nonsense, as a "Council of Ancient Britons, Nucleus of the Bri- tish Parliament," in which an artist of merit has completely wasted his time. No student, however careless, of Hallam or Palgrave, could make such a deplorable blunder, and indeed a third form boy at any public school would be justly flogged for such disregard of the pages of Cassar and Tacitus, which so vividly depict the ancient nations of Northern Europe. How different on the other hand is Martin's noble cartoon, the Trial of Canute, where we are reminded by the vivid, truthful and able delineation of the scene that nearly a thousand years ago, that palladium of our liberties, trial by jury, was in existence, and that it even then constituted a tribunal, wiiicii kings and people honoured. This is a true and great constitutional lesson, replete with interest of the highest character, and one which would speak with equal effect to all ranks, in future ages as in the present. Having made these preliminary remarks, we must avow our con- viction that an exhibition has never been seen in this country showing greater genius or finer works than the one now in question, and we have little fear of its being adequately appreciated by the public at large. Whatever Indeed may have been the character of the works, the Westminster Hall exhibitions constitute an era in art, having done more to instruct the public, than we are sorry to say the Royal Aca- demy has done since its foundation, and proving the utility and ne- cessity of opening to the public annual free exhibition of works of modern art. We now proceed to the examination of the individual works. DesiGNS AND Paintings. No. 1 is an encounter between Caesar and Cassivelaunus by Henry Melling, a cartoon, because cartoons are allowed to accompany speci- mens of fresco. The subject is scarcely a proper one, but its treat- ment shows a good deal of ability, though marred by confusion and ex- travagance. Mr. Melling's Britons have aquiline noses, which we believe is not a common thing in the Vale of Llangollen or the regions of Vannes. David Scott of the R.S.A. has a fresco No. 2, called Guards on a Battlement, which exhibits the shoulders of one figure and the legs of another. This we consider a defective arrangement, and we are sorry we cannot say more of it. No. 3 is Boadicea leading her troops against the Romans, a cartoon. Here is a good deal of care, though the style is harsh. Boadicea is represented with a plaid. Now, although some few individuals may counti-nance this, there appears no reason to suppose that the vary- coloured garment of Boadicea was a plaid, or that any other members of the Celtic race ever wore it beyond its present wearers, if it be not indeed, comparatively speaking, a modern invention. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 257 No. 4, a fresco, is the Accusation of Susanna, by Robinson Elliotl, perhaps illustrative of English trial by jury, or a special jury in a crini. con. case. It has some fair design, but is a bad fresco, being in single layers of colour, looking unfinished, with large masses of raw colour. No. 5, a fresco, by the elder Aglio, one of the earliest practitioners of fresco in this country, is a Representation of the Bay of Naples, showing great capabilities in fresco for landscape and perspective. Law and its Attributes, No. U, by S. Bendixen, is executed after a method invented by the artist. This, like No. 31, is violetty, or rather of a plum bloom tone, but clean, and showing apparent care in hand- ling. The figure, however, is not Law but Meekness. A very curious work is No. 7, by Ford Madox Brown. It is a cartoon of the Body of King Harold brought to William the Norman after the Battle of Hastings. There is some able grouping, some good drawing, but after French masters, and there is a demoniacal grin on most of the countenances which mars what might otherwise be a good work. From a misrepresentation of a passage in Thierry, William is represented with two great human thigh-bones suspended round his neck, although it must have been tolerably apparent to the artist, that it was impossible for the Duke to move about on horseback with such a Cossack decoration. The figure of King Harold is too old, while the mouths of all the figures are wide open. The coloured sketch No. 8, has the same disagreeable effect of colour which the cartoon has in design. 0, Prayer, by John Calcott Horsley, the border by Owen Jones, and the border is the best. This is a decent work in the Wordsworth and Rogers vein, and by a favoured artist, who received on the previous occasion a £200 premium, in our opinion equally ill-deserved as the commission he has now obtained. 10, Beatrice Cenci, said to be meditating the death of her father, but that is doubtful. John Zephaniah Bell was a two hundred pound prize man. To our simple eyes, this prize fresco is raw and unfinished, badly designed and badly executed. No. 11. Two Heads, by John Martin, fresco, is sketchy, but has more feeling and ability than its two neighbours, and raises our esti- mate of Mr. Martin's capabilities. We wish he would, regardless of the neglect he has on the present occasion felt, devote himself to his- torical art. No, 12. Fair Rosamond, by Edward Corbould, fresco, the frame by Simpson, in the Strand. This is tame and the colouring wants breadth, while the subject shows how well the artist understands what is due to the dignity of the country. The frame is good. No. 13. An Act of Mercy, by William Riviere, fresco, poor, coarse, and brown, the hair like mops. No. 14. A study in oil for fresco, by E. Butler Morris, the Over- throw of the Druids, has much gesture and grimace, is tame and tells no story. No. 15, is a cartoon from Milton, by G. Page, in which a number of queer, strange-looking animals are huddled together, one of them a caricature of the Apollo Belvidere. The principal figure looks as if he had just been whipped and was squalling after it. No. 1(5, by Ambrosini Jerome, and 17, by James Archer, both frescos, have no adequate subject, and if not sunk in the depths of ignorance, have few merits to attract attention, though there is much bright colouring. The latter artist may do in time. No. 18. Boadicea, a fresco, by Henry Warren, the President of the New Society of Painters in Water Colours, is a great stark staring woman with her mouth open. The study in oil. No. 19, by E. Butler Morris, Discovering the body of King Harold, is a much better work and subject than No. 14. A Bacchante, by Jones Barker, fresco, 20, has bright colouring. No. 22. A Girl reading, the same. The cartoon from the Tempest, by Salter, 21, shows some excellent drawing. No. 23, is a Study on Fresco, by Augustine Aglio, jun. It has a good deal of merit, but the figure wants interest. William Edward Frost received a premium of 100 guineas last year. His fresco of Samson slaying a Philistine, No. 24, shows Samson as a jeune extravagant. The figures all brown. We must not, however, depreciate it too much, for it is has merits above many of its com- peers. No. 25, is an oil painting by William Riviere. Council of Ancient Britons. Nucleus of the British Parliament. We have pointed out the nonsense of this; however, there is very good grouping and the arrangement excellent ; as if, nevertheless, to show a disregard of everything appropriate, a beautiful English boy is represented in a corner of the picture. The drawing and figures in the cartoon 26, by Joseph West, are French. It is Margaret of Anjou protected by the Robber in the Wood. It has considerable merit. Alfred the Great, 27, is a piece of decoration. A wounded Greek, by Stephanofl^, 28, is a piece of this artist's dan- dyism. We were not over impressed with the treatment of the car- toon for which he received one of the £100 additional premiums, nor are we more so with the fresco, which is dauby. A fresco, 29, the Combat, by Charles Hancock, has some good horses, but the artist, to avoid making mistakes in his human figures, has cased them in armour. The Signing of Magna Charta is a cartoon, said to be by Douglas Guest. To avoid doing dishonour to an artist once respectable we shall say no more. S. Bendixen's other work is Peace receiving a wreath of Flowers, which is rather a better work than No. 6, but in the same style and tone. To our mind. Peace seems turning round the wreath on hei finger, as jugglers do plates. The figure, though pleasing, wants dignity. The fresco, 32, of the subject No. 19, is very fair, but wants finish. No. 33. King Henry, is nothing, if not raw. No. 34, the Empress Aggrippina interceding on behalf of the Family of Caractacus, is only part of a fresco, which is to be re- gretted, as the artist, Charles Lucy, shews himself capable of grappHng with his subject and his tools. To our mind Agrippina was never so brown. The cartoon, 35, by Harold John Stanley, Alfred compiling his Laws, is one of the few appropriate subjects, and the artist deserves much credit for the very great attention he has shown to the details, and to the drawing. The fresco 36 is, however, weak. Mr. Hart's Head of David, in fresco, 37, is one of the finest works in thfe exhibition, and in our mind entitled the artist to have been among the six selected, instead of some of the favoured. It is a work which justly excites admiration. The Golden Age, 38, a fresco, is better than 28, but still it suggests the idea of a sitting room or a lady's boudoir. The Trial of Canute, a cartoon, by John Martin, No. 39, is the next work. It details the circumstance of King Canute the Great having in a fit of intemperance slain a soldier, when descending from the throne, he insisted on being tried and punished for the oft'ence. This subject is a fine one, and is carefully carried out. The composition is replete with interest, though of a subdued and solemn character. The large expanse of vaulting overhead may perhaps be objected to as giving a nakedness to that part of the design, though contributing to the serenity and imposing effect of the whole. This is a work which, for research and originality of subject, is entitled to great ap- plause. The Study of a Head, by R. W. Buss, a fresco, 40, shows the artist in a much higher str.iin of art than he has hitherto practised. We hope he will follow up the career so ably begun, Kilchurn Castle, in Scotland, No. 41, is a fine landscape in fresco. The next number is attached to a daub. No. 43 is unimportant. No. 44 is best adapted for a public house, for which we suppose it is ultimately destined. No. 45, 46, 48 and 49 are by Armitage, one of the competitors of last year, who received the premium of £300 for the cartoon of CcEsar's In- vasion of Britain. The cartoon of Oohelia treats excellently, with originality and with feeling, a hacknied subject. It must, however, be carefully looked at to be appreciated, when the arrangement of the lights and disposition of the figure can hardly fail to meet with approval. The encaustic painting of The Fates, is one of the gems of the exhibition. It is a grand subject, in which dignity is maintained, and the realms of imagination entered without the truthfulness of those of nature being impaired. The execution is good. The two studies in fresco show boldness in treatment and firmness of hand, and are also in the class of superior works, though possessing some palpable faults. Armitage is an artist whom we have gained fay these competitions. The cartoon, 47, by Stcphanoff, is the Death of Wat Tyler, treated in holiday style. The fresco of King Alfred, by H. C. Selons, 50, has some merit but is wanting in firmness, drawing and study. No. 51. Redgrave's Loyalty, a fresco. Catherine Douglas barring the door with her arm to withstand the assassins of James the First of Scotland, is a subject difficult to be treated, but which Mr. Red- grave has done himself much honour in mastering. While the paint- ing powerfully arrests public attention, we are glad to see that its artist has been selected as one of the six artists for the House of Lords. The Throne of Intellect, Nos. 52, 54, and 55, by W. C Thomas, is undoubtedly a fine composition, but suggests to our minds the idea of imitation from the works of Rafiaelle. We recognize the ability of the artist, but we are not quite inclined to approve his selection as one of the six. No. 53. The meeting of Jacob and Rachel, by C. W. Cope, has 258 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND AKCHITECTS JOURNAL. [JUL¥, pUiceil its Hrtist among the six selected. It is a work the merit of which is iiicontestible, and which forms with the Fates of Arinitnge and the Loviilty of Redgrave the trio of leading worlis. I'.irlicnlar criticism is unnecessary. No. 54. The Death of Abel, by Marshall Claxton, i;iOO ^idditionMl premium niiin of last year, has some good foreshortening but wants interest and eftecf. His other fresco, 59, the building of Oxford Uni- versity, exhibits figures too brown, and a want of shades, but relieved by vigour and simplicity. Salter's Study, 21, is not worth much. No. 58. The Battle of Bosworth Field, by Alex. Blaikley, is hack- nied, and wants interest, but it is a fair cartoon for su|jer(icial decoration. No. GO. The Parting of Sir Thomas More and his Daughter, a fresco, by S. A. Hart, is one of the fine works, but has scarcely reached the intensity of the subject. Wat Tyler, No. 61, by W. B. Spence, is one of a common run of cartoons, an indifferent subject, some tolerably drawn figures, and a decent allowance of extravagance. John Bridges, who gained a £100 premium last year, has a fresco which is to be classed with the superior works. It is Milton dicta- ting to his Daughters, 62. It does not, however, carry out the sub- ject to its best. Peace, a fresco, by J. C. Horsley, one of the selected, has the merits and defects of No. 63. The Death of St. Thomas a Becket, 64 and 67, by John Cross, we also mark as a good work. The figure of the archbishop is imposing. No. G5 we may safely pass by. No. 66, by William Dyce, is a fresco representing two heads, a work conceived in the antique style, but destitute of the antique spirit. We are assured the Commissioners must have been rather dazzled by prepossessions to place Mr. Dyce among the six selected. E. T. Parris last year received a premium of 100/. We confess we are surprized after his long practice at finding no better work than his King John, No. 6S. This may be very useful as showing how gaudy fresco can be made, and is a good vvork of the class, but then the class is meretricious. King John here beats King Solomon or King George the Fourth, in all his glory of purple, crimson and gold. H. J. Townsend, who received a 200/. premium last year, has sus- tained his reputation by his Puck's Mission, No. 69, one of the best works in the room. We have some respect for the Messrs. Foggo, so we shall allow our personal feelings to weigh down our strong objections to Nos. 70, 71, and 72. The remarks we before applied to Mr. Buss are equally justified by his fresco. No. 73, the Convc rsion of King Ethelbert. It decidedly raises his reputation. No. 74, fresco, is tlie Knight, by Daniel Maclise. Mr. Maclise is one of the six selected artists, and our readers may perhaps be curious to know what No. 74 is. We repeat, "The Knight, by Daniel Ma- clise." All Maclise's merits, with all Maclise's well known defects. He is the same in fresco as in oil. We think however the Commis- sioners are justified in their choice. The fresco No. 75, by J. H. Nixon, is the tame Henry reading the Bible in Old St. Paul's. 'A cartoon, by Thomas Sheraton, No. 76, wants mind and interest. We thought Mr. Sheraton could do something better. Love, a fresco, No. 77, by Augustus Egg, is a young artist's subject with French colouring and sentiment. In a lady's boudoir it would be considered a fair work. Pickersgill's fresco. Sir Calepine rescuing Serena, is on the motif of the National Gallery picture. His 100/, additional premium last year seems not to have done him much good. Mr. Severn also received a premium of 100/. last year. His Eng- lish Bible read in the Churches is a fresco, totally unworthy of him. Mr. Rippingille received last year one of thc'additional premiums, <; decision which we in some degree doubted, we think however his fresco. No. 80, Luna and Endymiun, a superior work, which raises his character much. The management of the floating figure is excellent. The cartoon of the Angel of the Pillar, No. 81, by John Bell, the sculptor, is a laudable effort, and does him credit. Nos. 82, S3, and 84, cartoons, occupy what we suppose is the con- demned hole, in accordance with their character. If Mr. F.M. Brown is extravagant in No. 7, in No. 84 he shows a want of discretion, which would incapacitate hira from employment elsewhere. Adam and Eve are most ludicrous caricatures, which would excite any one's laughter. SCULPTUKE. The sculpture is arranged in the middle of the hall as the painting IS around it. No. 85, lord Bacon, by John Henning, jun., has some dignitv, but is more meritorious for its frill. No. 86, the Descent of Mercury, bv Mr. Patrick Park, is a decidedly clever and original work, but spoiled by conceit. The Statue of Chaucer, No. 87, by Thomas Plumley, is finely conceived. Leopoldo Bozzoni has two Apostles tamely but smoothly executed. No. 90 is Captain Cook, by W. G. Nicholl. Mr. Rivers does not shine in Richard I., No. 91, which is unworthy of liini, his Statue of Rennie the elder is however a redeeming work, but is only on a small scale. No. 92, a Statue by John Ternouth. Hamilton and Carleton MacCarthy have given infinite spirit to St. George and the Dragon, No, 93, one of the most striking and merito- rious groups. It however shows haste, and wants finish. There are no muscles under the horse's skin. Caractacus No, 94, by J. D. H. Browne, is a fair work, but not rising above the herd. St. John the Divine, by G. Templeman, is a dandified affair, but manifesting ability. The last Prayer of Ajax, by James Legrew, No. 97, only requires of us that we should say, " it is lifi-," being one of the choice works of the hall. R. C. Lucas has 98 and 99, both fine works, and the latter to be classed among tlie best. King Canute the Great wants dignity, but the subject of Lilla is novel in itself and in its treatment, impress- ing the spectator, though we do not absolutely concur in the arrange- ment, particularly of Edwin with his arms extended. Chaucer, No. 100, by W. Calder Marshall, is fair. William Scoular has a Shepherd Boy, and Adam and Eve lamenting over Abel. We need not say more. Nos. 103 and 104, by Henry Sibson, are costume portraits, to show off tailoring and haberdashery. Sophronia and Olindo at the Stake, No. 105, by A. H. Ritchie, is a work which we like for its treatment, though we doubt its admissibility in the Palace of West- minster. It is a su;)erior work. John Bell is oi:e of the three selected sculptors. His Eagle Slayer, No. lOG, is a work which would give him reputation did he not pos- sess it already, and it fully justifies the Commissioners. The attitude is striking, but the arrangement of the drapery is indecent, it would be better if there were none. No. 107, we pass over. Its artist W, F. Woodington, has another subject, Wilton dictating to his Daughters, which is fair. No. 109 is Sir Thomas More, The Hesitation of Pan- dora, by J. B. Howkins, has as much expression as can be communi- cated to sculpture, and is among ouV favourites. No. Ill is Chaucer, by John Hancock. No. 113 is Boadicea, a group, by John Henning, jun., who deserves credit for his exertions. King William IV., by C. B. Robinson, No. 114 must be meant for the Royal Exchange. Nos. 115 and IIG are Statues of Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, and King Charles the First. No. 117, Alfred the Great, by F. S. Archer, is fair, but is not Alfred. Benjamin Spence deserves credit for his group of the Death of the Duke of York, 118. Hercules and Lycas, 119, is a vigorous composition, by Henry Timbrell. No. 120 is a Statue of Alfred, by J. S. Westmacott. No. 121, Bacon, by Thomas Sharp, but the countenance interesting. John Francis has thought fit to send a Statue of Prince Albert, and David Dunbar, jun., of Mr. Robert Burns. The Newton, by William Jackson, has good expression, but is not equal to No. 132. Frederick Thrupp has two works, Nos. 125 and 127, both works of considerable merit, a Hindoo throwing a Javelin, which is however not a Hindoo, and Arethusa reclining. No. 128 is by R. G, Davies. Lough is almost the only sculptor of eminence who has exerted himself for the present exhibition. No. 120 is a large group repre- senting a wife, during the wars of the roses, discovering her husband's lifeless body on the battle field, with the charger standing over it. The charger occupies perhaps a position too prominent, but his ex- pression is tine, and the whole group tells its tale. Mr. Lough's other group. No. 139, is on a still larger scale, and also historical. It is Edward I. creating a Dying Warrior a Banneret. This is a grand work, and shows what can be done in large groups in a national edi- fice. No. 130, Charles the First parting with his Children, by Henry Mares, is made ludicrous by the king being robed iu a flowing bed- gown, a most womanly affair. We must not however contest that the artist has ability. No. 131, Cardinal Wolsey, by Thomas Grimsley, is well expressed, but No. 132, Newton, when young, by Edwin Gahagan, isan admir.ible specimen of refined and poetical portraiture. Milton reciting to his Daughters, by James Legrew, No. 131, is one of the choice works, showing how to infuse expression and truth into a subject so often treated. Jane Shore, by John Bell, No. 134, is a fair work. Bede is a portrait. Carew has exhibited his Falconer, 136. We should be glad to give him due credit for it, but it is too well known ; No. 152 makes up for it. Richard Cceur de Lion, 137, by J. S. Westmacott, is good, but the king is made too old. Hollins has sent for exhibition a bit of a tomb. Wyatt's Cceur de Lion is an equestrian figure Hfe size, the warrior being mounted on one of Wyatt's horses, which he keeps for the use of such George the Thirds, Wellingtons, and Cceur de Lions as may 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHLTECT'8 JOURNAL. 239 be entrusted to his care. The expression of No. 141, Margaret of Anjou and the Robber, is good. The sculptor is John A. P. Mac Bride. Weekes has a good statue of the Marquis Weilesley. Nos. 143 and 144 are by W. Spence, Theseus killing the Centaur and Ca- ractacus before Claudius Casar; works creditable but not remarkable. Edward A. Foley has Canute, No. 145, a work which does not rise above mediocrity. R. Westmacott, jun., has part of a tomb. Behnes has taken no trouble, having sent a statue of Lady Emily Somerset and a Cupid with Doves. He has the means of doing something, and he should have done it. Joseph also sends casts or copies of his old works, Wilberforce and Wilkie. No. 151 is a Girl at Prayer, by P. Mac Dowell, effective and with the eyes well managed. No. 152, by Carew, Venus appeasing the anger of Vulcan, is one of the best classical subjects, and most polished groups in the collection. The Burial of the Princes in the Tower, by H. C. Shenton, jun., is another first rate work, so is the Death of Boadicea, No. 154, by Thomas Woolner. J. H. Foley is a selected sculptor, he has two fair works, Nos. 155 and 15ti, a Youth at a Stream, and Ino and the infant Bacchus. We think his place might have been better supplied. Baily has a portrait statue, 157. The Penitent, by John Ternouth, is fair, but mediocre. No. 159 is an historical subject, by Thomas Milnes, the Death of Harold at the Battle of Hastings. It is to be regretted the artist did not execute this work on a larger scale, when it would have advantageously contended with many competitors of greater pretensions. The figures of Harold, the horse and the assistants are good. Timidity, IGO, by E. G. Physick, is good, but affected. No. 161 is the Marquis of Londonderry by J. E. Thomas. An Ancient Briton as a Scout, li)2, by George S. Adams, is only a single figure, but a life and interest are communicated to it by its able treatment so as to place it among the most effective works. William Thomas's Prince Henry, 163, has nothing remarkable in the design or execution, though not contemptible. No. 164 is Hagar and Ishmael in the Wil- derness, by Edward B. Stephens, a fair composition. No. 165, Eve, by W. Calder Marshall, did not prepossess us, and we vpere somewhat surprised to tind its author one of the three selected sculptors. No. 166 is a Nymph Sleeping, by Baily, an old subject. Edgar Papworth's two works are commendable. Lord Brougham, and a Sleeping Girl. Thomas Earle has also two works 169 and 1/0, an Ancient Briton pro- tecting his Family, a bold and expressive production, and Edward the First presenting his Son to the Welsh, which is not of equal merit. No. 171 is William of Wykeham, by John Thomas, a good statue. The Jealousy of Medea, 172, by Thomas Thornycroft, is a vigorous group. No. 173 is Alfred the Great, by E. B. Stephens, showing some expression. P. Hollins has another statue, 175, Dr. Warnford. No. 176 is by Park, a Greek Warrior in ambush, clever, but far from giving satisfaction. The Falconer, 177, by R. Smith, is a cos- tume piece. The next is a statue, by J. Panormo, of Caractacus, fair. No. 17S is a clever statue of a British Warrior by Samuel Nixon. No. 179 is Gower. No. 180, John Carpenter, by Nixon. No. 181, Edward the First presenting his Son to the Welsh, by P. L. Crowley. 1^ In the saloon or entrance hall are some frescos which did not arrive in time, among them is a work of considerable merit executed by Eugenio Latilla, the author of the work on fresco painting. It repre- sents the Murder of the young Princes in the Tower. Some parts are weak, but the assassins are treated with considerable merit. Mr. Latilla is at Rome, pursuing his studies in fresco, which accounts for the delay in the transmission, and we think should have entitled him to some indulgence. ROYAL COMMISSION OF FINE ARTS. Thu following is a copy of the circular addressed to each of the artists selected by Her Majesty's Commissioners to execute certain designs for the decoration of the New Houses of Parliament. The document is in itself so clear and intelligible as to render further explanation of the subject quite unnecessary : — "Whitehall, July 15. " Sir,— I have to acquaint yoii that Hev Majesty's Commissioners on the Fine Arts, with the sanction of the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, have resolved that six arched compartments in the Ho'ise of Lords, each measuring 9 feet .3 inches u*ide, by 16 feet hi^h to the point of the arcli, shall be decorated with fresco paintinps ; that the subjects of such fresco piiintin^js shall be illustrative of the functions of tlie House of Lords and of the relation in wiiich it stands to the Sovereign; that the sulijects of three of the said fresco paintings shall I)e personifications or aljstract representations of reli- gion, justice, and the spirit of chivalry ; and that the three remaining subjects correspond- ing with such representations, an(t expressing the relation of the Sovereign to the Church, to the law, and, as the fountain of honour, to the Statw, shall be— the Baptism of Ethel- bert ; Prince Henry, afterwards Henry V., acknowledging the authority of Chief Justice Gascolgne ; and Edward the Black Prince receiving the Order of the Garter from Kdward III. " I have further to acquaint you that the Commissioners have resolved, with the sanc- tion of the Lords Commiseionera of Her Majesty's Tieatur)', to employ six artists, selected by Iho Comm]S3ioners from the present exhibitors in Westminster Hall, to prepare de signs for the subjects above-mentioned, and that the Commissioners have selected you as one of the six artists to be so employed, under the following conditions :— " You are requested to prepare a cartoon, being a design for one of the aforesaid sub- jects, The size of the cartoon Is to be " The subject of Prince Henry, afterwards Henry V., acknowiedglnu the anthnritu nt Chief Justice Gascoigne, is given to Mr. Redgrave. ■vuuwieagmg tne authoiity of i-i"^''1 ="''J.«<='.°'' ^'''J?"'^""' '""'' '■'"'« receiving the Order of the Garter from I'.dward III. is given to Mr. Cope. "aner irora " I have further to acquaint you that although the six subjects are required to be un- der nken by and among the six artists, the artists are at Uberty to exchange subjects • and tliat although the commission given to each artist is for one only of the aforesaid subiect» each artist is at liberty to treat any other of the said subjects, in addition to the one sub- ject which he IS commissioned to undertake. " I have further to acquaint you that a general competition is mvited among artists for designs for the same subjects, to be prepared by the time before specified j and that the SIX commissioned artists are not allowed to be competitors for the premiums offered for such designs. i am. Sir, your obedient servant. "C. L. EASTLAKE, Secretary." It will be observed from the last paragraph of this letter, that a general competition is invited, and as an encouragement to artists who have not been selected, the Commissioners offer three premiums of 200/. each for the best subjects produced. Thus another exhibition, doubtless far exceeding in in- terest eitlier of those already opened, will take place in the summer of next year. In addition to the selection of six artists to execute designs for frescos, the Commissioners have chosen three sculptors from among the number contri- buting to the exhibition in Westminster Hall. " Whitehall, July 9, 1844. We the undersigned, having inspected the models for sculpture submitted to us in XVestminsttr Hall, are of opinion that the exhibition is highly creditable to the country We have recoided our judgment on the merit of many of the exhibitors i but not being at present in possession of sufficient information as to the extent of the decorations in sculp- ture which may be considered desirable in the Palace at Westminster, or as to the linie when such decorations may be required, we have thought it expedient to limit our pre- sent selection to those artists whom we consider liave especially distinguished themselves in the exhibition referred to; and we hereby recommend the following artists— viz., W. Calder Marshall, John Bell, and John Henry Foley, for emplr.yinent on such works in the' Palace at Westminster, and for such remnneratiou as may hereafter be determined. At the same time, we wish it to be understood that the present selection does not by any means imply the exclusion of other sculptors, whether they may or may not have exllibiled specimens of their ability on the present occasion. Albert. Mahon. H. G. Knight. Sutherland. Ashburton. B. Hawes,jun. Lansdowae. Colborne. L. Rogers Lincoln. C. S. Lefevi'e. G. Vivian. Aberdeen. B. Peel. T. Wyse. Palmerston. J. R. G. Graham. Melbourne, T. B. Macaulay. Extract from the Report of the Committee appointed to inspect the Werks of Decorative Art, exhibited in King Street, St. James's, in April and May, 1844 :— Your Committee have examined the specimens of casting In brass and iron which have been sent in l>y persons desirous of being employed in the embellishment of the Houses of Parliament. They have recorded their judgment on the comparative merit of many of the works in question, but for the reason specified in the report of this Committee on the specimens of carved wood and painted glass, they have thought it expedient iu general to enumerate the names only, without tnrther distinction of the exhibitors whose works have received the commendation of the Committee. In the department of Ornamental Metal Work, the exhibitors so noticed in the detailed report of the Committee, are Messrs. Messenger and Sons, Messrs. Bramah and Co., and Mr. Abbott. Mahon. Colborne. T. B. Macaulay. B. Hawes, jun. George Vivian. Thos. Wyse. Karl of Dcrh.4m's Monument.— A monuraont to the late Earl is pro- posed for erection on Pensher-hill, near the base of which runs the great Northern line of railway. " The design," says the * Durham Advertiser,' " is an approximation to the Temple of Theseus, and is to consisj of a rectangular base of soUd masonry 117 feet long, and 54 in width, rising 10 feet above the platform of the hill, and surmounted by 18 lofly, open, equidistant columns, supporting at each end a magnificent pediment, and on each side a broad, deep entablature, which will serve as a promenade. The edifice will be at least 70 feet in height, and will be visible irom a great portion of the surrounding coun- tjy. Tlie trench for the foundation has been dug down to the limestone rock, and in a short time the foundation stone may be expected to be laid." 260 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [July, THE DIPLEIDOSCOPE. Fig. 1. Mr. Dent, the eminent clironometer maker of the Strand, had long felt persuaded that the interests of Horology would be greatly promoted, if the public could obtain a cheap, siin|)le, and correct transit-instru- ment, requiring little sr no scientitic knowledge for its right use, and not readily susceptible of injury or derangement. To this end he devoted much time and thought; and, in 1S40, he considered that he had succeeded in inventing an apparatus which, by means of shadom; would produce the desired result. This idea he communicated to Mr. Bloxam, who thereupon informed bim that his own attention had been for some years devoted to the same object, and that he had con- trived an optical arrangement, which, by the agency of a single and double reflection, determined the sun's passage over the meridian with great exactness. When the optical instrument, although com- plicate in its then form, was shown to Mr. Dent, he was immediately struck with the superiority of the contrivance over that which had suggested itself to him : his own method afibrded three observations, but it was attended with the defects and inconvenience which result from the uncertainty of shadows. Convinced that the reflecting planes would elFectually accomplish the desired end, lie entered into an ar- rangement with Mr. Bloxam to undertake their manufacture ; and, after nearly two years' attention on the part of that gentleman, and at great labour and expense on the part of the proposer, the instrument wliich we arc about to describe was perfected, and may now be had at the trifling expense of 2 guineas. The instrument possesses great advantages over any other of similar correctness; being exceedingly simple, it is not liable to get out of adjustment or repair, nor does it require any attention beyond that which is, of course, necessary in the first instance, viz. : that it be placed on a level surface, and in the meridian. The observations to be taken afterwards, can be made by any one, although previously unacquainted either with astronomical apparatus or practical astrono- my ; the instrument being as simple as a sun-dial, while it is infinitely more correct, since it gives the time to within a fraction of a second. The utility of possessing an indicator of this kind in addition to the most perfect time-keeper, must be evident ; for, however excellent a clock or watch may be, experience shows how difficult it is to obtain exact time, ybr kngtlmied ptriods,hy any mere mechanical contrivance. To remedy the defect of mechanism, it has been already remarked, that actual observation of the heavenly bodies becomes indispensable; as, without it, the best time-keeper cannot be implicitly depended upon for any considerable interval. On the importance of exactness in this essential matter, it is not necessary to enlarge : it will suffice merely to allude to the inconvenience of missing a railway train. An advantage ;Jso not to be overlooked, is the gratification of knowing, especially in remote parts of the country, tliat you are in possession of the true time. Perhaps, then, it is not saying too much to affirm, that a Dipleidoscope should be placed in all country Parsonages, as well as in Railway stations, and government establishments, both at home and abroad. By the aid of this new patent meridian-instrument, which is called The Dipleidoscope, any person may obtain correct time with the greatest facility, by an observation either of the transit of the sun over the meridian by day, or of the transit of the stars by night. In the following explanation, however, it is intended, for the sake of consult- ing both brevity and simplicity, to confine the directions to solar ob- servation. In the l.mgnage of philosophy, the law which governs the transmis- sion of light is, tli;it the angle of the rays of incidence is equal to the angle of the rays of reflection. In other words, supposing the rays of light proceeding from an object to fall upon a reflecting plane, the eye of the observer must, in order to see the reflected image, be placed at precisely the same angle with regard to the plane, as the rays pro- ceeding from the object to the plane. The rays falling upon the plane from the object are styled "the rays of incidence;" as the r.iys again procnedihg from the plane to the eye are termed the "rays of reflec- tion." Keeping this law or principle in view, let us next consider the construction of the reflecting planes of the instrument in question. There are three reflecting planes, Dt, db, and BC, tig. 2. Suppose DC to be so divided that the ray, No. ), hilling on DC, at H, will be re- flected to the eye at 1', and the image of the sun will appear to ad- vance in I he direction from D to c. The ray, No. 2, passing through D c, is reflected from c B, impinges on D B, and reaches the eye in tlie direction 2'. The image of the sun thus formed will appear to move from c towards D, because it has been twice reflected, and thus the two images will approach each other. Suppose the ray No. 1 to have advanced to the position No. 3, and the ray No. 2 to the position No. 4 ; it will then be evident that their reflected rays will be in the same direction 3' and 4', and, therefore, that the two images of the sun coincide, as shown by the arrows being in the position of crossing each other, and indicating the instant of apparent noon ; as the rays con- tinue to advance, the images, having passed over each other, will, of course, be seen to separate. Fig. 2. The following familiar illustration is introduced to further explain the optical construction. When the sun is about setting, it is not un- common to see the rays so reflected from the windows of a whole range of houses, as to convey the idea of a public illumination. While some portions of the sun's rays are thus reflected, other portions pass through the glass into the rooms. The rays thus transmitted (the rays of incidence, as they were styled above) may be thrown at plea- sure in any direction consistent with the range of the sun, by a person within the room, having a looking-glass in his hand : exactly as chiN dren produce what they call a Jack o' lantern. Now if, instead of throwing the rays upon a non-reflecting object (such as the wall, &c.), he were to transfer them to another looking-glass, they would be again reflected from this latter glass. Supposing these two looking-glasses to be placed at an angle of less than 90^, in a manner corresponding with the position of the two silvered planes seen in the instrument, and also shown in the diagram at D B, B c, he can reflect the sun's rays again out of the window. Now, if we imagine the window to repre- sent the outer reflector of the meridian-instrument, its construction is, 1^44.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. S61 by tliis process, completely cxomplifipd. To proceed a little further; it is evident, that the angle and situation of the two looking-glasses could be so arranged as to direct the rays of the sun through any par- ticular pane of the windovv ; so that a person standing wilhoat, in a proper position, would see, in .iddition to the sun's rays reflected from the outer surface of the pane, the rays of incidence that had passed through the window, ;ind were thus reflected from the double mirror. One of the luminous olijects (the flush or glare of the sun) so produced, would be reflected from the surface of the window, and would be a single reflection; while the rays of incidence, which had p.issed through the window, iind undergone a double reflection by means of the two mirrors would, on being thrown back by the mirrors through the window, move in a direction contrary to that taken by the !,ingle re- flection from the surface of the window pane. Hence, any one of the heavenly bodies, subjected to the eye by a process of the ;ibove de- scription, would not onlv appear as two distinct objects, but those ob- jects would be seen to approximate and cross each other in i\n opposite course : a desideratum being hereby secured which increases the power of the instrument in a double ratio, and renders it prnportion- ably preferable to any other that h;is been hitherto employed. The wood-cut, fig. 3, represents a Dipleidoscope fitted up with a telescope, and having all the usual meridian and vertical adjustments, to be efl'ected by means of the screws, a, b, c. This form of mounting the instrument is suited to the observatory or library, where it should be placed on a pedestal of stone or cast-iron. Fig. a. The wood-cut, fig. 1, at the head of this article, shows the instru- ment fixed on a pedestal in the open air ; for as the workmanship is impervious to the weather, it needs no further protection than the brass covering with which it is supplied. THE SEWERAGE OF DERBY. Fig. l.-Section of New Sewer. Th£ new sewerage of Derby extending from the Morledge to Cheapside, designed by Captain Vetch, R.E., has been let by the Commissioners of the Derby im- provement Act, for the sum of 3,200/. to Messrs. Booth and Thompson, of Rotherham. The principal work is a sewer 10 feet diameter and 9 feet in height, and about 709 yards in length. The section is nearly a square, see fig. 1, with a segment of a circle added on all sides, being arched at top, and the dish of the invert at bottom, and the batter of the curvilinear side walls, making the appearance above described. The arch and side walls arr from 1 to li brick in thickness, as circumstances require, the invert being only 1 brick throughout. The course of the sewer is as follows: — commencing at the junction of Cheapside with Wardurck along the latter place, and Victoria Street and St. Peters Street, and down ThorutoD Lane and the Morledge to Cockpit Hill. By reference to the plan of Derby, this course will be very clear, and the cause of this expenditure will be in the recollection of your readers to have arisen from a sudden inundation of the town about three years ago, when the market-place was flooded in a sudden manner, supposed to have arisen from a water spout bursting above the town, on the course of the Derwent. Fig. 2.— bection tluough A D, of bg. 3. The situation of the town is very low and is intrrsected with rivers, brooks, and canals, and the engineers have had recourse to the passing of Becket Well Brook, underneath the sewer, by a cast iron syphon. The water in the brook being retained to a certain level, the surplus running over a waste weir into the new sewerage, and the body of water in the brook being passed underneath the sewer, and continuing its course. This ingenious plan of the engineer is shown in the an- nexed engravings. Fig. 1 is the section of the main sewer; fig. 2 is a section of the sewer, showing the passage of the brook or syphon under it ; and fig. 3 a transverse view of the brook syphon; tig. 4 is a section of the gully holes or grate drains, with trap ; fig. 5 transverse Fig. 4.— Section of Gully Hole. section of drain at C D. Fig. I also shows the difliculty occuring in Thornton Lane, also a comparative view of the size of the old (a) and new sewers. In calling attention again to drawings 2 and 3, of Becket Well Brook, it is obvious the drainage might be ail the depth cf the water pent up in the brook improved, if it were not for the purpose of preserving right in the stream. O. T. Nemcastle-o)fTyne, April 18, 1844. ^63 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. rJuLY, OF TERRESTRIAL OR HORIZONTAL REFRACTION, By Oliver Byrne, MHlheinatician. Rays of light passing from objects whetlier terrestrial or eel tial, proceed in curves concave to the earth, thus: — rays of light (lassing from objects T, S, to the eye of an observer at O, take curvelinear directions T o O, S A O, instead of the straight lines T O, S O. Fig. 1. Now as the eye always traces the places of objects to the direction in which the rays enter tlie eye, hence the observed elevations of objects are always greater than the true one, for the direction in which rays enter the eye is the direction of a tangent to the curve at the eye of the observer. The objects T, S, will appear in the directions of the tangents O T', O S'. The reason that the rays of light are bent in passing through the atmosphere or part of it, is because the air is densest at the surface and continues to decrease in density to the top of the atmosphere : it is well known that a ray of light becomes bent towards the perpendicular in being transmitted from a rare to a dense medium, therefore the rays passing through the atmosphere are being continually bent as they pass through a medium continually increasing in density. The increase in the angular altitude of objects by being observed in our atmosphere is called refraction : there arc two sorts of refractions, horizontal or terrestrial, and astronomical. Horizontal refraction affects objects situated in the atmosphere, astronomical re- fraction is that which affects the altitudes of the heavenly bodies. Refraction changes with the atmosphere, with regard to heat, cold, humidity, dryness, &c.; when tables of refraction are given they are calculated for a mean state of the atmosphere, in such a manner that they can be made to answer any other state of the atmosphere with some trifling allowance. The exact amount of terrestrial refraction is by no means satisfac- torily settled : however it may be determined by the following me- thod, for all practical purposes. Let A and A' be two elevated stations on the surface of the earth ; B D the intercepted arc of the earth's surface ; C the earth's centre ; A H' and A' H horizontal lines at A, A', produced to meet the oppo- ste vertical lines C H', C H. Fig. 2. Let a, a', represent the apparent of the objects A, A', when viewed from A' and A ; then is the angle A A' a, the refraction of A, and the angle a A' a, the amount of refraction of A'; half the sum of these two angles will be the horizontal or terrestrial refraction, supposing it equal at each station. Now an instrument being placed at each of the stations A, A', the reciprocal observations are to be made at the same instant, which is determined by means of signals, or watches previously regulated for that purpose : that is the observer at A, takes the apparent depres- sions at A', at the same time exactly, that the other observer at A' takes the apparent depression of A. In the quadrilateral A C A' I, the two angles at A and A' are right angles, and therefore the angles at I and C are together equal to two right angles : but the three angles of the triangle A A' I are together equal to two right angles, consequently the angle at C which is mea- sured by the arc B D is equal to the angles I A A' and I A' A taken together. If therefore the sum of the two depressions H A' a and H' A a' be taken from the sum of the angles I A' A, I A A' which are together equal to C, (the angle C is known because its measure is known ;) the remainder is the sum of both refractions, or angles A A' a, A' A a'. Hence the following rule. Take the sum of the two depressions from the measure of the in- tercepted terrestrial arc, and half the remainder is the fraction. If by reason of the minuteness of the contained arc B D, fig. 3, one of the objects, instead of being depressed, appears elevated; suppose A' to appear at a" above the horizontal line A H'. Then a A A' 4- a A' A = H A' a + H' A A' -1- o" A H ; = H A' A + H' A A' + a" A H' + H A a i = C + a" AH'-HA'a: For C = H A' A + H' A A'. In this case, because a" A A' = a A' A, we have this rule .- — To the contained are add the elevation, from this sum subtract the depression, and half the remainder will be the refraction. As we have previously remarked, the amount of terrestrial refrac- tion is found to vary considerably with the different states of the atmosphere ; it is stated in the account of the trigonometrical survey of England (vol. I. p. 160 — ■dbii) that, the quantity of terrestrial re- fraction varies from } to —^ of the contained arc. Although every practical man considers the amount of terrestrial refraction to be more or less according to his experience, yet all range between f and -Jj of the contained arc. Dr. Maskelyne considered it to be ^, M. Legeudre ^, M. Delambre y^, Mudge and his com- panions Y5, at a medium. A similar table to the succeeding, would be convenient to engineers, when they have made up their minds which of the fractional parts of the contained arc, that range between i and Ys, best suit their purpose. Hundreds of " '1 3 ens of " 4 Seconds 1 lOtha of " 0 Troths " 1 1 2 2 0 2 8 6 3 3 0 4 2 9 4 i 0 5 7 2 5 5 0 7 1 5 6 6 0 8 5 9 7 f 1 0 0 2 8 8 1 1 4 5 9 9 1 2 8 9 Feet and dec imals. Examples. I. Suppose the angle of depression of an object five miles distant from the place of observation, to be 3° 47' 45", what is the true de- pression, supposing we take Dr. Maskelyne's allowance?, 5 miles := 26400 feet, fij of 26400 = 2640 20" — 2028-6 6" 61 1-4 ■ 608-59 1844.1 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 36d 0-02 2*81 ■ 2-02Si; Refraction'^ , 26-02 seconds -7814 From 3° 47' 45'' Trtke 0 0 26-02 Angleofdepresiion = 3° 47' 18-98 When the anE;les of elevation or depression are small, the remainder, after the hundreds are obtained, will be sufficient allowance for the reduction of the right line, which joins the objects to one which mea- sures the arc between the radii of the objects in the surface of the earth. II. Having observed in a horizontal line, the top of Mr. Muspratt's chimney at Newton, near Liverpool, (which is the highest edifice in the world,) from a neighbouring hill, 3U miles distant : — taking M. Delambre's allowance of j\ the arc of distance, what is the depression of the object i 30 miles == 15840U feet; ^j of 158400 = 14400 100" = 10143 from table. 4257 40" — — 4057-2 ditto. 199-8 1" := — 101-43 0-9" = 98-37 -91-289 141"-9 7-081 &c. &c. Hence the angle of refracticin — Hl"9, or 2' 21"-9, which is also tlir angle of depression, as the object appeared in the horizon. 111. The angle of elevation uf an object 298 yards distant is 33- 41' 20", what is the true angle uhen tiirestrial refiaction is allowed tor according to M. Legendie, who takes -^ the arc of distance ? 298 yards = 894 feet ; ^ of 894 = 03-857 0"-0 = 60-859 0-02 2-998 = 2-0286 0-009 9694 = 9128 0-629 From 33° Take 44' 20" 0 G-629 Correct angle == 33° 44' 19-371" All Art, Invention — i. e. original art — is but the embodiment of " spirit" in ionie form directly or indirectly useful to man. Art is but the comliination or arrangement of natural principles to produce new results ; and the organization of bodies of men or bodies of matter are, in all cases, operations of the " spirit." The art by which Michael Angclo found the statue in the marble block, and the art by which Oliver Cromwell found a cavalry regiment in the rude mass of men and horses, were alike operations of the " spirit." The spirit of Watt could discern the form of the steam- engine in the metallic ore, with the dim vista of countless thousands of human beings set free from drudgery in the hewiug of wood and the drawing of water ; and the spirit of Arkwright beheld the forms of various kinds of matter combining into a mill for grindiiig out clothing by miles. These men put forth their " spirit" in actual forms to the cognizance of the world. Other spirits, as Homer and Shakspeare, gave their creations to the world in written descriptions ; their ideal embodied their actual. Michael Angelo, Oliver Cromwell, Watt, and Arkwright, actualised their ideal. But there it is, the self-same " spirit" in all, making itself obvious to mau's apprehension in one or other of the various modes by which man holds converse with his fellows, of greater or lesser significance. — Westmimier Review. AREAS OF CUTTINGS AND EMBANKMENTS. (From the American Journal of the Franklin Instiitiie. ) Short methods of calculating correctly the Sectional .Areas oj Excava- tions, or Embankments. By Solomon W. Roberts, C. E., of Phi- ladelphia. In the construction of most canals and railroads a large number of calculations are required of the sectional areas of excavations and embankments, many of which (called cross-sections of three cuttings) liave the general form of the figure a b c g e; the depths of the cut- ting, or filling, being taken at the points a, 6, and e. The point 6, is in the centre line, and a and c, are the points where the side slopes strike the surface of the ground. The three following methods, devised some years since, for accu- rately and readily obtaining such areas, are well adapted to facilitate the operation, and their correctness may be easily demonstrated: — No. I. Multiply the extreme width of the excavation, or embank- ment, measured horizontally, by one-half of the depth at the centre ; multiply the sum of the depths at thf sides, by one-fourth of the base line, or bottom width (e g) — the sum of these products will be the sectional area required. — Thus, in the following diagram the centre stake standing at b .- (dhx^y'rCael+chX j) = Sectional Area of a 6 cgfe. The diagram in this posiiion represents an excavation, by inverting it an embankment. No. II. The same result may be obtained with less calculation, by the use of a table, as follows, the cuttings being taken in feet and tenths, as usual : Prepare a table of three columns, the first containing the dejiths at the centre, the second the sectional areas for each depth on level ground, the third the horizontal distance from the centre stake to the side slopes — such a table may be readily constructed. Then find the difference between the centre depth, and the average of the side depths, and multiply tliis difference into the number in the third column of the table opposite the centre cutting. If the average of the side depths is greater than the centre depth, add this product to the number in the second column, if less, subtract it, and the result will be the cross-section required. No. III. The following method, after making the table, is very con- venient, on account of the substitution of addition and subtraction, for multiplication and division: Prepare a table of twelve columns, the first containing the centre cuttings for feet and tenths, and the second the sectional area for each centre cutting, when the sum of the side cuttings is equal to that at the centre. The remaining columns, numbered from 1 to lU, are to be filled by inserting in the first, half the distance from each centre stake to the side slope, measured horizontally ; in the second column twice the amount in the first; in tlie third three times the amount in the first ; and so on. To calculate a Sectional Ana by this Table. Subtract the centre cutting from the sum of the side cuttings— sup- pose this difterence to be 4-70, for example — then from the column numbered 4, take out the amount opposite the given centre cutting ; and for the seven-tenths take the amount in the 7th column, and move the decimal point one figure to the left; add these two amounts to the number in the column of areas, and the sum mill be the sectional area re- quired. If the number of feet in the difference between the centre cutting, and the smn of the side cuttings exceeds ten, the amount for ten feet must be taken from the table, and be added to that for the remaining height taken from its corresponding column. In those rare cases in which the sum of the side cuttings is less than the centre cutting, the amount caused by the difference must be de- ducted from that taken from the column of areas. The demonstration of the foregoing rules depends upon simple tri- gonometrical principles, and it does not require to be elucidated here. 264 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [1844. HYDRAULICS. General Sketch of a Theory of the Conlracl.ioji of Feins in Water discharged from Orifices in thin Plane JValls. By M. B.bver. In comparing the different esperinienls upon the flow of water from vertical openings in thin plane walls, we are .struck by the great varia- tion undergone by the coefficient by which, in each case the theoretic formula for the discharge must be multiplied. On examining the facts more strictly, we find two sorts of distinct variations, of which one de- pends solely upon the amount of the charge, and the other upon the form of the orifice. The existence of the first is a certain sign that the formula used does not accord with the experiments. The second proves that the water of the reservoir is subject to a law of motion, the effect of which is modified by the form of the opening. While reflecting upon tliese difficulties, I was struck by a very simple idea, and one which deserved a rigorous investigation. This investigation is the subject of my memoir. To present the results in a proper light, I will here give, in a concise manner, the sketch of my work. I assume hypothetically, that the molecules of water in the reservoir, move towards the centre of the orifice, with velocities which are in- versely proportional to the square of their distances from that cen- tre. Hence it follows, that molecules equi-distant from that centre will have the same velocity, and are situated upon the circumference of a hemisphere described from that centre with a radius equal to, or greater, than that of the orifice. As soon as the molecules have ar- rived at the hemisphere described with the radius of the orifice itself, their velocity is decomposed into two others, of which one is parallel to the axis of the orifice, and the other perpendicular to this axis. The first gives the velocity perpendicular to the plane of the orifice, and the other represents the velocity of contraction. But in order to determine, in conformity with the hypothesis adopted, both of these velocities, it is required to find the mean distance from the plane of the orifice, of the particles in the section of a hemisphere passing through its axis ; that is, the mean distance of the molecules upon the peri- phery of a semicircle of the same diameter. We arrive, by this means, for circular orifices, at results conformable to those of the ex- periments of Bossnt, Poleni, Eytehvein, &c. By this examination we find, for the orifices in question, the variation in the .lischarga de- pendent upon the form of the orifice ; nothing more is wanting than to seek for that which depends upon the charge, or to determine the true velocity of discharge, which is done by the known methods. Thus, in determining the coefficient of contraction {k) of vertical rectangular orifices, we arrive at the general formula, 0 V'«+l ('- ) Where /, is the base of the rectangle, b, its height, -n, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter ; m is determined by means of the equation »t— ^ ~°~ ^\ where H is the charge above the lower edge of the rectangular orifice, a, is the height of a column of water equivalent to the difference of the atmospheric pressure upon the surface of the water in the reservoir, and upon the centre of tlie orifice. This value taken for the following table is equal to O-0U2O metre. In order to show the correspondence of the formula with observa- tions, I have compared it with the admirable experiments made by M. Poncelet, et Lesbros, at Metz, in 1828; calculating only the co- efficients of the first experiments in the six tables, trom No. 4 to No. 9, 1 get Charge Number above the of the lower edge Tables. H. i 1 Sides of the Rectan- \'al"c of '1"^ Coefficient gular Orilice. 1 ''"• Difference. Ver. side. 1 Hor. side. b. ' 1. Observed. 'Calculated.] Metres. 4 1-5720 5 1-6054 6 1-7151 7 1-3960 8 1-4102 9 1-4070 Metres, i Metres. 0-20 -, 0-10 ' ro^3 i-o 0-02 001 -J Metres. 0-6026 0-6111 0-0175 00229 0-6217 0-6204 Metres. 0-6034 0-6135 0-6180 0-6225 0-6234 0-6246 — 0-0008 — 0-0024 _ 0-0005 + 0-0004 — 0-0017 — 0-0042 These difi'erences do not exceed those which the results of experi- ment several times repeated, show. The calculated values uf A, are found a little too large, because all the other small corrections have been neglected, such as the friction ou the edges of the orifice, the temperature, the resistance of the air, &c. In the memoir I have employed an approximate formula, which ditt'ers very little from the exact value, and which is formed by sup- posing that the velocities, in rectangular orifices, are as the square roots of the charges above their centres. All these formula, however, suppose that the level in the reservoir remains constant, which is not the case in practice, except when the charge is ten, or twelve, times greater than the radius of the orifice. In small charges there is a depression of the level above the orifice, for whicli allowance must be made, in order to obtain exact results ; for this reason it is necessary to multiply all the formula by a factor which depends upon the depression ; by this means I obtain equations which are applicable, at the same time, both to great and small charges, and even to overfalls. Finally, the different forms of the veins of water are determined by means of the theoium mentioned above, that the force of contraction is proportional to the radius of the orifice. Hence it follows that the contraction in the diagonal sections of a square orifice is greater than that in the sections passing through the centres of parallel sides, and as the contraction may be regarded as a force acting perpendicularly upon the axis of the vein, it follows that the particles of water in the larger sections approach the axis, whilst the particles, in the smaller sections, are farther from it, which explains the forms found by expe- riment.— Cumptts Rendus, translated for the American Journal oj' the Franklin Institute. ON THE FLEXURE OF BEAMS. Report upon a Note relative to the Flexure of Beams Loaded in a f'erlical Position; presented June 20///, 1842. By M. E. Lamarle. Committee, Ponctkt and Lionville. In this note M. L marie has chiefly proposed to establish the fol- lowing principles: — 1. The loads, which beams, loaded vertically, can support without permanent alteration, are independent of their lengths, and siniply proportional to their sections, so long as the ratio of their lengths to the least dimensions to their transverse section does not reach a cer- tain limit. 2. Beyond that limit, and in all cases of practical application, the maximum load may reach, but can never exceed, the pressure corres- ponding to the initial flexure. M. Lamarle also shows that (the pieces being supposed prismatic,) it is sufficient to know the greatest change in length compatible with the preservation of elasticity, in order to determine numerically the limit alluded to. He remarks besides that the results furnished, by calculation, accord with the facts generally observed, and that they imply the consequences announced by M. Duleau, in the following terms: " A rectangular bar pressed vertically, resists until the corn- er'c pressingweight attains the value, Q = 2-^. This vpeight causes the piece to assume a curvature in the direction of its smallest dimension, and it at once folds together." The deductions of the author rest essentially upon the analysis given by M. Lagrange, for the problem of the flexure of pieces loaded vertically, but by imposing the condi- tion of not surpassing the force capable of producing a permanent alteration, and by expressing this condition numerically, M. Lamarle has introduced into the question an element of which advantage had not yet been taken to solve it practically. The introduction of this element fixes the degree of convergence of the series which are ob- tained, and permits the deduction from the general solution, of rules valuable to the builder. We know, and Lagrange has proved, that the flexure of pieces pressed vertically, becomes possible only when the pressure has ob- tained a certain minimum value. If the pieces are prismatic, the load corresponding to the initial flexure, increases in the inverse ratio of the squares of their lengths. The contractions which it produces, in- dependent of all flexure, are, therefore, more considerable in reference to the unit of length, in proportion as the pieces are stouter, and we may conceive that for a given cross section there exists always a length below which there is already an alteration of elasticity, even when the load is too small to cause a commencement of flexure. Hence the first principle anDOuuced by M. Lamarle. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 36S Let us now consider thf case of flexure, and let us suppose the ratio of the length to the smallest dimension of the cross section to be so great, that flexure may commence before a permanent alteration has taken place. In this case the strain due to Iheefftct u/fe.viire alone, increases as the versed sine ; and M. Lamarle shows that an almost imperceptible increase of the pressure corresponding to tlie initial flexure, is sufficient to cause an instant alteration of the el.isticity. Hence the second principle of the author, not absolute, but suthclently general to include all the cases which might escape the first, under the circumstances usual in practical applications. Theso two principles taken together, ofTer a satisfactory solution to the question of beams loaded vertically. — Ibid. ECONOMY OF JACKETS FOR STEAM ENGINES. Note -upon the Injltience of Jockets upon Steam Engines. Combes. By M. A steam engine built by Farcot, was provided with an envelope to the cylinder, into which the steam was freely admitted from the l)oiler, and from which it passed as required into the cylinder. It having become necessary to repair this jacket, it was found that the expenditure of fuel was increased in the ratio of I'l to 10. A similar fact has also been observed in an engine of the same builder, erected near Sedan. A series of experiments was instituted by M. Combes, and conducted as follows : — First, the machine was worked as usual, the steam being admitted to the jacket, and from the jacket to the cylinder : these experiments were continued for four days, the quantity of water pumped into the boiler being accurately me^isured, and the quantity of coal weighed ; the amount of water condensed in the jacket was also ascertained, and every half hour the tension of the steam in the cylinder was measured by an indicator, and at the same time the pressure in the boiler, and in the condenser, were taken by gauges, and the number of strokes per minute of the piston counted. Second, for three days the machine was worked by conducting the steam directly into the cylinder from the boiler, the jacket containing air only. The same observations as before were carefully made. Third, for three days the steam was conducted directly to the cylin- der, but the jacket was kept in communication willi the boiler, and was, consequently, filled with steam. The same observations were made as before. The following are the results of the table : — Is" £ E 1 Total CoiiBiimptioii. Duration. 1 Mean Pressures. iConsumptin. per hour. 1 Water Evapor- ated by lb. of Coal, j ( Coal. Water. Boiler. Cylin.jCondensI Coal. Water 1 j lb. avoir. 1 li43A. 15m.! 1482-7 i 2 33/(.30»n.' 1982-12 1 3 32/i.30»i. 1469-5 lb. avoir. 83871 11111-59 7822-23 Atmosp. 3-82 3-5 3-5 Atmo 2-57 2-55 2-73 Atmosp. 0-26 0-28 0-24 34-28 58-16 45-22 193-9 331-7 240-7 5-66 5-61 5-32 M. Combes attributes the increased quantity of fuel necessary when the jacket is not used, to the formation of water by condensation of the steam during its admission into the cylinder, and the consequent necessity of furnishing more steam to supply this loss by an additional evaporation from the boiler. — Ibid OXIDE OF ANTIMONY A SUHSTITUXE FOR WHITE LEAD. M. de Uuolz, in the Compter Rendzis, states that the oxide of anti- mony, (flowers of antimony,) possesses the following advantages over white lead : — by means of a manufacture selected by us, it is obtained directly from the native sulphuret of antimony — Its adoption will give a new vigour to the languid working of the mines of antimony which abound in France. — Its price of production is less than the third of that of white lead of average quality. — It may be immediately ground with, or without, other manipulation. — The workmen who are engaged in its manufacture, will be exempt from all danger, — and it is altoge- ther improbable that the painters who may employ it mixed with oil, will experience the least inconvenience /rom it. THE CONSTRUCTION OF CHIMNEYS. [We have been requested to give publicity to the following trans- lation of a notice issued pursuant to a resolution passed on the 18th May, 1813, by the Lower Austrian Society of Manufactures.] Notice. A prize to be given by the " Society for the encouragement of Arts and Manufactures " of Vienna, in Lower Austria, for the best treatise on " the most advantageous dimensions and arrangements of chimneys, and other essential parts of furnaces used in manufactories and similar places. Notwithstanding the many investigations that have been made, there still exists a great deficiency in our pvrotechnical knowledge as to the dimensions of several most essential parts of furnaces, parti- cularly those of chimneys, which are at present determined upon, on very uncertain definitions. It is known by experience how very much the situation of a chimney operates upon the success of an industrious enterprize, and how detrimental some arrangements partly in the ex- pense of construction, and partly in the consumption of fuel. Chimneys varying in height are used to furnaces for boilers to steam engines of equal power, without any difference of result in the consumption of fuel, whereas it has been found that low and narrow chimneys aftbrd the greatest ads-antages in the economy of fuel. Whether is it more desirable, therefore, with a large furnace to have several narrow chimneys or one of large diameter ? What ex- tent of draugiit is requisite? What influences chimneys have on the furnaces by attenuating the air? are questions which experience has not yet elucidated. In order to combine principles which are based upon fixed laws, examine the causes, and frame a theory, which from observation will hold good in practice, so that means may be afforded in erecting fur- naces to determine a priori the right dimensions for the chimneys and flues of large furnaces, the "Society for the encouragement of Arts and Manufactures," resolved at a general meeting on the 8th May, 1843, (similar to the example set by the Societe industrielle in Mick- Ihausen) to offer a reward of a small gold medal to the author of the best treatise, in accordance with the aforesaid proposals. The medal is to be adjudged at the general meeting in May 1845. The treatises are to be delivered before the 1st of February 1845, by persons domi- ciled in Vienna, to the Secretary of the Society, who will give the re- quisite receipts for the same. Treatises published before the expiration of 1813, will be admitted to the competition. Such treatises to be accompanied by a sealed note, containing both the name of the author and address, also a similar motto or sign to the one written on the title-page of the trea- tise. The successful treatise, and that nearest to it in merit, will be opened at the general meeting for adjudging the prize. The candi- dates for the prize retain their right of publication up to the end of 1S45, after which the right devolves to the societv in case the author has not published his work. The unsuccessful treatises will be re- turned at the Society's office to authorized persons, on giving up the Secretary's receipt. THE NUNHEAD CEMETERY AFFAIR. Sir — The information given in your last number, relative to the course pursued in the competition for the two chapels at the Nunhead Cemetery was altogether new to me, for I had not even so much as heard of there having been any exhibition of drawings, — which last, indeed, appears to nave been rather more for form's sake than any thing else, if it really consisted of " more than four hundred drawings," yet was kept open only two days ! — hardly time enough for persons to learn that there was any exhibition of the kind at all, it not having been previously amiounced by public advertisement. That this ex- hibition was little more than a nominal one — at least quite a private one — is tolerably evident from the fact of its being kept so close a secret, that not even any mention of it transpired through any of those journals and periodicals which attend to all matters connected with art, and which, had they been aware of it, would hardly have failed to speak of what is by no means a common occurrence. At all events 1 may confidently say that no card was sent to the "Civil Engineer," apprising you of the exhibition and soliciting your inspection of the designs, otherwise we should have had some remarks upon them at the time. As far therefore as that point is concerned, I must beg leave to differ from the opinion, expressed in your Journal, since I do 266 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [July, not consider the exhibition part of the business, by any means " a fair example" of the manner in which such matters should be conducted. It is further a question with me how far it was fair on the part of the committee to nominate a professional man as their umpire, witli- out the concurrence or even privity of the competitors; thereby giv- ing to that individual — who not being associated with a single col- league, could not at all benefit by learning other opinions than his own, . — the power of pronouncing an unappealable Fiat, deciding the fortune of sixty-five other professional persons. That the Committee should have chosen to delegate their authority to Sir Robert Smirke, placing the matter entirely in his hands, can be accounted for only by their feeling quite assured that he was not a competitor, because he has in- variably refused to enter any competition whatever — even that for the "New Houses of Parliament," notwithstanding that the occasion offered a prize, which even he might have condescended to struggle for. If, tlierefore, it was not very strange that the Committee should have applied to him, strange it certainly was that Sir Robert should have so greatly relaxed his own principles as to comply with the re- quest, and after having set his face strenuously against competitions, have made himself to a certain extent a party in one, and that, too, very prominently. Hardly did he consent to accept the office pro- feied him — in itself rather an invidious one— for want of fair excuse for rejecting it, since to have expressed his well known horror of competitions would have been a sufficient one. Accept if, however, he did, and having done so, was, I conceive, bound to comply witli the request of the Committee that he should select three other designs as being next in merit to the two to which he had adjudged the offered premiums. Yet this he declined to do, though apparently for no reason whatever that ought not to have equally deterred him from making any choice at all. Surely it could not have been a more erabarassing or ungracious task, to point out the three best of the remaining sixty-three designs, than it was to decide upon two as being the very best of all out of sixty-five. Possibly, Sir Robert may have had very sufficient reasons in his own bosom for de- clining to recommend any more than two designs, — and what those reasons were it may be easier to guess, than it would be exactly pro- per to say. At all events his refusal could not have been very agree- able to all the remaining competitors, because it deprived three of them of an accessit. Even in regard to the two designs which he pointed out as those deserving the premiums. Sir Robert's letter is exceedingly vague and unsatisfactory, as he does not assign a single reason for the pre- ference given to them ; which he ought to have done, and was, it is to be presumed, capable of doing. Since, however, lie did not think it expedient to do so, it is to be hoped that the Committee place im- plicit confidence in his taste and judgment. Those who have seen all the designs, fully described in their respective plans and other draw- ings, can best tell how far the two selected by Sir Robert surpassed all the rest — to such degree, it would seem, that he could point out no others approximating to them in merit. Two others, however, have since been shown at the Royal Academy Exhibition, — not how- ever that which obtained the second premium, — both of which possess no ordinary merit; and one of them at least (Mr. Brandon's model) would, I should have thought, have certainly obtained Sir Robert's recommendation, it being in the style he himself is so greatly attached to ; as it did not, I can account for its being passed over by him only by supposing that he was apprehensive it might give rise to very un- pleasant and awkward comparisons, and that its striking and pic- turesque effect in regard to the disposition of its columns, would not tend to reconcile us to liis own very humdrum and commonplace tie- sigtt for the facade of the British Museum. The other competitor who has appealed from Sir Robert's judgnjent, is Mr. Allom, and as far as his design can be understood from merely a single drawing, showing a purtion of the interior, I should call it one of no ordinary merit, — at the same time admit that it was not calculated to find favour with such a formal architectural puritan as Sir Robert Smirke. Mr. Brakspeare's design not having been sent to the Academy, I cannot [pretend to say how far it was better entitled to the second premium, than either of the two just mentioned. In fact, I have yet to learn even in what style it was. For thus freely commenting on an affair which is now settled, and therefore has lost its main interest with many, I offer no apology, being of opinion that it is exceedingly bad policy to suffer matters of the kind to drop quietly, and escape animadversion merely because it can have no effect in regard to the particular case which gives rise to it, that being already settled. Let them be managed as they may, it is requisite to keep a strict eye upon competitions ; and that for the Nunhead Cemetery ought to "be able to bear the strongest scrutiny, considering with whom the decision rested. If Sir Robert Sreiirke's name be a sufficient pledge for unerring judgment, to both the Com- mittee and the competitors, I must confess that it is not so to myself. His decision no more than a mere ipste dixit, unsupported by any rea- sons whatever, — leaving them to be found out by the Committee, and was therefore according to the more convenient than commendable principle of " Stet pro ralione, voluntas," X. CANNABICS AND CAMDENISTS. Sir — Some account of Albano's patent Cannabic architectural orna- ments would no doubt be very acceptable to many other readers be- sides myself.' Untillsaw the incidental mention of them in the notice of Mr. Walker's conversazione, [ was not even aware of there being any thing of the kind, nor does the term "Cannabic" enable me to form any idea of their nature, — whether they are something altogether new — a bona fide invention — or an improvement upon something be- fore known, and now recommended by a new name. I conclude, how- ever, from their being spoken of as " highly gilt and burnished," that there can be no novelty whatever in their appearance; nevertheless must we suppose that they have some peculiar advantages to recom- mend them. I do not know whether our Camdenists here are preparing any thunder against you, on account of the slashing article against them in your present number. Probably they content themselves with ob- serving a dignified silence ; if not you must expect nothing less than sentence of excommunication, — not only on account of that article, but also of the one on "Greek Masonry," introduced in utter defiance of their recent denunciation of every thing connected with the study of Pagan architecture. The intelligence conveyed in the latter article, that Hittorff is preparing an elaborate work on Grecian Polychromy is calculated to alarm not only Camdenists, but many belonging to the established Pagan or classical school. Well will it be for the Institute, if the Camdenists do not now fall foul upon that body, and take it severely to task for proposing as the subject of the Soaue Medallion, a "College in a University, of Roman or Italian architecture." — But I must stop, or I shall spin out my gossiping remarks to such length that you will have forgotten what induced me to write at all ; therefore now conclude with re- minding you of "Cannabic." I remain, yonr's, &c., J. P. Cambridge, July 5, 1844. » We must refer our Correspondent to the Journal for last March, p. 86, where some account is given of "Cannabic ornaments." — Editor. TO THE INHABITANTS OF SAINT MARGARET'S, WESTMINSTER. Gentlemen, — Permit me to call your attention to the fact that efforts are still being made to effect the destruction of your venerable parish church, and to remove it from the site it has occupied for 790 years. I much fear a Committee of the House of Commons was pre- vailed upon yesterday, the 4th of July, to recommend this scheme of church desecration. I have in my works on Church-building, and on Westminster im- provements, and by other means, endeavoured to expose the shallow pretexts of the destructionists, and I flattered myself that my efforts had been successful, as I had brought over some of the most influential persons to my views, when to my astonishment a letter appeared a shoit time since in the " Builder," announcing "the pleasing intelli- gence,"— the pleasing intelligence! "That St. Margaret's Church was immediately to be pulled down and rebuilt on another site, both which had been authorized, and funds for the purpose had been obtained," Let me epitomise the reasons against this measure, which I have given at length elsewhere. " That persons greatly err who would re- gulate Gothic architecture on Greek principles" "That Gothic archi- tecture does not exhibit itself naked and bare" "That it delights in bold, striking, and picturesque irregularities" "veiling itself with walls and screens and towers" "Therefore appears best as an ac- cumulation of buildings" "Therefore the Abbey Church and St. Mar- garet's gain by juxta position" " While the grandeur of the ancient edifice is increased by comparison with the more modern structure which stands beside it" " That when the new palace of legislature is completed, St. Margaret's will be absolutely necessary to effect a har- monious union between that and the Abbey" "That St. Edward did 1 et think the position of St. Margaret',s would injure the effect of his 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 267 darling Abbey Church" " That its removal would involve the destruc- tion of another of history's landmarks, a document of stone which cannot lie, attesting the antiquity of your parish" "That instead of your venerable temple founded by St. Edward, rebuilt by Edward I., and again by Edward IV., you would probably get a mere brick and plaster apology on a par with those modern churches which are the laughing stock of Ecclesiologists." But is mere taste, or rather the want of it, fit to be put in competition with the desecration of a spot on which your ancestors worshipped for nearly eight centuries, or are ye on these matters below that nation of savages, who, when urged to emigrate, replied, " But how shall we remove the bones of our fore- fathers '." Inhabitants of Westminster, rouse yourselves to resist the architec- tural barbarians. Your ancestors rose e7i masse and successfully re- sisted theProtector Somerset and his myrmidons when they attempted the destruction of this church. The present most excollent Dean and your highly gifted Rector are utterly opposed to the project of removal ; put yourselves under their legitimate guidance — remove not St. Mar- garet's, RESTORE IT TO ITS PRISTINE BEAUTi' AS LEFT TO YE BY THE ILLUSTRIOUS Edward, and you will never more hear the senseless cry of removing St. Margaret's to obtain a better view of the Abbey Church. "Perhaps the best method to unite St. M.irgaret's with the Minster would be by erecting a tomb-house or cloister for the recep- tion of those mural monuments which disfigure the interior of the Abbey Church, the expense of which would probably be defrayed by the accession of new monuments." As an Architectural Antiquary I have now done my duty ; let the guardians of the fabric do theirs. William Bakdwell. U,ParkSlrm(, THE ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY AND ROPE TRACTION RAILWAYS. [We are iudebteci for the fullovving paper lo Mr. Stephenson's valuable report on the Atmospheric Railway (see ' Journal for June last, p. L'tJH) ; it was drawn up lay i\Ir. Bidder at tile request of Mr. Stephenson.] A Report on tlic practical application of tlie atmospheric principle as a motive power on railways, must inevitably be considered incomplete if the investigation did not comprehend the peculiar circumstances involved in tlie working of the Blackwall Railway, the more especially as public attention has been solicited in this case. Before, however, we can enter upon such an inquiry, we must carefully review the peculiarities which distinguish the con- duct of the traffic on the London and Blackwall Railway. This railway is about 3 J miles in length, and is worked by stationary en- gines of 400 and 280 estimated horse power at the London and Blackwall termini respectively, the carriages being attached to a rope by grips, which rope winds oif and on large drums situated at each extremity of the line. The greater power at the London station is required in consequence of there being a total rise in the railway in this direction of between 60 and 70 feet, the steepest inclination being 1 in 100. There are no less than seven intermediate stations on this line ; five of them, viz., Poplar, West India Docks, Limehiiuse, Stepney, and Shadwell, communicate with the Fenchurch Street terminus j whilst four of them, viz., Minories, Cannon Street, Shadwell, and Stepney, communicate with the Blackwall terminus. This arrangement is effected by appropriating a sepa- rate carriage from the termini for each intermediate station communicating with the same, and which, whilst the trains are moving in either direction, are detached, and by means of breaks are stopped at their respective destina. tioHS. As soon, however, as the terminal train arrives at either end of the line, and the rope ceases its motion, these intermediate carriages are at- tached by means of grips to the rope whilst the latter are in a state of rest ; so that when the rope is again in motion, these are also simultaneously set in motion, and of course arrive successively at the termini in the order and at intervals corresponding with the order and position of the places from which they started ; and as they arrive, they are released from the rope, though in motion, by the sudden withdrawal of the grip iron, and then their momen- tum carries them forward to their proper place in the station. It will thus be perceived that the intermediate traffic is by this means provided for with- out causing any detention to the through-trade. The importance of this intermediate traffic may be inferred from the fact, that in the year ending the 3Ist of December last, ont^of nearly 2,500,000 passengers conveyed during this period, nearly 1,000,000, or two-thirds of the whole number, were derived from the short stations ; any system, there- fore, which did not completely provide for this traffic, it is clear could not under any circumstance he introduced with propriety on^this railway. To meet the case, it has been suggested, in the event of the atmospheric principle being adopted, that more frequent trains than at present should proceed from each end, and stop alternately at the intermediate stations, so that this important element of revenue might he accommodated. This suggestion was made in consequence of the necessitv of stopping the tlirongh-trains at each of these stations, as the system of separate carriages could not conveniently be applied to this mode of traction. This plan, if otherwise unobjectionable, it is obvious would afford a partial communication between some of the intermediate stations. This, as far as it goes, is .in advantage over the rope system, which only admits the intermediate stations to communicate witli the termini. It is, howevtr, believed that this Iraflic nould not be important, whilst it is of the utmost consequence to the culti- vation of the intermediate intercourse that tlie intervals between the trains at each station should not exceed a quarter of an hour. The average number of carriages in the terminal trains throughout the year is four ; whilst in summer, to prevent the labour of having constantly to be adding or taking carriages off, as many as seven or eight are continually in motion, independent of the intermediate carriages. This great numlier of carriages is requisite in consequence of the extremely fluctuating nature of the traftie, which during the season is mainly derived from steam boats, whose living freights, amounting occasionally to 400 or 500 passengers, have frequently to be transported in one train. In the following eilculations, I have, however, only assumed four carriages for the accommodation of the terminal traffic, and two more for the intermediate traffic, v\hich though on the whole larger than the former, is nevertheless more equally diffused. Besides the above, the trains which stop at the Poplar station will be aug- mented by one goods' truck, though at times two will be added. Thus the trains will consist alternately of six or seven carriages constituting gross loads of 100,000 lb. and 1 12,000 lb. respectively. I also assume the actual time of stoppage at each station, independent of time lost in accelerating and re- tarding the trains, at half a minute, except at Poplar, where I allow one minute, as the goods' trucks would have to be pushed from a siding and attached to the trains. Tlius, supposing the trains to stop alternately at 4 and 3 stations, the latter, however, embracing the Poplar station, the total time of stoppage on the trip would be two minutes ; and assuming an ave- rage velocity of 30 miles per hour were maintained, including the time lost in accelerating and retarding at each stoppage, the actual time of travelling would be 7i minutes ; thus the whole trip woidd occupy 9i minutes. But to accomplish this with oidy average trains woidd require a tube 2 feet in diameter, with a vacuum of 20 inches, and this on tlie far I her as- sumption that a conductor was appropriated to each carriage, and that the brake is applied to every wheel in the train, thus giving an adhesion of Jth the gross load ; and further, that the brakes are applied with mathematical accuracy. But with engines very far exceeding tlie power of the present engines, the time required to exhaust this tube would he at least 6 minutes. Thus the interval between the trains from the termini would be augmented to 15^ minutes, or say |.hour intervals; that is, the same interval as is now •illowed, but then the intermediate traffic would be subject to ^--hour intervals, which I believe would reduce the traffic to less than half the present amount. It has, however, been suggested that an average speed of 4(5 miles per hour might be attained ; but with four intermediate stoppages, to accomplish this would require a tractive force, independent of the great ordinary resistance which has to be overcome at these high velocities, (as in this case a maximum speed of 80 miles per hour is requisite,) equal to -J^th the gross load of the train. This with only an average train would require tubes of a size and engines of a power that would be entirely inadmissible. Seeing, therefore, that with intermediate stations on a line of the extent of the London and Blackwall Railway, very high velocities and trains of a greater frequency than ]-hour intervals were unattainable, we may see what would happen by adopting the existing engines with a pipe which, at a vacuum of 16 inches, would be adequate to take a maximum load up the steepest gradients. This pipe would for a gross load of 225,000 lb., or lOO-J tons, require to be 24 inches in diameter. Now, assuming as before the actual stoppage at each station to be j minute, except at Poplar, which I assume to be for the up-traiu 1 minute, but J minute only for the down train ; assuming also a conductor on each carriage and the brake applied throughout the train, ob- taining an adhesion therefore for retardation equal to j^th the gross weight of the trains ; on the above data, together with the hypothesis of the engines at each end working continually at their full power, I find that an average train wdl occupy 16 minutes on the up and 16^ minutes on the down trip, whilst a maximum train will occupy 22 minutes on the up and 20 minutes on the down trip ; but as 5 minutes at least must he added for exhausting the lube to 8 inches for starting, it is clear that trains at less than ^-hour intervals could not be maintained on this line, especially when we consider that the ■above times include no contingencies, which must frequently occur on a line so worked ; as, for instance, in a London atmosphere the adhesion frequently will not exceed -J^th the insistent weight : this alone, when it occurs, would add 2 or 3 minutes to the trip, and as in the event of a train overshooting a station it is impossible to move it back, the guards must commence applying the brakes sooner than is indicated by calculation, in order to ensure avoid ing such a dilemma. Unless, therefore, some expedient with which I at present am unacquainted can be devised for obviating the necessity for stopping at each intermediate station, it would appear that the trains could not be run more frequently than at J -hour intervals with the engines now at work, thus reducing the trains to one-half their present number, and this, too without effecting any saving in the working expenses, inasmuch as there would be no reduction in the staff of conductors, whilst the constant and severe breaking would in- crease the cost of maintenance of way and carriages ; the wages of the rope, meu also would not compensate for the extra cost arising from the engines being kept continually at work, instead of for 10 minutes ODly out 'j every 268 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [July, i of an hour, as is now the case; and, lastly, the interest of the outlay re- quisite to introduce this system would exceed the annual cost of repairing and replacing the rope. REVIETVS. Crosby Place Illiiflraled. By Henry J. Hammon, Architect. Lon- don: Weale, 1844. We look upon tills work as valuable in a double point of view, as illustrating an interesting monument, and as giving a stimulant to the restoration of our ancient edifices. We are jfraid that we can say but little with regard to this book, for its merits can be briefly ;ind fa- vourably canvassed, while to give any account of the edifice itself is impossible, as it is now so well known. Mr. Hammon has performed his duty with ability and care, while he has given a neat and accurate account of the building, he has not suffered himself to be deluded into fine writing or swelling out his brief narration. The plates are justly made the principal and prominent parts of the work, and are well executed, illustrating every part of the ancient mansion. Mr. Hammon, therefore, has well responded to the exertions of the patrons of the restoration, the public spirited lady Miss Hackett, its cliief promoter, and the architects, and we can award him no higher praise. We almost fear it is useless to recommend this work to th.» profession, for we see by the subscription list that nearly every architect of eminence has possessed himself of it. However, to those who have not done so, or to those in the provinces we earnestly recommend it. By the bye the history of restorations iu the metropolis would make an intere^st- ing work of itself. Showing what we have done of late years to the honour of the works of other days, thereby securing to posterity more respect for our own. Crosby Hall, St. Saviour's, the Temple, the Savoy, and St. Bartholomew's would make a good commencement. Collec/ion of Architectural Oniamenis of the Miihlle Aijes, in the Byzan- tine and Gothic Sli/le. By Charles Heidei.off, Architect and Professor of the Polytechnic School, Nureiuburg. Vol. I. witli 64 Plates. London : Hering and Remington. Messrs. Hering and Remington seem disposed, in virtue of their connec- nection with the continent, to render the same service to the arts which M. Didot does to literature. The present volume will be most acceptable to architects and antiquaries here, as it is by a man of eminence and reputation, and records examples, most of which are new even in Germany and are inac- cessible here. An additional merit is that many details of the Ijyzantine style are given, which is attracting great attention in Germany, and which affords new resources to our ecclesiastical architects here. The work was originally published in parts, and contains above four hundred examples of every kind of ornament, many of which are novel, and all sanctioned by good authority. Nuremburg is a treasury of middle age art, having been the Florence of Germany, and abounds with the finest work by native artists. Indeed, the history of the arts in Nuremburg has copiously employed the pens of Von Murr and others. From this city Professor lleideloff has been able to obtain much material, bnt he has also profiled by other places in Bavaria, V/urtemburg and elsewhere, as the Cathedral of Bamberg, the Holyrood monastery at Neissen, Nossen, Kloister Heilbraun, Hersbruck, Ellwangen Cathedral, Hirschau Abbey, Erlbach, Murrhard Abbey, Forth, Cohurg Castle, Tubingen, Stuttgart, Bobenhausen, Reuilingen Cathedral, OflTenhausen, Lilienfeld, Lorch Abbey, Vienna, Urach, Anhausen, Schwabisch- hall, Freiburg Castle, Salzburg Castle, Robweil, &c. We feel confident that our readers engaged in the pointed styles will find this an admirable and useful work of reference. We sincerely hope that Professor Heidelotf will continue his laudable undertaking. Polygraphia Curiosa. — The Book of Initial Letters and Ancient Alpha- bets for Ornamental purposes. London : David Bogue, Fleet Street, This is what is rare, a magnificent book and a cheap one, most useful to all engaged in design. The compiler has here presented a copious volume of initials from sources of the greatest authenticty, most of which can only with difficulty be referred to by the ordinary student. We wish iu some plates, however, more attention had been shown to discriminating the exact date of the letters, nevertheless this does not detract from their intrinsic value. In fact, the work may vie with many of the illuminated missals ; some of the plates are gorgeously coloured and show to what perfection Mr. Jobbins, the proprietor and compiler of the work, has brought lithography in con- junction with polychromy. We are happy to see that he has announced his intention of publishing a second volume to embrace a variety of ornamental designs, some of a heraldic nature. A Manual of Electro-Metallurgy. By George Shaw. Second Bdition, considerably enlarged. London : Simpkin, Marshall and Co. It is pleasing to see a second edition in a department of science so new as electio-metallurgy, and more pleasing to consider that such edition has been rendered necessary by the progress of discovery. Now that electro-metal- lurgy is becoming a practical process, a manual like Mr. Shaw's is requisite, which gives the principles and manipulations in a clear and comprehensive manner, so as to be available both to the student and practical man. Appendix G. to the Netc Edition of Tredqoldjm the Steam Engine and on Steam Navigation. London : John Weale. This concludes Weale's Edition of Tredgold on the Steam Engine, one of the most magnificent and useful works which has ever been published for the engineering profession in any country. The work is of such a character, so extensive in its bearings, so copious in its illustrations, tliat we have been indeed surprised at the enterprise of the puhlislier, and the cordial support of the public. On both it confers honour, on the publisher for his spirited undertaking, on the public, and the engineering profession in particular, for responding to such an appeal. No part of the steam engine, in its numerous applications and varied improvements, has been left unillustrated, but whether as regards the railway, the mine, or the ship, the steam engine is seen here delineated from the best models, with a degree of sumptuousness more usually looked for in a national work than in the publication of a private in- dividual. To have conceived such an expensive undertaking, one requiring so much labour, so much energy and such an outlay of capital, and to have prosecuted it successfully entitles the publisher to the sincere thanks of all those who desire to encourage practical and valuable works. The concluding part contains an able Treatise on the Cornish Pumping Engine, by William Pole, who, for his high scientific attainments, was lately appointed by the Hon. East India Company, Professor of Elphinstone College at Bombay. This treatise is divided into two parts. " The first part is devoted to a historical notice of the application of the steam engine to the purpose of draining the mines of Cornwall, and of the progressive improvement it has received in that district. Beginning with the projects of Sa-very, we pass on to the actual use of the atmospheric engine, and notice the peculiar circumstances connected with its general introduction into the south-western mining districts. Smeaton and Watt come next in order, and the subsequent improvements by the Cornish engineers are the more prominently dwelt on, because their nature and history are compara- tively so little known. The account of the introduction of the Duty Reports cannot fail to be interesting, as showing not only the means by which the progress of improvement is so easily traced, but also the great stimulus which has acted to encourage the efforts of the engineers. " The second part contains a minute and detailed description of the Cornish single-acting pumping engine, according to its most modern con- struction ; particularly noticing its various peculiarities as contrasted with the ordinary Boulton and Watt single-acting engine generally used in other parts of the country." This part, illustrated with nine splendid plates, shows minutely every part of a Cornish Pumping Engine, manufactured by Messrs. Sandys, Carne and Vivian, of Copper House Foundry and Engine Works, Hayle, Cornwall ; the engine has been erected at the mines of the Langnin Coal and Iron Com- pany, near Nantes, for the purpose of draining the collieries. We have not been able to peruse the paper viith that attention it deserves we must, therefore, reserve till a future opportunity the remarks which we are desirous of making. Original Geometrical Diaper Designs. By D, R. Hay. London : Bogue. Parts 3 and 4. Mr. Hay is proceeding vigorously with his work, and in the present num- bers he has commenced his dissertation on the elements of design. From some of his views we dissent, but it would be premature to discuss the whole question. At any rate we can give our testimony to the utility of the work, and to the earnest desire of the author to perform his duty. A Treatise on the Steam Engine. By the Artizan Club. Part I. London : Longmans. This may be considered as an introductory part to the intended work. We are, therefore, precluded from offering any remarks until the work is more advanced. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 269 TVealt's Quaiierly Papers on Engineering. — Part 4. London, 1844. The present part of Weale's Papers has two original articles by Capt. Vetch and Mr. Clarke, and several valuable papers republished. It commences vcith a very interesting article by Capt. Vetch, of the Royal Engineers, on the Construction of Harbours of Safety in the Downs; reclaiming the Goodwin Sands and Sandwich Flats. Of the practicability of these undertakings we are fully convinced, and also of the very great advantages which wo\ild accrue to the commerce of the empire from such an enterprise ; as, however, the method pro- posed by the gallant captain is novel, we should not like to commit ourselves to the opinion that it is jier se the most efficient, though we are bound to admit its ingenuity, and the prima-facial evidence of its applicability. The principle on which the author proceeds informing his roadstead is thus explained, and is one, which, although pregnant with the most valuable results, has not been always duly borne in mind. ON HAVKNS OF SAFETY, BY JAMES VETCH, CAPT. R. E., F. R. S. Of all the natural havens which occur on the east and south coast of Eng- land, that formed by the Isle of Wight is the most complete. It has two large openings or entrances, great capacity, and good anchorage, and it may be pretty safely assumed that the best harbours for ail purposes are those formed by an island lying near the main shore, and with tlie channel between them, sheltered by projecting paints or banks; if we can therefore, by any reasonable means, convert the Godwin Sands, the Scroby Sands, and the Smithick Bank into islands, we should render the Downs, Yarmouth Roads, and Bridlington Bay, havens of the best qualities ; but other advantages re- sult from converting these barrier sandbanks into islands, since, by raising their crest above high-water mark, they cease to be hidden dangers, and it is obviously more prudent to build on the foundations laid by nature, and to complete her works, than to extend long piers or breakwaters into deep water for the purpose of inclosing an anchorage, not only without any assist- ance from natural circumstances, but possibly in direct opposition to them. +: * * * 4: The great question that now remains to be solved is, whether it be possi- ble in a reasonable time, and at a reasonable expense, to raise the crest of the Godwin Sands above high-water mark ; and the writer is of opinion that the same may be accomplished, first, through the means of alight but strong frame work of malleable iron with other concomitants ; secondly, through the cir- cumstance of the low prices to which iron has now descended ; and, lastly, by means of obtaining the operation of nature to accumulate sand around and within the contrivances erected to catch and retain it ; and without under- valuing the application of iron framings for breakwaters under other condi- tions, the writer considers the superior utility of the principle will become most manifest in the conversion of sandljanks into islands. * * The Godwin Bank is of an oval, or rather egg shape, the extreme length measured from the three fathom level at the north sand head to the same level at the south sand head, being 17,980 yards, or 10} statute miles nearly, and the extreme breadth from the west excrescence at the Bunt Head to tlie Barrier Edge, being 7667 yards, or somewhat better than 4:5 statute miles. The extent of the portion of the bank which is left dry in spots at low water is 12,364 yards long and 6532 yards broad, that is, about seven statute miles by 3j^, or 3-7. The elevated spots inclosed within the last dimensions, at ordinary spring tides, are left dry at low water to the amount of 34 to 5 J feet ; average 4 J feet ; and at these times their surfaces remain dry and workable upon, for three hours, and the rise and fall of tide being 16i feet, these spots are covered on the average at high water to the extent of 12 feet. The nature of the sand is remarkably clean and free from clay and mud, as might naturally be expected from the constant washing to which it is ex- posed, and Mr. Smeaton, who landed upon the hank in May, 1789, states that he " visited and landed upon the Godwin Sands to have a" view of them, and examine their nature, and found that though of the nature of a quick- sand, clean and unconnected, yet the particles lay so close that it was diffi- cult to work a pointed iron bar into the mass more than to the depth of six or seven feet." Captain Bullock, who made a boring lately, found at the depth of 71 feet the sand become so dense and cohesive as to break the borer in the efforts to make it penetrate lower, and it is stated that Captain Hewett was unable to bore to a greater depth than 8 feet. Capt. Vetch then proceeds to make some ingenious remarks as to the probable nature of the substratum under the Goodvf ins, and bis views on this question seem to us to be well founded. We do not accord with him, however, as to his next point, combatting the received notion of the origin of the Goodwin Sands from the submersion of a part of the Earl of Kent's estates. We are rather afraid that our en- gineer has been induced to take such a course from the motive he assigns, of combatting possible prejudice that if "the locality was once firm land, incapable of resisting the sea at a former period, it is im- probable that it can be regained or resist for the future," rather than by a comprehensive view of the evidence on the subject. The nega- tive evidence of present submarine appearances would be just as con- clusive against the inundation of the Zuyder Zee or of Zealand, or against the serious abrasions of our eastern coast, by which, in our own time, villages and parishes have been worn down into the domain of the sea. We know that other districts have been lost for want of attention to their sea banks, and we can see no reason why the strong traditional evidence of the submersion of the Goodwin district should be doubted, or that any argument should thence be drawn against its subsequent recovery by the resources of engineering science, either under the direction of the gallant engineer or some other colleague equally able to grapple with the opposing difficulties. To proceed with the Captain's plan. The writer proposes to conduct a spinal embankment or nucleus of the nascent island along the sandbank as would readily permit the tides and de- positions to visit both sides of it. The spine may he carried down the mid- dle of the bank, or along the most elevated ridge, and if of a concave form, greater sheUer would be given for the deposition of material, and the writer wonld prefer following such a line as would serve so far for a barrier bank to the island when completed. Thus on the Godwin Sands it is proposed to carry the spine or nucleus breakwater parallel to the great crest of the sands, as particularly developed along the eastern margin of the bank, and at the average distance of 500 yards from the edge, that the artificial harrier may be secure from damage by any temporary shifting of the outline of the bank, and also that sufficient space may he left outside the spinal embankment for the deposit of matter, which being sustained in reverse, would not be so sub- ject to be carried o(i by currents or storms as at present, and would afford mutual support to the spine. The specific mode of construction is thus detailed : — To meet the condition of the Godwin Sands in constructing the spinal em- bankment, it is proposed to use iron rods, in a position nearly vertical, pene- trating 74 feet into the sands and rising 7J feet above their surface ; the up- right rods to be about one foot apart, and arranged in square frames of 12 feet each side ; and these squares complete, (called iron gabions, for facility of description,) will each contain 48 iron rods on a space of 12 feet square penetrating the sand 7i feet, and considering what has been stated of the tenacity or closeness of the sands at that depth, it may safely be allowed that so great a number of prongs will give tlie gabion all the strength that can be required against any lateral force applied above the level of the sands, and so far from seeking to go deeper for a foundation, it might be better to employ means to prevent any farther settlement of the gabions. The iron gabion being fixed, and the rods inserted in the sand to the depth stated, it is next proposed to floor the interior space with hurdles, and on these to line the gabion with one row of fascines firmly fastened to the iron rods ; and this first stage of the structure to remain, without further addition, until the action of the sea has heaped up the sand externally and internally to the top of the fascines, when a second floor of hurdles and second row of fascines will be introduced, and the operations continued until the gabion is filled. The gabions now described form but the first tier in the structure, and when the interior and exterior surface has become elevated seven feet, a second tier of gabions is to be keyed on to the first, and these last treated as the first. In the foregoing manner the author merely attempts to raise a barrier one foot high at a time, and composed of materials not oflFering a solid re- sistance to the waves, but calculated to receive and retain the sand on either side as thrown up. It will he obvious that on such a surface as that of the Godwin Sands, and where we cannot safely plant a heavy structure or acquire a solid foundation, that we must endeavour to supply these deficiencies by embracing and holding on by as broad a surface as can conveniently, and economically be attempted ; and with this principle in view, it is proposed on the hue of spinal embankment to lay down two parallel rows of gabions 36 feet apart, bonded and tied together with cross rows at every 36 feet, by which means a base 60 feet wide would be procured for the spinal embank- ment, and by the numerous cells of which it is composed, every facility would be offered for the accumulation and retention of sand, &c., an object which would be still farther attained by throwing out ribs from the spine at suitable points to intercept the passing sedimentary materials, and these ribs embracing the sand to a still greater extent of surface, would increase the stabiUty of the spine. The proposed spinal embankment or breakwater on the Godwin Sands will employ about two tons of malleable iron per lineal yard ; and the expense of the materials and structure, per Uneal yard, may he roughly estimated at £24 ; and the cost for 12 miles, or 21,120 hneal yards of spinal embank- ment, at i24, gives a total expense of £506,880. The first tier of gabions would cost about £253,440, and if the whole was finished in four ye rs, the expense would be about £125,000 per annum. We should observe that this ingenious paper is copiously illustrated with copper plate engravings. The second paper is Sir J. Renuie's Report on Holyhead and Port Dynllaen Harbours, already known to the public. The third an Investigation of the Comparative Loss by Friction in Beam and Direct Action Steam Engines. By Wra. Pole, C. E., Pro- fessor of Civil Engineering, Bombay. This is the paper which was read before the Institute of Civil Engineers, and reported in this Journal of last year, page 170, the present paper is illustrated with mathematical formulae and engravings. 23 270 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [JuLYy The fourth paper is on "The Engineering of Holland." By Hyde Clarke, C. E. The first section only is given here, which enters at con- siderable length into the minute practical details of the construction of dykes and seabanks, as derived from Dutch authorities, a subject with regard to which very little or nothing is known in this country. It promises to be a very interesting and valuable series, got up with great labour, and calculated to do good in keeping up our acquaint- ance with the great school of hydraulic engineering in the Nether- lands, and in inducing our engineers and capitalists here to improve our own shores and coasts. The extent of coast open to the labours of the engineer is well shewn in the annexed summary by Mr. Clarke. RECLAIMING OF LAND. Sunk Island, near the mouth of the Humber, has been recovered and con- verted into a parish almost in our own time, and the space between it and Spurn Head on the north shore, called Trinity Sands, might be advantageously embanked, and would afford 10,000 or 12,000 acres. A good deal of land, by careful management, might be obtained in the Humber, as the Dutch have treated the Rhine. Probably another 10,000 acres might be obtained vrithout injury to the navigation, and to the great improvement of the wapen- take of Lindsey in Lincolnshire. Some good polders or water meadows might also be gained between Grimsby and Saltfleet. The large estuary called the Wash, now hemmed in on every side by the labours of the engineer, presents an opportunity for embanking such as should not be neglected. Upwards of 100 square miles, or nearly 100,000 acres might be ultimately recovered, and Sir John Rennie has formed a most judi- cious plan for the gradual prosecution of this undertaking by sections, so as to meet the views, it would seem, of the most timid. The neighbouring dis- tricts, fertile in cattle and com, show to what advantage this acquisition could be turned, while the drainage and navigation of the whole up-country would be vastly promoted. The rivers Aide, Debden, Orwell, and Stour, in Suffolk, admit of great improvement, and the consequent recovery of much valuable soil. The same may be said of Horsey Island in Essex, and the coast washed by the estuaries of the Coin, Blackwater, and Crouch, in the same county. This is a district much like the province of Zealand, and under systematic treatment would produce from 30,000 to 40,000 acres, the whole of Danesey Flats and the MapUn Sand admitting of recovery. The condition of this district is far from complimentary to the country in an engineering point of view, but no- thing else than a central management and operations on a grand scale can do much good here ; partial efforts may do a little, but they cannot carry out measures effectually. There would be strong interests to contend with in the case of the Med- way, or the district from the Isle of Grain to Whitstable might with great benefit be put under proper treatment. It would greatly benefit the naviga- tion and land communications, while it would produce a great accession of available agricultural soil. Chichester harbour and Langston harbour, in Sussex and Hampshire, would produce a considerable quantity of good ground without injuring the naviga- tion, but the contrary. The embanking of Brading harbour, in the Isle of Wight, was, it is said, undertaken by Sir Hugh Middleton and others, and they formed a dam across the mouth of the harbour, but found the soil worth nothing. Had they known how to turn the river Yaver to account, they might easily have remedied that defect. The area is about 600 acres ; and as the mouth is narrow, a small dam would close it. It is also said that, on the occasion just mentioned, a stone wall was found in the channel, as if a similar attempt had previously been made. In the Solent, about 1,000 acres might be secured between Lymington and the North Channel. Poole harbour, in Dorsetshire, has very much ground wasted by the upland streams, clearly not by the sea, for the mouth of the harbour is not half a mile across. In Somersetshire, the probabiUty is that if a new channel were cut for the river Parret, the greater part of Bridgewater Bay might be silted up, and an addition made to the levels in that district. The Welsh grounds, as they are called, lying off Monmouthshue, in the Bristol Channel, seem to be caused by the small streamlets from the Coldecol level. The Candecot and Wentloog levels, it may be observed, are portions of these sands, containing 30,000 acres, which have been reclaimed, perhaps bv the Flemish settlers. ' South Wales, too, presents several estuaries which could be treated by the engineer with very beneficial results. The estuary of the Dee is of little value for navigation at present, having a verj' bad channel at low water. This might, however, be remedied, and 20,000 acres be easily reclaimed. By the diversion of part of the channel at a former date, 4,000 or 5,000 acres have been already obtained in the upper river. The Mersey, it would almost create a panic to attempt; and the more so, as much space is required for the shipping. But it may be said with truth, the navigation of that river is in a very unsatisfactory state ; and although Captain Denham has done something, it requires very able and energetic management to secure the river in a competent state. The outer channels are very bad ; and it is evident the process is going on which has already created the peninsula of Wirrall between the two rivers, and which has almost destroyed the river Dee. Some day a new port will be made at Formby, or elsewhere, on the coast to the north-west of Liverpool ; as indeed I proposed some years ago, which will save an hour or more in each tide, and carry on the packet business to more advantage. If the Mersey were taken in hand on a comprehensive scale, 20,000 acres might be reclaimed ; but local in- terests are so much involved in its present condition that this is quite hope- In the river Ribble 15,000 acres might be obtained; and it is a pity, in the recent measures for the improvement of the navigation, this object also was not provided for. Morecambe Bay is one of our largest estuaries, twenty miles deep, and fifteen miles across ; the greater part of which is dry at low water, and used as a high road. In 1836, 1 proposed a plan for its embankment, the recovery of 40,000 acres, and the carrying of a railway across it. This was considered insane at the moment, but has been subsequently affirmed by the voice of three public meetings of the county of Cumberland, and by the professional opinions of Messrs. Stephenson and Rastrick. At a subsequent period mea- sures were in agitation for its prosecution ; but disputes as to the rights of the crown, the Duchy of Lancaster and the local proprietors then interfered with the negociations. The same plan of railway proposed to cross the Duddon and the Solway Firth. Morecambe Bay contains two splendid ports, those of Fleetwood-on-Wyre and Piel of Foudrey, and also Lancaster and Ulverstone. The upper part of the bay was, however, the only part I then proposed to touch. The silt or soil is very fertile, as has been proved in several small embankments which have been made on the coast, and the sub- stratum within a few feet is a fine clay which would be available for the works. The value of the land recovered would amply repay the expenses, and the greater part of the cost of the railway uniting Lancashire and West Cumberland. The Duddon embankment has also met the approval of local parties, and it is to be hoped will not be long delayed. By shutting off the mouth from the Cumberiand coast to the Isle of Walney, 9,000 or 10,000 acres would be recovered, and the harbour of Piel of Foudrey, the best on the north-west coast of England, be much benefited. It is singular, by the bye, that this district is almost as little known as some parts of Ireland or Scotland. The Solway Firth, with the estuary of the Wampool and the Waver in Cumberland, which are dry at low water, would afford about 20,000 acres, and by embankment greatly facilitate the land and water com- munications of the neighbouring districts. On the east coast of Scotland a little has been recovered from the estua- ries, but a good deal more might still be obtained ; on the east coast of Ire- land also ; but the drainage of the Irish loughs would be the grandest and most valuable enterprise. These would afford upwards of 500 square miles, or a new countrj-, besides much facilitating the drainage of the adjoining dis- tricts. An Act of Parliament has been passed for the embankment of Lough Swilly and Lough Foyle, which, I believe, is now being proceeded with, the banks consisting of a rich mud, dry at low water. The following moderate estimate will show the large area available for the enterprise of our capitalists and the skill of our engineers : — England. Humber, &c. . . . 40,000 Acres. The Wash . . . 60,000 Suffolk and Essex . . 40,000 Hampshire and Dorsetshire 10,000 „ The Severn . . . 30,000 Cheshire and South Lancashire 50,000 „ Morecambe Bav . . 40,000 The Duddon .' . . 10,000 „ Solwav, &c. . . . 20,000 300,000 Acres Ireland. Loughs . . . 300,000 Acres The total extent in thp two countries cannot be estimated at less than 1000 square miles, or 600,00(i acres, worth at the lowest average £20 per acre, though much of it, as in Morecambe Bay and Lough Swilly, would be worth £60 per acre. The total value, if reclaimed, would be between £12,000,000 and £20,000,000. We sincerely concur in the feelings which induce the author to urge this subject on the consideration of the profession, for we are convinced that under proper auspices a great deal might be done. We must, however, have a more enlightened system of legislation for enterprise ; we must not have parliamentary countenance to the vexa- tious opposition of landowners and interested parties; we must not have joint stock undertakings impeded and repressed to check a soli- tary case of swindling, or the exaggerated evils of jobbing. Let us have protection and not discouragement; let every facility be given to engage in useful undertakings, and while the spirit and enterprise of the country is kept up, our capital will be usefully applied, and our labourers receive immediate and permanent employment. To in- crease our home territory and our home resources is one of our first duties, and that it is practicable is, without adverting to other author- ities, fully shewn in the present work by Capt. Vetch and Mr. Clarke. How necessary, too, it is for some better disposition on the part of the legislature is shewn in the cases of the Great Level of the Wash proposed by Sir John Rennie, and the Morecambe Bay Embankment by Mr. Clarke, plans approved by the highest authorities, of evident benefit and profit, and yet suffered to languish, unetfected and unat- 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 271 tempted, purely from the difficulty of obtaining the preliminary legis- lative sanction ami authority to raise funds. The processes adopted in the formation of dikes are extremely simple, but are necessarily detailed with such minuteness that we can- not seize any salient point to exhibit to our readers, although many of the features discussed are very interesting, the necessity of a strong grass turf covering, the mode of contending with the London clay formation, and the plans for carrying dikes across broad and deep creeks of the sea. In the copious notes are many interesting illustra- tions. The author mentions a work of the celebrated Captain John Perry, the engineer, who stopped Dagenham Breach. Unfortunately the pamphlet in question is not to be found in the British Museum. It is a plan for the improvement of the Bedford Level, published in 1727. Mr. Woods' paper on the Consumption of Fuel in Locomotive En- gines, read before the Liverpool Polytechnic Society, and Sir John Macneill's Report on the Atmospheric Railway, conclude the part, both papers are copiously ilhistrated with copper-plate engravings. ROYAL (NSTITUTE OF THE ARCHITECTS OF IRELAND. Lectuees op Aechiteciuue. On the 28th of June, the venerable Vice-President of this Institute, Sir R. Morrison, delivered an introductory lecture of a course mtended to be given upon architecture, in the Board-room of the Royal Dublin Society. Sir Richard proceeded to say— It is my pleasing duty, on this occasion, to congratulate you on the success which has attended our exertions to establish an Institute for promoling the advancement of architecture in this country, and for raising to their legitimate place in public estimation the character and the claims of its professors. For a long period our art was neglected in Ireland— for, in Ireland, the cBice of its professors was misunderstood— and while, in other countries, the profession of a science requiring for its proper eshibition an union of the purest taste, with the most literal attainments, claimed and earned an elevated position and the brightest honours for its successful practitioners, in Ireland our beautifid art h.is remained unappre- ciated ; and the title of its instructed professors has continued to be applied, in ignorance, to uneducated persons, unpossessed of the slightest claim to such a distinction. However, the cloud which too long hung over us is passing away, and amongst the enlightened of our countrymen our labours arc, at length, beginning to be understood and valued as they deserve. Our asso- ciation has already established a high position in public estimation. It has been honoured with the distinction of royal patronage. It has been hailed by the sister Institute of British Architects, and it now remains for its mem- bers to extend its benefits, as well to the public as to professional aspirants, by endeavouring to diffuse a taste for, with a knowledge of our art, that its •utility may keep pace with its advancement. With a view to this desirable object, I propose to deliver here a course of lectures on the history of archi- tecture, its principles and its rules; and, as it is my wish, founded on a strong feeling of its importance, to bespeak for my humble efforts to elucidate architectural science the attention not only of professional auditors but of others, I am induced to preface them by offering a few observations on the advantage to be derived from some study of this highly interesting subject as a branch of general education. I have said, in this country that the science of architecture has been much neglected by those who, from principle and from feeling, should be the liberal fosterers of the arts. The fact is obvious as its consequences have been in- jurious. From prejudice or from apathy amongst the educated classes the acquisition of any knowledge, and, therefore of a correct taste in this branch of the fine arts, has been too generally overlooked. There has, in conse- quence, been wanting a criterion to discriminate between the instructed artist and the illiterate pretender. Public and private wealth has been, from this cause, too often wasted in the erection of abortive and ridiculous struc- tures, which, as if in mockery of an advancing civilization, remain the re- cords of an absolute vandalism in respect of that art which should exhibit the most decided and most lasting monuments of a nation's refinement. That this unhappy neglect of architectural cultivation is not attributable to a dearth of prufessional talent, is manifesteJ in the few but surpassingly beau- tiful edifices which from time to time have been raised in this city and through the island, to exhibit the aid which, under encouraging circumstances, Irish genius could lend to forward the progress of national refinement. But archi- tectural ability, in order to flourish, requires the support and the encourage- ment of discernmg sympathy for its exertions. Honos atit artis. The mind of taste, of imagination, and of creative fancy, thus fitted for the conception of arrangements grand and beautiful in their design, is unfortunately the most sensitive of depreciation or neglect. But to appreciate the artist's lahours as they deserve, there must be a clear perception of the degree of ability which he displays ; and it is evident this capability of true discrimi- nation cannot subsist without some correct knowledge of, at least, the gene- ral principles of the art. Here, then, is the first consideration which, inde- pendently of the motive of personal improvement and gratification marks the importance of giving a place in the studies of the educated classes to the principles which should govern architectural design. If it is of importance to good feeling and enlightened juilgment to encourage the development of talent in a pursuit of the most intellectual character ; to be enabled to sym- pathise with the lofty aspirations of genius, and to protect an art which re- pays the taste that fosters it, liy affording to the many an inducement to peaceful pursuits and to mental cultivation, teaching them, by attractive examples of harmonious beauty in design, the appreciation, with the feeling of refinement, then, indeed, will those who love their country rejoice to see the possessors of its rank and of its wealth habituate themselves to that study of architecture which will render them competent judges of its examples, and enable them to encourage with praise, not "faint'' and chilling, but warm and ardent, as it is discriminating, the reallly comiwtent professors of an art which tends at once to embellish their country and to improve its people. There is, in connexion with this general view of the subject, a further con- sideration which renders it incumbent on the higher classes to acquire a com- petent ability for judging correctly as to architectural designs upon the the merits of which they may be called, in the discharge of duty, to decide. To the gentry of this country, in their capacity of legislators, members of committees, or grand jurors, is submitted the disbursement of large sums of money for the erection of public buildings, and in their education as well as in their integrity the nation reposes her confidence for the due fulfilment of their trust. The performance of this task involves, of necessity, the exercise of correct judgment and discrimination, that the common resources be not wasted in the erection of edifices inconvenient and unsuited to their intent ; and that the national taste suffer not discredit in the eyes of foreign nations and of posterity, by encumbering the land with mean and unsightly struc- tures, to misdirect the feehngs of its people, and to blot the page of their his- tory, instead of being the present means, as well as the tokens, of their re- finements, and remaining, like the monumental temples of Greece and Home, for future ages the memorials of their civilisation. But can this necessary faculty of correct judgment subsist independently of its acquisition by study- ing the principles of our art? With reference to other subjects of informa- tion the question would be deemed superfluous, though, with a strange in- consistency, many who would scarcely venture to give an opinion in a dis- cussion (for example) of medicine or of law, with respect to a science which requires at least an equal devotion of studious labour, consider themselves competent without any preparation to pass a decisive verdict. But there is a voice, familiar to many who hear me, which gives a sad denial to this as- sumption. It is the voice of experience, reminding them how frequently, on occasions such as I have referred to, they have witnessed from numerous designs the worst selected ; and thus giving her testimony to the principle I uphold, that those whose social position gives them the control of public money, with the ultimate decision upon public works, are called upon to fit themselves by study fur the task, no less by a consideration of duty, than by that of taste and feeling to which 1 already have adverted. But if those higher motives, involving a principle of feeling or of duty, had not any existence, there is a personal inducement for acquiring some general know- ledge of our art, which, with reference to the classes of society to whom I allude, ought, it might be supposed, to be sufliciently influential. The gentry of our country are to be considered not only as the legitimate patrons of the liberal arts and as the guardians of the national wealth and honour, but also more immediately in their private relations, and with reference to their indi- vidual interests, as well of reputation as of purse. Now, how is an individual in utter ignorance of the principles of architectural design, and about to incur a large expenditure in the erection of a mansion suitable to his station, to guard against the abuse of confidence by those whom he professionally employs ? It may, no doubt, be said that (as applies to other professions) by employing an artist of reputation, he may rest his security in the decid^ skill which he has thus engaged. It is obvious that this principle, rigorously pursued, were inconsistent with that generous and enlightened feeling which would rather seek to open than to bar the way of the youthful aspirant to professional distinction ; and although there would, indeed, be safety in its adoption, it is yet perhaps more applicable to the professions of law or of medicine, which aim but at a certain result, than to that of architecture, which aflbrds for selection such diversity of style and character in design, in respect of which the client, though submitting to the artist's professional taste and science, is supposed to direct him by some decided feeling and judgment of his own. But, after all, there is unfortunately with reference to our profession, as to that of medicine, a venal empiricism, ever ready, for its own corrupt purposes, to take advantage of the too prevailing ignorance of architectural principles, which we deplore. How often do we, from this cause, see a large expenditure lavished on an incongruous and unsightly mass of absurdity, under the dictation of some ignorant impostor, unable to under- stand much less to imagine a beautiful design, requiring the exercise of pure 23* 272 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [July, taste and scientific judgment, and poetic or classic feeling for its conception ? or else do we see tlie general forms of a design procured from a master of the art, to be, with an ill-judged and most delusive economy, placed for their completion in the hands of s me assuming journeyman of the profession, with a judgment as erroneous as that which might have induced a publisher to hand over the outline of a tale of the Great Magician, to be filled up by some penny scribe, with all its detail of well delineated character and natural expression, and historic associations and wondrous imaginings, the lights and shadows of ever-varying incident, and its deep and absorbing interest. The attempt would not be less absurd, and would afford just an equal prospect of success. But independently of the waste of money, there is another loss, which under such circumstances is entailed by the want of information to which I advert.— I allude to the loss of estimation which the deluded client must suffer in the opinion of better instructed persons, by the exhibition of the memorial he has erected to mark his sad deficiency in judgment and in taste. The edifice which he regards with admiration and displays with pride, is, in reality, an object of ridicule to those who have learned to distin- guish structural deformity from graceful beauty ; and the very praises which he lavishes on the abortion but bear w itness to the decided ignorance of his views. It has often been my lot, as I dare say it has been that of many who hear me, to listen with a painful feeling to such notes of praise uttered by persons of enlightened views on other subjects, wlien accompanied by observations whicli have evinced their incapacity for discerning the grossest errors in the structures they have admired, even when their vicious faultiness has been pointed out. How often on such occasions, is the censure, of which they cannot perceive the justness, vainly combated by such expressions as " tastes differ," and " though the building may not be strictly architectural, it still is handsome," he. I need not point out to you the total incorrectness of such observations. It is only necessary to say tliat they evince, as they proceed from, total ignorance of the subject to which they refer. A little study of the principles of architectural composition would have taught those who use them that no design can be beautiful which is in violation of harmony, or of proportion, or of fitness— that is, accordance with and adaptation to the cha- racter which it assumes ; and although it is true that "■ tastes may differ," even amongst correct judges of architectural propriety, one preferring per- haps the harmonious symmetry and chaste solemnity of a Grecian temple ; and another the picturesque forms of a Norman c;istle or a Tudor mansion ; still there can be no difference of taste, properly speaking, as to what is really excellent and what is totally erroneous in design ; unless, indeed, the term "taste' can be applied to such a perverted judgment as would prefer the cherubims of a country tomb-stone to the sculptures of a Phidias or a Lysip- pus, or the flaunting colours of a signboard daub to the magic creations of a Titian or a Claude. If, from the considerations to which I have directed your attention, it appears clearly how deeply interested are the unprofes- sional public in acquiring some correct knowledge of architectural design, for the perception of its merits, or for the detection of its faults ; the instructed artist is equally interested in the general cultivation of such knowledge, as in its diffusion will be found his surest safeguard against the injurious encroach- ments of ignorance and pretension. It will, indeed, be readily supposed, and experience has proved that those who, by studying the principles of architec- ture, have been taught to judge of it aright, who are thus aware of the extent of information, the laborious attention, and the continued practice required to qualify the skilful architect ; and still more, the historical research, the poetic associations, the refinement of feeling, and the creative fancy, chas- tened by taste derived from the purest sources, which must combine to form a master of the art, have ever been found the warmest patrons of ifs profes- sors, and the most ready and anxious to cheer the labours and to reward the merits which they have learned truly to comprehend, . It is not, certaiidy, to be assumed that an attention to the study of archi- tecture, whether more or leas extended, will supply the want of individual talent, or, in its exercise, produce a correct taste for the beautiful in design, where nature has denied to the student its perception ; but, at least, it will oppose a barrier to the gross violation of rule and order in structural compo- sition. It will be sufficient to prevent the sanctioning of what is incongruous or inharmonious in its eflects ; it will tend to the discouraging of assumed ignorance ; and, by directing the all-powerful influence of high example and generous sympathy in aid of a most worthy cause, it will promote the deve- lopment of native talent ; and, while it elevates the intellectual character of the country, it will spread with a refinement of feeling and of pursuit an in- crease of civilization and of happiness amongst her people — Ingenuas didic sse fidellter Artes, Emollit mores, nee sinit esse feros — Let us turn our eyes on Greece and Ituly, and mark the light which is shed from their glorious ruins in illustration of the position I maintain. There the arts, and architecture, above the rest, held a distinguished place, and marked with their beautiful memorials each advancing step of national im- provement. Those were no unhonoured artists who raised or restored the Parthenon, or gave to Athens the glories of the Erechtheum and the Pro pylasa. There was no want of a people's sympathy for the skill that had shone in Rome's temples and triumphal arches. Those nations have fallen, " fallen from their high estate." " Time and the barbarians" have both done their work ; and in later days, the hand of Moslem rudeness has driven the genius of architecture from the land of her adoption and her glory. But in Italy she still holds an honoured place ; and amidst the many political errors and changes which she has there witnessed, she has continued to re- ceive that votive homage at her shrine, which attests how- highly she has been and is still regarded as the object of a people's respect and of their love. Much of this enthusiastic feeling of the Italian is, perhaps, attributable to the pride of national reminiscences associated with the architectural monu- ments of their country's greatness — much of it, perhaps, to the ardent tem- perament of the people, which renders them peculiarly susceptible of the im- pressions which the beautiful and classic examples around them are calculated to produce. From whatever cause arising, it is certain that in the midst ot political faults, a strong feeling in favour of the fine arts has pervaded the country, influencing at once the rulers and the people ; establishing schools for the cultivation of architecture, of painting, and of sculpture, and encouraging with the noblest rewards and honours the aspirants to professional distinc- tion. The result is such as might be expected. If the ancient architectural glories of Italy are not, under her depression, equalled by her modern pro- ductions, they are not, at last in many instances, disgraced by the deformi- ties of ignorant pretension; while whenever an opportunity has been afforded for the exercise of talent, it has been witnessed in the production of chaste and classic structures — in taste, if not in grandeur, worthy to succeed those splendid monuments which, even in their ruin, testify '• the eternal city" to have been once in arts as well as in arras the mistress of the world. There was no indication of degeneracy in the idea of elevating the proudest temple of ancient Rome to an aerial position, or in the professional skill and scientific attainments which would have enabled Michael Angelo to carry that sublime conception into effect had it been adopted. That iu Britain a love for archi- tecture, with a perception of what is correct and beautiful in design, has not prevailed to an equal extent, is the result of circumstances both natural and adventitious. The reasoning character of the people, which determined their pursuits and actions less by sentiment than by calculation, and which is en- hanced by their essentially commercial habits, is, itself, unfavourable to the appreciation of an art in which practice, feeling, and imagination must com- bine with science to produce a perfect work. In the course of educa tion, too, adopted in the universities, directed almost solely to the consideration of classical literature and of abstract science, and which, in its exclusiveness, is, perhaps, more the result of habit and of prejudice than is admitted, the study of architecture, as a branch of mental cultivation, is not included— and in after life, the occupations of political excitement, and the pursuits of ambi- tion or of tame, and the studies which apply to them, leave to those of elevated rank but little time, and supply to them but little inducement for considering a subject in which they have not learned to feel a previous interest. How- ever, notwithstanding these opposing circumstances, there are, happily, many among the educated and influential classes in Britain who have studied our art, as well from principle as from taste, and who, from the associations con- nected with the proud baronial castles, and the graceful ministers, the Kag- land and the Melrose ruins of their own historic land, or from the monu- ments of classic elegance with which they have, in foreign travel, become familiar, have learned to appreciate a science which cannot be truly valued but as it is both felt and understood. This advance in " the march of mind" is evinced not less in the chaste and beautiful design of many modern struc- tures, than in the endowment of schools and in the establishing of galleries for the arts ; a contribution of wealth to a national property, of which Great Britian may be most justly proud. It is also witnessed in the victory of good feeling and taste over unworthy prejudice in the sympathy of high birth and influence with professional talent, and in their association for an object of reciprocal interest, whereby the noblest are seen enrolled as acting members of British Institutes of art, which they adorn not less by their scientific and tasteful acquirements, than by the lustre of their station and their name. It was with the hope of promoting in this country a similar appreciation of the liberal arts, by raising that which we cultivate from its unmerited depression, that first was established the Institute over which I have the honour profes- sionally, to preside ; and in furtherance of this object I conceived the idea of delivering a course of elementary lectures which should principally tend to give to unprofessional persons some general information as to architectural de- sign and the principles which it includes. If by such efforts as this, continued, and, no doubt, improved upon by others, there shall, at length, be excited in the public mind a decided interest in this subject, it will be a source of most legitimate congratulation, in which the members of this institute will parti- cipate with every true lover of his country or of the arts ; fur sure I am that the period which witnesses the awakening of such a feeling amongst us, will be a happy era as well for the social improvement of Ireland as for the ad- vancement of a profession in which I have learned to centre my attachment _ and ray pride. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 273 Unfortunately to many of the causes which hcivc opposed the interests of architecture in Great Britain, there have been added in Ireland other circum- stances on which it is not my province to dilate ; but which, however variously judged of in other respects, are admitted in their effects to have impeded the progress of almost everything calculated to improve the country, to har- monise the affections of her people or to refine their taste. Under such cir- cumstances it was scarcely to-be expected that the blossoms of architectural cultivation, which require the genial soil and climate of national civilization and social quietude, shoidd overcome the difficulties which from other causes retarded their expansion. They drooped indeed neglected amidst our coun- try's moral desolation ; or if in some instances they flourished under happier auspices, those h ere hut few, and uninfluential as examples. By the majority who should have cherisheed so fair a plant, it remained unvalued, and to them if not its very existence, at least its sweetness was unknown. I will not, however, dwell on a painful retrospect, while the dawning of a brighter day for Ireland enables us to indulge in a more grateful anticipation. The eminence and talent of the Royal Institute of British Architects have given us the aid of their sympathy and of their fellowship in our efforts to elevate our profession in this country, by diffusing a knowledge of its principles, and already have the highest in rank responded to our call, to promote our object by the weight of their example ; amongst whose names (with that of our late noble President, for whose too early loss to his country and her interests we, in common with all who love Irelaml and the arts, have to pay the tribute of our deep and lasting regret) it is our pride to enrol that of one other, not less influential from personal character than from individual and official station. Under the same just and generous influence which seeks to advance the true interest of all, X trust, indeed, it is no delusive dream to anticipate, in many ways, a decided improvement for Ireland ; and to indulge the expectation that, amongst the means which are essayed for her amelioration, the encou- raging of those liberal arts which sweeten the asperities of life, by giving a taste for intellectual pleasures, and by affording, in their contemplation, to those who learn to value them, a source of innocent and refined enjoyment, will not be forgotten. I trust with confidence that we shall have the gratifi- cation of witnessing a rapid progression of the fine arts, with their decidedly most useful influence in this country, under the warm and discerning protec- tion of those who value such pursuits, as well for their good effects as for their intrinsic merits; and if it may be permitted to one, who as an artist is not the less an Irishman, to indulge in an anticipation grateful to his feelings as a lover of his country, I would fain congratulate those whom I address on the prospect of a happy epoch, when, under an administration wise and en- lightened as it is benevolent and impartial, the clouds which still hang over our country shall disappear; when the pursuits of science, of literary enjoy- ment, and of social happiness will prevail in this land above all others but those of virtue, of charity, and of religion"; and when the hearts of all Irish- men, united in a common anxiety for the prosperity of their country, shall form, not less in their strength of unanimity than in the nobleness of their object, "one arch of peace." MESSR'=^. BOULTON AND WATT ON THK STEAM ENGINE. (Coniinued from page 152.^ 42. The guide posts, or Y posts, of the plug frame must be fixed exactly, according to the drawing sent for that purpose ; and the cross swords, which slide in the guide posts, must be of oak or beech, two inches thick and eight or nine inches broad. The plug tree itself sliould be of hard, straight- grained, seasoned oak ; the hole, one and quarter inch diameter, bored off both sides by a centre bit; for if you bore them by an auger, they will be apt to break into one another; care must be taken to bore a sufficient length of the plug. The opening horns, or arches of the Y shafts, which act npon the levers of the regulators, must be bent exactly to the curves of the full size drawings sent for them. TUis is best done by taking a piece of soft iron, an inch broad, and three sixteenths thick, and bending it cold, until its hollow side exactly fit the drawing ; and by applying this mould to the arch, whilst red hot, you can set it truly into form. These moulds should be carefully laid up, lest by any accident the arches should require repairs. To fix ihe Y shafts, make the levers of both the regulator spindles truly horizontal, and so long, as just to reach their proper places on the Y shafts. The lower side of the exhaustion lever, and ihe upper side of the steam lever, will then point to the axes, or centres, of their respective Y shafts. — The coupling brasses for the Y shaft pivots or gudgeons, must be fixed one inch from the inside of the guide posts, and the centres of the pivots must lie exactly in the line of the inner sides, or rabates, of the grooves, in which Ihe swords move; a piece of wood, with a slit in it, three inches wide, and about three feet long, having holes in it like an old fashioned plug-tree, must be pierced to receive the opening horn and lever of the steam regulator ; and by means of wooden pegs, one inch diameter, put through its holes, and saddles of leather laid above them, regulate the opening of the steam regulator. To prevent shaking and noise, the lower end of this piece of wood must rest on the ground in the floor of ilie cellar. The lower end of the guide posts must be fixed upon the sills parallel to the working beam ; otherwise the weight of the exhaustion will fall upon them, and shake them every stroke. The floor, over the eduction pipe,'must be easily moveable, that the pipe may be easilv got at. There must be .i window towards the condenser to give light to the plug-fiame. The weight which hangs to the detent of the exhaustion, and which serves to raise the arch and open that regulator, must be of lead, cast on the rod; and square pieces of lead with a notch in them, to admit the rod, may be laid on, if the weight prove too light. Some oakum must be laid between these saddles to prevent noise. A box, eighteen inches square, and two feet deep, must be fixed about the blowing pipe, to prevent the hot water from mixing with the cold, in the cistern ; but there must be a few holes in the bottom of this box, to suffer the water to go out below. This box should rise six inches above water. 43. Care must be taken that both the regulators fall into their seats with- out touching sooner on one side than the other ; and if the the copper cones, under the regulators, be not already rivetted or screwed to .them, it should be done before you begin ; but avoid bending tlie valves in so doing. Some threads of oakum, well puttied, must be lapped round the necks of the regula- tor spindles, beyond the shoulders, to keep them steam and air tight ; but this must be done in such a manner, as not to prevent the spindles from going quite home to their shoulders, otherwise the regulators cannot fall right in their places. 44. The brass of the cylinder] stuffing box must be fixed in its place, and the upper, or thin edge of it, set out against the sides of the iron part. When the piston rod plays truly up and down, in the axis of the cylinder, put on the stuffing box, and screw it down by its flanch ; then pack the box with soft rope yarn, wrapt round the rod. until you have nearly filled the box ; then take a collar of deal wood, two inches thick, made easy for the rod and for the box ; divide it in two by its diameter, lay it on the top of the stuffing, and apply the gland above it ; as you go on with the packing, melt some grease and pour amongst it, and when finished, screw down the gland mo- derately tight. 45. The cylinder lid must have no screw holes over the square pipe ; its joint must be made with pasteboard, puttied on the lower side, but notonthe upper side; and the lid being greased with tallow the pasteboard will not stick to it, but will lie in its place when the lid is raised. Two long iron rods with hooks at their lower ends, must be hung to eye bolts in the spring beams ; so that, w hen the lid is raised about three feet from the cylinder, these hooks may be put into two opposite screw holes, to support the lid at that height, while the piston is being packed. 46. To pack the piston, take sixty common sized white or untarred rope yarns, and with them plait a gasket or flat rope, as close and firm as possible, tapering for eighteen inches at each end, and long enough to go round the piston, and overlap for that length ; coil this rope lias carefully pxamined the works of extensive districts, explains the action of any jiartial system, and suggests, in common with other witnesses— engi- neers, arcliitects, builders, and others, the necessity of including the proper application of supplies of water, the private house-drainage, the subotdinate as well as the main drains under one system of scientific construction and management. Dr. Rigby, physician to the General Lying-in Hospital, in York-road, adduces the example of an obstruction in a drain to show the evil eflects that will ensue, unless the connection of the internal works for a com- plete house-drainage, and the works of external main drainage, be made ne- cessary and component parts of an efficient measure. The medical witnesses have brought before us facts in support of their strongly urged and unanimous opinion, that no population can be healthy ' which live amid cess-pools, or upon a soil permeated by decomposing animal or vegetable refuse, giving off impurities to the .air in their houses and in the streets. They state the necessity of preventing all accumulations of stag- nant refuse in or neat houses, and of substituting a system of house-drainage and cleansing, aided by the Introduction of better supplies of water into the houses. They have brought forward instances whire the main drains or sewers were tolerably well formed, and subordinate or house-drains attached, but where from the want of properly directed supplies of water both liouse- drains and sewers only acted as extended cess- pools. In consequence of these facts, and otliers brought before us. connecting personal and household uncleanliness, a low state of health, and extensive disease, with the deficiency and impurity of the supplies of water in the dis- tricts inhabited by the poorer classes, we directed our special inquiries to those e.xisting arrangements, to which tliese defects were attributed. The Supply of W.\ter. We find that the laws in force, and the usages at present prevailing with regard to the supply of water to the great majority of towns and districts in- vestig.ated, provide only for carrying the mains through the principal streets. Upon an examination of the measures generally adopted and in force under the provisions of these laws, and the plans proposed to the legislature for their improvement, it appears that they all stop short of a most important point namely, measures for carrying supplies under an economical and properly re- gulated system, into tlie habitations of the poorer con.suniers. In a large proportion of the poorer districts the inhabibanis have only out-door sup- plies by means of stand-pipes or common tanks or wells. In many instances they are obliged to fetch water from considerable distances from their dwell- ings, at much inconvenience, delay, labour, and expense ; in many towns they are dependent for supplies either on collections of rainwater, or on water taken from adjacent streams, or pumped from springs, frequently liable to be polluted. Upon the examination of the statements and answers from the towns to which our inquiries have been directed, it apiwars that only in six instances could the arrangements and the supplies be ileemed In any comprehensive sense good ; while in thirteen they appear to le indiliiront, and in thirty-one so deficient as to Ije pronounced bad, and, so far as yet examined, frequently inferior in purity. The expanse and various inconveniences entailed by the existing modes of supply, by common stand-pipes or tanks, and the frequent and increasing pollution of the springs supplying the wells in some densely peopled districts are stated in the evidence of Mr. Quick, engineer, who has the management of the works of the Southwark Water Company. The same witness describes a district in which, until a properly devised system of house-drainage be adopted, additional supplies ot water, carried into houses would frequently only increase the damp of the house, and the causes of disease, as well as of the dilajiidations of the premises. In the evi- dence of Mr. Toynbee, Mr. Liddle, Mr. Quick, and Dr. Aldis. facts are slated showing the impurities and deterioration in water comparatively pure at its source, caused by tlie common mode of intermittent supply, which renders necessary the use of butts or tanks, especially in the manufacturing districts, and in towns and densely populated neighbourhoods where there is much smoke, and other impurities. The general facts disclosed in the course of our inquiry, led us to seek out and carefully examine all tried and successful measures of improvement that we could find in use. The important advantages allbrded by a constant supply of pure water kept on night and day, and superseding the necessity for the use and expense of water-butts and tanks, are stated in the evidence of Mr. Hawksley, engineer to the Trent Water Works in the town of Nottingham, founded on an ex- perience during twelve years, of an improved mode of supply introduced by him into that town. The evidence of Mr. Anderton, manager of the Preston Water Works, gives the experience of a similar mode of supply during ten years in that town ; and the evidence of Mr. Thorn, engineer of the Shaws Water Works at Greenock, supports these views. From the cities of Philadelphia and New York, we have received information of much in- terest and importance in answer to the inquiries addressed by us, showing the successful operation of a system of a constant and ample supply of water adopted in those cities. The evidence of Mr. Mylne, the experienced engineer of the New River Company, shows the improvements in principle and detail which be has pro- posed for new districts. Mr. Ashton of Hyde, and Mr. Smith of Preston, ow ners of tenements occupied by the labouring classes, state their experience of the advantages in household and personal cleanliness, in health and direct saving of money, derived from the improvements eflected by the I'Xtension ot the supplies of water into the houses of their tenants. Statements are made in the evidence upon this particular branch of our in- quiry recommending the improved system of a constant supply of water at high pressure, as the most efficient means that have been yet introduced lor the arrangement of supplies of water for the extinction of fires. The very important information collected on this head is contained in the answer.-, (which also show the reduction that has been eflected in the rates ol insurance) from the cities of Philadelphia and New York,— in Mr. I lawksley's statement of experience at Nottingham, in that of Mr. Anderton, at Preston, —and in that of Mr. Quick, in relation to the arrangements made for the pro- tection of valuable warehouse property situated in the vicinity of those mains of the Southwark Water Company wliich are always keiit charged at high pressure. Mr. Wicksteed states that he has recommended the adoption of similar arrangements for parts of the city of Cork. Pbcuniary Expbnces for Sewerage, Water, &c. The witnesses have uniformly stated that the great obstacle to the exten- sive voluntary adoption of improvements and works of admitted necessity, such as tenants' communication piix-s for supplies of water, or new drains for the drainage of houses, is the great expense of immediate outlay, which has been usually charged upon he owners or upon the occupiers, who are called upon to pay at once for permanent works (frequently imperfect and unueces- sarily expensive), in which thry have a very limited interest. The cost of maintaining and extending such works, in many cases for dis- tant districts, and the irregular manner in which the collections are made, often levied at uncertain intervals, are represented to have given rise to further objections. The character of the evidence we have received of the oppressive effect of the immediate charges, and the obstructions they create to the improvement of the lower class of tenements, and the benefits anticipated from the adop- tion of an improved mode of defraying the expense, will be seen in the evi- dence of Mr. Jeremiah Little and Mr. Bratt, builders and owners of houses in the metropolis occupied by the labouring classes; in the evidence of Mr. Biers, a builder, and Mr. W. Hickson, an owner of tenements of a higher description, also in the metropolis , of Mr. Corbett, Mr. AVroe, and Mr. Hop- kins, of Manchester, and Mr. Kaye, of Huddersfield. We have inquired carefully as to the practicability of reducing the ex- penses of works for house and main drainage, and for carrying supplies of pure water into all houses, so as to bring them within the pecuniary means ot the poorest class of inhabitants. Mr. Anderton, manager of the Preston Water-works, shows that the cost of new supplies may be reduced to one-sixth of the former expense, if the use of water-butts be dispensed with in new districts, by the adoption of the prin- ciple of a constant instead of the present intermittent supply, and if the tenants' communication-pipes be cnmprehended in one contract for construc- tion and maintenance. Mr. Quick, engineer of the Southwark Water Com- pany, states in his evidence founded on data from experience in the metropo- lis, that the expense for the immediate outlay might be reduced to om-fourlh of the existing charge. The evidence of Mr. Hawksley exhibits the nature of the data for his most important conclusion, that the result, accomplished in the town of Nottingham, is of possible attainment in many other extensive town districts in this country, and that an abundant supply of pure water may be carried into each of the lowest class of tenements, at a charge (giving a fair remuneration for tlie capital invested) which might not exceed .'is. a year, or about one penny weekly for each tenement. The same witness states, the small additional cost at which the water may be filtered, when requisite, and describes the precautions necessary to insure its purity. The same witnesses state, with reference to house-drainage, that a saving may be effected of from one-half to one-third of the existing charges by the sutjstitution of impermeable tube tile-drains of a superior construction for the common brick drains, which allow the decomposing liquid refuse to permeate through the foundations. Other competent witnesses slate that, in many cases, the inconvenience of carrying the house-drains under the front rooms of houses and across wide streets may be avoided, and the whole expense be greatly reduced by a better arrangement, by leading them into small barrel drains, carried along the back of the tenements. It appears by the adoption of an improved form of sewer in the Holborn and Finsbury division, that, in what are termed first-class sewers, the expense of construction has been reduced from 21.«. to 15s. per foot, and of the sewers for side streets from 15s. to 10s., and in some cases to 8s. Cil. per foot ; and, by an improveil construction, the expense of traps to prevent the escape of foul air from gully-shoots into the streets, is reduced from 30s. to 10s. each, while in other metropolitan Uistricts the charge for putting in each trap is 24* 28ft THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [July, still 3/. In the samp division, Ijy the adojitinn of a system of cleansing hy Hushing or flooiling with water,'! lie aecumiilation of ileimsits of Jecumiiosing substances lias Ken [irevcnteil in a large jiroportion of tlic sewers ; and by rendering unnecessary the mode of cleansing by hand labour and cartage (at onee unhealthy and expensive), 50 per cent, of the former expense has been saved. The investigation of such details has appeared to us to be cf the highest practical importance, as aH'ecting the question of expense and efiiciency. The statements «e have received, are subject to considerable modifications in dif- ferent places, from the varying prices of labour ami materials ; but hitherto, at almost every step in the progress of this detailed inquiry, it appears that the practical course of eflicient improvement is not incompatible with the re- duction of existing pecuniary charges, independent of the vast gain in the public health, convenience, and comfort. Mr. Foden, architect, in his evidence aflbrds examples of works in use, and gives instances in support of similar conclusions advanced by other practical witnesses, that under appropriate arrangements water may be carried into houses, proper house drains and means of cleansing introiluced, and branch sewers formed at nearly one-half the annual or weekly expense now incurred for the proper cleansing of the cesspouls alone. "We have appended an estimate made by Mr. Coulthart, of Ashton-under- Lyne, of the expense of all the works deemed refjuisite for the sanatory im- provement of that town, as contrasted with the pecuniary saving of the ex- penses attendant upon excessive sickness and mortality. YAhVB OF THE Refuse and Sewerage of Towns. To the subject of the advantage to be derived from the sale and improved application of the refuse and sewage of towns, to the purposes of agriculture, we have directed and are directing our inquiries. In additif)n to the instance of the application of a part of the refuse of Kdinburgh to agricultural pro- duction, which has already been made jiublic, we append an account which we have obtained of a similar application in long and successful practice at Milan. Mr. |.lames Dean states this system is adopted at Ashburton in Devonshire. This topic is illustrated by the evidence of Captain Vetch, who has paid much attention to this question and has had occasion to x'eport upon it after the survey of two towns with a view to the adoption of measures for their sanatory improvement; — the subject is further elucidated by Mr. Roe, who was called upon to make surveys, for the drainage of Derby and Eton. In Ihe course of the investigation at Hull, an instance of a consolidated collection of all improvement rates, as well as of all general and local taxes, was met with, and has been recommended to our attention, as obviating some of the inconveniences of a separate and special rate for local improvements, and of preventing the vexation and expense incurred by separate collections of the diflerent rates for existing works. The advantage of this consolidated collection is displayed in the evidence ol Mr. Fox of ."^cullcoates. The evidence recited generally recognizes that principle of legislation to be just and acceptable, which has been suggested for lightening the burthens of future improvements, by spreading the expense of the outlay over an ex- tended period, so that the cost might be repaid within a reasonable time, with interest, by an annual rate, or by an addition to the rent, unless where the persons interested choose to perform the work themselves under proiier regu- lations, or where they prefer liquidating the charge at once. But the appli- cation of this principle, which woubl in so many instances do away witli ob- jections to improvements on the ground of the immediate expense, .and which would require to be accompanied by securities for the protection of absent parties, is a subject demanding further inquiry and consideration. Defective Ventilation We have directed our Inquiries into the evils attendant on the over crowd- ing of dwellings, and on the bad construction and imperfect ventilation of houses, and the defective regulations fur the width of courts, alleys, and streets, causes w hich are represented as contributing largely to the extension of disease. The evidence collected exhibits the great benefits derived from the intro- duction of ventilation, at an expense comparatively inconsiderable. Dr. Arnott explains the means which he has devised for that purpose, and which iie reprcseiits to be cheap, simple, and eflicient. Mr. Toynbee instances the successful apiilicatiun of one of those means to some of the over-crowded rooms, occupieit both by artisans and by persons of the poorer class in the me- tropolis. The evidence of Dr. Higby, already referred to, shows the import- .ance of ventilation in rendering successful other means taken to prevent the recurrence of severe epidemics in the hospital to which he is attached. Dr. Guy furnishes examples of the improvement in the health of workmen, that may be anticipated from the introduction of ventilation to all workshops, in which large numbers are crowded, or in which processes are carried on in- jurious to health. Measures of external ventilation, by arrangements for Ihe proper widlli and direction of streets, open an extended field of inquiry. Mr. H. Austin, architect, presents an instance where better arrangements of houses now form- ed into courts, alleys, and streets, would secure a superior ventilation and afford a good return for the outlay. Builders of the humbler as well as of the higher class of tenements, stale In their evidence losses incurred, and injuries done to the inhabitants, and to the (iroperty, by the building of houses at wrong levels, which might have been obvialed had there been an autlientic survey, n ith the proper levels laid down, to which they could have had access. These witnesses have attested the utility of pre-arranged lines of drainage, as guiding the direction of new buildings, where no other circumstance governs their disposition. Mr. Roe, surveyor to the ilolboru and Fmsbury Commission of Sewers, gives an instance of the evil that has arisen from the want of such a survey as the basis for a correct system of drainage, and he has adduced an estimale of the large outlay probably requisite to repair the defects thus occasioned. With reference to this branch of our inquiry, we have examined engineers •and competent witnesses as to the best description of surveys requisite for the gradual, efficient, and economical improvement of old districts, and for the proper regulation of new districts. M'e refer especially to Ihe evidence of Mr. Butler Milliams, Kngineer and Professor of Geodesy to the College lor Civil Kngineers at Putney; of Captain Vetch and Captain Dawson, of the Royal Kngineers; and of the Civil Enguieers, Mr. Myliie and Mr. Hawksley. We have obtained and appendetl to this report specimens of surveys upon the scale adopted for the survey of towns now in progress under the direction of the Board of Ordnance, with some estimates of their cost, made in com- pliance with our request, under the direction of Colonel Colby, R.K. Among the subjects still requiring investigation, are the efl^ects of manu- factories which emit offensive and deleterious effluvia ; and in what manner injury lo the public arising from these causes, may be diminished or pre- vented. In the course of our inquiries, evidence has been afforded of the pollution of wells, and the increased ofTensiveness of emanations from sewers caused by the infiltration of water passing through contiguous grave-yards. As the efTects produced upon the public health by the practice of interments in towns have not been referred to this commission, and as at the time we entered upon our duties that subject was under .separate investigation, we have not directed our special attention to it. Among other important topics which we have before us is the subject of sanatory regulations for common lodging-houses, and the prevention of the filth and over-crowding, which often render them the seats of contagious diseases, a question which also involves local regulations of police. Our attention has been invited to the means of giving facilities for provid- ing public walks, baths, or other convenient bathing places in the vicinity of populous towns. We have especially turned our attention to the means for improving Ihe worst, and Ihe most crowded districts, in large towns ; a subject of great im- portance, and of very great difficulty. It may appear to be a comparatively easy task to provide against the occurrence, in new districts, of the evils w hich at present prevail in parts of old towns ; but in the heart, and even in the immediate suburbs of towns, not only of ancient, but also of modern date, where these evils chiefly abound, the value of the projwrty, the iiilricacy and variety of the interests involved, and the occupations and callings of the in- li.ibitants, increase in a great degree the difficulty of devising measures which we may be able with confidence lo recommend as efleclual, and at the same time as capable of enforcement. In the recommendation of measures calcu- lateil to have a retrospective efl'eet upon such masses of property, (the dis- position of which has not hitherto been placed by the legislature under any control,) the greatest caution is necessary, lest, while seeking to afford a remedy, injustice might be done to the inhabitants or the owners. This sub- ject is still engaging our most anxious attention. In order to admit of the recommendation of systematic and comprehensive measures, adequate to the magnitude of the subject, many practical details are involved, which must be minutely examined and viewed equally in respect to accuracy of principle, economy of execution, and adequate provision for regulating and defraying the necessary expenses. We anticipate that it will be necessary to have recourse to the aid of the legislature for furlher enactments, before the improvements so much to be de- sired can be fully accomplished ; but at the s.ame time it is our duty to state, that in many instances much might be effected, under the existing laws, to mitigate, if not to remove, many of the evils which now prevail. In presenting this our first report to your Majesty, we are anxious to ex- press our opinion that the information already elicited oilers the reasonable prospect that great improvements may lie made to the general benefit of all, especially Ihe poorer classes of your Majesty's subjects. We entertain a confident hope that we shall be enabled to submit to your Majcsly's recom- mendations adapted to carry out the object of your Majesty's commission w ilhin as short a period as may be compatible with the consideration due to 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL. 281 so impottanl a subject. L'o tliis eiul wa aic amtimiiny our unvciiiitting ex Uti. (Signed) Buccleucb. Richard Owen. Lincoln. W. Denison, Capt. Royal Engineers Robert A Slaney. J. R. Martin. George Graham. James Smith. II. T. De La Beclie. Robert Stephenson. Lyon Playfair. iV,'. Cubitt. D. 13. Reid. We purpose giving the Engineering evidence referred to in the report, which we shall slightly abridge, and in order to avoid giving both question and answer, we have condensed the two into one. On the Supply ok Water to Towns. Mr. Robert Thorn. — He has paid attention to the mechanical means of supplying towns with water for about 30 years. The towns of Greenock, Paisley, and Ayr have been supplied with water on his plans and superin- tendence. Plans and estimates for the supply of other towns, and of many other places, have been given by him, but the duties of his business of cotton spinning rendered it impossible for him to superintend the details of execu- tion, except in the case of the Rothesay Spinning Mills, the first of his hy- draulic operations on a large scale. Mr. Thom explained to the Commissioners the principle of his plan, as distinguished from other modes of supplying towns, as follows : He imagined that, in answer to their question, it was enough to describe generally his own plan. The distinguishing features of which were, the obtaining some natural basin at a sufficient height, either in itself containing a large supply of water, or into which a great extent of surrounding surface can be drained. Thus a reservoir is formed, which he takes care shall be deep enough to main- tain the water at a low temperature, and to prevent the breeding of insects and the growth of vegetables ; and capacious enough to hold at least four months' supply of water. If it be not possible to obtain a large enough extent of drainage surface at one place, other basins are sought for and form auxiliary reservoirs, the waters of which are conducted into the main reservoir by aqueducts furnished with sluices of a pecularly simple contrivance. To facili- tate the collecting of the water from the surfaces, catch water drains are made use of, and advantage, of course, is taken of any rivulet, spring, or collection of water which may he accessible. From the main reservoir the water is led by an aqueduct to some place near the town, where reservoirs can be formed, at such a height that the water from them will rise consider- ably above the highest houses. There, two reservoirs, or as I term them, regulating basins, are formed, each of them large enough to contain two days' supply of water. From these regulating basins the water is carried into two or more self-cleaning filters, and from the filters into two distributing basins ; the regulating basins, filters, and distributing basins being in juxta-position, and so arranged that one of each of them may be connected together to form a set of apparatus. Two sets of apparatus are required, that the one may be in use while the other is cleaning or repairing. From the distributing basins the water is carried through the streets by supply of pipes of iron, placed iu such a manner as that the water shall always flow in one direction, entering at the higher and wider end and flowing to the lower end ; and always kept full of the water at high pressure, so that there may be a supply in readiness for every emergency. These are the principal features of his plan, but its efficiency depends so much on a host of minor details, that he has thought it right, iu the subjoined note, to describe these more fully. It may be observed here, however, that although there is nothing remarkable in collecting sur- face water to fill reservoirs, and in carrying it from these by aqueducts, pipes, &c., for the supply of towns, yet there may be, and often are, in the modes of forming these reservoirs and aqueducts, and in the contrivances to ensure their permanent working condition, such difference as that while the expense of one method shall form a perfect bar to its adoption, another mode shall recommend itself by its simpHcity and economy, and it has been his con- stant endeavour to unite simplicity and strength, so as to ensure pervianent durability and prevent y«/Mre expense. In a letter Mr. Thom stated, "In every case where the distributary basin can be placed high enough, the pipes in the streets ought to be kept con- stantly full, so as to be always ready at a moment's notice to extinguish fires ; and the distributary basin should be placed high enough to send the water over the tops of the highest houses, by merely putting the hose of a fire-engine on one of the fire-plugs, which should be attached to the pipes at short distances through all the streets. This I have done in Greenock, Pais- ley, and wherever I gave the plans ; the advantage is immense ; and were it properly and generally practised, there would be little need for insurances from fire. Provision should also be made for cleaning the streets, lanes, sewers, &c. by the water. When the cholera commenced at Greenock, the many dirty streets and lanes in that town were cleansed by a copious supply of water sent down from the Shaw's Water Aqueduct. Hence, in all proba- bily, the few deaths which hap])ened there, compared fo those at Dundee, Dumfries, Musselburgh, and other places similarly low and dirty." Mr. Thom is of opinion that that which was done at Greenock would serve other towns, wherever there is head pressure enough to raise the water over the houses, whether that pressure is obtained by gravity or any power. By the gravitating system no additional expense is incurred ; but where steam or any other power is used to raise the water the expense is very great. Hence the unwillingness of water companies, who have to maintain a mechanical power to keep their pipes full at high-pressure. It is stated that in the city of Philadelphia a similar arrangement has been adopted of keeping the water always on at high pressure ; and that for the cleansing of the streets a servant girl will put on the hose in the morning, and with this hose sweep the pavement, that once a week a stronger hose is used, and they sweep or cleanse the front of the house up to the highest win- dows ; and that, on an occasion of fire, they immediately apply the hose, and introduce it into the interior of the house, and into the room where the fire takes place ; is that an arrangement which you believe, from your experience at Greenock, is generally practicable ? — It is perfectly practicable, under the conditions noticed in my answer to the foregoing query. It was practised by myself on a small scale 30 years ago. With respect to the modes of laying the water-pipes for distribution, are there any defects common, which you think you have avoided in places where you have had occasion to superintend the supplies of water ? One common defect is the permitting the water to flow along the pipes in either direction occasionally, thus stirring up the sediment, and sending a stream of turbid water into the bouses. Is that error in distribution a fault which might be prevented in very large supplies, or only in small towns ? — It may be prevented in all supplies, whe- ther for large or small towns, if proper arrangements be made at first. With respect to the filtration of water, have you adopted any peculiar modes of filtration, to which you can speak as having been successful in any places where you had the superintendence of the supply .' — At Greenock, Paisley, and Ayr, I erected self -cleaning filters.^ The cost of this filter was under 600/., and the quantity of pure water pro- duced regularly every 24 hours is, on the average, 106,632 cubic feet. The expense of a filter, therefore, to give a supply of water of the best quaUty/oc family purposes, to a town of 50,000 inhabitants, may he safely taken at 800/. From often finding pure spring-water in the moors, where the soil for many miles was composed of peat or moss, I suspected there was some sub- stance in the earth which, by combining with the tannin or colouring mat- ter, rendered the water pure, and this was proved to my entire satisfaction by a careful' inspection of the minerals in the hills above Greenock. I there ascertained that the moss water, by flowing over or through a particular species of lava or trap-rock (amalgoiloid), became fine spring water. Since then, I hEve used the substance as a substitute for charcoal, with perfect success and much economy. A very large proportion of the hills above Greenock being composed of this substance, it may be had at a nominal price. The filters are composed of very fine pure sand, mixed with animal char- coal for the purpose of decomposing any vegetable matter with which the water may be impregnated. The effect of such a filter, besides decomposing vegetable matter, is to render the water clear though previously turbid. Animal charcoal is the most powerful agent he knows of. He has contrasted its action with that of ordinary charcoal or a mixture of ordinary charcoal with other substances, and found it more powerful and to last longer than ordinary charcoal. — He has used ordinary charcoal with other substances ; but finding that it lost its effect sooner than animai charcoal, he discontinued its use. — Some kinds will last several years. The sand did not contain any other earthy substances ; it was clean from the sea-shore, of a lightish brown colour. The filter only had one stratum of coarse sand, the under part of which is gravel, next a fine gravel, and so on finer and finer to the depth of six or seven inches — and after that the fine sand above mentioned. He mixed the charcoal with the sand. — He has a small head of water of only one or two feet at most upon the filter ; the purest water is produced with a small pressure. — A filter of 0000 feet area supplies a population appro.ximating to 40,000 people ; but it depends much on the previous purity of the water. It would be -within bounds by taking half the proportion for a filter of that size. — He has no precise data as to the quantity of animal charcaal required for a given quantity of water. He uses the charcoal in about the proportion of one of charcoal to eight or ten of sand. The same charcoal might be used over again, after subjecting it to the purifying process, if it could be sepa- rated from the sand. He has not the power of separating it from the sand when it is used in the proportion stated ; and, indeed, it would not be worth while, as the quantitity is so small and lasts so long. I have sometimes used charcoal in large layers by itself, and in such cases it might, with economy, be reburned and used again. In a letter Mr. Thom has stated, " Where rivulets or lakes are not in the vicinity, the surface-water alone might, in most cases, be rendered sufficient, if artfully and economically diverted into reservoirs by small aqueducts, as at Rothesay Mills. The average annual depth of rain which falls in Great Britain is probably above three feet ; in the west of Scotland it is greatly more ; and at Paisley and at Greenock Waterworks, I have ascertained that about eight-tenths of the whole has been made available to tlie reservoirs. At Rothesay, where the declivity of the ground is less, and its surface more broken and porous, the proportion available is only about six-tenths of what falls there. He considers that, by proper economy, the surface water in the vicinity of towns and places m.iy be made available to a greater extent than is commonly supposed. He had already stated that, in some cases, eight-tenths, and others only Wc shall give a drawing and deacription of the filter ne.\t month,— Kditor. 282 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [July, six-tentlis of nliat falls may be collected. It is easy, therefore, knowing the fall in any given place, and the nature of the surface and subsoil, to calculate what quantity a given extent of surface will produce. The calculation must depend very greatly on the substratum of a portion of the ground, but more upon the smoothness and declivity of the surface. If (he surface be smooth and steep, the v\ater runs off so quickly that little sinks into tlie earth. The smallest town which Mr. Thorn has applied machinery to is Camp- bcUtown, of 7000 inhabitants, which was supplied at a cost of about 2,500/. AVIien he speaks of a supply, be always means two cubic feet, or about 13 gallons per diem for every individual of the population. He is awire that that is very much below the consumption in London, but as a family supply merely, I rather think it will be found to exceed that uf London. He does not at the moment recollect the returns of consumption that have been made from the water-works in London ; but he has seen them, and heard them explained. Judging from his knowledge of the facts in other towns, he should say that the quantities set down were rarely delivered. Some years ago, he had the means of ascertaining the quantity supplied to Ciasgow, and found that it did not amount to 13 gallons for each, and of which nearlv one-fourth was surt'ered to run waste, from the imperfect state of their works. In Perth, the quantity supplied to each individual was only 8 gallons. In Greenock and Paisley, where the pipes are kept constantly full, and there is nothing to prevent the people from using what they please, the quantity taken is less than 12 gallons for each. These facts lead me to (piestion reports which state the family supply beyond 13 gallons per diein. In London, doubtless, the quantity used for watering the streets, for public works and the like, must be very great.— At Campbelltown, a family of live individuals will be supplied with water for about 1$. 4rf. per annum. The tost at Ayr for the same quantitv is 2.v. 2d. ; at Paisley it is 2s. rrom 50 to 4 Water . . . . . . 1 J Sulphate of soda Dilute sulphuric acid Snow Common salt Muriate of lime Snow 1} 1} From 50° to 3° From 32° to 0° From 32° to -50° Owing to this property, water may be readily frozen by substances as warm as the room. \ common juggling amusement is to undertake to freeze a saucepan to a stool before the fire. And it is to be done, by spilling a little water on the stool, putting the saucepan in it, and then stirring in a mixture of ice and snow. In a few minutes they are completely fixed together, and the stool may be lifted by the saucepan. This latent heat, however, disappears only for a time, to re-ajipear when wanted. For when liquids solidify they give up exactly the same amount of beat that they bad before absorbed, which now becomes perceptible. Freez- ing, therefore, is a warming process, because the water gives up the 140 de-. grees of heat which it had rendered latent. An uncrystallized saturated so- lution of sulphate of soda poured on the bulb of an air thermometer shows an evident evolution of beat. These eft'ects are general, and in many in- stances very curious, but sometimes it is increased or diminished by the in- terference of chemical aftinity. The fluid alloy of potassium and sodium when added to mercury, becomes fixed, a solid amalgam being left. Here the eftect is increased by chemical aflinity. Occasionally chemical affinity seems to contradict the general lav.s of solution ; for a solid, caustic potash, when dissolving in water, evolves beat enough to fire phosphorus. In this case there is cold produced by solution, but the heat caused by combination is so great as to more than neutralize it. But sometimes these two effects can be separated. Thus sulphuric acid and ice produce great heat when mixed until the appetite of the acid for water is satisfied, but after that they produce cold enough to freeze water. When water freezes, it expands considerably, 9 volumes becoming 10, and is consequently lighter and floats on the surface, a small portion of the ice remaining out of the water. It is this which accounts for the mountains of ice which stand up in the sea, at the same time the size of these enormous icebergs gives some idea of the immense quantity of ice which must be in the water. 'I'his expansion takes place wilii great force. Experiments were made on this point, by some officers in Quebec, by filling bomb shells with water, and plugging them with iron, exposing them to the air to freeze. The iron plugs were forcibly expelled, being shot to the distance of 50, 60, and 100 feet, the ice protruding from the holes. When the plugs were thoroughly secured in their places, the bombs burst. Indeed, no mechanical force is sufficient to control the chemical force of solidification. Small cast iron bottles may he burst by filling them with water, and immetsing them in a freezing mixture, bursting with a considerable report. Rocks are in this manner split in nature, till crumbled down into a powder fit for agricultural purposes. An old method, in the country, of freeing a kettle of the fur which has accumulated, is to expose it wet to frost. The force of crystalli- zation has been ingeniously proposed as a test of the strength and durability of building stones. A piece of a certain size is dipped in a solution of a salt, and hung up in the air ; crystallization takes place, which represents the freezing of water, thus imitating the weathering of stones, and according to the efi'ect so is it judged. The heat which is absorbed in summer by the melting of the snows and glaciers is very great, as may be gathered by the torrents of water which flow from them, and considering that evrry 3; cubic feet absorbs the heat given off by a pound of coals. The facility with which ice adheres together is remarkable. If two pieces rest together for a short time, they become frozen together. Ice adheres also very strongly to flannel, hut not to linen, or to metal. No doubt this power of adhesion of two surfaces of ice assists very much in the formation of icebergs. In the next lecture the phenomena of vaporization of liquids, and liquefac- tion of vapours, will be considered. OXFORD ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY. The fifth annual meeting was held June 17, the Rev. the Rector of Exeter College in the chair. After a few preliminary observations, the chairman read the annual report of the committee. He congratulated the society on the steady progress of the " Study of Gothic Architecture," which is daily becoming more general : the good effects of this are already visible on all sides, and still greater eft'ects may yet be looked for. He rejoiced to observe the formation and successful progress of similar societies in various parts of the kingdom, and mentioned particularly the Cambridge and the Exeter Societies as very flourishing and eflicient. The mutilation and destruction of the remains of Gothic architec- ture has been checked and well-nigh stopped, although a few more instances may still be heard of occasionally, as at Newcastle, where an ancient chnrch has been wantonly destroyed within the last few weeks ; the general indig- nation with which such acts are now viewed, by all persons who have any pretensions to the rank of educated or enlightened men, is a guarantee that they will not be frequent. There is, however, another just ground of alarm in the mischief which is daily peri)etrated under the name of restoration, which, when conducted without sufficient knowledge, is often productive of more injury than benefit, and should be very closely watched. Irreparable injury is often done by ignorant persons, under the plausible pretext of merely scraping oft' the whitewash, and still more when the decayed surface of the stone has also to be scraped. In this university and city, there have been four instances of restoration within the past year, which are deserving of praise. At St. John's College 390 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [July, the chapel has heea restored in a very elaborate manner, and with good taste. At Merlon, the loof of the ante-chapel, which was in a decayed state, has been renewed, and tlie floor for the ringers in the tower removed, tlirowing open a fine groined wooden ceiling, which is a great im])rovement ; hut llie gallery for (lie ringers, wliich has been introduced in the place of the old floor would have l)een better omitted. In St. Aldgate's Church the gi'ucral effect of the exterior is pleasing, but there might have been more accuracy in the details; ajul we cannot bnt regret the loss of the old library. At Holy- well, though the exterior is less striking, all the detail is admirable, and in the interior the good effect of open seats is fairly seen, and the manner in which this restoration and enlargement have been executed is worthy not only of praise, but of imitation. The restoration of St. Peter's in the East is now also in progress, and it is hoped that the most aerupulous care will be taken to preserve entire the character of the building, even in its most minute details, and that no attempts at improvemetit will be allowed to inter- fere with the designs of the original architects of this interesting and valu- able relic of antiquity. The publications of the society during the year have been; the second part of tlie " Guide to the Architectural Antiquities in the neighbourhood of Oxford, " of which a third part is now in preparation ; several sheets of work- ing drawings of ancient pews and pidpits. which are found very generally useful, and are readily purchased. Two new slieets were laid on the table, containing the details of the pulpits of Beaidien, Hants, of stone, very early, in the Decorated style. St. Giles's, Oxford, of wood, also in the Decorated style, but late ; and Coonibe, Oxfordshire, of stone, in the rerpendiciilar style. The drawings of Shottcsbroke Church, a well-known and very perfect specimen of the Decorated style, have been engraved, and will be ready for publication iu a few days ; for these drawings the society is indebted to W. ButterfieUl, Esq. The drawings of Minster Lovell Church, a good specimen of the Perpendicular style, promised at the two last annual meetings, are still not ready, the architect who undertook to furnish them having failed to fulfil his engagement. The drawings of Wilcote Church, presented by C. Buckler, Rsq., were laiil on the table, and will he engraved immediately; this is a small church iu the Decorated style. Also those of St. Bartboleniew's Chapel, lucsented by C. Cranston. Esq.; this is a sm.all but elegant building of the period of transition from Decorated to Perpendicular. New editions are preparing of Stanton Harcourt and Ilascley : to the series in 8vo. it is proposed to add the papers on Ewelme and Dorchester, lately read by Mr. Addington, for which the drawings are ready. A pajier was read on Dorchnsler Church, Oxfordshire, by Henry Adding- ton, Esq., of Lincoln College, illustrated by a large number of drawings of all parts of the building, including the original drawings by Mackenzie, for " Skeltou's Oxfordshire," which were kindly lent for the occasion by the Rev. H. Wellesley. Mr. A. gave an outline of the early history of Dorches- ter, with its bisliopric and abbey, showing clearly that there was a Saxon church on this site, but considers no part of the existing building earlier than the middle of the twelfth century (unless it is a small portion of the masonry of the tower), and the greater part is of the time of Edward I. The two semicircular arches, which have been sometimes considered as Saxon, are evidently cut through the Norman walls, and are probably of the time of Charles II., when the church was repaired after the injury it had sustained in the civil wars. THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT. The Select Committee of the House of Commons appointed to inquire into the present state of the building of the New Houses of Parliament, and to report thereon to the House, have, pursuant to the order of the House, ex- amined the matters to them referred, aiul have agreed to the following re- port : — Your Committee have examined Mr. Barry as to the progress already made in the building of the New Houses of Parliament, and have endeavoured to ascertain from him the probable time that will elapse before the whole of the works can be completed, and the period at which the two Houses may be occupied for the transaction of public business. He has stated to them, that, were it urgently required, the Houses, and a certain number of committee-rooms, and other otHces, might be prepared for occupation at the commencement of the year 1840 ; but your Committee do not feel themselves justified in affirming that such occupation could take ])lace without inconvenience to the members, or impediment to the further progress and satisfactory completion of the building ; and they think it right to observe, that the general arrangements for ventilation cannot be completed until the commencement of the year 1847. Your Committee have examined the Speaker, the Clerk of the House, and the Serjeant-at-Arms, as to various alterations which have been lately pro- posed in the interior arrangements of the House of Commons, and of some portions of the building immediately adjoining, and have to report that Mr. Barry will be able to adopt several valuable suggestions which the experience of the officers of the House has enabled them to offer, without any increase of the expenditure already authorized. Your Committee have examined various parties as to (be course hitlierto adopted by Mr. Barry, with reference to alterations of the interior arrange- ments shown in the plan approved by Coraraitteea of both Houses in 1836. They impute bo blame to Mr. Barry for that course, and have eveiy reason to believe that all the alterations hitherto made have conduced to the conve- nience and general effect of the building ; but looking to the misapprehen- sion that appears to have prevailed as to these proceedings hitherto, they are prepared to recommend that in future Mr. Barry should make a half-yearly report of the progress of the works to the Commissioners of Woods and Forests ; and sho\ild also submit to that board any alterations which may hereafter be deemed advisable, and accompany sucli report with i)laus of the alterations ])roposed. Your Committee further recommend, that as several alterations, entailing more or less expense, have recently been sanctioned by the Government, tiie Chief Commissioner of Woods shall, at the commencement of the next ses- sion of Parliament, lay upon the table of the House of Commons a statement of the total estimated cost of the building, according to the latest plan ap- proved. Your Committee also suggest that a plan, prepared by Mr. Barry under their direction, and exhibiting the present state of the building, and the al- lerations adopted up to the present time, shall be signed by the Chief Com- missioner of Woods, and deposited in the libraries of both Houses. July 4, 1844. TIIE WOOD-PAVING PATENTS, The Jiulgment of Lord Chief Justice Tindal in re Stead v. Williams. June 29, 1844. Taken from the short-hand writer's notes, reported in the Meclianic's Maffuzine. LoBD Chief Justice Tindal. — This w,is an action for the infringement of a patent granted for an invention for making or paving public streets and highways, and public and private roads, courts, and briilges, with timber or wooden blocks. The defendant pleaded that the plaintiff was not the first and true inventor of the said invention in the letters patent and specification mentioned, besides various other pleas which it is not necessary to particu- larize with reference to the present motion. Upon the trial at the last sum- mer assizes at Liverpool, before my brother Cresswell, a verdict was fouiul for the plaintiff, and a rule nisi was afterwards granted for a new trial ; and upon the report of the learned jndge it appeared that, before the granting of the letters patent to the plaintiff', there had been published iu a scientific work in England a letter from a gentleman of the name of Heard, containing such a description of a mode of paving with blocks as made it fit to be sub- mitted to the consideration of the jury as not differing substantially from the invention for which the patent was granted. It appears also that, in sum- ming up the evidence with reference to the letter above adverted to, the jury were told in substance that, if they thought the patentee had borrowed his invention from the publication which had been proved, he could not be con- sidered as the first inventor. So also that, if the letter had been so far com- municated to the public as to have become a part of the public stock of in- formation, and he had thus obtained bis knowledge indirectly from the pub- lication, that he was not to be considered as the first inventor within the meaning of the statute. Upon the discussion before us it was contended that this mode of summing up, although undoubtedly correct as far as it went, yet did not present the entire view of the case to the consideration of the jury ; for it was argued that if the invention had been communicated to the English public, although it had never directly or indirectly come to the knowledge of the patentee, still he could not be considered as the inventor. It was ad- mitted on the part of the defendant that no case could be cited in wliich the point had been expressly decided ; but it was contended that, in point of reason and principle, such must be held to be the case ; for if the invention had already been communicated to the public, it would be unreasonable that they should lose the benefit of it, and be restricted from making use of it by a patent taken out by one v?hose claim to such patent could only be sup- ported on the ground, of his being ignorant of that which had been already communicated to the rest of the world ; and though no decided case was cited, various dicta of various judges were referred to in support of the view- as contended for by the defendant, particularly what was said by Mr. Baron Alderson, in Carpenter and Smith, 9 ileesom and Welsby, 902, and the ob- servation made by Lord Lyndburst, and other Lords of the Privy Council, as reported in 1st vol. Webster, 718. Lord Lyndhurst says, " If the machine is published in a hook, distinctly and clearly described, corresponding with the description in the specification of the patent, tbongh it has never been actually worked, is not that an answer to the patent ? It is continually the practice on trials for patents, to read out of printed books, without reference to any- thing that has been done." Again he says, " If the invention is in use at the time the patent is granted, the man cannot have a patent, although he is the original inventor; if it is not in use he cannot obtain a patent if be is not the original inventor. He is not called the inventor who has in his closet in- vented it, but who does not communicate; the first person who discloses that invention to the public is considered as the inventor." Upon a full con- sideration of this subject we have come to the conclusion that the view taken by the defendant's counsel is substantially correct ; for we think if the in- vention has been already made public by any description contained in a work whether written or printed, which has been publicly circulated, in such case the patentee is not the first and true inventor within the meaning of the statute, whether he has himself borrowed his invention from such publication or not, because we think the public cannot he precluded from the right of using such information as they were already possessed of at the time the patent §44. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 291 was granted. It is obvious tliat tlie application of this principle must depend upon the particular circumstances which are brought to hear upon each par- ticular case. The existence of a single copy of the work, though printed, if brought from a depository where it has long been kept in a state of obscurity, would afibrd a very different inference from the production of an Kncyclo- paidia, or other work in general circulation. The question will be, wliether, upon the whole evidence, there has been such a publication as to make tlie description a part of the public stock of information ? We think, therefore, as this question has not been submitted to the jury, there ought to be a new trial in this case. COAL-BREAKING MACHINES. Among the many improvements which have lately taken place in the business operations of this region, there is none more striking than the saving of expense in breaking and screening coal. A few years since every ton of coal which washrokenfor shipment cost from 30c. to 37^c. to reduce it to proper sizes, while now the expense wilJ not much exceed one-fifth of this amount. This truly surprising result, it- many others of a similar kind is the effect of niachineiy, and has been brought about by successive experi- meuts and improvements. The attempt to break coal by machinery, we be- lieve, was first made by Mr. Sabbaton, and afterwards by Mr. Later, but not proving as successful as was anticipated, they were afterwards abandoned. Improvements were then made upon the old system of breaking with the ham- mer, and instead of breaking in the pile, cast-iron plates, with holes sutli- ciently large to allow coal of proper size to pass through were used. This was found to diminish the expense considerably, making the cost of breaking about 20c. or 25c. per ton. A further improvement was then made by turning the screens by steam instead of hand, which caused a still further reduction in the expense of preparing the coal for market, the cost being from 12c. to 18c. per ton. But satisfactory as these results were, and greatly reduced as the expenses have been by these improvements, Mr. Battin, of Philadelphia, has improved upon them, and invented a coal-breaking ma- chine, which will, in all probability, supersede every other invention of the kind, and eventually enrich its ingenious inventor. One of these machines was first erected at Mr. Bast's mines, for the purpose of breaking white ash coal, and found to answer every purpose intended; but, at the same time, fears were expressed that it could not be used to advantage in breaking the red ash. Subsequent events have shown that these fears were groundless, and a machine is now in operation at Milnes and Spencer's mines, by which the red ash is broken with no greater loss than on the cast-iron platform. Encouraged by these successful experiments, other machines are now in the course of erection at the collieries of Andrew B. White, and also at the Delaware Coal Co.'s works, the latter of which will, probably, go into ope- ration during the present week, and the former the ensuing week. These machines, to work advantageously, require engines of about 20-horse power, and will break the coal at an expense of from 8c. to 10c. per ton, according to location, including 3c. per ton, which is paid the patentee. Another ma- chine for the same purpose, but constructed upon an entirely different prin- ciple, we learn has been put in operation by the Beaver Meadow Coal Com- pany. This machine consists of a square box, in which are several iron bars placed longitudinally at such distances apart as will make the coal of proper size, while a roller is so situated as to pass over and force the coal through the openings. The invention is favourably spoken of, and will no doubt answer a good purpose in breaking the white ash, although we learn the waste is much greater than that caused by Mr. Battin'a machine. — Miners* Join^ial (of America). CAPTAIN WAHNER»S EXPLOSIVE POWER. It has long been known to the public that Captain Warner was In poasesslon of an ex- plosive power with which he had alreiidy experimented upon privately, — Negociations have been goinR on with Government for some time, but witliout coming to any auctjess- fill issue, it was therefore determined by the friend* of Captain Warner, to try the experi- ment without the aid of tJovernment, tor this purpose Mr. Soamcs the eminent ship owner, liberally ofl'eretl a vessel for the occasioa, and some private friendi of the Captain raised the sum requisite for the attendant expenses. — The vessel selected was the "John o'Gaunt," a barque of iUO tons burtlien, three masted, full bowed, strongly built and sea- worthy, she was given up to tlie Captain eaily in the present month, and towed round to Brighton, where tlie experiment was to take place. The vessel was talcen in tow by the *' Sir William Wallace" steamer, on board of whiuh was Captain Warner, accompanied by another steamer, "The Tees," aiid was brought round shortly befure six o'clock in the afternoon to the position slie was appointed io occupy, al)out a mile and a cpiarter from the Brighton shore, opposite tlie Old Ship Hotel and the B.iitery. It was previously arranged that from the signal-staff of the battery on the west cliff, a flag w.ts to be hoisted, by the command ot Lord Ingeslre and Captains Dickenson and Henderson, to indicate to Captain Warner when the ship, the subject of his operations, was to be destroyed. The reason of this arrangt^ment was to remove any doubt ns to the bona fide nature ot Captain Warner's power of destroying a pursuing ves- sel, without having any communication with that vessel at the moment of her destruction. As soon as the "John u'tiaunt" had been towed to her position, (he moat intense anxiety prevailed among the spectators on shore, and every movement of those ou board the tug-boat was wutdied with the greatest interest. Captain Warner was himself on board the tug, and it had been previously arranged that when the signal was given from the battery the crew of that vessel should go below, leaving no other persons on deck but the captain and the niate. This arrangement was observed ; and immediately afterwards, the steamer, which had hitherto been towing the ship by a hawser, put back, and came abreast of her— a position which she maintained for a very few momeuts, and then a^in proceeded to her former situation, about a quarter of a mile eastward of the John n* Gaunt. Captain Warner now hoisted a Union Jack at the mast-head of the steamer, denoting that he was ready to operate, and only awaited the hoisting of the Union Jack from the tiagstart OD the battery, to be replied to by Captain Warner hauling down his signal. This had been flying some time before it was answered from the battery; and then arose another delay, in consefpience of some adventurous persons in a small cutter, in spite of the presence of th« Tees, and of two armed revenue cutters besides, to ke«p off intrudem, going close alongside the ship. Captain Warner hauled the Union Jack half-way down only until the cutter and its nccupants were out of danger. The Union Jack was then hauled down entirely. The grand crisis had now arrived ; and we may say, without ex- aggeration, that the suspense of all present was painful; the silence was deep and un- broken. AtsiK o'clock, precisely, the devoted vessel appeared to be struck niidshii)3, at which point shot up a huge column of water, intermingleil with the shingle of her ballast, which was mistaken by most persons for a cloud of >nioke. Then a low booming and gurgling noise, indicating a submarine explosion, but not approaching a loud report. "The vessel is struck !" was uttered by a thousand voices, and the next thing tu be seen was the falling of the mainmast and the mizeu mast. In less than a minute, the vessel was riven almost from stem to stern, and in less than two minutes and a half the vessel literally tumbled to pieces as if by magic. Her mizen went by the board, her mainmast, a new one, was shot clean out of ber ; she heeled over to port to an angle of ^/j degrees, and her main hatchway being open, daylight was visible through her bottom timbers ou her starboard side, and probably her larboard also, having been blown away, and she seemed to part asunder as she went down, in about 86 feet water, leaving nothing per- ceptible but the top of her foremast. The time which passed from her being struck and her sinking could not have exceeded 2i minutes. Some few of the more enthnsiastic spectators, chiefly professional men, raised a cheer, but with the iiiaHs all was mute as. tonishment. The eyes were rivetted on the last observable fragment of the large object that but the mouient before floated gallant on the waters " like a thing of life." A work of destruction so sudden, so frightful, so stupendous, appeared impossii)le for a moment even to the thousands and tens of thousands that witnessed it. It was like an awful mystery. There were none of the ordinary circumstances which accompany similar catastrophes. There was no smoke, there was no fire, there was no noise, save the low groan of the rending timbers, and the succeeding hush of the waters as they rolled over the instan- taneous wreck, and then arose a melancholy feeling, for it was impossible to prevent the imagination depicting the terrific effects of such an explosion upon a peopled ship, thus silently and suddenly perishing. The success of the experiment is admitted to have l>een perfect and entire : and the wonderfully destructive power of its agency is universally ad- mired. Tlie • modus operandi' Is kept secret; and, so long as this is the case, it will be impossible to say how far, under all circumstances, It would prove efficacious against an enemy's fleet, or saf* for our own fleet to carry. The following certificate has been issued : — July 21. We, the undersigned, hereby certify that the operations against the John o'Gaunt, of 300 tons, conducted by Captain Warner, off Brighton, on Saturday the 20th instant, were under our management and control. We further certify that the explosion did not take place from any combustible matter either on board or alongside the ship, but was caused by Captain Warner, who was on board tlie William Wallace steamer, having the ship in tow at a distance of aI>out 3 + n) ( p — n) The four lines FO, FB, GO,.GB, are readily found, as the ex- pressions for them are suited to logarithmic calculation. Then as the three sides of the triangle A B C are given, the angle A B C := F B C, is readily found ; next, in the triangle B F G, there are given FB, B G, and their contained angle F B G, therefore F G and the remain- ing angles B F G, B G F, may be found ; also, in the triangle O F G the three sides are given, consequently the three angles can be deter- mined. The ditference of the angles O F G and B F G, is the angle O F B. Now in the triangle B F O we have given O F, F B, and the contained angle O F B, hence O B becomes known. When O B is found, the height of the object T, and its distance from any of the stations are easily obtained. The whole of this detail of execution may be briefly expressed thus : — The four sides F O, F B, GO, G B, of two triangles on the same base F G, being known to find O B, the distance of their vertices. The following rule gives the method of calculation. Rule. The station at which the angle of elevation is the greatest, is the vertex of one of the triangles, and the foot of the perpendicular height of the object is the vertex of the other triangle, having the same base as the former, all the sides of which are unknown but mav be calculated thus : — add the natural cotangent of the angle of greatest elevation to the natural cotangents of each of the other elevations, and then sub- tract it from them : find the sub. logs, of these sums and differences. Then find the radii of the circles that determine the point at the foot of the perpendicular height of the object, or two sides of one of the triangles: add together the log. of either of the sides which meet at the station where the greatest angle of elevation is observed, the log. cotangents of the angles observed at the extremities of that side, and the sub. logs, of the sum and difference of the same natural cotangents ; this sum will be the log. of the radius on that side produced. The part producd is found by adding together twice the log. cot. of the greatest angle of elevation, the log. of the side produced, and the sub. logs, of the sum and difference of the natural cotangents of the angles of elevation taken at the extremities of that side. Thus we may de- termine the parts of the sides produced at the station where the greatest angle of elevation is observed, and as the angle contained by them is the angle contained by the horizontal lines meeting at that station which can be readily found, as the three lines joining the sta- tions are given, the common base is readily determined. Hence having all the sides of the two triangles on this common base the dis- tance of their vertices may be found by the rules of plane trigonome- try, and therefore the altitude of the distant object and its distance from any of the stations. Examples. I. At three stations, A, B, C, in the same plane, whose distances AB, BC, CA, are 462, 429, and 495 feet respectively, the angles of elevation of an object standing perpendicularly over O, are 36° 22' 07"'93, 48° 45' 50"-53 and 39° 0' 26"-91. Required the per- pendicular height of the object and the distance from station B to O. 25* THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [ArcusT, / .fi\\ The greatest angle of elevation being at B, we shall according to the foregoing directions produce A B and C B. Elevation at A = aG 22' (J7"'93 nat. cot. = 1'357911U „ B r= IS" 45' j0"-o3 „ ^ 0-S7G54'32 C = 39" U' 2ii"-91 „ = 1-2345G7S tio that the lines A O, BO, CO, are respectively to each other As l-3679no : 0.8765432 : : 1.2345l57s. As the three 'sides of the triangle ABC are given, the angle ABC^FBGis found to be G7' 22' 4S"-5. 1-3579110 + -8765432 = 2.2344542, log. = U'34'.I1714 i.357yilU — .S7Go432 — 0-4813678, log. = 1-0824770 * 9-968351G, sub. log. to 0-031G4sl 1-234507S + •8765432^ 2-111 1110, log. =: 0.3245111 1.2345078 + .8705432 — 0-358024G, log. = 1.5539128 T 0-12 15701, sub. lug. to 1-S7&4239 .•...^-_.,.. . . , To find UO. ■ "" Log. A B = lug. 402 - 2-604642O ~ (A O); log. 1-3579110 := 0-1328713 (O B) ; log. 0-8765432 := 1-9427733 "" * sub. log. found above 9-9G83516 G O = 511-2557 . . . log. :^ 2-7086382 To find G B. Log. A B ^ log. 402 ^ 2-6646420 Twice log. of -8765432 = 1-8S55466 Sub. log. before used — 9-96835 IG G B =; 330-02 log =: 2-5185402 To_fi»d F O. Log. C B r:: log. 429 '. ' — 2-6324573 (O Cj ; log. 1-234567S ~ 0-U915150 (O B) ; log. 0-87G5132 ^ 1-9427733 t sub. log. found abovL' — U-1215761 FO^ 614-2167 log = 2-78S3217 To find F B. Log.CB = log. 429 j — 2-63-24573 Twicelog. of 0-8765432 — 1-8S55466 t sub. log ^ 0-1215761 F B = 436.09 1 .... log = 2-6395800 ■~ ■ ' To find the angles BG F and BFG. B F =: 436-094 436-094 B G = 330-020 330-020 Sum = 766>114 Dittereucc = 106.074 FBG= 07°22'48"-5. As 766-114 sub. log. = 7-116706S • 106-074 log. = 2-0256090 : : tan, 56° IS' 35" J log. tan. =10-1760912 ; tan.Ml° 43' 57"? .log. tan. = '9-3174068 . - . 56° 18' 35"? + ir 43' 57"3 = 08° 2' 33"i = B G F, and 56' 18' 35" J — 1 T 43' 57" J = 44° 34' 38'' = B F G. Since all the parts of the triangle BFG are known except the side F G, it is readily found to be 434-0318. To find the angle O F G. 614-2167 779-7521 779.7521 434.0318 434.0318 614-2167 511-2557 345-7203 165-5354 2) 1559-5042 779-7521 sub. log. 614-2167 sub. log. 434-0318 log. 345-7203 log. 165-6354 log. sin. 27- 36' 06"-88 55° 13' 13"-76 44° 34' 38" = 7.2116783 = 7-3624785 = 2-5387249 = 2-21SS909 2)19-3317726 9-6658363 angle OFG. „ BFG. 10- 37' 35"-76 = „ O F B. Hence, in the triangle B F O, there are given two sides and their included angle, from which the angle FBO is found to be 145=56' 4S"-81; the angle FOB= 23"' 2.3' 35 "-43; and the side OB = 202.2753. Then with the elevation at B, (48° 45' 50' -53) and base O B, the perpendicular height of the object is fuuud to be 230-7615. 11. Ou a sandv beach a horizontal line A B is measured and found ^m^^-. to be 136 yards ; a flagstafl' is set up at C, or a headland in the same horizontal plane with AB, the angles CAB, C B A, are observed to be 41" and 102 respectively. The angles of elevation of the top of a rock T, at the three stations A, B, C, are observed to be 38', 31', and 27^ respectively. Required the distance from A to the summit of the rock T, the perpendicular height O T, and the distance from A to O, at the foot of the perpendicular. /■ V\ 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. m Yards. \ards. A F = 196-8954 AG = 163-5924 FO = 25B'0187 GO = 250-8460 A C = 221-044r AO = 89-7677 B C = 148-2582 AT = 113-9160 F G = 130-0280 OT = 70-1342 Z OAF = 121= 58' 31' -2 Z AOF = 40' 43' IG' ■8 Z A G F :r; 83° 22' 12' Z AFG - 55^ 37' 48" Z AFO - 17^ 18' 12 ' DIAGRAM FOR DRAWING GOTHIC ARCHES, By Peter Nicholson. To find the radius of an arc q s, concentric with a given arc A B, to meet the sine B C, so that the difference of the radii A 5, may divide rj s, tlie arc to be found into a given number of equal parts. (We are indebted to our vnhiable correspondent O.T. for the above method of drawing a ciuquefoil head ; it is copied from a diagrani made by Peter Niciiolson, in whose handvpriting is also the problem annexed. It will be observed that the diagram does not suggest any method of solving the problem, we therefore referred it to Mr. OLIVER ByE-NLi who has favoured us with the following solution.) Let AO = r,qo=x,Co=:c, and the angle qor=:2e. . • . A 2 = g r := 2 .r sin 6=r—x; and x = 1 + 2 sin »' Again C s = V .t- -c' «= i: sin 2 n e, (n being the number of equal parts into which the arc q s has to be divided) ; And .V- -c' = > - sin 2 )( B x' (1- -sin- 2 n fl>= c" '»■— c- c- 1- sin- 2« 8 cos 2 0 n a . x = c r cos 2« e 1 + 2 sin a' c COS 2 lie -2sin« = 1. (A.) Although tlie general solution of the equation involves sonic diffi- culty, yet the value of H or of 2 n 6, and therefore of .1, may be readily determined in all cases, to any required degree of exactness, by pro- portion; lor from the near approach of A O S to A OB, which is known, two values of e may be readily selected, which wlien substi- tuted in (A), will give results respectively less and greater tlian unity. One or two examples will show the certainty and simplicity of this mode of proceeding. I. Let r = 4, f = 1, and 11 = 9, i = -2500000 = cos A O B = 75 31' nearly. Equation (A) becomes 4 cos lb C — 2 sm 8 = 1 — — — = 4 11'= 9 nearly. 18 Let us substitute 4° 10', and 4' for 8 in (A.) then we have 4 cos 72-2 sin 4"0'= 1-0965550 (a) 4 cos 188—2 sin « ^ l-OOOOOOO (6) 4 cos 75° -2 sin 4" 10' = -8899600 (c) f -2065950= (d-c) 75"-72'^= 3'= IbO'-^ 0965550= (a-6) 84'- 125= 1° 24''125, which, when c As 206595 t 96555 : : ISO added to 7-2^= 73':24'-125= 18 8. •. 8= 4" : 4'-673.i.- 1 cos 73": 24'- 12 5 = 3-6008 nearly, so that if A O be divided into 8 equal parts, A 5 one of them, will divide the arc q, 1, 2, 3, it., into 9 equal parts. A^ajf ' ' ' C O A 9 o^ ■ ^, and the softest by -9. The cost of the stone de- pends on the cost of getting, royalty, waste, &c., and the relative size of the blocks, as under or above a certain cubic content, or weight in tons, taking IG feet to the ton ; but this is not altogether the right or proper plan, as there are certain relative dimensions in the length, and proportion between bed and face or depth of the course, which give an increased value. First as to the royalty, it is usual to charge from £0 to £10 per annum for each man at the face actually hewing stone , not labourers clearing away rubbish, but exclusive of them entirely, which may amount to about Id. per cubic foot, so that any offer of stone by any landowner gratis to any building, provided the quarry is not " bared," or opened, will be evidently more generous in appear- ance than in reality. By reference to the Commissioners' report, it will be found that the price of the sandstone in the county of Durham is from Sd. to 9rf. and as low as id. per cubic foot at the quarry, and that fine-tooled face, including joints and beds, is M. per cubic foot, and if rubbed 2J. in addition. But for ordinary purposes the price of ashlar may be called tjd. one mile from the quarry, and workmanship Grf., and mortar and scaliblding 2d., or a total of ]id. per cubic foot. But to divide even more minutely the price per cubic foot of labour, chiseled after pick is Idrf. toljt/.; setting lirf, to lirf.; stone lime, two of sand to one of lime. Id. ; and if the whole of each course of interior masonry be dressed the same as exterior, the cost will be in- creased from 2rf. to 2ld. per cubic foot. The question of cost is fur- ther involved when the face of the stone is sunk, or panelled, or rubbed, or moulded — and the following is a schedule for Mansfield stone. Stone Is. 'id. ; labour, bed and joint 4c?., tooled 7d., sunk lOid., rubbed Sd., picked '^d., rubbed and sunk Is., ditto moulded Is. Sd., boasted and tooled 4.d. In the building for which these latter prices were used the Darley Dale stone was substituted, and the cost was 9d. per cubic foot more for the stone, and the labour was double in conse- quence of its not being able to be sawn: the cost of Mansfield being Is. 9d. for the stone and 7d, for labour, and of Darley Dale 2s. for stone and Is. for labour, both exclusive of setting. In the Journal, vol L, page 188, a correspondent, C. L. O., writing on stone, states that Darley Dale stone from Derbyshire, was to be used for the termini of the London and Birmingham Railway, and supposes it to be limestone, which it is not, being a very fine grit. The terminus at Birmingham was built with the stone, and although then little known and its work- ableness not tested, the competition was so close that in twelve com- petitors in an amount of £40,000 the difference was only £200. Another correspondent, Vol. V. page 297, and I believe one of the Com- mission to inquire into the stone for building the Parliament Houses, in a paper read before the Institution of British Architects, observes, that architects are wanting in attention to the quality of stone known by one name and obtained from different beds, and of their being satis- fied with the generic term good ; and that, from competition, builders are not studious of quality, but what kind of stone can be most expe- ditiously wrought, and that merchants in consequence cannot find a market for a better quality if they were so inclined, and that quarries of good quality are laid aside and inferior substituted. He combats the idea of its being a recommendation to a stone that of hardening by exposure ; and that no wonder need be excited if a bad stone should be conspicuously placed in a building, otherwise in excellent condi- tion, from the mere circumstance of its being of the requisite size, and concludes by holding cheaply the test of disintegration as a proof of durability, but offers no better test as a mode of adoption. Before making any remark on the above observation, let me call attention to another correspondent, A Lover of Fair Play, Vol. III. page 309, who states that the stone used for the Houses of Parliament is from Steetly Quarry, and not reported upon by the Commissioners at all. The stone selected, Bolsover Moor, being stated by another correspondent, Amicus, Vol III. page l89, to be deficient in size, form, and quantity, as was also the Mansfield Woodhinge stone, the magnesio calciferous sandstone, as it is called, which, by-the-bye, is not very intelligible to the uneducated or uninitiated student either of architecture or geology ; but to return to the paper of the Institute of British Architects. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 299 I think the compi'tition of builders for the Birmingham termini pre- viously related is a sufficient answer to the inattention to quality by architects, and the study of builders to find out an easily wrought stone, and also the inability of merchants to find a market for stone of better quality than now supplied. The latter gentlemen are the only ones who escape censure ; and let me inform your readers that they have a complete monopoly of the London market, and that Bath and Portland are almost the only oolitic, and Park Spring BramleyFall stone the only grit now known in the market, exclusive of the Flat York paving. The commission charged on sale ofstone is as much as the royalty, or Id. per cubic foot, and fully fifty per cent, of the profits of the most calculating and persevering of the provin- cial suppliers of the London market. But to return to the object first contemplated in the paper, viz., the relative cost of masonry, which will vary as the size of stones and quantity of workmanship ; and for the purpose of fixing the price of stone, there is appended a table of prices of stone proportionate to the size, and by reference to the schedule of prices enumerated in the body of this paper in the case of Mansfield stone, any party at all conversant with this subject can calculate the work on the bed, face, superficially, &c. ; and if any size of stone is assumed for a cornice or architrave, and any figured section or profile assumed, no difficulty will be found in apportioning the labour to the cubic contents, and then arriving at the value of any such architrave or cornice per lineal foot, or as a summary. With reference to cubic content only, the price of labour for the whole may be taken at ^d. per cubic foot for tooled work ; 4.d.ior moulded work,and 2 inches there might be a less fall, 1 in 12 instead of 1 in «, and the upper part of the inclined plane might still a fall 1 in li. The two thimbles of § iron move up and down on a perpendicular bar of iron li inch thick, nearly as long as the gate lieel ; and my thimbles are fastened to the hanging post by hoops or straps of iion fitting round the post, and at least one of the thimbles which belong to the gate heel is moveable. The diagrams are drawn one-fourth the full size. Sweenvy Halt, July Mth, 1844. I 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 301 ROYAL ACADEMY. No. I. Sir, — T!ie two best friends tlie Royal Academy liave are Joseph Hume and the Riglit Hon. Sir R. Peel; the one is always on the qui vive to defend it where it is not attacked, and the other to attack it where it can bo defended, and by this most ingenious system at the end of each session, the President and Members perch on the top of their dome, clap their wings and crow their glory, as if victory was assured and inevitable. Sir Robert Peel takes his stand on the diaritable distribution of their fundi, \t\\\r\\ every body acknowledges; whilst Hume insists upon seeing their accounts, which they have never refused ; for surely nolhiiig could be more frank, more straightforward, or more re;[sonabIe than the accounts they have already furnished (o the House at the lime of the Committee. But all this childish attack and defence are entirely beside the rsal question, viz. — Whatlias bteu their infutnce on the art, what is their injluence, and rvhal mill it be in future ? As far as the student goes it has so far been a most valuable school, but it does not keep pace with the demands of the country, and it re- quires and is capable of immense improvement and amelioration, and it may be made, and it must be made, more available and more in unison with the wants of the nation. Sir Robert Peel says, the mem- bers are men of honour in private life, but is this proof they conduct the Institution as it is their duty to do, where the art is concerned? — surely not, and it may be fairly inferred, that when any man defends u friend's ^jwdiic conduct by dwelling on his yjriun/e virtues, there is something in the public conduct not altogether defensible. There can be no question, that for years, the paternal care of the Academy for the student of genius in high art, ceased with his education, and that the moment he gave evidence of being the genius they affected to wish, they assailed him by persecution and neglect to prevent his develop- ment, and force liim to get his living, as they did, by the ordinary drudgery of the profession. Sir David WilUie contested the assertion that there existed a pre- judice against High Art in the Academy for years, and was always in a passion when it was mentioned — but in lSl3 he was on his first Hanging Committee, and then it was so palpable that he acknowledged it could be no longer denied — he called on me on his way home, and said "there certainly i>xists a prejudice against High Art." I asked why — he replied Northcote had sent a picture with a request if it could not have a centre to send it back. The Committee were de- lighted at such an excuse, and were for sending it back at once, and it was by Wilkie's repeated persuasion and convincing them of the im- portance of High Art to the Academy, that he induced them to hang it up. Wilkie never altered his opinion after so gross an instance as this. There can be no question at all that the good or evil of the Academy in eflect on the Art, is very much influenced by the election of officers and members. If an incompetent member be elected, though great injury is done, yet an incompetent officer is much more injurious ; it may be replied, no incompetent officer could have been so elected if he had not been member first, and, therefore, the one is as injurious as the otiier in the Art — and the great security then is in tjie proper election of proper members, and to this end, all the energy and power of the Institution should be warily kept in train. If any accusation is made of incompetent elections the reply is, — that is very true, but that was 20 years ago ; very true also — but when was John Chalon made member? was that 20 years ago? Thirty-five years ago, two distinguished young artists were at a ball at Ridgway, Devonshire, at Mrs. Pym's the lady of the present admiral. During the evening, a militia officer found of sketching was introduced to them. Two years after, a noble lord asked them if they had heard of an extraordinary militia officer, who had taken to the art, self-taught, because he was an extr.iordinary genius, and would be a great man. Is this our militia officer? said one of these young men to the other. Indeed it is, was the answer. In a short time, the gallant Ensign became Associate, and in a shorter time Academician! and soon got two public orders for 500 gs. each, and other orders for Greenwich Hospital 1 whilst Haydon was in prison and Hilton without a single commission! The Keeper dies, and the gallant Ensign is enshrined in his place, without knowing one single marking of the human body, and thus by one con- tinued line of corrupt iufluence, this incompetent, gentlemanly weak man is placed over the next generation of British students, at a time when the government has been roused into action, when public money is voting, when a grand opportunity has burst on the country, and when draughtsmen will he wanted, and must be had, to carry out the plans in contemplation. Now see the fatal effect of incompetent and unjust elections, and reply if the Academy which obliged Reynolds to resign, expelled Barry, insulted Wilkie, disdained Hayter, scorned Martin, rejected Sir Charles Bell, and persecuted Haydon is not, in 1844, the same Aca- demy it was at the beginning 1768, in the middle 1790, and will be at ihe end, without doubt, question or refutation. The moment after election, Wilkie, astonished, went up to Sir ******* ********** ,,„j1 g,,|j|_ "I don't approve this." "Nor I nei- ther," was the reply, "but it was to please Lord Farnborongh," said gjf ******* ***^-*,i,*,;:^*. ^njj ]jg gi^ ******* ********** will remem- ber it well. The fatal effects on the Art of the country by this most honourable of all honourable elections will be shocking. The very first exercise of his power, which this amiable man was guilty of, was changing the whole system of drawing in the Academy, established so beautifully by Sir Joshua Reynolds, and which must be considered as the very basis on which the' school had obtained its celebrity for imitation. When a student draws on tinted paper, and touches in the lights and touches in the darks, and leaves the paper for the half tint, he acquires a power of using the brush whilst he is handling the port-crayon only in his early days. Sir Joshua felt this, and made it the law of practice ; whereas on the Continent they draw on white paper, leave it for the lights, stipple all over like an engraving, and in power of touch and execution, bear no comparison to the British painter. Will it be believed, this man obliged the whole body of students to leave off the admirable system of Reynolds, to substitute white paper, to banish all backgrounds, saying "show us an outline, never mind hom hard! The worthy President (arcades a7nbo) held forth at the distribution of prizes on the infallibility of the new system, and there sat the keeper the tears filling his eyes, to find his immortality secured, in the sub- lime language of Sir Martin! What an Exhibition; of the 74 which had taken place in the Academy, this was without question the most touching of all. But •' let the Academy go on," says Sir Robert, " in its even and honourable course." Ay, in Heaven's name let the Academy go on! Let it go on ; let the great Keeper and the greater President go on till the manly touch, geminy and rich, is superseded by the icy and hot stipple, flat and tasteless. Let them go on, till the hideous and hot half tint brick and mud has triumphed over the pearly grey and peachy rosiness. Let them go on, till the vanishing rotundity of nature, without edge and yet defined, succumb to the glorious and cutting outline, copper or brass. Let the illustrious and immortal couple go on, till the delicious background, glittering with azure sky and creamy cloud, be vanquished by the gilt flatness of the brutal By- zantines and bewitched Germans. If this be the detestable art which this illustrious pair wish to intro- duce, at the expense of the masculine vigour of Michael Angelo's or Velasquez's touch, God help the Art of Britain for the next 50 years, may the promoters of such Bedlam filthiness perish in their own abominations. Luckily for the Art of Britain, the next Council or- dered the restoration of back grounds and tinted paper, and the illus- trious Ensign was obliged to reconcile his former detestable theory with his present orders from his superiors, with what degree of grace and consistency it is not for me to detail, to the students. Fi.u.^If you can 7noci a leek, you can eat a leek. Pistol. — Must I bite ? Flu. — 1 say, — Pite I pray you ; it is good for your green wound ! Pistol. — Thou dost see I eat. Flu. — I have another leek in my pocket. I warn the rising youth that it is the Italian frescos and cartoons, and not the German, which must be their guide, but my warning will be in vain. With the only perfect examples in the world, viz. the Cartoons of Ratfaelle and Elgin Marbles, the youth of the country are running wild after the temporary insanities of the Germans. Good God! what would Sir George Beaumont and Sir Joshua have said could they have walked into Westminster Hall this season ? Fancy their ghosts floating arm-in-arm down the frescos : they would have gone through the great window screeching with fright ! By the gift of God, the British have been the only inheritors living of the power of imitation by touch, which is the great code of Titian, Velasquez, Rubens, Raffaell'e in his cartoons, and Michael Angelo in his Prophets — they are the only nation now alive who see the true optical delusion of objects, and feel the comprehension of touching their leading points, leaving atmosphere to unite the abstraction. They only want (which in Edwin Landseer, Charles Landseer, Lance and EaslUike was added) a knowledge of construction to guide their hand, as a component part, not a substitution fur what they are justly cele- brated for, for what can be a greati'r folly, than to lose what is truly beautiful in getting vvh.it we are without? It is hardly to be believed, that there does not exist a nation, which can paint a clear shadow, but the British. The power dues nut exist in France, Spain, Italy, or Germany : test their Works, by Rembr.uidt, Rubens, Titian, Tinto- retto, Velasquez, Ostade, Teniers, or Sir Joshua. 26 303 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [August, Let any man look info tliesliadows of LaRoelie's, Stafford and Charles, at the Diiki" of Sullierhinds, and (lien go to the Murillo, and tell me I am iji error if lie dare. With these perfections of practice, what are we now struggling for, not to transfer the beauties of oil into fresco, of which it is perfectly capable, in its purity and light, but to transfer the horrors of fresco into oil. With a militia officer for a keeper at the Academy, a president who believes in his infallibility, a secretary at the Royal Commission, friglitened at offending the Academy, frightened at offending the Court, frightened for himself, and frightened for the Art, and a Royal Com- mission, more enchanted at anticipating the eminence of immature youth, than perfecting the excellence of established maturity, what will be the result? I see the critic on the frescos in your last number, attacks the Aca- demicians for not competing — surely those among them of eminent talent are decidedly right. How can any man expect that men of established repute, with fame, and profit, and honour to lose, will enter the lists with boys they are qualified to teach, who have neitlier fame, profit, or lionour. Three yeais have now passed and no posi- tive commissions are yet given, no extensive plan evident, no cer- tainty after all who will be employed, or who will not, or whether, as Lord Brougham said, "the wisdom of Parliament may not stop the whole, after ruining three parts of the artists. In my appreliensions for the future taste of the nation, even in this hour of hope, I candidly confess I have my apprehension*, from the tendencies, sympathies and timidities of our talented secretary East- lake. It is delicate to allude to an artist of such refinement of mind, tenderness of heart and inoffensive temper, with any thing like caution; we are indebted to his reports, and the searching patience which has inspired them, but 1 shall ever regret he left England, and did not stay in it, as Etty, Hilton and Haydon did ; he arrived in Rome at the very moment of the German delusion, and being of a nature of mind that has a strong gusto to refine on what is obscure, prove what is impossi- ble, and from modesty of character so equally balance probabilities as to leave liis readers as tortured to decide which is truth, as himself; it will be seen at once he was prepared to receive the Theories in vogue, wliich were so angelic that Raphael was excluded from the code as too corrupt, the extreme infantine simplicity of which were sure to attract his nature, and though he pnblicly wishes it to be un- derstood he is not mingled up with Cornelius and Overbeck, he has made no hesitation whatever to burke all which has been done in Britain for 40 years, to push them forward as the sole objects of imi- tation for the 40 to come. If instead of petting Cornelius so offensively, he had remembered those who had rescued the country from the stigma of incapacity, whilst he was in Rome, it would not have been unjust. The Christ rejected by Hilton, the Juditli and Holofornes of Etty, and the Solo- mon, Xenophon, Jerusalem, and Lazarus, of Haydon, are works which he need not have feared to have placed by the side of any of the lime illuminations of Cornelius. Surely common justice demanded such a feeling for his country, and for those men who kept alivH the art, when there was no encouragement — they did not fly abroad in despair, and return with enthusiasm only when the treasury appeared in sight. Throughout the reports British genius is sacrificed to a morbid flattery of Cornelius. Why is this? Is it to please the court? If the court desire it, the court should be told what is justice. Cornelius is the ne plus iillra of art according to the Royal Commission, but what was the opinion of his friend Rumohr ? — viz., that he has no power of imitation or colour — that he is not deep in the naked figure — that he is unnatural in expression, but has a monumental power, fit for a wall. The worthy secretary, where justice might have been done to Hilton, Etty and Haydon, lias been totally silent; not so, I regret to say, where injury might accrue. When the cartoons were dispersed, in the circular sent to the papers, he seemed to have recovered his recollection of one of them at least. What did he mean by stating publicly, as from the Royal Commission, " Haydon at the head of a section, goes to the Pantheon." This was utterly untrue. Haydon went to the Pantheon by himself, connected with no section — heading no section — and there- fore I hope it was not put in in this malicious way, to lower Haydon in public estimation, by informing them liis cartoons had not been re- warded,* and that whatever were his theories of art, he mas but the head of a section! If it were it was vv'ortliy of the heart and under- standing which never remembered the battle he had fought, the suf- ferings he had undergone, or the pictures he had painted, till a fa- vourable moment occurred of inflicting another pang. To conclude, the attempt to change the whole system of British Art, now making for the Royal Commission, ought to be opposed, if not guided by a steady hand. If it be not, it will ruin all for which * The uke of Sutherland bss since purchased Edward.and John. tlie school has been celebrated, and leave the youth in the country, and the Art in such a state of inextricable confusion as a century will never replace or regain. It is sophistry to talk about the Art undergoing a change, it is un- dergoing a curse, and without'gaining the drawing they want, they will lose the colour, and light, and shadow, and surface they have, and end in being the ridicule of Europe. The existence of the present Keeper of the Academy in his present position, which but for his cor- rupt election never could have taken place, is a living, existing refu- tation of Sir Robert Peel's protection of the Institute, and an argu- ment for ever of the necessity of Reform. Sir Robert says now, or infers, the House has no right to interfere; and yet, in l839, he said, " Holding rooms as the Academy did of the public, it had uiiquestion- ably that right."-!' Lord John too, (et tu quoque Brute,) stands up for the Academy, yet in tlie same debate, 183'J, lie disdained to argue for the right of the Ffouse — saying with defiance,+ " I waive all question about right." How can Lord John glory in the cause for which Russell bled on the scaffold and Sidney in the field, and oppose the independence of British artists. Are they to be the only serfs left ? Is this doctrine worthy of his descent ? Oh, Lord John. And will Lord Palmerston sacrifice the liberty of British Art for a miniature by Ross ? Oh, Lord Palmerston. Such is the influence in a civilized country of property, authority, and rank; and such are the blessings resulting from their security, that it is always considered in a period of refinement or corruption better to put up with any abuse of their exercise, than endanger their dignity by admitting the possibility of wrong, though the sanction of injustice has always in time sapped the greatest powers in t!ie world. One would have thought Sir Robert Peel had had some experience of the consequences of resistnig common sense in 1S32. So far from the British people having seen their best days, they have not yet reached one-tenth part of that glory or power to which their capital and their energy will ultimately bring them. But they are weighed down by prejudices, the excess of judicious submission to order, till they are brought to the very verge of abject servility. The abstract principle of independance of mind exists only in the theory of their constitution, as a fiction, for it has long since ceased to be practised or acted on, or approved of as a reality by any who have their fortune to make, or any who have made their fortune. I admire the caution with which all reforms take place in Britain so necessary to regulate and bridle excess, imprudent zeal, or injudi- cious enthusiasm. But let us take care in our reverence for the out- works of authority, a mine is not sprung in the centre of the citadel, because from pompous desire to keep up appearances, we fear a little wholesome chloride to cleanse the walls. The principle in Bri- tain, that authority must be upheld, let what may be the injustice it has practised, will ultimately in the long run of human suffering, de- stroy all authority whatever. I therefore heartily wish success to any movement which will force the Academy to reform, though I fear Sir Robert's talent and affection, the cowardice of the artists, and the coiled-snakism of the Academy itself. TiMON. t See Debate, July II, 1839. SUGGESTIONS FOR A NATIONAL COLLECTION OF STUDIES OF OUR NATIONAL ARCHITECTURE. (a letter to the editor.) Sir — Some little stir has recently been made in the House of Com- mons relative to British Antiquities and the British IVIuseum, and as I have always felt tliat Gothic architecture has not had its due share of accommodation in the National Museum, I inclose you a copy of a letter which I some time back ventured to address to the Trustees of that institution, relative to a classification of Gothic Architecture, al- though perhaps I ought to have known that any suggestions from so humble an individual as myself could have no weight in that quarter, not because any communication of the kind would be at once rejpcted as informal, but that emanating from so obscure a source the subject was not made of sufficient importance. I had previously waited upon Sir Henry Ellis in company with my friend Mr. Inman, to whom I entered into a full explanation of my" views, and who seemed to think with me that a scheme of the kind would be highly beneficial in itself, and if taken up as it ought to be, might be carried into effect with com- parative ease after a commencement had once been made. Encouraged by this, and being of opinion that unless a separate gallery were esta- 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 303 blished for the purpose, no more appropriate place could be found for such a collection as the one contemplated than the British Museum, I presumed to address tlie Trustees. Tlie result of that address confirms wliat I have above slated ; yet as a classification of Gotliic Architecture would be of the greatest value to the profession as well as the public, even in any form, I am unwilling that the subject should be entirely dropped, therefore send you my unsuccessful appeal to the Trustees, with some further re- n)arks, conceiving that if the suggestions are of any real importance, there is a chance of their being taken into consideration and properly urged by some one possessing — I will not say greater zeal, but in- finitely greater influence than myself. Ith November, 1842. Ml' Lords and Gentlemen, — On examining the plan for the corapletiou of the Imildings at the British Museum, I observed that a portion was appro- priated to British Antiquities, and as tills term might apply only to a very limited selection, I have presumed to address your Lordships, humbly sub- mitting that an extension of accommodation for British Antiquities would be a desideratum, in order that works of British art from the earliest to the latest periods might be arranged in the National JIuseum. It has, I think, been elearly ascertained that in order to promote art and civilization, the means of studying should be placed in as simple and clear a manner as possible within the reach of the public, who would by continued observation imbibe a degree of taste and knowledge not otherwise to be ob- tained. The great improvements in our cities have arisen by these means, and step by step, architecture has been raised to an importance in public opinion which it did not hold in the two preceding centuries, hut, although the profession have acquired this high standing, hitherto little has been done for the general advancement of the taste and knowledge of the public, who from want of precedent are unable to form any opinion of the subject. By devoting some portion of the new buildings of the National Museum to a classification of Gothic architecture, from the earliest to the latest ages, this object might be effected. It would not at present be necessary to have a costly building, a mere out-building would at first answer for the reception of fragments. Judiciously selected specimens could be obtained from almost every pait of the country, and arranged in chronological order. In many in- stances this collection wouhl be of immense importance to the ])rofessional student, by placing immediately before his \iew tlie forms of ornaments, mouldings and sculpture, in positions were it would he next to impossible to study them when existing in their original situation. In addition to the forms being placed so as to be clearly examined, the progressive styles of tiie art, jniglit lie shown in this collection ; and this very important object could not be so simply defined in existing buildings without considerable attention and labour. The distinctive characteristics of Gothic architecture being divided into numerous classes, and each style imperceptibly growing out of the other; the gradations are so delicate, and the peculiarities so minute, that without a place for the reception of well selected examples, the student is put to con- siderable labour and expense before he can acquire any knowledge of that branch of the art; and then only by unwearied exertions, and the examina- tion of many edifices. Even if he does not turn from the pursuit unsatisfied and disgusted, he finds after years of toil, he has hut acquired an imperfect knowledge, because his time, his opportunities, or his means, were insuffi- cient to carry out his object. Many there are who soon stop short in the pursuit and when called upon to practice this part of their art, show their miserable deficiency. I regret to say examples are not wanting to confirm this opinion. At the present time the revival of a taste for Gothic architecture, is spreading to a great ex- tent, but bithertoo no opportunity has been afforded for the proper study of the art, and very little is yet known of its principles ; its origin is still a matter for contention, its decorations a mystery, and its construction is so little understood that it has become a thing to wonder at : few, very few, are acquainted with its eftects, or its influence upon our feelings. History is intimately associated with this art, each edifice is strewed over with decorations connected with the early history of the church, or sculp- tured legends of munificent donors, or in other buildings with the records of noble acts of chivalry, all important in the study of the art. The art is not to be studied merely by fragments of stone, but much atten- tion would be given to polychromy, an interesting and important branch of the ancient art, and at this time but little known ; this would also comprise heraldry, as necessarily connected with Gothic architecture, a subject of great historical usefulness ; stained or painted glass would also form a valuable ami exceedingly interesting subject, not as a mere subject of curiosity, but as a branch of the art inseparable from it. To the pi'ofessor, the student, and the antiquary, a collection of Gothic antiquities would be of inestimable value for the investigation of the piinci- pies of the art. To the general observer it would be important in founding judgment and true taste. The arrangements might be such that by a very little application a degree of knowledge might be acquired, sufficient to pro- vent the recurrence of those disgraceful applications of this style of architec- ture, which have of late years been executed, owing to ignorance of its genius and principles. Very little difficulty would be found in forming this museum. In many parts of the country buildings are necessarily taken down, and the desirable portion of the remains might be easily obtained ; many buildings have been destroyed entirely, but there are yet numerous fragments which would form a most valuable and instructive series of artistical studies and historical docu- ments. Such collection might very properly be made to include similar spe- cimens of continental Gothic, so arranged as to facilitate immediate compa- rison of the respective styles of the same period in our own and other coun- tries, and thus make evident, almost at a glance, their chai'acterislic differences and resemblances, whereby attention to such circumstances would be forced, and they would be more firmly impressed upon the memory. Let but a beginning be made, let the nucleus of such a collection be formed, and there is no doubt that it would be materially augmented in a short time by donations and contributions both of original specimens or authenticated models, and these not confined to architecture exclusively, but extending to other branches of art and ornameutal design of the middle ages. As little doubt can there be that such addition to the present collections in the British Museum would be welcomed not by professional men alone, but equally so by the general public, and for both it would possess a moi-e imme- diate interest, and would exercise upon them a more direct influence, than other works of antiquity, which, however valuable as arebseological studies, are too remote from our feelings and associations to be looked upon other- wise than as matters of wonder and curiosity. Whatever objections there may be to what I have thus ventured to suggest, it certainly cannot be al- leged as one of them, that a gallery of British Antiquities would he out of jdace in, and foreign to the purposes of a British Museum; and, however the suggestion itself may be received, I trust that the motives which have led to it — the warm interest I take in the subject, and an earnest desire that both the public and the architectural profession should become more familiar with, and better able to appreciate the architecture and arts of the middle ages — will sufficiently excuse my laying it before you, and clear me from the impu- tation of impertinence in so doing. I have the honour to be, my Lords and Gentlemen, Your most obedient humble servant, £. B.Lamb. To the Trustees of the British Museum. British Museum, November 18, 1842 Sir.— Your letter of the 7th of November having been laid before the Trustees in which you suggest that in the new buildings of the Museum a greater extent of accommodation than that apparently contemplated should be provided for British antiquities, and that it would be expedient to devote some portion of the buildings to a classification of Gothic architecture, espe cially British, from the earliest to tlie latest ages, I am directed to acknow- ledge your communication and to acquaint you that the trustees are not pre- pared to recommend her Majesty's government to provide in the museum for any general collection of remains of the Gothic architecture of Great Britain. I have the honor to be, Sir Your most obedient Servant, E. B. Lamb Esq. I. Forshall, Secretary. The limited resources, as well as the deficiency of space, of the In- stitute of British Architects, entirely prevents the possibility of tlieir carrying out the objects contained in the foregoing letter, yet there are still means by which the principle may be fully realized so as to be of the greatest benefit to the profession at large ; and although my main object is, for the present at least, frustrated, a perfect classifica- tion of Gothic Architecture might be well arranged hy drawings com- municated from the various members of the Institute and other per- sons who feel an interest in the subject. During both his early studies and his later practice, every architect has had occasion to sketch and measure portions of buildings in the particular locality where he has been engaged ; and these subjects, after ills particular object has been obtained, remain in his sketch book or portfolio, of little further use to himself and of none to his brethren: what an immense store of knowledge thus remains hidden, for want of a suitable place to deposit such documents 1 accordingly, I feel assured that if a suitable place could be found, the hidden treasures would he brought to light by all who had a real love for the art, and would thus form the nucleus of a perfect classification of Gothic Architecture. But although the facts are certain as regards the present state of the most valuable sketches, much would be required to be done to induce the authors to deliver thein, or copies of them, to the Institute. The main object would be to collect together accurate dravving,« of buildings, or portions of building^', with details drawn and measured, and arrange them in guard books, under certain heads, so as (o bi easily referred to, but as the whole of this would require a fixP() sys- tem, I would suggest that a cornmitte should be formed of members of the [nslilute to arrange the business, who would communicate with the dirt'erent members, requesting thera to co-operate in the formation of a classification of Gothic Architecture, by contributiug such sketches of buildings, or parts of buildings as they may have had 0|i|)ortunities of collecting together, with any remarks upon them which they might wish to communicate. It would be the duty of the committee to cor- respond with any person, although not in the profession, who they thought might forward their views, and although in many instances their labour would be in vain, they would be amply repaid by com- 26* 304 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [August, inunicalions from olliers in sliort replies to questions relative to build- ings at a distance, and by carefully measured details of mouldings, arclies, doors, \vindows, &c., stained glass, beraldry, and otber equally inleresling subjects. It would be also the means of drawing out muoli valuable information from members who are well qualified, but who do not feel sufficient confidence to communicate a paper of tlieir own suggestion. A letter from tlie committee requesting information from a member would be sure to produce some reply, and in most in- stances tlie information received would be a certain gain to the pro- fession. Year after year the Report of tlie Council lias contained a request that communications should be made bv the members, but the request being general the result has been very unsatisfactory, whereas a direct request from an authorized committee, for any information upon a building in a particular locality, would be sure to receive attention, and however brief the reply something is likely to be obtained, at least from those persons who felt an interest in this branch of the art. The mere correspondence in a pursuit of this nature would be con- siderable, and the labours of the committee would necessarily be ar- duous, but as the result of such labour would be of the greatest value to tlie profession and all lovers of the art, they would be amply repaid by the gratification afforded to them in being the means of contributing something for the general benefit of the public. A collection of authentic drawings of existing buildings, or parts of buildings with dimensions carefully taken, together witli such information as may be intelligibly conveyed in a few words, pointing out such records, facts, or even legends, as may tend to fix a date, would form the most valuable precedents, independent of actual examples or casts, which could be |)laced before the professional student. Means, too, might be afforded for the public to obtain access to these documents, of course under certain restrictions, in order that sometliing might be done to inform the public upon a suhject of which, at present, they know so little. — The knowledge of the general forms and dimensions of exist- ing buildings, acquired in various countries by the architectural stu- dent, has hitherto been applied in reproducing ancient forms, as the countries he lias visited and the buildings lie has seen have been necessarily limited. In consequence of this, the investigation of prin- ciples has seldom been bis object; content that at Athens or Rome, Cologne or York, remains of fine building? in their several styles still exist, they are adopted as precedents on all occasions, and Lmidon as well as most other large cities, teems with Compo Temples withthree tiers of narrow holes in the wM called windows, or else miniature York Cathedrals, divested of all ornamental tracery and paneling. Precedent if properly used and not abused would form the foundation of a sound system, and it is in this way a collection of Gothic fragments or authentic drawings would be the means of familiarizing the mind with noble inventions; this should be the study of the architect, and precedent be left for the public to form their taste and judgment, in order that they may hold in check the ignorant pretender, w ho decks cut his productions with ornament both flimsy and spurious, ill under- stood and grossly misapplied. I am fully aware that there may be many objections and difficulties to surmount before much progress could be made in this desirable object : a committee competent, and at the same time willing, to act must necessarily be formed of men of sufficient standing in the profes- sion to insure the carrying out of such a scheme ; and this would press upon valuable time, but those who regarded the art as an enlightened study, and not as a mere means of yielding pounds, shillings and pence, wouldnot deem a little time bestowed in its advancement a sacrifice. It is singular that the National Art should be considered so little of in the National Museum : several packing cases of marble fragments have recently been imported at a great expense, and some part of the new building is to be prepared to receive them ; and these subjects no doubt are curious and interesting, and may serve to add anotiier link to the chain of Ancient Art, but assuredly are of little practical use, for in our practice of Grecian Architecture" we have not got a single step beyond the examples provided by Stuart and his contemporaries, not- withstanding so much— or rather so ma;;;/ things have since been discovered— have first been hailed as valuable acquisitions, then treasured up and forgotten, certainly not turned to any account what- ever as studies. Surely if so much cost is incurred and so much space is allowed for subjects which are merely curious, something should be done for the useful ; and at the present time when information on Gothic architecture is eagerly sought for by all, some space might be allowed in the British Museum for fragments of this branch of art. A knowledge of Gothic Architecture is to be obtained only by close attention to existing examples, and those examples are frequently nearly inaccessible ; whereas were a collection formed inihe Museum, or even in a shed adjoining, it would be hailed by the profession and the public as another step^for the general benefit of all— of the public no less than the profession, of the profession no less than the public. At all events, as an individual in the profession, I can have no parti- cular interest in thus earnestly recommending what might prove even more serviceable to many others in it than to myself. Were I actuated by selfish considerations, I should hardly urge any scheme that would tend to advance others in the same career; or did I take — as has been done before now — a narrow and jealous view of the interests of the profession to which I belong, hardly should I insist upon the expe- diency of rendering the public better informed in the study of our art. Yet unless the public do become so, they will either be indifferent to the art, or injudicious, therefore mischievous patrons of it. Mere building there will always be, — that will take of itself, but architecture can flourish only in proportion as it is seconded by a popular feeling for it, based upon sound principles of taste generally diffused among us. I am. Sir, yours most obediently, 26, Charlotte Street, Portland Place, E. B. Lamb. August 8, 1844. GOLDSMITHS' HALL. Instead of putting them into an "£;va/a," where they would pro- bably be overlooked, we adopt this mode of correcting one or two mistakes and inaccuracies in the article and its ilhistr.ilions in our last number, because by so doing we can at the same time give some additional explanation. — In the plan of the building there is an over- sight on the part of the engraver which will probably have puzzled many of our readers, for owing to those parts being filled up with shadow, it now looks as if there was a square pillar put between the four columns on each side of the staircase, in such a manner as to be the centre of a group : whereas those squares are intended to repre- sent only the pedestals of two statues — viz., an Apollo and Diana — which so placed add considerably to the general effect. There are besides, on the pedestals or angles of the first flight of stairs, four other statues of smaller dimensions, representing the "Seasons," per- sonified as children. Creditable, however, as are these last to the artist, (Mr. S. Nixon), they do not seem to carry much meaning with them : perhaps even symbolism would be puzzled to find one for them ; never- theless we risk one — which is that a banquet at Goldsmiths' Hall is always stasonable, let it take place when it may, in summer or winter — autumn or spring. In the letter-press, — one error — of no very great importance indeed — occurs in the note at the foot of the first column, where it should have been printed " hardly need we recommend the ' London hiteriors' for the manner in which the literary part ;'s extciiled," but the two last words being omitted, the sense is rather muddled. An error of a more serious kind disfigures the last paragraph, where after it is said that the oak screen mars the general effect of the B.mquetting Hall, we should read thus : " far better would it have been had the order been continued quite round the room, and the screen formeipes supplied is about 120 feet, and that on a considerable portion of the town. The average pressure may be stated to be about SO feet, there being in Nottingham great variations in altitude.— The high pressure is kept upon allclasses of pipes and at all times. The extra cost of pumping to raise the water to the highest points for which it is ordinarily required is very slight. There is but one pressure at Nottingham, and that is the same at all limes, and is found to be economical. If the water were lifted only half the height the saving would not amount to more than about l-20th of the total charge. With the tenants' service pipes lull at all times, and in constant communi- cation with the mains and chief reservoir, it dispenses with the necessity of the tenants having water-tanks. All the houses thathave been supplied since the Trent Water Company has been established, whicli are very numerous (indeed, probably amounting to 5000 or more out of 8000)are without water- butts. In the houses taken by the Trent Company from the former Company, the tenants of which became tenants of the Trent Water Company, there were brick cisterns under tht- lloors already existing ; of course we only attached the old communication pipes to the service pipes of the new Company, and so far as the majority of those tenants are concerned we do supply the tanks, for they existed before ; but even in many of those cases the tanks have been abandoned, and the tenants take their water in the same way as others. In answer lo the question — " It is stated that under the common arrange- ment of having water " on" for such a time on alternate days as may fill butts and tanks, that of the total capital invested in the complete machinery, the portion of the tenant's outlay consisting of the house butts or tank, ball-cocks and pipes, involves the expenditure of a capital equal to that invested by the Company ; for example, if the Company's capital amount to £50,000 for en- gines, mains, &c., tlie tenants' capital invested for tanks, ball-cocks, and pipes will involve an equal expenditure, and that half perhaps of the tenant's portion will consist of the expense of the tank, butt, and ball-cock?" Mr. Hawksley said — ^" The expense of the tank or Luit will in general be more than half the tenant's expense considered exclusively of the cost of the com- munication pipe used in the Street, which is at Nottingham provided and maintained by the Company, but probably not otherwise.") In the capital of a Company the pipe to each of the Individual houses is not included. In general that would be the tenant's charge ; but in the case of Nottingham it constitutes only a small portion of the expense of works, it costs the Company about a shilling a foot on the average, includmg taking up the street, putting down the pipe, and enclosing it, and may amount to between £2000 ami £3000. The cost of each of the Company's branches may possibly average 15s., but as one branch will in the majority of instances sup- ply a wliole court, the cost per tenement supplied will not exceed 6s. or 7s. The expenditure at Nottingham for the supply of 8000 houses amounts to about £30.000. The cost of butts or cisterns fitted wiih a ball-cock, pump or draw-ofl' cock, and other appurtenances would (if required) amount to £30,000 at the least, if, as the questions imjily, each of the £000 tenants were to be provided with a separate cistern or tank capable of containing water for two days supply after the present rate of consumption, and that of more than half this cost the public is disburthened by the introduction of the system of constant delivery. By this arrangement of keeping the pi|]es constantly full, dispensing with the necessity of tanks, more than half the tenants' expense is got rid of, or more than one-third of the then total expense of introduc- ing water into houses. Where butts or receptacles for water are used they become sources of im- purity ; they are not properly covered ; soot and dust get in ; in summer time they are frequently exposed to the action of the sun, and the wooden butts are apt to decay. All labour of cleansing these causes of impurity is prevented by the arrangement of keeping the pipes constantly full. The effect of the arrangement is to substitute one large reservoir or tank well situated and under effectual care, for the many thousand ill placed butts and tanks lequi- site lo afford a copious supply on the common arrangement. There is also the saving of the room occupiec} by the lank, which is in some districts of much importance ; tliere is the avoidance of the damp from the evaporation of a body of water in the house, the sa ing of accidents and of leakage, and of the inconvenience from having the tank sometimes empty. In many houses where there is no convenience for a tank in the upper part of the house it is jilaced in a lower apartment, and the water must be borne up stairs for use; the labour incurred necessarily restricts the free employment of the water for many purposes to which it might be beneficially and health- fully employed. In such places, too, the expense of a force-pump to charge tanks for water-closets, and of waste and warning-pipes, is sometimes necessary, Th's apparatus for the middle and higher class houses is not only very expen- sive but liable to be often out of repair, constantly bringing the plumber into the house. Another and a very serious inconvenience affecting the habits and sanatory condition of the population attendant on the system of partial or occasional supply is that it creates an inconvenience and an obstacle to the use of baths. With a constant supply of water at a sufficient pressure baths might be supplied in private houses with little difficulty or expense, so little, indeed, that he believes it to be practicable, and hopes yet to see baths intro- duced into the houses of labouring men for the use of themselves and families. There may be a saving in the tenants' outlay for pipes. In the metropolis and other places, where the Companies' supply is only occasional, the pipes are larger than necessary that the water may be delivered within a short time. In towns the usual size of the tenants' pipes is | inch, and in the larger houses I inch; whereas with the constant supply * inch pipes will serve the same purpose. If necessary we can have stronger pipes of the same weight. Pipes of i inch diameter and 2| lb. weight per foot are found to be securest the strongest pressure employed in Nottingham. In answer to a question respecting the actual waste of water at the Not- tingham works Mr. Hawksley said—" A judgment may perhaps be best formed as to the small extent of waste from a statement of the actual amount of supply. The actual amount of supply at Nottingham is not more than from 80 to 90 gallons per house per diem ; this is taken by about 8000 tene- ments and works of every description, amongst which are bre\\ cries, dye- works, steam-engines, and inns, and other places of large consumption." The system of constant supply diminishes the rate of delivery in the ser- vice-pipes and sub-mains very materially, distributing over a greater number of hours the quantity of water which otherwise must be delivered in a very short period.— It is spreading the water over the 12 hours of the day ; and with the advantage tliat as the water travels more slowly through the pipes, smaller pipes will be equivalent to larger. The constant supply is also the means of a large economy of men. The Nottingham Company has maintained its supply by night and by day ever since its establishment, except during a period of one month, when for the purpose of experiment the water was shut off at 10 in the evening, and Vurned on again at 5 in the morning. It was then found that it would be more ex- pensive to keep extra turncocks, do extra repairs to valves, draw plugs to cleanse the pipes, and attend to complaints. The original plan was therefore resumed. We find that one expeiienced man, and one boy of about 18 years of age are, on the system of constant supply, quite sufficient to manage the distribution of the supply to about 80CO tenements, and keep all the works of distribution in perfect repair, including cocks, main pipes, service pipes, and tenants' communication pipes, to the extent they are laid under the pubiig^ 308 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [AtJG-UST, highways. The Old Company has adopted tlie system of the Trent Water Company, and now maintains a constant supply. Any company that pos- sesses an ample quantity of water at Us works, and a sufficient reservoir in an elevated situation, may adopt this mode of supply without dilhculty or disadvantage, and indeed the difficulty and disadvantage is far from insuper- able when an elevated reservoir cannot be obtained. " The term waste would imply an excessive expense for the pumping of water. Now it appears, from one instance, cited by Mr. Wicksteed, of the duty of a steam engine of good construction, that this one single pumping engine, upon the expansive principle, and with coals costing 12s. per ton, with labour and stores, and all except the interest on fixed capital, the cost of raising 80,000 gallons of water 100 feet high was Is. ; that by another, Tay- lor's Cornish engine, 1 lb. of coal converted into steam raises 10,000 gallons of water 10 feet high : in other words, if a room 20 feet square were filled 4 feet deep with water, 1 lb. of coal converted into steam would overcome the fric- tion of the engine, and raise that water into a room 10 feet above it. Does your own experience justify the conclusion from such instances, that when the machinery and distributing (lipes are fixed, and there is an unlimited sup- ply of water, as from a river, the expense of pumping additional quantities is inconsiderable as an element of calculation? — Assuming the possibility of varying our works without cost, the experience at Nottingham is to this efiect, that we could give 8 or 10 times the present unlimited supply for about a double charge ; that we could raise all the v\ater now taken 50 feet higher by increasing the charge 5 or 6 per cent., and that were we to lower the head to half its present height, the saving of expense would not exceed 6 or 7 per cent, on the gross charge to the tenant. The answer may be otherw ise given thus. The Trent Water Company supply houses at an annual average charge of about 7s. 6d., at any level requireil, even into the attics of lour or five story buildings; if the supply were aftbrded to the level of the pavement only, the charge could n"t be reduced more than 6rf. per house, or for the labourers' tenement not more than id. " It is stated that the daily supply of the metropolis is equal to a lake 50 acres of a mean depth of three leet, — » hat, on Mr. Wicksteed's estimate, would be the additional expense incurred if the supply were doubled and the additional quantity was raised by pumping 150 feet high? — On Mr. Wick- steed's expeiience the expense would be £20 10s. per diem, or £9,300 per an- num, which as about 200,000 houses are supplied by the Companies, when divided gives Urf. per bouse per annum for the expense of the pumping to a height of 100 feet, or IG^d. of pumping to a height of 150 leet. 1 wish it, however, to be understood that 1 do not concur in Mr. Wicksteed's mode of estimating the cost. It is quite true that the expense of pumping torms, in nearly all cases, but a small portion of the total charge to the tenant ; but Mr. Wicksteed's statement would afford a result fallaciously low. Mr. Wick- steed's engine uses less coal, but employs more capital, so that the saving is rather apparent than real. And again, the London and many other Compa- nies would be unable to obtain a supply of fuel at the price assigned by Mr. Wicksteed. "In respect to the apprehension expressed, that if the system of constant jupply at high pressure were adopted much larger mains would be required, what is the evidence of fact and experience?— Directly the reverse of the hy- pothesis. If the supply cf water for ordinary purposes be the only consider- ation, then, for the same reason that smaller pipes do suffice for the tenants' communication-pipes, smaller mains will suffice for the system of constant supply at high pressure. Where 20-inch mains are used on the system of periodical supply, 12-inch mains would amply suffice for the system of con- stant supply ; instead of the 7 and 6-inch mains, 5 or 4-inch would suffice ; instead of 3-inch service-pipes for the occasional supply, 2-inch w ould suffice for the constant supply ; indeed, for constant conveyance, sizes much smaller than these would answer the purpose ; but as there are irregularities of draught, it is needful to provide accordingly. The objection of Mr. Wick- steed is founded upon a supposed state of things which never docs occur, namely, of all the pipes discharging water at the same time. "An objection to the introduction of water into the houses of the poorest classes is thus stated by Mr. Wicksteed :— ' Where a landlord has got 20 or 30, 40 or 50 houses, and requires a supply of water, if they are poor houses it is frequently given by one common stand-cock to all the houses. If he was to put a separate supply to those houses by a lead-pipe, the lead-pipe would he there in the evening but would be gone in the morning.' Now, do you find that tenants are apt, for the sake of the lead, to cut oft' their own sup- plies of water ; and what, under all circumstances, is your experience on the point? We have some of the poorest and worst-conditioned people in Not- tingham, and we scarcely ever experience anything of the kind. In fact, the water at high pressure serves as a police on the pipe. The cutting off a cock with the water at high pressure is rather a difficult matter to do quietly : ' knocking up' is too noisy ; and when a knife is put into such a pipe and a slit is made, a sharp, flat, wide stream issues, very inconvenient to the ope- rator; and when the pipe is divided there is the full rush of the jet to de- nounce the thief. We have lead-pipes all over the town, in the most exposed places, and I can affirm that such an event rarely occurs out of the houses, minever within," "iDoes your own experience furnish any datum from which the expence of supplies of water, including the wear and tear of engines, interest on fixed capital for machinery and all distributary pipes, the necessary expenses of management, in other words, the total expenses, may be judged of ?— Yes ; the total expense is on the experience of the last five years 2SSd. per 1000 gallons. This is equal to 12/. per million gallons. " We are desirous of being informed of the several establishment charges of a Water Company, or in other w ords, what charges are independent of the quantity of water pumped, and what not, and their amount. Can you give us from your practical experience, say at Nottingham, where you lift your water 135 feet high ?— On an average of five years' experience of the Trent Company, at Nottingham, they are as follows for each million and for each thousand gallons." Tabular Statement of the Ej:penses incurred in supplying the Town of Nottingham with IVater, according to the experience of the Trent Water Works Company, Description of Cliargea. Cost per Cost per 1000 ; Jlitlion Gallons. Gallons. 1. Charges nearly proportion- ate to the Quantity supplied. Coals Oil and tallow Sundi'ies Hemp, leather, &c Repairs of pumping machinery (nearly = Did.) 2. Charges v/iich diminish nearly as the Quantity pump. ed or supplied ijicreases. Salaries of law clerk, engineer, office clerks, collector, &c. . 0-3720 1 11 Parochial and other taxes. . .. 0-1328 0 11 Wages of tuincocks, plumbers, &c 0-1295,0 10 Si Incidentals attending the man agement 0-046l!o 3 10 Law charges and expenses of policemen Rents of various premises, ac- knowledgments under Act of Parliament, &c Repair and maintenance of! mains, cocks, communica-i tion-pipes, and other works! of distribution j0-019C0 1 Stationery, advertising, &c. . . I 0-0136|0 1 Compensations for damage,&c. 0-0089 0 0 Gratuities, medical assistance, &c :£. s. d. Total of each Class of Items per Millon Gallons. Proportion per Cent, of Total Charge. 0-3035 1 5 3^ ~1 0 0180 0 4 0 1 0-0137 0 1 001190 1 0 1 001110 0 11 J 0-3882 0-036G 0-0300 (nearly = Oft?.) 3. Charges which diminish less rapidly than the Quantity of Heater pumped or sup^ plied increases. Wages of engine-man Wages of stoker and reservoir keeper Cleaning and other ordinary charges of the lower or fib tering reservoir Repairs of buildings Cleaning and other ordinary charges of the upper or stor- ing reservoir 0 3 0^ 0 2 G 0-0049 0 0 0-7940 0-1063 0 8 lOJ 00650 0 5 5 0-0367 0 0-0215 0 0-0107,0 0 lOf (nearly = 0J(/.)^ 02402 Interest on invested capital,' ! varying directly with extent 1 of works and inversely with [ amount of supply | 1'4570 6 (nearly = Urf.) 1 5 Totals (nearly = 2irf.) 2-8794 The income amounts to 3'\7d. per 1000 gallons; the dif- ference (0-29rf.) is applied to extension of works. £. s. d. 12 4J 10-5-) 1-7 I •5 J- 13-5 •4 I ■4 J 1-3 6 1J.J 12-9'" 4-6 4-5 1-6 1-3 1- j-2;-6 1 0 0} 6 1 5 14 19 Hi 3-7 2-3 1-3 •7 83 50-6 100- 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 309 The price of fuel will vary greatly in .liflerent places. And the description of engine will also vary, and influence the consumption of fuel. The dillerent descriptions of engines, and prices of fuel, taken in relation lo each other, will afford the result shown in tlie.above table, and they will stand nearly as tollows : — Description of Engine. 1. H.P. — Double powered, non-condensing .... 2. B. and W. — Double powered, condensing . . 3. B. and VV. — Single powered, condensing .... 4. Cornish. — Double powered, coudensingt .... 5. Cornish. — Single powered, condensingf .... 6. Cornish. — Single powered, condensingf .... 7. Taylor's Cornish. — Single powered condensingf steam Pressure. 30+0 3 J + atmos. 3J + atmos. 30 + atmos. 30 + atmos. 45 + atmos. Cost of Fuel, 25 20 16 12 9 6 " Then is the relative economy of these engines such that, for instance, the engine No. 6 would perform the same amount of work w ilh 3s. worth of fue', to do which the engine No. 2 would require 2os. worth ? — Yes; but against this advantage must be placed the vastly greater first cost the engine No. 6. and its much greater liability to accident. By the use of the Cornish engine No. 6 in Jplace of the Boulton and Watt engine No. 2, a saving of nearly 0'2d. per thousand gallons would be effected in the fuel account, hut the capital account would be increased fully 0-\d. ; the resulting economy to set against increased risk would, therefore, not exceed a twenty-ninth part of the whole charge. I should, therefore, be in general disinclined to recom- mend the adoption of the Cornish engine, except, perhaps, in the case of works of such great extent and so arranged that the public would not be in- convenienced by the stoppage of a single engine." "The cost of construction of the works at Nottingham, is something less than 1/. per individual, supplieil by the Trent Water Company, but if that Company had the sole supply of the district over which its pipes are laid, the cost would not exceed 15s. per individual. The expense attendant on the supply of water and management of the works amounts to about 44 per cent, on the income, which is slightly less than the proportion of the like expense in London.'* " You have stated that, on the system of constant supply at high pressure, smaller instead of larger mains would suffice. It has been stated that at one town, where a high pressure was put on old mains and distributary pipes constructed lor a low pressure, the pipes which burst were very few, and the inconvenience (which it was anticipated would be very great) was incon- siderable. Does your practical experience enable you to express a confident opinion that the mains and ordinary distributary pipes for the system of periodical supply would not be required to be extensively superseded, and others of greater thickness substituted for the application of a system of con- stant supply, under a system of moderate high pressure, such as that con- templated ? — Yes ; the amount of pressure does not practically enter into the determination of the thickness of the metal of main pipes. Any thickness at which mains can in the regular course of foundry business be cast will afford many times the strength requisite to retain water under a pressure of 150 feet. In fact, pipes are proportioned according to the difhculty of running the metal and adjusting the core ; and, in practice, it is customary to pre- scribe a thickness of, at most, one-tifth the square root of the diameter ( • \8 V d ), a. proportion which has no reference whatever to the strain arising from the pressure. Pipes are now cast lighter than formerly, although the pressure under which water was usually transmitted has been increased. " Be so good as to explain the method by which you ascertain the dimensions of pipes for a constant supply to the attic stories ? — Assuming the case of a street of houses 600 yards long, I proceed thus :— I first ascertain, perhaps, by the parish books, the numbers and rentals of the houses; I then estimate the consumption of water in each house in gallons at 12§v'rentin poundl, which I find by experience to afford a result as accurate as the nature of thg inquiry will permit. " This gives for houses of 6;. rent 40 gallons per diem ; lOt. rent 56 gallons per diem ; 20?. rent 88 gallons per diem ; 50/. rent 163 gallons per diem ; 100/. rent 260 gallons per diem, 200/. rent 410 gallons per diem; 500/. rent 756 gallcns per diem. To obtain a proper practical taper, I divide the length of the pipe into portions of about 200 yards, and assign to each the quantity of water to be conveyed ; thus Final 200 yards . . 13,000 gallons per diem. Middle 200 yards 11,000+13,000 = 24,000 „ First 200 yards 8,000 + 24,000 = 32,000 I next consider that nearly the whole of the water will be consumed in the four or five hours elapsing between breakfast and dinner : to err on the safe side, I assume the delivery to take place in four hours, and that the whole of the water taken off from each length has to be passed to the end of that length- t Expansive action, It will sometimes happen that the reservoir from which the supply is obtained is nearly on the level of the attic stories, and that in consequence perliaps not more than four feet of bead can be allowed on each length of 200 yards to produce the velocity and overcome the friction: allowing this quantity in the case assumed, I shall be enabled to apply the formula, Vt-- which I have found to apply with great exactness : in this formula (q) repre- sents the number of gallons to be delivered per hour, (/} the length of the pipe m yards, (h) the head in feet, and (d) the diameter of the pipe in inches. We now obtain the following diameters, first 200 yards 5Jj inches ; second ditto 4^ inches; third ditto SJl^ inches; to which, adding half an inch for possible contraction by corrosion, the practical diameters become six inches, five inches, and four inches for a street producing in London a water rental of at least 300/. "What would he the saving in the size of the pipes consequent on the sys- tem of constant supply as compared with the intermittent system ?-The diameters of the service-pipes and sub-mains are diminished about one-third, and the weights of the pipes about one-half. " The saving in the size of the service-pipes, the mains, and so forth, would compensate for the cost of throwing up by engines an additional quantiiy of water to meet the apprehended waste and additional consumption, and keep, mg It constantly on?- Yes; and the management is much more easy, and tlie number of men necessary to superintend the distribution of the water be- comes much fewer,-in fact, it demands very little attention indeed, where the water is constantly running through the pipes; but where the water is given at intervals, many persons are put to great inconvenience; then they are complaining, and must be attended to ; and the ball-cocks when they go down will slick very frequently, and there is, consequently, a great waste of water, so that a great quantity of water is not well applied. The waste is very great on the intermittent supply, much more, lam satisfied, than most engineers are aware of. We have found, in many instances, where our sup- ply has been turned off a particular street for a short time, the ball-cock of a cistern has gone down, and the water run to waste after being again turned on. That happens in all towns where the supply is intermittent ; and I be- lieve the waste from this and some other causes is much greater than that which occurs in a constant supply. "In stating generally your view that the supply of a town by the medium of a constant supply anil high pressure is quite as cheap or cheaper than under the other system of an intermittent supply, do you take into considera- tion th;.t, in the one case of constant supply and high pressure, there would be greater advantage to the people and a greater supply of water?— I did not take that into consideration in the first instance ; but I think the saving in the number of officers and in other respects would more than compensate" for the cost of pumping that quantity of water ; for the mere cost of raising the water is but a trifling portion of the expenses of a Water Company : a great many expenses are permanent standing expenses ; the greater proportion are in a great degree independent of the quantity of water lifted.— For 4s. id. a house, we give the constant Supply of water which is required for the use of a cottager's family. "Under the existing circumstances at the prices charged and the benefit con- ferred, do the Company divide actually five per cent, upon the outlay ?— Yes, and the 50/. shares of the Company sell at from 70/. to 73/. each, and have done so for some years. The dividends of the Company are 3/. on each 50/. share, and that is considered in the transfer of shares to represent a value of 70/. "If a city were situate near a very high elevation, on which it would be con- venient to place the reservoir, say 300 feel, giving a greater pressure for the tenants' communication pipes in the lower districts than is requisite for the various purposes of constant supply, at high pressure, have you any plan of 310 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [August, meeting such cases, or modifying such pressure P— In such case I shoiiM en- deavour to bring Ihe leading main from the higher part of tlie city to tlie lower lay off the sul^-mains and services bv lines of equal altitude, and re- duce tlie pressure at proper decrements of height by a loaded valve, as shown by the sketch." Filtration. Mr. Hawksley stated that with regard to filtration, that it is always advan- ta"ccus to filter water vOiich is not naturally bright, to clear it from matters ]i -Ul in suspension. If the extent and tliickness of the filtering-bed be very considerable, prior subsidence may be altogether dispensed with ; but if the surface be limited, and the thickness small in respect to the tjn.an!ily of water to be treated, as is usually the case when artificial filters are employed, then it becomes necessary to resort to previous subsidence. There are particles so fine and minute, as to be incapable of being deposited by the force of gravity, tliounh they may be detained by filters, if the operation be slowly and cau- tiously conducted. At Nottingham, tlie construction of the filter is this ; the reservoir which lies on the banks of the Trent, about a mile from the town, is excavated in a natural stratum of clean sand and gravel, through which the water slowly percolates to a distance of 150 feet from the river. The adventitious solid matter is gently deposited on the bed of the river, from which it is washed away by the action of the stream. Sometimes the water comes down the river exceedingly thick, and discoloured by peat and other ve-'etable matters ; it is sometimes of tlie colour of tea : neverllieless filtration throU"h the bed of 150 feet renders the water perfectly pellucid. When the bottom of the reservoir has been bright from a recent sweeping, a pin may be seen at the depth of eight or nine leet. The reservoir being e.vposed to the action of the sun produces vegetation of the conferva genus, which is removed at short intervals of about three weeks each in summer and of about six weeks in winter, by pumping out the water and the use of the broom. To prevent the small communication-pipes from being choked by the accidental intro- duction of leaves and other extraneous substances, the water is drawn through lar"e sieves of fine strainer cloth. In addition to the reservoir there is a filter tunnel passing through a similar stratum for.a considerable distance up the adjoining lands. This tunnel is four feet in diameter, and half-brick ibick, and being laid without mortar or cement, cost only 10s. a foot, including ex- cavation to a depth of 12 feet. The office of the reservoir, in addition to the filtration through the bank, is to receive and accumulate the water during the time the engine is not at work. The tunnel is formed simply for the pur- pose ot filtration, and it has the advantage of not exposing the water to the action of the sun. — The water is transmitted to the upper reservoir by an en- gine along a main-pipe, which passes through the middle of the town and supplies all the inferior pipes in its course. The upper reservoir, placed at the extremity of this pipe, receives tlie excess of water pumped by the engine, and returns it down the same pipe so soon as the engine ceases to act, and hence a constant supply is maintained without difficulty, trouble, or expense. The distance of the .site of the filtering and subsiding reservoirs would not occasion such expense or inconvenience as to prescribe close limits. The en- gineering difficulties would be very insignificant, and the expense really trifling in comparison with the resulting advantages. Not the least of which would be the securement of an unfailing supply of pure water for several ages to come. If for the supply of the metropolis it were found desirable to take up the water of the 'ibamesin its full purity above Windsor, and erect filters or subsiding beds thereabout, the probable expense of its transmission above a supply taken up near the metropolis would be for the transmission of 500 gallons of water per second two mains, eacli of 60 inches diameter, would be requisite. The resistance from friction may be calculated from the formula for long pipes Q'/ P = 140 rf^ ' in which (P) represents the horse-power necessary to overcome the friction, (/) the length of the pipe in inches, (Q) the quantity of water to he delivered in one second, and {d) the diameter of the pipe. From this we ascertain that the resistance arising from friction in pipes of the given size, and 25 miles long, would require less than 450 h. p. beyond the force employed to raise the water into an elevated reservoir. If this reservoir were situated at a height of 220 feet, the steam power required to raise tlie water would be about 2000 nominal horses, and the total power to be employed in transmitting and rais- ing 500 gallons of water per second would amount to less than 2500 horses. The cost of the main pipes would be about 1,000,000/- ; of the engines and machinery, with some reserve of power, about 150,000/. ; and of the tanks and reservoirs probably 200,000/. A first investment of 15s. per head, or Sti/. of addition to the annual water charge of each of the population would there- fore enable a constant supply of ihe purest soft water to be delivered at all hours, and into every story throughout London, and that without injury to the interest of the existing companies wdio might derive their su[iplies from this common source. A very considerable economy of management and working expenses w ould indeed result from this consolidation of engineering operations which would go far in reduction of the increased charge of 9r/. per annum. Supply oe Water for Baths. Mr. Thomas Hawksley stated that he had been consulted in resppct io public baths, and had been engaged in making some private baths.— On the assumption that one hogshead, or 54 gallons of water, would suffice for the ablution of each person, the cost of pumping and engine expenses for 100 persons per diem would be threepence, and the extra expense of filtration by artificial means something less than 2d. more, — The expense of fuel for heat- ing 100 hogsheads of water from a mean temperature of, say 52", for baths, to blood heat, or say 98°, would require 270 lb. of Newcastle coal, which would cost in London about 3s. In addition to this, a further quantity of fuel would be required to replace the heat lost by radiation, evaporation, and conduction, whicli would be subject to great variation according to circum- stances. An equal quantity of coal would in general, however, be sufficient for this purpose. On a larger scale there would be some saving. — The whole expense of hot baths in numbers of not less than 100 per diem would stajaJ nearly thus for each person for the single bath : — s. d. Water 0 0| Fuel 0 OJ Attendance 0 1 Interest on building and incidentals 0 1 0 21 The probable cost of maintaining a tepid swimming bath, suppose 80 feet long and 30 feet wide, and of the average depth of 5 feet, and supposing 10,000 gallons of fresh water daily admited into it, would be for warming that quantity of water, about 2 cwt. of coal, and it would probably in prac- tice require 4 or 5 cwt. in addition to sustain the temperature of the bath. A remunerative charge for the use of the tepid bath would probably be about 2d. per head, if taken by 200 or 300 persons per diem. Fountains. With respect to the use of water for fountains, Mr. H. slated that a jeD d'c- livered under a pressure of 36 feet through a plate pierced with a halt'-inclii aperture, would deliver 900 gallons per hour to a height of 30 feet sr up- warils, at an expense of 2id. per hour. An inch orifice would deliver four times this quantity to a height somewhat greater, and would be charged about 8rf. per hour. Supposing the water works maintained by the town, and that it was deter- mined to supply the public fountains at the expense of pumping only, a half-inch jet would cost per hour, inchuling coals, wages, and the working expenses of the engine, very nearly \d.^ or for a day of 14 hours. Id. per dVem., anil an inch jet 2d. per hour, or 2s. id. per diem. This is the cost at Not- tingham, where the water is raised 135 feet ; but under other circumstanices it might be less ; and for the cost of jiumping only for small wayside fountains delivering say one or two hogsheads of water per hour, would be \d. to irf. per diem. Watering and Cleansing Streets. Mr. H. stated that for watering, the rule of assessment is J 4ft9 5 ft y 3ft6 4ft9 X 3ft4 141s. 72s. 54s. 4ft6x2ft0 48s. 2f G X 2f.8 Us.3<3. 18 in. 15 in. I5s.tol6s.lrf 12s.tol3s.6rf 24s. — City of London 45,000 23,483 121,509/. 469/. ' ' " ~~ ^~ 24in. ^ 18 24 in. 18 in. 15 in. 22s. 6rf. 24s. 19s. 6rf. 16s. 6rf. None. 4rf. Poplar — _ 5,000/. — — — ~ — 3f 6 X 2f.6 — — — — 2d. (a) Length built by Commission, 27,066 yards ; by individuals, 43,037 ; 30,000 yards Ut Class, 30,000 yards 2nd Class. (bj Length built in 4 years, 37,000 yards. 27 318 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [Au GUST, '' The want of adequate plans of districts, and the necessity for a general survey with the levels properly laid down, and level marks placed in pro- perty localities seems to he well estahlished. In most eases, the memory or memoranda of the surveyors constitute the most available record. The want of power on the part of commissions to construct new sewers under the present acts was commented on as a serious evil, to which no doubt a remedy will be applied. PROFESSOR FARADAY ON HEAT. A course of eiyhi Lectures delivejcd at the Royal Institute, Lecture V., May 18, 1844. (Specially reported for this Journal.) Amongst the phenomena accompanying the change of matter from the solid or fluid to the vaporous state, the vast increase in bulk is perhaps the most striking. If a small piece of camphor is placed in a flask and heat ap- plied, it will be found that in a short time the whole of the flask will be filled with its vapour, which may be lighted at the mouth of the flask. When cooled it returns to its former solid state, and thus illustrates the difference between vapours and gases, the latter being permanent at ordinary tempera- tures, whilst the former require a higher heat to maintain them in the gaseous state. It is therefore seen tliat heat does not produce any permanent change in these cases, that, in fact, the change is only mechanical and temporary. The phenomena of ebullition may be accurately watched by using a transpa- rent boiler, such as a glass tube, or still. Volumes of steam are formed which in the still condense into a few drop in the position shown by dotted lines, and in order to lock the door, it will only be necessary to shut the same, and having inserted the key, then by turning it round either to the right or left llie various projections will raise the levers, c, and allow the levers, d, to drop into the notch formed in the bolt, a. 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 321 Figs. 3 and 4 show a modification of one of Mr. Fletcher's latches; fig. 2 being a side view showing the interior, and fig. 3 a transverse Fig. 3. Fig. 4. section ; a is the bolt acted upon by a spiral spring so as to force it outwards, 6 is a stud fixed in the side of the bolt, c c are the handles, and d the spindle which it rests upon, or, in other words, is passed between the stud, b, and the briiss plates, e e, which may be made to form the sides of the latch, and which have slots cut in them as will be understood. Thus by pressing the handle in the position shown by dotted lines, the edge of the plates, e e, form a fulcrum to the spindle, which bearing against the stud, b, forces the bolt, a, into the lock and allows the door to be opened. There are several other modifications of this latjh described in the specification. IMPROVEMENTS IN MAKING IRON AND STEEL. Thomas Southall, of Kidderminster, in the county of Worcester, druggist, and Charles Crudgington, of the same place, banker, for " Improvements in the maim/aciure of iron and steel." — Granted Feb. 8 ; Enrolled August 8, 1844. This invention consists in a mode of improving the quality ot the iron, or converting the same into steel, by the application of sulphur and a nitrate when the iron is in a melted state. For this purpose the inventor tak<'3 sulphur and nitre, together with borax, soda and potass, and also alum, the sulphur being in the state of brimstone of commerce, and the nitre in the state of saltpetre of commerce, the po- tass, borax, soda (subcarbonate of soda), and alum, being of the usual qualities ; the above materials are to be thoroughly mixed together in a granulated state, in the following quantities, that is to say, equal quantities by weight of borax, nitre, sulphur and alum, with half the quantity by weight of potass and soda; the above ingredients when properly mixed together are to be made up in strong paper parcels (which will render the same more convenient for sinking below the surface of the metal,) of li lb. each, one of which parcels is to be used to about every 400 cwt. of pig iron when in a melted state, this pro- portion being used when it is only required to improve the quality of the iron, but when it is desired to convert the iron into steel the in- ventors use 4 lb. or rather more to every 400 cwt. of iron ; the pro- cess of mixing is as follows : when the iron is in a melted state, for instance in the puddling lurnace, the damper is to be lowered for about one minute, the above mixture is then to be put into the fur- nace and well incorporated with the iron by stirring, during the time of stirring, the damper is to be gradually raised, the iron during this time will be subjected to ebullition " when it will come to nature ;" after which the iron may be balled, and put under the tilt hammer and then rolled in the ordinary manner. The inventors observe that it will be necessary to use a greater or less proportion or quantity of the ingredients above described accord- ing to the quality of the iron, which proportion will be found in prac- tice ; moreover, when converting iron into steel, care should be taken not to use too much, which would have the effect of making the steel too brittle. STEAM boilers. James Johnstone, of Willow Park, Greenock, Esq., for " improve- ments in steam boilers." — Granted Feb. 8; Enrolled July 26, 1844. These improvements are said, in the specification, to have refe- rence to that part of boilers called furnaces, and are constructed upon similar principles to the boilers for which Mr. Johnstone obtained a patent in April 3843. The annexed drawing shows two plans of a fire box constructed according to this invention. Fig. 1 being a side elevation, and fig. 2 an end view ; a, b, c, d, fig. 1, is the fire box, and consists of an intirnal and external case firmly bound together by rivets e, e, e, and in such manner as to form a water space between the two cases ; /, g,f, g, are two water conductors, which communicate with the water spaces; h, i, is a steam and water conductor attached to the top of the external case, and also communicates with the water spaces, each of these conductors has flanges at one end, which flanges are perforated with holes for the purpose of being rivetted or bolted to the end of the boiler, which should have holes previously made in its end, corresponding with the three conductors, the area of which, that is to say, the water conductors should be equal or greater than the Fig.l. horizontal sectional area of the water space, the area of the conductor h, i, being equal to or greater than that of both water conductors ; I, I, are the fire bars, below which, if it is desired, there may also be a water space communicating with the others. The water space at the front end of the fire box m, must be stopped up with a piece of iron made to fit such space, and firmly rivetted therein. The patentee claims as his invention the construction and applica- tion of boiler furnaces and furnace boilers, of which the outer and inner fire boxes are bolted together at the roof as well as at the sides, so that a current of water is continuously kept flowing up the sides, and over and along the top of the inner fire box. ornamental glass. Joseph Gibson, Jun., of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick, japanner, for " Improvements in ornamenting glass." — Granted Feb. 10 ; Enrolled August 8, 1844. This invention consists first in ornamenting glass with pearl, by cementing or otherwise afiixing pieces of pearl to the back or inner surface of coloured or colourless glass, so that the pearl may be seen through the glass ; and secondly in ornamenting glass with pearl and other substances. The mode of carrying out this invention is as fol- lows : Mr. G. takes a piece of pearl of the shape and size required for thi' ornament, having one or both surfaces previously ground or filed perfectly flat, that portion of the glass to which the ornament or ornaments isto be fixed is to be covered with a thin stratum of copal or other transparent varnish, the ornament is then to be pressed closely against the surface of the glass so as to cause the ornament to adhere thereto ; after which the piece of glass, together with the ornament, is to be put into an oven and subjected to a heat of about 120", and allowed to remain there for 6 or 8 hours more or less, for the purpose of hardening the varnish, after which the whole surface of the glass upon which the ornament has been fixed may have a coat of varnish and be subjected to the process of drying as before, when the said surface may be painted with black or coloured paint, which when dried completes the process. Another process is by tracing the orna- ment upon the glass, and then carefully painting all the surface of the glass with the exception of that part where the ornament is to be placed, which is to be attached to the glass in the manner before described; the pieces of pearl forming the ornament maybe pre- viously ornamented with gold or silver as may be desired. Such or- namented glass is considered as being applicable for buttons, panels of doors, finger plates, work boxes, tables, and other cabinet furniture. fire proof buildings. Henry Hawes Fox, of Northwoods, of Framptou Cotterel '- Winterbourne, in the county of Gloucester, Doctor of Medic;'^" "an Improved mode of constructing Jire-proo/Jloors, ceilings ai"^^'-" —Granted Feb. 10 ; Enrolled August 0, 1844. ^'^o'^ The mode of constructing fire-proof roofs according t, it enters the case b, and ascends therein until that is also filled ; it then flows out through the lateral pipe at the top of the case i, into the pipe 0, again, and is earned away. The current being thus established through both cases, and the feeding-pipe of the cistern /, being plugged up, the liquid (0 be cooled is caused to run in a small stream through the other feeding-pipe into the cistern a; it then descends through the lubes in the case i, into the receiver c, from which it ascends through the pipe y, into the cis- tern /, and thence descends through the tubes in the case m, into the receiver n : thus the two sets of tubes and the pipe «, support of the collar l\ II, bevel wheels and shaft of transmission, supported by an- other collar, which like the former is secured to the support, m. Fig. 1 represents the water of the upper channel f, in communica- tion with the lower channel g, passing through the guide d, the tur- bine a, and the case e, which may properly be called the channel of junction. It is by passing through the turbine a, that the water im- presses on it a rotary movement in the direction indicated by the arrow a', fig. 3, a direction which would be inverse if the guides as well as the vanes of the turbine were inclined in the opposite direction Passot's Turbink. M. Passot also exhibited one of his turbines fsee figs. 4, 5 and 6, Plate XIII.), the construction of which is founded upon using reactino- wheels, and produced by the effect of centrifugal force. They are composed of cylindrical vessels fixed to vertical arbours, and supplied at the circumference with orifices intended for the introduction or ejection of the water. The modification vvliich M. Passot has intro- duced into the old reacting wheels, and which he claims as his inven- tion, consists of having suppressed or got rid of the internal partitions and reduced the old wheels to their only true essential elements — a motive cylinder to contain the motive fluid, with surfaces to receive its action, and corresponding orifices for discharge. The surfaces and the orifices are exactly included between two concentric circum- ferences, that is to say, that be carefully retrenches all other surface or projection capable of impressing the water with the angular move- ment of the wheel before having reached the parts destined to receive its action, as well as the orifices of discharge. "I form the new wheel." says M. Passot, "simply by placing either in the interior or exterior of a cylindrical drum, according as I want the pressure of the fluid to be exerted on the interior or exterior, curved vanes in the arc of a circle, such as a, h, c, d, figs. 1 and 2, then I make orifices of discharge, by removing from these vanes and from the cylinder the part in form of a wedge a, b, d, and the motion is effected by viitue of the pressure on the faces c d, c' d', c" d". Fig. 1. " While the machine is very simple, its properties are very re- markable. When the wheel turns without load or work under a given difference of level or fall, its vanes take exactly the theoretical velo- city due to the fall. It is no longer the same when in any manner the form of the new wheel is altered so as to approach those formerly known ; all partitions, projections,and asperities which are either within or without two concentric circumferences, considerably diminish the theoretic velocity of rotation due to the fall, on account of the con- tinual shock of these bodies in motion against the water in repose. Then it is not surprising if the useful effect of reacting wheels when experimented upon has never risen above 50 per cent., that is to say, about the rate of breast wheels of the usual varieties. "The expenditure of water in fig. 2, with the internal action is sensibly independent of the greater or less reaction of the wheel. In fig. 1, with esteraal action this cannot take place on account of the 3^6 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [AtTGUST, countor pressure arising from the formation of an eddy in the interior ; but this counter pressure is however much less than might be sup- posed. I have demonstrated that when a fluid forms an eddy in the interior of a cylinder, the effects of the centrifugal force show them- selves differently according to the different inclinations of the projec- tions or orifices made on the circumference. " In No. 1 Ibe orifices are disposed in the direction in which the cen- trifugal force can least influence the expenditure of wafer. Thus the coefficient of theoretical expenditure due to the work, during the ex- periments on the turbine, which I constructed at Bourges, has been found very little different from that which agrees with the openings of ordinary sluices disposed so as to avoid contraction on three of the sides. The wheel which turned in work, with about half the velocity due to the fall, and the coefficient was 0-70 to 0-79." Explanation of the engravings of Passot's turbine, a, b, c, fig- 5, plan of the wheel. A, B, C, fixed base of cast iron. M, N, cover act- ing as a sluice to regulate the expenditure of water, p, q, block of wood carrying the step of the arbour or shaft. E, V, male and female screw serving to regulate the cover by means of the rod T, t, passing through the hollow shaft. L, I, lever to raise the whole motive system by means of the pivot. M. Poncelet adopting an arrangement the reverse of that of M. Fourneyron, has proposed a system of turbines of the nature of the horizontal wheels used in the centre and south of France. The water enters by a spout placed on the outside, stretches the vanes, and is discharged by two openings made towards the centre. M. Cardelhac has constructed at Toulouse turbines on this plan, and Messrs. Mellet and Sarrus, of Lodeve,have exhibited one with the same arrangement. The principal part of their turbines consists in a case of particular form, provided with three openings, of which one is for the water to enter, and the two others to allow it to escape after its action on the wheel. In consequence of the spiral form of this casing, the water arrives on the wheel placed in the interior without any shock, and with a velocity due to half the height of the fall. Each of these veins or streams of water acts at the same distance from the axis, as if it were isolated and independent of the other ; its velocity is transformed into pressure by insensible degrees, and without any loss of power. Messrs. Mellet and Sarrus have already put up several of these tur- bines in the South of France with good results. They come cheap, one for an ordinary grist mill costs 40/., one of 12 or 20 horse power, well finished, and of good material, 120/. There was at the exposition another hydraulic machine, which the maker, M. de Lamolere/ calls a piston wheel. This machine receives water like a breast wheel. The water brought by means of a plung- ing fan, falls into a bucket, where it stretches a wooden valve, fitted with leather. It passes through this valve, which is followed by a second also. These successive valves turn horizontal shafts, which then give movement to the factory. Steam Engines. It is noticed that the specimens of steam engines exhibited were more remarkable for variations of form Ihau for novelty of principle. We shall proceed to describe them in their natural order, considering first the furnaces. Heating Apparatus. M. Arnoux exhibited a furnace for burning the poor coals of the north of France, using a jet of steam of four atmospheres forced through a hole about an Jth of an inch in diameter into a passage about two or three inches in diameter, so as to increase the draft in the engine chimney. In the steamers on the Upper Seine M. Cochot has greatly increased the draft of the boiler, and consequently the produc- tion of steam in a given time, by means of jets in the chimnies. M. Wissoc, C. E., exhibited a hollow bar grating, having, more- over, a double bottom so disposed as to send into the interior of the fireplace all the heat which otherwise would be lost in the ash-pit. Messrs. Galy-Cazalat, Martres, and Montaigut, also exhibited eco- nomic gratings, which have been a good deal employed. M. Sorel exhibited, under the name of slide grate, a contrivance adapted to the fireplaces of boilers, in order to cleanse them instanta- neously. This is a kind of iron harrow, which with straight teeth cleanses the grates underneath. To obtain forward, backward, and side movements the apparatus is suspended by means of a lever, and can be moved in any direction. The Minister of Marine has directed this to be tried in the navy. Boilers and Safety Valves. M. Durenne exhibited a highly finished locomotive boiler. A number of safety valves were exhibited to prevent explosions in steam engines. They were generally floating ones, to indicate the quantity of water in the boiler. M. Bourdon exhibited a water level indicator, of various forms, with an alarm whistle, one of them is shown in the annexed engraving ; it consists of a small column mounted on the top of the boiler with a flat circular box of cast iron. In the interior is a lever, to the extremity of which is hooked a wire suspending a float, the other end of this lever is adjusted on a steel spindle, with an index fixed on it exter- nally corresponding with the lever, pointing to a graduated arc to in- dicate the level of the water within the boiler ; on the top of the column is an alarum whistle to notify when the water has become too low for safety. Three indicators of this kind are applied on the great boilers of the steam engine at Marly. Messrs. Destigny and Langlois exhibited a clock work governor, which also gives the alarm in case of danger by ringing a bell. M. Bernard, of Rouen, had a similar one. A great number of the usual knick knacks in the way of safety valves were exhibited. Self-regulaiing Expansion Slide Valve. M. Farcot has improved the self-regulating expansion slide valve of Mr. H. H. Edwards (given in our Journal, Vol. VI. p. 49j. The principal improvement consists chiefly in using two slides instead of one. This is a description of the plan. The principal means of distribution is the slide valve A, (fig. G, plate XIII.) on which are placed two slide plates dd, pierced with several openings correspond- ing with other openings made in the back of the valve and communi- cating with the chambers b b. When the openings of the slide plates are put opposite to the openings in the back of the valve the steam enters the steam passages b b, and can reach the passages o o, which open into the piston when they are uncovered by the alternate move- ment of the slide valve A. The slide plates dd, are carried along with the valve, so long as they are not stopped, either by the guide rods//, which touch the extremity of the steam chamber 6, or by the brackets i i, when they meet the tappet c. The length of the guide rods //, is calculated so as to place the openings in the slide plates opposite those in the valve, each time that the latter, in its alternate movement arrives at the end of its course. The tappet c, fig. 7, is a double cam 1844.1 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 337 which, according to its angular position, catches sooner or later the brackets i i, and consequently intercepts sooner or later the communi- cation of the steam passages 6 b with the steam chest and also with the steam cylinder. It is therefore by varying the position of the double cam that the duration of the expansion is varied. In order that the lengths of introduction may be equal on each side of the piston, independently of the obliquity of the cams which transmit its motion, the curves of the two sides of the double cam are not alike, they are made expressly for each side of the piston. When the steam piston is ready to begin its stroke, the valve is at five-tenths or half of its course, and can no longer continue to carry one of the brackets i i, of the slide plate d d, towards the double cam c, than during the latter five-tenths of the stroke, which correspond with the first five-tentlis of the stroke of the steam piston. If then the openings of the steam passages b b are not closed at five- tenths of the stroke of the piston, the steam will enter the whole time, and the piston will move without expansion. It is only then in five- tenths, that by means of the slide valve represented in fig. 9, that the expansion can be varied. This latitude is quite enough for the greater number of engines when they are required to be worked to economize fuel. To vary the expansion during the whole course of the stroke of the piston, it must be also during the whole course of the stroke of the piston that the brackets i i move towards the double cam e, and con- sequently the slide valve which carries them. This effect is produced by the arrangement fig. S, where the expansion is made by two slide valves. The slide valve A' begins its stroke at the same time as the piston, by means of an eccentric placed at right angles to the eccen- tric which regulates the first slide valve A, as the slide valve of fig, G. The arms of the double cam c are so formed as to produce equal introductions on each side of the piston. The two slide plates and the •two slide covers with several openings easily allow the steam to pass, which can thus reach the piston at a pressure very near that of gene- ration. They rapidly intercept the passage at the moment when the expansion is required to begin. They allow the expansion to be varied by hand or by the governor during the progress of the engine. The lengths of introduction which they procure are at will equal on each side of the piston, or unequal, if regard is had to the surface lost by the piston rod. In fine, by means of the superimposed slide valves, fig. 7, the two slide plates or the two slide covers can introduce from 0 to 19 — 20, and if more rapid closings are required than those given by the circular eccentric, it is obtained by means of eccentrics with bosses. Circular Expansion Valve. Messrs. Cail and Derosne exhibited a circular steam valve which permits the expansion to be varied in such a manner as to regulate the expenditure of steam proportionally to the resistance. The fol- lowing are the details in reference to the engraving Plate XIII. Fig. 10, vertical section of part of the cylinder and of the circular valve, a, disc of the valve to regulate the entrance of the steam into the cylinder; 6, valve; c, vertical rod for turning the valve ; rf, valve seat; f, valve box or case ; f, passage to top of the cylinder; g, pas- sage to the bottom of cylinder; k, eduction pipe ; /, steam orifice, and Ic, eduction orifice, both communicating with the passages y and g; I, small axis, having on the lower part a pinion working into a toothed quadrant on the t Norman, decorated and perpen- dicular styles, th;it instead of being confined to cathedrals and colle- giate churches, advantage has been taken of the parish churches in the country, often little known and perhaps not generally accessible, but which frequently afford valuable lessons. Thus in the ten plates, we find the names of the churches of Orpington, Sutton at Hone, and Northfleet, in Kent, Chesham Bois, and Chenies, Bucks, St. Alban's Abbey, St. Michael's, Herts; Wallham Abbey, Essex; Basingstoke and King's Worthy and Natelev, Hampshire. In each case we find plans and ample sections of the mouldings, and generally every in- formation which can be useful or acceptable to the practical architect or enlightened amateur. 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. THE NEW PALACE AT WESTMINSTER, Mr. Barry's Report rpspectin;/ the Localities in the New Houses of Parlia- ment which may be adapted for the reception of Works in Sculpture. Ill the Report which I made to the Commission in February 1843, (See Journal, Vol. VI. 1843, p. 173,) I maile mention of all those portions of the interior of the New Palace where, in my jndgment, painting and sculpture could, with propriety and effect, be united witli the architecture of the build- ing; and, having reconsidered the subject, I am still of opinion that the union of the three sister arts could not be satisfactorily carried to a greater extent within the building than I then expressed. I may, however, mention that, in addition to the statues of royal and military personages, which I re- commended to be placed in the niches forming part of the architectural de- coration of the several halls, those of eminent men of this country who have at various periods distinguished themselves in the advancement of art, science, and literature, but whose services have not hitherto been specially recorded by any public acknowledgment, might form part of the series. The following is an enumeration of the niches provided for such purposes in the several parts of the building : — In Westminster Hall, 12 ; in the Vic- toria Gallerv, 106 ; in the Queen's Porch, 4 ; in the House of Lords, 18 ; in St. Stephen's Hall, 12; in the Central Hall, 68; making altogether 220 niches, averaging seven feet in height. Those in the Victoria Gallery, Queen's Porch, and House of Lords, might be of bronze gilt, but in order to avoid false lights and effects, the gilding should be matted or imhnrnished. In the other parts of the building above adverted to, the statutes might be of co- loured marbles, in harmony with the prevailing tone and colour of the architectaral decorations. With respect to monuments which may hereafter be decreed by Parliament to be erected at the public expense, to the memory of not only those eminent men who have distinguished themselves in the civil and military services of their country, but also of those who have promoted its honour and advantage in the cultivation and advancement of art, science, and literature, no building can, in ray opinion, with greater propriety or effect, be appropriated for their reception than the Palace of the Legislature, whose site is hallowed by the most interesting historical recollections connected with it from the most re- mote periods. Such monuments might be arranged with considerable effect, both within the building, as well as in the New Quadrangle, which I have already suggested as an addition to it, on the site of the New Palace Yard ; and in order that due importance and effect may be given to them, they should not, in my opinion, be confined by, or form part of, the architectural arrangement of the design of the interior ; but should be wholly detached from the walls, and be restricted either to the statues of the men they are designed to commemorate, or simply to mural monuments and tablets, with likenesses of the deceased in the form of busts or medallions, with suitable inscriptions ; but all allegory, and its absurdities, should be carefully avoided. Within the building, the monuments should be exclusively confined to statues, which might be so arranged in the respective halls, as to accord with the degree of eminence of the men they are designed to commemorate ; the Central or Octagon Hall being reserved for the most eminent. In the Quadrangle, statues might be placed in front of the buttresses of the budding on each of its four sides, and mural monuments and tablets placed under an arcade to be formed on two of its sides. Monuments thus placed, although in the open air and constantly open to the public, might, from being within the precincts of the palace, be placed under such a con- stant and efficient supervision, as would preserve them from defacement or injury. In order to avoid discordancy, and a want of proper degree of sym- metry in the statues generally, I would propose, that they should all be of the heroic size ; that their pedestals should he of the same height and nearly of the same bulk; that monumental simplicity and breadth of treatment should he prescribed for the statue ; and that all the pedestals should be de- signed upon the same general principles, as to composition and style : but with a view of avoiding a monotonous repetition, they should lie varied in design according to the taste of the artist, and be enriched with historical bas-reliefs, illustrating any 'mportant events that it might be deemed expe- dient to record in the life of the individual in whose honour the monument is erected. The statues should invariably be of bronze, on account of the imperishable nature of that material ; those on the exterior of the budding might be left of the natural colour of the metal, but in the interior, where the light will be much subdued, I would recommend that they should be coated with matted or unburnished gold, as being best calculated to render the statue most effective, and allow of its being seen to the greatest advan- tage. The pedestals might he of Purheck marble, or of some other lime- stone of equal hardness and depth of colour ; and those in the interior of the budding should be polished. The sculpture upon the pedestals might be executed either in the stone of which they are made, or in tablets of bronze securely fixed to the stone-work, which should be gilt or left of its natural colour as suggested for the statues, according to the situation of the monu- ment, whether placed internally or externally. The principle which I would adopt for the location of the monuments generally, is that of confining them to such portions of the budding only as might at all times, without inconvenience, be open to the public, under pro- per and efficient control, and such regulations as might be deemed expedient. This principle, and the amount of accommodation that could be provided for public monuments, as well as their arrangement, is illustrated in the accom- panying plan ; by which it appears that Westminster Hall might contain 58 statues; St. Stephen's Hall, 10 ; the Central or Octagon Hall, 24 ; the Cor- ridors leading to the Houses of Lords and Commons, 20 ; and the Public Corridors and Waiting Rooms connected with the Committee Rooms, 69 ; making in all, accommodation for 187 statues. The Crypt of St. Stephen's Chapel, which is proposed to be restored, and to which convenient access will be made from Westminster Hall, would also afford accommodation for about 14 monuments. The Cloister of the Chapel, which is also to be restored, and will be con- nected with the Hall and the Crypt, might afford accommodation for 13 statues, placed externally ; and a surface of wall for mural monuments and tablets, under cover, 330 feet in length, and 20 feet in height. The accom- modation in the proposed Quadrangle on the site of New Palace Yard, would he for 56 statues ; and for mural monuments and tablets, under cover, a sur- face of wall 36!) feet in length, and 16 feet in height. Thus the entire number of public monuments that the building and its quadrangles could accommodate would be, in isolated monuments or statues, 270; and in mural monuments and tablets, about 400; or in the whole, 670 monuments of all kinds. In Westminster Abbey, the number of monuments of all kinds, forming a collection commenced (with a few exceptions) from the end of the thirteenth century, amounts to 3r)7 ; of which 03 are table and other monuments, with figures in a recumbent or devotional attitude; 15 are isolated statues in an erect position ; 98 are mural monuments, with sculp- ture for the most part allegorical; 122 are tablets with inscriptions onlv ; 20 are busts ; 8 are brasses let into the pavement ; and 31 consist of table monu- ments, slabs, and stones, with sculpture either decomposed or defaced to such an extent as to be nearly obliterated. A very few of these monuments have been erected at the public expense. In St. Paul's Cathedral, the number of monuments, being a collection of the last fifty years, amounts to 43 ; of which, 14 are isolated statues of the men they are designed to commemorate ; 5 are historical reliefs ; 3 are partly historical and partly allegorical ; and 21 consist wholly of allegory. Of this number, those which have been erected at the public expense amount to 36. From the above statement of the existing monuments in St. Paul's Cathedral and in Westminster Abbey, it may safely be inferred, that the accomujoda- tion afforded by the New Palace of Westminster, for public monuments alone, would suffice for ages to come : and if the feeling which now very generally prevails in favour of the exclusion of all monuments from places set apart for divine worship, which, from their character, are not calculated to excite in the mind of the beholder emotions of piety and devotion, (in which number would be included, above 200 in Westminster Abbey, and with two exceptions, the entire collection at St. Paul's Cathedral,) should ultimately lead to their removal, the New Palace of Westminster might afford accom- modation for those of a public character, either in the open arcades, or in galleries to be provided above them in the proposed additional quadrangle, on the site of the New Palace Yard. But whether this removal and trans- fer of monuments should or should not ultimately take place, it might per- haps be worthy the consideration of Parliament, whether it would not be advisable, both for the sake of encouraging Art, and evincing a renewed and grateful remembrance of services rendered to their country, to order statues to be erected in the New Palace of Westminster, at the public expense, to the memory of a certain number of the most eminent of its public characters and benefactors of bygone times, in order that a collection of monuments, to the memory of all whom the country delights to honour, may be at once com- menced, and he ever after maintained and increased within the walls of one and the same public edifice. Extract from the Report of the Committee appointed to examine the Localities in the New Houses of Parliament which max/ be adapted for the Reception of Works in Paintinij and Sculpture. Your Committee, to whom was referred the duty of conferring with the architect, and examining the plans of the approaches and halls connected with the New Houses of Parliament, and of reporting to the Commission their opinion as to those localities which might be most .idvantageously selected with reference to position, space and means of lighting, for the re- ception of works of art in painting and sculpture respectively; and, further, of reporting, as the progress of decoration must necessarily be gradual, in what order of succession the localities above referred to should be selected for the purpose, and what particular mode of decoration would be best suited to each : Have the honour to report that they have conferred with the architect, and have examined the plans and actual state of the edifice intended for the ac- commodation of the Houses of Parliament, with a view to the objects of the inquiry committed to them, and thereupon have to submit the following statement : — The Landing Hall of the Royal Staircase will be 32^ feet by 30 feet, and the height to the point of the groining 23 feet 6 inches. It will be lighted by two windows on the north side of the hall, 11 feet C in. high, by 6 feet 4 in. wide, and 8 feet 6 in. from the floor. There will be three panels for painting (ending in pointed arches) on the east, west, and north sides, 4 feet from the floor, 11 feet wide, and 18 feet 3 in. high to the point of the arch. The Guard-room will he 38 feet square, and 30 feet high. It will be lighted by four windows on the south side, 15 feet 6 in. high and 4 feet wide, and 3 feet 3 in. from the floor. There will be panels or margins round doors on the north, east, and west sides. The height of the margin (on each side to the top of the door) wdl be 12 feet by 2 feet 10 in., and the upper hori- zontal portion will be 15 feet long by 2 feet 10 inches. There will be six 330 ^THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [August, doors 80 surrounded with panels and six sets of margins. There will be also eight lunettes (above the horizontal margins, and above the windows), with pointed heads, 14 feet 8 in. wide by 8 feet high to the point of the arch. The Kobing-room will he 38 feet by 33, and 23 feet high, the ceiling being flat. It will be lighted by four windows on the south side, the same size and height from the floor as in the Guard-room. The throne, to be placed opposite two doors from the Guard-room, will be 7 feet wide. There will be seven panels 8 feet from the floor; the height of all will he 10 feet 6 in. ; the several widths will he as follows : — Of three on the west side, one will be 9 feet wide, and two will be 4 feet wide. Two on the east side will he 14 feet wide. Two on the north side will be 10 feet wide. If a cove, first proposed, where the walls and ceiling meet, were done away with, a frieze 3 feet high, extending round the whole circuit of the room, might be painted or adorned with bas-reliefs. The Victoria Gallery will he 130 feet long, 45 feet wide, and 48 feet high. It will be lighted by windows on the east and west sides, eight on each side. Thev will be 19 feet high and 10 feet wide, and 23 feet from the floor. There will be seventeen panels for pictures, all 10 feet high. Thirteen will be 12 feet wide, and four at the ends will be 9 feet 6 in. wide. They will be 8 feet from the floor. The buttresses, or piers, in the Victoria Gallery are angular, presenting two faces, with niches in each, so that statues placed in them would be almost turned back to hack. Before the angles of the piers insulated statues might be placed. The base of the statues in the niches would be B feet from the ground. The utmost width of the niches in the Victoria Gallery wiU be 22 inches, consequently, statues placed in them should he strictly architectonic. If insulated statues should be introduced in front of the piers they might he more freely treated, and might, if required, he about 8 feet high ; the architect thinks that they should be at a height of not less than 5 feet from the floor. At the north end of the Victoria Gallery, on the east and west sides, will be two lobbies. There will be one panel in each 7 ft. 6 in. wide by 12 feet high to the point of the arch. There will also be two lunettes in each, with pointed heads, 7 ft. 6 in. wide by 5 feet high (to the point), and 1 1 feet from the floor. These panels and lunettes will be lighted from the gallery. In the House of Lords there will be 18 niches 7 feet high. 12 windows proposed to he ornamented with stained glass, and carved work for the throne, and for one large and two small doors. The width of the niches (about 2 feet only) being inconsiderable in pro- portion to tlieir height, as usual in Gothic buildings, your committee are of opinion that statues placed in them should be strictly architectonic in their style and treatment. There will be three panels at each end, with pointed heads, 9 feet wide, and 15 feet high to the point ; they will be 26 feet from the floor. These panels the architect now thinks might be filled with paintings, and as the windows are proposed to be ornamented with stained glass, he is of opinion, that the luminous and unshining surface of fresco would be best adapted. In the Central Hall there will be 68 niches for statues, and, if required, 24 insulated statues on pedestals. The Corridor, leading from the Central Hall to the House of Lords, will be 15 ft. 9 in. wide, and 21 feet high. It will be lighted by windows, east and west, 12 ft. 6 in. from the floor. There will be eight panels for painting 9 ft. 4 in. wide by 7 feet high, they will he 4 ft. 3 in. from the floor. There may be 10 insulated statues on pedestals. the Corridor, leading from the Central Hall to the House of Commons, is similar in all respects. Of the Waiting Halls (one on the same floor as the Central Hall, &c., the other on the floor above), the upper will he 33 feet square, and 22 feet high. It will be lighted by four windows, on the north and west sides, 14 ft. 6 in. from the floor. There will he eight panels for pictures (.two on each side) 8 feet high, and 5 ft. 7 in. wide. They will be 4 feet from the floor. The dimensions of the lower Waiting Hall are 33 feet square, and 22 feet high. It will not contain any panels for pictures. Beyond the lower Wait- ing Hall a surface, at present occupied by decorative sculpture, might afford a good panel for painting. N.B. The Waiting Halls and Corridors above mentioned will be always open to the public. St. Stephen's Hall will be 92 feet long, and 55 feet high. It will be lighted by 10 windows, on the north and south sides, 25 feet high, 11 feet wide, and 22 feet from the floor. There will be five spaces for pictures, on each side, 15 feet wide, 12 feet high, and 8 ft. 9 in. from the floor. There will he one panel, with pointed head, at each end of the Hall, for painting, 16 feet high, 10 feet wide, and 29 feet from the floor. The Conference Hall, in the centre of the river front, on the principal floor, will he 53 feet long, 27 feet 6 in. wide, and 20 feet high, It will be hghted on the east side by three windows 16 feet high, 6 feet 4 in. wide, and 3 feet from the floor. There will he a space for painting on the west side 53 feet long by 10 feet high, and 7 feet 6 in. from the floor ; and space for painting, on the north and south sides, 27 feet 6 in. long, 10 feet high, and 7 feet 6 in. from the floor. There will be four spaces for pictures on the east side 10 feet high, two being 10 feet wide, and two 4 feet wide, and 7 feet 6 in. from the floor. The smaller corridors generally will he 10 feet wide. The panels for painting will be 4 feet 6 inches from the ground. The height of the panels will be 6 feet ; the length may be of considerable extent. At the ends of 8«cb corridors, above doors, there will be several panels for painting or sculp. ture 7 feet 6 in. wide by 5 feet 6 in. high. They will be lighted from the side windows. From the limited distance from which the spectator can see paintings in J the smaller corridors, your Committee are of opinion that the spaces are not | adapted for important decorations. The architect has stated, that considerable extent of surface may be appro- priated for painting in the Committee-rooms on the river front, which are very numerous, and when unoccupied, might be open for the admission of the public daily. They are of various, but all of large, dimensions ; they are not less than 20 feet high, and are lighted from the east by either two or three windows of ample dimensions. Your Committee are of opinion that these rooms, being subordinate parts of the building, cannot, with propriety, be employed for the reception of works in the higher departments of art. The same observation is applicable to the refreshment-rooms, which might possibly be ornamented in an appropriate manner. In inspecting the present state of the building your Committee remarked, that the architect has taken the precaution, recommended by the Commis- sion, (17th March, 1843,) of interposing a layer of asphalte op the horizontal surface of the walls, between the ground floor and the superstructure, with a view to intercept the ascent of damp. Your Committee also observed, that in order to protect the hack of paintings from damp, the architect has sunk the panels, intended for the reception of paintings, several inches in the wall, so as to allow of the introduction of a hydrofuge cement, as a ground-work for the preparation on which the pictures are to executed. . Your Committee cannot but acknowledge that they have experienced some I disappointment at finding the extent of surface available for painting in fit situations not so great as they could have hoped. In the best situation, the Victoria Gallery, the panels are only 12 feet by 10, the width of the Gallery being 45 feet. As figures would require to be larger than nature to produce a due effect, even from a lesser distance, it follows that a space of 12 feet is not adapted for any extensive composition. In St. Stephen's Hall the spaces for painting being 15 feet long, and the width of the Gallery 30 feet, the objection is less strong; but it may he re- marked, that at a distance of 30 feet, the eye can conveniently embrace a painting 20 feet long. The design of St. Stephen's Porch, and the adjacent portions of the build- ing, are not sufiiciently matured to enable Mr. Barry to say whether any spaces will be available for paintings in those situations. Extract from the Report of the Committee appointed to inspect the Works of Decorative Art exhibited in King-street, St. James's, in April aad May, 1844. Y'our Committee have examined the specimens of Arabesque-painting, of Mosaic, of Marquetry, and of Casting in Brass and Iron, which have been sent in by persons desirous of being employed in the embellishment of the Houses of Parliament. They have recorded their judgment on the comparative merit of many of the works in question : hut for the reasons specified in the Report of this Committee on the specimens of Carved Wood and Painted Glass, they have thought it expedient in general to enumerate the names only, without further distinction, of the exhibitors whose works have received the commendation of the Committee. In the department of Arabesque-painting the artists so noticed in the de- tailed Report of the Committee are Mr. Collmann, Mr. Goodison, and Messrs. F. and J. Crace. In the department of Mosaic Pavements the exhibitors so noticed in the detailed Report of the Committee are Messrs. Singer and Co. Messrs. Minton and Co., Mr. Milnes, and Messrs. Chamberlain and Co. ; and in Marquetry, Messrs. Austin and Rammell. In the department of Ornamental Metal -work the exhibitors so noticed in the detailed Report of the Committee are Messrs. Messenger and Sons, Messrs. Bramah and Co., and Mr. Abbott. Among the Decorative Painters, Mr. Johnson did not comply with the terms announced in the notice put forth by the Commission, and his name has, therefore, not been inserted in the foregoing Ust ; it is, however, the opinion of the Committee that the specimens which he has sent evince con- siderable taste and ability. Mahon. B. Hawes, JnN. CoLBORNE. George Vivian. T. B. Macaulay. Thomas Wvse. Whitehall, May 17, 1844. The Commissioners, having had reason to suppose that some of the persons who have exhibited works of decorative art may have employed other hands, or even the assistance of foreigners, in the execution of such works, have re- solved that those persons who may be selected for employment in those branches of decoration shall, if the Commissioners think fit, be required to produce specimens of their art, to be completed under such conditions as the Commissioners may think necessary. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 331 PUBLIC WORKS AT AND NEAR LIVERPOOL. Probably there are no places in the kingdom, not even excepting the me- tropolis, where a larger amount of money is in process of expenditure in the construction of public works tlian there is at this moment in Liverpool and Birkenhead. Almost in every direction on both banks of the Mersey huge preparations meet the eye ; and, without entering into details, which would necessarily occupy much space, some idea of their extent may be gathered from an outline of the expenditure. In some of the following items the es- timates include the cost of land. In Liverpool there are the following works now in progress : — Assize Courts (corporation), cost 80,000/. ; New Gaol (corporation), cost 100,000/.; Albert Dock and Warehouses (dock com- mitti^e), G00,0OU/. ; New North Dock Works, including land and junction with Leeds Canal (^dock committee), 1,500,000/.; reservoirs, Green-lane, and corresponding works (highway commissioners), 50,000/.; Industrial Schools at Kirkdale (select vestry), 30,000/. ; Gas Extension (New Gas Company), 140,000/. ; Shaw-street Park (private shareholders), 2,500/. ; making a gross total of 2,500,000/. All this is, of course, independent of many other works, some in progress and others in contemplation, with prospects of almost im- mediate commencement. Amongst those in progress may he reckoned Prince's Park, now forming by Mr. Richard Vaughan Yates, at the south end of the town; the New Presbyterian Church in Myrtle-street; the Female Orphan Asylum, the Catholic Female Orphan Asylum; the New Northern Hospital (towards which Mr. W. Brown recently contributed 1,000/.) ; St. Martin's Schools, the Catholic Magdalen Asylum at Much Woolton, and St. Mary's Catholic Church, in Edmund Street. Besides other works in contem- plation, we may mention the Daily Courts, on the site of Islington market (now discontinued) ; the intended additional railway tunnel to the north end of the town, by the Liverpool and Manchester RaUway Company ; an addi- tional merchandize station for the Grand Junction Railway Company ; the en- largement of the Lime-street terminus ; and some improvements on the Bridgewater property. These various works altogether will probably absorb not less than anotlier million. So that, in the whole, between three and four millions of money will have to be raised and expended before the va- rious present designs for the promotion of charity, the convenience of com- merce, and the improvement of the town, are completed. But, if much is going on in Liverpool in this way, more, in proportion to population and means, is doing on the Cheshire side of the water, at Birkenhead. Here indeed a town is rapidly rising, which will not be excelled in useful or orna- mental elements by any place in the kingdom ; and the progress of which, in buildings, as well as inuabitants, during the last four or five years, has been unprecedented. The magnitude of the public works in progress at Birken- head may be inferred from the following abstract, which is taken from the estimates: — New Market (Commissioners), 20,000/.; Town-hall (Commis- sioners), 10,000/. ; Park (Commissioners), 25,000/. ; Docks in Wallasea Pool (Commissioners, as trustees), 400,000/. ; Dock Warehouses on the margin of Wallasea Pool (private company), 600,000/; Tunnel from Monk's Ferry to Grange-lane (Chester and Birkenhead RaUway), 20,000/.; making a gross to- tal of 1,075,000/. ; and, further, a proposal has been made, which is now un- der the consideration of the Finance Committee of the Liverpool Corporation, to buy the freehold of all their Wallasea estate, and pay for it in ready money! Besides the works named as being in progress, a cemetery and in- firmary are contemplated, to which may be added a design for the erection of one or more churches. On the two former we believe it is intended to expend about 15,000/, In tnese items we have said nothing about the sums being expended in sewerage and laying mains for water and gas ; they are very large, and in this present year they will exceed any of the past. After these statements, it will be admitted, we thiuk, that there are very few, if any, places where the progression in works of a public nature is greater than in Liverpool and Birkenhead ; and that, if there is any rivalry between them, it should only be as to which shall best accommodate the public. — Manchester Guardian. niXSCKX.I.ANSA. Two Rudders.— M'e have for somo time noticed and much admired tlie two new iron steam-vessels bui!t by Mr. John Laird, of Birlienlie:i(l, and now plyipg with pas- sengers between Liverpool and Woodside. The "Queen" and the " Prince" are each about 110 feet in length, 22 feet beam, and have engines of tlO h. p. They are of hand- some model, and sit on thewateron an even keel; each tud.when they are stationar>', repre- sents a line bow with a sharp projecting cutwater — a portion of which, within the outer edge is a moveable door that may be instantly loosened to act as a rudder, or firmly fixed (when that end becomes the bow) by means of a dropping bolt, so as to complete and make good, even to a nicety of joint, the thin after portion of the cutwater. The great advantage over all previous plans of two rodders, and we believe only one or two single boats have been built with two rudders {in which each rudder was left naked and unpro- tected), is that the outer edge of each bow-formed extremity, or cutwater, is of standard iron, sufficiently strong to avert the consequence to the rudder, of the cable getting athwart liause, of a bump, or running foul of any floating object, a pier or the like— which was generally fatal to the rud.Ier in tlie former plans,— and at the same time not so thick as to act to any conceivable extent as a stop-water when that end becomes the stern, and it stands abaft the rudder like a stancheon or outer stern-post. In the old plans the rud- der, which became the cutwater, was liable to be carried away on a slight concusasion with any object, or even hy the sea throuph which it was forced. In the present plan the outer-standing part of the cutwater evidently not only protects it from the first of these casualties, but ploughs a way for it, so that it is less liable to be thrust from side to side, or carried away in a sea-way, a danger which is, of course, increased by the velocity of the ship. Mr. Laird, therefore, very appiopriately denominates this main feature of his in- vention (for which he has taken out a patent) "a guard."—* Liverpool Standard.' The New Building Act has at last passed into a law, as we have already- occupied many pages of our Journal on the subject, during its progress through parlia- ment this and last year, we must refer our readers, who may be desirous of understanding the nature of the act, to the act itself} it is far too long for us now to attempt an abstract. The Royal Kxchangk and the City.— The Royal Kxchnnge is gradually getting out of the hands of the workmen. The sculpture has been placed in the portico, and the figure of Commerce in the centre of the relief is bold and striking, though the other figures are rather ambiguous. The motto on the base of the statue of Commerce is appropriate, " The tfarth is the Lord's and the fullness thereof;" but on the frieze the barbarism has been allowed of placing a Latin inscription recording the foundation of the original building in the time of Elizabeth, and its reconstmction in the reign of her present Majesty. The coats of arms, boldly sculptured, are also placed In their respective posi- tions. The encaustic painting, by Prince Albert's German minion, Herr Sang, is ad- vanced, and the shops are being fitted. The pavement is said to be better laid with regard to effect than has been the practice of late years. The Mercers' Company, part proprietors of the Royil Exchange, have at last thought of having their own hall put in a respectable condition, and the chambers and gateways In front of Merchant Tailors' Hall promise another improvement in the neighbourhood of the Exchange. The Gresham Club begins to show itself, and preparations for placing the King William statue are in a forward state. A Terra-Cotta Church. — Near BoHon-le-Moors a beautiful church lias recently been built, entirely of terra-cotta— burnt clay— inside, outside, tower, and base- ment, all of the same materials. A correspondent says—*' The church is situated about a mile from Bolton, near the Haugh (called the Hutf). It is built of a kind of fine clay, found near the spot, between the beds of coal, in Mrs. Fletcher's mines ; it is subjected to a great pressure, and then burnt. The colour is rather good — a kind of tawny. The situation, too, is very pretty. The architecture (by Sharp, of Lancaster) is very florid Gothic— too much so, perhaps, for the form of the arches, which cannot be of ar much later date than Edward Hi. ; but I speak doubtingly. The interior is enormously deco- r^^ted— the roof of dark stained oak ; the floor is of tile, inlaid with numbers of crosses ; the steps of the communion encaustic tile; and all other matters to match. The seats are open, not formed into pews. The building, which, I believe, is not yet dedicated, forms a lovely object in the landscape." — ' Liverpool Mercury.' The Admiralty have issued orders to build, by contract, two second-rate iron steam-frigates— one to work with paddle-wheels, and the other to have a screw pro- peller. They are each to be 2U3 feet in length, 37 feet in breadth, about 1,3U0 tons burden, and .^00 horse power.—* United Service Gazette.' Large Rolling Mill in America.— The * Danville Democrat' says that the , Montour Iron Company are about erecting, at that place, a new rolling mill, which will be the largest and most extensive establishment of the kind in the United States, and which will probably cost iUO,000 dollars. It is calculated that it will turn out annually about 10,000 tous of manufactured iron, a large portion of which is to be railroad iron ; it will contain twenty-two puddUng furnaces, consume all the iron manufactured at three furnaces of the same company, give employment, directly and indirectly, to about 500 hands, and is to go into operation early next spring. Iron Trade. — We learn, from an official return, that the iron trade on the continent has been rapidly extending, and that the following is vary nearly the relative proportion of the pig and bar iron manufactured in the ditterent States :— Prussia, 199 furnaces, worked with charcoal, employ 8,674 workmen, and produce about 120,000 tons of cast iron, equal in value to 730,000/. Wrought iron, in bar and plate, is made at .038 forges, employing 6,041) workmen, and producing "3,000 tons, of the value of 230,000^. Bavaria, 44 furnaces, producing 9,000 tons of cast iron, and 141 forges, producing 5,750 tons of wrought iron. U'urtemberg, (),400 tons of cast, and 2.500 tons of wrought iron. Grand Duchy of Baden, 7,000 tons of cast, and 4,750 tons of malleable iron. Sixony, 7,500 tons of cast, and 4,650 tons of wrought iron. Electorate of Hesse, 4,150 tons of cast, and 000 tons of malleable. Grand Duchy of Hesse, 7,150 tons of cast, and L',400 tons of malleable. Duchy of Nassau, 14,330 tons of cast, and 1,300 tons of bar iron, and 2.375 tons of different other sorts of iron, in bars, cast and wrought iron work. Duchy of Brunsivick, 2,150 tons of cast, and 7,180 tons of wrought iron, or work in cast iron. United States of Saxe Weimar, Eisenach, Saxe Meiningen, Aohalt, Scharzbourg, Hohenzollern, Sigmaringen, Reuss, Waldeck, produce 4,035 tons of cast, and 2,240 tons of bar iron, or works in cast iron. German Luxemburg, 7,700 tons of cast iroa. Total production of the States of the Zollverein— cast iron, 11*1,156 tons ; wrought iron, or works in wrought and cast iron, 107,324 tons. In proportion to the population these quantities are not great, since it amounts to about loi lb. for each person throughout the Confederation. In France where this manufacture is yet but imperfectly developed, it amounts to above 221b. ; in Belgium it is about 361b. ; while in England it is as high as 55 lb. to .^6 lb. for each per- son. All, or nearly all, the Zollverein Stales are engaged in the iron manufacture. — * Railway Chronicle.' A " New Rig." — Mr. H. Dempster, of Kinghorn, the inventor of the '• new rig," left Berwick-upon-Tweed, by himself, in his famed model yacht, the ' Problem,' late in the evening of the 31st of July, to steer for Newcastle-upon-Tyne; and although he had neithar compass, chart, light, nor even a pump on board, still, in the dark, he passed in- side of the Fern and Coquet Island, and arrived here early next morning. Such a voyage in so small a vessel, must sp«ak in favour of his expeiiment. The advantages of i\Ir. Dempstei 's invention, which he has published, are as follow :— The * Problem' is capable of being made to turn round, as if on a pivot, without tven a sail being altered— attention to sliilting of the helm when she takes a siernway, beiug alt that is necessary to perform the evolution. The vessel can, with ease, be propelled stern foremost, and tacked or wore in that direction. The fore and aft triangle-sails go round without touching a mast. It is in these sails where the principal advantage rests in the rig. Under them a vessel pro- perly managed, will never miss stays la the heaviest sea, or in the h'ghest wind. They are well constructed for lying. to, backing, tilling, or box hauling: and it is his opinion that these two sails may be applied to the largest size tishir.g boats, particularly those that from their size are incapable of being rowed, but aie obliged to set and haul their lines under sail. The hull of the vessel is angular, being 120 degrees at the central point below. ^ — ' Newcastle Advertiser.' Windsor Castle. — It has just been determined by Her Majesty's Commis- sioners of Woods and Forests to takedown the old and dilapidated houses in the Lower Ward of Windsor Castle, the residence of the Military Knights, and known as the Lower Foundation. It is in contemplation to form a noble terrace on the site of these houses, to be open to the public, atfording extensive and highly picturesque views over St. Leo- nard's and the Great Park. It is also in contemplation, we understand, to restore the Salisbury Tower, agreeably to the original plans of the late Sir Jeffry Wyatvilie, and aa they were approved of by George IV. When this has been accomplished it will afford a convenient residence for three of the military Knights on the Lower Foundation. The remaining two knights on that foundation will have apartments provided for them at the upper end of Henry VI H's. gateway. No one unacquainted with the locality of the Royal residence can form an idea of the splendid view which will be thrown open from the upper grounds of the Castle by these arrangoments being carried into effect. It is hoped that amongst other improvements, the unsightly and ruinous Horse-shoe cloisters will be razed to the ground, so that the terrace may be extended beyond the Bell-tower. It will then only remain to restore the Garter-tower, in order to effect one of the greatest improve, mtnis ever produced in this portion of the erections connected with the Castle. Several of the houses in Thames-street (portions of which are built over th6 old ditch of the Cas- tlej have been recently purchased by the Crown, and the materials sold. The whole of the remainder of the houses on the Castle side of the street will also be purchased as soon as the necessary arrangements are made, from time to time, with the owners of the pro- perty, by the CommlsBiouers of Woods and Foresti. The northern and eastern terracea will then be extended round the Caatle. 332 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [August, A Momtment to the Memory of the late Dr. Southey is about to be ereclefl in the Cathedral of Bristol, from the design of Mr. Baily, the sculptor. We perceive, by ilie "Western Advertiser," that at a public meeting held for the purpose of riiisine subscrip- tions, soint* objections vverp made to the design, as it was considered to lie inapplicalde for a Gothic structuro.it was ultimately agreed to leave the nature of the monument to future consideration. A suggestion has been made, which we consider a very excellent one, that every thinp ot an architectural character should be suppiessed, and that the whole be merely sculptural, a simple statue on a i)lain pedestal, to be placed near the entrance of the old Lady Chapel, or against one of the piers of the Navi- of the Cathedral. Railways and Canals. — In the appendix tn a s-ralcment issuod on !if-hulf of the Grand Canal Company of Ireland, in the matter of the proposed railway to Cashel, there are given some curious details as to the effect of railways on canal jn'operty. Thus the Gianil Junction Canal, which forms the tirst ilO miles of water cotnmunictttion lietwctn London and Birmingham, had, in the three years imm»di:'tely preceding the opening of the railway, an annual revenue from tolls, ranging from .i 174,71'- to .^198.000, regularly increasing. Since the railway was fully in operation, tins revenue has variud from ^121,l;i9 to ^li;^,012. The Rochdale Canal is 'Si miles lung-, and throughout the entire distance the Manchester and Leeds Railway runs parallel lo it. In the three ^ oars pre. vious to the opening of the railway, the tolls ranged fr«m ^t 6li,0o9 to ^%^9,2<'>8 ; in the last three years they have varied from i'31,.W3 to £27,\i>f*. Tl eKennetand Avon Canal, and the Wilts and Berks Canal, are both ailected by the Great At'estern Railway, and the tolls of the former have fallen since the railway was opened, from 4(^7037. to :\2fiAhl., and of the latter, from 19,32rf/. toH,477/. The Forth and Clyde Nnvigation has gone down from 62,.51f;;. to 42,218;., and the Union Canal, which connects Edinburgh with the Forth and Clyde Canal, has had its net profits reduced by railways from 13,100/ to 4.284/. '1 he market price of canal stock has, of course, suffered in proportion. Thus, shares in the Grand Junction Canal have fallen from 330/. to 148/. per share; Warwick anl Birming- ham, from 330/. to 180/.; Worcester and Birmingham, from 84/. to 5fj/.; Kennet and Avon, from 25/. to 9/. ; and Rochdale, from 150/. to i;i^/. ; while Coventry Canal shares, which at one time were as high as 1,200/. per share, have fallen as low as 3l.'>/. A Bridge of a novel and magnificent description, or ratlier a doubl>' brid;ie. one over the other, it is said, is about to be thrown over the Rhine, at Cologne. It will have twenty-five arches ; and its extreme height will be 141 feet above the shores. The lower bridge will carry a railroad, to connect the Berlin and Cologne line with the tei minus of the Rhenish railway. The ujiper bridge will be for other carriages, horsemen, and foot- passengers. In that part of the piers which extends between the two bridges, cannon will be placed, for the double purpose of breaking up the ice on the river, and defending the city. Extraction of Palladium in Brazil. — Tlie exlrnction nf palladium, from the auriferous sand of Brazil, consists in fusing it with silver, and consequently, forming a quaternary alloy of gold, palladium, silver, and copper, which is granulated by project- ing it into water. By treating this alloy with ni!ric acid, the gold is separated iVora the Other metals which are soluble in the acid; the silver is precipitated by a solution of com- mon salt in the state of insoluble chloride, which beinp separated, the copper and palla- dium are precipitated by plates of zinc. The pulverulent dejiosit of these metals is redis- solved in nitric acid, and the solution precipitated byexce.-sof amn:onia, which re-dis- solves the oxide of copper and of palladium. When the animoniacai solution of these metals is saturated with hydrochloric acid, a double chloride of palladium and ammonia is deposited in the state of a crystalline yellow powder, and this, when calcined in a cruci- ble, is readily decomposed, and leaves spongy palladium. — mining Journal. Market M'eston Chlrch. — We have much pleasure in brinf^inir to the no- tice of our readers a successful application of science in restoring to a perpendicular posi- tion the north wall of Market Weston Church. The church is supposed to have been erected in the fourteenth century. From age and casualties the n(trth wall had declined outwardly 19 inches from the perpendicular, and threatened the utter destruction of thf buildiniT. Under the superinteTidence of Mr. Cottingham this wall (the weight of wliich had been calculated at 240 tons) has been brought up to the perpendicular, by the process of expanding by heat three bars of iron, 2^ inches in diameter, which traversed and con- nected both walls of the church. These bars (which had screws worked on one end of them and projected beyond the south wall) were inclosed in cast iron boxes filled with lighted charcoal. When the bars were fully expanded by the heat, the screws were wound up firmly to the undamaged south wall. The charcoal boxes were then removed, and the process of cooling commenced. Gradually the bars contracting equally with their pre- vious expansion, compelled the whole mass of the wall to tbllow the irresistible power now exerting itself, and in four successive operations the whole wall rose to its original perpendicular.— Bury Post. Daguerrf.otype Pl.\te EsGRAViNfi — At the Varis Academy of Sciences, a paper from M. Fizean was read on some experiments made with a view to obtain photo- graphic designs on pajicr from a daguerreotype |)late engravfd by chemical means, hhe problem consists in .icting upon the duguej ii^itype imprt-ssiond I'y un agent which eats into the dark parts, without affecting the light parts of the plate; or, in other words, which attacks the silver in presence of the mercury, without iffecting the latter. A mixed acid, composed ot nitric, nitrous, and chloridic acids, has thii property. The operation should be performed with the aid of heat. The formation of ^he chlorure of silver, which is an insoliible salt, would soon check the action of the acid, if it were not removed by an ammoniacal solution. After this first process, the plate wo.dd be engraved loo slightly for gooi' impressions to come otf ; the plate is therefore rubbid over with llnseed-oil, and then wiped, so as to leave the oil only in the hollow parts. The prominent parts are then gilt by the galvanic process, and the reliels being protected Ly gold, the hollow parts can be deepened at the will of the operator. ExPi-osioNS IN Powder Mills.— ^I. Vergnaml is if opinion that these ex- plosions are not ]>roduced by sparks from the crushing ol the silex, but by electrical sparks resulting from peculiar circumstances, which he prjpuses to investigate. Ice. — As we arc henceforlh to have this cooliny,' Uixury regularly supplied to us, and its great superiority, both in clearness and thitkness, over the home article (owing to the precarious nature of our winteis and other causes) is acknowledged by all who have tried it, a short notice of its uses, the manner of keeping it, and of cutting and securing it in America, may prove interesting. Ice has becone a threat article of export in America. Sixtv thousand tons are annua ly sent from Boston to southern parts, the East and West Indies, &c.; and as saw-dust is solely used in packing, a large trade is also carried on in that article. The ice-houses, near the lakes and ponds, are immense wooden buildings, capable of holding 10,000 to 20,000 tons each ; some ot them, indeed cover half an acre of ground. They are built with double walls,— that is, with an inner wall all round, two feet from the outer one ; and the space between is filled with saw-dust, —a non-conductor— making a solid wall, impervious to heat and air, and of 10 feet in thickness. The machines employed for cutting the ice are very beautiful, and the work is done by men and horses, in the following manner: — The ice th»t is intended to be cut is kept clear of snow, as soon as it is sufficiently ihick to bt ir the weight of the men and horses to be employed, which it will do at six inches ; and the snow is kept scraped from it until it is thick enough to cut. A piece of ice is cleared of t,000yRars an entire circle of about 50 degrees in diametej. Newton divined that that power emanated from the action of the sun and the moon on matter, which in the equatorial regions arose above a sphere of which the centre would agree with that of the earth, and would have for a radius a line brought from that centre to one of the poles; thus he made the precession of the equinoxes depend on the flattening of the globe, and declared that on a spherical planet no precession would occur. That was true, but Newton did not arrive at the mathematical proof. Now that great man had introduced into philosophy the just and severe rule — "do not believe anything for true until it is demonstrated." The demonstration of the Newtonian ideas on the precession of the equinoxes was therefore a great discovery, and to D'Alembert belongs the glory. That illustrious inatheraatician has given a complete explanation of the general movement, in virtue of which the axis of the terrestrial globi; returns to the same stars in 2t5,000 years. He has connected to witli attraction the perturbation of procession found out by Bradley, and the remarkable oscillation in- cessantly undergone by the axis of the earth during its progressive movement, and of which the period, about eighteen years, is exactly equal to the time that the intersection of the orbit of the moon and the ecliptic, employs to go through the 360 degrees of the entire circum- ference. Mathematicians and astronomers have been quite as ftiUy occupied, and with reason, with the form and physical structure that the terres- trial globe may have had at the earliest epoch, as with the form and structure of the actual globe. When our fellow-countrymen Richer had discovered that a body, whatever its nature, weighs the less as it is further transported to the equinoctical regions, every one perceived that the earth, if it were originally fluid, must be puffed out at the equator. Huygens and Newton did more ; they calculated the differ- ence of the great and little axis, and the excess of equatorial diameter over that of the polar. Huygens founded his calculation on the hvpo- thetical and totally inadmissible properties of attractive force ; New- ton on a theorem which required to be proved. The theory of New- ton had a graver defect; it held the primitive and fluid earth to be in a state of complete homogeneity.- When, in endeavouring to solve great problems, we give way to such simplifications, when to avoid difficulty in calculating we wander so essentially from natural and physical conditions, the results belong to an ideal world, and are nothing more than frolics of the mind. To apply analysis in a profit- able manner to determine the figure of the earth every idea of homo- geneity had to be got rid of, and every obligatory likeness between the forms of the superimposed and unequally dense layers ; the case of a central kernel had also to be examined. This generalization made the difficulty tenfold, but did not however impede Clairaut and D'Alem- bert. Thanks to the endeavours of these two powerful mathemati- cians, thanks to a few essential developements due to their imme- diate successors, and particularly to the illustrious Legendre, the the- oretical determination of the figure of the earth has acquired the desired perfection ; and complete accord prevails between the calcu- lated results and those of direct measurement. The earth has there- fore been originally fluid, and analysis has enabled us to go up to the infancy of our planet. In the time of Alexander, comets were with the greater part of the Greek philosophers simple meteors, engendered in our atmosphere. The middle age, without taking any trouble about their nature, made prognostics from ihem, and signs forerunning sinister events. Regio- mentarius and Tycho Brahe placed them by their observations beyond the moon; Hevelius,Doerfel,&c.,made them go round the sun; Newton laid down that they move under the immediate protective influence of that body, that they do not describe right lines but obey the Kep- lerian law. It required to be proved that the orbits were closed curves or that the earth sees the same comet on many occasions. This dis- covery remained for Halley. By carefully collecting in the recitals of historians and chroniclers, and in astronoinical annals, the circum- stances of the a[jpearances of all the more brilliant comets, this inge- nious savant pointed out by subtile and profound discussion that the comets of lliSi!, I(i(l7, and 1531 were in truth successive appearances of one and tlie same star. This identity led to a result from which more than one astronomer drew back — that the time of an entire cometary revolution varied much, and that the variation might go from two years to seventy-six. Were such great differences attribut- able to perturbations caused by planetary action? The reply to this question would bring comets into the category of ordinary planets, or lor ever keep them out. It was difficult to be calculated, but Clairaut found out the means of eftecting it. Success might seem doubtful, but Clairaut gave proof of the greatest boldness, for in the course of 175S be undertook to determine the period in the following year when 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 333 the comet of 1082 would re-appear; lie marked out the constellations and stars which it would meet in its career. It was not one of those long-winded predictions which astrologers and other fortune-tellers formerly very cl^-verly combined with the tables of mortality, in such way as not to be put to the lie in their own lifetime ; the event was to happen, and it concerned nothing less than to create a new era in cometary astronomy, or to cast on science a discredit from which it would for a long while suffer. Clairaut found by very long and learned calculation that the action of Jupiter and Saturn ought to retard the movement of the comet; and that the duration of its entire revolution, compared with the pre- ceding, would be augmented 518 days by the attraction of Jupiter and 100 by the attraction of Saturn, being a total of (518 days, or more than a year and eight months. Never did any astronomical question create a more lively or more natural interest; every class of society awaited the re-appearance foretold with equal anxiety. A Saxon labourer, Palitszch, was the first to see it. From that moment, from one end of Europe to the other, a thousand telescopes nightly marked the points of the path of this star among the constellations. The path was always within the limits of calculation, that which Clairaut had laid down beforehand. The prediction of the illustrious mathematician w as accomplished both in time and space ; astronomy had made a great and important gain, and with the same blow beat down, as often happens, a vile and inveterate prejudice. From the time when it was laid down that the return of a comet may be foretold and calculated, these bodies finally lost their former prestige. The most timid men felt as little trouble about them as about the equally calculable eclipses of the sun and moon. The labours of Clairaut had therefore in the end, and with the public, yet more good fortune than the learned, in- genious, and witty arguments of Bayle. The firmament offers to reflecting minds nothing stranger or more remarkable than the equality of the mean angular movements of revo- lution and rotation of our satellite. On account of this perfect equality the moon presents always the same side to the earth. The hemi- sphere which we now view is precisely that which our forefathers viewed at the most distant epochs, and the same which our children's latest offspring will observe. The final causes used with so little re- serve by certain philosophers to account for a great many natural phe- nomena were in that particular case without possible application. How could we in fact pn'tend that men could have any interest what- ever in incessantly looking at the same halfspherc of the moon, and never looking at the other halfsphere? On the other hand a perfect mathematical equality between elements without necessary connection, such as the movement of translation or rotation of a given heavenly body did not less shock the idea of probability. There were besides two other numerical coincidences quite as extraordinary ; an identical orientation, relatively to the stars, of the equator and orbit of the moon, and movements of precession of these two planes exactly equal. '1 his aggregate of singular phenomena, discovered by J. D. Cassini, constituted the mathematical code of what was called the libration of the moon. The libration was yet a vast and very melancholy lacun.i in physical astronomy, when Lagrange made it depend on a circum- stance in the figure of our satellite not observable from the earth, when he completely combined it with the universal principles of gra- vitation. At the time when the moon solidified, she took under the influence of the e.irth, a form less regular and less simple than if any foreign attractive body had been in proximity. This action did not prevent the lunary equator from being everywhere swelled out, but prominence of the equatorial diameter turned toward the earth, be- came four times more considerable than that of the diameter, which we see perpendicularly. The moon would then exhibit to an observer situated in space and who could examine it transversely, a body elon- gated towards the earth, like a pendulum without a point of suspen- sion. When a pendulum is moved from verticality, the action of gravity brings it back, and when the great axis of the moon departs from its habitual direction, the earth equally compels it to return. Here then is that strange phenomenon thoroughly explained without referring to an equality in some kind miraculous, between two move- ments of rotation and translation entirely independent. Men will never see more than one side of the moon. Observation had taught ui this, now we know moreover that it is owing to a physical course, calculable and visible only by the eye of the mind; that it is owing to the lengthening experienced by the diameter of the moon, when that star passed from the liquid to the solid state under the attractive in- fluence of the earth. If originally a little difference had existed be- tween the rotary and revolving movements of the moon, the attraction of the earth would have brought these movements to a rigorous equality. This attraction would in like manner have sufficed to get rid of little want of coincidence between the lines resulting from the intersections of the lunary equator and orbit with the plane of the ecliptic. The work in which Lagrange connected with so much good fortime, the laws of libration to the principles of universal gravity, so capital in its matter, is not less remarkable in its form. After having read it, every one will comprehend that the term "elegance" may be applied to a mathematical treatise. We have been content in this analysis to glance over the astronomi- cal discoveries of Clairaut, D'Alembert, and Lagrange ; we shall be rather less concise in speaking of the works of Laplace. After having enumerated the multiplied powers, which must result from the mutual action of the planets and setellitcs of our solar system, Newton, the Great Newton, dared not to undertake to grasp their whole effects. Amid the labyrinth of augmentations and diminutions of speed, of variations of form in the orbit, of changes of distances and inclinations which these powers would evidently produce, the most learned geo- metry itself would not have found out a firm and faithful guiding clue. This extreme complication gave birth to a discouraging thought. Powers or forces so numerous, so variable in position, so different in intensity, did not seem able to maintain their balance but by a kind of miracle. Newton went so far as to suppose that the planetary system did not contain in itself elements of indefinite conservation ; he be- lieved that a powerful hand must intervene from time to time to repair the disorder. Eular, although more advanced than Newton in the knowledge of planetary perturbations, did not any more admit that the solar system was so constructed as to last eternally. Never did a greater philosophical question present itself to the curiosity of men. iLaplace attacked it with boldness, constancy and good fortune. The profound and long continued labours of that illustrious mathematician, established on firm evidence, that the planetary ellipses are perpe- tually varying; that the extremities of their great diameter traverse the heavens, and that independently of an oscillatory movement, the planes of the orbits sustain a displacement, by the effect of which their traces on the plane of the terrestrial orbit are every year directed toward different stars. Amid this apparent chaos there is one thing which remains constant, or which is only subject to small periodical changes, and that is the great axis of each orbit, and consequently the period of revolution of each planet; and that is the quantity which should most have varied according to the learned preconceptions of Newton and Euler. The universal gravitation suffices for the preservation of the solar system ; it maintains the forms and inclinations of the orbits in a mean state around which the variations are slight; the variety does not produce disorder, and the world exhibits harmonies and perfections which Newton never conceived. That depends on circumstances which calculation disclosed to Laplace, and which on cursory inspec- tion would not appear to exert so great an influence. For planets moving themselves in the same direction, in orbits of slight ellipticity, and in planes little inclined to each other, substitute dirterent condi- tions, and the stability of the world will be put in question anew, and in all probability a fearful chaos would ensue. Although since the labours to which we have referred, the indura- bility of the great axes of that planetary orbits may have been better demonstrated, that is to say, by means of more extension in analytical approximations,^ it does not the less remain one of the admirable dis- coveries of the author of the Mecanique Celeste. Dates on such sub- jects are not a luxury of erudition: the paper in which Laplace com- municated his results on the invariability of the mean movements or of great axes is of 1773; it was in 1784 only, that he deduced the stability of the other elements of the system, of the small mass of the planets, the slight ellipticity of their orbits, and the similitude of direction in the circulatory movement of these stars around the sun. The discovery of which I have just given an account, no longer allowed us, at least in our solar systenj, to consider the Newtonian attraction as a cause of disorder ; but was it impossible that other powers might combine with that and produce the gradually increasing perturbations which Newton and Euler feared? Positive facts seeiu to authorize such fear. Old observations as compared with the modern revealed a continual acceleration in the movements of the moon and of Jupiter ; a diminution not less manifest in the movement of Saturn. From these variations resulted the strangest conclusions. From the presumed causes of these perturbations to say of a star that its velo- city increased from age to age, was to declare in equivalent terms that it came nearer to the centre of movement. The star on the contrary would depart from that same centre, when its velocity slackened. Thus, singularly, our planetary system seemed destined to lose Saturn," its most mysterious ornament ; to see that planet accompanied by the ring and seven satellites, gradually buried in the unknown regions, where the eye armed with the most powerful telescopes has never 3 On this subject may be consulted two beautiful papers by Lsgrange and Poisson. ■' Then regarded as Its outermost member,— Translator. 2b* 336 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September, penetrated. Jupiter, on the otlier hand, that globe by the side of wliicli (lur's is so trifling, would have gone by an inverse march and involved itself in the incandescent matter of the sun ; men would at last have seen the moon throw itself on the earth. Nothing doubtful or systematic entered into these sinister forebodings. Uncertainty could only affect the precise dates of the catastrophes. It was how- ever known that they would be very far off': so that neither technical dissertations nor the animated descriptions of certain poets interested the public. It was not so wilh learned societies. There they viewed with regret our planetary system on the road to ruin. The Academy of Sciences called the attention of mathematicians of all countries to these threatening perturbations. Euler and Lagrange entered the arena. Never did their mathematical genius throw brighter lustre; however the question remained undetermined. The inutility of such efforts seemed to leave room for resignation only, when from two ob- scure corners, contemned by analytical theory, the author of the Me- canique Celtsle, clearly raised the laws of those great phenomena. The varying velocity of Jupiter, Saturn and the Moon had thencefortli evident physical causes, and returned to the category of common per- turbation, periodical and dependent on gravity, while the so much dreaded changes in the dimensions of orbits became a simple oscilla- tion, kept within very narrow limits, in tine by the almightiness of a mathematical formula, the material world was made firm on its base. I cannot leave this subject without at least naming the elements of our solar system, on which depend the variations of speed, of the Moon, Jupiter and Saturn, so long unexplained. The bulk of the movements of the earth around the sun is effected in an ellipse of which the form on account of perturbations is not always the same. Those changes of form are periodical ; sometimes the curve without ceasing to be elliptical, approaches the circular, and sometimes departs from it, according to the oldest observations the eccentricity of the terrestrial orbit has diminished from year to year ; hereafter and later it will increase within the same limits, and according to the same laws. Now Laplace has proved that the mean circul.itory speed of the moon around the earth is connected with the form of the ellipse described by the earth around the sun ; that a diminution in the eccen- tricity of this ellipse inevitably produces an augmentation in the speed of our satellite and reciprocally ; and in hue that this cause is enough to account numerically for the acceleration in its course, which the moon has exhibited from the earliest times down to our epoch. The origin of the inequalities of speed in Jupiter and Saturn will, 1 hope, be as easy to conceive. Mathematical analysis has not suc- ceeded in representing by finite terms the value of the disturbances which each planet encounters in its orbit by the action of all the others. This value exhibits itself in the present slate of science under the form of an indefinite series of terms, which rapidly diminish in extent as they are removed from the first term. In calculation we neglect those of the terms, which by their rank, correspond with quan- tities below errors of observation, but there are cases where the rank in the series, does not alone determine whether a term may be great or small ; certain numerical relations between the primitive elements of the disturbing and disturbed planets may give to terms, generally negligible, sensible values. This case occurs in the perturbations of Saturn originating with Jupiter, and in the perturbations of Jupiter originating wilh Saturn. There exists between the mean velocities of these two large planets, commensurable simple relations ; hve times the velocity of Saturn very nearly equals twice the velocity of Jupiter, terms which without this circumstance, would have been very little, acquire considerable value. Thence results in the movements of the two stars, inequalities of a long period, perturbations, the complete development of which requires mure than "JUU years, and which won- derfully represent all the contradictions disclosed by observers. Are we not surprised to find in the commensurability of the movements of the two planets so influential a perturbing cause, and to find it de- pendent on this numerical relation; "five times the movement of Saturn is nearly equal to twice the movement of Jupiter," the defini- tive solution of an immense difliculty which the genius of Euler had not been able to overcome, and whicli left it in doubt whether univer- sal gravitation was suflicient to explain the phenomena of the firma- ment? The delicacy of the conception and its results, are in this case equally worthy of admiration. We have just explained how Laplace demonstrated that the solar system can only sustain slight periodical oscillations around a certain mean state. Let us now see, in what manner he succeeded in deter- mining the absolute dimensions of the orbits. What is the distance ot the sun from the earth? No scientific question has occupied men more. Mathematically speaking nolhing is more simple; it is enough as in surveying to take from the ends of a known base visual lines to the inaccessible object ; the rest is an elementary calculation. Un- lortunately in the case of the sun the distance is great, and the bases which may be measured on the earth, are very small. In such case slight errors of sight exercise enormous influence over the results. In the beginning of the last century Halley remarked that certain in- terpositions of Venus between the earth and the sun, or to employ a consecrated expression, the passages or transits of the planet over the solar disc, would supply every observatory with the indirect means of fixing the position of the visual ray, much superior in exactness to the most perfect direct methods. Such was the occasion in 1761 and 1769 of the scientific voyages in which, without speaking of Europe, France was represented in the Isle of Rodriguez by Pingrc, in St. Do- mingo by Fleurieu, in California by the Abbe Chappe, and at Pondi- cherry by Legentil. At the same time England sent out Maskelyne to St. Helena, Wallis to Hudson's Bay, Mason to the Cape of Good Hope,Capt.Cook to Tahiti, &c. The observations in the Southern hemi- sphere, compared with those in Europe, and particularly with the ob- servations, which Father Hell, a famous Austrian astronomer, went to make at Wardhuus, in Lapland, gave for the distance of the sun, the result which has since figured in all the treatises on astronomy and navigation. No government hesitated to furnish learned societies with the means, at whatever cost, of suitably establishing their ob- servers in the most distant regions. We have already remarked that the determination of projected distance appeared imperiously to re- quire a great base, and that small bases would not have sufficed. La- place then solved this problem numerically without any sort of base ; he deduced the distance of the sun, from observations of the moon, made in a single and the same place. The sun is the cause of perturbations to our satellite, which evi- dently depend on the distance of that immense inflamed globe from the earth. Who does not see that these perturbations would diminish if the distance augmented, and on the other hand, would increase if the distance diminished; that distance in fact regulates the greatness of them. Observation gives the numerical value of these perturba- tions ; theory on the other hand developes the general mathematical relation which connects them with the solar distance and other known elements. When we have reached this term, the determination of the mean radius of the terrestrial orbit becomes one of the easiest algebraic operations. Such is the happy combination by means of which Laplace solved the great and celebrated problem of the parallax; thus did this ingenious mathematician find for the mean distance of the sun from the earth, expressed in radii of the earthly globe, a num- ber little different from that which had been deduced from so many laborious and costly voyages. According to the opinion of very com- petent judges, it might perhaps be that the result of the indirect method was worthy of the preference. The movements of the moon were to our great geometer a fertile mine. His penetrating gaze knew how to find out their unknown treasures. He cleared them from all that hid them from vulgar eyes, with a skill and constancy equally worthy of admiration. We shall be excused for quoting a new example. The earth governs the moon in its course. The earth is flattened. A flattened body does not attract like a sphere. There must therefore be in the movement, we had almost said, in the allure of the moon, a sort of impress of the terrestrial flatness. Such was at the first blush the thought of Laplace. It remained to be determined, and in that lay aU the difliculty, whe- ther the characteristic trails which the flattening of the earth would communicate to our satellite, were sensible enough, apparent enough not to be confounded with errors of observation; it was also requisite to find the general formula of this kind of perturbation, in order to be able, as in the case of the solar parallax, to extricate what was un- known. The ardour and analytical power of Laplace surmounted all these obstacles. At the close of a task which had exacted infinite at- tention, the great geometer found in the lunar movement, two per- turbations, clear and characteristic, depending on the terrestrial flat- tening. The former aft'ected the portion of the movement of our satellite, which is particularly measured by the instrument known in our observatories under the name of the meridian lunette; the second, developing itself nearly in a north and south direction, could only be manifested in observations by a second instrument, the mural circle. These two inequalities of very diflerent values, measured with two instruments entirely distinct, connected with the cause which produced them by the most different analytical combinations, have however led to the same flattening. The flattening thus deduced from the move- ments of the moon is not, it must be well understood, the particular flattening corresponding with such or such country; the flattening ob- served in France, England, Italy, Lapland, North America, India or the Cape ; for the earth having suffered at various times and in various places, considerable elevations, the primitive regularity of its curve has been notably disturbed ; the moon, and that it is which renders the result inappreciable, should give and has effectively given the general flattening of the globe, a sort of mean between the various de- 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 337 terminations obtained with enormous expense, infinite labour, and by means of long voyages undertaken by the astronomers of all the coun- tries in Europe. I would add some short remarks of which the biisis is borrowed from the author of the JHccanique Celesle ; and which seem very pro- per to throw into relief, to bring into full light, what the methods of which I have just sketched the leading features, contain that is deep, unexpected or almost paradoxical. What are the elements which had to be put in parallel, to arrive at results expressed with the pre- cision of the smallest decimals? On the one hand, mathematical for- mulcB deduced from the principle of iiniversal gravitation; on tiic other certain observed irregularities in the returns of thi' moon on the meridian. An observer who from his birth had never left his closet, who had never seen the heavens except through the narrow north and south opening, in the vertical plane of which the principal astronomi- cal instruments move ; to whom nothing had ever been revealed con- cerning the stars moving above his liead, except that they attract each other according to the Newtonian law, would however by means of analytical science, have succeeded in discovering that his humble and narrow dwelling belonged to a flattened, ellipsoidal globe, of which the equatorial axis exceeded the polar and rotary axis by one three hundred and sixth ; he also, isolated and immovable, would have found his true distance from the sun. It is to D'Alembert that we must go up, as I have recalled in the beginning of this notice, to find a satisfactory mathematical explana- tion of the phenomena of the precession of the exquinoxes ; but our illustrious fellow-countryman, and Euler, also, whose selections came after that of D'Alembert, left completely on one side certain physical circumstances which however it would seem could not be neglected without inquiry. Laplace supplied this omission. He showed that the sea notwithstanding its fluidity and the atmosphere, notwithstand- ing its currents, both influence, the movements of the axis of the earth or the equator, just as if they formed solid masses adhering to the terrestrial spheroid. The axis around which our globe makes an entire turn every four and twenty hours, does it constantly pierce the terrestrial spheroid at the same material points ? In other terms the poles of rotation, which from year to year correspond to different stars, are they also displaced on the surface of the earth? In the aflirraative case, the equator is moved like the poles, the terrestrial latitudes are variable, no country, during the course of ages, will enjoy even as a mean, a constant cli- mate ; the most different regions may turn by turn become circum- polar. Adopt the contrary supposition, and every thing assumes a character of admirable permanence. The question which I have just raised, one of the capital ones in astronomy, can only be solved by single observations, so long as the ancient latitudes are uncertain. Laplace provided for this by analysis : the learned world was taught by the great geometer that no cause connected with universal gravita- tion ought sensibly to displace, on the surface of the terrestrial sphe- roid, the axis around which the world appeared to turn. The sea far from being an obstacle to the constant rotation of our globe around the same axis, would on the contrary bring back this axis to a permanent state, by reason of the mobility of its waters and the resistance which their oscillations encounter. All that I have said as to the position of the axis of the world must be extended to the duration of the move- ment, the rotation of the earth, which is the unity, the true standard of time. The importance of this element led Laplace to seek nume- rically whether it was affected by internal circumstances such as earthquakes and volcanoes. Need I say that the result was in the negative. The admirable work of Lagrange on the libration of the moon seemed to have exhausted the matter, it was not however so. The movement of revolution of our satellite around the earth, is subjected to perturbation and inequalities, styled secular, and which were un- known to Lagrange, or neglected by him. These inequalities in the long run place the star, without speaking of whole circumferences, at a half circumference, or a circumference and a half from the position which it would otherwise occupy. If the rotary movement did not participate in such perturbations the moon in the course of time would successively present to us all the parts of her surface. This event will not happen, as the halfsphere of the moon now invisible will be invisible for ever. Laplace has shown indeed that the earth by its attraction, introduces into the rotary movement of the lunar spheroid, the secular inequalities which exist in the revolving movement. Such researches show the power of mathematical analysis in all its bril- liancy. Synthesis would have led very difficulty to the finding out of truths so deeply hidden in the complicated actions of a multitude of forces. We should be unpardonable if we forgot to place in the first rank, among the works of Laplace, the perfecting of the Lunar Tables. This perfecting, in truth, had for its immediate end the rapidity of distant maritime communications, and that which is of infinitely greater value than any mercantile consideration, the preservation of seamen's lives. Thanks to unparalleled sagacity, unbounded perseverance, and ardour always youthful and influential on his able fellow labourers, Laplace solved the problem of the longitude, more completely than any had dared to hope in a scientific point of view, more exactly than the nautical art requiri'd in its greatest refinement. The ship, the play- thing of the winds and storms, has no longer to fear being left adrift in tlie immensity of the ocean. An intelligent view of the starry sphere will teach the pilot, everywhere and always, what is his dis- tance from the meridian of Paris. The extreme perfection of the actual Lunar Tables gives to Laplace the right of being reckoned among the benefactors of mankind. In the beginning of llUl Galileo thought he found in the eclipses of the satehites of Jupiter a simple and rigorous solution of the famous nautical problem. Active negociations even were thenceforth commenced to introduce the new mode on board numerous vessels of Spain and Holland. The negotiations failed. From the discussion the evidence was obtained that the exact observation of the satellites would require powerful telescopes, and such telescopes could not be employed in a ship tossed about by the waves. The method of Gali- leo appeared at least to preserve all its merits on dry land, and to promise geography great improvements. These hopes were however found to be premature. The movements of the satellites of Jupiter are not nearly so simple as the immortal inventor of this method of taking the longitude supposed. It has required three generations of astronomers and geometers to labour with firmness in the di'terniina- tion of their strongest perturbations. It has required in fine that La- place should bring in the midst of them the torch of mathematical analysis to give the tables of these little stars all the precision, re- quisite and desirable. New nautical ephemerides give five or ten years beforeliand the indication of the hour at which the satellites of Jupiter will be eclipsed and reappear. The calculation does not yield in exactness to direct observation. In this group of stars considered apart, Laplace found perturbations analagous to those which the planets sustain. The promptitude of the revolutions reveals among them in a sufficiently short space of time changes which centuries alone would develope in the solar system. Although the satellites have a diame- ter hardly appreciable, even under the best telescopes, our illustrious fellow-countryman determined their masses. He discovered in fine in their movements, simple and extremely remarkable relations be- tween the relative positions of these little stars, and which are called the laws of Laplace. Posterity will not blot out this designation, they will think it natural that thi- name of such a great astronomer should be written in the firmament alongside of that of Kepler. Let us quote two or three of the laws of Laplace. If, after having added to tlie mean longitude of the first satellite the double of that of the third, we subtract from the sum triple the mean longitude of the second, the result will be exactly equal to ISO degrees, or half a cir- cumference. Would it not be really extraordinary if the three satel- lites should have been placed originally at distances from Jupiter, and in respective positions, which were constantly and rigorously to main- tain the before-named conditions '. Laplace replied to this question by showing that there is no occasion the law should be rigorous in the origin. The mutual action of the satellites must have led to the pre- sent mathematical state, if once the distances and positions complied with the law in an approximate maimer. This first law is equally true when the synodic elements are employed. It thence evidently results that the three first satellites of Jupiter can never be eclipsed at once. We see what we must believe as to a recent observation so much celebrated, and during which certain astronomers saw momen- tarily none of the four satellites around the planet. That in no wise authorises us to suppose them eclipsed : a satellite disappears when it projects itself upon the central part of the luminous disc of Jupiter, and also when it passes behind the opaque body of the planet. Another very simple law is this, to which are subject the mean movements of the same satellites of Jupiter. If we add to the mean movement of the first satellite double the mean movement of the third, the sum is exactly equal to thrice the mean movement of the second. This numerical conjunction, perfectly correct, would be one of the most mysterious phenomena of the system of the world if Laplace had not proved that the law could only have been applied at the origin, and that the mutual action of the satellites had sufficed to make it rigorous. The illustrious geometer, pushing his researches to their minutest ramifications, arrived at this result. The action of Jupiter co-ordinates the rotary movement of the satellites, in such manner that, without regard to secular perturbations, the duration of the rota- tion of the first satellite, plus twice the duration of the rotation of the 338 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [SEPTBMBSft, third, forms a sum constantly equal to thrice the duration of the rota- tion of the second. By a deference, modesty, and timidity, without any plausible grounds, our workmen, in the last century, had given up to the English the mo- nopoly of the construction of astronomical instruments. Thus let us openly acknowledge it, at the time when Herschel on the other side of the channel made his beautiful observations, there existed in France no means of following them and developing them ; we had not even the means of verifying them. Happily for the scientific honour of our country, mathematical analysis is a powerful instrument. Laplace provtd it so well that on a solemn occasion he foresaw from the depths of his study, and minutely announced, what the skilful astronomer of Windsor was going to see by making use of the largest telescopes which had ever come from the hand of man. When Galileo, in the beginning of 1610, directed toward Saturn a very weak telescope re- cently made by his own hands, he saw that this planet is only an or- dinary globe, without however being able to give an exact account of its real form. The expression tri-corpus, by which the illustrious Florentine philosopher summed up his reflections, implied an idea completely erroneous. Our fellow-countryman Roberval was much more hapjjily inspired ; but from want of having given a detailed com- parison of his hypothesis and his observations, he abandoned to Huy- gens the honour of being considered the anther of the true theory of the phenomena which this admirable planet presents. Everybody now knows that Saturn is composed of a globe ",)00 times larger than the earth, and of a ring. This ring does not touch the inner globe at any point, it is everywhere removed 20,001) miles. Observations carry the breadth of the ring to 30,000 miles. The thickness is certainly not 250 miles. Except an obscure streak, which, going through the whole extent of the ring, divides it into two parts of unequal breadth and dissimilar brightness, this strange colossal bridge without piers had never presented to the most experienced and most able observers either spot or pertuberancc capable of deciding whether it were im- movable or gifted with a rotary movement. Laplace considered that it was little probable, if the ring were immovable, that its constituent parts should resist, by their simple adherence, the attractive and con- tinual action of the planet. A movement of rotation suggested itself to his mind as the conservative principle, and he determined the re- quisite speed; the speed thus calculated is equal to that which Her- schel deduced later from extremely delicate observations. The two parts of the ring, being placed at different distances from the planet, could not fail to be affected from the action of the sun with different movements of precession. The planes of the two rings should thus, it seemed, be generally inclined to each other, while observation in- cessantly shows them confused together. It was then requisite that a cause should exist capable of neutralizing the solar action. In a paper published in Feb. 1789, Laplace found that this cause must be the flattening of Saturn, produced by a rapid rotary motion of that planet, of which Herschel announced the existence in August 1789. It will be remarked how the eye of the mind can, in certain cases, supply the most powerful telescopes, and lead to astronomical discoveries of the highest order. Let us descend from heaven to earth. The discoveries of Laplace will be found neither less important nor less worthy of his genius. The tides, that phenomena which an ancient in despair called " the tomb of human curiosity," have been, by Laplace, connected with an analytical theory, in which the physical conditions of the question figure for the first time. Thus calculators, to the great benefit of our maritime coasts, hazard themselves now in foretelling several years in advance the circumstances of hour and height of great tides, without any further disquietude as to the result, than if it concerned the phases of an eclipse. There exists between the phenomena of the flow, ebb, and alternative actions which the sun and moon exercise on the liquid stratum vfhich covers three quarters of the globe, an intimate neces- sary connection, in which Laplace, making use of twenty years obser- vations at Brest, determined the value of the mass of our satellite. Science now knows that 75 moons would be requisite to form a weight equivalent to that of our earthly globe, and this is due to the atten- tive and minute study of the oscillations of the ocean. We only know of one means of adding to the profound admiration which all attentive minds will doubtless feel for theories susceptible of such consequences. An historical quotation will supply us with it : we will recall that in 1G31, in his celebrated Dialogues, the illustrious Galileo was far from seeing the mathematical connections whence Laplace deduced such beautiful, such evident, and such useful results that he charged as intptia the loose conception of Kepler of attributing to lunar attrac- tion a certain part in the daily and periodical movements of the waves. Laplace did not confine himself to extending them so widely, to per- fecting in a manner so essential the mathematical theory of the waves ; he considered further the phenomenon under quite a new light; it was lie who first treated of the stability of the equilibrium of the sea. The systems of solid or liquid bodies are subject to two kinds of equili- brium, which must be carefully distinguished. In the former, in firm or stable equilibrium, the system slightly removed from its primitive ))Osition, incessantly tends to return to it. In the unstable equilibrium, on the other hand, a slight shock in the beginning may, in the long run, become enormous. If the equilibrium of the waves is of the latter kind, waves engendered by the action of the wind, by earth- quakes, and by sudden movements at the bottom of the sea, might, in the end, raise themselves to the height of the highest mountains. The geologist would have the satisfaction of seeking in these prodigious oscillations for rational explanations of a great number of phenomena, but the world would be exposed to new and terrible cataclysons. People may be comforted ; Laplace has proved that the equilibrium of the ocean is stable, but on the express condition, elsewhere estab- lished by certain facts, that the mean density of the liquid mass be inferior to the mean density of the earth. For the actual sea always remaining in the same state, let us substitute an ocean of mercury, and stability will have disappeared, and the liquid will frequently leave its bounds to devastate continents even in the snowy regions lost ill the clouds. Do we not remark how every :inalytical research of Laplace has shown, in the universe and in our globe, conditions of order and durability. It was impossible that the great geometer, who had so well suc- ceeded in the study of the ocean tides, should not study the tides of the atmosphere; that he should not subject to the delicate and defini- tive proofs of rigorous calculation, the opinions, generally spread, touching the influence of the moon on the height of the barometer, and on other meteorological phenomena. Laplace, in truth, has de- voted a chapter of his beautiful work to the examination of the fluc- tuations which the attractive force of the moon can effect on our at- mosphere. It results from these researches that at Paris the lunar flux measured on the barometer is nowise sensible. The value of this flux, obtained by the discussion of a long series of observations, has not exceeded two hundredths of a millimeter, (-nrmr of an inch,) a quantity inferior to those for which it is possible to answer in the actual state of meteorological science. The calculation to which I have just referred may be adduced in support of the considerations to which I had recourse in another article of the Annuaire, when I en- dpavoured to establish that if the moon modifies, more or less, accord- ing to its dirt'erent phases, the height of the barometer, it is not by attraction, No one w'as ever more ingenious than Laplace in laying hold of the relations and intimate connections between phenomena apparently ditt'erent; no on" showed more ability in drawing important conclu- sions from these unexpected comparisons. Toward the end of his days, for instance, he upset by a stroke of his pen, with the help of a few observations of the moon, the cosmogonic theories of Bulfon and Bailly, so long in vogue. According to these theories the earth moved towards an inevitable and approiiching congelation. Laplace, who never contented himself with a vague expression, endeavoured to determine by numbers the great speed of cooling in our globe, which Button had so eloquently, but so gratuitously announced. No- thing could be more simple, belter connected, or more demonstrative, than the chain of deductions of the celebrated geometer. A body lessens in its dimensions when it cools. According to the most ele- mentary principles of mechanies, a rotary body which contracts must inevitably turn faster and fast' r. Tiie day at all periods has had for its duration the time of the earth's rotation; if the earth cooled down the day must incessantly shorten. But there is a means of discovering whether the duration of the day has varied: it is to examine in cacli century what has been the arc of the celestial sphere which the moon has traversed during the time that the astronomers of the period called a day, during the time that the earth employs to make a revolution on itself; the speed of the moon being in truth independent of the duration of the rotation of our globe. Now take with Laplace, in known tables, the slightest values, if you like, of the dilatations or con- tractions to which solid bodies are subject from changes in tempera- ture ; then search in the annals of Greek, Arab, and modern astronomy to find the anguhir velocity of the moon, and the great geometer will from these data bring the invincible proof that in 2UU0years the mean temperature of the globe has not varied the hundredth part of a cen- tigrade degree. There is no efi'ect of eloquence which can resist the authority of a similar argument, the power of such figures. Mathe- matics have in all times been implacable adversaries of scientific romances. The fall of bodies, if it were not a phenomena of every moment, would excite justly, and in the highest degree, the astonishment of men. What is more extraordinary, indeed, than to see a mass inert, that IS to say deprived of wiil| a mass which can have no propensity 1844.1 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 339 to move in one direction more than anotlier, precipitate itself towards the earth as soon as it ceases to be upheld. Nature engenders the weight of bodies by ways so concealed, so much beyond the reach of our senses, and the ordinary resources of human intellect, that the philosophers who, in antiquity, thought they could explain everything mechanically, according to the simple evolutions of atoms, excepted weight. Descartes tried what Leucippus, Democritus, Epicurus, and their schools bad thought impossible. He made the fall of terrestrial bodies depend on the action of a wliirlwind of very subtile matter cir- culating around our globe. The real improvement which the illus- trious Huygens added to the ingenious conception of our fellow-coun- tryman were far, however, from giving clearness and precision to it, those characti'ristic attributes of truth. Those appreciate very ill the direction, tlie bearing of one of the greatest questions in which the moderns have engaged, who see Newton come forth victorious from a contest in which his two immortal predecessors had succumbed. Newton no more discovered the cause of gravitation than Galileo had done. Two bodies near each other approach. Newton did not seek the nature of the power which produced this eftect. The power exists, he calls it by the name of attraction, but with the warning that the term from his pen implies no fixed idea touching the mode of physical action, according to which gravitation arises and is brought into action. Attractive force once admitted as a fact, Newton follows it up and studies it in terrestrial phenomena, in the revolution of the moon, planets, satellites, comets, and, as we have already said, he pro- duces from this incomparable labour the mathematical, simple, and universal characters of the forces which preside over the movements of all the stars which compose our planetary system. The loud ap- plauses of the learned world did not prevent the immortal author of the Treatise on Natural Philosophy from hearing isolated voices pro- nounce, as the Decision of universal attraction, the words " occult qualities." This word made Newton and his most devoted and en- thusiastic disciples give up the reserve which they thought it their duty to observe. Then were banished to the class of the ignorant those who considered attraction as an essential property of matter, as the mysterious index of a sort of charm ; who supposed that two bodies could act upon each other without the intermediation of a third body : then this power became in every place either the resultant of the ertbrt made by a certain fluid (ether), to escape into the free regions of space, where its density is at its maximum, towards the planetary bodies around which it exists in the greatest state of rare- faction, or either the consequence of the impulse of some fluid medium. Newton never explained himself categorically on the manner in which an impulse, the physical cause of the attractive power of mat- ter, could arise, at least in our solar system. But we have now very strong reasons for believing that in writing the word impulse the great geometer was thinking of the systematic ideas of Varignon and Natio de Duillier, later restored and perfected by Lesage ; these ideas, in fact, had been communicated to him before publication. According to Lesage's ideas, there are in the regions of space corpuscles moving themselves in all possible directions, and with excessive rapidity. The author gave to these corpuscles the name of ultra-mondane cor- puscule. Their aggregate composed the gravific fluid, if, however, the designation of fluid could be applied to a collection of particles having no connection together. An unique body, placed in the middle of such an ocean of movable corpuscles, would remain in repose, since it would be equally pushed in every direction. On the other two bodies would move towards each other, for their regardant sur- faces would no longer be struck, in the direction of the line which would join them, by the ultra-mondane corpuscles ; for there would then exist currents of which the ett'ect would no longer be destroyed by counter currents. It is easily seen that two bodies placed in the gravific fluid would tend to approach, with an intensity which would vary in the inverse ratio of the square of the distances. If attraction is the result of the impulsion of a fluid, its action should employ a finite time in passing through the immense spaces which separate the heavenly bodies. The sun would then be suddenly annihilated, so that alter the catastrophe, mathematically speaking, the earth would still feel its attraction for some time. The contrary would happen on the sudden birth of a planet ; a certain time would transpire before the attractive action of the new star would be felt on our globe. Several geometers of the last century believed that attraction was not instantaneously transmitted from one body to another; they even gifted it with a very slight velocity of propagation. Daniel Bernouilli for instance, wishing to explain how the highest tide arrives on our coasts a day and a half after the syzygies, that is to say, a day and a half after the epochs when the sun and moon have been most favour- ably situated for the production of this magnificent phenomenon, admits that the lunar action employed all this time (a day and a half) in transmitting itself from the moon to the sea. Such a low velocity could not be made to agree with the mechanical explanations of the weight of which we have spoken. The explanation, indeed, impe- riously supposes that the proper velocity of the heavenly bodies is comparatively insensible to that of the gravific fluid. Before having found that the actual diminution of eccentricity in the earthly orbit is the real cause of the acceleration observed in the movement of the moon, Laplace, on his side, had sought whether this mysterious acceleration did not depend on the successive propagation of attraction. Calculation for a moment made the supposition plausi- ble. He showed that the gradual propagation of attraction would inevitably introduce into the movement of our satellite a per- turbation proportionate to the square of the time lapsed, beginning with any epoch ; that to represent numerically the results of astrono- mical observations, it would be by no means necessary to attribute to attraction low velocities ; that a propagation eight million times more rapid than that of light would satisfy all these phenomena. Although the true cause of the acceleration of the moon be now well known, the ingenious calculation of which I have just spoken does not the less preserve its place in science. In a mathematical point of view, the perturbation dependant on the successive propagation of attraction which this calculation points out, has a certain existence. The con- nection between the velocity and the perturbation is such that one of the two quantities leads to the numerical knowledge of the other. But by giving to the perturbation the maximum value which observa- tions allow when they are corrected by the known acceleration arising from the change of eccentricity in the earthly orbit we find for the velocity of the attractive force — fifty million times the speed of light. By recollecting that this number is a minimum limit, and that the speed of the luminous rays equals 200,000 miles per second, those philosophers who pretend to explain attraction by the impulse of a fluid, win see what prodigious velocities they have to satisfy. The reader will here again remark with what sagacity Laplace knew how to take advantage of the phenomena best adapted to throw light on the ardous questions of celestial physics ; and with what good fortune he explored them, bringing forth numerical conclusions before which the mind becomes confused. The author of the Mi'canique Citesle admitted with Newton that light is composed of material molecules of excessive tenuity, and gifted in free space with a velocity of 200,000 miles per second. However we must warn those who would take advantage of this im- posing authority that the principal argument of Laplace in favour of the system of emission was the possibility of subjecting everything in it to simple and rigorous calculation, while the undulatory theory presented to analysis, and still oilers immense difficulties. It was ma- terial for a geometer who had so elegantly connected with attractive and repulsive forces, the laws of simple refraction to which light obeys in the atmosphere, and of double refraction which it obeys in certain crystals, should not abandon this path before having raathema.. tically ascertained the impossibility of arriving in the same manner at plausible explanations of the phenomena of diffraction and polarisation. Besides the care which Laplace always took to push his researches as much as possible to numerical deductions will permit philosophers, who undertake a complete comparison of the two rival theories of light, to seek in the Mrcauique Cclesle, the data of many comparisons very striking and full of interest. Is light an emanation from the sun? does that star dart at every moment and in all directions, a part of its own substance? does it diminish gradually in mass or volume? The solar attraction of our globe would then become less and less con- siderable; the radius of the terrestrial orbit, on the other hand, could not fail to increase, and the length of the year would receive a cor- responding augmentation. That is with every one the result of a first glance. By applying analytical calculation to the question, by descending thus to numerical applications by the help of the more precise results of observation as to the duration of the year in different ages. Laplace proved that in 2000 years a constant emission of light has not diminished the mass of the sun one two thousandth part of its primitive value. Our illustrious fellow-countryman never proposed to himself any- thing vague or indeterminate. His constant object was the explana- lion of some grand natural phenomena, according to the inflexible rules of mathematical analysis. No philosopher, no geometer more care- fully kept himself in check against the spirit of systematizing. No one feared more the scientific errors which imagination brings forth, when it is not circumscribed with the bounds of facts, calculation and analogy. Once, once only, Laplace cast himself like Kepler, like Descartes, like Leibnitz, like Buffon, in the reign of conjecture. His conception was then nothing less than a cosmogony. All planets revolve around the sun from west to east, and in planes which form with each other very slight angles. The satellites move around their respective planets like the planets around the sun, that 340 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [Skptkmber, is to sav. from west to east. The planets and the satelhtes of which the n oven enls of rotation can be observed equally turn on the.r con- tres f on' west to east. In fine the rotary movement of the sun .s also nffec d from west to east. There is therefore a total of forty- hree ^novements similarly directed. By the calcnlat.ou of probab.lU.es e e are more than four thousand milliards to one agamst th.s s.m.- iude indirection of so ma.iy movements bei..g the eftect of chance BufFon is, I believe, the first who has attempted to g.ve an account of this singdaritv of our solar system. Wishi,.g to abstain fro™ re^o;'" ine in the explanation of phi^nomena to causes out of nature, the cele- l„!ted academician sought a physical origin or what .s coram"»f;^^'"'.''^,3 in my .'otice on comets. I may therefore confine .nyself to point., g out here in a few words the cosmogonic system which Laplace s.ib- stituted for that of the illustrious author of the Natural History. Accordine to Laplace the sun was at a remote period, the central nucleus of an immense nebulosity which had a very high temperature, mid extended far beyond the region where Herschel now "O^s. At that time no planet existed. The solar nebulos.ty was gifted w.th a eeneral movement of revolution directed from west to east. On cooline down it could not fail to sustain a gradual condensat.on, and thenceforth to turn faster and faster if the nebulous matter extended orgn'llyin the equatorial region as far as the l.mit at which he cenuifu4l force esactlv counterbalanced the attract.v^ actioii of the nucleus,°the molecules situated at that limit, should during the con- dentation separate from the rest of the atmospher.c matter and form an equatorial zone, a ring turning separately and with its pr..mt.ve velocity. It may be conceived that analagous separations would tukt place at diff-erent periods, that is to say, at various distances from the nucleus, in the superior strata of the nebulos.ty, and that they would Vh'e ri4 to a succession of distinct rings kept almost .n the same Diane, and giltpd with diflerent velocities. This once adm.tted, we easily see that the indefinite preservation of the rings would have re- nuired in their whole circumference a composition l.ttle probable. Each of them broke then in its turn into several masses whicliwere endowed, as it is easily to be conceded, with a rotary movement in tlie common direction of revolution, and which on account of their fluidity assumed spheroidal forms. If we allow now that one of these sphe- roids may have swallowed up all those arising from the same ri.ig, it wiUbe sufficient to give it a mass superior to that of all the others. In each of the planets in the vaporous state of which we have just suoken, the mind recognizes a central nucleus g.-adually increasing .n mass, and an atmosphere which presents at its successive l.mits, phenomena entirely similar to those which the solar atmosphere, pro- Ulv so called had presented to us. We thus assist at he birth of t'he satellites and of the ring of Saturn. The system of which I have iust eiven a sketch, has for its object to show how a nebulos.ty gilteU with a general movement of rotation should in tln^ long run traiislorm itself into a very luminous central nucleus (the sun), and into a series of distinct spheroidal planets, distant one from another, all moving around the central sun in the direction of the primitive movement ot the nebulosity ; and how these planets would thus have arou.id their centres movements of rotation similarly directed, how in fine the satellites, when formed, could not fail to turn on themselves and around the planets which carry them along, in the direction ol the rotation of those planets, and of their circulating movement around the sun We have just observed conformably with the principles ol mechanics, the forces with which the particles of the nebulosity were primitively sifted, in the movements of rotation and circulation ot the distinct and compact to which these particles had given rise by ag- elomeration. But in so doing we make only a single step. 1 '^ pri- mitive movement of rotation in the nebulosity does not result from simple attractions; this movement seems to indicate the action ol an impulsive primordial force. Laplace is far from holding with respect to this the almost general opinion of philosophers and mathematicians. '' He does not believe that the mutual attraction of bodies primit.vely motionless, would in the long run, reunite all these bodies in a state of repose, around a common centre of gravity." He maintains on the contrary, that three bodies without movement, of which two sUouia be much larger in mass than the third, would not agglomerate into an homogeneous mass, but only in exceptional cases. In general the two larger bodies would unite together, while the third would revolve around the common centre of gravity. Attraction would thus become the cause of a kind of motion to which impulse would seem alone capable of giving birth. In might in truth be believed that in lay..ig down this part of h.s system, Laplace had before his eyes the words which Jean Jacques Rousseau had placed .n the mouth of the Savoyard curate, and which he endeavoured to refute. "Newton has discovered the law of at- traction," says the author of Emile, "but attraction alone would soon reduce the universe to a motionless mass ; to this law it has been re- quisite to add a projectile force to make the heavenly bodies describe curves. Let Descartes tell us what physical law has made his vortices turn round ; let Newton show to us the hand which directed the planets on tangent of their orbits." . . According to the cosmogonic ideas of Laplace, comets, in the origin, were not part of our system; they have not been formed at the ex- pense of the matter of the immense solar nebulosity; they must be considered as small wandering nebulosities which the attractive force of the sun has deviated from their primitive path. Those of the comets which penetrated into the great nebulosity at the period of its condensation, and the formation of the planets, fell into the sun de- scribing spirals, and would by their action, more or less, remove the planes of the planetery orbits from the plane of the solar equator, with which they would otherwise exactly have coincided. As to the zodiacal light, that stumbling block on which so many theories have fallen, it is composed of the most volatile particles of the primitive nebulosity. These molecules not having combined with the equato- rial zones, successively abandoned in the plane of the solar cq"^'"' continue to revole at the distances at which they were primordially, and with their original velocity. The existence of this extremely rare matter, in the region occupied by the earth, and even only mthat of Venus, seemed irreconcileable with the laws of mechanics ; but that was when, by placing the zodiacal matter in the immediate de- pendence of the solar photosphere, properly so called, there was im- pressed on it an angular movement of rotation, equal to that ol this photosphere, a movement by means of which its entire revolution would only require twenty-five days and a half. Laplace presented "his conjectures on the formation of our solar system, with the mistrust which everything must inspire which is not the result of calculation and observation." Perhaps it is to be re- gretted that they did not receive greater developement, particularly in what regards the division of matter into distinct rings ; perhaps it is unfortunate that the illustrious author has not sufficiently explained ' himself as to the primitive physical condition, the molecular condition of the nebulosity, at the expense of which were formed the sun, planets, and satellites of our system ; perhaps it is to be regretted in particular that Laplace should have thought proper to pass so slightly over the possibility, evident according to him, of the movements of revolution, resulting from the action of simple attractive forces, &c. Notwithstanding these omissions, the ideas of the author of the Me- canique Celeste are nevertheless the only ones which, by the.r grandeur, coherence,, and mathematical character, can be truly con- sidered as forming a physical cosmogony ; the only ones which in the present day find a powerful support in the results of the recent labours of astronomers on the nebulosities of every kind with which the firmament is sprinkled. In this analysis we have thought proper to concentrate attention on the Micanique C'ksle. The System of the World and the Analy- tical Theory of Probabilities would not require less developeme.it The Exposition of the System of the World is the Mkanique Celeste. stripped of its grand panalopy of analytical formulas, through which, must indispensably pass every astronomer who, according to the ex- pression of Plato, wishes to know " what figures" govern the material universe. It is in the Exposition of the System of the World that persons unacquainted with mathematics must seek an exact a.id suHi- cient idea of the methods to which physical astronomy owes its as- tonishing progres. This work, written with noble simplicity, exqui- site propriety of expression, and scrupulous correctness, concludes with an abridgement of the history of astronomy, now classed, by an unanimous judgment, among the finest monuments of the treneli language. It 1ms often been regretted that Cesar, in his immortal Commentaries, has confined himself to the relation of his own cam- paigns; the astronomical commentaries of Laplace extend to ttie orilin of society. The endeavours made in all ages to snatch from the firmament new truths are there analysed with justice, clearness, and profundity ; it is genius constituting itself the ..npartial appre- ciator of genius. Laplace alway remained at the head of th.s grand mission, and his work will be read with respect as long as the torch ol science shall give forth light. .... »„ The calcuUTtion of probabilities, kept within proper l.mits, .nterests, in an equal degree, the mathematician, the experimentE ists, and tne statesman. From the period, already remote, when Pascal and Fermat PLATE nv. nriiii i ill W' i"i III III III! llTI 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 341 nal laid down the first principles of it, it lias rendered, and daily renders, eminent service. It is the calculation of probabilities, which after having regulated the best arrangements of Tables of Population and Mortality, teaches us how to draw from the figures, generally so badly interpreted, precise and useful conclusions ; it is the calculation of probabilities which alone can regulate with equity the rates of pre- miums of insurance, subscriptions to tontines, poundage for superan- nuations, annuities, discounts, &c. ; it is under its attacks that the lottery, and so many shameful snares set by cunning for ignorance and cupidity, have finally succumbed. To sum up all in one word, the Analytical Theory of Probabilities is worthy of the author of the Mecaritque Celeste. A philosopher, whose name recalls immortal discoveries, said to his auditor, who were (oo much fascinated with ancient and consecrated reputation, "Remember, that in matters of science, the ;iuthority of a thousand is not worth the humble reasoning of one." Two centuries have passed over the words of Galileo without diminishing their value, and without hiding their truth. Thus, instead of displaying a long list of illustrious admirers of the three splendid works of Laplace, we have preferred just to glance over some of the mighty truths which mathematics have there disclosed. Let us not, however, carry our strictness to excess, and since chance has brought into our hands a few unpublished letters of one of those men of genius to whom nature has given the rare faculty of seizing, at the first glance, the culminating points of objects, we may perhaps be allowed to extract from three, two or three brief and characteristic fragments on the Mecanique Celeste and the Treatise on Probabilities. On the 27th Veudemiaire, in the year X, after having received a volume of the Mecanique Celeste, General Bonaparte wrote to Laplace, " The first six months which I have at my disposal, shall be devoted' to the perusal of your fme work." It seemed to us that the words "the first six months^' take away the appearance of an ordinary com- plimentary letter of thanks, and contains a just appreciation of the importance and difficulty of the matter. On the 5tb, Fremaire in the year XI, the reading of a few chapters of the volume which Laplace had dedicated to him, was for the General " a new cause of regret that the force of circumstances had placed in a career which sepa- rated him from that of science. At least," added he, " I earnestly desire that future generations, in reading the Mecanique Celeste, may not forget the esteem and friendship which I felt towards its author." On the 17th Prairial, in the year XIII, the General, then Emperor, wrote from Milan, "The Mecanique Celeste seems to me destined to shed a new lustre on the age in which we live." In fine, on the 12th August, 1812, Napoleon who had just received the Treatise on the Calculation of Probabilities, wrote from Witepsk the letter which we give verbatim. "There was a time when I should have read with interest your Treatise on the Calculations of Probabilities ; now, I must confine myself to expressing the satisfaction which I feel every time that I see you publishing new works, which improve and extend the first of sciences, and contribute to the national glory. The pro- gress and improvement of mathematics is intimately connected with the prosperity of the state." I have now arrived at the conclusion of the task I had undertrken. I shall be forgiven, I hope, for having shown in so much detail the principal discoveries which philosophy, astronomy, and navigation, owe to our mathematicians. It seemed to me that, by recalling the glorious past, I showed to my contemporaries the whole extent of their duties towards their country. In truth, nations in particular, should remember the old adage " iiobksse oblige," nobleness obliges. GRAVESEND TERRACE PIER. (With an Engraving, Plate XIV.) In the Journal for February last we gave a general description of this work, which is being erected under the immediate direction of Mr. John Baldry Redman, Civil Engineer, and of its then state of for- wardness, and we have now the opportunity of presenting our readers with drawings of the work, and a cut showing the construction of the foundations of one of the main columns. The principal part of the work is completed, including the an- preaches, the foundations, main columns, girders and platform and the offices or lodges at the entrance with the clock turret and b'elfrv surmounting the same. The pilaster standards to support the roof are fixed, excepting those over the T head, and a large portion of the upper cornice forming the guttering to thereof; also the chief por- tion ot the joists of the platform, and the architrave and frieze of the entablature on either side up to the T head, where some of the stair- case bearers are also fitted. The foundations of the columns, con- sidering the locality, have been got down in a novel manner. The cut an- nexed exhibite a section of one of the foundations of the south side of Reference. H. W., high water level spring tides L. W., low water level ditto. the T head. The columns weigh each on an average 9i tons, and are 28feetlong, 4 feet in diameter at the base and 3 feet at the top of the shaft, and were, as well as the cylinders and the rest of the heavy castings, placed in position by means of tra- velling machinery, as de- scribed in our former notice. The bases of the columns are level with low water of spring tides, standing upon a brick and stone foundation, which ®^^^^=p^was got in in the following ' manner. Cast iron cylinders 6 feet in diameter and J in. thick, each ring being formed of four segmental plates,those of each ring breaking joint over one another, were sunk down through the bed of the riverto the chalk substratum, excavating the ground from within them as they sunk, adding additional lengths as required ; they thus formed caissons, or more properly miniature cofferdams, the top being kept always above the level of high water. The plates varied in height, being 5, 4 and 3 feet, to form different heights to suit the variation in the ground ; the joints of those lengths left in were formed with iron ce- ment, as also the vertical joints of the temporary lengths, the horizontal ones being formed with felt and white lead and gaskins and grease, for the convenience , of taking to pieces. The ^foundations of the first tier i=^of columns next the abut- — — ] ment were got in in the same "^ ^=1 manner as the foundations of the abutment, wing walls, &c., viz. by excavating to the required depth and sup- porting the sides by timber- ing, the water from the r- river being kept out by a f puddle bank. The cylinders ' of the 2nd and 3rd tier of columns were placed within large ones 7 feet in diameter, sunk about one-half the depth required for the foundation, they were kept as well as the inner cylinders above high water, and were sup- ported by timber clamps to prevent them sinking with the others; the G feet cylin- ders placed within were thus relieved from a large The lowest stratum is of chalk, with an over- portion of the pressure of the laying bed of flmts. the next above yellow gr^u,,,!, leaving them more sand, tljen silt, above which IS mud whid,f,„, t„ sink, and sivine forms the bed of the river a a, the cylinders'belowthis level were lefi in the ground and those above removed. b, pipe connected with suction pipe of pump. C, cement bottom. D, brickwork in pozzolano. E, stone base. F, iron cylinders. G, guide frame of timber. H, chain guys. giving the opportunity of guiding them by wedging between the cylinders. The cylinders to the T head foundations were sunk without these outer cylinders ; guide frames of timber were placed upon the siiore and bolted to the piles of the temporary frame- 29 342 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September, work enclosing the area of the pier, keeping the cylinders in position below, the same object being gained above by means of a guide band of wrought iron, with friction rollers playing against the sides of the cvlindcrs, and kept in position by chain guys with adjusting screws. This plan was adopted at the T head, tlie amount of excavation being less, and some of the cylinders of this portion of the pier were bot- tomed in three or four tides, and the excavation got out dry from the ground being less disturbed ; for, in the other case, the larger cylin- ders, notwithstanding all the care taken to support them, followed the inner cylinders either by sliding through the clamps, or dragging down those temporary piles driven to the least depth. When the cylinders were placed in position a weight of from 5 to 10 tons was placed on them, driving them from 4 to 5 feet into the mud, and the excavation being carried 12 inches below the sharp edge of the bottom cylinder, the weights were again applied. The cylinders being sunk to the required depth upon the solid sub- stratum, and the bottom levelled, a floor vpas formed of a couple of courses of dry bricks, and a thickness of IS inches or 2 feet of brick- work, from thence brought up in Roman cement, with two courses of plain tiles also in cement to break joint. This preoautinn was taken to keep out the land springs, which in some of the foundations came up in considerable volume ; the spring water was led up through the brickwork by an iron pipe bedded upon the dry bricks below, channels being led to it ; the suction pipe of the pump being connected with it, by this means the water was kept below the work as it was got in ; when the cement bottom was finished it was left a tide, the spring water flowing over it through the pipe, and the river water by plug holes in the cylinders; at low water the cylinder was again pumped dry, the pipe was then filled up with concrete, formed of tine Thames ballast and cement, to set quickly, and a blank flanch screwed on at top. In some cases it was necessary to bring up an additional length of pipe, and a larger body of brickwork, before stopping out the spring water. This on account of a larger supply, and with the outer foundations of the T head a large bodv of cement concrete was put in through the water imtil sufficiently "high to get in the cement brick bottom, the springs from the chalk being very powerful at the extremity of the T head and varving with the tide, the concrete being put in at low water, when the springs were weakest. The brickwork above the cement bottom was brought \ip in pozzo- lana mortar, iron hooping being introduced every fourth course laid crosswise to bond the whole together; a cast iron cross is in each foundation bedded in the brickwork, at the level shown; through this a 2 inch wrought iron bolt is led and built into the work, leaving a space of 4i inches square around it for play, to assist in adjusting it in its place by wedges upon the completion of the brickwork, and the space around the bolt is filled with thin concrete. This hold down bolt passes through the Bramley Fall stone base, which forms the cap to the pier and upon which the column is bedded, the base flanch of which is let in for its thickness into the stone ; the through bolt is screwed down upon the inner flanch of the column through the medium of a cast iron cross, the arms of which bed upon the flanch, the nut of the through bolt being screwed down against the boss of the cross. Two lengths of cylinders are left in around the brick pier, thus forming a casing to it; the upper lengths of cylinders were unbolted at the second horizontal joint from the bottom when the work was up to that level ; and when the stone was set and the column fixed, the temporary lengths of cylinder were drawn up over the shaft, the caps being cast separate and bolted permanently to the shafts upon the re- moval of the temporary cylinders. The prinripal novelty in these foundations is, applying cast iron cylinders in such a way as to exclude the flow of a rapid tideway, tiius enabling the men to work at nearly all times of tide, and when the bottom is once got in, at any time; thus dispensing with a large amount of pumping, which is proved by the fact that these foimdations, at so great a depth and with so large a head of wafer, were kept clear of water by hand-pumps, and a steam engine dispensed with; with the greater number of the foundations but little dilflculty was experienced in keeping down the water v;ith single 6 inch pumps, but with the outer ibundations of the T head a double-headed pump worked by a large gang of men was used, on account of the powerful springs before referred to, coming into some of the cylinders at certain times of tide at the rate of SO gallons per minute, nor could the water in these cases be kept down beyond a certain point, viz. 12 to 18 inches above the bottom, for which reason it was found next to impossible to get in brickwork, although clamps of several bricks cemented together were tried, and the cement concrete was adopted, let down in buckets and upset after passing through the water, and trod down by the workmen at the same time. It was usual to have a tier of three cylinders in hand at one time, and at one period at the T bead four were in operation at once ; but it was found advisable not to bottom more than one at a time, as, the experiment being tried, it was found that on tapping the springs in two cylinders at once there was a communication between the two, and if the pumps were not kept at work in each at the same time an increased supply ensued, from the water accumulating in the other cylinder, and the height of this column of water determining the force of the spring in the other cylinder. The usual course was for one cylinder to be pitched and loaded, in another digging proceeding, and in tlie third for the builder's work to be in hand. The cylinders or wells of brickwork used for foundations in India in sinking through sand, as described by Capt. Goodwyn at the Institu- tion of Civil Engineers the session of 1842 (See Vol. 5, p. 164), are sunk with the water within them, and the iron cylinders used by Messrs. Walker and Burges for the Point of Air lighthouse, as described in the last number of this Journal, were only sunk when the tide had left the sand bank on which the foundations for that structure are formed ; and we believe this is the first instance of cylinders being applied so as to exclude the tidal flow of a rapid river, making them eft'ect the same object as a cofferdam ; or that cylinders have before been applied for the purposes of foundations for a structure of this kind on so large a scale. In reference to these cylinders, it may be observed in conclusion that the principal difficulty experienced in sinking them was — The extreme accuracy required in placing them in position, and the still greater care required in keeping them there and upright, though this may be most certainly effected by a proper system of guides to keep the cylinder in position, but leaving it free enough to sink readilv. In one or two cases, when these cylinders were first commenced, considerable difficulty was entailed from not attending sufficiently to this, as the cylinders got out of position, and in replacing them the ground got disturbed and caused blows through the sand stratum over- lying the chalk, the mud and sand coming up into the cylinder; as, however, the work advanced, this was entirely obviated, and the ex- cavation got out comparatively dry, and in the majority of cases with- out a blow. Great care was requisite in fixing the columns, for each being placed on a separate base, rendered greater attention necessary in setting them. They are, considering these circumstances, remarkably level and lineable with one another. There are three columns in the width of the pier at each point of support, and they are 15 ft. apart from centre to centre, leaving a space of 10 ft. between the caps, which is occupied by a cross brace bolted to the caps ; and the columns most exposed to vibration are farther secured by 2-in. wrought-iron dia- gonal tie-rods, bolted to lugs cast upon the columns and tightened up by gibes and keys ; the iron girders supporting the platform and entablature are bolted to the caps of the columns, the bolt-holes being slotted and spaces left between the ends of the girders to allow of expansion and contraction of the metal, the large girders, six of which are 55 ft. and three 56 ft. in length, weigh eight tons each, they are parallel, 3 ft. in depth, and are cambered U in. to allow for de- flection ; to diminish their weight the sectional area is reduced to a minimum at the ends in the thickness of the top and bottom flanches and connecting web ; the seats were carefully fitted to the plane sur- faces of the capitals by means of wrought fillet pieces rivetted to the seats; projections are cast on the upper side of the girders to receive the joists, which are fastened to them by clip-bolts, taking hold of the girder underneath the top flanch, thus obviating the weakening of the metal by holt holes. All the large girders were proved up to a weight of 45 tons in the middle, with which they deflected on an average li in. coming back to their original curve ; and the smaller girders up to 20 tons. The cast iron pilastre standards have a bearing upon the top of the girder by means of a bracketted projection with a clip embra- cing it, and the bottom of it abuts against the face of the girder on the outside: at the centre? of the girders, where the bottom web is thickest, it also obtains a bearing, and is secured to the girder at the centre by one inch wrought-iron bolt, by this arrangement bolt-holes are almost dispensed with; the standards being hollow form the pipes to carry the water oft' from the roof, the projecting foot resting on the girder forming the shoot to deliver the same. The entablature, which is seven feet in height, and of cast iron, forms also the parapet to the platform, and is formed of three tiers of castings, bolted together and strengthened by feathers and brackets: this entablature when fitted has a bearing upon the capitals, and is kept in position laterally by bolts fixed to lugs cast upon the standards, with pipe washers to keep them in position; the bolt-holes are slotted so that the entablature may be affected by expansion or contraction without reference to the girders, or standards, provision being made for it at either end, at the south end next the abutment by a recess in the stone work: the en- tablature while fitting obtains a bearing upon the lower web of the girder, but when fixed will be unaffected by any deflection in the girders, supporting itself, andi forming a horizontal line. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 34^ The parapet inside will be formed by a lining of corrugated iron ; corrugated iron panels will also be formed between each pair of standards, and the intermediate openings will be closed at will by rolling corrugated iron shutters sliding behind the panels when open, rails being provided on the top of the entablature cornice for the rollers to run upon and guide rails attached to the underside of the gutters. The gutters are formed in two pieces, the water table being in one casting, and the moulded cornice attached to it by internal brackets bolted to each, the wrought-iron principals of the roof are secured to the water table of the gutter and trussed with wrought-iron, the whole is to be covered with li in. boarding grooved and tongued, and Welsh slaling over all. The panels of the lighthouse and of the lodge turrets are formed of corrugated iron, the lodge roofs and tur- rets are covered with lead, surmounted with copper balls, vanes and spires. The whole length of the pier is 250 ft., breadth 30 ft., T head 90 ft. by Soft., projection into the river beyond high water mark is 200 ft. From the lighthouse, which has been approved of by the Trinity Board, will be exhibited a powerful ;)te!>j light for the benefit of ship- ping, probably a Bude light ; and copper octagonal gas lamps will be suspended from the apex of the roof to light the pier. The whole of the ironwork will be painted stone colour with anti-corrosive paint. From its locality, and the admirable approach to it from Harnier Street, this pier will no doubt prove an attraction to this quarter of the town, and form a conspicuous and handsome object from the river, and when it is stated that between 300,000 and 400,000 per- sons were landed and embarked at the two piers at Gravesend during the month of June, nearly as large a number in August, and almost 400,000 in July, of which enormous numbers there was a balance in favour of the present temporary erection at the west end of the Terrace Gardens, and which is only 10 feet in width, and from wear and tear becoming rather disabled, the necessity for such a work will be obvious. All steam boats plying from the Blackwall Railway embark and dis- embark their passengers at the Terrace Pier, and the traffic will no doubt be increased upon the completion of the line of railway now nearly finished along the banks of the Medway Canal, connecting Gravesend with Rochester and Chatham, the Gravesend terminus of which is near the nevir pier. This would be more certainly effected if a connecting link were formed, close up to the pier, as was some time since proposed, and which is absolutely necessary if the steam boat companies wish to compete, with any chance of success, with the rail- way traffic which will one day ensue. CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK. FASCICULUS LVIII. '■ I must have liberty Witbal, as large a charier as the winds, To blow on whom 1 please." I. One very great objection against the uniting into a single design a number of shops or dwellings, intended to be occupied by different tenants, is that in the course of a few years it is apt to present a very motley and piebald appearance — to look as if cut up into so many slices, some of them spruced up and refreshened, others exhibiting every shade of dinginess and dirt. This ought to be guarded against by specific clauses in the leases ; or, instead of being left to individual discretion and control, the white-washing and repainting the whole of such fronts should be the concern of the owner or landlord — be per- formed by him triennially, or according to some other stated term of years, and defrayed by a rate levied annually upon the occupiers, just as there is a general rate upon the inhabitants of a square for keeping up the garden in the centre of it. In this last mentioned respect matters are managed more comformably with common sense. Were they left to the option of individuals some pig-headed gentleman — for we have now no pig-tailed ones — might say, " I care nothing for the garden— you are welcome to let that part of it facing iny windows run wild, or even cut down the shrubs. Let those who take pleasure in such things pay for them." Or perhaps people might insist upon the right to erect, in that part of the enclosure corresponding with the frontage of their own house, whatever tasty object they might fancy, so that in course of time the whole circumference of the garden might be dotted round with Chinese summer houses, Gothic alcoves, Greek cippi and columns, and be rendered a sort of architectural menagerie. Luckily no one has such right, and it v^ere well if no one had the right of disfiguring an entire range of buildings by painting a single column and the half of one on each side of it, so that "his own" front looks like a miller standing in a row of chimney-sweepers. The Quadrant, in Regent Street, is just now exhibiting this composite miller-and- chimney»sweeper appearance: whili: some of the columns here and there look "as good as new," the rest are sadly the worse for wear and weather — at least in the opinion of those who judge of buildings by their complexion, and value them accordingly as they look "very neat and nice." II. I wish that, instead of their complaining of the severity and il- liberality of critics and amateurs, I could find architects setting an example of liberality by exercising it tov?ards each other. Very seldom indeed do they bestow their praise heartily on any of the works of their living contemporaries; hardly ever, indeed, is it bestowed at all, except actually extorted from them, and then generally given with ungraciousness and grudingness. I do not say that they endeavour actually to depreciate the merits of others in the profession — they do not go quite so far as that, because it might be not exactly "safe" and "becoming," consequontly would be indiscreet; but they generally take most especial care never to point out, or in any way call atten- tion to, talent deserving to be encouraged and recommended to the public — which is of course not being illiberal but only ungenerous. Undoubtedly there are a good many in the profession who have reason to dislike criticism, being pretty certain that should it notice them and their works at all it would hardly be in favour of them ; yet wherefore others should be nearly equally jealous of it is not quite so apparent. I have remarked that during the last ten years — in which interval architectural topics have found their way into periodical literature much more extensively than at any former period — several, whose names were hardly known at all to the public at the time, have been brought forward into notice, by remarks on their productions. III. It certainly says very little either for Walpole's discrimination or taste, that with such examples as Eton College and Hampton Court just by, to say nothing of numerous others of ancient domestic and collegiate architecture which he must have been acquainted with, he should have patched up his house at Strawberry Hill with the most wretched "Carpenter's Gothic" — not only sheer absurdity as to style, but so thoroughly barbarous and uncouth in itself as almost to proclaim his ignorance, and convince us that he did not at all understand the mere elements and rudiments of the style which he set himself up as a judge of. It is true he endeavoured to avert criticism by affecting to speak disparagingly of his building, and as a mere playthingfor his own amusement; but then the same excuse might be pleaded by any one, if not in justification of his taste, of his right to indulge it how- ever bad. There would be nothing at all inconsistent at least in an ignorant man's saying, " I know what pleases myself! and so that I do but satisfy myself that is all I seek ; I do not ask other people to ap- prove of my taste, for it is quite matter of indifference to me whether they do so or not ;" but for an arbiter elegantiarum in architecture to hold the same argument is strange indeed. His right to do as he did was most unquestionable ; but the puzzling question is how, if he really possessed the taste the world gave him credit for, he came to do as he did in the first instance, and could aferwards endure to look upon the monster of his Frankenstein creation — "To please himself" is no answer, since there lies the puzzle. " To please himself" is merely acknowledging that, as it was a reflection upon, so it was the reflection of Walpole's own taste, when laying aside his superfine critical airs, he gave himself up to it without any ceremony. Those who are good judges of taste of a difterent kind generally take care to please themselves by reserving some of the choicest portions and tit- bits in the dish which they are helping their friends to. Again, it is but a lame excuse for both Horace Walpole and Strawberry Hill, to say that his means for building were limited, and would not allow him to do more ; as a structure it might have been equally flimsy or more so, yet might have been made to exhibit correctness of design, and characteristic detail ; at any rate to manifest some kind of feeling for art, and some real gusto, although in contradiction to all previous examples. Dallaway talks of a person's being able " to contemplate all that is fascinating in Gothic architecture at Strawberry Hill" !! This really outdoes George Robins himself in cool impudence and assurance. Can it be an error of the press — a blunder of the printer, who converted into "fascinating" what was intended for "farcical." Let us hope for the credit of criticism that such is the case. IV. Mrs. Jameson seems to be ambitious of being anathematized by the Camdenists as an out-and-out Pagan, so enthusiastically does she descant on the Xanthian Marbles — those fresh accessions of heathenism and paganism to the stores of the British Museum; — which it seems shuts its portals against the antiquities and arts of our own country, as things of no importance and unworthy of being imported into it. Not the least puzzling part of the matter is that all this zeal in behalf of Paganism is, if not directly encouraged, connived at by his Grace of Canterbury, who is one of the trustees of the Museum. Therefore, if the Camdenists are in earnest in their holy horror of Paganism, let them now fly at the Archbishop, and take him soundly to task lor countenancing such enormities. Were they to do that, they might at 29* 314 THE CIVIL ENC^INEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September, least obtnin credit for sincerity and inflexible integrity, and until tbey do it, tbeir denunciation of Paganism and the taste for it, looks only like mere make-believe and "gammon;" or else they must be of all cowards the most cowardly, blustering furiously against minor offenders but sneaking away from greater and more notorious ones. The Cam- denists show themselves to be merely bullies, unless it be that they let it also be seen that they are great" hypocrites into the bargain. V. We have very little reason to despise the impure and grotesque specimens of the ancient orders in the Renaissance style, both here and on the continent, when we look at the numerous miserable appli- cations of of " pure Greek architecture" at the present day -, at those flagrant barbarisms in taste, soi-diaant Greek porticos, or perhaps two columns and antae, stuck up against buildings which are in all other respects thoroughly bare and poverty-stricken. Nevertheless, instead of being deservedly reprobated as the very bathos of design, things of the kind— and even some of the worst and most tasteless of them all- are frequently spoken of by crilics ! as if they were both of surpas- sing merit in themselves, and all the rest of the design in perfect ac- cordance with them. Were we to judge from the number of " Gre- cian" porticos that might be reckoned mp we might suppose that this country abounded in examples of genuine classical architecture, and that every little market town in the kingdom had at least one build- ing rivalling in taste an Athenian or Roman " monument." At length there begins to be some hope of our being delivered from classicality of that sort, since its utter mawkishness and dulness have begun to produce satiety of it, and its mechanical routine to bring it into con- tempt. Inmost things of the sort it is utterly hopeless to look for anyone artistic quality, or for aught whatever amounting to design. On the contrary, their chief or only characteristic is their being vul- gar plagiarism of so truly tasteless a kind that it accuses those who are guilty of it of no feeling for— not even the slightest apprehension of the style which they hew and mangle after so barbarous a fashion. Anathema be on them ! VI. It is a most gross aspersion on the Royal Academy to say tbat they dislike High Art, for it is notorious that they invariably raise it as high as they possibly can— even to the very ceilings of their exhi- bition rooms. J 1 f VII. After the most unqualified admiration has been demanded tor Windsor Castle, and has also been most liberally bestowed ; alter ■writers and guide-books have rhapsodized about it in their loUiest vein, piling up epithet on epithet till all meaning has been iairly smothered under the accumulated load ; after all this, now comes the Athenffium and rudely tells us, that "saving St. George's Chapel, and some few other exceptions, the huge pile of buildings which consti- tute the present Windsor Castle cannot worthily be called architec- ture !" Truly this is plain-spoken enough— no puffing, no nji«f Y here ! Still, though I agree with the writer upon some points, I think that many of his— or, as I conjecture it should be, /ier— opinions are greatly overstrained. It is objected, for instance, that the work ol restoration or remodelling was set about in a mistaken spirit and on erroneous principles ; and that the edifice was more satisfactory in its former patched-up state, when without any attempt at disguise it told its story plainly, showing that it had grown up out of additions made from time to time, and bearing the impress of the architectural taste or fashion of their respective periods; whereas now, it is urged, " there is an attempt to cheat us into the belief that the present struc- ture was the old one." Does the writer then mean to say that instead of making all the buildings of the upper ward uniform as to condition, and more consistent than formerly as to general character, it would have been better had what was not absolutely required to be altered been left untouched, and the new constructions been allowed to sbow themselves as such, however dissimilar they might be from any other portion ? It is difficult to persuade ourselves that the critic can really Lave intended to say as much, yet no other conclusion can be drawn from it. Then again it Ls objected— surely very captiously— that tlie exterior is at variance with the interior, the former affecting seventy as nearly as may be, while the other contains apartments fitted up in a style of luxurious comfort and refinement wholly unknown in those ages when castles were erected as strongholds and places. Such incongruity, however, is an inevitable, and therefore a natural and pardonable one. It is no more than what takes place in some ancient mansions tdat have been kept up in their pristine character externally, yet have been adapted within as nearly as possible to modern habits of living and notions of comfort. If nothing but the " genuine" is anywhere to be admitted,— nothing to be allowed tbat lynx-eyed liypercriticism can accuse as an anachronism, there ought perhaps to be neither library nor picture-gallery within the walls of Windsor Castle, jt J^ un- doubtedly a fault, and no small one, that the style indicated by the windows was not kept up with some tolerable degree of consistency in all the principal apartments, especially as it might have been done without any sacrifice of refinement or comfort, nay with no little in- crease of magnificence and grandeur. Even St. George's Hall itself possesses very little of either of the two last mentioned qualities, — in fact, has so very little of style, that it seems as if the architect had been more solicitous to s!//)press it, than to e.rpress it. To return to the exterior. Sir Jeffery erred in allowing the castellated or fortress character to prevail over the palatial. While the former is marked more strongly than there was any occasion for, the latter scarcely mani- fests itself, except in particular features here and there, such as the oriels of the east front, in designing which the architect seems to have been guided more by the principle of contrast than of unity. If those decorated projections show somewhat like modern embroidery upon the rough and austere groundwork of the general elevation, they do not do so the less from their openings being filled with plate glass, a piece of luxurious refinement which might plausibly enough be ob- jected to as a glaring violation of costume in what affects the charac- ter of a feudal castle. In such case, however, the rigorous observance of architectural costume must give way to convenience and to common sense. It is evident, that at the present day, an ancient military castle or fortress cannot possibly be made use of as a residence with- out being expressly converted into one, and in consequence both ac- quiring features which distinctly mark habitation, and also losing somewhat of that uniform sternness which it possessed while intended only as a place of defence and a stronghold of defiance. Every struc- ture so converted, from its original purpose to a widely different one, must partake of a mixed character, and such character accordingly becomes a natural and appropriate one. In this case the architect had to keep in sight the palace as well as the castle, the castle as well as the palace ; the subject itself being a compound one, he could hardly treat it exclusively either the one way or the other. Still there can be no doubt that he might have treated it considerably better than he has done, and in such manner as to combine togetVier somewhat more of energetic grandeur with an increase of that stateliness and richness which befit the abode of a sovereign. VIII. Dr. Fulton does not seem to perceive that a favourite term of reproach with him, which he has flung one way, may recoil and strike what it was not aimed at. If a pediment can justly be likened to a cocked hat at all, it surely makes no difference in that respect how it be applied ; being still a " cocked hat," it is just as much like one when over a portico as when over a window; consequently the authority for architectural "cocked hats" is of considerable antiquity, they having been worn by all the temples of Greece. No doubt the Doctor means no more than to stigmatize by a whimsical term what he con- siders a gross violation of architectural fitness, and the perversion of what was originally a feature of construction to one of mere decora- tion. It is certain that neither pediments nor columns were at first intended to serve for the parts of dressings to windows, as they are made to do in the Italian style. Yet it does not exactly follow that such after-application of them is a nt/s-application, utterly indefen- sible. If the principle be an erroneous one in itself, it must be as much so in one style as in another, consequently we ought in consis- tency to condemn a very great deal of the decoration employed in Gothic architecture, where we find a great many members primarily applied to answer some specific purpose of utility, converted into mere ornamental details. Here, too, we see small gables or Gothic cocked hais introduced, merely in representation, on the surface of walls, where tbey do not express any roof. We see weather-mould- ings over doors within buildings, where, being unnecessary, they might be captiously objected to as being in bad taste. Even greater absurd- ities of the kind— if so they are to be stigmatized— might be pointed out, and those not a few ; to wit, miniature buttresses and pinnacles in carved screens, together with embattled cornices. Nay, even the practice of enriching the surface of walls with panelling resembling the compartments and tracery of windows might be represented as an illegitimate one— a frivolous and unmeaning conceit. Let the Doctor, then, stop in time, for should he carry out his principles of criticism as fully and as consequentially as he might, he will bring down a horde of Goths upon him ; and When Goth meets Greek then comes the tug of war. Competitions.— In reply to the advertisement offering premiums for the two best plans for laying out White Knight's Park, at Reading, for the erec- tion of detached villas, about thirty designs were sent in. White Knights is one of the most beautiful places in England, and considerable skill was re- quired to allot it so as to preserve its most striking features. To ensure a proper selection, the proprietor placed the decision in the hands of two known professional men, Mr. Mocatta and Mr. George Godwin, who after minutely mvestigating the plans adjudged the premiums to two which were afterwards found to be by Messrs. Scott and Moffatt, and Mr. John Batnett 1844.1 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 345 ROYAL ACADEMY. No. II. " A NEGLECT to provide qualified persons," says Sir Joshua, " is a neglect of qualifications;" and never was this principle so exquisitely illustrated as in the case of this militia officer. A youth of great pro- mise, who had gone regularly through the construction of the human figure, and knew every part of it, made the most beautiful drawing of the Discobolon at the Museum, which had ever been — he went to the gallant officer, Keeper of the Royal Academy, with the drawing, and a letter, for admission as a probationer, to draw for his ticket; the Keeper, with that profound investigation of look for which he is cele- brated, after a minute or two, said, with a tone of superior sagacity, " You know nothing of outline." At that time, a copper outline had been introduced into the school, and the young men were all making a line round their figures the eighth of an inch thick at least ; as the youth had been carefully instructed, to define one object's boundary by another, and not by a line, that he might learn to paint whilst he was drawing, he retired, wondering what the gallant Keeper could mean; on hearing this, his master Haydon, immediately wrote the gallant Keeper, "his refusal to admit the youth on such grounds was addi- tional proof, if any were wanting, of his (the Keeper's) total incom- petence for the important duties of his station." In the drawing presented, there was not a single incorrectness. The boy had made separate studies of head, hands, and feet, and the draw- ing was finer than any Wilkie, Haydon, Mulready, or Collins, made for admission as students. The public shall see the drawing in due time, but the boy came from Haydon, — that was the want of outline, and the politic Keeper knew he could not please the party, who put him where he is, more, than by insulting his pupil. Disgusted at such infamous injustice, which was likely to affect, and did affect, the prosperity of the youth, Haydon applied to the late W. Seguier, who admitted him at once into the National Gallery, and there immediately he made a beautiful cartoon, the size of life, from Augustino Caracci's Galatea, so beautiful that it attracted the applause of the nobility, who considered it, what it was, a wonder for a boy of sixteen, and there, under the very eyes of the Keeper, who watched him daily, this youth proved his power of hand, his knowledge of construc- tion, till at last the gallant Keeper used to slink by and not look at it at all ! Worthy successor of Fuseli and Hilton I — gallant Ensign ! — great painter of battles, where the dead and wounded are kept out of the way, that the lapdogs might not be frightened. Every accusation against bodies, or individuals, should be substan- tiated by facts. Here there is a fact of unquestionable authority. To put, for a moment, the illustrious Jones' knowledge of the figure against the boy he disdained would setthe Art in a roar of derision; at the same time every allowance must be made for the condition of the keeper's mind; what coidd a militia officer know of design? Con- scious of his utter unfitness for his position ; knowing himself to he the merest tool, to spare the eminent artist from the bore of teaching boys, yet exactly as be knew his own ignorance, ought he to have been diffident of wounding the feelings of a very talented youth, by a pompous display of what he was ignorant of. Far be it from me to reproach any human creature with weakness of understanding; it is in God's awful power, in one moment, to strike the most gifted with raving madness, and hurl him to the earth, as . I warning to |>resumi)lion ! but when a man was found too weak in mind for the duties of a militia regiment, and took refuge in paint- ing as the least eftbrt of the two ; when a nobleman, who had himself risen, by the most obsequious servility to the minister of the day, from ignorance of the understanding required to be an artist, mistook this man's abject flattery, for genius in art, and backed his elevation to the honours of the profession, which made even Wilkie forget his prudence and policy, at the corruption he witnessed on his election ; when, by the same injustice to superior men, this creature, as imbecile as he is vain, is pushed into a position of power, to spare the laziness of more able men, it is a duty to shave its head, to draw its teeth, to cut its nails, and brand noodle on its vacant brow, that its tricks in future may be as harmless as its pictures. Sir Robert, with not the best breeding in the world, told Mr. Hume he was a good judge of impudence. Surely Sir Robert must have forgotten for the time who sat in the President's diair! who con- sidered himself the illustrious successor of Reynolds ? what ? Hume acknowledged to the impudence of the devil himself ; but surely, to witness the lowest artist in Europe, considering himself a fit inheritor of Reynold's honours, is a specimen of human audacity and impudence from which the devil himself would have shrank! It is perfectly ludicrous to suppose the Academy will long be able to resist the spirit of the time, if it do much longer, it will be buried in its overwhelming pressure. Two great crtuses of its beijig atsle to do so so long, is that, first, it has no aplomb as a national body ; and next, the vent it so annually uftords to the vanity and affections of high life. The public and the press b;\vr alarmed it lately into better elec- tions, but mediocrity is only on the watch for its (ipportunity, they have not yet extirpated the bad blood of 176S, when they received with open arms, to fill up their number, the expelled Directors of the Chartered Society, who being found to have torn out their minutes to conceal their corruption, ami brokrn their words of honour to the Attorney-General to abide by his decision, were turned out by the disgusted Societv, and einbracid with r:ipture by the Royal Academy. The filthy slime of those crawlers stunk on the walls of Somerset House for more than sixty years, the smell was carried to Trafalgar Square, the slime itself is discovered now and then ; yet 1 trust before I die to see the healthy and sweet blood of youth and genius entirely obliterate both. Still there is a greater cause of its continued renovation and ex- istence, and that is, I regret to say, the continued treachery of its greatest men. 1. Fuseli, on his return from Italy, wanted Prince Hoare and North- cote, to swear a solem oath iievrr to belong to the Academy, they re- fused— and Fuseli was the first to go in. 2. Barry, hating and detesting the system, and swearing in his Correspondence, academies always brought art into contempt, suffered himself to be seduced by Sir Joshua to come in, and, muttering curses as he took his diploma, got expelled as he deservedl Then came Wilkie, gifted, modest, selfish, timid; he, too, affirmed, without being asked, the Academy was nothing to him, he, too, again and again de- clared, he would never belong to it, would uever ask a vote if he did, and when the time came, he got into a fright, hurried to Haydon to ask what he should do, who, seeing his real motive, turned his back ; terrified at insinuations he ought to have defied — he begged — he got in — was kicked and spat on, and died as complete a victim to disap- pointed ambition, as the art can afford. Now Chantrey appeared on the scene, proud, haughty, talented, money-getting and illiterate ; hating poverty in proportion as the remembrance of his former strug- gles stung his ]jride ; adoring wealth as he felt the station money gave him ; envious of rising genius iusculpture, if it showed symptoms of poetry of conception, which he possessed not ; detesting the Aca- demy, because he foresaw before he could share its insolence, he must bend to its despotism ; spitting with disgust on the shadow of an Academician's figure in the streets ; applauding Haydon's attack to the very echo, folluwing his footsteps to Spring Gardens, taking away a group in anger from the Acadeiuy to send it where Solomon had hung, threatening to throw his diploma for associate into the fire, when intreated to accept it, if not made Academician the next year — uttering vengeance if they placed liiui with the singers at the dinner — and affirming, if they did, he would leave the room. Laugh- ing at, sneering at, ridiculing and calumniating the whole body to his friends ; suddenly, in a morning's walk to Lord Ravensworth's, to see his bronzes with Haydon, he altered his whole tone. He kindly lec- tured Haydon on the injustice of his principles, he said he must re- linquish them, and hoped Haydon would follow his example. In he went, and joined the men he despised — and ended by leaving them his vast fortune, that the Institution he had decried, because it would not reform, might be able to defy that very reform, he had all his pre- vious life declared was essential. Never was such an awful hit, of solemn sarcasm, at human consis- tency! Lastly comes the most amiable of God's creatures — too unconscious of his own great position, to feel its height, after beating the cursed monopoly on its own ground, and signing for ever its death warrant for exclusive employment; Ae consented to tear off the seal, erase the signature, and under the belief he could influence their de- cisions to be more in union with public duty, melted his individual eminence into their leaden mass, and resigned the very power of doing the very good he aimed at, by descending from his exalted height, from which alone he could have accomplished the public good he so naturally disired. It is by this treachery of the human heart to principle, throughout the history of the species, man, that humanity has endured so much. What keeps the worst government so long in existence after their iniquity is acknowdedged, but the instinctive treachery of the crea- tures to each other who wish to overthrow it. Nothing could have kept the Academy so long tyrannising over the profession, but the treachery of those who panted for its reform. Mediocrity bears genius a nausea from birth ; it will lick the feet, kiss the chains, and hug the serfism of the tyranny it abhors and crouches under, rather than a leader of talent should extricate it from its slavery, and be afforded a chance of proving his own genius. Mankind never bend to genius, but when tbeir property or eusteace 346 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September, are at stake, and the danger to tlieir selfishness is great enough to make them forget their hatred of his gifts ; if they be saved by his inspirations, how they cheer, bow they triumpli, how they bend, how they exult, with almost as much enthusiasm and delight as they would follow him to the block or the gallows. Our virtues are built on our vices, our power lies in our weakness, and next to the disgust at being born, is the disgrace of belonging to such a species. Of all human farces enacted, commend me to the Academy dinner! It is unquestionably the most brilliant imposture in Europe ? I have witnessed this "Comedie" for forty years! — the same speeches — the same healths — the same anticipation of great things, the same perpe- tuation of small ones — the same row of tip-toes — the same Lords, and ladies, and chancellors — the same wigs — tlie same clouds — the same bits of column, and curtain, and rod coat — the same silks, the same satins — the same doing the amiable — the same doing the intellectual — the same doing the sentimental — the same doing the dandy and the beauty — the member and the mayor — the Peer and Prince — the same discussions during claret on the tone of Lady Mary's bonnet, and Lady Charlotte's cheek— the same heat, the same gossip — the same "Non Nobis," &c., — the same " Hail Star," &c. — the same wine — the same ennui; when up they all get full of loyalty and line arts— the minis- ters to their cliques, the members to their clubs, the artists to their indigestion and blue pill, those who have no centres cursing those who have, and retiring to sleep, if they can, with vengeance in their livers, believe they have advanced High Art? Tell me a vaudeville equal to this — tell me a Molitre, who can exceed it — tell me a delusion of Bedlam that can beat it. Would 1 abolish it? certainly not ; abolish the Academy dinner, and the next shooting season, the artist would be shown to the housekeeper's table ! Would I destroy the Academy? Not I — though it is a slavish organ of the vanities of fashion, it is a bulwark against its insolence! Reform it, my respectable, friends, cleanse it — sweep it — preserve it — scrape it — whitewash it — re-model and reconsider it laws, fit them for the time — new fashion its consti- tution— double the paltry salary of its officers — unite it with the people, and raise its importance, and the art will be saved and the Academy too. It is at present, with all its faults, a beautiful charity for theafllicted, and perfection itself in providing objects for the use of its funds. Its charity will always be in request whilst its despotism is never con- trouled ; and if Europe should wish to know the secret of providing the lazar house with patients, they have only to consult [the Hanging Committee of Trafalgar Square. To conclude, it is hoped this just and necessary exposure of the Keeper will shew him the responsibily of his position. There is no youth so sensitive to cruelty as a student in art, and there is nothing so cruel as a wanton exercise of power, because you possess it, at the expense of the pride and delicacy of a youth of talent, who, after days and nights of anxiety and diligence, brings, with a beating heart, the result of his labours for the judgment of one, intrigue has placed above him, without one half his knowledge, and who, secure in his Keeper- ship, and his imagined superiority, proves it not by cheering on a deserving boy, but by hooting him down, at the expence of his peace, and the best feelings of his being. Mr. Seguier's kindness enabled the youth to regain his self-confi- dence, but had tue Keeper of the National Gallery been an Acade- mician, he would have backed the Keeper of the Academy, and pre- vented this boy from exhibiting his talents to the public. Luckily for art and himself he was not, and this brings us to the question, in No. 3, how far Academicians ought to be allowed any position out of the Aca- demy, or ought to have anv chance given them, by the Minister, of ex- tending their pernicious influence beyond their own walls, still reeking with the slime of the crawling creatures of sixty-eight. TiMON. ON THE PRESENT STATE, PROSPECTS, AND THEORY OF PAINTING. Sir, — I congratulate you on the appearance of a second Timon ; and I agree with much, and sympathise with more, of what he says ; but he, who self-evidently is a man of talent, and of no common grade, must not be permitted to croak, nor does it become the Athenian more than his assumed disguise, which should have been a Spartan's garb. Timon is a disappointed man, and so am I; yet methinks I say cor- rectly that such men do not always see clearly, and attribute to the true cause much, very much, of their alleged neglect, and more of their lack of pelf: society, in all ages, has been charged, perhaps too loosely, with ingratitude to its benefactors, and I, having personally felt some of it, know the fact, and often have I seen it exemplifieil in some of my dearest friends, among whom I could tell names of no little worth ; but we must not forget that such men toil over things often above their individual resources, and always of slow not every-duy sale, the trader then, if I may use the term, must be — poor. High art has confessedly been neglected, but what has not ? Southey justly said, " It requires one man's life to develope a principle, and that of another to see it enforced;" and vpell may it be so, in this kingdom especially, where all is left to individual enterprise or com- mercial speculation; but, 1 say fearlessly, high art will rise, the second advent of painting is at hand ; and, fostered by a British Parliament, enforced by a Royal Commission, that Commission, save one » defect, constituted mure liberally than any which has existed before, — so free from all possible bias, the veriest caviller cannot charge upon it one factor one probability of prejudice or favour; thus fostered, I say, and thus enforced, patronized by his Queen and her liberal-minded consort, British art shall daily advance, and, surrounded by a halo of native glory, shall astound the world. But to return : we want a prac- tical board of works, and a free, open, unsophisticated yearly exposi- tione. It is said more than two thousand works of merit were refused by the Royal Academy lately : this, indeed, is a disgrace, a real blot on the [lage of English history ; nor does the beauty, the size, or the ar- rangement of the National Gallery lessen the stain. We have, how- ever, achieved some improvement; those miserable efforts of a narrow mind which crept only into name and notoriety in the path of bigotry and fanaticism, — those cruel libels upon worth which called forth Byron's satire, — " Europe's worst dauber England's best, — " these have been removed by or under the present curator, — but no management can avail us much ; never, never can this abortion of a National Gallery vie with the Louvre of the present day, and much less of that of Napoleon's; nor, indeed, can it vie with the Stafford gallery, or other private collections of mighty worth. Let Timon look more to the defects of the system than of the men : let him doff the Cynic's garb and struggle on: I, for one, will twine a laurel round his head, for I am sadly wrong if I do not recognise the head which has earned one. But why so much gall in the ink? 'Twill flow without freely. Why so personal towards Sir Robert Peel? and, more, why so heavy on Eastlake ? — both are men, and, " Humanum est errare." Peel is confessedly a lover of the arts : Eastlake a gentle- manly, thinking, assiduous, nay indefatigable and honourable man, a most respectable artist, and confessedly the best read one, with the best artistic library in England : the very faults which Timon alludes to are highly creditable to him as a secretary. What, in the name of luiman reason, can be do but accumulate facts, on fresco, for instance, however the whole may become a conglomeiite ? Fresco never yet was practised by man with one single ray of light from true theory — the rule of practice ; on the contrary, all, all has been chance and ca- price, equally as regards the lime and the pigment — the beauty and the permanence. Hitherto we have progressed little; and assuredly the so-called frescos of the late exhibition give us infant hope alone, and that, as a consequence, the base on which the whole were raised was bad — the laths and rough-cast rotten and ill-applied, merely made, in fact, like the razors of Pindar's Jew, to " sell, not to shave," to fill the pockets of the colourman alone, as shopkeepers, not one of whom either knevv the nature or properties of cements, a web the more than of " All the poor compounds which they sell ;" this was covered by plaster nearly worthless, and no blame, good Timon, to the Commissioners either, for they had read and listened, inquired, and of good men and true, men of worth and genius like Cor- nelius, and Morr, and Overbeck : but of what avail ? Cornelius copied the one of two lines of ancient practice — the long keeping of lime : Cornelius had used it again and again, and therefore warranted it, precisely as the old woman warranted her magpie, to live an hundred years ; but Cornelius has not yet lived half the hundred to see the effect ! Eastlake, after unwearied and incessant research, recom- mended the practice of Pallomino — frequent washings — to which he added some keeping. So much for unenlightened practice, and that from a climate infinitely different from ours ; and on such a compound — one might almost have said compost — artists new to the practice, ignorant of the theory, biassed perhaps also by the rude aspirations of » The palpable defect of haviug: no scientific as well as artistic aid ; on the valuable secretary is tlierefore thrown the judgment of matters requiring other qualifications, and leaving liim open eitlier to publish error, directly or indirectly, through sheer theoretic — where he would need—" practical" advice. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 347 such persons as have written on the suhject,- although proclaiming themselves in every page ignorant of the first elements of science, — ■ such men, I sjy, under such circumstances, painted for exhibition in- stead of for school. We cannot wonder, then, at the miserable daubs we saw. The best were highly laboured — far too highly laboured fresco — glazed, shall I say? no, blackened by ten times too much tempera linishing for the then approaching exhibition of Bartholomew fair. Alas, what havoc and ruin a sponge and rain-water would achieve on the field of King John's shield, the gorgeous purple of his robes, or the sweet face of Sir Thomas More's daughter in his prison- house, — or aglios less laboured, and dei gratia less savoured recollec- tions of Naples! and how long would the mechanical ni?atness of Maclise's Knight bear it? And yet, will fresco be adopted on fixed principles, and with suc- cessful results, by the perseverance of Englishmen. Timon has only to forget all he has read, and use his brains : fresco, though assuredly adapted best to mighty halls and majestic domes, might be used in the niches of a baby-house, and there the theory is simple. If a perma- nent stucco be the sine qua non of fresco — and caustic lime be as ne- cessary to the stucco — caustic lime is also the sine qua non of fresco : nothing, I humbly conceive, can be more palpable ; therefore the pig- ments must be adapted to the lime, not the lime, by deterioration, to them ; and it matters not what the nature of it, whether by marble dust or whiting, or carbonic acid^ from the atmosphere, or from some extra superfine carbonates made by wire-gauze chemistry at peculiar temperatures, in artificiallv ventilated vessels of thermometric con- stitution ; in plain linglish, be the so-called amelioration what it may, it is but the same dead hit at theoretic Salraagundyism I Now to incaustic, well enough in its way, but not well enough for US: neither adapted to our smoky atmosphere nor coal-fire warmth, — nor, if Armitage's Fates be a specimen, or the hidian-redism of the Royal Exchange be a proof, worthy of our wasting much space in what Cornelius, in his politiness, declared a " very fine situation," although, when he said so, Benjamin Hawes' chimney vomited, like a second Vesuvius, clouds of alkaline vapour, sulphur, and cockney smoke 1 Distemper, or tempera, and oil, are of more worth : in either, or both, shall the talent of this day go down to posterity without a blush from Timon's cheek. To the first two, for I am not among the persons who at all identify them, I will merely say, permanence depends wholly and solely on the individual permanence of each pigment in use — nothing nuist be left to, or expected from, the vehicle, be it gum, white of egg, saccharine mucilage, or gelatinous matter from isniglass or size, — but cohesion, bearing-out, and freedom from crack. In oil the case is reversed, — everything depends on the vehicle, of which I give you this proof: lead which is inherently chargeable is, for oil painting, fully equal to, if not surpassing, ultramarine. I do not despise a colour because it is individually permanent, — it is always valuable to have such for oil as well as water ; but it is not, as generally and foolishly imagined, a sine qiui non : every experienced man, among artists as well as con- noiseurs, knows that, in practical effect, ultramarine can and does change ; the oil rises and forms a skin— this skin becomes yellow, and hence the frequently green tone of ultramarine skies; whereas fine flake white, or, what is infinitely better, either sulphate or muriate of lead, in a vehicle which mill 7tol rise — or which prevents the rise of oil — becomes permanent in defiance of ages; hence, many fine old pic- tures painted with inferior pigments to any now used by the common house painter. Theoretic writers like Merimee, whose oil copal quackery to "brighten colours without drying them more quickly," amply proves he knew notjiing of the true principles of permanence — for a recent pic- ture is garish enough, and oil copal increases that disposition to skin which ought to be restrained — these writers, I say, vend a mass of twaddle also respecting testing colours by sulphuretted hydrogen, which is little better than nonsense : strip the oldest and best picture in ex- istence of protecting varnish, and this gas will blacken it in twenty seconds, — what value, then, has it as a test of practical worth among pigments? As a vital caution, then, send M'Gellup and boiled oil and gumption with physic to the dogs, as ignes fatui of the art. Paint with fine poppy oil, or, for larger pictures, linseed oil bleached by light, but never rendered more drying by oxides,' for there half the secret lies ; nut oil, for instance, which is deceptive and useless here, 2 One Weld Taylor published on fresco, and tolls you, for instance, hydrate of lime, that which we make in and by slaking, is a salt indigenous to limestone ' That vermi- lion, which is black sulplmret of mercury " reddened by heat," has a tendency to " blacken by heat," &c. &c. 1 ! a M. Vicat and other sheer theorists speak of this carbonic acid as the source of age and hardness in cemunts, whereas it is very obviously the source of pulverulence and decay. 4 Such a dryer lias been given to the secretary for publication, and at no trifling sacri- fice, by one of my personal (riends. except for grinding colours in, rises as soon, and yellows as much, as the commonest linseed. It is, moreover, a bad dryer '^ in this region, and all similar ones, still it would be the best of the three for Italy, South America, or the East Indies; and the picture drying without skin, dries without yellowing, and ultimately without horn; it only then requires three or four months to season and harden, when, after being washed with soft water with a slight dash of gall, a coat of good old mastic varnish will carry it down the stream of time. Mastic I prefer, because it can be rubbed oil" by the finger and a little resin powder, and replenished or renewed as often as you please with- out injuring the picture; whereas all varnishes requiring so/«?i/s re- quire such agency as acts on the glazing; hence no man who values his painting trusts it to those empirics who call themselves picture cleaners. I must defer to a future period the subject of the Attramentum of Apelles, — the various impostures now happily dying a natural death, under the spurious soubriquets of glass media, silica media, &c. &c. and the errors of Reynolds ; until which, with a smile as well as a tilt for the patriot Timon, I am, yours, WiLHELM DE WiNTERTON. September ICdh, 1844. ST. MARGARET'S CHURCH, WESTMINSTER. Sir — In your last month's number, I read an article on Saint Margaret's Church, near to Westminster Abbey, which induced me to visit the " venerable temple founded by Saint Edward," fully expect- ing to find that " rebuilt by Edward IV." I agree with Mr. Bardwell, that an •'accumulation of buildings" is advantageous to Gothic Architecture, and that the position of Saint Margaret's Church would not injure the eflTect of the Abbey Church ; and 1 would be the last person to advocate the ri'moval of an archi- tectural gem. The Cathedral at York is not injured by its Chapter- house, nearly in the position of St. Margaret's Church, to the north- east of that noble structure, (and I may apply this remark to most of our Cathedrals and Abbeys,) nor were any of the buildings, erected by, and for the several uses of those who worshipped in them, con- structed otherwise than in perfect harmony with, and so as to give the best effect to the exaltations of the temple of the Creator, above the abodes of his creatures. Were St. Jllargaret's Church worth preserving, I would not care for the JIbky Church, as by its removal, the desecrations of the splendid north transept would be exposed, vihic\\ viexe perpetrated when the western towers were built by the rebuilder of this " venerable tem- ple " of the Edwards ; why it has not externally one ancient feature ! — its bare unbuttressed walls, its uncusped elliptic windows, and modern builders' square coped parapets; and then its tower — see the octagon buttresses with square sunk panelling, square headed belfry windows, with those winged heads in spandrels, grinning or cryingybr shame of their position — the plain ten of diamonds parapet, and corner pinnacles, which would e'en make Mr. Compo stare. Away with this abortion, this vile deformity, enclose its sacred site, and thus, let us hallow the bones of our forefathers. I would rebuild on another site a Church as unlike tliis as possible, for I verily imagine that this was the very church recommended to the modern Compo's as of moderate dimensions, and being within sight of the Church Commissioners' Office, was by them considered a standard or test by which the merits of modern Gothic designs should be tried : hence the Metropolitan Gothic Churches of the last 20 years. I would recommend the inhabitants of Westminster to ask the opinion of the Camden or the Oxford Architectural Societies on the merits of this Church, as they are certainly the best judges of the day, though far from infallible ; as an antiquary and lover of the true principles of architectural composition, I remain your friend and old subscriber, DiONYSlUS. Walworth Road, Sept. 2, 1844. 348 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September, THE SAFETY BEACON ON THE GOODWIN SANDS. The foUoH'ing extract from a private letter in the Times, dated Deal, Sept. 17, written by a gentleman who was an eye-witness to the late operations on the Goodwins, and who has taken a deep interort in the success of the safety beacon, may be interesting to our readers : — " Captam Bullock has just com- pleted the replacement of his safety beacon on the Goodwin Sands, which was run down by a careless Dutchman some weeks ago. It now stands erect on those dangerous sands, the record of a simple design, which has led to attempts of a similar humane and praiseworthy character, but of a more elaborate and costly descriptson. It is affixed upon the same principle as the first, with an improvement in its base. This is now composed of iron instead of wood : and it consequently penetrates further into the sand than the former. From the stability of the materials of which it is composed there is no doubt, ' barring accidents' of a similar nature the last, it will last for years. A proof thus far has been obtained that beacons of refuge may now be placed upon any sand. Tlie honour of having led the way to these useful undertakings (even after this simple contrivance shall have been eclipsed, by the substitution of beacons of a more durable description) is due to Captain Bullock. There is no doubt that the first beacon of refuge has been the happy means of saving both life and property, answering the double purpose of a warning and a refuge. It has cautioned the unwary of the. proximity to danger, and has been a guide even to those who were aware of its erection in the constant communication between Dover and Ostend. During my visits to the Goodwins, while the beacon was in the course of re-erection, my attention was particularly drawn to the fact, that the foundation of the former beacon remained unmoved and nnabsorbed. Day after day I walked upon the mass of chalk deposited by Captain Bullock, now four years ago. In consequence of this circumstance I perceive that Captain Bullock has resorted to his former plan by throwing upon the same foundation between 50 and GO tons of concrete blocks, chalk, and shingle, all of which have stood unchanged during the continuance of the late calm weather. The tide, so strong as it passes the shallow, has had no visible effect upon the mass, around which the sand had accumulated nearly two feet in height, and H now remains as the result of a most interest- ing and successful experiment. The present gale (while I am writing) from the southward will prove whether it will eventually stand against the boiling surf, by which it will be surrounded and assailed. I liave myself very little fear for the heavy concrete blocks which constitute the base ot the cone ; but I think it very likely that the upper portions of the undefended and loose shingle may be disarranged, and the cone somewhat flattened down. It is, however, but an experiment, and the problem will probably be demonstrated that human skill and ingenuity cannot overcome the formidable Goodwins with small means, and that man cannot successfully wage ' a little war' with such a foe. However, I must say, from all 1 have heard, that the Lords of the Admiralty have behaved in the most kind and handsome manner to Capt. Bullock, in enabling him to possess thus far every facility for carrying out his humane and highly praiseworthy undertaking." FIRE-PROOF WAREHOUSES AT LIVERPOOL. The noble pile of warehouses now being erected for Mr. Brancker, is un- questionably the largest yet erected in Liverpool, occupies the three fronts of Great Ilowaid Street, Dublin Street, and Dixon Street, and covers 4,433 square yards of land, being only 407 yards less tlian an acre. It is divided into eleven warehouses, of something less than 400 square yards each, not including the walls. The external walls are 3 J bricks thick, and the division walls are 3 bricks. When completed, the warehouses will be 05 feet high, and will have six stories of rooms, besides the basement or cellar story. Every window throughout the pile is to be glazed with large sheets of plate glass, and each is protected by a strong wrought-irou shutter, secured to an iron frame. The floors are formed by iron girders or beams, resting on columns of great strength, and are all secured together by wrought iron coupUng bars. The bearing beams rest on large blocks, made of Welsh fire- clay, and brick arches of 9 inches thick are to be thrown from beam to beam, the lateral thrust of the arches being counteracted by wrought iron tie rods, strongly secured to the beams, which are placed horizontally every C feet on the average. These connecting rods are \\ inches square, and are tested to resist a tension of 35 tons each. Every bearing beam is also tested by a lever press, at the building, to bear on its centre a pressure of 38 tons, which is equivalent to a weight of four tons on each square yard. The floors of the whole structure are to be laid with Welsh fire tiles, bedded in Terras mortar — there being an intervening strata of sand to prevent the fracture of the arches should heavy goods be thrown down upon them. The entrance doors are made double — that is, of two separate plates rivetted together, having a cavity of an inch between them, with six small air holes, so that if either side of the door became heated, the other side would be comparatively cool. The various rooms have also iron double doors of communication, each door being placed on the internal face of the wall, so as to leave a space of two feet between them. The staircases are enclosed from the rooms by walls of two bricks thick. These staircases are 18 feet long, by 7 feet 6 inches broad, and all the steps are of Yorkshire stone. Each staircase is to be provided with an upright main, of 6 inches diameter, ^vhich is to be supplied with water from the mains about to be laid down by the Sewerage Commissioners, and which, from the pressure of the Low-hill reservoir, will always be full of water. On each landing there is to be a brass stop-cock screwed, to fit either the hose kept on the premises (00 feet long being appropriated to each room), or it will fit the hose of the Commissioners and Fire Police, so that in case of fire there will be an abundant supply of water on each land- ing, and instantly available. Small apertures are provided through which the branch can be inserted, and as each room will be perfectly air-tight, it will be impossible, if a fire occurs, for it to break out into flame. The stair- cases are so admirably constructed, that if every room in the building was on fire, men may he placed m perfect security on each landing, and pour a continuous stream of water into every room. All the entrance doors are recessed back from the fronts of the building, and there are no projecting cat-heads or pent-houses beyond the line of the edifice. The roofs are all to be formed of wrought iron trusses, covered with Welsh slates ; and parapet walls are to he built between each warehouse for additional security. Great attention seems to be paid to the drainage, there being three large dry wells of 5 feet diameter and 20 feet deep, and barrel sewers are being carried from all parts of the cellars into these wells. The whole of these magnificent buildings have been designed, and are being erected, by Messrs. Samuel and James Holme. — Liverpool Journal. MILLSTONES. M. Guevin Bouchon and Company sent to the Exposition of France seve ■ ral millstones. Among them was one of Train's aiJriferous millstones, the arrangement of which allows the circulation of cold air under the millstones, in order to prevent the heating, which so often does injury to the grist. These millstones are generally 1'3 metre (4 ft. 3 in.) in diameter, and are Fig. 1. Fig. 2. thus formed. Four orifices, a a, starting from near the centre of the mill- stone to within 5i| inches of the periphery, and pierced sloping, are made through the whole thickness of the stone. The mill is provided in the centre with a cast iron eye or box, b, in the form of a cone reversed, and on its ex- ternal part a wrought iron circle, c, covering by about 8 inches the upper surface of the millstone. Iron plates, d, are strongly rivetted on to the iron eye and circle, some incUned 45° over the orifices, others forming quadrants or curbs, e, perpendicular to the great circle, and serving to lead the air, which is thus forced to pass into the orifices, a. By these means a current of air is produced by the rotation of the millstone. Rouen.— A correspondent of the Athenaeum observes, " a respect for the monuments of antiquity, which so especially characterise this place, is felt ; and at the present time, the buildings at the east end of the Palais de Justice, having been pulled down, are to be replaced by a wing corresponding with that at the west side of the build, ing, now in course of erection; and it was only last week that the Pri-fct p.aid a visit to the crypt beneath the church of St. Oer^•ais (the oldtst Christian erection in France), with the view of examining into the practicability of removing the white-wash with which some portion of the walls are covered, on w hich, by-the-bye, traces of painting are still visible. A church, also, on a magnificent scale is now nearly finished on the top of the hill next to Mount St. Catherine, through which latter mountain the railway tunnel is now in pro- gress of formation. Besides tliis, a IVluseum of departmental antiquities has been recently established, and is already infinitely superior to anything of the kind we have in England. It now occupies two sides of a quadrangle, in the middle of which are placed stone coffins, and other objects too large for the interior of the Museum, which is lighted by a series of stained glass windows of great beauty, rescued from one of the old Abbeys. Of tile con- tents of this Museum, it will scarcely be necessary to speak at length, as it is what it pur. ports to be,— a collection of archaeological antiquities of this part of France from the earliest periods : statues, coins, charters, armour and arms. Implements of all kinds, glass and crockery ware of all ages, reliquaries, carvings, models, ancient paintings, &c., ar- ranged mth a taste worthy to be tak«n as a pattern for a similar coUection in our own National Museum." 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 340 REPORT ON THE ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. To the Committee of Manaijement of the Cromford and Higlt Peak Railwaij. Gentlemen — Agreeably to the instructions which I received at the meeting, held on the 7tli of March last, I proceeded shortly afterwards, ac- companied by Mr. Brittlebank, to Dublin, to examine the Amospheric Rail- way between Kingstown and Dalkey, and to ascertain whether or not the principle might be applied with advantage to our inclined planes. In our investigition we received every attention from the gentlemen connected with the undertaking, and were not only allowed to examine every part of it mi- nutely, but were also furnished with every information derived from their own experience. For the information of those gentlemen who may not be conversant with the principle of the invention, I will explain its peculiarities in contrast with those of other railways, as carried out, and in daily operation at Kingstown. On ordinary railways, the train or load is moved along by means of an en- gine, attached thereto, and moving with it ; on the contrary, on the Atmos- pheric principle, the load is moved by means of a stationarii engine, at a considerable distance from, and totally unconnected with it; differing, how- ever, not oidy from railways where the locomotive engine is used, but also from those on which the stationary engine is the propelling power ; inas- much, as the rope is entirely dispensed with, and its place supplied by the pressure of the Atmosphere. This therefore, forms the peculiar feature of the system, and constitutes the difference between it and all other modes of propulsion on railways. The means by which the principle is put in practice, are simply these : — Between the rails, and along the entire length of an ordinary single line of railway, a pipe is laid of, say, fifteen inches diameter. This is connected at one end by a steam engine, the power of which, is applied to a large air pump, which being set to work, pumps out or exhausts the air from the interior of the pipe. Within this pipe is a piston, or plug, which works freely along its entire length; but, nevertheless, so tight that but little air can pass from one side to the other. This being so far understood, it is clear, that by pumping out the air from the front side of the piston, the pressure of the atmosphere on the bacic of, or behind it, will force it forward with a velocity dependant, 1st, on the degree of rarifaction of the air in front of the piston ; 2nd, on the weight of the load to be drawn ; and 3rd, on the inclination of the railway. The great difficulty however, and that which yet remains to be explained, is, how to communicate the power which is inside the pipe, to the load which is outside. To accomplish this, there is a longitudinal opening or slot on the upper side of the pipe, which is continued throughout its en- tire length. In this opening there is a bar of iron, which is attached below to the piston within the pipe ; and, above, to the leading carriage of the Iraiu, or rather one used exclusively for that purpose, to which the train is attached ; so that if the former moves along the latter must move with it. It is evident, however, that during the time the engine is at work, exhausting the air from the pipe, the opening or slot of that portion of it, which is be- tween the engine and the piston, must be closed perfectly, or as nearly as possible, air tight, otherwise a vacuum could not be formed. This is effected by means of a leather valve, hinged on one side of the opening, over which it falls, and extending its entire length, perfectly covers and closes the whole of it. This valve is covered with iron plates both on its upper and undei sides, for the purpose of strengthening it, and is rendered more perfectly air tight by means of a composition of wax and tallow, into which the outer edge falls when closed. A heater attached to the carriage completes the process by melting the composition as it runs along its surface, and effectually seals it in readiness for re-exhaustion. There are other valves, hut of a different description, which close across the pipe, and by means of which, it is separated into divisions ; one of these is placed at that end of the pipe which is opposite to the engine, so that when closed, the pumping can commence, and a vacuum be formed at any time, so as to be in constant readiness. When the train is about starting, and the air pump has produced a sufEcient vacuum, as indicated by the baro- meter, the travelling carriage, with the train attached, is moved by hand until the piston enters the open end of the pipe, within a short distance of which the closed separating valve is placed. This valve, immediately on the entrance of the piston, falls down, by means of a self-acting apparatus, and the pressure of the atmosphere is instantly transferred from it to the piston, and motion forthwith commences. During the passage of the train, the longitudinal leather valve has to be raised or opened, to allow the bar before spoken of, as connecting the piston wit/iin the pipe to the train on the outside, to pass ; this is done by means of a roller attached to the piston frame, within the pipe, which is placed a little in advance of the bar, but behind the piston; and which, as it passes along, raises the valve just sufficient to allow the bar to pass, which being done, the valve falls into its place again, and is immediately pressed down by another roller which follows for that purpose ; the heater follows and seals the composiliion. and the whole is then ready for the next train. The Atmospheric Railway, at Kingstown, is 1-J miles in length, and in that distance, rises by variable gradients i)l feet, which is equal to 1 in 115, or about 52 feet per mile. It has a main or pipe of 15 inches diameter, and is exhausted by an air pump of G7 inches diameter, and S.J feet stroke ; worked by a steam engine of 100 horse power, making about 20 strokes, and dis- charging upwards gf 5000 cubic feet of air per minute. The degree of ex- haustion varies with the load ; but for ordinary passenger trains, it ranges on the barometer from 12 to 16 inches of mercury, which is equivalent to a pressure of from 6 to 8 pounds per square inch. The trains weigh from 15 to 20 tons, and the time occupied in working the engine for each, is about G minutes ; that is, 2^ minutes in exhausting the main, and 3-i in working the train up the IJ miles. Hence the mean rate of travelling is about 30 miles an hour, but the greatest speed occurs about the middle of the journey, at which point the train moves at a rate of 40 miles an hour. The railway does not appear to be by any means adapted for high velocities, there being curves upon it which have a radius of not more than 500 feet ; but this I be- lieve was unavoidable, the railway having to follow the line of an old tram road, which had been used for the conveyance of stone from the (juarries at Dalkey ; as a mere experiment, however it is valuable, inasmuch as it proves that curves of so short a radius may be traversed at a speed of from 30 to 40 miles an hour without danger. Without entering into the subject of the Atmospheric Railway, beyond the legitimate object which we have in view, I may here remark that the application of the principle to a long, single line of railway, with an exten- sive, irregular, and miscellaneous traffic, would appear to me, in the present state of our knowledge of its capabilities, an experiment of doubtful success ; confined however, to such lines as would not require that trains should be travelling in opposite directions at the same time, and to situations where good locomotive gradients, could not at a reasonable expense be obtained ; the invention offers advantages which are not found in, nor could be accom- plished so well, so safely, or so economically by any other with which we are at present acquainted. But, before making any further remarks on this part of the subject, I will proceed in considering it with reference to its applica- tion to our Inclined Planes. In order to shorten and simplify the enquiry, I purposely omitted entering upon anything which might be considered as common to both systems, and confined myself to those points only, in wliich they might be expected to differ. Limiting my investigation therefore exclusively to the mode of ap- plying the power; 1 directed my attention, first, to its mechauical practica- bility ; secondly, to the comparitive loss of power ; thirdly, to the working expenses, near and tear, &c. ; fourthly, to llie requisite permanent outlay ; and lastly, to its comparative advantages and disadvantages. As regards the first subject of enquiry, namely, its mechanical practicabi- lity ; I found that the working parts of such as are most subject to wear, were by no means of a complicated character, nor such as would require either elaborate workmanship, or other than the most common materials in their construction ; consequently, neither from their form or material, are they such as, under ordinary circumstances, would easily be deranged, or soon worn out, or require other than common workmen and labourers for their repair, renewal, or management. Exclusive of minute details, the only parts subject to wear are the piston, and the valve which covers the pipe ; the latter being merely a strip of leather between iron plates, protected from the influence of the weather by the composition of wax and tallow, and merely raised a httle out of its placft once for each train, can scarcely be said to be subject to wear of any kind. The same may almost be said of the piston, which is simple and strong, and requires no further attention than the application of a little grease occasion- ally, and the renewal once a week, or so, of the leather packing, which can be done by an ordinary workman, or even an intelligent labourer. On the whole, therefore, there is nothing whatever in the system which would re- quire a superior description of men to those which we now employ, nor any thing which they could not comprelieud and manage as well as their present employment. The second object of my enquiry, and one which I considered of great im- portance, was to ascertain the precise lose of power, from leakage. I was the more anxious for satisfactory information on this head, because the sub- stitution of a rope of air, for one of hemp or iron, has been much dwelt upon, and the difference of their weight and friction considered as an addi- tion to the nett available power : but however plausible this may appear, it is possible that a loss of power may arise to as great an extent from pumping out the superfluous air from a pipe, as in moving a heavy chain or rope ; and if it should be found that the loss from leakage in the one case is equal to the loss from friction in the other, it would be evident that in this respect no advantage would be gained by one as compared with the other. The loss from leakage on the atmospheric system (supposing the permanent joints to be perfectly tight) can only arise, first, from the longitudinal valve ; second, from the travelling piston; and third, from the air pump piston. The loss from the latter, whatever its amount, which however cannot be great, is permanent and irremediable. That arising from the travelling pis- ton, is also, to a certain extent, permanent, but less in proportion as the velocity increases and the degree of exhaustion is diminished, while that from the longitudinal valve, which I consider the source of by far the greatest part, is proportioned to its length, and the degree of exhaustion of the main, dimiuishing of course as the piston approaches the engine : the loss, how- ever, from this cause depends much on the attention paid to the state of the valve and the sealing composition. On our inclined planes, the loss of power, wliich arises from the weight and friction of the chain and other causes, amounts to about thirty per cent. ; and, judging from information which I obtained at Kingstown, that arising from leakage on the atmospheric system is as nearly the same as possible. This estimate of the loss is confirmed by some experiments made by Mr. Stephenson, the particulars of which were given me by the engineer of the railway, in one of which the loss from 350 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September, leakage was 33 per cent., and in the other 25 per cent. Ileuce, I was in- duced to conclude that the loss of power, whether caused by friction in the one case, or by leakage in the other, is as nearly as possible the same in both. We arc now come to the third subject of enquiiy, namely, the working e.xpenses, wear and tear, &e. On our inclined planes, we have seven miles of chain in work, weighing 70 tons, whicli last on an average, four years, and cost about .^18 per ton; 70 tons at ;£18 per ton, amounts to £1260, £ s.d. which divided by 4 gives an annual expense for chains, of . . 315 0 0 We have also about 1500 puUies, or rollers, which weigh J cwt. each, cost £10 per ton, and last about seven years. Hence 1500 rollers at J cwt. each, weigh 56 tons, which at £10 per ton, amounts to £560, and divided by 7, gives an annual expense of .... 80 0 0 Axles, wood bearings, &c 10 0 0 Sundries, such as large wheels, chain wheel, segments, preventers, tackling chains, shackles, coal, tools, damage, &c., 100 0 0 Wages, estimated at 100 0 0 £605 0 0 la ascertaining the working expenses of the Atmospheric Railway, I was assured by the gentleman who superintends it, that the amount was so tri- fling that it might almost be left entirely out of the calculation ; indeed from the remarks already made with regard to the wear and tear it will be inferred that it cannot be large. The patentees allow in their £50 annually per mile, for the renewal of the travelling apparatus. If, therefore, we take this sum and £20 additional for piston leathers, grease, and sundries, we shall pro- bably have the annual cost sufHciently near for our purpose. £75 per annum therefore on 31 miles, will amount to £262 lOs., which, exclusive of the interest on the permanent outlay, shews an annual saving on the Atmos- pheric system of upwards of one half. I have purposely left out of the calculation everything relating to wages ; because, not only the same description, but also the same number of men would be employed in one case as the other. Proceeding with our enquiry, our next object is to ascertain the amount of permanent outlay which would be required in changing from one system to the other. Our inclined planes are nine in number, and together are Sj miles in length. Their inclinations vary from 1 in 6 to 1 in 16; hence, the Atmospheric mains necessary to enable us to draw the same weights, as we now do, must in one case be 27 inches, and in the other 17 inches diameter. The air pumps being proportionate to the power of the engines, would for the greatest be 44 inches, and for the least (leaving out the small engine at Whaley), 32 inches diameter. The estimates of the patentees shew that a main of 15 inches diameter, laid down and ready for use, would cost £3,350 per mile, and with the air pump £3,600. But much of the cost depends on the weight of material ; and, as ours would require to be at least one half heavier, in consequence of their increased size, we could not safely estimate the cost at less than £5,000 per mile, which for 3i miles would amount to £17,500. The interest on this sum at 5 per cent., would be £875 per annum, and added to the working expenses, wear and tear, &c. amounting to £262, would give the annual cost of the new system to us, at £1137 instead of £600 as on the present plan. It is clear therefore that whatever might ultimately be gained, nothing could be saved by the change ; while for any uncertain advantage which might he expected to result from it, we should have a certain increased ex- penditure to the extent of at least £500 a year. It now only remains that we should compare the advantages and disad- vantages of the two systems ; and, with this view we have to enquire, in what other respect the introduction of the atmospheric principle would be beneficial. The only object of importance which we should gain by the change, would be safety ; and although I am well aware of the value of perfect security, in working inclined planes, I am nevertheless of opinion, that for a mere mer- chandise traffic, the outlay of eighteen or twenty thousand pounds is consi- derably more than the object is worth ; besides, so far as relates to the safety of goods, we are now nearly as free from accidents, and damage arising there- from, as we should be under any system. If to this we add that under the atmospheric system we should be subject to inconveniences which we do not now experience ; it will tend further to shew, that for a merchandise traffic, we are best as we are. The inconve- niencies alluded to would arise in this way ; whenever a train of four or more waggons arrive at our inclined planes, they are, if loaded, drawn up in pairs, and as soon as one pair has reached the top, the other is immediately hung on at the bottom and drawn up without any further loss of time ; but on the atmospheric system, the train would be obliged to wait until the engine had exhausted the main, unless it had been prepared in readiness; and, when the first waggon had been drawn up, the next would not only have to wait until the main had been re-exhausted, but also as much longer as would be re- quired for the descent of the travelling apparatus ; making together, not less than six minutes delay between each pair of waggons, in addition to the time occupied in their ascent. The same kind of delay would occur to the descending waggons, with this additional disadvantage, that in order to raise the travelling apparatus between the descent of each pan: of waggons, the engine must be kept in constant work ; the same for downward as for up- ward traffic ; causing thereby, a considerable extra expense for coal and other requisites. There are a few other inconveiueaces -which would result from the cbange, but those which 1 have already pointed out, being of the greatest importance, and also quite sufficient to shew that the application of the principle to our inclined planes, is by no means desirable, it is needless now to mention them. From the preceding remarks it will, I think, appear evident, that the ap- plication of the atmospheric principle to our railway in its present state, so far from being any advantage, would, in fact, subject us not only to serious inconvenience, but to considerable additional expense, and that too, (so far as relates to our present traffic,) without any compensating benefit. It, how- ever, by no means follows, that the principle cannot, under any circumstances, be applied with advantage ; on the contrary, I am of opinion that it is pecu- liarly applicable to the circumstances of our railway, if properly carried out. I am. Gentlemen, Your very obedient Servant, Raihoay Office, Cromford, John Leonard. July 1st. 1844. METHODS OF PAINTING ADAPTED TO MURAL DECORATION. By 0. L. Eastlake, Esq., Secretary to the Royal Commission on the Fine Arts. Four modes of painting adapted for walls have been employed in ancient and modern times: Tempera, Encaustic, Fresco, and Oil-painting. The three tirst were known to the ancients ; the fourth method, invented by the mo- derns and originally applied to moveable works, has been also employed in mural decoration. Tempera is so commonly practised that it can hardly be necessary to enter into a minute description of its process. It has, however, an interest from its antiquity, and from its having been more generally in use in Italy than any other method, immediately before the introduction of oil-painting. This circumstance and certain difficulties in its practice appear, in some cases, to have led to a union of the two methods. Tempera is applicable to the sur- face of smooth dry stucco or to any similar levigated ground which lias either been incorporated or covered with a due proportion of size or glue. It docs not, like fresco, necessarily require to be executed at once, and admits of the use of all colours which are not prejudicial to each other. White lead is however excluded, because being unprotected in tempera from the action of certain gases, it soon loses its brightness. The white used is principally gesso marcio,^ to which white earths arc sometimes added. The binding vehicle may be formed of animal glutens, such as size, yolk of egg," &c., or of viscous fluids aud gums procured from the vegetable world, such as the milky juice of certain trees and plants, solutions of gum arable, gum traga- canth, &c.^ The practice of tempera-painting may be said to be carried to perfection in modern scene-painting, in which imitation is chiefly confined to large effects. But in this application of the art the difficulty of blending tints to the extent required in figure-painting, so as to equal the completeness and finish of oil-painting, is not encountered. The thinness of the vehicle and the almost immediate change of the tints in passing from the wet to the dry state renders a certain abruptness of execution unavoidable. This peculiarity is compatible with great truth of imitation when the work is seen at a suffi- cient distance, and the crispness of execution which is the result, is, with the moderns, the characteristic of tempera. The early Italian masters, when they painted altar-pieces in this method on cloth, endeavoured to attain the requisite finish by continually damping the back of the painting.' This enabled them to complete a given portion while in the wet state, and to give it any degree of softness that was desired. But this was only applicable to pictures executed on a thin and porous sub- stance ; tempera pictures on wood or on walls, in which finish is aimed at, cannot be so treated, without some modification of the vehicle or by con- tinually moistening the surface in front. Some of the early Florentines and painters of the neighbouring schools adopted a more laborious method, but less satisfactory in its result."' They attained the completeness they sought by minute hatchings. A tempera picture in the National Gallery, attributed to Perugino, is a specimen of this laboured process. The varieties of practice in the early examples of tempera, are also partly to be attributed to the varieties of the vehicle. The Greek illuminations in MSS. immediately preceding the 13th century, are generally painted in tem- pera with a very thick vehicle, and this system was adopted by the Italians, even for paintings of a much larger size, up to the time of Giotto. He ap- pears to have been the first to introduce a thinner medium. In his works, while the tints are blended, the minute handling, which is almost unavoidable with the older practice, is not apparent. The thinner vehicle was composed of yolk of egg diluted with water, and combined with the milky juice of 1 Plaster of Paris stirred with much water till it loses the power of * setting.' In the early Florentine descriptions of the process of tempera, white lead is mentioned ; this is a proof that paintings so executed must have been subsequently varnished, and accordingly the early Italiau worlds in tempera are always found to have been so treated. See " Cen- nini, Trattato," &c., p. 70. 2 The Italian writers restrict the term tempera to the vehicle of yolk of egg more or less diluted. The modern practice ifl to add, by degrees, a small wine-glass of white vine- gar to a yolk well beaten. 3 See "Armenini de Veri Lrecetti della Pittura." Kavenna, 1887, 1. 2, c. 8; and *' Vaaari," Introduzione, c. 20-25. > See "Armenini," ib. " Vasari," ib, c, 26. 5 "Armenini,""'' 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 351 shoots of the fig-tree." It may seem extraordinary, that this last material should have been detected by chemical analysis in an early Florentine pic- ture ; the result was however verified by the analysis of the milky juice of the fig-tree while fresh.' A painting executed with this vehicle is not very easily affected by water or by oil ; a varnish produces no other change than that of giving additional depth and lustre to the tints, and the colours do not dry so rapidly as in the ordinary practice of tempera. The fact that the more tenacious vehicle, with all its inconvenience, was revived or adhered to without change by other painters much later than Giotto, is not an uncom- mon instance in the history of art of attachment to habits, however defective, which time may have recommended. ^ The Italian artists of the 16th century had generally abandoned the prac- tice of tempera as an independent art,' and the examples of it are rare, espe- cially when applied to the decoration of walls. An instance occurs at Tras- corre, near Bergamo, in the private chapel of the Suardi family. The artist was Lorenzo Lotto. It appears from various passages in the lives of the Flemish painters,'" that tempera-painting was commonly practised among them. On all occa- sions of great public festivals, this rapid art was put in requisition,' ' and the tapestries which were executed in such abundance in Artois and Brabant, and which were wrought from cartoons coloured in tempera, had also greatly the effect of encouraging its practice. The schools of tempera-painting were to the Flemish artists what the Feria or market of Seville was to Murillo and his contemporaries.'- For (though the latter uniformly painted in oil) such demands had the effect of promoting facility of execution and a large style of imitation, the influence of which may be traced in the more complete works of the respective schools, different as their tendency was in other respects. The rage for temporary decorations in the cities of Flanders, to do honour to distinguished individuals, had the additional effect of promoting a taste for allegory. The most extravagant combinations and allusions were excused in ephemereal productions ; till by degrees the public were accus- tomed to such inventions ; and the greatest artists — aware of the value of such materials as conducing to picturesque effect, ventured to introduce them in more permanent works, and recommended them by their talents. The vehicles employed in tempera were suflicient to bind it when the colours were used in moderate thickness, but the danger of cracking prevented the application in much body. When therefore pictures in tempera appear to be executed with unusual substance, it may he suspected that other ingre- dients were added so as to give it sufficient tenacity, by which means it held a middle place between water-colour and oil-painting; the rapid drying which precluded the possibility of giving the work the requisite softness and completeness was at the same time prevented. The colours prepared for painting in this method may be mixed either with water or oil. There is every appearance in some unfinished pictures of the Venetian and other schools of the north of Italy that the tempera adopted by them was of this description, and it is also apparent, from such pictures, that the method was sometimes employed as a preparation for oil-painting. Various modes of this kind may be considered and described in an inquiry into the early process of oil-painting ; but lest too much importance should be attached to such preparations in tempera, it may be remembered that the practice of Rubens, Vandyke, and Rembrandt, supposes no such system. The tempera-painting of the ancients, (although from passages in their writers evidently a distinct art from encaustic,) appears to have been pro- tected by a coat of wax, and thus may not be easily distinguished, in actual remains, from encaustic painting. But it is probable that in every case where a finished tempera painting was thus varnished, the surface was first covered with some glutinous application before the liquid wax was added. Without this precaution, the mutual relation or ieeping of the tints would be in dan- ger of being altered. Other modes of protecting tempera, so as to render it washable, have been discovered by modern chemists. The description of an important invention of this kind is the subject of the next paper. The ancient Egyptian paintings were executed on a stucco consolidated with an animal gluten, probably the serous portion of blood. On this was a thin coat of wax, and on this again the paintings were executed with the same vehicle of serum.'" The stucco of the Greeks was sometimes consoli- dated with thick milk,"' their tempera vehicle appears to have been gum tragacauth (Sarcocolla),'''' size, yolk and white of egg, &c. In encaustic painting, wax was an ingredient from first to last. The pre- 0 See " Cennini," ib. ; " Vasari," ib., c. 20 1 " Borghini, II Riposo," 1. 2, &c. 7 See "DieFarben, Beitrag zur VervoUkomnung der Teehnik in melirereii Zweigen der MalereU voii Dr. Jacob Rons ; Heidelberg, 1828 ; Zweites Heft.," pp. fi3, 68. 8 The Italian tempera vehicle, in which gums are the chief ingredients, is prepared as follows; take one ounce of gum ti-agacanth, half an ounce of gum arable, one ounce of parchment shavings, (of white goat-skin,) half an ounce of isinglass, boil in two quarts of water till the fluid Is reduced to half its bulk. Before it is quite cold, add half i\ pint of spirits of wine, stirring well. 9 '* Armeniui," ib. 1 o " Descamps, la Vie des Peintres Flamands, &c.," Paris, 1753. Compare " Armenlni ' lb., and " Borghini," ib. ' » ■ 1 See "Cornelii C. Spectaculorum in susceptione Philippi Hisp. Prin. Divi Carol! v Ctea. f. an. 1549 Antverpiie editorum apparatus," Ant. 1550. On this occasion 233 painters were employed, and the total number of workmen amounted to 1726; Compare Robertson *' History of the Reign of Emperor Charles V,," book 9. * 12 "Cean Bermudez sobre el estilo y guato en la Pintura de la Escuela SeviUana Cadiz, 1806." p. 35. 13 See " Chemlsche Untersuchung Alt-iEgyptischer und Alt-Romlacher Parben &c von Professor Geiger, mlt Zusatznn und Bemerkungen Uber die Maler-Technik der Alten von Professor Roux." Karlsruhe, 1836, p. 32. Compare PUbv. 1. 28. c. 8. I H« Pliny, 1.36, 0.66; 1.36, c, 36. •- ;, »,•-.=. la lb, 1.35, c, 6; «e« also John, " Pie Mfllerei der Alten," Berlin, 1836, p, 166, cise process of this art among the ancients has been the subject of much con- troversy, but the actual remains of antique painting at Pompeii and Hercu- laneum,"' as well as numerous allusions in the writings of the ancients, prove that it was common among the Greeks and Romans. It was also oc- casionally employed during the middle ages, and it is even asserted that it is still practised, however rudely, by Greek painters of the present day." The inquiries and experiments hitherto undertaken, seem to prove that two methods are practicable. In one, the wax is dissolved by a lixivium, and is then worked with water. In the other, it is mixed with a resin dis- solved in spirit. lu the first process a final coat of wax is essential to pro- tect the painting. In the other method this varnish may or may not be used. In the ancient encaustic, whatever were the ingredients, heat, (as the term encaustic implies,) was employed either during or after the process of paint- ing. In the attempted revival of this art, in the last century, the application of heat was also considered indispensable. The method practised was to ap- ply a cauterium — a portable furnace, hot iron, or any similar instrument, so as gently to melt the coating of wax spread over the finished painting. The heat was sufficient at the same time to affect the wax incorporated with the colours, and thus a union was produced throughout the mass. If afterwards rubbed with a cloth the surface acquired a slight polish. '^ In the other process which, in its improved state, is more modern, heat is considered unnecessary, and the art is therefore properly called wax-paint- ing, not encaustic-painting. The application of heat might still serve to consolidate and give transparency to an external coat of pure wax, but the presence of resinous substances in the vehicle, and with the colours, is sup- posed to render such application superfluous as regards the consolidation of the painting itself. The solution of wax by means of alkaline lixivia was probably not un- known to the ancients." This was the method of Bachelieri^" Walter,^' Requeno,-- and others, but the specimens executed according to their sys- tern have not been considered successful as regards durability.-" The follow- ing communication from Mr. King, of Bristol, may be considered an im- provement on the process in question. " The conversion of wax into a substance soluble in water is effected by the vegetable alkali, known by the name of potash, being combined with tartaric acid. This is the Sale di Tartaro of the Italians, and is sold by all chemists and druggists in this country, under the proper name. Tartrate of Potash, and more commonly salt of tartar or ."oluble tartar. When the acid predominates it is called supertartrate of potash or cream of tartar. This is the best substance to be employed in my process, and in the follow, ing manner: — An indefinite quantity, say half a pound, of this salt being placed upon an iron shovel and exposed to the action of fire becomes a black substance resembling coal, a sort of slag. It is to be thrown while hot into a vessel holding about six quarts of pure water, that is, filtered rain water or distilled water. Shortly after it is quenched, it is to be ascertained that the fluid is saturated with the alkali by its taste, or better, by its effect upon the colour of test paper. " No quantity of water can hold more alkali in solution than that which is sufficient to saturate the water at the same temperature. The undissolved portion is separated by filtering, and the residue will serve to saturate another quantity of water. By filtering, the saturated fluid is sufficiently freed from the dark colour which was caused by the burnt alkali. This saturated fluid is called a lixivium, and in it the purified wax is to be boiled until it is con- verted into soluble soap, and wholly dissolved so as not to separate from the fluid when cooled. According to the proportion of the quantity of wax to that of the water the fluid will appear like milk when the proportion of wax is small, like cream or butter when it is greater ; and even of the consistence of soft cheese when the wax is in excess. The consistence of cream is best suited for grinding the medium with more or less finely pulverized dry pig- ment body colours, such as ochres, raw or burnt terra sienna, raw and "burnt umber. Cobalt, smalt, light red, red and white and black chalk, stone coal or anthracite, &c., answer best for dead colouring, and become brighter in the subsequent fusion and fixing by the use of the cauterium. " Metallic colours, which are artificial oxides of metals, like vermilion or cinnabar, which is a sulphuret of mercury, red and white lead, chrome yellow, and others, are differently affected in the burning in, and the changes which they undergo are to be ascertained by previous trials. The latter class of pigments are more adapted to the finishing of pictures. Pigments of a vegetable nature, such as lakes, madders, &c., are altogether to be avoided or very sparingly used, and not at all in masses. The connexion of the medium (soluble wax), by grinding it with every pigment, is best performed in stone or earthenware (Wedgwood's) mortars and with pestles of the same materials, and the colours thus prepared are to be kept for immediate use in glasses or common gallipots. Instead of a wooden palette, a plate, glass or stone slab is required for large masses, and a spatula of hard wood or horn. i(i " Geiger u. Roux," ib. p. 53. 1 7 Emeric David, " Discours HIstoriquea sur la Peintre Blodeme," Paris, 1812, p. 186. 1 a Compare Vitruvius, 1. 7, c. 9. 1 a Compare " Columella de Re Rustled," 1. 12, c. 60. 20 See Diderot, '• I'Histoire et le Secret de la Pelnture en Cire," 2 1 F. A. Walter, " Alte Malerkunst," Berlin, 1821. " I'«1''«io, " Saggi iul BUtabUimento dell' ontica arte de' Grccl," &c,j Farms, 1787, 23 Durosiez, (Manuel du Peiutrd & la Cire, Paris, 1844, p. 18,) aasumes, that the pre- sence of alkalies, such aa amraonlB and suit of twtar, in the 8ubst»nce of paintings must be espsclsUy InjuriouB. 30* 352 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Septkmbkk, " Tlie surface to be painted on must be a solid dry coat of stucco grounded vith a mixture of such colours as will give a suitable tone of colour aud depth. Tlie first coat or ground is to be fixed by the couterium with a moderate degree of fusion. The subject may be sketched on this ground with chalk or charcoal ; and precise outlines, especially of minute forms, can be traced or sketched in with a metallic point or etching needle. The can- terhim or salamander is not to be used again until the whole surface is covered and the effect advanced to a certain degree. It is clear that the manipulation of these materials, differing greatly, from painting in oil, will succeed more readily in the hands of an artist who has had some practice in fresco or in distemper ; and as the surface is in most cases perpendicular some care is required to prevent the colour from running down. " When the inustion by the canterium is finished, ajid the whole surface of the picture cooled, it may be poHshed by friction with cioth or hard cushions, covered with some more or less rough texture, or with some of the implements used in polishing wood."-' Those who recommend in preference the solution of wax in spirit, and the addition of resins, do not profess to have discovered the precise process of the Greeks, but they have not failed to remark that the ancient writers speak of resins as entering into the ingredients of painting.-^ The credit of having suggested the present systems of wax-painting, which are adopted with various modifications at Paris and Munich, is generally attributed to Montabert, who, in the eighth volume of his comprehensive " Traitt' complet de la Peinture,"-'= extols this art abovethat of oil painting. In consequence of the difficulty of reviving the study of Fresco painting in France, the attention of many artists and chemists has been turned to the employment of wax painting, and various churches and public buildings in Paris have been already decorated in this mode. In Munich, also, consi- derable works are in progress, executed in a method analogous to that of Montabert. The advantage of wax as a vehicle is its durability. A wall painted white, partly with wax and partly with oil, exhibits the same tint for some days, but by degrees the oil colour darkens, aud after some montlisjthe two por- tions are quite distinct ; that which was painted in wax retaining all its brilliancy. To this advantage is opposed, besides the difficulty of manipulation, the dull effect of dark shadows in pictures executed in wax. This is owing to the semi-opaque nature of the material, and is unavoidable as long as the absence of gloss on the surface is considered indispensable; but the colours become much more vivid after the surface is polished, and the admixture of resins tends to give clearness to the deeper shades. Some of the French artists have gone farther ; they have added a portion of oil to the cero-resinous medium, and by this means attain any degree of richness they please.-' In this last system the »?«/ quality, or absence of gloss, is in a great measure abandoned, and the method is only to be consi- dered a means of lessening the quantity of oil, and consequently of avoiding the danger of a horny and darkened surface. Some German artists, again, have considered it essential that the resinous ingredient should predominate, and have recommended only a thirtieth part of wax, the rest consisting entirely of hquid resin-" (balsam). Wax painting, properly so called, from its not admitting of much force (while its lights are assumed to be unchangeably bright), would suggest a particular style and choice of subjects ; and as all colours (according to the French chemists) may be employed in it, it is considered to be particularly fitted for poetical subjects adapted to the lighter kinds of decoration. It is for such purposes that it has been chiefly employed in Munich. The following is a description of the methods in general use at Paris and at Munich. A wall which is to be painted in wax (and the same principle is applicable to all mural pictures) should not be quite perpendicular, but should incline inwards, with reference to the room, in,.its upper part. By this means the work is better seen, and dust is less apt to collect on it. The surface should be levigated ; it is then to be thoroughly dried hy heat, and lastly to be saturated with the following mixture: 10 parts of white wax, 2 parts of resin, and 40 parts of spirit of turpentine. This liquid is made to penetrate the wall or stucco by means of heat,-^ and the application is repeated till the surface ceases to absorb. Holes or irregularities are to be stopped with a mastic composed of wax, resin, and whiting. Over this preparation a coat or two of wax colour is to be spread as a ground for the painting. The wax used in painting shoidd be bleached and perfectly free from ex- traneous matter.' » The resiu recommended by Montabert is that called 2 4 Extract of a letter from Mr. John King, chemist, 2li, Mall, Clifton, Bristol. Aug. 21, 1842. 25 A wi'iter of the second centurj', Julius Pollux, enumerates among the materials of painters, wax, colours, and ' pharmaca.' Various Greek epigrams mention frankincense CLibanas, Libanoton) as entering into the composition of paintings. Other examples are quoted by SoehnOe, " Recterches nouvelles sur les Proc^dis de Peintre des anciens," Paris, 1822, p. 36, and by Em^ric David, ib. p. 171. Compare Knirim, " Die Harimalerei der Alten," Leipzig, 1839. 2S Paris, 1829. - ' The method__of Taubenheim is analogous.— See Fratrel " La Cire alli^e avec rHuile," &c. Mauheim, 1770. The later practice of Joshua RejTiolds was probably sugg«sted ijy the researches prosecuted on the Continent at the corresponding period, respecting wax- painting. 28 See Knirim, ib. p. 182. 29 See the Second Report, p. 50. ^30 The ■ punic wax ' of the ancients was nothing more than bleached wax. Pliny, 1. -1, c. 14, and Dioscorides, 1. 2, c. 105. Compare Retjueno, ib. v. 2, p. 81!. Bleached wax IS easily procured, but the white wax sold for ordinary purposes is mixed with spermaceti. elemi ; this combined with wax and an essential oil is the vehicle in which the colours are ground, and which serves to work them. The proportions are, 1 part of resin, and 4 parts of wax, dissolved over a water-bath in 16 parts of essence of spike-lavender.-' ' The colours are ground in this gluten, diluted as may be required during the operation of grinding by the addition of the essence. They are then preserved in glass or earthenware vessels, and if they get hard (which can only happen after a considerable time) they may be dissolved with the essence or ground again and are always fit for use. Instead of elemi, copal may be used by those who prefer hard resin.= ^ The solution of wax alone is effected by the same essence, and this pre- paration is available when the artist wishes to increase the proportion of wax. The paste may be thinned with water by grinding it thoroughly with a muller, and gradually adding water to the amount of four times the weight of wax. This is called the milk of wax, and serves as a varnish for pictures executed in the above mode."^ The solution of elemi or other resins in the essence, without wax, may also be employed when the resinous ingredient is required in greater abundance. To these materials may be added the essen- tial oil of wax (procured from wax by distillation) which evaporates more slowly than that of lavender, and may sometimes be of use in the practice of this art.-'" A process introduced in Munich by Professor Fernbaeh is not yet made known, but it is supposed to consist merely in the addition of liquid resin (balsam) to the wax, instead of artificial solutions of hard resinous sub- stances."'^ The methods more commonly practised in Germany differ but little from the system of Montabert. The following descriptions have been obligingly furnished by the artists : — " For large paintings it is desirable that the ground should be somewhat rough. In Munich it is prepared as follows. A mortar composed of three parts of sand and one of lime is spread on the wall. AYhen this is done the whole surface, while moist, is rubbed with a linen cloth ; the result is a granulated ground, like rough paper. For small works, ornaments, &c., the ground requires to be smooth, and in such cases finely pounded white marble should be mixed with the lime instead of sand ; the mortar so composed being then carefully spread and made even. " The encaustic vehicle is prepared as follows : — To one pound of rectified spirit of turpentine add half a pound of Damara resin and a quarter of a pound of wax. The resin should be pounded to powder, and the wax cut up in small pieces. Both are then to be put into an earthenware or copper vessel, and the spirit of turpentine poured on them. Place the vessel on a moderate charcoal fire, so that the solution may take place slowly. When the ingredients are dissolved the vehicle is ready for use, and should be kept in glass bottle well stopped to prevent the volatile oil from escaping. Should the mixture become too thick in time, spirit of turpentine may be added. The colours are ground in such a quantity of this vehicle as is necessary to saturate them. If during the grinding the pigment tends to set (dry) spirit of turpentine should be added. For extensive paintings the colours are kept in glass vessels. For smaller works they may be tied up in bladders like colours for oil painting. The same colours which are employed in oil may also be used in encaustic painting. " It is essential that the ground on which the painting is to be executed should be quite dry. Then the whole surface to be painted is to be washed over with milk. When this is dry a ground of encaustic colour is to be spread on the wall, the artist selecting any tone he pleases. This being done the surface is suffered to dry well, which will require some days, as it is im- portant that the colour should be in no danger of being dissolved by subse- quent operations. The artist can then begin to paint. " In executing ornaments on a coloured ground, the ground must be com- posed of two or three coats (not too thick), each of which should be allowed to dry separately. The time required for drying varies according to the state of the weather. As soon as the pigment used for the ground is no longer easily dissolved, — a degree of hardness which it often attains in the course of a day, the painter may begin to work. " When the painting, whether consisting of ornaments or other subjects, is finished and sufficiently dry, the whole is to be thinly passed over with the encaustic vehicle applied with a large brush, and after a day or two this varnish is to be heated with a charcoal fire, to such a degree, however, as not to injure the colours. The result is an equal but moderate shine over the whole surface." Another process, practised at Munich in 1843, may complete this list of recipes : — To a pound of turpentine (resin), evaporated to dryness by heat, add half a pound of powdered Damara resin, and a quarter of a pound of bleached wax, cut into small pieces. To be heated as before ; and, when used, to be diluted, when necessary, with spirit of turpentine. A mode of cleaning wax paintings is described, together with the materials now used by the French artists, in Durosiez's pamphlet, before quoted. The following description of the nature and advantages of wax, as adapted a r ' Essence d'aspic' — It is prepared from the wild lavender (Lavandula major or lati- folia). It evaporate more slowly than spirit of turpentine. 3 2 Durosiez, ib., p. IG. 3 3 Ure, "Dictionary of Arts," &c., article Varnish, describes the preparation of milk of wax by means of spirits of wine. 3 4 See Durosiez, ib. 3S Balsams, as Is well-known, are native compounds of resins with eaeential oils. 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 353 for general painting, was submitted to some German chemists by Dr.Roux,^* and received, among other statements by him, their written sanction: — " Wax is, in chemical language a combination of cerine and myricine. It is a peculiar organic substance, resembing fat, but yet distinct from it. Wax is unaltered Iiy exposure to air. It neither becomes harder or softer, and therefore does not contract like the unctuous oils. Exposed to light, it be- comes whiter. Grund, in his history of ancient painting, relates that he saw in an Italian church two large wax candles , whicli had been presented in the year 1 145, and which he at first took for snow-white marble pillars. On breaking the surface, he found tliem ecpially white internally.^' "Colours mixed with wax are entirely saturated by it. Wax and colours form together a more solid, less fusible substance than wax alone. The pig- ments remain closely united with the wax. No skin appears on the surface of the picture, even when the wax has been mixed in abundance with the co- lours. \n under-painting executed with wax colours, has much more brightness than one executed in oil. A second painting on such a prepara- tion appears bright'and clear; on which account a painting in which wax lias been used as the vehicle is always brilliant. When an oil painting at twilight begins to become indistinct to the eye, a wax painting next it is still clearly visible. Wax is dissolved in volatile oil, which is also used with the colours. This volatile oil evaporates in a short time, and assists the drying of the colours. " Paintings executed with wax colours cannot crack, (?) for the under painting dries quickly from the ground. The ductility and tenacity of the wax pre- vent its cracking. This method of painting has also the advantage, tliat the dissolving power of the volatile oil which is used in the after-painting and finishing produces a union of the upper and under layers, by which means the whole coloured substance becomes intimately united." The statement that wax has no tendency to crack is true as regards the substance itself; but a painting thickly executed in wax, and varnished soon after its completion, would very probably crack. The Germans evade this difticulty, and consider resinous varnishes unnecessary to wax painting. The French artists do not exclude a final varnish. If such an addition be desirable, it is of more than ordinary importance to select a resinous solution that has little tendency to crack. The Damara varnish of Lucanas, and the excellent varnish of Soehnce (which seems to be analogous to Field's lac-varnish^'), have this reputation. The latter has also the agreeable quality of lieing per- fectly dry to tlie touch within a few hours after its application, and of re- maining so. It never becomes discoloured. A coat of white paint, having half its surface varnished with this liquid, and the other half with mastic varnish exhibits a great difference of tint in a sliort time ; tlie portion var- nished with the Soehm'-e varnish retaining its first appearance unaltered. Its defect is its want of sufticient body ; there seems also to be a difficulty in removing it from the surface even of an oil picture. The Damara varnish has the same qualities of not changing colour, and never cracking ; it has more body than Soehnee's preparation, but is certainly not so clear. The modes of preparing and removing it are described by Lucanus."'' Of the remaining modes of painting on walls, viz.. Fresco and Oil Painting, the papers already published on the former may be sufficient to give an in- sight into its practice. The problems yet to be solved are, the speedier pre- paration of a lime adapted for fresco painting,-*" and the preparation of durable colours of the more florid kind, sucli as lake and crimson. Sir Humphry Davy, in his analysis of some of the colours of the ancients, found some vitrified substances, and accordingly expressed his conviction that glass frits would be the most durable of coloured materials, if I hey could be so prepared as to meet the wants of the artist. Dr. Roux is of the same opinion, and suggests that "as a white frit possessed of sufficient opacity is not to he obtained, the oxide of zinc might represent it among the vitrified colours. It is equally unchangeable."'" To these opinions is to be opposed a practical authority of great weight,'- who remarks that these colours, when ground to the degree of fineness necessary to render them applicable to painting, become liable to all the chemical changes and affinities of the substances which compose them. The adaptation of oil painting to walls has generally found less favour witli painters than any other method, from the numerous examples of a blackened surface which works so executed present. The process may be less objected to since it has been so ably employed in the Ecole des Beaux Arts at Paris. A mode of preparing the wall so as to effectually exclude damp was described in a former paper. "^ The preparations used by Sebastian del Piombo, and recommended by Vasari,'"' might be preferable, as they con- tained little or no oil. In this mode of painting, as hitherto practised, all absorption from the ground is cut ofi' by the application of the first coat or hydrofuge preparation ; 36 lb. Zweites Heft, p. 41). 3 7 The uutlior elsewhere obaerres that the wax of southern climates is mucli whiter and harder than that whicli is produced in tlie nortli. 3 8" Field's Chromatography," p. 20!>. See also " Transactions of the Society of Arts,'* vol. 46. This varnish was not unlinown to the Italians ; see the list of recipes at the end of Orlandi's " Abecedario ;" " Vernice di bellissimo lustro," &c. 30 " Vollstandige Anleitung zur Erhaltung &c. der Geniakle, zur Bereitung der Fir- nisse, &c., von Dr. Fr. G. H. I.ucanus." Halberstadt, 184*2, p. 34-*:.*). 40 A method communicated by Mr. Dinsdale is now under the consideration of clie- mical professors. 41 lb. Zweites Heft, p. 61. i- Field, ib. p. 45. 4a Second Report, p. ri*.', *4 Introduzlone, c. 2'i. Compar* Bossi, " Sul Cenacolo di Leonardo da Vinci." it is, therefore, essential that the quantity of oil should be diminished in the under painting. For this purpose the half tempera method, which, it appears, was sometimes employed by the northern Italian schools as a preparation for oil painting, would be well adapted. But the application of a composition impenetrable to damp is not incompatible with an absorbent ground for the painting itself. Such a ground could be made to bind firmly to the hydro- fuge by various means ; indeed the same mode which the Italians adopted for panels would quite answer this end. These various methods are, how- ever, so intimately connected with the general question respecting the early practice of Oil-painting, that, to avoid repetition, they may be reserved till that inquiry can receive due attention. A method invented byM. Hussenot, called " Peinture al'Huile en Feuilles," consists in the preparation of very thin sheets of oil pigment (for example white lead), which may be rolled like cloth. They may be made of any size, or may be fitted together so as to exhibit no joining. A sheet of paint, so prepared, is fastened in a temporary manner on a panel, or on cloth attached to a stretching-frame, and the artist completes his picture. When dry it is rolled up, carried to the place for which it is destined, and permanently fixed to the wall, being then made to adhere throughout its whole surface, proba- bly by the application of a coat of white lead, to the wall. The objection to this mode (to say nothing of the oil ground) for important paintings, is the extreme danger of accident in the rolling and unrolling. For ordinary pur- poses it offers great facilities, since the application of decorations in oil on the walls of rooms or on shop fronts can be accomplished in a few hours, the work having been prepared without inconvenience in the study of the artist. -t^ 4 5 See " Peinture h I'Huile en Feuilles, inveiit^e par M. Hussenot, par A. de la Fize- li^ve." Paris, 1843. See also " Rapport de I'Acadeniie Royale de Metz sur les Proc6d^g de Peinture inventus par M. Hussenot." Metz, 23rd November, 1842. COMMISSION ON THE FINK ARTS.-CHOICK OF SUBJECTS. Considerable surprise has been felt at the award of prize works in the recent cartoon exhibition, and also at the seh'Clion of subjects for the decoration of the House of Lords. On the former we shall not now so strongly dwell ; but we cannot pass over the latter, because, to our minds, it is fraught with mis- chief, not only in its present influence but in its whole bearings, it suggests the fear of sad want of judgment in the individual instance, and the probable want of it on all the future proceedings. We are the more proinpled to take up the question as we have before us the controversy between Mr. Hallam and Lord Mahon, appended to the Commissioners' Report. For the decoration of the House of Lords have been chosen three allegorical subjects, we do not complain of them because they are allegorical, and three historical events. The principle which has guided the Commissioners in the individual selections we cannot understand, clearly the House of Lords cannot be devoted to the sovereign solely, any more than it could be to the House of Commons, it must be treated either as the assembly hall of the whole legislature, or as that of the House of Lords only, and in either case the present arrangement is by no means fitting. It might, however, be decorated with the representations of great constitutional events, but even that is not the case now. We have Religion, Justice, and Chivalry, the latter a very queer constitutional ele- ment, and the Baptism of Elhelbert, Prince Henry acknowledging the authority of Chief Justice Gascoigne, and Edward the Black Prince receiving the garter from Edward III., neither of which latter have any constitutional importance, or bearing upon the functions of the House, while there would have been no difficulty in finding subjects more fitting in amoral and artistical point of view. A Council of ancient English Princes and Chieftains, the germ of the Parliamentary system ; King Alfred submitting his laws to the Witen- agemot ; the Witenagemot recognizing the Accession of King Edward the Confessor; Henry the First restoring the Laws of Edward the Confessor; Henry the Third presiding in his Parliament; Trial of David, Prince of Wales, before the Parliament, 1283; Edward the Third, 1363, consenting to the Statute (36 Edw. III. c. 15) that pleas shall be pleaded in the English tongue ; Edward the Third investing Edward the Black Prince as Duke of Cornwall in full Parliament, 1337. Either of these, we conceive, would be much more fitting for the decoration of a House of Lords, though many other subjects may be found, state trials, &c. and many important historical events must he excluded, as invidious to some branch of the legislature, and others because they are too modern. Certainly no worse choice could be made than that which has been announced, and if such unmeaning decora- tion is to degiade the House of Lords the sooner the paper hanger is called in the better, though there is one consolation that a future age might have more discrimination, remove the proposed fadaises, and put up more significant works. What great idea can indeed be communicated to the spectator by Chivalry and Chief Justice Gascoigne, and what great idea can inspire the artist? Are we reminded of the temple of legislation belonging to a great nation, and of the glorious constitution, which twenty centuries of liberty have fostered to its present growth ? Shall we see anything but gawd and glitter and prettiness, things perhaps not works of art, certainly not-works ol mind ? 354 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September, When we come to look at the correspondence of Mr. Hallam and Lord Mahon, we must confess we distrust the Commission, so far as its historical aspirations are concerned. Mr. Hallam, indeed, is willing to avow that our national history can and must afford abundant materials for the artist ; but he, of all men, is unable to appreciate its bearings. The author of our con- stitutional history confounds the history of the people with that of the island, and talks of Caractacus and Boadicea as if they had anything to do with English liberty or English government ; and in another place he tells us that " the whole building is strictly denominated Her Majesty's Palace," which is certainly nothing more than a piece of lawyer's special pleadership. Still, while he appears to insinuate that English history may fairly be thro« n overboard, and Greek and Roman history and mythology be introduced, he in reality gives abundant evidence to show how well and appropriately the Palace of tlie Parliament may be treated. " In our jhalls of Parliament, or as we approach them, let us behold the images of famous men ; of Sovereigns, by whom the two Houses of Peers and Commons have been in successive ages called together; of statesmen and orators to whom they owed the greatest part of their lustre, and whose memory, now halloH ed by time, we cherish with a more unanimous respect than contemporary passions always afford." " It is by no means my opinion that English history is to supply nothing. We cannot but recollect that a living foreign painter of high reputation has, with a sort of preference, resorted to this source for his most celebrated pic- tures. It is impossible, tliat the large proportion of those which may here- after adorn the walls of the new building, should not be of this description. The bias of public taste in England, tends so strongly towards what is called nature, and so little towards ideality in painting, or even in sculpture, and has evidently e.tercised so great an influence over our artists themselves, the motives for selecting our own history are so obvious, and to a considerable degree, as I would again repeat, so «'cll grounded, that we can have no reason to apprehend a superabundant influ.^ of more universal subjects."' "The arrangement adopted for the New Palace at Westminster, may lead, perhaps, to a reasonable distribution of the paintings which may be chosen for its decoration. In those apartments which are naturally associated with the business of the Legislature, such as St. Stephen's Hall, the Central Hall, and the various rooms belonging to the two Houses of Parliament, our English history, or, possibly, also, such allegory or mythic representation as bears upon legislation and policy, ought exclusively to find a place. There would be in this at once a commemoration of past times becoming the national sym- pathy, and a just observance of that propriety in all its accessory parts, which a splendid monument of architecture requires." Mr. Hallam, while willing enough to let in any extraneous subjects, takes a technical objection to works founded on the pages of the historian, but wrought out by the artist's imagination, as for instance, the First Trial by Jury ; but we think him right in laying down the canon that no event should be deemed historical which was, as it were, episodical, and which forms no link in the sequel of causation, affecting only a few persons, great as they might be by fame or rank, without influencing the main stream of public aflairs. We do not coincide with Mr. Hallam that the most beautiful and interesting women in English history must be painted ,if at all, on the scaffold : the story of Rowena ; Kenswintha persuading Kenrid, King uf Mercia, and Offa, King of Essex, to take the monastic habit ; St, Hilda baptized by S. Paulinus ; Queen Bertha persuading Ethelbert, King of Kent, to receive St. Augustine ; Scxburga, Queen of Wessex, leading her troops to battle ; Alfred the Great taught by his mother to read ; Elfleda the Queen heading her troops against the Danes ; not to mention later instances, contradict this idea, and give full scope to the artist. On the other hand, we agree with Mr. Hallam that it is desirable show pieces, coronations, processions, meeting of princes or generals, and all overcrowded or dressmakers' pictures should be discarded as much as possible. Battles, we think with him, we must have ; but we should have liked to have seen a more marked notice of naval pieces, works which though neglected, deserve support from this nation of all others, and which are not destitute of artistic resource. We cannot but think on the review of Mr. Hallam's letter, taking the whole of it into consideration, that the good points can have had little influence on his colleagues, and that he himself must be regarded among the supporters of the present trumpery scheme, if not the suggester of it. Mr. Gaily Knight's plan we need not speak of, as it has no particularly meritorious features. Lord Mahon gives proof of a much better spirit than Mr. Hallam, but is about as obtuse on the matter of history. He talks gravely about the Eng- lish originally roaming as painted savages over their barren hills, and thus mars a fine allusion to the glorious advance of the empire to its present colossal might. Lord Mahon boldly asks, can the history of such a people be wanting in scenes of interest P and, though without much discrimination in his citations, he still shews enough to convince any one that ample mate- rial is to be found in our annals, appropriate, picturesque, interesting, and important. " l.canuot but observe that the two instances, Canada and India, which from amongst others, I have quoted as tokens of our greatness, might also perhaps, afl'ord practical answers to the artistic objections urged by Mr. Hallam. He deprecates the painting of battle since ' the introduction of field artillery and scarlet uniforms ;' but surely in Canada, the death-scene of Wolfe, when withdrawn from the field and mortally wounded, with, 1 think, only one officer by his side, the young general (he was but thirty-three), sur- veyed the distant conflict with a dying yet a steadfast gaze, is a subject worthy of employing, and I (rust it may obtain, a far greater artist than West. Thus, also, when Mr. Hallam justly points out the scope to a painter, afforded by ' such subjects as exhibit the human form to a considerable de- gree uncovered,' he will, I am sure, acknowledge (for no man could more ably describe) that the long train of our Indian successes in the arts of war and peace, would supply the advantage he desires by the delineation of the grace- ful and well-formed but scarcely clad Hindoos. •'Mr. Hallam goes on to observe with great truth, that for any attractive series of historical pictures, it is essential to ' intermingle female beauty,' and this, in his opinion, a strict adherence to our authentic records will not ade- quately supply. 'In fact,' he adds, 'the most beautiful and interesting women in English history must be painted, if at all, upon the scaffold.' Here, again, I cannot have the honour and pleasure (for 1 feel it as both) to concur with him. — Are we to have any State Trials? If we have, could there he a nobler female figure for an artist than in the scene which another member of your Commission has well described : — " ' There on that awful day Counsel of friends, all human help denied, All but from her, who sits the pen to guide, Like that sweet saint who sat by Russell's side Under the judgment seat.' " Thus, also, why need any by gone difference on a Royal line, now extinct, prevent us from delineating the young Countess of Nithisdale liberating her husband from the To wer in 17 Ifi (as her own most beautiful letter describes it), or the young Flora MacDonald saving Charles Sjuart from his pursuers in 1746 ? Again, how rich is Scottish history before the Union in deeds of female heroism ! Remember, for example, the scene previous to the assassination of James the First, when Catherine Douglas thrust her arm, instead of bolt, into the staple of the door, and bid the conspirators without burst it open if they would after this announcement ! But supposing that Mr. Hallam desires to confine us, in our argument, strictly to England, and to actions in which royal blood bears some part; although I see no reason for either limitation, yet even then I would venture to allege, amongst others, Boadicea ; Queen Eleanor of Guyenne saving her husband's life by sucking the poison from his wound ; Queen Margaret of Anjou holding forth her children, and confront- ing the robber inthe forest (an instance allowed by Mr. Hallam as the excep- tion to his rule) ; Anne Boleyn in her bridal array ; Lady Jane Grey at her youthful studies; Mary Queen of Scotland, and heiress presumptive of Eng- land, on her landing from France ; Queen Elizabeth at Tilbury Fort ; Hen- rietta Maria in the Civil Wars; Miss Lane assisting Charles the Second in his concealments and disguises after the tiattle of Worcester ; the flight of Queen Mary of Este, and her infant son in 1688 ; Queen Mary the Second re- ceiving the news of the battle of Boyne ; Queen Anne giving her assent to the Act of Union with Scotland ; and last, not least, the first Council of Queen Victoria 1 It may be objected that, in some of these instances, as with Queen Elizabeth and Queen Anne, the ' female beauty' required by Mr. Hallam may not be found. But where a Queen is introduced, there need be no lack in paintings any more than in reality of blooming Ladies of the Bed- chamber and Maids of Honour to attend her." We again say that we admire Lord Mahon's spirit, though we cannot ap- plaud his judgment, and we are pleased to see that whatever may be his errors they are not on the score of illiberality, nor participate in the too great ten- derness of Royal Commissioners, in glossing over bold and striking scenes. He suggests even the Seizing of the Mace by Oliver Cromwell, and the Death Scene of Chatham ; and concludes by expressing his sincere and earnest ob- jection to Mr. Hallam's general idea of subjects independent of and uncon- nected with English history, and his decided opposition to it. Mr. Hallam replied to this letter, and informs us that the Commission had resolved on the adoption of subjects of universal or national interest, a pretty specimen of which is afforded with regard to the six House of Lords' subjects, which most decidedly have neither universal nor national interest. We can- not see that Mr. Hallam has, in his second letter, taken up any stronger ground, though he again implies that the representation of historical sub- jects must give preponderance and predominance to all the absurdities and extravagances of modern dress. In conclusion, we would say the English have a deep interest in historical subjects, and have bad the opportunity of appreciating many. Improve this ■ vantage ground and it must be for the benefit of art at large. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND x\RCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 355 EXPOSITION DE L'INDUSTRIE FRANCAISE. MINERALS— MINEKAL SUBSTANCES OTllEK THAN MEl'AI.S. (Coutinued from page 328J Combustible Fossils.— Coal has been employed for ccnlurics at Newcastle anil Liege, but in Fiance its use is of much later date. In 1520, the Faculty of Medicine, being consulted with regard to the use which was then begun to be made of English coal in Paris, gave their opinion that with precautions to avoid the inconvenience of smoke, this fuel might be used without injury to the public health. Thirty years afterwards a proclamation was issued for- bidding farriers, on the occasion of an epidemic malady, under pain of fine and imprisonment, from using coal in their shops. Prejudices however wore away, and Henry the Fourth exempted coal from the payment of the royalty of a tenth. Lewis 14, also encouraged it, and put a duty on the importation of foreign coal. At the time of the great revolution, however, the whole consumption of coal in France was not more than 450,000 tons, of which half was supplied by importation. The quantity of wood fuel consumed in France is calculated at 15,000,000 tons, (10 metrical quintals or a thousand kilograms being taken as a ton), and of coal 5,000,000 ; coal is however reckoned to have double the calorific power of wood, so that coal may he considered as supplying two-fifths, and wood three-fifths. The superficies from wdiich the wood is obtained is 20,000,000 acres, or 30,000 square miles, being sixteen times the superficies of the coal deposits, which moreover are available for agricultuie. The progress in the consumption of coal in France since 1815 has been as follows: Freuch Importation, Total consumption, produce, tona. tons. tons. 1815 881,500 249,300 4,121,000 1825 1.491,300 508,600 1,904,300 1830 1,862,000 637,200 2,493,900 1835 2,506,400 793,100 3.278,200 1840 3,003,300 J, 290,600 4,256,700 1841 3,410,100 1,619,100 4,979,800 Thus whilst since 1815 the production of coal in France has quadrupled, the importation of fori ign coal has increased seven fold. France possesses 46 coal basins, and up to 1841, 392 coal mines had been granted, of which 256 were in work. The superficies of the sets was more than 1,000,000 acres (432,000 hectares), 670 pits had been sunk, and 365 levels run. The maximum depth which had been reached was in the mines of Anzin, 1571 feet (479 metres). The mines were worked by 146 horse machines, and 388 steam en- gines, of a total force of 9,667 h. p. More than 30,000 men were employed. The total value of the produce was £1,320,000, at a mean price of 97 centimes per metrical quintal. Of the 3,410,000 tons of ten metrical quintals, the Loire basin furnished a third, and the Valenciennes basin more than a quarler_ Next came the basins of Creuzot and Blanzy (Saone and Loire), Alais (Card), Aubin, (Aveyron), Epinac (Saone and Loire), &c. Of the 1,600,000 tons im- ported, 1,000,000 aie from Belgium, 4,000,000 from England, and 200,000 from Prussia. The great difficulty in the way of the French coal owners, is (he want of good.'communications with the markets. The state of France stands thus. The Belgian coals at the door are brought into the North and to Paris by the lines of navigation, the English coals are in contact with canals and rivers which take them to the ocean, and so up the French rivers, without river dues. The French coals however can only reach the coast or the great centres of c s umption by means of a difficult and expensive navigation on rivers deficient in water, or by canals, burdened with heavy dues. The coal owners therefore loudly call for the improvement of the Loire, the Yonne and the .Seine, and complain of the dues on the Bur- gundy canal. Lateral canal of the Loire, and the canals of Briare and Loing. Tlie capital invested in collieries has increased much more than that in woods because the demand for wood has been siationary, while many new sources of coal consumption have been opened, particularly the manufacture of iron by pit coal. As a proof of this the basins of St. Etienne and Reve deGier are cited. Before the opening of the St. Etienne and Lyon Railway, a proposi- tion was made to a leading capitalist in Paris, in 1831, to purchase the mines of the whole basin, for the purpose of forming a consolidated company, the purchase being estimated at £1,000,000, and this was thought too much. It is now worth £2,600,000. The basins of the Saone and Loire, the Gard, SiC, have advanced much more in value. Great improvements have taken place in the mode of working. Formerly in the mines of the centre and south thick seams were left with pillars of coal, taking up half the available coal. Better modes are now adopted, and in the St. Etienne and Reve de Gier basins the roofs are almost universally propped by rubbish from the mines or from the exterior. The effect of all these measures has been considerably to reduce the price of French coal. The works of the Revi de Gier being threatened with inundation, no other means of avoiding this evil remained than by a plan of joint drainage, and in 1836 a law was passed for this purpose, and now an engine of 400 h. p., on the Coznish systtmis at vwk atReve de Gier, and whuhi he mtsi icwti- ful engine in France. The introduction of the C^ornish engine may indeed be considered as being one of the important features in the progress of French coal mining. The first engine put up in France on this system was built in the old works at Chaillot, under the direction of Mr. Edwards, for the coal mines of Breulle, in the north. Some of late years have been set up at Blanzy (.Saone and Loire), in the Creuzot. and in the north. The Anzin Company in the north carries on Us works on a very large scale. It has as it were built the town of Denain, dug canals, made railways, and opened manufac- tories. France besides coal possesses beds of lignite, the produce of which in 1841 was 180,000 tons, of which one-half from the superficial deposits of the Bouches du Rhone. The quantity of peat turf extracted was 500,000 tons, employing a great number of men, chiefly in the deiiartments of the Low Loire, Isere, Doubs, Straits of Calais, Somme, .and Aisne. It is used in several important estab- lishments, as sugar factories, distilleries, dyeworks, lighting steam engines, lime and plaster kilns, forges, &c. Bitumen.— The asphalle mine of the Val Travers was begun to be wrought in the reign of Lewis XIV., and of late years it has been resumed. The chief mines now are those of Seyssel and Lobsann, both of which sent to the Ex- position. The workings of asphalle at Pyrimont, canton of Seyssel in the Ain, are of old date. Count de Sassenay had began their extension, but M. Coignet had done the most. Specimens were also exhibited from Bastonnes, and Lam- persloch in the Puy de Dome. Asphalteis being considerably used at Paris for foot pavement, in preference to granite, on account of its cheapness, Auvergne lava, moreover, not giving satisfaction. A new application of bitumen was exhibited by Messrs. Cbameroy and Co., being pipes of thin sheet iron screwed together in zink and covered v\ilh a thick coating of bituminous mastic. M. Legoux, of Bayeux, and Messrs. Lasserre also exhibited pipes and stoves, with bitumen melted in. Messrs. Dournay and Co. of Lobsann, make waterproof papers of bitumen. Metals. In the course of the last century great activity was shewn in this mining in France, and the deposits of St. Marie aux Mines, Giromagny and Plancher aux Mines, in the Vosges ; of Poullaouen and Pontpean in Brittany ; of the mountains of I'Oi.sans in the Alp?, and the numberous veins of Auvergne and the Cevennes, produced considerable supplies of topper, lead and silver ore. New works were, however, imprudently carried on, and no provision being made for drainage the mines have been successively abandoned. Thuse of Vialas and Villcfort in the Lozere, of Poullaouen in Brittany, and Pont- Gibaud in the Puy de Dome alone attest this former period of property. At the present time France derives most of its copper from England and Russia, lead from England and Spain, tin from England and India, and zinc from Silesia and Belgium. Iron is the only metal which is worked on a consider- able scale in France. Iron.— Iron works appear to be very ancient in France. Caesar, in the account of the siege of Avaricum (Bouiges), particularly mentions the skill with which the beseiged made subterraneous galleries to undermine the earth- works ot the Romans, which facility he observes the inhabitants obtained from their practice in the iron mines. Strabo, in particular, mentions the existence of large iron works in Berry and Perigord. Under the old regime iron mining was restricted, but increased under the empire, and the French ironmasters had the exclusive monopoly of the supply. On the return of peace, however, Sweden and England came into the market again, but their produce was burthened with heavy protective duties. Of late years the manufacture has considerably advanced. The following is the produce of pig and bar iron, of late years, in tons 10 metrical quintals, or 1000 kilograms. Pig, tons. Bar iron, tons. 1825 198,500 143,500 1830 266,300 148,400 1835 294,700 209,500 1840 347,700 237,300 1841 377,100 263,700j The production has thus doubled in fifteen years. M. Burat reckons the produce of iron as follows. Pig, tons. Refined iron, tons. England (1842) .. 1,210,000 France (1841) .. .. 377,100 263,700 Russia (average 1835-1838) 189,000 102,700 Sweden (1839) .. .. 115,100 87,200 Prussia .. .. 111,600 75,400 The number of mines and iron works in France in 1841 was 2464. Theit superficies is 250,000 acres, and they employ 12,000 men. They produce 2,300,000 tons of ore. This ore is reduced in 573 furnaces, of which 468 « ere in work in 1841. Of these 573 furnaces 519 are worked with charcoal or wood, 11 with charcoal and coal mixed, and 43 with coke only or mixed with coal. Oi 377,100 tons of metal, 292,000 were produced by vegetable fuel, and 85,100 by mineral fuel. The production by coal in 1835 was only an eighth, il is now about a fouith, 356 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September, The conversion of the pig into bar iron is carried on in various works. In 1841 the produce was 263,700 tons of bar iron, of this quantity 146,800 tons, or more tlian half was manufactured with coal, either by the Champagne process with the hammer, or by the Enghsh process ivitli the roller. Among the new processes which have been ap[ilied of late years in France, three deserve to be enumerated. These are the use of the hot blast; the substitution of dried or torrefied green wood for charcoal ; and the application of gas in Hast furnaces for refining pig iron and converting it into bar. It is known that the use of hot air was imported from England ; it has not been generalized there ; neither has it in France, it has however extended, and out of 573 blast furnaces, 121, or near a quarter now make use of it. In charcoal furnaces it effects a considerable saving of fuel; it gives more regularity to the process; but it sensibly modifies the quality of the iron by making it more fusible and taking away its tenacity, which seems to imply that it should be abandoned in such charcoal furnaces as arc used for producing bar iron, and should be introduced on the contrary in such as are used for cast- ings. It is also employed with success in blast furnaces, which are worked with green or torrefied wood, or with charcoal and coke mi.\ed, because it remedies the irregularities arising frcm'wantof homogeneity in the combusti- bles employed. In coke furnaces, tlie hot blast seems generally to succeed^ and is frequently adopted. From official returns it seems that of 468 blast furnaces worked with wood, 46 only, or one-tenth use the hot blast ; ol 54 with green or torrefied wood, 39 use it ; and of 54 with coal, 36, or two-thirds use it. Tlie use of dried or torrefied greenwood has also been introduced within the last ten years. Formerly wood was only used after it had been converted into charcoal, although this operation exhausted many of the combustible elements. Carbonization as practised in the French forests, was at least half the calorific value of wood. This loss is owing to two causes, the imperfec- tion of the processes of carbonization used, and the composition of the wood itself which is such that it is impossible to e.\tract the carbon contained with- out losing a notable quantity, which escapes with tlie steam arising from the water of combination. Several plans have been proposed at different times to ameliorate carbonization and augment the produce ; but these processes, either could not be employed on a large scale in the woods, or when once applied without adequate inspection, no longer gave the habitual results. At- tempts were then made to ascertain how far it was possible to use on the iron manufacture, instead of charcoal, wood in its natural state, or at least only subjected to such incomplete carbonization as would lose only a slight quan- tity of its calorific elements. Many experiments have been made in the last seven or eight years. Some have introduced the daily and habitual use of green wood ; others have dried ; others, and by far the larger number have used a process for preparing it in a close vessel by means of the heat lost from the mouth of the blast furnaces, so as to subject the wood to a less ad- vanced carbonization than that performed in the forests, and producing a combustible intermediate between dried wood and charcoal. The use of green or torrefied wood has not extended so far as might have been wished. Only 51 furnaces make use of it, and even this number seems to diminish. Several reasons explain this result. The first is the irregularity produced in the pro- ceedings of the furnaces; the green wood occasions coolings down, which prevent fusion from taking place in a regular manner, and torrefied wood always presenting a very variable degree of desiccation or carbonization pro- duces a similar result. Another and more important cause is that if a true saving of fuel take place by this process, it does not always show itself in money results ; for if the works be at any distance from the woods, then the cost of carriage of the green wood to the furnaces increases. In order for the process to spread, the works would have to be seated in the woods. Whilst the furnaces only consumed charcoal, the endeavour was to place them near mines rather than near forests, for the ore weighs more than the char- coal consumed, but wood weighing more than the ore, the neighbourhood of the forests must be sought, if torrefied wood is to be used with advantage. Besides a great number of furnaces are at the same time distant from both mines and forests, being forced to seek a site where water power was available for the blowing machines. An improvement which has been completely suc- cessful, the use of the heat of the furnace to heat a steam blosviug machine, allows in new works a considerable saving of money to be effected by the use of torrefied wood. Water power for the blowing machines is in fact useless, and as far as the mines allow the works may be placed in the midst of the woods of which they are to consume the produce. The third discovery was represented by iron sent by Messrs Trayler and Huillier, and Messrs. D'Andelarre and De Lisa. The term of gas iron was unknown in France three years ago, it is now used in trade, and applied to a class of iron superior to coal made iron, and almost equal for most purposes to charcoal iron. Gas iron is iron manufactured with the gases lost in the blast furnaces, or with those arising from the gasification of combustibles of small value or unfit in their natural state for working iron. This process originated in the woiks of Treveray (Meuse), belonging to Messrs. D'Ande- larre and De Lisa, and is extremely important to works using vegetable fuel. Refining with charcoal has already become impossible in most of the French furnaces, on account of the competition of coal, and in a very short space of time it will be so [with the rest. At present coal bar iron produced from charcoal pig is a little better than bar entirely manufactured in the English way, and fetches rather a better price ; but once coal bar master of the field, the difference in quality will not compensate for the great difference in price, and the cheaper article will exclude the other. The gas process on the other hand, if generally adopted, will save the old charcoal works, though it also eff'ects a great saving with regard to coal. An important saving in the gas process is the diminished loss in slag, which is reduced one-half in the pud- dling and balling furnaces. In the Treveray process the gnses lost in the blast furnace, or the gases which have exhausted their physical and chemical influence on the bed of fusion, are collected and sent into the reverberating ovens. These gases before being so used in the subsequent processes are purified from the matters which they may contain, injurious to the iron. This is effected by very simple apparatus, and the pig iron is brought into contact only with a purified gas flame. The arrangement of the gas oven, with jets of hot air and hot gas intermixed, obtains a very high temperature, and perfect combustion, since the turning of a few cocks allows the fire to be regulated at will, not only with regard to the intensity of its temperature, but the chemical nature of its flame, so as to have a neutral, an oxidizing, or a red active flame. The inventors assert that the process is so advantageous as to admit of being applied in other works besides those of iron. Arrange- ments are made so as by very simple means to raise the temperature of the gas to a very great extent before being used. Where there is not a sufficient supply of gas from the works, coal dust is used, turf, anthracite, fee, to make up. The French contend that the process belongs entirely to them, and that a similar process used at Wasseralfingen, in Wurtembuig, has neither priority in lime nor in merit. To France, which is badly ofl' for coal, and is a great wood country, the gas process is of great importance, as so much iron is made by means of wood, of charcoal, and which latter in the competition with coal, has already received many improvements. The charcoal furnaces have been much enlarged, their blowing machinery better constructed, so that furnaces which produced only 400 or 500 tons of pig, now produce more than a thousand, and it is anticipated if the gas process be carried out that the bar iron may be produced with no more expenditure of fuel than is now reijuired for the pig. By the double influence of torrefied wood and the gas process, the iron works dependant on the first have been armed with new resources. It is remarked as singular that while the price of charcoal has tripled in the last fifteen years, that of iron has been constantly falling, so that instead of bar iron being one-third dearer, it is one-third cheaper. The iron-works of France may be divided into three principal classes i first, those wliich manufacture pig and bar iron by the exclusive use of mineral fuel ; second, those which manufacture pig with charcoal and coal ; ami third, those which manufacture pig and bar with charcoal only. In this order it may be useful to give a sketch of the works in France which sent specimens to the Exposition. The principal works using coal exclusively are those of Alais (GardJ, De- cazeville (Avcyron), the Loire (Loire), all in the south of France ; that of the Creuzot in the centre ; and in the north those of the north and Straits of Calais. These works are established on coal basins, but in general they have not enough ore near them, or at least they have not enough, or have to obtain them from a greater or less distance. They are worked on the Eng- lish plan, or with only the slight difference that pig is sometimes reduced with charcoal. The coal works had much difficulty in establishing them- selves, and languished for a good many years, and have only begun to pros- per since the railway system has opened a new market for their produce. The works of Alais, founded in 1826, encountered great difficulties, and all operations completely stopped in 1834 ; but towards 1836 Messrs. Drouillard, Benoist & Co., having farmed this large establishment, brought their expe- rience and capital to bear for its revivification. The works comprise lour coke blast furnaces, a great forge, the hammers and rollers of which are worked by two engines, severally 30 and 80 h. p. The principal works exe- cuted here are in rails. The Decazeville establishment, also on a large scale, had similar difficulties to encounter. It comprises six contiguous blast fur- naces, a large foundry, three refining furnaces, fifty puddling and reheating furnaces, hammers weighing four tons, and striking 60 blows per minute, puddling rollers and drawers, plate rollers, &c. The total steam power is reckoned 600 h. p. The produce is 12,000 tons of bar iron yearly, and it will soon be carried up to 15,000 or 18,000. More than 2000 work people are em- ployed. It has supplied, among other lines, the Paris and Orleans, Paris and Rouen, and Paris and Belgian with rails. They are said to be remarkable among French rails for tenacity and hardness. The works on the Loire were established to work the beds of coal and iron there, but w hieli were found not so extensive as had been hoped and distant deposits have been had recourse to. Great discouragement prevailed at first, but the construction of the St. Etienne and Lyon railway, the better preparation of coke, the improve- ments introduced, and the reduction in wages have enabled the companies to reach a high degree of prosperity. The £120 shares of the Company of Forges and Foundries of the Loire, whose chief works are at Terre Noire, 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 357 liavu risen to £1600. The works of Beraril les Saint Elienne (Loire), sent specimens to the Exposition, as did those of MontUiyon (Allier), which make a good coke from the Commentry basin, and work the iron ore of Berry, ob- tained by canal. The Creuzot is one of the largest establishments. Its coal beds produced last year more than 1,000,000 hectolitres, and it has four Wast furnaces, three worked with coke and one with wood, and another blast furnace in construction ; forges producing 8,000 tons, instead of 3,000 in ]S39, and which will produce double when the new works are completed ; a factory comprising a large foundry, great forge, smithy, boiler works, fitting works ; a buikling yard at Chalons, on the banks of the Saono, for building iron steamers and fitting engines. Denain is the largest work in tlie north. In 1830 it was still only a small village, it has now 5,000 or 6,000 people, in 1830 the first coke furnace was built, and 1837 the first blast farnace ; they obtain their ore from the neighbourhood of Boulogne and Avesnes. The forges in the north are four, Raismes, Trith St. Leger on the Scheld, Denain, and Anzin. This last has been bought by the Society of Commerce of Brus- sels, who are greatly extending it. Several othe rforgcs are in progress. Most of these works are for Belgian pig iron, of which the importation is greatly increasing every year. The Marquise works, in the Straits of Calais, use ore from the neighbourhood of Boulogne. Tlie works of the second class are numerous, of 263.000 tons of bar iron in 1811, 127,000 were made by the mixed process. The chief metallurgical groups where this system is ailopted are the group of the north-east, com- prising tha Ardennes, Moselle, Low Rhine, and Mcuse ; the group of Cham- pagne and Burgundy, comprising tlie Nievre, Saone and Loire, tlie Cher, and the Allier. Fourchambaut, in the Nievre, is the most important of all. It has 12 blast furnaces, and produces 16,000 tons of pig, 10,000 of bar, besides 300 or 400 tons of forged wood iron from the forges of Gressouvre, Trezy, and Tournay, in the Bher, belonging to these works. This work seems to be one of the most distinguished for the quality of its produce, Messrs. Rowclifl'e and Co., of Rouen, make use of this iron. The works of Abainvillc, Meuse, belong to Messrs. Capitain and Co., and eomiirise three blast furnaces worked with charcoal, and five sets of rollers. Other considerable works are those of Messrs. Bongueret, Courreux, Landel, and Co., of Chatillon on Seine, Messrs. Grenouillet, Luzarches, and Desoages, of Vierzons, and M. Demimuid, of the Meuse. The works of Sionne, Vosges, belong to M. Bourgeois, and comprise a blast furnace, four refining furnaces, three puddling furnaces, two cement- ing furnaces, and a roller. They sent to the Exposition some shafts five or six yards long, of which one weighed near a Ion. Messrs. Festugieres, Bro- thers, of Eyzies, were the first to introduce, on a large scale, the use of coal furnaces into the department of the Dordogne. The forgo, of St. Maur, in the Seine, near Paris, belongs to Messrs. Doii and Co., and works up old iron from the pigs of the Haute Maine. The Crenelle work, in the same district, carries on the same business. The forges of Athes, in the Seine and Oise, be- long to M, Baudry, and produce iron principally for coach smiths, also good steel. The last class of works is that in w hicli improvement is slowest, and com- prises chielly the works in the eastern group, in the High S.aone, Doubs, Jura, High Rhine, Meurthe, and Vosges ; in the norlh-west group from the Eure to the lUc and Vilaine ; and the groups of the Indre, Perigord, and the Isere. The works of Framont, Vosges, existed in the thirteenth century, and now comprise two blast furnaces, six refining furnaces and their hammers, a roller, &c. They produce annually 600 tons of castmgs and 000 of bar and sheet iron, and make railway axles. The works of Allevard, in the Isere, comprise two blast furnaces, a forge and four slitting mills worked by water power. The works of Rufl'ec, in the Cnarente, belong to M. Marsat, and consist of three blast furnaces, six refining furnaces, and two foundries. The forge of Lagrenerie, belonging to M. Beorbazan, has for the last forty years supplied the iron for the great manufactory of arms at Tulle, principally em- ployed for gun barrels. There is, moreover a fourth class of works, consisting of those which make bar iron direct from the ore by the charcoal process, without passing through the state of pig. This, called the Catalan method, is peculiar to Corsica and the departments near the Pyrenees. Two works in the Arriege sent to tlie Exposition. They manufacture steel also. Iron Castings. In England more than half the pig iron is used for castings. In France, also, the use of cast iron is extending for architectural and ornamental pur- poses. Of the 377,000 tons of pig produced in France in 18-il more than 95,900 tons were castings, thus obtained— From charcoal 61,600 From wood and charcoal . . . 10,400 From coal and coke 7,400 From coke 16.500 This quantity was produced by 162 blast furnaces worked with vegetable fuel, and from 28 with mineral fuel. To this total must be added the foreign imports, which bring it up to 122,800 tons of pig used, reduced on casting to 117,700 tons, It is remarked that whde some French castings are very good, the English have llie superiority, particularly in large castings, because their produce is more equable and regular. Upwards of 18,000 tons of English pig, principally used for castings, were imported into France in 1812, and chiefly worked up at Paris, and the coast towns Havre, Rouen, Nantes, &c. The Franche Cumie pig is esteemed the best in France, and is often mixed with English pig for castings with good eflect. After these comes the pig of Peri- gord and the Nivernais, In the Meuse, Low Rhine, and Vosges most of the common eastings are executed, and the gas and water main pipes for Paris are principally cast there. The higher class of foundry business is carried on in the large towns, among which Paris and the Seine take the lead, although in 1824 there were only 4 iron foundries there, the number now being from 35 to 40, producing a quarter of the superior casting of France, valued at £240,000. Next come the Lower Seine, Charente,High Rhine, Nievre, Card, &c. A great many .specimens of superior easting were sent to the Exposition. The chief foundry in France is that of Garchizy, known as the Fourchambaut works, under the direction of M. Emile Martin. It can cast 400 or .500 tons of second casting in a month, and has supplied hydraulic presses for the ports ; the machinery for the Decareville works ; the arches of the Pont du Car- rousel ; the work of Chartres Cathedral ; the iron piers of the bridge of St. Andre de Cubzac, one of the largest works of the kind ever undertaken ; and extensive orders for the French railways. M. Emile Martin is now bringing out a cast iron bridge for the Lyon railway at La Mulatiere, and others for the Avignon and Marseilles Railway over the Rhone and Durance. M. Emile Martin has also a great locomotive factory, and is desirous that all railway works should be executed from uniform models, as in the artillery. Not far from Garchizy is the Torteron furnace, belonging to the Forcliam- baut Company, which executes rough castings. Here the hot blast has been used with advantage with a mixture of coke and charcoal. This furnace pro- duces 3,000 tons, used for castings, chiefly gas and water mains, railway chairs, shot and shells for the army and navy, &e. Solid balls are now made of grey pig, like the English, instead of white and brittle pig, which in bat- tery in breach would break and recoil on the beseigers. The chairs supplied to the St. Etienne and Lyon Railway, to be placed on stone blocks, and under contract to restore all broken ones within two years have never yet re- quired any to be replaced. M. Calla sent to the Exposition some of the most finished work. The es- tablishment as founded by his father, in 180 j, was only a machine factory, lut in 1818, on returning from a journey to England, an iron foundry was added to it, and it has since greatly increased. M. Calla was the first ia France to manufacture cast iron ornaments on a large scale, and he has exerted himself to produce patterns in good taste, and to bring out clean and sharp castings. He has supplied the Palais Royal, the Tuilliries, the Pan- theon, Church of the Madeleine, Notre Dame de Lorette, Sec., with stair- cases, flower vases and receptacles, candelabras, balconies, railings, &c. M. Calla exhibited this year one of the compartments of the grand door of the church of St. Vincent de Paul, representing St. Simon and St. Jude in demi- relief, also a holy water vase for the same church, and some busts. M. Ducel, also of Paris, sent a number of models for buildings, churches, garden work, fountains, heating, lighting, 8ic. Some of his best productions were cruci- fixes, of various dimensions, a gothic door, a Descent from the C'ross in low relief, a lion, ?ic. M. Andre of Val d'Osne, in the High Meuse, who supplies the capital largely, sent in a kind of artistic exhibition, including ornaments of all sorts, candelabra, a handsome holy water vase, statues of the Venus de Medicis, and the Young Faun, &c. This manufacturer Has the first to intro- duce into the High Marne moulding in sand, instead of the lormer tedious and costly process of moulding in sand. He has two blast furnaces, each produces about 1500 tons per annum ; one, that of Morley, manufacturing gas and water mains only ; the other, the Val d'Osne, manufacturing orna- mental work, and also large work for bridges and water works. M. Andre has had a great hand in reducing the prices of run cast works, as pipes, &c. Messrs. Vivaux, Brothers, of Dammarie, Meuse, produce cheap saucepans ,aiid culinary utensils, tinned by a convenient process invented by M. Budy, who uses an alloy harder, more adherent, and much whiter than pure tin. Whe- ther the same as the English plan or diflerent we cannot say. In Alsace and Lorraine cast iron saucepans are used without tinning. Cast iron saucepans are gradually superseding copper in Fiance. In Germany; instead of tinning the inside, an enamel is used more solid than tin, a great many of these ena- melled iron pots are used there. The process is kept secret, and only known from the impeifect description given by H irston. The pots are chiefly made in the Hartz, Saxony, and Silesia, and large profits are derived from thsir manufacture. In France, the foundaries in Alsace and Franche Comte ma- nufactured enamelled pots ; but, either on account of the enamel not being firm.'or the price being high, the speculation has not succeeded very well. At Birmingham some attempts have been made to enamel cast iron, but with- out adequate success, the enamelled street name plates being we believe the chief application. R.viis. The rail manufacture is mainly carried on by the coal furnaces, eleven large establishments only being recognized by the government as contrattors T31' 358 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September, in adjudicationss of rails. It is asserted now that France is fully able to sup- ply the quantity required, and in consequence of the custom house union with Belgium being considered impossible, several of the Belgian capitalists have taken establishments on French s'de, four new forges having been set up in the department of the North for manufacturing iron with coke. These estab- lishments are extending, one is being built in the coal fields of Commentry, another at Montlufon, and four blast furnaces either at the gates of Lyon or at Lavoulte on the Rhone. All these works are for manufacturing rails, and it is calculated they will supply 25,000 tons. The eleven old works, it is said in the official mining returns, can supply 75,000 tons of rails yearly, which we should doubt. After all a hundred thousand tons a year only just supply 2500 miles yearly, or one-fifth of the total length of railway authoiized by the legislature. Sheet Iron. Sheet iron was little attended to in France thirty or forty years ago, about two-thirds being imported from abroad and now not a plale. In 1834 the produce was 12,000 tons, in 1841 it was 26,200 tons, valued at £040,000. This increase arises from the great demand for machinery, steam boilers, boats, buildings, &c. Formerly sheet iron was only made with charcoal, now it is often made with coke. The High Saone and the Vosges ate the chief depart- ments tor this branch. M. Richard exhibited boiler plates made out of four blocks of iron united by the hammer and then rolled. M. Blanc, jun., of Versailles, exhibited pipes of sheet iron. Drawn Theing. This manufacture, derived from England, is extending in France, and is chiefly carried on at La Briche, near St. Denis, and at Abainville, in the Meuse. La Briche was founded by 11. Gaudillot for drawing and soldering tubing hot, he imported the prucess. and exhibited his first specimens in 1839. His tubes or pipes are all tested to 300 atmospheres, and are principally used for gas and hot water pipes. M. Gaudillot supplied last year 16,000 yards to M. Duvoir Leblan for heating the Luxembourg Palace, the Blind School, and other large establishments. He also makes large tubing for pumps, boiler pipes, waggon axles, columns, &c. He is trying, in consequence of the expe- riments in England, to get a demand for hollow axles for locomotives and rail- way carriages. M. Gaudillet asserts that he can produce 9 inch pipes, while in England none have been made beyond 4f in. outside diameter. The use of hollow iron for large gates is extending. He has supplied a good many at Paris within the last 15 years. M. de Viney exhibited tubing drawn cold, proved to a pressure of 10 atmospheres, and galvanized by Sorel's process. PROFESSOR FARADAY ON HEAT. A course of eight Leetures delivered at the Royal Institute. Lecture VII., June I, 1844. (Specially reported for this Journal,) When light falls on a polished opaque substance, it is reflected from it, or thrown ofl in an opposite direction, the angle of reflection being always equal to the angle at which it falls on the surface. If the body is transparent, the greater part of the light pasaes through it, and if the light falls angular on it, it is refracted, or bent from its course, and «hen the transparent substance is prism-shaped, the light is thrown completely in another direction. Such substances as ice and glass allow light to pass through, and refract it, but polished metals reflect, and do not allow i t to pass. The same facts have been ob- served with respect to heat, and although it cannot be seen in its passage, its transfer can be proved. When the hand is held towards a fire, heat is felt, which is due to its being radiated, or thrown equally, as from a centre, in all directions. The eilects of radiated heat may be watched by using a red-hot ball, which will be fouud to give oil' heat equally in all directions, and will readily light a piece of phosphorus placed at a great distance below it. A flat mirror, held in the path of the rays of heat, will reflect them, and the rays may thus be thrown on any required spot. If, instead of one mirror, 300 or 400 are employed, and so placed that the heat reflected from each should fall on the same spot, the effect of course is greatly augmented. A concave mirror maybe considered as such an assemblage of myriads of flat mirrors, and its focus as the spot where their reflected heat is accumulated. With two parabolic reflectors, the eflects of radiated and accumulated heat are very striking. A red-hot ball placed in the focus of one will fire com- bustibles held in the focus of the other, though they m;iy be far apart, and ice produces in a similar manner, cooling eflijcts. The rays of heat and light are not hot, and it is an error in thought and word to call them so. The rays of heat are heating rays but not iiot rays. This is beautifully illustrated by the experiments of Mclloni, who found that various transparent substances allowed heat to pass through them in various proportions ; that those bodies that allow it to pas.s freely through them do not become heated, and that those that stop the rays become heated ex- actly in that proportion. He ,placcd a red-hot ball on a stand, and the two substances he wished to compare on opposite sides of it, and by a frame pre- vented any heat from passing excepting through the two bodies ; beyond these he placed two pieces of metal with phosphorus on them, and by com- paring the time it took to fire the phosphorus, he learnt the comparative freedom with which heat passed through the bodies experimented on Through a piece of rock salt the heat passed with facility, but through glass it scarcely passed at all. Passing through the salt, it leaves it CGUl,lbut being stopped by the glass it makes it hot, thereby proving that when as rays it is not hot, but only when stopped, and then they lose their character as rays. In the same manner the rays from a luminous body are not light, until stopped by a solid body. If they were, the light from the sun should be seen passing through space to the planets or to the moon, but they give no light until stopped by them, and therefore are invisible. When reflectors are used with the sun's rays, of course both the light and heat are reflected. Wood or paper held in the focus of a large reflector, are immediately fired by the sun's heat. The course of the rays travelling from the reflector to its focus is made beautifully evident by holding a smoking piece of paper underneath. The rays of heat passed through a lense, are conveyed in a similar manner by refraction to a focus, but in this case the focus is on the opposite side to the source of heat. With the action of a burning glass every one is familiar, but it will now be seen that the property of refracting to a centre does not depend upon the nature of the body, but upon its transparency and shape ; for ice, if melted in a hot tin mould until it is lense- shaped, acts equally well with glass. By it the sun's rays may be concentrated so as to burn paper and other combustibles, and yet the ice does not become melted. This could not be done with common heat, for instance, that from a fire, as ice will not allow its rays to pass, and stopping them, becomes melted. In Melloni's experiments on this subject he found that there were different kinds of rays of heat, just the same as there are different coloured rays of light, and that these rays were mixed in various proportions according to the source from whence they emanated. Thus some will pass through ice and salt, and not through glass. The rays of heat from the sun pass through almost every substance whilst those from a common fire are stopped to a certain extent by almost every thing, and the substances themselves become heated. That no heat is produced until the rays are stopped is seen bypassing the sun's rays con- centrated by a lense through a glass tube filled with ether, when no efl'ect is produced ; but put into it something which will stop the rays, such as a piece of black paper, and the ether is seen to boil immediately. The great elTects produced by concentrating the sun's rays from afevv feet on to one spot, gives a great idea of the immense quantity of heat which is continually being poured on this earth, and of the fearful eflects were this heat withheld but for one season. These rays are not obstructed by the glass of the window, but allow it to pass on to carpets, SiC, and heat them, but were they the same rays as from a fire, the effect would be very different. The reception and emission of heat, though depending principally on the nature of the body, is found to be very greatly influenced by the state and texture of the surface. Of two radiating bodies, for instance, tin canisters filled with hot water, one blackened or roughened on the surface will be found to get cold sooner than that which is left bright, one appearing like a good conductor, the other like a bad one. though the only diflTerence is in the state of the surface ; or the experiment may be varied by black-washing or white-washing only one side of the vessel ; a thermometer will then indicate more heat being given off from that side than from the others. In the same way the reception of heat is affected by surface, those absorbing the best which radiate the best. The application of this pnncipie to useful purposes is carried out to a great extent; for steam engines, and boilers, which are required to retain the heat, are kept bright, whilst those from which the heat is required to be delivered, as in warming buildings by hot water pipes, the surface is kept rough. In domestic economy the china teapot is now super- seded by polished metal, which is found to keep the infusion hotter, and a difi'erence even would be found whether a silver teapot were kept clean or dirty. Every substance is continually radiating heat to any other body near it which is colder than itself, and ice, even, will send out radiant heat to solid carbonic acid. The emissive power is not always in proportion to the amount of heat, for the flame of a candle, though consisting of particles far hotter than a red-hot iron ball, does not radiate nearly so much heat as the latter. The power of a bright reflective surface to protect from radiant heat is well shown by placing a slip of gold leaf on a sheet of paper, and holding over it a red-hot ball ; the uncovered paper is scorched, whilst the thin metal, itself an excellent conductor, entirely protects the paper below. It has, then, been shown that bodies differ in their power of transmitting heat, some, like rock salt, transmitting it readily, or being an easy diathermal body, whilst others, such as alum, transmit it but slightly, and that the rays of heat difl'er, depending upon the source from which they emanate, for the facility with which they penetrate transparent media ; thereby confirming the probability of the analogy that Melloni has drawn between the various rays of hght and those of heat. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 359 REVIEXVS. Practical Tannelling. By Frederick Walter Simms, C.E. London : Trougliton and Simms. 1844. This is an excellent instance of what may be done for the interests of science by an engineer closely engaged in professional pursuits, by the proper adaptation of his exertions. Mr. Simms, as many other engineers have been, was employed in superintending a considerable tunnel, and by making careful and copious memoranda during the pro- gress of the works he has been able (o produce a volume of verv great value. He might, like many others, have pleaded want of time to write a book, and so glossed over the want of industry or inclination, which are too often the real grounds of neglect when parties are en- trusted with the conduct of extensive operations. Mr. Simms, how- ever, fortunately for the profession, and we think we shall in time be able to say fortunately for himself, has made no such idle plea, but given convincing proofs of its futility. We hope, indeed, this exam- ple will not be without its fruit, but that many more, having much better opportunities, may be urged to take advantage orthem. How- ever well trained a man may be in a particular pursuit, however much experience he may have had, and however well he may think ho is acquainted with his duties, he will always derive benefit from the careful perusal of the evidence of other men. Engineering after all, however large its operations, has to deal with innumerable and minute particles, with cubic feet of earth, with blocks of stone, with single pieces of brick, and economy of materials, is only attainable by care- ful calculation and comparison systematically carried out. In the same way, much economy of labour, economy of time, safety and cer- tainty of execution, could be obtained, and no one of his own indivi- dual knowledge dare say that he has attained the maximum of these, or is justified towards his employers in neglecting the proper and ob- vious means of acquiring information. On the one hand, by obstinate and ignorant adherence to old routine, we find scores of thousands of the public money wasted on sewers; on the other, by the careful ap- plication of science we find as many thousands saved. Nothing is more easy than to say, make a tunnel of such a length, through such a hill, give it an elliptical, parabolic, or other arch; but where, perhaps, a hundred thousand pounds is to be expended, it becomes the peremp- tory duty of the engineer to ascertain that the form he proposes, the dimensions he has adopted, and the course he is about to pursue are such as to elFect the end in view with the greatest regard to the inte- rests of his employers ; and thus we say, however clever he may be, he will do most satisfactorily to himself, and them, by availing himself not only of his own experience, but of all records of the experience of others. In the same way, too, that it is his duty to take advantage of others' labours, and as he profits by them, does it become his moral duty to repay the obligation by communicating also the results of his own experience. This the Institute of Civil Engineers strongly in- culcates and highly encourages; but we regret that many of its mem- bers, old and young, do not practise it. There can, indeed, be little doubt that from the want of such information being afforded, many millions have been expended in the railway system alone, which could well have been avoided. We therefore strongly urge all parties to avail themselves of the opportunities within their reach for the illus- tration of engineering science. Mr. Simms was employed first in constructing the Blechingley tun- nel, on the South-Eastern Railway, and afterwards the Saltwood tun- nel on the same line, works the joint cost of which was upwards of £200,000, and he has minutely described the whole progress of the works, with copious illustrations, and full details of every item of ex- pense, so as to present a manual not merely useful, as he modestly represents, to the beginner, but, for the reasons we have already men- tioned, to the engineer of extensive knowledge and experience. In the first chapter Mr. Simms explains the geological character of the country through which both tunnels pass, and the several difficul- ties with which he had to contend. He shows by an abstract of the payments that the works of the Blechingley tunnel, which is 1324 yards in length, cost £95,236, or about £72 per lineal yard. This tunnel was entirely executed under the superintendence of Mr. Simms, without any contractor, the company doing tlie work themselves, in- cluding the making of the bricks. The other tunnel at Saltwood was executed by contractors ; the first one failed, — the works were car- ried on at the commencement with considerable difficulty in conse- quence of the great body of water in the lower green sand, through which the tunnel passes. After great labour, a neading or adit was made quite through the bill, on a level with the bottom of the tunnel ; this being accomplished, the subsequent works were carried on with comparative facility. The company then entered into contracts with responsible contractors for the execution of the works at the sum of £85,000, which, added to the previous expense, made a total cost of £112,542 for a tunnel 954 yards in length, being at the rate of £118 per lineal yard. The size of both tunnels was 24 ft. wide in the broadest part of the curve, 30 ft. including walls, and 25 ft. high in the clear, or 30 ft. including the invert and arch at top, or 21 ft. above the level of the rails ; the thickness of the brickwork varied from 2A bricks to 4 bricks in thickness, and the invert three bricks. The second and third chapters explain the construction of the Ob- servatory, the Transit Instrument, and the setting out the line ; the fourth chapter the sinking of the trial shafts, by which it appears that one of them was sank 35^ yards, and that the estimated cost of the shaft, G feet in the clear with a 9-inch rim, was £3 8s. per yard down, the price of 18s. per yard down being allowed for the sinking, and £1G per rod for the brickwork, but in consequence of the large quan- tity of water constantly coming into the shaft, the expense was in- creased £50 for the lower 5 yards. The cost of sinking a similar shaft for the Saltwood Tunnel, 25 yards, was £77 14s., or £3 2s. per yard down. Mr. Simms carefully details the whole of the process in sink- ing the shafts, illustrated with engravings, and also points out how the various difficulties arising from water and sand were overcome. The next chapter proceeds in like manner to show the cost and the pro- gress of the works connected with the working shafts, they were 9 feet in the clear with a 9-inch rim of brickwork, the cost of these by Mr. Simms' calculation appears to be about £6 per yard down for the Blechingley shafts in the weald clay, and £4 15s. for the Saltwood shafts in the lower green sand. Afterwards the erection of the horse- gins and plant connected therewith is detailed, which brings us to the seventh and eighth chapters, on driving the heading. Here we have some valuable statistical tables on the work done by horses in drawing water up the shafts by horse-gins ; the following are the mean results of the weight of water raised one foot high in a minute. Horses working three hours per diem, mean of 112 results, = 32,943 lb. Horses working (our hours per diem, mean of 4 results, = 37,151 lb. Horses working foiir-and-half hours per diem, mean of 1 2 results, = 27,056 lb. Horses working six hours per diem, mean of 212 results, = 24,360 lb. Horses working eight hours per diem, mean of 4 results, = 23,412 lb. In the determination of the value of horse power from the above results, the three and six-hour experiments alone should be adopted. The other re- sults were more or less objectionable, from a variety of causes over which there could be no controul ; and are therefore of less practical value. By working at the maximum, lifting 36,000 lb. to 48,000 lb. per day, the horses sank under the excessive fatigue, and 11 of them died. The horses were of good quality and cost from £20 to £40 each. The expense of horse labour, including boy to drive was about '2'id. per ton lifted 100 feet high. The four chapters 9, 10, 11, and 12 bring us fairly into the con- struction of the tunnel itself, here we must let Mr. Simms give the explanation himself. The excavations for the tunnels at Blechingley and Saltwood were carried on in a similar manner. One description of the general process will therefore suffice ; with such occasional particulars of any peculiarity in the circum- stances of either, as may have arisen in the course of those works. The work was commenced by removing some of the polings, or deal ends, from behind the two top settings of the square timbering of the shafts; and driving a narrow heading, about twelve feet long, at the top, and in the mid- dle of the intended tunnel. Where the ground is good, and will stand with- out much timbering, the top heading (as it is usually called) may have rather large dimensions ; but must be limited in this respect where the ground is loose or treacherous. The headings at Blechingley and Saltwood were suffi- ciently high for a man to stand upright in, and about three feet in width. In some of the headings at tlie former tunnel no poling hoards were required in so small an excavation, but at the latter place they were in all cases ne- cessary. No regular system of framing was used, but pieces of poling boards were put up and secured in the best and most couvenient manner, wherever the earth showed symptoms of falling in, but so arranged (where it was pos- sible) as to form part of the subsequent roof of tlie excavation. Tlie top of this heading was so much above tlie intended soffit of tlie arch of the tunnel, as to admit the proposed thickness of the brickwork, and that of the crown bars, packing and poling boards, together with the allowance of several inches for the settlement of the timber which is certain to take place when more of the excavation is made, and before the brickwork can be inserted to take the weight, and relieve the bars of their burthen. J his allowance should never be omitted, for when such settlement takes place, and no room has been previously left for its occurrence, a part or the whole of the crown bars in sinking occupy the position of the intended brickwork ; and therefore, in or- der to insert a tunnel of the required dimensions, the bars and poling boards must be raised to their proper level : whicli is only to be done piecemeal, by removing the earth over each bar, and then raising them one at a time : this involves considerable labour and care, and uo trifling expense. 31* 360 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September, When the heading is driven, it is widened at the top along one side, to form, as it were, a shelf, \ipon which a crown bar may be laid lengthways. When this is done, the centre crown bar is placed along the top heading, and supported against the roof, by an upright prop at the remote end, and by resting it on the square timbering of the shaft at the near end ; poling boards are then arranged above the two bars to carry the earth. This is shown in the annexed section of the top heading. A similar excava- tion or shelf is next made on the other side of the centre crown bar, and a third bar placed thereon, and poling boards inserted above, as In the first instance ; a narrow slip of ground is next removed from under the remote ends of the two side crown bars, to the bottom of the heading ; and rough props inserted to support them in the same manner that the centre crown bar is supported ; their other ends being in like manner supported by the square timbers of the shaft. The earth may next be removed from under the two side bars, which leaves the heading much wider than before. Sometimes when the top heading is wide enough, two crown bars are in- serted and poled above, and the insertion of the side bars (by excavating a shelf to the right and left, as before described,) is then proceeded with, in the manner shown in the annexed en- graving. The bars are kept at the proper distance apart, by inserting five or six struts between every t ivo bars, as shown ) in the next engraving. The temporary props, at the remote end of the bars, rest upon flat foot-blocks, to prevent the super- incumbent weight pressing them down. ■ The foot-blocks are either placed at the bottom of the heading, or the ground is dug up to admit of their base standing upon the intended level of the under-side of the top sill. In either case, they are placed far enough outwards to admit there- after of the sill being placed in front of them. — The dotted portion of the props and foot-blocks, in the above cuts, shows the end of the props so placed below the bottom or floor of the beading : however, it is not always that the ground will allow of this being done in the first instance. The perpendicular face of the work is secured from falling in, by the insertion of poling-boards across it, at the back of the props, as shown in the last figure. In the manner above described, bar after bar is inserted to the right and left of the top heading; propped and strutted from (lie ground and from each other ; and the poling-boards inserted both in the roof and against the face of the excavation, the bars being so arranged as to follow nearly the in- tended figure of the tunnel : or rather, such an arrangement is preserved as will be best suited for the subsequent insertion of the brickwork,— as will be hereafter explained. The annexed engraving shews a section of the work in this stage of pro- gress, which is technically called " getting in the top." '""•miJIiijjilii'illiiillii^'^nm It has been stated above, that the near end of the crown-bars is'at^first temporarily supported or propped from the square timbers in the shafts ; it must however be observed, that, by so doing, a great weight is thrown upon the square timbers in addition to that of the brickwork of the shaft, which is all that it is designed to carry, and in which it is materially assisted bv the ianging-rods, or shaft-sills described in the preceding chapters ; and, for this reason, the square timbers should be as speedily as possible relieved from the weight of tlie bars, and whatever pressure of earth they may be sustaining : — this is finally done, when the the top sill next the shaft is inserted in its ])lace, by propping every bar therefrom. When the ground is good, there is no danger in temporarily supporting the near ends of the crown bars from the square timbers; but where it is soft, or yielding, it is unsafe thus to load them; for under such circumstances, the ground, instead of steadying the square timbers, is liable to give under the pressure ; and when once the square timbers get out of the perpendicular they would require no great additional weight to force them in, and the yielding or soft ground which would thus lead to the accident, would follow from behind the shaft, and in all proba- bility bring the shaft down with it. * * * The cost to the Contractors for excavating the side lengths at Blechiugley would, upon an average, be as follows : £ a. d. Miners . . 96-2 days . at 6s. . 28 17 2 Labourers, . . 95-0 . at 3s. 6d. . 16 12 6 Horses . . 28-9 . at 7s. . 10 2 4 Candles . . 4 dozen . at 6s. Gd. . 16 0 Gunpowder . . IJ cwt . at 46s. . 2 17 6 Tools, and sharpening picks, wedges, &c., . . . . 15 0 Contractors' Superintendence, . 22 days . at 7s. . 7 14 0 Clearing up the work when completed, . per length 0 5 0 Total £68 19 6 Thus the cost to the Contractor averaged £68 1 9s. Gd. per length of 12 feet. In making the engagement with the gangers, or subcontractors, a price per lineal yard, for the side and shaft lengths taken together, was agreed upon, which price was £\5, or .tiOO for each side length; they to find all manual and horse labour, candles, gunpowder, working tools, &c. Mow it was well known that at such a price no profit could be derived from the side lengths ; as the working expenses would, upon an average, exceed such price, which was proved by the result, as shewn above ; but taken together with the shaft lengths, which, at the same time that they were longer than the side lengths, required muc/i lexs lime and labovr to construct, they yielded a fair amount of profit. When the particulars of the shaft lengths liave been given, this subject will be recurred to, for comparison between the actual average cost, and the price paid to the contractors. When the leading lengths were in progress, the miners obtained a bonus, in a charge to the bricklayers of .£3 per length for lowering their materials, .IS bricks, cement, &c., to the underground works; which was done by load- ing the descending skip, at the time that the earth from the excavation was being raised in the other. This yielded a profit of about £2 — the third pound being paid for extra labour in loading bricks, &c., and the loss of time occasioned to the miners' own work. But during the construction of the side and shaft lengths no such profit could be obtained, because the excava- tion was at a total stand, whilst the bricklayers were at work in each of these three lengths ; whereas, during the progress of the leading work, the bricklayers would be proceeding at one end, from the shaft, whilst the miners would be progressing at the other, and vice versa, whereby the earth exca- vated by the latter could be raised to the surface at the same time, and by the same power, that the materials of the former were lowered. * * * The side lengths at Blechiugley and Saltwood were twelve feet long, and so situated as to leave between them, upon an average, fourteen feet for the shaft length ; the three lengths making together thirty-eight feet of tunnel under every shaft, from which to carry on the work in both directions. When this portion of the work is done, the difficulties of the tunnel may be said to be over ; as the subsequent proceedings are comparatively straight- forward and safe : at all events, there can be but few natural difiiculties that cannot be foreseen, and consequently their effects provided for, or guarded against; unless by injudicious proceedings, or absolute carelessness, difficul- ties and dangers arise which otherwise would not have existed. Previously to commencing the leading lengths, it is requisite to construct a platform over the invert of the lengths already completed, as shown in the drawing : and wliich platform must be continued each way, as the work ad- vances. It is made of planks, laid on sleepers or transverse timbers, placed across the invert, so as to leave a free channel for the water to pass along the invert, to be drained ott' through the heading; or, in cases where the water is not abundant, it may hence be conducted to a proper receptacle or sumph, convenient for the workmen to use it in mixing their cement or mortar ; for wliere there is no water in the tunnel, the conveyance of that material to the shafts for the bricklayers' use forms a considerable item of expenditure. This was partly the case at Blechiugley ; the water, which was in abundance at first, diminished in quantity as the work advanced, and towards the last, (except at the west end) the land springs appeared to have been drained nearly dry. The process of driving a leading length is nearly the same as that described for a side length ; with this difference, that the bars in that case have to be propped and supported, at both their ends, whereas, in the leading work, they only require such assistance at their remote end, or against the face of the excavation ; the near or back end of each bar, being left to rest behind, or upon the biickvvork of the arch already turned. K'^Ci?*);; The work is commenced by getting in the top, in the manner described as for the side length. A top iieading is driven in the middle liue of tlie tun- 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. 361 nel, for the insertion of the crown bars, and is then widened out to the right and left, and the bars inserted one by one down to the level of the top sill, It will be remembered, that the crown bars for the leading lengths were de- scribed as left above the brickwork of the side length, to be drawn out (of their cells) to form the roof of the leading work, length after length ; by which means, the same bars travel along the roof to the next junction, unless by accident any of them get bj-oken, or stick fast in some part of their jour- ney ; whereupon they are generally built in, and left. It is, however, not the safest of practice to draw the crown bars from the side lengths at all, but to build them in, and leave them, unless the ground is very good, when their as to cause snch an effect, it would probably be unwise to draw the bars at all, were it even possible to do so, lest a movement be given to the earth that would be liable to [produce results far more costly tlian the value of a few bars. When the bars are drawn, great care should be taken, as before stated, that the space from whence they are removed is packed and rammed solid with earth ; for the danger of leaving an empty space above the arch is too obvious to need any remarks. It is also of importance that attention be paid to the amount of sinking that takes place in the top of eacli length whilst standing in timber, in order that the leading ends of the bars for the suc- ceeding lengths may be raised sufficiently high above their required level to allow for their sinking, before the arch is turned. Our readers will see by this rather lengthened extract the very- business-like manner with which our author proceeds with his work. Mr. Simms next gives some particulars of the actual cost of labour, calculated from the number of men employed and checked by the con- tract price paid for the work, by which it appears that the cost of ex- cavating the leading lengths of the Blcchingley tunnel, each 4 yards, was £42 17s.; this amount includes £3 for powder and candles and £1 5s. for tools, &c. The average price to the contractors (gangsmen) was about £11 per lineal yard, and for the Saltwood tunnel, each length of 4 yards, the estimated cost of the excavating was £28, or £7 per lineal yard. The 13th chapter is devoted to the tunnel entrances, the shaft towers, and other finishing works. The 14th explains the construction of centres, and of Frazer's patent centres ; and the 15th contains some useful information connected with tunnelling. We have thus gone through this practical work, and before we con- clude we must observe, that besides the numerous wood engravings with which it is illustrated, there are IJ copper-plate engravino-s by Lowry, accurately delineating the progress of tlie works in the° con- struction of the tunnel. To Engineers generally do we recommend this volume most strongly ; and to alt Resident Engineers do we say " Go, and do thou likewise." The Metropolitan Buildings Act. 7^8 Vict. c. 84. tFith Notes and Cases. By George Tattersall, Surveyor, and Messrs. Cham- bers, Barristers-at-Law. London : Lumley. The New Buildings Act will of course be in the hands of every professional man, and, in order to afford a convenient and comprehen- sive manual, the authors of the book before us have republished the act, with the necessary notes, an abstr:ict and analysis of the act, a glossary of the terms employed, and a list of district surveyors. We notice, however, one very great defect in a work of this nature, the want of an index. removal would be attended with perfect safety. They were mostly left in a. Blcchingley ; as their value was of trifling importance, compared with any risk to the security of the work that carried the shafts, through disturbing the earth thereabouts ; for, although the space from whence each bai is drawn is, professedly, rammed solid with earth, by a man standing at the end where it is drawn, using a long-handled punner, — yet, however well and carefully this may be done, it would, in most cases, be better that the bars were built in, than that the surrounding earth should be in any degree dis- turbed : and, too often, if the men are not watched, they will omit the ram- ming altogether, as their neglect cannot be detected afterwards. The annexed engraving represents the process of drawing the crown bars, whether from over the side or any subsequent leading length. The top heading is shown as having been already driven, and one bar a drawn forwards, and its advanced end resting upon the shelf of earth ii, preparatory to its being propped ; the ground is also shown as ready for another bar, c, which the men arc draw- ing from over the brickwork of the last turned length, D ; the leading centre rib, _e, is shown in section under the brickwork, also an end view f, of the top sill, and the upper end of its raking prop g. The drawing of the birs can mostly be accom- plished with crow bars, used as levers, as shown in the annexed engraving, which brings them forward by little and little, till the larger portion of them is advanced, and then they come out easily enough ; but if, during their confinement above the brick- work, any particular settlement has taken place, the bars will frequently be jammed in extremely tight ; the only way then to release them is by the use of one or more screw jacks placed horizontally against the arch, and lashing chains passed over these and also round the projecting ends of the bars, when upon working the screws, the bars are released. If however, the resistance is to great to be overcome in this manner, the bars are left and built in ; for where a settlement has been so great Ansted's Geology. Vols. 1 and 2. London : Van Voorst. We have received this work, completed in two volumes, but we feel we could not do justice to it were we to attempt this month to go through it. The first number gave us too favourable an impression of the work to allow us to pass it cursorily by. Illustrations of Baptismal Fonts. London : Van Voorst. This valuable work is now completed, and as we are anxious to con- sider the introductory essay, we shall postpone until next month the remarks which we are desirous to make with regard to it. EPITAPH ON A DECEASED ACADEMICIAN. A Porlrail. Here lies of men the most malignant ; The very earth feels quite indignant. At covering such a shrivelled mass Of envy, malice, spite and brass : He envied rank, he bated beauty. And spat at genius as a duty ; And when be tottered to his midnight bed. He lifted up his trembling hands and said- Ob Go them— 'cause I'm little. The morning broke in innocence and light, He ope'd his eyes with their accustomed spite And chuckled at the tbuught of all he'd wound ere night. In vain ! Death sejzed him with a hurrjeil grasp. For e'en Death feared the withered asp. B. R. H.WDON. September, 1844. 362 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September, FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF A VISIT TO WESTMINSTER HALL. Witliout liaving at all canvassed tlie opinions of others in regard to this Exliibilioii, I give it as my own that if the public went to it with expectations in any way exciti'd by what has been said and written about fresco-painting during the last two years, they must be not a little disappionted and dissatisfied. The chiaro-seuro cartoons exhi- bited last year were looked upon only as preparatory studies — pro- ductions in an incipient stage of their progress, remaining to be awakened into life and transfigurated into the beauty and poetry of art by the fascination of colour; and, no doubt, most persons conceived that fresco would of course manifest a decided superiority to all other modes of painting, and would accordingly captivate the eye in an un- usual degree by lU prima facie appearance. The present exhibition, on the contrary, shows us fresco-painting itself — at least what it is, and what it is likely to be in the hands of those who have sent their samples of it to Westminster Hall. I am aware that very great allowance is to be made for the peculiar circumstances of the case; I was prepared to find defects arising from inexperience in the requisite manipulation and technical process, but not to the extent liere observable, and unaccompanied by the evidence of any of those other qualities which are indispensable in the higher branches of art — the historic and the poetic, since without them what is intended to be grand is almost sure to sink into bombastic bathos. Considered with regard to execution merely, these performances ex- hibit great ciudeness and extravagant tawdriness of colouring, yet feebleness and flatness as to general effect, and not only incorrect but feeble drawing. Considered again, with regard to the more inteUec- tual qualities of the art — conception, composition, expression, senti- ment, they are equally deficient, some of them even absolutely null, as if, not being stipulated for iii their 'bond,' they might be omitted with impunity. Some of the subjects are most miserably namby pamby and mawkish stuff', with just about as much mind or soul dis- played in them as in tbose of the 'Boydell' period, and in the book- plates of forty years ago. It will probably be said that I judge far too harshly of works that are avowedly first attempts ami studies in abranch of the art requiring unusual dexterity of pencil ; still it is more surprising tban satisfac- tory to find that so many who, it may be presumed, are tolerable judges of painting should have fallen so much below the mark, or having done so, should have sent their abortions, with all their imper- fections on their lieads, as likely recommendatory specimens of their handiwork, on such an occasion. It seems, however, that I do not see the full extent of the silly presumption and imbecillity of all the aspi- rants to fresco-painting emploi ment, since the catalogue informs us that '• The Commissioners have exercised their judgment in altoge- ther exchuling some of the works submitted to them;" which, if we may judge from many of those they have admitted, must have been vile indeed. I do not say, that after such a beginning as we here behold, I ought actually to despair of fresco-painting making any progress in this country ; but I must say that I do not liere perceive anything like that promise which the inunediate occasion requires. All things must liave tbeir beginning, and in the course of time we may have a school of frescanli ; but I should be truly sorry to see Mr. Barry's edifice made, in the interim, a school for embryo artists to practise in, trying their 'prentice hands upon its walls, and covering them with such daubing as we behold in this exhibition. On no account ought the Palace of Westminster to be treated as a corpus rile, or pauper patient, on whom it is allowable to make expe- riments, no matter how hazardous, for the benefit of science. I know not how far Mr. Barry himself may relish the idea of his building being turned over to tyro fresco-painters, in order to receive from their hands the finishing touclies of embellishment : or whether, if not exactly satisfied with any of the specimens liere assembled, he is nevertheless gifted with such consolatory prophetic ken as to be able to discern in them talent, boih of mind and hand, that will be suffi- ciently matured for the occasion when the time shall have arrived for commencing actual operations. I only know that was I in his place I should look forward to the latter event with considerable alarm — even with dismay, and be able to take comfort only in despair, in the as- surance derived from it that unless very far more satisfactory evidence of talent for fresco can be produced beforehand, the idea of adopting such embellishment will be postponed sine die. At present there is hardly one thing which would induce me to invest its author with de- corating a few square yards of wall, except in some dark corner or imperfectly lighted passage, where his work would be befriended by shadow m\d gloom. At all events, therefore, it is to be hoped that, unless very great advance in all the pre-requisites for fresco-painting shows itself in the interim, the Commission of Fine Arts will experimentalize very cau- tiously, and lock the doors of all the principal galleries and apartments against the painters, allowing them to operate at first only on those parts of the interior where failure would be attended with compara- tively little mischief. And on such an important occasion mere de- cent mediocrity must be positive failure ; medium there is none between the dignified and the paltry; and a very long stride in art must be taken by almost every one of the present exhibitors of fresco specimens, ere they can attain the former, and qualify themselves for suitably decorating the new Palace of Westminster. It would be al- most a profanation of the term "Art," to apply it to very many of the tilings sent thither to obtain the suffrages of the public. Not a few of them seem to belong to the now obsolete school of sign-painting, and in regard to subjects, too, miuiy of them are as inappropriate as can well be imagined ; for instance, No. 10, " Beatrice Cenci meditating the murder of her Father." Her ill-favoured expression shows indeed that she is meditating no good — at least, that her meditations are not of the most pleasant kind ; but no one could possibly guess at the sub- ject of them without the Catalogue to [inform him, and when so in- formed, he is not better satisfied with the work itself than before. By way of strong contrast to the preceding, as one of the curiosities of the exhibition, may be pointed out No. 44, which shows us one whose meditations are evidently of a more jovial complexion — of a kind, in- deed, likely to scandalize Father Mathew, he being a jolly old toper regaling himself with a jug of brown ale! The judgment exercised by the Commissioners must surely have been in the same very good- natured condition as this merry old blade himself, when they allowed such a subject to pass muster. After this we should not have been very much startled had we found the moral of " Sairey Gamp" as a candidate for the honour of figuring in fresco. I can account for (he admission of such an alehouse subject only by supposing that it was thought likely to act favourably as a foil to most of the others, render- ing their historic dignity and poetic mysticism all the more impres- sive by comparison with it. Still it was rather dangerous to do what looks like throwing ridicule upon the whole affair. As to the taste shown in the ornamental borderings to some of the frescos, I can safely aver that I have frequently seen very much better in patterns of paper-hangings for rooms. Some of them are vulgarly tawdry, others mean, insignificant, and ineffective. Taking it altogether, 1 am opinion that its very unsatisfactoriness may be in some degree beneficial, as it must open the eyes of the Commissioners, of artists themselves, and of the public, to the real state of matters, and convince them that, unless very much better ear- nest of talent for fresco and historic painting can be obtained, it would be little less than madness to think of it for the embellishment — alias degrading — so noble an architectural pile as, when completed, will be the Palace of Westminster. Should, by-and-bye, any of the Commis- sioners themselves feel perfect confidence as to ultimate success, it is to be hoped that they will impart some degree of it to the public by affording some of the artists most likely to be engaged in the scheme of decorating that national edifice the opportunity of proving their qualifications for the important task, by confiding to their pencil the walls of even a single room in their own mansions. Such course would, at all events, show their sincerity and their patriotism. Z. DOCKRAY'S SELF-ACTING RAILWAY SIGNAL. Sir — Upon perusing the 5th volume of your Journal, I observed at page 115, a description accompanied by a sketch of the above inven- tion, in which there appears an inconsistency; to point this out it may be necessary, (to save the trouble of reference), to explain the princi- ple upon which it acts ; its first impulse is from the weight of a pass- ing train depressing a pin, communicating by a bell ciank a connecting rod to a lever which raises a piston in a cylinder, which piston upon fulling by its own gravity, expels the air trom beneath it by degrees, according to some regulated time. To the piston rod is attached wheel work, which causes a band to rotate on a dial, showing to an after train how many minutes the other has preceded it — this arrange- ment would be excellent but for one circumstance, viz., tliat wlien a train has passed and pressed down the pin, tbe connecting rod before mentioned has moved to its place, there is a catch which holds it in that position, and the lever which has raised the piston is therefore prevented from allowing it to fall, thereby causing the stoppage of the whole apparatus. If these remarks are not too late, by inserting them you will oblige, Your constant subscriber. Bow Street, Covent Garden. J. Jones, Jun. 1^44.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 36^ IRON HOOPING FOR BOND. Sir — As iron hooping is much used now instead of bond timber, I venture to point out to the consideration of the building profession an objection to it which seems to have been overlooked. I allude to the chemical action which is nearly certain to take place when iron is buried in cement; the bad effects of this I have seen in numerous in- stances, and I particularly remember one in the Rotunda of the Bank of England, where a large piece of stone was forced from its position by the operation of the action alluded to. Apart from this, proper attention is not paid to the protection of the hooping from atmospheric effects, as I have frequently noticed the ends of the hooping left pro- jecting at the extremities of new built walls to the extent of three or four feet, and this for weeks together, the consequence has been that the hooping so left exposed has been covered with rust, and rendered unfit to be inserted in the walls intended to be built, and tied by this very hooping to the newly built walls already erected. I am induced to request your insertion of this, in hopes that some of your readers may point out a substitute for the iron hooping, which would be less liable to the operation of the chemical action. Your's, &c. Thos. J. Pring. Bouverie Street, Fleet Street, September i, 1844. A FEW MORE HINTS ON DECORATIVE ARCHITECTURE. The sticklers for architectural "unities," are somewhat like their brother sticklers for dramatic proprieties. The latter-named gentle- men contend immensely for unity of time, place, and action, each of them being absurdly unnatural, but totally neglect that one little thing needful, the unity of nature. They will not allow a change of scene, a lapse of years ; a difference between a bed-chamber and a banquet- ting hall; but have no objection to a bravo talking like a hero; or a waiting-maid like a countess. And the prior named sticklers are enormously severe upon intercolumniation (regulated by theoretical proportion, and not the strength of the material I) and such like points, but totally overlook minor discrepancies, which to uneducated people really do appear important. Look for instance at an assembly-room, a town-hall, or a court of justice. Columns ornament the vf alls ; frescos decorate the panels ; elaborate cornices surround the windows and doors; the ceiling is enriched with panels, roses, Vfreaths, and all the pride and glory of Bielefeld's papier-mache ; but alas for the architectural " unities," the bewildered spectator casts his eyes, dazzled by the magnificence of the scene, down upon the ground, and behold, a vacant dreary area of Norway pine or Baltic timber, unadorned save by the straight lines of the joints, that run on in endless and tiresome perspective. An idea rushes through his brains of Beau Brummel in a bad hat, or George the Fourth in Bluchers, and he precipitately retires, a wiser but a sadder man. In a private residence, the same incongruity prevails, architectural taste and elegance are lavished indiscriminately upon the walls and ceilings, but the " poor floor that we tread upon," has got its naked- ness disguised by a Turkey or Kidderminster carpet, the beautiful texture of which becomes disgusting from the hideous discord of the colours, and the insipid absurdity of the pattern. Now as every per- son, however reckless, must more or less look before they leap, and even before they step ; and as people in general do not walk with their eyes in a heaven-ward position, it is pretty certain that the floor has greater claims upon the attention of the architect than the ceiling or even the walls. In churches, thank God, a better taste begins to show itself, and that portion of the floor, not disfigured by pews, is well ornamented in the ancient style by deviced tiles ; except in halls and corridors, however, this method is not applicable for general purposes, and a substitute must be sought elsewhere. In the late Government exhibition in St. James' Street, of decorative works, there was a model exhibited which seemed in a great measure to supply the wants — it was a combination of wooden tiles or blocks, of the richest colours, and admitting of course of every possible variety of form and pattern. It is the patent of a Mr. Austin, C.E., and on a late visit to the Royal Exchange, we were told it is to be laid down in the library of that building. If it should be found to possess dura- bility, it will certainly be a valuable acquisition to architectural re- sources. Something must be done; a Napoleon of Kidderminster, or a Turkey Newton must arise, or else (would indeed it were so) the profession must leave oft' twaddling about unity of style, and classic severity ; Christian art and masonic rules; German jEstheticism and English Puginism; and turn their attention to those unconnidercd trijies which, whatever they may think, are worthy of their sapient consideration. A. H. Patterson. Westminster, Sept, 3, 1844. THE ORDNANCE ESTIMATE OF THE EXPENSE OF SURVEYS. We have thought it our duty to give the followini; document, for the in- formation and consideration of our professional readers. We are not amongst those who would bolster up raonopolies, or attempt to make a vested inte- rest of public rights, and we therefore feel the less diftidence in denouncing this measure. It must be evident to every one tliat the estimate in question is entirely fallacious, and does not represent the real cost to the public of such surveys. Take, for instance, the case of officers of the Ordnance alone. We have here no allowance for their education, sick or non-effective pay, or retiring pensions : we have no account of the pay, lodging, clothing, allow- ances and pensions of the subordinates employed. Every one will therefore see that, as a mere matter of figures, the estimate is a delusion ; we have, moreover, strong reasons for believing that, even as the figures stand, they do not make due provision for the duties to be performed. It will be seen that the estimate for surveying, at the highest rate, is only about a penny or twopence a house, figures which carry their own refutations with them. Were this estimate, however, a true one, the grand objection against the whole plan remains untouched. It proposes a dangerous and mischievous interference, not merely with existing private enterprise, but with the future interests of the public. We sincerely deplore, as all must, the neglect of the necessary surveys at present, and the ignorance too often to be witnessed in local surveyors. But how are we to have this remedied, if professional men do not have the means of improvement allowed to them, and if they do not receive the reward of proficiency. All these plans for putting local surveys into the hands of the Ordnance officers, amount to neither more nor less than this, — defrauding the localities of competent resident officials, and it is on this ground we take our stand, as thereby not only would no economy be effected, but continual and sure losses be inflicted on the public. With regard to the officers of that eminent service, the Ordnance Depart- partment, we cannot but think that, to call on them for such reports and such services, is to place them in an inviduous position with regard to their civilian brethren. While we should be among the first to deprecate the in- terferance of professional civihans with the officers of the Ordnance, so do we feel regret when we see duties so unpleasant imposed ou the officers of Government. We now proceed to give Captain Tucker's Report to the Ord- nance Department. Report. In obedience to your order of the 22nd February, 1814, 1 have the honour to submit the following estimates for the Health of Towns Commission, plans on the scale of five feet to one mile, showing countour altitudes, or altitudes marked at equal vertical distances, in the streets of towns, contour lines without the towns, sufficient to be serviceable for the sewerage and drainage of them, and including the expense of ascertaining sewers, water-pipes, and gas-pipes, arranged under the folowing heads : — 1st. Of towns of which the survey is completed. 2nd. Of towns of which the survey is in progress. 3rd. Of towns of which the survey has not been commenced. No. 1. Towns Surveyed. — In the estimate under this head the expense of the surveying and levelling already done is not included, as I have considered them to have been performed for the Ordnance Survey, therefore I have only charged the additional expense of marking contour altitudes in the streets, and contour lines outside the towns, ascertaining sewers, water-pipes, and gas-pipes. The cost of making copies of the plans is inserted, to which the additional cost is added to show the cost of copies of the plans with the additional in- formation for sanatory purposes. No. 2. — Totons in, progress for the Ordnance Survey of England. — The estimate for levelling and marking contours in the streets is for the levelling which will be necessary for the improvement of the sewerage and drainage of towns, supposing it to be done for that purpose. The cost of copies of the plans is the same as for Class No. 1. No. 3. Towns of which the Survey is not commenced. — The surveying, plotting, and drawing are charged, showing the cost of levelUng, contuuriug, ascertaining sewers, water-pipes, and gas-pipes, as in No. 2. The expense of fixing points is not included in the estimate. The expense of surveying varies in proportion to the size or population and the compactness of the town. The area or extent of the close or compact part of a large town being greater in proportion to the whole area or extent of the town, than the com- pact part of a small town bears to its whole area or extent, the cost of sur- veying will be greater in propqitioa to its area thau the cost of a small town 364 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Sbptkmbkr, therefore I liave estimated the cost of preparing plans of towns having a population of 10,000, 20,000, 50,000, 100,000, 300,000. The levelling and marking contour altitudes in the streets embraces the showing the water-shedding line, and the lines of natural drainage, as accu- rately as the sinuosities of the streets will allow of their being traced, and the levelling is supposed to be arranged for that particular object, as con- tour lines cannot be laid out within the towns ; showing also a sufficient number of contour altitudes to connect altitudes marked along the line of drainage with equal altitudes marked along the water shedding lines. The expenses of levelling und contouring are estimated for towns situated on gentle slopes. For abrupt slopes the expense of levelling will be nearly one-third greater, but the contour altitudes in the streets will be at greater vertical distances and fewer contour lines will be laid out. I have considered the towns of 10,000 and 20,000 inhabitants, to consist of long brandling streets with few cross streets, and requiring less levelling than towns that are compact with numerous cross streets. The expense of contouring or marking the contour lines outside the town is calculated on the supposition that one-third of the whole area, -usually in- cluded on the Ordnance plans, will admit of their being laid out, and the ex- pense shown in the estimate is the average expense per acre for the whole area of the plan. Ihe levelling performed at Windsor cost 6rf-5. per acre, including the levelling for four lines of sections in addition to that which would have been sufficient for sewerage and marking the contours. The contouring cost '2-75 per acre. The contours above the datum mark at the bridge are laid out at four feet vertical distance from each other. Those below the datum point at two feet vertical distance apart. The expense of contouring was much increased by the necessity for laying out and surveying the lines before the plan was drawn, in order to complete them before Her Majesty's return to the the Castle, which caused an increase of 0r/'75 to the expense. The cost of contouring Windsor exceeds the expense per acre, shown in the estimate for towns, arising from the large extent of country in proportion to the area covered by the town, the contoured area being three-fifths of the area of the plan; whereas in the estimate for plans of towns the space or extent of ground on which it will be possible to lay out contour lines is sup- posed to be one-third only of the area of the plan. The cost of ascertaiuing the sewers, water-pipes, and gas-pipes of Windsor, and the Castle, and putting them on the plan, amounted to \d-i per acre for the space occupied by the town. The sewers, water-pipes, and gas-pipes of Manchester have not been ascer- tained. The cost of obtaining them for the town of Oldham amounted to \d-\ per acre. The sewers and water-jiipes, but not the gas-pipes, have been ascertained for Bury at the expense of 0> — o s Additional Expenses per Acre for a at a. X s .2 3 a. V o g r w c ce c o °^ "A zi Expense per Acre for i o If & o tn o u ^ B £ 3 Expensa per Acre for < a. a (0 E o o Total Cost of Plans per Acre, Including the Fixation and Calculation of Points. c -a 3 . — u — c to o *^ O 3 o .5 = O *^ O -a a ei u 1. I.B « s bo-o « III 3 o i .2 a -] s u (3 1. = 1 c 1 Q T3 S n o Is •a c « g i^-a en CSC = -s & 3 O is 5 ! 10,000 20,000 50,000 100,000 300,000 8 9 11 12 14 d. 1-5 1-5 2-0 20 2-5 d. d. 1-5 1-5 2-0 2-0 2-5 d. i 4 3 5 6 d. 12 13 16 17 20 d. 8 9 11 12 U d. 4 4 5 5 6 d. d. 1-5 1-5 2-0 2'0 2-5 d. 6-5 6-5 8-0 SO 9-5 d. 145 15-5 10-0 20-0 23-5 d. 12 15 21 28 49 21 22 25 29 32 d. 4 4 5 5 6 d. d. 1-5 1'5 20 20 2-5 s. d. 3 3-5 3 7-5 4 6 5 5 7 6-5 5. d. 3 8 4 0 4 lOj 5 9 7 11 METHODS OF TRACTION ON RAILWAYS. AlmoipheTic Pressure, Tension of a Rope, Locomotive Engines. There are three general methods of traction practised on railroads where steyin is the motive power. First, by means of a rope passing over and wound up by a drum, which revolves by the action of the engine. Secondly, by means of a tube extending the whole length of the railway, and containing a solid piston, which is forced along by the air being pumped out of the tube by an engine stationed atone end of it. Thirdly, by means of a locomotive engine which turns the wheels on which it rests, and by the friction of these with the rails, carries the attached train forward. In each of these methods of transferring the power of the engine, a piirt of the power is lost in the transference. I. In traction by a rope some part of the power will be absorbed by the friction of the rope with the road, or with the friction wheels on which it is laid. Also, thi' parts of the rope between each two friction wheels will hang dovvn in a curve ; force will be expended in raising and straightening these segments of the rope before the train can be put in rngtioDt Moregver, if the rope possess elasticity, the engine must first stretch the rope to a certain extent before it can act on the train. It must be considered also that the engine starts not only the train itself, but also with equal rapidity a heavy rope equal in length to twice the distance between the two railway stations. These causes would operate were the trains to move on rails per- fectly even, but in practice obstacles occur at the joints of the rails and elsewhere which communicate shocks to the train iu motion. Hence will arise another abstraction of power ; for at each shock the train will be slightly retarded, and then again accelerated, and conse- quently a vibrating motion will be given to the curvilinear segments of rope between the friction wheels. The vibrations arising from this and similar causes will be very observable in the line of rails parallel to that on which the train is iu motion. The maintenance of these vibrations is a fruitless expenditure of power. An exact illustration exists in the endless bands used for communi- cating motion in steam-weaving and steam-printing, and even in com- mon knife-grinders' machines -, the most casual observer must have noticed the rapid vibrations of the bands in these cases. The motion of the tow-ropes of river barges affords another example of these vibrations. From this cause also among others, steam-tugs tow ves- sels more efficiently when closely and rigidly lashed to their sides than when connected by a long rope ; and a garden roller is moved 1844.-] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 365 over a rough gravel path more easily by pulling the handle than by pulling a long rope fastened to the handle. This last illustration sug- gests an experiment worth making, and easily made, by which the subject would be elucidated far more clearly than by written explana- tion. The alternate retardation and acceleration of the train will have another effect which is due to the elasticity and weight of the rope, namely, that at each retardation the tension of the rope will be slightly increased, and at each acceleration diminished ; the consequent stretching and unstretching is maintained by force, which contributes nothing to the motion of the train. II. In considering the application of steam power by atmospheric pressure, it will be necessary to remove a very common error which supposes that power is in some way gained by the intervention of the air. Now to refute this notion it seems sufficient to state the general theorem that " power is not gained but only transferred by machinery ;" or taking the most favourable case that could possibly exist, namely, that the exhaustion of air should be perfect, and effected by apparatus perfectly air-tight, and without friction, it may be seen that whatever pressure exists on that end of the locomotive piston open to the air can only arise from, and will be exactly equivalent to, the power ex- erted in removing a corresponding pressure from the other end of the piston, so that even in this hypothetical case, power would not be gained but merely transferred. But it will be shown that in practice the amount of power actually transferred is much less than that expended. The causes of the los,s are many ; among them are the friction and leakage of the locomotive piston in traversing the whole length of the tube, and the friction and leakage of the air-pumps. But these are trivial compared with the enormous waste owing to leakage in the fissure extending along the top of the tube ; and this cause will operate after every precaution has been employed. The apparatus also for closing this fissure will require and abstract additional power, which contributes nothing to the motion of the train. There is another cause of power being lost which, as I have never seen it noticed, I shall discuss at some length, namely, that arising from the elasticity of the air and analogous to the effect alreadv alluded to, of the elasticity of a rope, where that means of traction is em- ployed. Suppose first for sake of explanation that the power of the engine is transferred to the train by compressing instead of rarefying the air. Taking the simplest case, let A, a, be two pistons moving air-tight in a horizontal tube. If the piston A were advanced to B, the effect would not be that a would advance an equal distance to b, it would not move so far, and part of the force used in advancing A to B would be absorbed in condensing the air between the two pistons into a smaller space. Similarly suppose that A receded to C, a would not therefore re- cede an equal distance to c ; part of the force used in moving A would be absorbed in rarefying the air between the two pistons. Now this is precisely the case of the Atmospheric Railway. Or the matter may be simplified thus— drawing an analogy between the traction by a rope and that by atmospheric pressure, we may state that in the one case the power is transferred by a rope of com- paratively inelastic material, iron wire or hemp, and in the latter case by a rope of the most elastic substance — air. Papin, the inventor of the well known machine, called "Papin's Digester," proposed to pump water out of a mine by aid of a stream moving a water-wheel, two miles distant; his plan was to use the water-wheel to work two pistons moving air-tight in a tube which •was continued from the stream to the mouth of the mine, where two similar pistons were placed. He imagined that the air would communi- cate the reciprocating motion of the first pair of pistons to the second, though they were two miles apart. Owing however to the elasticity of the air, he found that no effect could be produced without giving the first pair of pistons an extent of motion altogether preposterous. Sir Walter Scott had a scheme at Abbotsford for superseding beil- wires by air-tubes, at the ends of which next the bells, solid pistons were placed which were to set the bells in motion ; at the other ends similar pistons could be worked by hand. The apparatus proved altogether ineffectual. To determine more precisely the nature of the waste of force in atmosplieric railways from the cause under consideration, we will imagine an atmospheric pressure of (suppose) 10 lb. to the square inch on the locomotive piston necessary to overcome the inertia of the train, and set it in motion with the requisite velocity. "The elastic force of air at a constant temperature varies inversely as the space It occupies;" or, in other words, the pressure lessens in proportion as the air is rarefied, and increases in proportion as the air IS condensed. Now to produce a pressure of 101b. to the square inch on one end of the moving piston, we must (taking the ordinary atmospheric pressure at 151b.) diminish the elastic pressure in the tube of rarefied air till it amount to only 51b. on the square inch: that IS, the air in a tube some three miles long, must be rarefied 5-15ths or one-third its original density before the train can be put in motion. And the force requisite for this purpose contributes nothing, be it remembered, to the subsequent motion of the train, since to maintain Its motion the pumps must continue to be worked exactly as if this preliminary exhaustion had not been effected, for otherwise the advance of the piston would soon condense the air again. We must now recur to the experiments illustrated by the preceding diagram. In these experiments we have tacitly assumed the existence oi friction or some other resistence to the motion of the piston a. Did no such cause operate, the piston A would not by its advance or re- treat condense or rarefy the air between it and a ; the pressure of air on both sides of a would ultimately be balanced— that is, the air be- tween the pistons would become of equal density with the external air; consequently the extent of motion of both pistons would be the same when not resisted by friction or otherwise. When however resistances exist, the motion of the first piston is greater than that of the second. It must not however be hastily con- cluded that the loss of power, because called into existence by the friction, IS therefore equal to it. If such were the case, we should in the preceding paragraph have been allowing for the friction twice over. This, however, is not the case, for if the loss of power now under consideration were equal to the friction, its amount would clearly be determined by the friction only, whereas that amount de- pends also on the length of the tube. And from principles already laid down It will be readily seen that, cceteris paribus, the loss of power will only be half so much in a tube a mile long, as in one twice the length. For instance, suppose a force of 5 lb. to the inch were required to overcome the resistance of the piston, the pressure in the tube of rarefied air must be made = 15-5, that is 10 lb. ; consequently the air must be rarefied to 10-]5tbs its original density. Now for tliis purpose twice as much air must be pumped out of an air-tube two miles long, as out of one, half the length. It may be considered also that we have over-estimated the loss of power 111 stating that "the preliminary exhaustion contributes nothing to the subsequent motion of the train." It may be argued that the amount of pressure necessary to merely put the train in motion is much less than that necessary to maintain its full velocity. In prac- tice, however, the train is never started till a great proportion of the exhaustion has been effected, and before the train has performed but a very small part of its journey the maximum exhaustion is effected. Moreover, up to that point the waste of power will continue to ope- rate—though of course not in so great a degree as when the train is at rest and diminishing as the velocity increases— for this reason, that until the full speed is attained, the vacuum increases in degree and is therefore carried on with greater rapidity than corresponds to the mere progression of the train. We must explain what is meant by " rapidity of exhaustion cor- responding to the velocity of the train." When the rarefaction has reached that degree which is to be maintained without increase or diminution throughout the journey, the train will also reach its full speed. It will follow, therefore, that while the degree of rarefaction remains unaltered, for every foot which the motive piston advances along the air-tube a quantity of air equal to that contained in one foot of the air-tube will be pumped out by the engine. If this exact cor- respondence in the rate of pumping the air and of the motion of the train were not maintained the degree of rarefaction would not remain unvaried. If the air were pumped out more slowly than the motion of the propelling piston required, the air would tend to condense, and vice versd. Of course in this explanation the supposition of leakage is excluded. ^ The elasticity of the air affords a reservoir of force which towards • the end of the journey would keep the train in motion for some little time alter the air-pumps ceased to be worked. This circumstance might be considered another offset against our estimate, but that the tram is never in practice allowed to come to rest gradually but is stopped by the external force of breaks. On the whole, therefore, the amount of loss must be considered to be almost exactly that above estimated. The motive piston successively occupies every part of tha air-tube, consequently, supposing no leakage, the air-pumps must before the journey can be completed, pump out a volume of air equal to the solid content of the tube. Now we have shewn that where the 32 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [Skptkmbbk, 366 j_ ir. tht> inrh tlu' extraction of two-thirds of r'buTk'f'rKtestthingtotirmotioo of the train. We %re"reS/rollary to this statement is that the train is pro- that estimated above-that is to say. one-fifteenth instead ot two n-^it raSiy'^oleXrthe friction of the Fjemng PUton S"l Unguage'a fZtn of two variables-that is, varies as the ^-iiCl^'^i^^^^^^^ e^haustio. Before d1 cussing the next cause of loss of power, we may consider ^^"Soseo eY^a^^^^^^^ m T^hird method of traction was based on two bydrosta Uc • . .io* «i;» T,rP«ure of water is d rectly proportional to its ntfinllKS: llelZl if clmunicated eqUly'in every direc tion. Hence if a cistern A con- !i I taining water communicate by a tube of any form whatever with a piston B fixed in the tube, the pres- sure on B will not depend on the quantity of water in the cistern and tube, but solely on the perpendicu- lar altitude of the surface of the water in A above B. In the case of the railway, the piston B was attached to the train, and was to ^^^^ .hole »». of «»l "°P"°^l'' ;,iSo°.rr.nlb" m.dtlo'm one gasometer, the gas being obstructed in nowing oy *'^Eitr;^Src;£:rffi the comparison between the hytuf a^n] aUspheric railways -- /-f ^ "J::,7ti^ o't former. Water being incompressible (nearly s°' "„'./';•; ';ded in corresponding to thaffrom " Preliminary exhaustion ^ is avoided n the hydraulic scheme; owing to^^ter being much less ™ air, the waste from leakage would also be niuch less. The J^y^; \^ system affords also the convenience of a «s"^°" f .?°!'"^ „{ time power stored in the cistern may be employed at any distance after the cistern has been filled. intervention of air The last effect of transferring pressure by the intervention u ,,hich we have to consider, may, like the pre^dmg' ^e e^f '£^1% analogy. In considering the rope traction it was shewn tHatoDsia on tlJ^rails would cause -a constant stretching ^"'l "°^J, «"^^^,^^fer wiU, rope, which would give rise to a waste of P°^". Thejeadej w^^^^ on reflection, easily perceive that the same waste occurs in atmospne ric tracUon. only proportionably increased, on account of the exceed- ingly grea?« elasticity of the materials by wbi.h communication of ^°IV in theloith mode of traction, that by locomotive engines, the cauTesof lossof power diflTer altogether from the preceding-they arfse from the power being employed in moving no only the train, h«t also The enormous additional weight of the engine and tender, which frequeJy amounts to fifteen tons, also from the occasional ''^tJeXl rrSrsoutlon^ss of force in the three methods of raiTwav conveyance. In making, however, an election between the hre^niZ other questions besilles that of loss of power would have to be trkenintoaccount._suchas the danger of breaking the rope, where that kind of traction was used; and, on the other hand, the fact f hP mere ouestion of waste of power, there will be no diftculty m ae ermTning??rom the above considerations, the particular mode of trac ti on in which the loss immeasurably preponderates. ^ ^ STEAM RIVETTING MACHINE. In onr last volume, page 216, we gave an engraving of Mr. Fair- SS=jpjpi^'S^trs?r?,r.ts Fig. 1. ^ F'S- 2 II '^^:n:5%sp^^^ ^^^^^^^Si view- fie. 2. front view of the top of stem ; fig. 3, a plan of the ma- S; fi?. 4 section through the*^ steam cylinder ; figs. 5 and 6 plan and Vide ;iew of the piston; similar letters in eacS figure refer to similar parts. Kg. 3. „AS?>T3,"t-is.SLXSiStx^.rip"^r 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 367 the die, 6' ; C, jointed bar moving on a knee joint at c, and hinge joints at c' and c" ; D D, upright standards fixed with bolts at the base df and on the top at d', to side rods or stays, E E ; F, cast iron base with a projecting bracket,/, on the underside, and a projection on the Fig. 4. Kg. 6. Fig. 5. top,/', with a wrought iron hoop to securely hold the base of the stem, A; G, open top steam cylinder; g, piston; H, piston rod with a moveable joint at h on the piston and at the top, c ; J, valre with steam and eduction ports ; j, steam pipe ; j', eduction port, and j", bandle for a man to regulate the admission of the steam. The article to be rivetted is suspended between the die, 6, and counter-die, a, and in the position the engine in fig. 1, appears the steam has been admitted under the piston and raised it to the top of the cylinder, and pressed the jointed bar, C, into a straight line, and forced the die, 6, upon the rivet. When the steam is cut off, and the underside of the piston opened to the eduction passage, the weight of the machinery, together with the weight of the piston, causes it to descend, and with it the rod, H, and the jointed bar, C, which then takes an angular form like the knee when bent, and draws back the standards, B B, and with them the die, 6 ; when the steam is again admitted the piston is again raised to the position as shown, and presses upon the rivet as before. REGISTER OF NEW PATENTS. (tTlider this bead we propose giving abstracts of tlie specifications of all the roost im- portant patents as they are enrolled. If any additional information be required as to any patent, the same may be obtained by applying to Mr. LAXTON at the Office of this JOURNAL..^ STEAM BOAT PROPELLERS. H»NRY Davies, of Norbury, Staffordshire, Engineer, for " certain Improve- ments in the construction of vessels for conveying goods or passengers on water, also certain improved arrangements of machinery for communicating motion to such •«<«;«."— Granted Jan. 25 ; Enrolled July 25, 1844. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. ■:X-r ■■■■ '-J '-' X] U' vj The first part of this invention consists in constructing that part of vessels which is immersed in water with a tube or channel, for the purpose of allow- ing a current of water to pass through the hull of the vessel from head to stern. Secondly, in the application of rotary curved plates or propellers within such channel, and lastly, in a peculiar mode of connecting one vesssel to another, so as to form a train of vessels. Fig. 4. Fig. 8. In constructing vessels according to this invention, Mr. D. prefers that they should be made of plate iron, rivetted in the same manner as in the or- dinary way of constructing vessels, with this difference that the bottom or keel of the vessel should be level, and the sides of the vessel parallel to each other, as shown in the end view fig. 2, and plan view fig.3 . The deck of the vessel should be slightly curved from the ends and sides of the vessel, as shown at fig. 1, which is a longitudinal section ; a a is the channel formed in the hull of the vessel ; 6 is a shaft, (there being two of them as will be seen by the end view and plan,) supported by standards c c c, and coupled toge- ther by universal joints to allow of a lateral movement if required, and upon each of these shafts there are 4 propellers, which constitute or form' two half circles or revolutions of a double threaded screw of considerable pitch ; the above forming the principal features of the improvements in the construction of vessels. With regard to propelling such vessels, which constitute the second part of these improvements, the specification proceeds as follows; — Supposing that a vessel constructed as above to be propelled or towed along the canal, river, or other water, by means of a horse or other power, apartii vacuum will take place in the water towards the stern of the vessel, and a pressure of water will take place against the fore part, of the vessel, which combined effect will cause a current of water to pass through the water-way or channel a, in an opposite direction to the motion of the vessel, to fill up the vacuum caused by the motion of the vessel, and would have the effect of turning or giving a rotary motion to the shafts, but in consequence of the water way being contracted in the middle of the vessel by lowering the deck for the purpose of giving buoyancy to the vessel, the velocity of the current will at such part be greatly increased, and in order to counteract this differ- ence in the motion of the water in passing through the channel or ivater way the inventor constructs the propellers of a different pi'ch, those at the ends of the vessel being given as 5 ft. pitch and 3 ft. 6 in. diameter, whilst the two propellers marked d d being stated at 2 ft. 8 in, diameter and 6 ft. 6 in. pitch. The last improvements, in connecting vessels together so as to form a train of vessels, fig. 4 being a plan, and fig. 5 a sectional elevation ; a a is a rect- angular box or trough of plate iron with a division in the middle, this box being of such dimensions as to receive the prow of one vessel and the stern of another, and allow of the vessels moving out ot the straight line, or turning in the trough, when required, as shown by dotted lines, the two vessels being held together by means of a rope, /. The object of connecting a series of vessels, as above described, being to prevent them producing separate dis- placement in the water, the whole being as it were one vessel and forming one displacement. SAFETY VALVES. Thomas Lidole, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, engineer, for " Improtemcnts in apparatus for preventing explosions in steam boilers.'' — Granted Feb. 21 ; En- rolled August 21, 1844." There are two modes described in the specification of preventing explosions in steam boilers , the first is the application of a float for aiding or assisting in raising the safety valve. The second is the application of a syphon con- taining mercury, which by the pressure of steam within the boiler is caused to exert a power on the lever of the safety valve, in addition to the pressure of steam upon such safety valve. The apparatus first described consists of a float suspended from a rod, which passes through a stuffing-box attached to the top of the boiler, and also through the end' of a lever of the first order, the end of this rod being provided with a nut or other projection. At the opposite end of the lever Is suspended a rod, to which is attached the safety valve, and below the valve and inside the boiler is attached the weight, but the weight may, if required be outside the boiler ; the object of this arrange- ment being that when the water in the boiler gets lower than a certain point, and the pressure of steam in the boiler is not sufficient to open the valve, the nut upon the end of the rod, which is attached to the float, which floatlhas descended as the water evaporated, comes in contact with the end of the lever, and thereby raises the valve and allows the steam to escape. There is 32* 368 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [Skptembek., another modifiealion of thisjapparatus, which in effect is precisely similar to the foregoing. The second part of the invention will be clearly understood by the an- nexed diagram and following description ; that is to say, a a shows a section of portion of a boiler, b ; the safety valve attached by a rod to the lever d, and e the weights ; e is a cylinder attached to the top of the boiler, having a piston/, fitting within it ; this piston has a rod which passes through the end of the lever d, with a collar upon it ; ji; is a syphon passing from near the top of the cylinder below the surface of the water in the boiler, this syphon con- tains a column of mercury equal to the required pressure of steara, the action therefore is as follows, as the pressure of steam in the boiler is increased, should the valve stick in its seat or from any other cause not be raised, the mercury contained in the syphon will be forced into the cylinder e, and a pressure of steam will then be exerted upon the piston /, and the same will be forced against the end of the lever rf, so that a pressure of steam may by this means be applied to the end of the lever d. as well as to the safety valve, ■which cannot very well fail to raise it ; A is a screw plug for letting the mer- cury flow from the cylinder e, back again into the syphon ; the dotted lines show that the syphon may he bent so as to come below the surface of the water, which may be employed for raising the piston instead of mercury as will be understood, for which the inventor claims, first the application of a hollow metal or other proper float in such manner as to act on the safety Talve, and aid in opening the same, when the water in the boiler falls too low ; and secondly, in the application of a syphon pipe with a column of mercury, as before deacribed, to act on the safety valve, and cause it to open the same, when the pressure becomes too great in the boiler. ATMOSPHERIC BAILWAT. JohK Aitkbn, of Surrey Square, in the county of Surrey, gentleman, for "Improvements in atmospheric railways."— Granted February 24; Enrolled August 24, 1844. In the construction of atmospheric railways the air from the traction pipe (as is well known) is removed by means of air pumps, and some difficulty has been experienced in getting out the air so as to obtain a good vacuum, in consequence of the air at each succeeding stroke of the pumps getting more and more rarefied. Now the object of this invention is in the first place to obtain the required vacuum by causing the traction pipes to be filled with water, and then allowing the same to escape through the eduction pipes from "32 to 33 feet" long, by which means a better vacuum can be obtained in the traction pipes than by the aid of air pumps. The object of the second part of this invention is to obtain a more perfect air tight covering for the longitudinal valve of the traction pipe, by covering such valve, and also the pipe « ith » ater for the purpose of retaining the vacuum obtained therein. In carrying out these improvements the traction pipe is to have a longi- tudinal opening, which is to be covered with a valve of leather or ether suitable material previously prepared, to resist the action of water in the same manner as the leather employed in pump buckets, and the same may be strengthened by transverse plates of iron, and attacheil by one of its edges to the top Of the traction pipe, or the same may be wholly lifted up, as is now practised; the invention having no reference to the peculiar mode of applying the valve, the principal feature being in the application of water for the purpose of forming a vacuum and keeping the longitudinal valve air tight, which is efl"ected as follows. Fig. 1, shows a transverse section of the traction pipe, w hich is laid in a trough formed between the rails, the whole length of the line, and sufficiently deep to cover the longitudinal valve o, which is some inches below the surface of the water ; b h, shows one of the transverse slides or stops, which is received within a rectangular bo.^ or trunk c c, and in order to form a vacuum within the traction pipe, the same is to be filled nith water which is allowed to flow out through any convenient number of eduction pipes, which operation may be performed at any period previously to the train Pig. 1. arriving, so as to allow sufficient time for the water to run out of the pipe, which after the train has arrived is to be pumped back again to refill the pipe. It will appear evident that as the longitudinal valve is raised, the water con- tained in the cistern or trough will flow into the pipe, and exert a pressure together with that of the atmosphere, on the back of the piston, and assist in impelling it forward, and after the piston has passed each of the transverse sliding stops b b, that length of pipe may again be filled with water, ready for another similar operation. In cases where the railway is to be constructed on ascending or descending planes, the inventor proposes to employ a greater number of sliding stops, and to lift the water by means of pumps into the trough at the highest point, or at various points, so as to keep the longitu- dinal valve always covered, for which he claims the mode of constructing at- mospheric railways whereby water is used for obtaining the necessary vacuum in the traction (lipes, and also for keeping the longitudinal valve air tight, as described. IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM ENGINES. John Stetellv, of Belfast, in the county of Antrim, professor of natural philosophy, for " Improvements in steam engines. — Granted March 2 ; Enrolled .Sept. 2, 1844. This invention for certain improvements in steam engines, which improve- ments are arranged under nine different heads, consists first in the peculiar arrangement of a complicated condenser, the object of which is intended more particularly as a medium whereby a great amount of heat may be obtained or collected from the steam to be applied to various useful purposes such aa heating the rooms of cotton and flax mills, and supplying hot water to the various branches of such manufacture, than any benefit to the actual working of the engine itself; on the upper part of the condenser, which consists of a vessel somewhat less in capacity than the cylinder, there is arranged two sliding valves for the induction and eduction of the steam at certain parts of the stroke of the piston, this vessel, which is termed the " hot condenser,' and which is intended only to partly condense the steam, is provided with a force pump at its lower p.irt, which impels the hot water collected back again into the boiler and to various parts ot the manufactory as above slated, and re- turns again, at a greatly reduced temperature, to assist in the condensation of steam for the purpose of heating more water ; the valves above referred to, it will perhaps be necessary to state, are intended to conduct the uncondensed steam to a perlect condenser, which we presume is intended to be of the or- dinary construction, as no other is referred to. The second improvement consists in the application of a double cylinder, or two cylinders placed side by side, one of which the patentee terms a conju- gate cylinder. These cylinders, which as observed, are placed side by side, have a piston, the rods of which are connected, we presume in any convenient manner, to two cranks placed at different angles upon the same shaft, pre- suming one piston to have performed about two-thirds of its stroke, the other has performed about one third, both of which are travelling in the same direction ; the two cylinders are connected together, and a communication is established between the top and bottom of each of the cylinders, which com- munications can be opened and shut by means of two sliding valves, con- nected together by a rod j the steam parts and valves for introducing or ad- mitting the steam from the boiler into the cylinders not being shown, as the inventor does not deem it necessary ; but, however, steam is to be admitted into one of the cylinders from the boiler until the piston of such cylinder has performed as has been observed, about two-thirds of its stroke, (as near as we can judge trom examining the drawing,) the piston of the other cylinder having performed about one-third of its stroke, at this juncture the steam from the boiler is cut off and a communication is formed between both cylin- 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. 369 ders, which allows the steam to act on the underside of both pistons at the same time ; the steam after having performed its functions is allowed to pass off to the " hot condenser" before referred to, and a similar operation is per- formed for the down stroke of the piston, &c. alternate. There are several other improvements described, one of which consists of an apparatus for supplying high pressure boilers with water, and consists of an additionol boiler, or hot well, placed a little above the level of the water in the boiler, and at one end or side thereof, from the underside of this hot well, which in a locomotive may be placed in the smoke box, there is a pipe which conducts the water from thence into the boiler; from the steam cham- ber of the boiler there is a bent pipe which leads into the top of the hot well, and which pipe terminates in a two way cock, the other way forms a com- munication with the atmosphere ; this two way cock is actuated by an ar- rangement of levers and floats placed within the boiler; the action is as fol- lows— presuming the boiler to have a plentiful supply of water, the opening of the two way cock will form a communication between the hot well and the atmosphere, and the condensed water from the engine will be pumped into the hot well ; but should the level of the water in the boiler become loo low, the float will fall, and by means of the arrangement of the levers the two way cock will be turned so as to close the communication with the atmosphere and open a communication between the sleam chamber of the boiler and the hot well, whereby an equilibrium of pressure is established between the boiler and the hot well, and the surface of waterin the latter being somewhathigher than that in the boiler, the water will proceed to flow from the hot well into the boiler, and is prevented from returning by means of a ball valve, when the water has attained the desired level the communication is again formed by the two way cock between the hot well and the atmosphere, and that one closed with the boiler. CARRIASE WHEELS. Samdbi. Atkinson, of Manchester Street, Gray's Inn Road, in the county of Middlesex, turner, for " Improvements in the construetum of whitls for car- riages.''—Gisaiteii March 4; Enrolled September 4, 1844. Fig. 1. 1^ SM Kg. 2. These improvements consist in combining iron spokes with wood felloes and wood tyre in the manufacture of wheels for caiTiages, which spokes may be of any required form ; in the accompanying figure we have given a view of one description of spoke referred to in the specification, there being several forms and also several modes of fastening the same within the felloe and nave of the wheel. Fig. I shows a view of a spoke similar in form to those now in use, the lower end being rounded and burred up with a diamond tool, so that when driven into the nave of the wheel such projections may assist in retain- ing it therein, the opposite end of the spoke being fastened to the felloe by means of a nut and screw. Fig. 2 shows a transverse section of a wheel and two spokes, which in this case are made hollow, or tubular, and then filled with wood, the ends of the tubes having an opening or slit on each side, the object of such opening being that when fastening the end of the spoke within the felloe or nave, an iron wedge being first inserted into the opening, the spoke on being driven into the aperture enlarges the end thereof, and retains it firmly within. The inventor claims the means of manufacturing wheels for carriages whereby iron or other metal spokes are combined with wood felloes and wood naves as described. BA1LV»AT KETS. Willi am Henht Barlow, of Leicester, civil engineer, for " Improvements in the construction of keys, wedges, or fastenings, for engineering purposes."— Granted March 6 ; Enrolled September 6, 1844. The nature of this invention consists in the application of hollow metal keys for fastening railway bars to the chairs, and also the chairs to the blocks or sleepers, in place of solid keys of iron v,i wood as heretofore em- ployed, and which hollow metal keys are applicable to other engineering pur- poses. The mode of applying these hollow metal keys is precisely the same as those heretofore in use, as will be seen by referring to Fig. 1, which shows an ele- vation of a railway chair, and end view or section of a rail which is fastened within the chair by means of one of these improved hollow metal keys, which Fig. 1. is also shown in section and marked a, the same being applied to fasten the rail in the ordinary manner, viz. by driving the key between the rail and the Kg. 3. 7 r cheek of the chair. Fig. 2 shows another form of key, which is left open on one side ; in using this description of key it would be advisable to let the ends meet so as to form a butt joint. Fig. 3 [shews an elevation and end view of two hollow pins for fastening the chairs to the sleepers, one of which, it will be seen, has a slit or open- ing on one side throughout its length ; for which the inventor claims the mode of making wedges, keys, or fastenings, for securing railways chairs to the blocks or sleepers, and other engineering purposes, by forming such keys or fastenings of hollow metal. GAS FOR LIGHTING. Alexanher Angos Ceoll, Superintendent of the Gas Works, Brick Lane, in the county of Middlesex, and William Richards, of the same Works, for "improvements in the manufacture of gas, for the purpose of illumination, and in apparatus used therein, and when transmitting and measuring gas." — Granted March 7 ; Enrolled September 7, 1844. It would not be convenient to enter minutely into the details of this inven- tion, the specification of which is accompanied with fourteen sheets of drawings, but as it is above observed, should any of our readers require any information as to any particular part of the invention, the same can be forwarded with a drawing of such part or improvement. The first improvement relates to a method of manufacturing gas, and consists in a peculiar mode of arranging certain apparatus, and in such manner that water may be decomposed by the application of sulphuric acid, (which operation is performed in a leaden ves- se]), the gas evolved from this process being mixed with the fumes or vapour of naphtha, or other proper fluid, for the purpose of giving colour to the light obtained from burning such gas. The second part of this invention relates to a peculiar mode or modes of arranging and fixing clay retorts in an arch or arches whereby the same are said to be more advantageously heated, thereby cfliecting a considerable saving in fuel in the manufacture of coal gas-; the peculiar arrangement consists in so combining three arches that they may be heated by two fires, each of the fires being placed under the retorts of the two end or side arches, the centre arch and retorts being heated from the two fires ; the heat, which after passing over the retorts in the end arches passes through flues at the lower part and on each side of the centre arch into the same, and after passing over the several retorts contained in that arch, finally escapes through a flue at the top of the arch. There are two modifications of the above arrangement de- scribed and shown in the drawings of the specification, and also another, which consists in a mode of arranging two arches one above another and heated by one fire, which is placed immediately above the crown of the lower aro THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September, arch, the heat from which fire, after having heated the retorts in the upper arch, descends and heats the retorts of the lower arch. The third part of this invention relates to a rnode of manufacturing clay retorts, and consists in making them in two parts, the division being in the middle cat transversely ; the mode of making such retorts is as follows. A mould of the proper size and form of the external part of the retort is firmly fixed upon the ram of an hydraulic press, another mould corresponding with the inside of the retort is firmly fixed and properly adjusted above the other, the clay of which the retort is to be made being placed within the lower mould, the same is forced over the other mould which forms the retort by means of the clay being pressed or forced upwards between the two moulds ; the inner mould being hollow is heated by means of steam for the purpose of expanding it, and then left to cool for the purpose of contraction, in order that it may be more readily withdrawn. The fourth and last part of the invention is for improvements in gas meters, the principal features of which are in the so combining of two flexible par- titions that a continuous and uniform stream of gas may be obtained from the burner and thereby produce a steady flame ; and also in the mode of ar- ranging or constructing the flexible partitions in such manner that the lea- Iher or other material of which they are made is, in the working of the meter only bent one way, that is to say, the flexible part is not bent backwards and forwards, which bending has, in a great measure, a tendency to destroy such partitions ; and lastly, in the peculiar mode of transmitting motion from the flexible partitions to the registering apparatus. STEAM BOAT PROPELLER. Wm. Faihbairn, of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster, engineer, for ** Improvements in machinery used for propelling vessels by steam, — Granted March 7 ; Enrolled September?, 1844. This invention consists in the application of an internal toothed wheel fixed on the main or crank shaft of the engine of a vessel, when such vessel is to be driven by screw propellers, in » hich case it is necessary that the num- ber of revolutions of the propeller shaft should be considerably increased beyond the number of revolutions of the main or driving shaft. The drawing shows the elevation of an engine of the same construction as the land engine, in which the beam is above the cylinder, and is provided with a connecting rod, crank shaft, and fly wheel, which latter forms an in- ternal wheel, in the teeth of which work the teeth of an external wheel or pinion keyed on the end of the screw propeller shaft. The object of using an internal wheel is said to be— firstly, that such arrangement admits of a much larger driving wheel being employed, and also that the propeller shaft can be got much nearer the bottom of the vessel ; and secondly, that the power trans- mitted from the driving wheel to the driven is received in a greater number of parts, that is to say there is a greater number of teeth of the driven wheel in contact with the driver than would be the case if the wheel of the propeller shaft was driven l)y an external instead of internal w heel. NAIL MACHINERT. Bernard Fea«d Walker, of North Street, Wolverhampton, clerk, for " Improvements in.machinery for maldng nails'^ — Granted March 6; Em'oUed September 6, 1844. This invention relates to certain improvements in nail cutting machinery, and in order to render the same intelligible we have given a diagram which •will no doubt be sufficiently clear to those who are at all conversant with me- chanics, a is the main or driving shaft of the machine ; 6 is a connecting rod, one end of which is attached to a crank on the main shaft, a, the other end being connected to the ends of two levers, c c, the upper one is attached to a fixed centre, and the lower one is attached to the end of a sliding bar, rf, which carries the moveable cutter, e being the fixed cutter ; / is a portion of the frame of the machine, and ^ a triangular bar which carries a slide, A ; i is the flat bar or plate of metal intended to be cut mto nails, and is held by means of a pair of clams or holders attached to the end of the spindle,^' ;". which spindle passes through a hollow shaft, I, and by meaus of a fixed key is allowed to slide ednways, but not to turn within the hollow shaft; m is a cranked lever actuated by a cam or eccentric on the shaft, a, to (he lower end of this lever is attached one end of a connecting rod, n, the opposite end being connected to a lever, o, to which there is attached a toothed sector working in the teeth of a bevel wheel keyed on the hollow shaft, /. Thus at erery stroke of the slide or cutter, d, the plate of metal, i, which is at an angle with the cutter, is turned over by the apparatus last described so as to cut the nail off tapering from head to point, the plate being drawn along as the nails are cut off by means of a weight, p, and cord which is attached to the slide, h. The principal novelty in this machine consists in the application of an universal joint at«, which as the plate, i, is turned over allows the end thereof and that part of t^e spindle marked j' to rise. There is another machine described in the specification, in which the raising of the plate as it is turned over, is effected by eccentrics. The patentee claims as his invention the mode described of combining machinery for making cut nails, whereby the holder of the flat plate of metal from which the nails are cut is caused to rise in the act of turning over the metal ; and also attaching the strip of metal to be cut to an advancing holder. IRON CASTINSS. Charles Harrison, manager of the Coed Tallon and Leeswood iron works, Flintshire, for " certain Improvements in the manufacture of cast iron pipes and other iron castinffS."—GranteA March 14 ; Enrolled September 14, 1844. This invention consists in a peculiar mode of making or forming the moulds for casting pipes, pillars, and other articles of a cylindrical form ; in carry- ing out these improvements the inventor proceeds as follows. In the first place two " shells" are to be provided, or what is technically termed the moulding box, consisting of the top and bottom which when put together are cylindrical in placeof square, as heretofore, the internal diameter being somewhat larger than the external diameter of the pipe to be moulded. These two parts of the moulding box have on their inner surface a number of projections, the object of w hich is to cause the loam or wet sand to adhere firmly to the sides or inner surface of the box, which loam is to be plastered over the whole of such surface with the hand : this operation being performed on one half of the box, a piece of board which has been cut on one edge so as to form a profile of the external part of the pipe, and of the same length is mounted upon an axis in such manner that the board forms a radial line to such axis ; the axis or shaft to which this board or template is attached is then placed into its bearings, which are formed at each end of the moulding box, it will therefore be evident, that on giving motion to the axis or shaft, the edge of the board will describe a circle whose plane will be equal to the external surface of the pipe intended to be cast, and will therefore form ahalf mould of loam in the aforesaid box. This operation being carefully per- formed in the top and bottom parts of the box, the same are taken to the- stove and dried, after which the edges are carefully cleaned off, so as to make a good joint, and the surface covered with charcoal, the mould is then ready to receive the core, and afterwards the metal for casting the pipe in the ordi- nary manner. The object of this mode of proceeding being that when a casting has been made in such mould it is only necessary to examine the mould, and if re- quired, to repair it in such parts as may have broken up, when it will be ready to receive another casting, &c, so long as the mould lasts. STEAM ENGINE IMPROVEMENTS Emancel Wharton, of Birmingham, engineer, for " certain Improvements in steam e7igities, which are in the whole or in part applicable to other motive en' gines, and to machines for raising and impelling fluids," — Granted March 14 ; Enrolled September 14, 1844. The first part of this invention relates to a peculiar mode of constructing metallic pistons, fig. 1 being a section taken through the centre of the piston, and fig. 2 a plan thereof showing the upper plate removed, a is the boss which receives the piston rod ; b the bottom part upon which the boss is cast, and c the upper part ; e, e, e, e, are four segments, the inner surface of which are of a conical form as will be seen by the section : // is a ring which, it is said, if made of cast iron should have a piece cut out so as to give it a degree of elasticity. This ring, which is placed between the projecting part. J', of the bottom part of the piston, and the four segments, c, is furnished with four screws or screw blocks, /, which have their heads bevelled in such man- ner as to fit the conical or inclined surface of the segment ; g is a projection or stop for keeping the ring in its proper place. It will therefore appearevi- dent that if the ring f'f, with its adjusting screw blocks, be dropped into its place, and a pressure applied to its upper surface, that the segments will be 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. 371 forced ontwards in a direction from the centre of the piston, (his downward pressure of the ring, f f, is effected by means of a projecting ring cast on the underside of the cover, which, as the cover is screwed on, presses on tlie upper surface of the ring and adjusting screws ; iiii ate four wedge pieces, the object of which will be as clearly seen without the description as given in the specification as with it. Fig. 2. Pig. 1. The second part of Ihis invention consists in a peculiar mode of applying D etallic packing to those engines known by the name of patent disc engines, ■whereby the use of hempen packing therein will be " almost entirely super- seded," although the inventor in his description prefers to use a little ; for which he claims, first the application of segments or rings of a conical form on their inner surface in combination with an elastic ring and adjusting screws, and second in the application of packing as described, which is calculated to supersede almost entirely the use of hempen packing in that class of engines tailed patent disc engines. Moses Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, for Improvements in steam engines, steam boilers and furnaces or fireplaces. Being a communication.— Granted March \i; Enrolled September 14, 1844. The first part of this invention has reference to an apparatus for raking and clearing the fire, which consists of an arrangement of levers supporting a rectangular frame below the fire bars, upon this frame there is a number of projecting blades, which blades, as the outer end of the frame is lowered or pulled downwards, enter between the grate bars. The levers which support the frame are so arranged as to allow of a longitudinal, or backward and for- ward motion being given to the frame, which when the aforesaid blades have in' the manner described been forced between the grate bars will have the eifect of thoroughly clearing the fire. The ends of the bars are shewn as being bent downwards at right angles to the bar and terminating in a trough containing water for the purpose of keeping them cool, or the same may be made hollow and have steam or water passed through them. The second part of the invention relates to a mode ol evaporating the water, which passes off with the steam from the boiler, and also in a mode of regu- lating the temperature of the dry sieam. This the inventor proposes to effect by reheating the steam after it has passed from the boiler, and thereby eva- porate any particles of water which may have passed from the boiler ; but in Older that the temperature of the steam may not be too great so as to bum the tow or packing, and also dry up the oil intended to lubricate the various parts, he proposes to arrange the parts in such manner that wet steam, or steam from the boiler, may be introduced into the chamber receiving the eva- porated steam by means of a cock, which can be regulated according to the quantity required, which can be ascertained by means of a thermometer. The third part relates to certain improvements in steam boilers, which have little claim to novelty ; and the fourth to an apparatus for preventing explo- sions in steam boilers, the latter consisting in the so arranging the safety valve by means of a lever and float that it will open when the water in the boiler gets below the proper level, and also when the steam is raised above a certain temperature. The fifth and last part of the invention relates to certain mechanical ar- rangements to be used in combination with the governor for regulating the speed of the engine; the defect in the ordinary centrifugal governor is stated in the specification to be, that when the balls have been moved beyond their ordinary position, either to open or shut the throttle valve, they cannot re- turn to their original position without again changing the state of circum- stances which caused them to move ; the object, therefore, is to remedy this defect by the application of an arrangement of mechanism situate between the governor and throttle valve, th^action of which is as follows— as the speed of the engine is increased the balls will expand in the ordinary manner and the throttle valve will be partially closed, but as the speed decreases, and conse- quently the balls and arms of the governor collapse, the valve, in place of being ac ted upon as heretofore, so as to open it, and therefore pass over the same space in the collapsing as well as expanding of the governor, will remain quiescent during such motion of the governor until the engine gets below its ordinary speed, at which time the throttle valve will again be acted upon by the governors in a reverse direction so as to open it, and the same circumstances take place as above described with regard to the closing of the valve. !yiISCEI.I.ANEA. The New Roval Exchange is expected to be opened at the end of the montti of October; Her Majesty witli Prince Albert it is announced are to attend tlie opening. The New Building Act.— The Commissioners of Woods have appointed Mr. Higgins and Mr. Hoskins as tlie two Official Referees ; two gentlemen in every way qualilied for the duties. The otiiee for both the Registrar and Referees is fixed at No. 4, Trafalgar Square. The day upon which the Act comes into operation, as regards the new districts and buildings, is the Ist January, ltf45. The Basilica ok St. Louis at Munich was inaugurated on the 8th Sept., it is built in the style of the basilicas of Italy, and is ornamented with numerous sculp- tures, paintings in oil and fresco, and also stained glass. OmiUAEY. — We are sorry to have to announce the demise of Mr. Henry Robinson Palmer, of Great George Street, Civil Engineer, Fellow of the Royal Society, and many years a Vice President of the Institute of Civil Engineers, he was extensively engaged upon numerous public works throughout the United Kingdom, particularly docks and harbours. Mr. Nasmvtu versus Captain Waenek.— M'e understand, from undoubted authority, that Mr. Nasmyth, engineer, of Manchester, has submitted to the considera- tion of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, the plan of an Iron steamer, bomb- proof, which will ertectually destroy any ship or squadron. She is propelled by the Ar- chimedian screw, and, when going at the rate of six knots an hour, she will run stem on to a ship, and leave a hole in her many feet wide, below the surface. It is, in fact, the power of two ships coming in collision with each other at the rate of ten knots an hour, placed, by mechanical means, in the hands of not more than three men. We understand that this invention is now under their lordships* consideration, and there can be no doubt but it will put Captain Warner's invention at a discount. — ' Devonport Independent.' Attempted Asce.ms of Mo.\t Blanc. — MM. Bravais and Martins have been for some time engaged in attempts to ascend Mont Blanc, but without success. After spending the intervening time in collecting a series of meteorological and geological observations in the Alpine country which surrounds the mountain, the ascent was llap- pUy effected on the 2tHh ult. The travellers found their tent on the Giand Plateau unin- jured, and formed the design of passing a night each on the summit of the mountain, while their companions (M. Lepileur being now added to the number) encamped in the tent. But the intense cold defeated this part of their project. The thermometer stood at 7 4-10 degrees below zero, in the shade, at a quarter past 2 o'clock in the day, and the ascent was most painful, notwithstanding the fineness of the weather. At a short dis- tance from the summit they were assailed by a piercing wind, and the cold which it brought was so intense, that they describe their sensations on attaining the summit, when tbey had in some measure escaped its severity, as being that of men who had entered a well-warmed saloon. Berwick Castle. — That venerable and interesting monument of antiquity, the ancient Castle of Berwick, is to be levelled with the ground, in order to allow space for the terminus of the railway forming between that town and Edinburgh. Rhine Steam Navigation. — The Dusseldorf Rhine Steam Navigation Com- pany (in correspondence with theGeneral steam Navigation Company of London) established in IH38, although having already done a great deal towards theimprovement of steam navi- gation on the Rhine, not only as regards speed, but also in comfort and superior restaura- tion on board, appear determined, if possible, to equal the fastest Thames steamers in point of speed. This company have just received from the factory of Messrs. Miller, Ra- venhill, and Co., Blackwall, London, a new iron steamer, which has been named the Elbarfeld, and she, on account of her extraordinary speed over all the steamers now on the Rhine, has created quite a sensation. A few days ago this vessel, previous to being placed in active service, made an experimental voyage from Dusseldorf and Cologne to Mentz and back, and to the astonishment of every one, performed the journey from Co- logne to Mentz, against the strong stream, in U hours and 20 minutes, and from Mentz to Cologne, with the stream, rather under seven hours, inclusive of stoppages. To form a comparison with what the Dusseldorf Company have accomplished, whose vessels are all propelled by English engines, it is necessary to add, that in 1837, previous to their formation, it was held an extraordinary feat to proceed by water in two days from Cologne to Mentz — namely, the first day from Cologne to Coblentz in 14 hours, and the second day from Coblentz to Mentz in 13 hours, making together 'Z7 hours, now performed in half the time and in one day. The Earl or Rosse's Leviathan TELEsroPE.- Sir James South m a letter to the Editor of the * Times' observes that it is " with pure delight do I communicate to you, and by your permission, through the ' Times' journal, to the civilized world, the fact that the leviathan telescope, on which the Earl of Rosse has been toiling in his demesne at Parsons-town now upwards of two years, although not absolutely finished, was on Wednesday last directed for the first time, to the sidereal heavens. The letter which I have tliis morning received from its nolile maker, in his usual unassuming style, merely states, that the metal, only jast polished, was of a pretty good figure, and that with a power of 500, the nebula known as No. 2 of Messier's catalogue was even more magnifi- cent than the nebula No. 13 of Messier, when seen with his lordship's telescope of 3 feet diameter and 27 feet focus. Cloudy weather prevented him turning the leviathan on any other nebulous object. Thus, then, we have, thank God, all danger of the metal break- ing before it could be polished overcome. Little more, however, will be done to it or with it for some weeks, inasmuch as the noble £atl is on the eve of qalttiug Ireland for Eng . 372 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [SkpthmbeRj land, to resign at York his post as President of the British Association, and to Tisit his noble relatives at Kilnwick and at Brighton. This done, he returns to Ireland ; and I look forward with intense anxiety to witness its first severe trial, when all its various ap- pointments shall bo completed, in the confidence that those who may then be present will see with it wh;it man has never seen before. The diameter of the large metal is six feet, and its focus 54 feet. Yet the immense mass is manageable by one man. Compared with it, tbe working telescopes of Sir William Herschel, which in his hands conferred on as- tronomy such inestimable service, and on himself astronomical immortality, were but playthings. The Surface of the City of London. — During excavations for tbe sewers in different parts of the city, information has been gained relative to the depth of artificial ground above the natural surface. The following is the very eurious statement relating thereto made by Mr. R. Kelsey in evidence before the " Commissioners for inquiring into the state of large towns and populous districts:" — Thickness of made ground at Paul's wharf up to St. Paul's Churchyard, 9 feet to 12 feet j^Watling-street, 11 feet to 12 feet 6 inches; Bread- street, 17 feet 6 inches j C heap side, tfee natural earth was not reached— the cutting varied from 14 to 23 leet ; Gracechurch-street, 14 feet to 18 feet ; King Wil- liam-street, 12 feet to 17 feet 6 inches : Princes-street, 10 feet to 33 feet G inches ; Moor- gate-street, Ifi fret fi inches to 21 feet tl inches ; Fenchurch-street, 15 feet 6 inches to 17 feet 10 inches; Bishopsgate Within, 9 feet 6 inches to 16 feet; Fish-street-hill, 5 feet 6 inches to 18 feet 10 inches ; Eastcbeap, 12 feet to 15 feet ; Redcross-street, 7 feet to 9 feet; Barbican, 10 feet to 13 feet; Cannon-street, 9 feet throughout; Rosemary. lane, S feet to 12 feet ; Water-lane, Fleet-street. 5 feet to 9 feet ; Cateaton-street and Lad-lane, 12 feet to 14 feet 2 inches; streets in Cloth-fair, 4 feet 6 inches to 12 feet Cinches ; streets in St. Ann's, Blackfriars, 4 feet to 13 feet 3 inches. The plinth of Temple-bar is buried in accumulation. The east end of Newgate-street was lowered about 12 inches when the present Post-oflice was built. London-wall has in part been raised above 2 feet within the last 25 years. Tbe Pavement and Little Moortields have been wholly re-arranged within the last 10 years. All the improvements from London-bridge to London-wall have largely altered the surface uf the main line, and of the adjacent streets. The north side of what is termed Holborn-bridge, the north end of Farringdon-street, has been raised about 2 feet. Such occurrences as these are distinctly noticeable in some way, but the in- sensible alterations are equally great and curious; as, for instance, from levels taken in 1770 and 1842, it appears that in Bishopsgate-street Without, at Bishopsgate Church- yird, the surface has risen 2 feet 2 inches in 72 years, but at Spital-square only 12 inches in the same time. The result of this examination is confirmed by the depths of the sewers as originally built and as they now measure. The Wflland Canal.— In cur last number we gave a brief statement of the unprecedented and rapid increase of the trade of Lake Erie, and the small proportion of it as yet secured for Canada, by the St. Lawrence. But we have no doubt that the efforts now making, by the improvement of our water communications, to divert this commerce into its natural channel, will ere long be crowned with success. Tlie enlarged works connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario are in a state of great forwardness— those on the feeder approaching nearly to completion. The steam-boat lock at Broad-creek, built by M'Culloch, Clark, and Co., is now finished, except hanging the gates, and is considered one of the best structures in the province; the piers at Port Maitland, the mouth of the Grand River, are in a forward state, and within one month this important channel will be opened— important, isasmuch as it will be an open outlet from Lake Erie, o4 miles west of Buffalo, and above the barrier of ice which keeps that port closed for many days, and in some years, weeks, in the spring. Owners of vessels, which can now pass through this canal, may therefore prepare with confidence for the opening of this navigation early in the ensuing year. In addition to the above, there is every prospect that the locks from St. Catherine's to Thorold will be completed on the enlarged scale— 150 feet long by 26^ feet wide— during the present fall. The contractors are making the most strenuous exer- tions to effeut this object, and unless some unforeseen obstacle occurs, it will be accom- plished. The four locks (Nos. 4 to 7) contracted for by Mr. Barnet, will be finished this month as well as the two adjoining (Nos. 8 and 9) by Boyce, Courtwright, and Co.; also one by Mr. Simmerman, and another by Sharp and Quinn ; and we hope in another month, to announce the certainty of the entire line being completed, so as to insure the opening of the whole route in the spring.^' St. Catherine's Journal.' Extraordinary Escape of an Iron Steamer from Damage. — A few days since we mentioned the circumstance of the Pacha, Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company's vessel, having been taken into dock at Portsmouth to be examined, when nothing tbe matter having been discovered she was taken out again and proceeded to Southampton. We have since learned the reason why she was so examined, and as the fact of a ship of 70U tons burden falling nine feet without sustaining any material in- jury is unparalleled, we give the following particulars :— Last month the Patha, the only iron vessel belonging to the company, of 2l0 horse power, was hauled up at White's building slip at Cowes, for the purpose of applying to her bottom a composition prepared by the scientitic and talented superintendant of the company, to prevent the accumula- tion of barnacles and seaweed, the successful operation of it on a small scale justifying the speculation on a larger. The workmen left tbe vessel on the slip, under the impres- sion that she was perfectly secure ; but a short time after they had departed, the vessel slipped over on the larboard side, and fell nine feet off the slip, bringing the paddle wheel in violent contact with the piles of the slipway, and bending and injuring the outer ring and lower paddle arms, which of necessity were obliged to be cut away in order to free the ship and enable her to be launched again. Next day the gutters were knocked out, the parts injured were straightened, and a fir? having been lighted in the inside of the vessel, an iron plate which had been bulged in by the paddle float, in the fall, was brought to its proper shape, and patched on tbe inside. The vessel was then taken to Portsmouth Dockyard, and inspected by the authorities, but they could discover neither twist nor de- fect of any description, the form of the vessel being perfect in every respect. As a proof that no derangement had taken pUce in the machinery, from the time of admitting the water into the dry dock at Portsmouth, to that of her arrival at Southampton Dscks, in- cluding the getting up the steam, the fires not being lighted until she was out of the basin, was only two hours and 26 minutes, the distance steamed 22 miles. Every one who has seen her, or heard of the affair, thinks it a most miraculous escape, and that if she had been built of wood, she must have been crippled by such an accident. The whole expense of repair was under ^25. She was built by Todd and Macgregor, of Glasgow. — " Dublin Advertiser." New Steamers.— On Saturday, September 14, the twin steamers. Her Ma- jesty and the Royal Consort, intended for the Fleetwood and Ardrossan station, started for a trial trip down the Clyde to exhibit their sailing and seagoing qualities. After going easily down to Greenock, the ships then commenced a friendly trial of speed, which was kept up until they reached the lighthouse on the Little Cumbrae, and declared by Mr. Dennie, the timekeeper, to be at a speed of upwards of 16 miles an hour. These vessels are fully 600 tons' burden, are supplied with engines of 3#0-horse power, and are similar in every respect in model and construction, with the exception that the paddle-floats of Her Majesty are solid, while those of the Royal Consort are divided. It was the wish, therefore, of the builders, Messrs. Todd and M'Gregor, to test the capabilities of the dif- ferent paddles, Mr. Todd acting as chief engineer ou board the Consort, Mr. M'Gregor filling the same situation on board Her Majesty; and the result is, that the solid float has been found, in point of speed, to be superior to the divided one. It is scarcely possible to describe tbe interest and excitement attaching to the race between these two beautiful steam vessels ; for nearly three miles they were as near as may be " neck and neck :" but Her Majesty, with the solid floats, gradually shot a-head. The weather was wild and boisterous, and admiriibly fitted to test the capabilities of the boats as sea-going steamers. They are each supplied with tubular boilers, direct self-acting engines, and fitted up with five compartments ; and at the time of the highest speed we are informed by the engineers that the pressure on the boiler was not more than six pounds to the square inch. Several of the shareholders, with their wives and families, were on board the ships, and notwith- stinding the perils of the "dark and stormy water," there was much hilarity and enjoy- ment. At 4 o'clock. Captain Wilson, late R.N., took the chair in Her Majesty, and Mr. Smith, the manager of the Fleetwood station, officiated as croupier. Several good speeches were delivered, and amongst many statements in favour of the iron boats, Mr. M'Gregor stated that they were cheaply constructed, would not burn, would not take dry rot, and while they were built in compartments would not sink. An agreeable party also dined, under the presidency of Captain Ewing, in the Royal Consort. We look upon tbe construction of these boats as adding another triumph to the ship-building capabilities of the Clyde. — 'Glasgow Herald.' New Motive Power. — M. Selligues, who some short time since reported to the " Academic des Sciences" a discovery of a motive power which he then thonght would be a substitute for steam, and which consists of combining atmospheric air with hydrogen gas, by which an explosion is produced when ignited, has, at a recent meetin g of the Academy, made another communication, from which it now appears that the de- tonating power ceases under pressure. This phenomenon has proved an obstacle to the experiments of M. Selligues before the Committee appointed by the Academy. Notwith- standing the ' nothing in the nhape of ornament or meretricious decoration will be introduced;" and so far, It may be presumed, this classical structure will manifest a very great improvement upon such a meretriciously tricked out building as was the Parthenon with all its lavish parade and pomp of sculpture This IS refining upon Athenian taste, with a vengeance ! Still, it may be thought that what is so undisguisedly a mere sham as a building without even the appearance of answering any purpose whatever as such, stands in need of more than an ordinary degree of embellishment in order to reconcile us in some degree to the utter want of utility or even the mere semblance of it. A monumental column at least ex- presses Its intention, without any deception, whereas liere, on the building being approached, it will show itself to be a mere sham— all outside show,— a mere platform quite open to the skv, yet edged round by useless columns supporting nothing but their 'own entabla- tures. It IS consolatory however to learn that these last will be turned to some account, as they are tn form "promenades," whence, after having first crept up and squeezed through a staircase, within one of the columns, (which are not more than five feet in their upper diame- ter), visitors may enjoy "a panorama of the suiiounding country "— that IS standing on a narrow ledge not more than between four and five feet wide, with the blocking courses as parapets to if, so that they wil have o promenade somewhat after the fashion of crows in a But- ter! \yell, at any rate that will be a novel idea; only i\w prospect of having to descend the awfully narrow corkscrew in one" of the columns must be anything but a pleasant one. Surely the architect misht have exerted the powers of contrivance a little more rationally,— in fact so as bv providing a commodious platform or terrace on tiie top of the building, and an equally commodious ascent up to it, he micht at the same time have kept up the character of a peristylar temple, whose coh.nnades form an external sheltered ambulatory around the enclosed sanctuary ox cella That this might very easily have been accom- phshed IS evident from the plan : there are i„ all eighteen columns so disposed that the structure is tetrastyle at each end, and heptastyle in Its flank elevations, in other words, these last consist of six, and the ends ot three intercolumns each. This of course leaves onlv the so ice of one intercolumn and two columns for any interior chamber or cella (unless indeed the plan were altered to a pseudo-peristvle I • vet il though it would be hardly su8icient-of much too narrow pro'portos for any sort of sepulchral chamber or mausoleum containing a statue of the nobleman to whom the structure is dedicated, it would, accord- ing to the dimensions stated afford a clear breadth within, of about eighteen feet by somewhat more than sixty feet in length, conse- quently enough for a staircase of convenient width, consisfing of two or more flights forward in one direction, and then returning again similarly in the other. This being done there would have been a suf- No. 86 — Vol. VII,— October, 1844. ficient y spacious terrace on the top of the building, extending over the colonnades, or all that part of the plan not occupied by the^stair- case. Another advantage would have been that had such an idea been adopted the external walls of the cella (staircase) might have been rendered sigmhcant and historic, by being sculptured with a series of reliefs and inscriptions, illustrating the deeds and merits of the individual to whom this classic "monument" is professedly raised. At present urdi".v^nfHer"°"'°,h '""''* f'""' " '^''"''^••^- exquis^ite ab- surdity of the design will operate as a powerful warning in future. It IS a pity he public have not been informed who are the wiseacres to whose judgement and taste they are indebted for the selection of such a precious piece of maudlin and make-believe classicality-of what may fairly be called classicality run mad. ^ II. Should V^elby Pugin ever favour us with a Supplement to his Contrasts, he will uo doubt bring forward as one moTeg^eg o,^ n- stance of architectural bathos the unlucky structure commS upon in the preceding paragraph. He might also hold up for reprehens'^on a good many Pecfc,»/specimens of Gothic and Tudor of very ecent date-certainly more recent than would be imagined, for some of them ? 7 to be jjimost twin-brothers to Strawberry Hill, or else to th" fron of Guildhall. To say the truth, the Gothic style has nu thriven in the metropolis; rather quite the reverse, for even the let ex- ceptionable examples of it scarcely surpass a kind of respectable me- diocrity, while the rest fall very far sho'rt even of that. Wlli 1, re- after be believed that the range of "Gothic" building in the In, er Temple, facing the Garden, was erected in the very s°ame age wtl the "Palace of Westminster," and not more than a score of y"ars or'date irii Ite ''' ^'T' ^-^0" School takes precedence in po ot date by httle more than a single lustrum, of the new Hall and Library of Lincohi's Inn? Those two unhappy Gothic abo t"n 'the church in Little Queen Street, Holboru ; and that in Berwick sieet Soho-the latter with an "area" and kitchen windows-are Uryin the extreme-not better than some of the wicked caricature'l „pi" gin s book, or than some of those suburban abominations in brick Tnd compo ycleped "Gothic Chapels." Nor is it only when the Gothic style IS affected for them, but nearly all the ecclesiastical str,^°u es which have been erected of late years either in or about the metropo is have been singularly unhappy-most meagre, tame, dull, pover^v- tricken things, devoid of design or character-buildi gs n d ed even to meanness converted into soi-dtsant Greek, by having four or six nl'T mo',! 1 •'" '""'' 5", ■'■ '" "P^" ^''^'^'-" "f ^1' ™n"ist ncy! and the most obvious principles of good taste. Although not ab«o lutely he very worst of their class, such buildings as the On rcliTn Wyndham Place, and St. John's in the Waterloo Koad, are ba barois monstrosities; and yet for the fir=t of them we are indebted to t|"e fvTth tirXetv": '"^^,^,'?' ""^ ^'?'^-'^« "'l^" copies Greek columns with the nicety of a Chinese artist, but violates the principles and spirit of Greek architecture by wholesale. The poilico of St. Pancras Church-an avowed copy indeed-forms a most striking exception to he generality of modern churches in that style, but then the ad n ra- tion excited by the columns and doors abates wonderfully if we raise our eyes at all higher than the a.chitrave of the entablature, for then the spell IS broken, all above that member looking bare and unfin s ed and in most dissonant opposition to the florid richness of the capitals' decSion."" ""' ^"'"^ ''^'"'^"^ '' '° "'^ ^"^ distribution of n JiLi" ''''""r *° "*''" '^'«''^»'««« f'at beset the question of Fresco- painting, one of no small magnitude now presents itself as regards the choice of subjects. It certainly will be a puzzling matter ?o select such as shall be in every respect well adapted fur pictorial represent ation in that style of ait, and at the same'time of such histor'^cafim- poitance as to express the most momentous points in 'our national annals Neither is that all, since it will probably be made a sn,Za. non-thUM subjects shall be avoided which are likely togive^um- brage o the prejudices, whether political or religious, of anv one sect or party. Pleasant steering it will be, (rulv, between the Scylla and Charybdis of opposed opinions! The indiVidnal who to please one party, must be drawn as a patriot, will by another be regarded as a raitor ; and he m whom some will behold only a faithless fyrant, must 0 satisfy others be delineated almost as a saint and martvr. How are he antuhe.ical reigns of those two royal viragos Mary and Elizabeth 0 be adumbrated on the walls of the Palace ot' Westminster ; or must they be given upas impracticable, and as ai, equivalent for he latter of them, must we be content with the old scene of 6ir Walter Raldgl damaging his cloak in order to repair his fortune ?-a very lova nd safe subject, but also one titter for an engraving in an annual, L n f o r afrescoinasenate-house. Is the expulsTon of , he Stuarts to be passed over as dangerous matter for the pencil ?-must not the "glorious Re- vo ution" be commemorated-or the passing of the Reform Bil ai'd If they are, how and an what manner are those events to be expre^s^d? 34 374 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [OCTOBBR, — poeticaUv, in tlie pnigrnatical language of allegory, or in the plain prose and vulgar tongue of inatter-of-fact reality ?— Lord Malioo seems to entertain some remarkably curious notions in regard to what would be suitable subjects for the occasion. Among others which he recom- mends are " Queen Margaret of Anjou encountering the Robber in the forest ; Anne Boleyn in her bridal array ! Lady Jane Grey at her youthful studies ; (as a pendant there might be Prince of Wales pon- dering over his primer ;) Queen Mary receiving the news of the Bat- tle of the Boyne, the battle itself perhaps being, in order to prevent mistake, represented on the hangings of the room. Truly, a goodly selection of subjects— all of them exceedingly dignified and of para- mount national interest and importance ! Admirable mode of illus- trating the history of our constitution and the annals of the British people ! The gallant viscount might as well have recommended that "Old Bess," and the other wax.vork figures in the abbe)', should be stuck up in Mr. Barry's building. Unless the painters can get better advisers, or get rid of advisers altogether, matters are likely to be confoundedly messed. IV. Although there is jnst now almost a mania for ornamental de- sign intended for almost every conceivable purpose, no one, it seems, has been able to produce any ideas that would help to extend the com- paratively narrow limits of architectural ornament and decoration. Nay, to abstain from any attempt of the kind, in regard to what is termed an Order, is considered a positive merit, and so very greai a one as to make amends for all other faults and deficiencies. No mat- ter how much at variance every other part of a design may be with the intention and character of the order adopted for the occasion, so long as the columns and their entablature are in strict conformity with some established specimen, they at least are safe from critiscism, and entitled to be recognised as classical, whereas any fro re nata modifica- tion of such members, any deviation from liter ,d and mechanical copy- ing, as far as they are concerned, is condemned at once ; therefore the practice of those from whom we derive such types— converted by us into s/e«o/i/;;es— ought in consistency to be condemned likewise, since the ancients, both Greeks and Romans, never repeated their orders literally, but almost every example is marked by some individual pe- culiarity, sli, of Sairey Gamp-for- getting, perhaps, at the time your Dedicatee. Most assuredly you showed no great tact in taking up— as it now seems, quite unnecessarilv-what afforded a very fair opportunity for the exercise of much wholesome satire and correction, because, bv not so availing yourself of it. you have let it be seen that you at- tempted what was so vvholly beyond your power to execute that you felt compelled to abandon the idea almost as soon as it was fornied, and to shirk the matter altogether, trusting that no one would call you to account for a breach of literary promise. Either such is the real state ot the case, or else you must have omitted— mislaid and for- gotten sundry pleasant and instructive, if not exactly edifying, epi- sodes and scenes illustrative of Mr. Pecksniff's professional career and practice, his opinions on art, or what might pass for such, included. \es, there must be severa chapters belonging to the history of that worthy which you have either wilfully or carelessly put upon the same shelf with the lost comedies of Menander and the lost decades of Livy ; and in exchange for them, or even one of them, gladly would we give up all the rest of your book, since they would have been most valuable and serviceable in the way of enlightening the public as to certain mysteries and arcana which it has not yet had an opportunity ot peeping into. You, who show yourself so eagerlv disposed to scourge and pillory humbug and quackery of all kind, w doubt set out with the intention of giving us a full length delineation of the Quack Architectural, and provided yourself with materials accordinelv Rummage your desk again, and you will perhaps be able to find the' notes and illustrations which you had collected for the purpose nav the rough draughts of some of the chapters wherein you intended to exhibit Pecksniff in his character of architect, and in so doing to dis- close to the uninitiated certain professional doings more curious and ingenious than altogether praiseworthy. Therefore that so much which would have been perfectly new, and which vou would have coloured up so piquantly, should have been accidentally omitted is supremely tantalizing. Had you bnt lifted ever so little the mvste- nous cunain wduch now hangs over Pecksniff the professional man, you would doubtless have explained how he contrived to seem to in" struct the pupils with whom he received such unusually hieh ore- miums. Highly amusing would it have been to see Peck— himself an Ignoramus of the first magnitude-peacock himself before those raw recruits, bamboozling and mystifying them at the outset by what were to them deep cabalistic terms and expressions, delivered in the tone of an oracle, and freely interlarded with exclamations hintine at the transcendental virtue and efficacy of "Proportions," with an occa- siona flourish about "the age of Pericles," 'leaving 'them to wonder what how the old Mr. Pericles was could have to do with the matter I am persuaded that had you not bestowed so much of your af- fection upon Mother Gamp, or else, if that was not to be thought of had extended your canvas accordingly, yo« would have drawn out the projessionahsm of Pecksniff capitally. You would have fully revealed many notable arcana -would have shown-what so far froin compre- hending, the world does not seem to be aware of— how very possible It IS for the emptiest pretender to art or what should be art to diss for so very much more than he is, and to impose upon us'his own base Brummagein for sterling coin. You would have exposed some of those arfyices by which such persons make up-to themselves at east-for the.r incapacity in art, and by dint of which, their ug'htess being veiled by the name of business-hke shrewdness they coirfve to maintain a "respectable" position; nay. if they are befriended by particular good uck, or what is nearly the same, by particular interest nay attain to eminence in their profession. That done, they may defy public opinion, or rather, can lead it by the nose wherever thev list- even to the adiairatigu of their own imbecillity and blunders. In- 375 aSI'ec.nrp' """^ ''r'"' ^!" ™™'"'^''o" "^ o'"- Sunder or abortion in aruntectnre secures for the "eminent man" the opportunity of dis- awHo -L^eTlf '■ ^,«.'-SJ»,--"-. vi..-.he 'trie'„'t""foTfiingi g away, not indeed from himself, but so far as art is concerned everv E r'tS ''\f ■'■'' I"'" "'' "'"'« P"'-P-^ -^' talen Se in -a -n lor some tolerably adequate opportunity of showing what it could ac" asstL/ • <:■"'"',"' n^m*'. the public receive successive failures 01 u, lew are not heard, or if beard and listened to at all, not until after mischief irreparable has been committed. That the e "re v" v s :?s'::flim7tec f .''"n-''°"°/ r^' ^-^^"'^^ tbrocS^nstheZ sen es ..le imited, as buildings of the Buckingham Palace '^enus ire not erec ed every day ; but in proportion to the opportu Ure^aZded described as no better than hypocrites and impostofs in it. ^ ^ In order to work out all this suitably, you must of course have in- od iced o her characters and incidents into your piece. Why then aSearwlole " ""^''S"^^'' T'"''"' your vJcomica upol thZ quite as wholesomely, and some degrees less preposterousl Ahaa vou have done m those American ones, where it pleased you o repres^en te 11 ;fble"'"v'"'* ^":r'"^r'' '° '^ "^^ of'balderdLi utterl^un n- telligible \ou might even have rendered a real service both to tl e public and the profession, had you let us seen a little of the curious s^ort onJ^ "'f -ts workings, employed for Competitions and by wha dete ?ion On ^ ^"^' '™'' 'f 'P" ^'"•°"' "'"'' ^han presumptive detection. On some occasion of the kind you might have let us see manner,- n fact, suffered to walk quietly into a snu? iob. while the duped re, re with the solitary satikctimr of getting the r pains fir their trouble and the co.nmittee come off with the fred! of 1 lavio. manifested their anxiety to obtain as excellent a desTgu as possZ^ by liberally inviting all to an open competition, and as l!L .11^ llow- ng perhaps, ten days for studying the slibject and preji , g .^.^ ° t He e you could hardly have coloured up too higl ly : likelie il^hil Fiir'n:!'°''/°-r"' '°"'^'T ^^'^"'^^ ''^'^'= falIe„%hL of te ruth Fai opportunity, again, there was for having a hit at that strange obbyhorsical architectural mysticism which lias°ome up of late under adent' irr"°" °^ Ecclesiology, by making Pecksniff^affect to be an adept in its arcana, and descant with "unction" on the recondite of olden times, and which some would now fain make us believe con- stitute by far the most important part of design in such edifices - hat without which all beauty of style or immediate design s un- availing: comfortable doctrine for the Pecksniffs, who can thus make tlfefr '"' rindple::- ''^ "' ''''" '''''' '^ ''' ^trait-lacedrhodox/t? I might continue to point a very great deal more of which you have deprived us; but I forbear, choosing in turn to deprive yoirofson^' yaluable hints. Nevertheless I don't" mean to let you off yet, having a word or two to snv tm.rl,;.,™ „„.,. t n:._i-' ,,,, -r ■' 'V>""g a word or two to say touching vourTon/pincirVh/Man' you e him an awant Tom Noodle! Upon him you 1 1 y maae ...... „,, .,„aiii, xuni iNoouie; upon liim von have been particularly hard, by making him particularly'soft. A fine specimen truly he of one who follows a lib' ral art! "Had he him! self possessed the slightest feeling for architecture,-had he n^t been a mere clod, worthy only to be a patient drudge, he must at m,y rate TFeck niffi*''' ""f"^ shallowness and incaVcity of such a f^l ".^w as Pecksniff, however he might have been duped by his hypocritical fr'r7- 1,-^"" ''"'" r' S'^'" y°'" Tom Pin'^h a single « pinch" o the suft which an architect should be made off You mak'e him go to Salisbury, and for wlmt?-not to gaze with raptured and explorif^ eye on the noble fabric which is tlie%ride of that city, not to seizf the precious opportunity of indulging any love of art by studyino- 1| at edifice but to while away his time in staring at shop-windows, and his character. Even allowing that to have been a oversight.-that you either forgot that Tom was at Salisbury, or that Salisbury had a cathedral ; you might at least have redeemed it on some other occa! sion Bu no, in no one instance have you bestowed on Tom a single ouch of the character that marks the architect. When vou E him up to London, he has neither eyes nor feelings for^w'th n. "e! lating to us own profession: he has no soul at alfto be moved"tl a way, or else moved it must have been at meeting wiih so many th gs calculated to awaken the liveliest recollections of his forme, occupf! 34* 37(5 THE CIVIL ENCINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [October, tiiin ill tlic I'ei'.ksiiiffian scliool of design. Yon m;ikc liini f.imilinr witli Furiiival's Inn :ind — oil! 1 could luive forgiven you ;ill flu' rest had von bnt letliini burst into a flood of tears on first beholding the ultra- Pecksnitiian taste displayed in the portico within the court. But yon did not I and so 1 have now done both with Tom Pinch and with you ; merely adding for finis tliat you flung away the beat trump card you held in your hand, and that if you popped off your P P's with the in- tention of bitting the true professional character of architect, — both the worthy and the unworthy, you have for once decidedly missed your aim. Candidus. ROYAL ACADEMY. No. in. The power of evil in tlie Academy "has increased, is increasing, and ought to be diminished." It is an obstruction to the greatest plans for the advance of the arts, and a dead weight on every noble aspiration of the student, the people, the sovereign, and the nobility. Let tlie genius of any man be what it might, let him l)e ready to sacrifice liis life for the advance of the High Art of the Nation, let him be ready to lay his head on the block for the freedom of the artists, what has been the eternal olog on his efforts, the encumbrance on his shoulders, the obstruction to be removed, or the curse to be avoided ? The Royal Academy of England. Tell me a scheme to improve the people thev have not opposed, a plan to enlighten the nobility they have not baffled, a school to advance the mechanic they have not blasted, or a principle to raise the art they have not withered, by their diplomaev, their scurrility, their sarcasm, their selfish, silent, heartless, practised invisible diplomacy. I defy the reader to reply. The same cautious, wary sneers, the same heartless affectation of doubting the public feeling, the same ridicule of every attempt to im- prove it, the same pig-headed, dull obstinacy to persevere in the beaten path of 70 years ago, the same insolence of avaricious grasp- ing at all the unjust advantages their position affords ; in short, what was the character of the Acatlemy 70 years since, is the character now, and ever will be, viz. a malignant determination to keep themselves up, and the artists down, as long as the sovereign, the nobility, the house, the artists, and the people, are weak enough to let them. Whilst their emoluments are nndiininished, their honours unim- paired, and their power the same as ever, they laugh at the people, and chuckle at the helpless condition of the profession, and inwardly swell at their irresponsibility. Here is an institution, under the sanction of a constitutional sove- reio-n, without a constitution, and which, as a pure despotism, is suf- fered to exist, and defy the authorities of a country, the sovereign of which would be dethroned at the mere attempt. Such is the anomaly the Academy presents in England — free, "Habeas Corpus," " Bill of Rights," England. How long is this absurdity to exist ? As long as the upper classes are without instruction in art ! And who has baffled Jhe attempt to give them Professors of Art? The Academy, and the Academv alone. In short, whether it be a Professor of Art, or a school of design, whether it be a vote of money, or a decoration of the Lords, the Academy will oppose it, if they are not consulted, and entangle it if they be. When Professor Greswell came from Oxford, came in the sincerity of ills heart, to consult Sir Robert on the necessity of a professor, at the University, of the Fine Arts, the Academicians got liold of him first, pumped his intentions, prepared the minister, and established a refusal before even the question was asked ! Why ? Because their predominance would be endangered ; don't enlighten the nation — the Academy will suffer; don't instruct the nobility— the Academy will be found out; don't let the mechanics draw the figure — Sir Martin will be no longer infallible. Let things alone ; preserve the people igno- rant ; the longer the Academy can keep the art to themselves the surer the members will be to keep their emoluments and privileges — exclusiveness, selfishness and despotism. Amid the many acts of fiendish malice which the members are guilty of, there is nothing equal to the sturdy rejection of all propo- sition for the admission of the exhibitors, with themselves, on the day set aside to fit the pictures for public inspeetion after they are hung, as the exhibitors are admitted at the British Gallery, and all other institutions which are founded on, and guided by honesty, justice, and common sense. Had the artists the spirit of mice, (which they have not,) they would never cease till thev got abolished this nefarious in- sult. Will they ? not they, they will go on for 70 years more, they like to be slaves, they like to be degraded, to be Insulted, to go on their knei's, to crawl to Trafalgar House, to lick their path, to lift the knockers with their noses and to give single knocks, lest touching the sacred handle with their hands or knocking like a gentlemen, would have an air of presumption, and prejudice their election, their hang- ing, or the condescending smile of recognition at the lectures. Poor creatures, they deserve all they meet with and more, for more they vfill have to endure; the sufferance of one insult generally is but a preparation for greater ones. Your readers, perhaps, liave to be informed that a week before the private view and dinner of the Royal Academy, the members of the Academy only are admitted, to retouch and varnish their works ; this is an opening for every species of malice, for it is a fact if a member finds his picture interfered with by the superior work of a youth who is not a member, he is allowed to go seriously to work on his own, and by raising every colour unnaturally to a high key of florid glare, so completely to overwhelm the purity and nature of his youthful rival as to leave no hope for the youth, either for sale or patronage. What is the result? The youth by next year sends a picture of such yel- lows and reds as will defy out-Heroding ; but his sense of truth is then contaminated, he becomes a mere exhibition painter, the lowest, the most degraded, the most corrupt of the species — a species not known in Titian's time. Academicians have been known to get colours of chemists, foretold at purchase to stand only for the summer, and they replied that ivas long enough ! Of all the painters living, whose great genius has been utterly ruined by the perpetual poison of contesting for the glare of the ex- hibitions. Turner is the most fatal beacon to youth; his early works, fresh from nature and study, were worthy of any period of landscape splendour, his latter, a disgrace to the sprawlings of insanity. Thev are not art, and certainly not nature ; they are galvanistic twitchings of dotage, which has dipped its toes in sulphur, whiting and lobster sauce and kicked them about on a smudged canvas, as an experi- ment how far the asses would go who admired him, or how contemp- tible he could render his haters who suppressed their utter disgust in adulation— because they wanted his vote. What a system of art to elevate a nation ! what a system to refine its taste ! what a preparation for fresco and a high style 1 Let that pass ; the disgust to complain of is the exclusion of the rest of the exhibitors, that the malignity of those who are let in may have full swing; for I take it, no fiend in hell would wish greater gratification than the power to paint down a rival's picture, by painting up your own wdiilst he is within sight and knowledge, and conscious his prospects of life are every hour narrowing, by this diabolic privilege to those whose in- terest it is to destroy him and deny his power. The shocking thing is, that the pangs each painter has felt at this infamous injustice does not make him feel sympathy for those he leaves in the same condition when he gets member himself, but generates a hideous feeling of re- venge ; he does not say, now I have power I will relieve you — no ; now, lie feels, / have power, curse ye, you shall feel, with double force, what I have felt myself. I repeat, it is a power that generates the worst feelings in the best breasts, and deadens at last the moral feelings of right and wrong. Northcote once was deliberately dirting down a picture near his own he could not equal — "That is not your picture," said Beecliy. "I know it," said lie, " but ;Y wu«/s /owe ;" and Northcote was not the only one who had often thought it of other works in similar situations. How can any talented body, in a profession of honour, endure such a degradation ? But, it is replied, a portion of the exhibitors are ad- mitted. Yes ; but when? — after the private day, and all the world of fashion have been ; after the dinner, and all the nobility have dined ; after the rooms have been full of dirty plates, empty bottles, footmen and valets ; after the t//Yes of the patrons have had the choice: two hours before the public, on the Monday it opens, the select dishonoured get a dirty, watered note, from a dirty subordinate, to admit them to varnish their work! What condescension! If all the artists tore their notes in pieces and enclosed them by post to the Council, it would be too respectful a way of conveying their contempt. But, said Sir Martin, it is one of the privileges of being academician ! yes, and to be able to bow-string your minister is one of the privileges of being Sultan; but, does its being a privilege make it justice? If artists made a stand against this studied insult, they would put it down; but they have not the manliness, the bottom, the spirit, the unanimity. Sorry am I to say what the world will echo, there is no treachery like the treachery of t.ilent! The temptation to lower a rival is so relishing, the evil of our nature rises to the brim to such overflowing, that humanity is not proof against the Circean whisper. No united, embodied, decided, energetic movement to remove, re- model, or reform this nightmare on the beautiful and heaving bosom of English art, can ever take place, or ever will be attempted by a pro. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. 377 fession, each member of which gets enchanted at the admission, let what will be the sacrifice. The architects have set a noble example, the sculptors should follow them, but as to the poor, dyspeptic painters, the thought, the mere thought, of opposing the Academy would bring on, in the whole profession, such alarming symptoms that calomel would rise in the market ! Kick them Academicians, put your feet on their necks; well may Nelson and George IV. turn their backs on such an assemblage. Ijook at an old R. A. at a rout, or a conversazione. Do you see that pale faced, timid, crawling creature, creeping along by the pictures, afraid to bow, or see, or speak, or think, dressed like a Guy Faux, doing the gentleman ? do you see him meet Haydon ? do vou see his blank stare, as if he never saw him before wlien others ccm remark it ? at that very moment he is squeezing his hand, beneath the crowd, in approval of his opposition, — tliat's the thorough-bred old R. A. One great cause of their influence is the careless ignorance of the upper classes ; all over the country the pernicious consequences are visible ; there is a freemasonry not only in the members, but in the profession who wish to become so ; the danger of it is great, because whatever the Academy does, the apparent motive is totally different from the real one ; the Academy as a body, and each member of the body, make it a law of their practice to obtain the object they aim at by keeping attention directed to one they are utterly indifferent about. Minister, nobility and sovereign are thus always thrown oft' their guard, when the reasoners have an oliject to gain, and up they start in an opposite direction, fixed, prepared and ready, to the incredulity of all; next to High Art and enlightening the people, there is nothing they hate so much as zeal ; and it was the zeal, the unalloyed zeal of Haydon, when a student, that first attracted their remark, and then their hatred ; they saw, with their usual sagacity, if they did not ad- vance him he would advance himself, and seeing him brougljt into high life, by (he first patrons, with orders for his historical pictures, before even he had touched a brush, their hatred became an insanity ; without any cause, they drove him to exasperation by the greatest injustice, and then complained of temper! Deprived him of all in- come, by eternal calumny, and then sneered at him for being poorl Denied him all talent, harrassed him four times to a prison, and then brought forth his misfortunes as an excuse for greater persecutions ; in fact, whatever he did, whatever he said, whatever he wrote, what- ever he painted, he was always wrong; and their hatred increased exactly in proportion to their convicted consciousness of being in the wrong themselves from beginning to end. Every human being is composed, as we all know, of good and of evil — a man of genius is like other men, in sharing the frailties of his species ; his perceptions are too keen not to penetrate the motives of others, and exactly in proportion to their injustice is the evil part of his nature brought into play. Tiberius, Caligula, Louis XI., Borgia, were not naturally evil, as at last, but their treatment had been so un- just that what was good had been overwhelmed by the eternal excite- ment of the evil, and when elevated to power, where their revenge could be gratified, they had too long practised retaliation to stop when there was no obstruction to their propensities. Oppression raised in Haydon a dormant power of expressing his thoughts, which he was not aware he possessed, and hence the art has been kept ever since in a continual state of uproar and excite- ment, which never would have taken place if he, as a youth, had been allowed to progress regularly to that position which he was entitled to by his genius, his education, and his respectful conduct to his elders — at that time without reproach. I do not wish to excuse the violent manner in which he revenged the abominable injustice of a body of men, whose duty it was to have taken him, as a deserving student, by the hand ; far less do I desire to palliate their eternal and inhuman treatment, for not content with denying him his rights, they were compelled to decry his character to excuse their inexcusable aversion ; and every student for the last 30 years, who has been educated at the Academy, has been regularly drilled to consider Haydon a monster, with whom no terms ought to be kept ; he is never alluded to with the decency of common breed- ing, that fellow Haydon, that scamp Haydon, that scoundrel Haydon, is the common appellation in the conversation of painter, sculptor, or architect. And pray what has he done ? Has he taken half price from the nobility and kept them for years without their orders? never. Did he ever pass his word with a patron and break it? never. Did he ever, in 40 years, receive his money in advance and fail in his honour? never. Did the Duke ever advance him £5,000 for a grand picture of all his generals and himself, and did he die without even beginning it? never. Did any lady of f ishiou ever leav(> her jewels with Haydon to be painted, and when she wanted them for a rout was obliged to redeem them from a pawnbrokers ? never. Has any noble- man aoy cause to complain of him in his engagement ? not one. Ah, but he has been in prison. Certainly, and was tried by a jury of cre- ditors, the severest of all juries. Could everv Academician have borne such a test? no, I, Tinion, answer uo, because I know it. You first drive liini to prison, by calumniating him out of employ- ment, then reproach him for being 'there. Had he i;j,000, £tj,000, or £8,000 a year for years ? He had no income for IG years, and yet produced great works. Did the evil of the Academy end with its own members, they might be let alone to eat each other; but they are the Tarantula of British art, the Boa constrictor of painting. Their long legs and fibrous fangs extend over the empire ; there is in every great town an Academy party and an opposition, but the people are not yet taught enough to understand the question on either side, and hence the Academy carry on the game at a gain ; thev grasp at every available influence, and if the ministers do not take care every office in art will fall into their hands; then, woe to genius. Already it is hinted the national pictures should be boarded up, to give more room for the exhibition, amiable proposal ; Why not say at once — the Ganymede of Titian is an inconvenient comparison! fSeguier is dead, or such a plan would never have been proposed. Under the clypeum sejitemplictm of their great protector in the house, there is no antic, defiance, oppression, or impertinence they will not indulge in. But some people are never so dangerous as when they are artectionate ; and let them beware, for with great talents, their l^rotector has tendencies which almost render nugatory the promptings of his genius, though he is the very man for the time, for with less prudence and more heroism, v\ith less common sense and more en- thusiasm, he would be a dangerous leader at this grand period of moral and intellectual combustion; the Radicals hate him, because he will not destroy; the Tories detest him, because he will improve; the Reformers dread him, because, in acknowledging the propriety of cleansing the walls, he takes care of the foundations ; and such is his apparent intermediatism that he is more than suspected of being a dor- mant Whig; his virtues become vices, in great emergencies, for wishing to secure all interests, he runs the risk of benefitting none, and opposes so long the just demands of common sense, as in Schedule A and Catholic Rights, till, being compelled to grant what he cannot refuse, what he yields has more the look of apprehension than convic- tion, and thus he always loses the popularity of bestoiving a grace. This distinguished man is said to be without friendships, art'ections or sympathies — it is a falsehood, he has a tender heart, but exacts more submission than is consistent with the dignity of independence ; he never forgives any man who has exposed him to himself; he never forgives any man who has discovered a weakness; to obtain his at- tention you must believe him infallible ; his high honour is not always faultless ; pride perhaps is the basis of his correct morality, and per- haps his religion is founded on his pride. In his enmities he is not charitable, no helplessness or desti- tution in one with whom he is displeased, averts for an instant a final thrust if the opportunity presents itself; he is quickly oftended, and never forgives, and would stride over the dead body of an oft'ender he had reduced to ruin and deatii, (if he had dared to oppose him,) as a just and necessary sacrifice to offi'uded wealth. He defends the Academy, not because he is convinced it needs no correction, but he considers it a link in the chain of constituted au- thorities; convince him the altar and the throne will be safe if the members be increased ; shew him the colonial estimates will go on as usual if the incomes of the officers be doubled ; prove to him that de- voting two centres to High Art in the great room by law, will not en- danger onr empire in India ; appeal to him, when the pressure on a great chain is becoming too tight for its resistance, if it be not better to add a new link, than risk the bursting of the whole chain together; — approach him thus, you will ease his apprehension and carry the day. His defence of the Academy was no credit to his understand- ing, and his decision on the cartoons no honour to his taste or his heart. I have now done with the Academy for the present; I have a great deal to say on Eastlake's reports, in the mean time, I caution the youth to be wary of the last — it is full of experimental vehicles, and will tend to revive, if followed, th.it pernicious insanity which the in- troduction of pure oil, by Wilkie and Haydon, so usefully destroyed. The art is in a considerable degree of inflammation, a blister, I think would relieve it, there are a great many pimples on its fair face, I shall therefore, with your leave, apply a Uirge one next number, and suppose, in future, we head all communications from me in your ex- cellent Journal as the " Art Blisteu," the next letter to be No. I. " That the whole life of Athens were in this, Thus would I eat it. (Eats a rout.)'' TllION. S78 THE CIVIL ENGINE[']R AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [October, THE PRESENT STATE, PROSPECTS, AND THEORY OF PAINTING. No. 11. Tinion may be correct; many a devil of angel's face jhQ]/ have graced the ranks of the Royal Academy, but wliere, good Censor, is the Assembly without one '. Even in the office of this Journal a devil, of no grace at all, called load chargeable instead of " clinngiahle" and made me speak of Aglio, — the spirit embodied of Moovfields immor- tality,— as if a common thing, with a little "a;" when his "Reeol- Icclioiis of Naples," — a really near approach to Claude Lorraine upon plaster — amply demanded the largest pica, — the pearl thi'refore was thrown "unto swine :" and, to the devils of the jjress, — in their slavish servility — we owe the continuance of the evil," but, to return. I have said that, oil painting requires only to'place its reliance on the vehicle, not the individual permanence of each colour, and that the vehicle, not the pigment, changes.- I have given one proof in the green skies painted with ultramarine, wherever rather more oil than usual had been used ; I will now give another — let any arlist examine his picture three weeks after painting, by which time the obvious yellowing, skinning, and consequent lowering of tone will have taken place, let him scrape off the skin and there he will find the colour in its pristine state ; hence the chalkiness of a majority of "cleaned nwA restored" pictures, so disgusting to the eye and inimical to the original effect; while, on the contrary, wherever the skies have been painted with less oil and >no;'e turpentine (an analogy of house painters' flatten), — skies which are readily injured, nay rubbed out, by the cleaner's cotton wool, albeit protected by the usual dip of oil, — there, I say, ultramarine never yet was seen green in tone. Let us rapidly examine the theory, first of the rising of the oil, secondly of the skin and its yellowing, tor these, ultimately, compre- hend the brownish yellow horn ; whicli, as Sir jiartin Archer Shee observed to me, is "what the experienced artist wishes to avoid alone."-' Let us then trace the cause of the yellowing, and the wisdom or folly of the majority of artists in the use or abuse of dryers ; and that gene- ralization of practice which leads the man, accustomed to paint in England to furnish himself with the same material in preparing for the East Indies; in a word, to forget climate, of which I shall speak again, when John Van Eyck shall be named, merely recording here an assurance of Sir David, then Mr. Wilkie, (in 1S21,) that he had seen Italian artists use olive oil \.o prevent the drying of their pictures, pre- cisely as Rom;ui masons kept their mortar to become carbonated, and thereby weakened, on the surface to adapt it to their atmosphere, and that from sheer necessity, not wisdom or choice. Times and circumstLinces change; the artist is no longer his own manipulator; he no longer buys his materials of the apothecary, who, as a man of education, knew his business ; and happily so for us, in some of its consequences; instances of mala praxis are common enough as it is, and might be quadrupled if that learned body the Apothecaries Company had once more to grind Naples yellow and orpiment, arseniate of copper, or red oxide of lead, however qualified 1 Nothing belter proves this than tne trash vomited ul'len by SL-otdi editors, I tlavc siiy ivith refeience to Wilkie. Timon calls him " timid and selfish," ond Tiraon kiiciv him long,— so did I, and 1 call him paltry, shnfflinB, dirty, nnfeelini; and mean. ) saw him and appealed to him in ISad, at the Manor House, to save from starving a fellow man; one too, who had served, and materially served, his art, and whn, in 1821, was his per- sonal, intimate friend. The e.\alted David, with great difficulty, remembered such a name at all,— buttoned up his well-liued pocket, and retired I Now marl< the difference, wreath the laurel for the worthier head, and ' raemit qui palmam ferat.' BIyrelnrn was post the gate of poor John Varley, the landscape painter, then doubly locked to keep out the baihfls. John heard the case with a genuine mingling of pity and disgust,— emptied his pockets 01 ten shillings and some copper coin, which, with tears in liis eyes, he halverl for his fellow man : I solemnly pledged myself to do justice to both, and such, before my God, I do in the service of man. 2 This has one exception. Oil painting on plastered walls— in which case the pigment not the vehicle changes ; and to prevent which nothing more is necessary than first, to secure it from damp, as suggested by Mr. Eastlake in the Royal Commission's 2nd report ; secondly, when the plaster, that is tiie intonaco,or last coat, issufficientlydry topainton, to first prepare it with a proper panel ground, for which none are better qualified than a BIr. Wing, of Fording Bridge, in Hampshire, some of whose Flemish grounds I have seen heautituUy prepared; the material should be Cornish porcelain clay (not whiting) finely washed, as used by the repairers of Ger.nan clock dials, if injured in their transit from the Black Forest. But here a caution, ■ en passant,' if some saccharine matter be forgotten parchment or any other size will ultimately crack under subsequent varnish ; painting executed in oil would then change by its vehicle alone— in a word, he on a par with that on panel. Hence, also, arose a similar blackening of some Venetian pictures on Ume or gesso in lieu of aluminous grounds. _ 3 And which, as the Secretary of the Commission observed, with equal Justice, has good as well as ' bad' properties ; for as much as, it protects the base, although it depre- ciates the surface during drying, so • perfectly' that, if it could be subsequently cleaned ofi- readily and safely, he would prefer "all his pictures to skin." In fact, one artist I am acquiiinted with, Increases this skin first, to getrid of it byfrictionor scraping afterwards, antl inen, hear it Hibernians, lislen la it Timon, glazes with the same or similar materials, and It mos. be confe^seil he makes durable work, but, notwithstanding, it is a circuilous, ™ h!.LTM''"^i'■ f;"''"(-''li'*«-iiti. and one too, which could never be practised at all of nitr^I^.rt ;;.,.''■ '!'' ""*"' '"■'^'1 'if'-'il. ■■"I'l when nitric ether, or sweet spirits ot nitie and water, one part to eight, would wash it off. to manipulate brass. He buys his materials mixed to his hands, of a hundred (lualities and of a hundred hues, by a motley group of pencil- makers, brushmakers, comb sellers and perfumers, Jews, Christians, and t^uvikers, scarcely one of whom conltl be found reared to, and un- derstanding his trade. He therefore works, like a mole, in the dark ; and even ainong the exceptions where reading, thought and acumen are conspicuously his, many cases of which I know, so strong is the force of habit, so intense the weight of old prejudices, he merits often the Chinese compliment to an European, he has "one eye" truly, and that one constitutes the Cyclops at best; but, enough. The rising of the oil is simple and mechanical. The colourman grintls his pigment with nut, poppy, or linseed oil, and, as no precau- tionary measures are taken to prevent if, the gravity of the colour and levity of the oil must be called into play the instant it is placed at rest in the bladder or tube, to which, in the latter case, are added — as a just chastisement for the use of a frippery of the day — chemical and galvanic influence. This half deranged mixture is then as carelessly, loosely, and I have often seen dirtily, blended on the palette, and transferred to the canvas, to rise more efliciently as it dries, and that so obviously it may be seen in cups by an ordinary leus; then comes direct chemical action to complete the painter's infliction ; the value of time and money, anxiety and climate, combine to increase the hue and cry for dryers — metallic oxides and boiled oil, Mac Gellup and gumption, japanner's gold size, ond other expedients are recurred to ; the doom of the modem picture is inevitably sealed, and that in the direct ratio of its smaller size and elaborate finish; and to these, again, are added, as with Wilkie in his later day, asphaltum — lamentable proofs of the effects of which are fast shewing themselves in the cracky tendency of many of his pictures, which one day or other will vie with those of Reynolds. Here it may be well to digress a little, at.d call reflection and com- mon sense into play : Reynolds saw, like Merimee, that something similar to varnish was visible in ancient pictures, and thence took up his crotchets, but, unlike the Frenchman, never adhered very long or faithfully to any; neither of them saw the true and simple principle of permanence, and both were deceived by the foolish, yet alluring presumption that such addition of varnish gave effect and beauty, depth and bearing out to the work, an inference as deceptive as it is plausible; for, I assort fearlessly, "there never was, and never will he a varnish made (taking the word in the ordinary sense) which gives half the splendour'^ to any pigment tliat is always given by pure oil alone, nay the addition of wax, which gives a semi-opacity, sur- passes the admixture of the most elegant compound. Here we see the rock on which the ban^ue of Sir Joshua struck ; here the fog in which his fine mind foundered, for here is the point where his brain became a mass of curds and whey — his practice an ever vacillating, muddled dash at crude experiment ; for, contrary to the allegation of the person who professes to hold, in his own hand- writing, a diary of practice, very ingeniously woven out of scraps and patches by some keen observer of his habits, he kept no journal, and declared, in the bearing of Sir M. A. Shee and others still living, "I'd give a thousand guineas if I knew how, and with what I painted this, and that, and this." Here M. Merimee, with the true acuteness and brilliance of French theory joined to flimsy practice and extravagant assumption, took his stand. Varnishes obviously produce a certain effect, by preventing the opacity of oil, if properly made and modified ; but, in his opinion, by increasing the gloss and beauty of colours ; and therefore, neck or nothing, helter skelter, varnishes and wax, boiled oil and asphaltum, resin and alcohol, mastic and chio-turpentine, yel- low resin and Mac Gellup, mastic and mummy with the one, and oil copal with the other must be used, not as an auxiliary means, carefully moulded, but the grand panacea, the vis vita of the art, and I appeal to the careful observer of passing events whether every successive follower of either has not failed ? M. Merimee was besides perfectly ignorant of the assumed fact on which, as a base, his superstructure was raised ; he was grossly igno- rant of copal and all its attributes! he had never see?i any such as he describes, much less made any ; Theophilus did not, Sarsfield Taylor could not, follow practically his formulary. Merimee, par accident, had used some weak copal and found it a slow dryer, and was delighted with the saddle which fitted the back of his hobby, but he knew ntjt the fact that, ?/ made with linseed oil alone, it would never dry with- out a stove. The translator, I repeat, never saw any, simply because it is never made, and if made would never sell; but I wifl enlighten him — the, so called, oil copal of trade is a compound of boiled oil, •1 M, Merimee having taken up this crochet at once fell into another, viz. that Theo- philus, who described a method of turning gumma glassa, or gum fornis, into varnish, must have meant, und did mean, the gum resin copal, without one shade of even pre- sumptive proof; and his trnnslator pledges his honour thHt it is gospel tnitb, whicli re- minds us of Johannah Soutlitote and Shiloli faith ! 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 379 copal, anime and umber with oxide of lead. In vvbicli we see again exemplified tlie folly of the mania for fierce dryers, as well as the deceptions practised upon artists (not being, as of old, their own manipulators). Could M. Merimee have evan suspected, or can you digest this good translator of Le grand (Euvre? but to ask such a question of sucli a man is supererogation wild. The. varnish maker, in nine cases out of ten, is himself ignorant of the theory of the pro- cess ; and can your looking glass, can your kid gloves or eagle's quill assume even a varnish maker's head? Fie; dissolve, like a Poly- technic view for a fourpenny bit instead of a shilling fee, the Physios- cope suits you not, and will-o'-\visps suit not me ; while I love and honour the humblest image of his God who serves mankind, I look with ineffable contempt on learned men of the pseudo school, the but- terflies of the race : and, to close this digression, I assert — first, that which it sold as such is not copal ; secondly, there is no copal, nor any copal and anime, sold dissolved in raw oil ; thirdly, the compound sold both browns and cracks, as every coach [lainter's bey knows; fourthly, Theophilus never made any, and, in all human probability, never saw copal ; fifthly, M. Merimee, in bis enthusiasm over his crotchet, fol- lowed Theophilus' example, and assumed his facts precisely as the broom seller undersold all his competitors, simply by stealing brooms and ready made; sixthly, that if his translator were to try the experi- ment with raw oiV, in a glass vessel, he would not have a/all back, as the varnish maker calls it, but fall inlo the fire, and, albeit the Tailors are a numerous brotherhood, of similar mental calibre, he might prove equally unlike Shadrach, Meshach or Abednego with reference to practical scorching. Now let us return to oil. This should be chosen, like the dryer, with reference first to climate, next to body; poppy oil then, I repeat, for small pictures and high finish, linseed for larger ones, and the loaded brush and free touch in this and all similar climates ; sulphate of zinc, dried but twi calcined, alone where a metallic dryer is added ; or, the zinco-crystal dryer prepared by Messrs. Winsor and Newton. But for Italy, the East Indies, or similar temperatures, walnut oil and calcined bones in lieu of zinc, for the simplest of all reasons, the climate requires such adaptation, and the duplicate effect drying and bleach- ing are alike the desired end ; but to yellowing and subsequent horn. it must be known to many artists that oil bleaches by exposure to light, and further, that this bleaching or deoxidizing process is in- creased materially by adding water and sulphate of zinc^ (undried), but it is not known that while this salt leaves the oil in slalti qau as to drying power, so bleaches it, while acetate of lead acts in an opposite way, and increases the yellowing and drying power, giving a still stronger tendency to skin, because a still stronger affinity for oxygen; in fact, though paler and weaker, it is a solution of lead, an analogy of boiled oil. To recapitulate then — the object should be first to lessen the tendency to rise ; secondly, to lessen the avidity for oxygen ; thirdly, to bleach, if possible, that which now yellows in drying ; and how are these desiderata to be accomplished? First, by choosing, as before said, an oil adapted to climate; secondly, a dryer to supersede boiled oil, Mae Gellup gumption, or japanner's gold size, and which must dry by evaporation alone, not by forming a skin; and thickeriog by such evaporation, so as preclude rising as much as possible, that is, acting as a biuder of the oil and colour; and lastly, such a metallic matter "as, by deoxidising and bleaching, prevents the yellowing as the colour sets, for when once fixed, especially if painted in a fine light, it never, under ami ordinary circumstance, chiuiges or can change at all." * ^ I have said a fine light, and such is a sine qua non in my estimation, and I fancy I can perceive a difference between such pictures as Wilkie painted in Phillimore Place and those he subsequently finished in the studio of the Manor House ; and were I a painter possessing the means to the finest possible light and air I would add the tempe- rature of Italy, by steam pipes, never by stoves, and, above all things, never turning the face of the picture to the wall. Here, too, it is necessary to say Davy's assertion was correct, " all oils become varnishes by time ;" nay, he might have said, are vfirnts/ies of the htghesi cast. How then could Merimee or Reynolds, or the ex- quisite Taylor distinguish a metamorphosed oil from an admixed varnish ? Artificial ones were used, but not to brighten colours they \vere used to modify the drying power and lessen the skin, too ob- viously conspicuous to escape tfie keen eyes of men who were their own manipulators aad varnish makers, and in ages of close observa- tion and absolute work, not theory, impudence and trick. John Var- ley, many years ago, painted a landscape in oil (inTitchfieUl Street) with ordinary ochres and natural pigments of the commonest cast, on this principle with very fine effect; and Bonniiigto.i painted, in Paris, for 5 This must not be confounded with tlie object of the luanufKcturer in a vjtluuble pro- cess given by Dr. Andrew tJre in his Dictionary of Arts, Jiiannfactures^and Miues— tiiere the object is to get rid of mucilage, iacrease limpidity, and malie it more saleable. the Exposition, iissisted by an amateur" of great judgment and obser- vation, two others in distemper glazed in oil which gained great eclat, were brought to Colnaghi's and sold as oil of the finest grade, and in neither did boiled oil exist at all, or any of its analogies. Now to the much talked of vitrifiable powers of Venetian pigments ; till- miserable impostures called glass media, silica media, &c. &c. ; and the ridiculous assertions about John Van Eyck, which two years ago infested the papers and poisoned the minds of the younger artists and amateurs, nay, one paper I could name was occupied, and by very talented pens too, in suggesting means of doing the impossible. History would lead the rational man to infer no more than this — John Van Eyck revived a then almost disused system of painting; and having placed a jiicture to dry in the sun it cracked to pieces, when, as a student, he set himself about lessening the drying power which, even in his climate, was too fierce, and by the addenda, wax and burned bones — then to be found in every apothecary's shop and every student's laboratory— he fully accomplished his object. The peculiar flatness alone of Van Eyck's pictures, as quite distinct from that of Hans Holbein who never could paint a round surface, amply testifies the fact, for wax entails this painful consequence if largely used ; and I should sooner expect to find Van Eyck's bones marked with Hume's permanent ink in his pictures, than any other agent ; whence, then, arose the maniacal assumptions referring to borax or borate of soda, a fourth of which may be considered as better fitted for the laundress who frets her day at the tub, for it is soda, veritable common soda equal to Scotch? whence came the ridculous assertions respecting this salt when vitrified, and called, for similitude sake onlvt glass of borax ; whence, above all, came the brazen assertion of its being a good dryer at all? or how came the salesmen to tack to its mixtures the idle, unmeaning imposture of, not glass alone, but silica media '. for neither glass nor silex ever entered this more than Mor- lisonian hotch potch. Why simply thus : an ingenious mar, I be- lieve of the navy, who had read, in the cockpit, of Venetian pictures staggering the chemists of France by their often vitrifiable powers; and knew that a precocious son of Galen had surprised his pupil by seeing in the Hippocratic visage of his patient proofs of his having supped from oysters, simply because. Nature having endowed him with ubiquity of vision, he saw, at the same time, shells beneath the bed ; which the gifted boy turned at once to profit, for, on visiting the man on the following morning and perceiving a saddle beneath his bed, declared promptly the fellow had swallovved'a horse ! Knowing these facts, I say, and that borax is often used to fuse enamels, &e. this in- genious man at once declared borax was the agent of John Van Eyck, and conveyed by his pupil, Antonio de Messina, to Italy where, it died a natural death, and bore over the tomb of ages this inscription " Re- surgat in Brittania." U is needless to add, in water the thing is worthless, nay injurious, as an alkaline efl!lorescent salt; in oil worse, as a bad dryei-, a great yellower, in fact, a filthy soap making, silly compound. And, while neither glass nor silica ever existed in any of it, and therefore the name alone was a fraud, one fact is clear, the man who used it needed no glass in his os frontis to render visible as he ran, this gratifying proof of phrenology -I am a goose. So gullible, however, are we, proverbially, every colourman in the metropolis, save Newman, and Messrs. Winsor, Newton, stocked himself with bottles, pots, and pa- pers of the trash, which was openly asserted to be capable of convey- ing all the powers of enamel, liitherto given by fire alone, to everv pigment with which it was blended ; and one Paracelsus of the arts actually asserted that a silver cup had been voted to him by artists of rank for vitrifying an ass's skin! 0 tempera.' 0 mores : along list of artistic names actually followed, and were blazoned again and again in the Art Union, which of course was not answerable for the truth of an advertised puff. It has been asserted that Apelles possessed the secret of a com- pound which conveyed to the likeness of Alexander the immortality of the raati. If this be true, like the dismantled statue of Ozimandias king of kings, or the famous Pharos and its duplicate inscription, the day of its glory has been the life of the Mav Hy, and the sun which rose on its birth set o'er its death. History is silent, as far as proof goes, and her assertions only assure us, first that Apelles systemati- cally flattered his sitters by keeping ideal beauty in view; that se- condly his pictures had something of the Murillo tone, as the name of his vehicle would lead us to think; that thirdly men, women, and children were equally Getana; or gipsies in hue; and, therefore, the only conjecture left to the hypothesist of posterity is, that Apelles used Jew's pitcii nr asphaltum probablv dissolved in natural naplitha; for even amber, then and long after constantiv used, would not pro- duce these combined effects ; the whole question, however, belongs This valuable uiau is still, I believe, living, vii. — Henderson, Esq. 380 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [October, more to tlie ai]tiqu;iriaa than tlie moflerii |iliilosoplier — tlie visionary than the painter of this clay, when, in all human probability, the resur- rection of a true Apelles painting would, if not disgust the eye, remind us more of the want of sarcophagi and their alleged power of swal- lowing up decayed remains, than the preservative tomb of Daguerro- type shades ; to whicli, by the bye, a word en passant — however ingenious these bubbles may be, what is their worth to man? Modern science is infested by gingerbread and Dutch metal ; and ere long some booby of parchment brain will recommend us to walk about in wire gauze, with plugged nostrils, to prevent infection, and fill our halls, churches, and Houses of the WittenagemoUe with nitrous oxide to secure extatic sensations and pure thoughts, — the air of heaven is already washed for the Lords, and even Joseph Hume may allow cheap, vulgar, yellow soap suds for Commons' use, — what next? The second advent of painting is at hand ; in less than twenty years artists will move as an exalted race of men, and art be the high road to rank and fame. Even Timon will live to see the desired change ; and I trust sincerely such a portrait as one of your correspondents has given of the driveller Northcote will rarely biot the page of liistory. Man usually wears a domino in the masquerade of life, and he %vho casts it aside and exposes, with Timon, the soul within, at least ren- ders a greater moral service to mankind than all the sectarian speeches at Exeter Hall in a century ; aye more, infinitely more, than all the so called philanthropy of the day could achieve, although its tocsin arouses at once men, women, children, and cash. I have said enough to show how much I should recommend the old- fashioned bladder, especially if folded and tied round a quill for the neck, as done by one colourman' if not more, and how much I detest the namby pamby frippery of tubes, entailing as they do a real injury to many, if not all, pigments; but, I must add, the older practice of powder colours, merely ground finely in turpentine and left dry, for the mixture of the artist himself, secundum artem, is preferable to either; and I have full confidence in the conviction that a kindly at- tention to, and faith in, tliese facts, the result of many years arduous, costly, and incessant enquiry, and in promulgating vvhich I have no personal interests at stake, will ensure a simplification of the art, a defence against empirical trickery, and its final success. I have stated the only bad quality of wax,' its disposition to shrink and flatten, if not cup, on the surface when joined to oil in painting. It has, however, many good and recommendatory properties, and to it nlone, I believe, we owe the existence at all of many of Reynolds's beautiful pictures ; nay many damaged ones in which it had been used were probably injured by a too rapidly applied coat of exterior var- nish ; for in proportion as slow dryers and tough materials are used should be the length of ixira time allowed before varnishing at all ; and asphaltum, alike the Scylla and Charybdis of his career, be shunned. Oclober 3;-i, 1844. WiLHELM DE WiNTERION. 7 Harvey, in Catherine Street, Strand. e Wax might be made intensely useful in protecting the backs of pictures, geuerally nearly in contact with ivalls, whether damp or dry, for the bacUs are tlie most vulnerable parts, and yet, liithi.rto, neglected 'in toto,' and more might be done. I remember, some tuenty years ago, a BIr. Diiisdale giving to the Commissioners of the Navy Board, a plan for protecting canvas from dry rot and mildew, by soaking it in tan liquor, as the Vene- tians, I believe, did with their picture canvas, and the Dutch now do, with all their sails in the lishing marine. *^* In my hrst paper, of last month, by the accidental omission of interlineations, when speaking o lead, I appear to say, " Flake white or, what is better, sulphate (U- muriate of lead." — The sentence was intended to read thu^,— " Flake white or, what is better, German kremnitz,— the sulphate, though beautiful, being deceptive ; and muriate of lead a French folly— which is not only very yjilow (in fact a patent yellow made without heat) but, in- stead of defying sulphuretted hydrogen changes instantly before it.'* t-rt Another, a singular, and special instance of the "rising of oil," and its conse- quences, in setting at nought the " inherent permanence of ultramarine " was presented to my notice yesterday ; an excellent landscape in the Jjossession of a highlygifted friend, painted by the late Reverend John Thompson, after the mixed fashion of many of the Venetian masters, viz., with a vehicle of thick size, from boiled gluten of wheat, with a " little" acetic acid to assist its solubility — then glazed in oil with ordinary MacGelliip. This landscape, I say, presents "yellow, horny clouds" for "warm white onesj" and, a " profusely dense ultramarine blue sky, markedly green!" l\Ir. Thompson was an ex- cellent painter, had high prices; and, merited them ; he scrupled not to expend twenty guineas worth of ultramarine over single pictures ; yet, was his glorious spirit robbed of more than half its reward from his reliance on "inherent permanence of colour in nil painting :" when, had he glazed witil poppy oil and the " spirituous dryer," before spoken of as given to the Secretary of the Commission of the Fine -\rts for publication, and henceforth to be prepared by Blessrs. Winsor and Newton, artists colourmen to His Eoyal Highness Prince Albert, and then varnished, at the proper time, his picture would have lived at least 500 or tiOO years with its original blow sky, relieved by white and float- ing clouds, which now, alas, in despite of his bold pencil and vivid colouring, look scarcely tiettcr than a daub of Kosa de Tivoli, at least, to inexperienced eyes. ON THE OBSERVATORY OF PARIS. Translated for the Civil Engineer and Architect's Journalfrom a Report made to the Chamber of Deputies by M. ,/lrago. The Minister of Public Works at the urgent request of the Board of Longitude has asked of the Chamber a grant of je3,7(>0 for the Ob- servatory at Paris. This sum will serve to erect at the top of the slightly elevated eastern tower of the edifice, a hemispherical turning cap, under which powerful telescopes may be arranged, and applied with exactness to the great astronomical phenomena discovered of late years. The Committee has therefore thought it right to take this occasion for casting a rapid view over the successive improve- ments in the National (Observatory. When, a short time after the foundation of the Academy of Sciences, Lewis XIV. determined, at the request of Colbert, to erect the Ob- servatory of Paris, no national establishment of this kind was then in existence. The astronomers in the several countries, confined to their own resources, were obliged to make use of inferior instruments, and to place them in inconvenient and often unstable edifices, and no sys- tematic and regular course could therefore be undertaken or pursued. The plan of erecting our national observatory was fixed in 16G7, and in the month of June the astronomers of the Academy regulated the exact orientations of the several faces of the edifice. The masonry works began only in 16lJ8, and the building was finished on the 14th Sept. 1G71, at a cost of more than two millions of livres, or nearly a hundred thousand pounds. It might have been thought ihat after such an enormous expenditure France would have possessed an ob- servatory wotlhv of science and herself; it was not howeverso. The architect liad laid down the plan of the edifice without sufficiently consulting the observers, and their complaints arrived slowly or were not listened to. Claude Perrault although he had not yet constructed the colonnade of the Louvre, found himself more powerful than all the French astronomers put together, and rejected with pertinacity and hauteur arrangements of which Colbert himself had acknowledged the utility ; he resisted in fact the great minister himself, in order not to break, as he said, the architectonic lines, or produce any interruption to the harmony and regularity of the masses. These idle assertions unhappily carried the day over the well founded provisions and re- marks of men of science, and it is said that that sometimes happens even in our own time. The Committee would show too much severity towards the man of genius to whom Paris owes the Colonnade of the Louvre, if it did not at once state that at the time when Perrault pre- pared himself, by executing the modest edifice of the Faubourg St. Jacques, for tlie works which were to immortalize him, the art of ob- serving had undergone a complete revolution, and that astronomers were by no means agreed as to the uncertainty of the measures of angular height obtained with gnomons. It may be added that very favourable and decided opinions, obtained in Italy from a celebrated authority, asserted the utility of this apparatus, imd also of an interior colossal sun-dial, so that the great rooms now unused in the Paris Ob- servatory, and the heaviness of appearance of the north facade, which has been so severely criticised, must not be laid to the account of the architect alone. The eastern tower, left without roofing, and the large room called the meridian room, served to receive the non-achromatic telescopes, 16 or 20 yards long, to which observers towards the end of the 17th century resorted when they wished to study the physical constitution of the planets and their satellites. Excited by the singularity of the discoveries witli whicli these large instruments had enriched science, astronomers and opticians endeavouretl to make still larger ones. Some were soon produced very long, and with very large openings. In fact one of them was 98 metres (3U0 French feet or 32 U English) feet in length. Tlie new edifice not being then capable of receiving or supporting them, they were set up in the open air on masts of great height, and in the garden a colossal wooden tower was raised, from the top of which the Marly engine a short time before supplied the water for the reservoirs at Versailles. One experiment in ob- serving was to put the object glass at the upper end of these masts, or of the high tower, the observer holding the eye glass in his hand ; the telescope reduced to these two extreme pieces was therefore without a tube. Difficulties, as might have been foreseen, rendered fruitless tliese essays, the most considerable in the annals of science. It was evident, ii priori, that the observer could not concentrate, with the requisite precision, two crystalline lenses unconnected between themselves by any rigid medium. The necessity of observing, when such apparatus was employed, a few minutes only before the passage of stars to the meridian and a few minutes after would besides have prevented any longcontiiiued and systematic researches. The defects inherent in Perrault's edifice became particularly mani- fest at the time when it was felt necessary to apply meridian instru- 1844. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 3S1 tnents to observation of the stars. Thus, in 1732, no place in the large building could be found adapted to receive a mural quadrant of six feet radius ; an enclosure covered with vaults entirely closed and having vifalls of extreme thickness and considerable height would no- where have allowed a continuous meridian opening, through which it would have been possible to discover all the stars from the horizon to the zenith at the time of their culmination. The Academy of Sciences was obliged, therefore, to set up an external chamber contiguous to the eastern tower. In 1742 the same difficulty occurred with regard to a moveable quadrant, and a second chamber was put up alongside of the other. A few years after, in 1760, a little turret with a turning roof was erected, to the south of the two former appendations, in order to facilitate observations of corresponding altitudes for the dr- termination of the exact lime of phenomena. These three little rooms, constructed with extreme parsimony and withoit durability, for many years formed the real observatory at Paris. The majestic edifice of Perrault towered over these hovels, but it only constituted to make use of an expression of the time, a show observatory. This great observatory, moreover, like most of the other monuments of the capital, had suffered from the carelessness and inattention which characterised the latter years of Lewis XV. In 1770 it was falling into ruins. Care was obliged to be taken in entering the rooms, particularly after a thaw, and the walls and arches were falling to pieces, ruined by the rain water. The incessant applications of Cassini the Fourth, backed by the reports of the Academy of Sciences, were at last listened to, in 1775, by M. D'Angivillers. This en- lightened minister determined that the restoration of the edifice should be forthwith attended to. For more than a century the astro- nomers in their various pursuits had had to suffer from the bad ar- rangements of the old observatory. This explains why Cassini pro- posed to pull down all the building above the meridian room story. M. D'Angivillers, however, strongly objected to this. The work of Perrault, said the minister, from its imposing mass and severe style, must be ranked as one of the chief ornaments of the capital. It was not possible to propose seriously to Lewis XVI. to destroy a monu- ment erected by his forefather, a monument which was not yet a hun- dred years old, and where besides the great king had used to go and observe in person. Further, the Intcndant General of Crown Build- ings might have rejected any plan of demolition on other grounds — on those of brilliant scientific remembrances. It was in this building, then condemned to the hammer, that Picard, rejecting the ancient pinnulffi, applied telescopes provided with wires to graduated instru- ments, and thus laid the foundation for the exactness of modern obser- vations. It was there, also, that the life of astronomers was doubled, if we are allowed the expression, by showing that the stars could be as well observed in the brightest sunshine as in the depths of night. It was in the building threatened with destruction that Picard and Auzout, bringing into use the filar micrometer of their invention, for the first time calculated with precision the angular diameter of the stars, and thvis surmounted difficulties against which the genius of Archimedes had failed. The rooms of which the demolition was pro- posed had been witness of the experiments and minute preparations which were requisite before attempting, with any chance of success, the celebrated measurements, executed in France, Peru, and Lapland, for the purpose of determining the size and figure of the earth. Richer observed there the rate of his pendulum before starling for Cayenne; he verified it there after his return, and ascertained by means of these comparisons a capital phenomenon, that the weight of bodies is affected as they approach thr equator. J. D. Cassini, shel- tered by the same roofs, laid down the remarkable laws of the libration of the moon, discovered four of the satellites of Saturn, the movements of rotation of these new stars and those of the satellites of Jupiter, the flattening of that immense planet, and the zodiacal light. It was, in fine, in those halls that the first serious suspicion arose touching the successive propagation of light, and it was by means of observations of the eclipses of the sateUites of Jupiter, made from the windows of the Paris Observatory, that Roiimer, an astronomer of the Academy, gave the first approximate data of the velocity of a luminous ray, a result which, by being carefully perfected after a century and a half of assiduous researches, has been definitively fixed at 200,000 miles per second. In any country, feeling an enlightened love for science, such remembrances would have been amply sufficient to save the most defective Observatory from destruction. The promise of restoration obtained from Messrs. De Breteuil and D'Angivillers began to take effect in 1777, on the small closets on the east tower. These first works, very restricted in plan, were carried out in a still more stinted manner. On the other hand the restoration of Perrault's edifice, planned with grandeur by the two architects Brebion and Renard, was effected from 1786 to 17'J3, so as to defy cen- turies. From 1793 to 1830 the buildings of the Observatory received no improvement worthy of note, but the wretched buildings which masked it on all sides were demolished. In the same period were executed the magnificent avenue which leads from the north facade to the Luxembourg Palace ; the mound, forming on the south side of the building, the planted terrace, well ada|ited for magnetic and meteoro- logic observations; and the gates, railings, and retaining walls which now isolate and enclose the Observatory and its appendages. In 1832 works more directly useful to astronomy followed up these measures. In the course of 1S31 the Chiiniber of Deputies, made acquainted with the real state of affairs, determined that our national observatory sliould be on a par with the most celebrated observatories in Europe. The Chamber voted spontaneously, and in one sum, a grant double that asked by the minister. This grant allowed not merely the simple repairs to be carried out according to the original moderate request, but the complete rebuilding of the observing rooms on the east tower. A little while after the Chamber voted a large, convenient, and richly decorated theatre, which has been ably joined on to the other buildings by its skilful architect, and to which the love of astronomy draws a large audience. The rotunda with the moveable roof dates from the same time, and is constructed on the upper ter- race ; in it is now raised a fine parallactic instrument. We are stating the opinions of the most celebrated astronomers in Europe, when we assert that the new rooms for meridian observations unite convenience and durability to elegance, and that they leave nothing to be desired in the present day. It was not only the state of disrepair of the fine buildings of Per- rault, and the restricted size of the temporary erections added to the old works, which, in the Observatory of Paris, grieved every French- man animated with patriotic feeling; but everywhere, down to a late date, the eye was struck with instruments almost exclusively foreign. If we looked at the telescopes they bore the names of Campani, Borelli, Hartzcecher, Huygens, DoUond and Short. The mural circles, the meridian glasses, and the great repeating circles, were the work of Sisson, Bird, Ramsden or Reichenbach. The astronomical clocks alone procei'ded from the shops of our countrymen. Now, all the large instruments of the Paris Observatory are French, and without having sacrificed exactness to national self-love (for such a sacrifice would have been a great piece of dupery), we only see on the faces of the eastaspect walls, or on the columns of the high or low rooms, magnificent divided circles, meridian and equatorial instruments of Forlin and Grambey, and every one can observe that the large achio- matic telescopes, sheltered under the vaults of the old building, have been wrought by the skilful hands of Lerebours and Cauchoix. What has been the real origin of this radical transformation, where our former inferiority appeared so well established, so sanctioned, that it seemed as if it must last for ever ? The answer is very easy. We said to the French workmen — Do nut seriously care for the universal opinion as to an asserted innate superiority which the workmen of England and Germany have over you ; go boldly to work ! These words were listened to, and their success has surpassed all expecta- tions. In our country, io dare is almost always synonimous with io succeed. Of late years all the governments in Europe seemed to have agreed to improve the old observatories and form new ones. In England, Greenwich, already so justly celebrated, has received a great increase of plant and staff. Now the observatories of Edinburgh, Cambridge, Oxford, Dublin, and Armagh, may almost rival that which Flanisteed, Halley, Bradley, Maskelyne, and Pond have made illustrious, and which is fortunately still in very good hands. Analogous establish- ments, on a vast scale, have been erected at the Cape of Good Hope, Sydney and Madras. We may perh.ips be allowed, without infring- ing truth, to class among the great English observatories that founded by the Rajah of Travancore. ' The Neapolitan government did not think it had done its duty towards science even after having constructed the great observatory at Palermo, to which Piazzi so gloriously attached his name in the beginning of this century. A fine astronomic.d observatory has within the last few years been constructed at Capo di Monte, near Naples. A meteorological and physical observatory is now being erected on the side of Vesuvius. The observatories of Florence, Milan, Padua, Turin, and Vienna would be open to criticism, perhaps, if we looked at the buildings only ; but, on the other hand, the knowledge of the directors, the number and beauty of the instruments, would suggest unlimited praise. Every one knows the successful exertions which the Belgian government has made to provide the city of Brussels with an observatory worthy of our day. Every one knows too that 1 M. Arago has not alludetl to the other uumerous and excellent observatories munifi- cently maintained by private individuals, the Karl of Rosse, Lord Wriothesley, Sir John Herschel, Mr. Bishop, Treasurer of the Royal Astronomical Society, Sir Thomas Bris- bane, &c. &c.— Translator, 382 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [October' the new observatory of Geneva takes a part successfully in the pro- gress of science. Denmark possesses at Altona a model astronomical observatory. Bavaria ciin equally pride itself on the establishment founded near Munich, and Hanover on that of Gottingen. The obser- vatory of Hamburgh is also worthy of remark. In Prussia the courses of the stars are studied, under the auspices of the government, at Berlin, Bonn, Breslau, and in particular ;it Konigsberg. The instru- ments are excellent, and the buildings constructed on purpose, in com- pliance with the minute requisitions of modern scii-nce. hi fliis gene- ral career of enuilation, by which the most magnificent of sciences everywhere profits, Russia has placed herself in the foremost rank. Not satisfied with having very useful observatories at Durpaf, Abo, Kieff, Kazan, and Nicolaieflf, on the Black Sea, she has just caused to be built a true monument on the to|) of the Pulkova hill, near St. Petersburg. This splendid central observatory of Russia has cost more than two millions of rubles (£200,000), and among its finest in- struments is to be observed a telescope bought at Munich for 80,000 rubles (£8,000). If discontented dispositions believe that such a great number of observatories is useless, we would undeceive them by observing how much more rapidly the field of science has been extended than the means of investigation. We would, for instance, observe that looking at first only to the stars perpetually visible, more than 150,000 stars, formerly wrongly called fixed stars, are displaced each year, in pro- portions of which it is incessantly necessary to determine the exact value ; and that milliards of stars, hitherto neglected on account of their excessive sraallness, now attract the attention of astronomers, and seem intended to unveil the mysterious wonders of the firmament, and that as to comets, of such short appearance that they must be ob- served of a sudden, it has been necessary to provide against the long cloudv atmospheres, which in Europe, sometimes render observation impossible at a given spot for some weeks. Besides, was it not natural that, in the nineteenth century, every nation should have the noble ambition of taking part in astronomical discoveries, those of which mankind should be the most justly i)roud, on account of their certainty, magnificence and utility. In France, moreover, in this respect we are far from prodigality; set aside the observatory of Marseilles, often paralysed by the bad state of the building, and the observatory, nearly finished, which the municipal corporation of Tou- louse have just erected with such rare intelligence and such greiit liberality, aiid what have we got left? The establishment in the capital, in favour of which the Minister of Public Works now asks a special vote. Taken altogether the ardour which is exhibited in the present day,= by those engaged in the improvement of achromatic telescopes and large divided instruments of observation, has contributed more to the progress of astronomy than the exertions of all the governments in Europe, in constructing new observatories and in modifying tlie form and arrangements of the old ones. The first telescopes of the poor optician of Middleburg, who invented those wonderful instruments, had only a foot and a half focal distance. The telescopes with which Galileo discovered the satellites of Jupiter and the phases of Venus hardly magnified seven times. In none of the instruments of the im- mortal Florentine did the linear niLignification exceed thirty-two times. Huygens and Cassini possessed telescopes which magnified a hundredfold, and they only reached this proportion by extending the focal distance to 8 yards. A little later an object glass was brought out by Auzout which magnified 600 times, but had 300 feet focal distance ; and, as we have already said, notwithstanding a thousand clever con- trivances, the management of a telescope in length equal to the height of the spire of the Invalides would present insurmountable difSculties. The opticians discouraged directed their whole attention, in imitation of Newton, to reflecting telescopes. Very good instruments of this kind were executed, but of very restricted size. In 1758, JohnDollond, the son of a French refugee weaver, executed in England what New- ton had declared to be impossible, namely, telescopes depriving the images of stars of the rainbow borders which all simple objects en- gender. Achromatic telescopes of small dimensions were found to magnify as much as the 200 or 300 feet object glasses of Dampani, Borelli andAuzout, and attention was then exclusively turned to them. The English, whose manufacturers could alone produce flint glass without streaks or striae, became possessed of the supply of achromatic telescopes for the whole world. The skill of our neighbours, how- ever, in the manufacture of glass was not such as to produce for the use of opticians pure discs of flint and crown glass more than G inches diameter. The images produced by a six-inch glass not having in- tensity enough to magnify the planets so much as the wants of science required, recourse was again had to reflecting telescopes. It was ^ And la £iigl!uict of ils being intensely healed. This may be shown by passing the vapours from burning phosphorus (phosphoric acid) through non-luminous flames, when they become luminous ; the vapours are not con- sumed, and thus might be used over and over again. The same fact is proved by the oxy-hydrogen fl.ame, which by itself gives scarcely any light, but, when lime, magnesia, or other solid bodies which do not consume, are placed in the llame, intense light is the consequence. In Theatres, for the sake of producing sudden bright light to imitate lightning, some powdered substance which is easily vapoured is blown through a tube into a flame, lycopodium is generally employed. .Some gases, when highly heated, give light, such as sulphurous acid but air will not become luminous. By the admixture of various substances, flame may be made to assume va- rious colours, producing what is called a monrchromatic lamp. The most perfect of these is the yellow flame produced by burning a mixture of alcohol anil salt. Very curious effects are thus produced, no colour but yellow re- taining its proper hue ; thus, the brilliant red of cinnabar, as in sealing-wax, appears pale yellow ; that of cochineal, as in lake and red morocco, looks black ; as also do the brilliant blues of cobalt and ultramarine; the red of the blood becomes perfectly black, which gives a ghastly hue to the human countenance. Combustion of many substances may be carried on at a temperature too low for the production of flame. Thus phosphorus exposed to air, is under- going slow combuslion. producing a luminosity but no flame. A spirit lamp may be fitted w itli a coll of platinum wire, on lighting the lamp so as to heat the coil and carefully extinguish it. the heated wire will retain heat enough to keep the spirit in slow combuslion, itself continuing glowing hot, but without flame, as long as spirit remains in the lamp. Also by pouring a few drops of ether, into a glass jar, and inserting quickly a fine platinum wire healed just below redness, a point will be found in the jar where the ether, combining wilh Ibe air. will keep the wire at redness, and if the beat increase too much, as sometimes happens, the ether will then burn with flame. As flame, therefore, requires a certain temperature tor its maintenance, it follows that if a cold good conductor of heat is brought into aflame, it ought to extinguish it. And such is the case ; a ring of iron placed round a very small flame, instantly extinguishes it. and a series of such rings, of which wire gauze may be considered as composed, will not allow the largest flame to pass, owing to the rapidity with which it deprives it of heat. For the knowledge of this fact science is indebted to the researches of .Sir II. Davy, who applied it to the construction of his miner's lamp. An oil lamp entirely enclosed in fine wdre gauze, may be inserted into ajar of explosive or com- bustible gas, which will burn in the inlerior and perhaps extinguish the flame, but it will not be communicated to the exterior. The value of this to the miner, w ho is frequently surrounded by the explosive lire damp, is incalcula- ble, and this simple instrument, which annually prevents (he loss of so many lives, is of itself sufticient to entitle its inventor to the thanks of posterity. The lecturer, after thanking his audience for their attention, announced this as the close of the lectures for the present season, and concluded his in- teresling course. ON PAPKR HANGINGS. // Paper read by Mr. Cowl.'VN, at a Meeting of the Decorative Art Society, held at their Rooms in Davies Street, Grosveuor Stjuare, Oct. 9, 1844. Among the many articles of British manufacture that lay claim to our at- tention, few are of more importance than that denominated "Paper Hang- ings," and few have had less of that care and study that it requires; not only is it of importance in a commercial point of view, but it must be considered as a vehicle for the advancement and encouragement of the fine arts of the country. The art of ornamenting the w.alls of apartments has been in use from a very distant period ; among the ancient Kgyptians the pictorial representations on the walls of their tombs may lead ns lo suppose that their houses were deco- rated in a similar manner. Among the Greek settlers in the south of Italy decorating the interior of their bouses was paid great attention to ; the ruins of Pompeii and Herculancum attest that the art was highly cultivated there. Some of their designs, though wanting in artistic skill, still possess remark- able brilliancy of colour. The houses of the rich patricians of Italy present numerous specimens of beautiful decorations ; and the ar.abesquesol Raffaelle and the rest of the Roman school are, perhaps, the finest productions of this kind m the world. 'lapestries, as coverings to walls, were in great use for many centuries in Kurope, and among Ibe Eastern nations it was known at a very remote period Most tasteful and beautiful designs were employed in the manufacture of it,' 386 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [October, and the refined faste of Athens and the talent of the first Italian artists were called into requisition to furnish models from which to work these patterns ; and those invaluable Cartoons of RafTaelle, at Hampton Court, show us how particular they were to procure the best designs and finest specimens of art to ornament the walls, a strong contrast with the character of taste of the present day, which is content with the productions of inferior artists, whose taste and judgment have never been properly cultivated, and, except in some few instances, are totally deficient in those principles of true art, which have been the study and direction of all who have arrived at excellence ; and with- out a knowledge of these principles, no manufacture in which taste is required will ever reach even the length of mediocrity. With the increased production of paper, also, came the ideaof applying it to the purposes of hangings for rooms ; and though it lias only been in general use for little more than a century, it is nearly two hundred years since it was first applied to that purpose ; and it has been used as a substitute fur almost every ether species of decoration. The varieties of subjects imitated in paper hangings are very comprehensive, and successful efibrts have been made to adapt it to the representation of architecture, sculpture, and paint- ing, as well as arabesque designs, ornaments and flowers. At first the aim seems to have been directed to imitations of tapestry, and to produce this was employed a material called flock, a kind of woollen cloth chopped small with a machine, strewed lightly with the finger and thumb over the paper, on which a pattern had been previously dra«n with fat, oil or varnish, and the different colours and tints being carefully blended, an appearance of tapes- try was thus obtained. This method is said to have first originated in Eng- land, and was invented by Jerome Langer, who obtained a patent for it during the reign of C'harles the First, dated May the 1st. 1G34. We find, however, according to an old French work, that a manufacture ot this kind was car- ried on at Rouen, some 10 or 14 years previously, by a man named Francois, and was succeeded by his son, who continued the business for 50 years after with great success. Originally the material was of an extremely coarse description, and the flock projected considerably from the paper. At Hamp- ton Court specimens of the early productions may still be seen, mostly painted in distemper, but the pattern can be distinctly traced. I have been enabled to procure a specimen of flock paper, which I am assured is not less than 110 years old. In this the surface is very coarse, although a great improvement upon the older fabrics. In the reign of Queen Anne paper hangings were largely imported from China, and continue in fashion down to the present day. These hangings, though the outlines may be executed with blocks or stencila, are almost wholly done by hand. The colours are veiy rich and brilliant, exceeding in beauty almost anything we can produce in England. Mr. .lackson, a manufacturer of paper hangings at Battersea, published, in the year 1754, a work on the invention of printing in chiaro scuro, and the application of it to the making of paper hangings, with fruits coloured in illustration. This book was probably used as a sort of advertisement of his omi manufacture, and contains many just and well sustained remarks, showing a cultivated and properly directed taste. He purposed, instead of ad- hering to the old system (for it seems that paper hangings had reached some degree of perfection even then), to employ subjects of more interest than the mere repetition of flowers and ornaments, which prevailed so much, that in- stead of being a principal, as they were, that they should be merely an ele- gant auxiliary to designs of more dignified character — as, for instance, copies of the most celebrated classic subjects, statues and landscapes ; and remarks that the persons who could not purchase the statues themselves might have these prints in their places, and thus gratify the taste of the possessor. He also proposed, instead of painting paper hangings in the ordinary way with size colour, that oil should be used, and argued the great durability of oil in comparison with size, and that the beauties of the colours continue as long as the paper can held together, whereas, in a short time the brilliancy of the other is quite lost and requires renewing. In speaking of the vulgar and gaudy patterns frequently selected, instead of tasteful and harmonious designs, he says, persons who prefer the unmean- ing papers so generally met with, to those done in this style, would prefer a fan to a picture of Raffael, Carracci, Guido or Domenichino ; and those who choose the C'hinese manner, ought to admire, in pursuit of that same taste, the crooked, disproportioned and ugly, in preference to the straight, regu- lar and beautiful, ft is by this very means of ill-judgment in furnishing apartments that the true taste of the person is unthinkingly betrayed, those little and seemingly distant things offer the clue which leads to discovering the whole mind, and undoes, perhaps, all the character of being a true judge of the polite arts, which they are so fond of establishing. It seems impossi- ble that any mind truly formed can, without distaste, be capable of letting such objects in upon it through the eye, where the external senses are well- proportioned and just ; these monstrous objects of the external must be dis- pleasing and ofl'ensive in that breast where the softer *ensations of humanity are ; in a particular degree, a love of beauty generally accompanies them, and the approbation of natural objects is the proof of these sensations existing in an individual, as the conttaiy taste ia pf the ill formation or perversion of that mind which approves of preternatural appearances. There is a close analogy between the love of Ijcauly in external objects, and a kind truly dis- posed to the feeling of all the softer and more amiable sensations. The prevailing unfounded idea that the F.nglish, as a people, are inferior to other nations in the talents for artistic design and invention is, I am very glad to observe, being overturned by proofs that we are quite as capable, and in some instances more so than the artists of other countries, of producing designs of exquisite taste and workmanship, and I may here mention that the encouragement given to the arts of design by the rebuilding of the Houses of Parliament, is in every way praiseworthy and will give an impetus to native art it has never received since the days when the royal patronage was dis- played in the vsry same spot, during the reign of Henry the Third, six cen- turies ago. It is sometimes necessary to bring to the recollection of the cavillers at British talent that in many of the arts of design we have far out- stripped our contemporary brethren on the continent. Among our early Saxon progenitors we find that they attained to higher proficiency in the art of M. S. illumination than any continental school. It is proved by our re- cords that painting in oil was practised in England 200 years before the time of Van Eyck, who is called the inventor of it, and it is well known that the Frencli, until lately, were far inferior to us in ornamental work. The son of Mr. Taylor, who carried on business during Mr. Jackson's time, went over to France and was able to give the manufacturers there very valuable instruc- tions, and he foiuid that their paper hangings were far inferior to our own both in execution and beauty of design. Why, then, do we now find that we are obliged to confess their superiority in this branch, when we know that patterns of paper hangings (and I have myself seen them,) exist, manufactured GO years ago, equal, if not superior, to those executed in France at the pre- sent day. Several of the blocks used in the production I have also seen, and their beautiful workmanship far exceeds tliose in use for present purposes. It is true that, until within the last few years, a noxious tax, impcised during the time of Queen Anne, weighed down the spirit and clogged the energies of the manufacturer, but the want of a proper national school of design was the grand evil, and kept in embryo the latent genius of English youth. These difficulties, it is pleasing to notice, are being fast overcome ; and I hope soon to find our English name, proud as we all are of it, spoken of not only as retaining its ancient glory, but being as a password to all other nations for all that is talented and tasteful, as well as for all that is noble and honourable. About the year 1786 a Mr. Sheringham threw a new feature into the manu- facture of paper hangings ; this gentleman, who had sp»nt many years on the continent, returned about this time to England and estabhshed a busi- ness in Great Marlborough Street. His enterprising spirit and refined taste led him to engage a number of artists of first rate ability, such men as Jones, Boileau, La Brie, and Fuzeli ; he was thus enabled to introduce a style of decoration both unique and truly English in its character; he infused into the art a style which, for beauty and grace, was not equalled before nor since surpassed. Sheringham's productions were, indeed, characteristic of the true principle of the art. From this establishment emanated the leading deco- rators of the present day, and the first hou.ses in London built their fame upon the foundation he had constructed. Sheringham was, indeed, the Wedgwood of paper stainers. About this time the Messrs. Ichardts, who had a manufactory at Chelsea, produced designs of most exquisite workmanship. Besides the mode then generally in use, they adopted a method of applying copper plates engraved to form the outline, and by an under ground of silver and gold worked up by hand in varnish colours, efl'ects of the most beautiful kind were obtained, and they were highly illustrative of the ability of Eng- lish talent when properly applied. This well directed taste, their eager desire to advance as much as possible their undertakings, their steady endeavour to adopt only the most beautiful patterns, and their determination to get them up in the best and most careful manner, is a lesson to som.e of our modern paper stainers, which would be well for them to take to heart, and learn by it that while they not only depreciate their own taste by producing, as in many cases they do, patterns which they are almost ashamed of when finished, but the character of the country suffers, and they lose the opportunity of im- provement, while they prevent, in a great measure, the encouragement that would otherwise be bestowed. The establishments of these gentlemen, tliough conducted with laudable spi. rit and enterprise, were destined to sink as they had risen, and the spirit of emulation ended with them. From that time paper staining in England kept on in its trodden path, without improvement, and without advance in taste. The French took up the ground that we had left, and their manufacturers were everyway encouraged by the government of Napoleon, and reached that standard of perfection their industry and perseverance so richly merited. But it is true while speaking of the ability of the French in comparison to ours, and of their continuing in the road we had prepared for them, they had no such difficulties as we have to contend with, while a heavy fax was laid on our productions, theirs were entirely free, while their government gave them every facility, we had to fight our battles singly and at our own hazard. While they had the best designs of great and illustrious men continually be- fore their eyes to improve, in fact to create a taste, we were without any ad- PIATZXV. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 387 vantages of the kind, and had to depend solely upon our own resources. Academies were instituted in France, at whieh every branch waS cheaply taught. Our School of Design has only been in existence the last few years. Still with all these difficulties and drawbacks we have kept on amazingly, and improvements from lime to time have been effected, particularly among the minor branches of the art, which were formerly in a very low and wretched state. It is right that the example of those who have erected their temple of fame almost upon the ruins of ours, should cause a spirit of enquiry into the means to be employed in attaining our lost position. It is not for me as an liumble individual to point out .iny project by which this great desideratum is to be accomplished ; but I am certain from the increasing facilities which were and are every year receiving, and the attention that seems devoted to the Fine Arts at the present day, should also be an inducement to draw some import- ant attention to the systems of improving paper-hangings in England. Ifwe cast our eyes towards the French as our principal competitors, we find that the methods in practice here are precisely the same as they have in use, that in the mechanical branches we are snperioi', and the colours we em- ploy are far more durable ; that at one time we equalled their productions of the present day ; and the only diflference that exists is our want of proper artists, and of course the want of proper instruction to educate those men for the profession, while they employ, as did our former manufacturers, men who understood the principles of design and the harmony of colouring, and who make it their aim to unite every beauty with taste and cultivated judg- ment. We throw all this important branch upon persons who to gain a scanty living, require to unite the two professions of design and dealers in block cut- ting, and it is not to be expected but that those men will throw off" a number of patterns of most inferior quality. They cannot be supposed to pay that attention that is required to produce a good article, nor have they ever had the means to educate themselves sufficiently to enable them to equal work, wliich is the result of careful, indefatigable study and practice. This .shows a great want of encouragement on the part of English manufacturers, that we must hope to see remedied. The designer in England is not deemed the man of talent — the man of genius who is looked up to as possessing great and superior abilities — whose refinement of mind ensures him respect and honour wherever he goes: no! lie on whom the manufacturer depends for his success in trade — he on whom devolves the important task ot creating from his practised mind beautiful forms and elegant combinations, it is a melancholy fact, is paid less for liis labour than the mechanic that is em- ployed to print the pattern after it is prepared to his hand — who has no diffi- culty to overcome— no necessity for thought, nothing but what is the com- mon power of animal strength to exert. ON A NEW SYSTEM OF FLOOD-GATES FOR WATER COURSES BY M. THENARD. fWith an Engraving, Plate X1'I.)\ [This paper, whicli was read at the last meeting of the British Association at York, by Mr. Oliver Byrne, was kindly presented to Mr. T. Berming- ham, from Ireland, on his late visit to Paris, Ijy the inventor, M. Thenard who is about publishing a more detailed report of his experience on the various rivers in France upon which he has been engaged ; the models, which are most ingeniously constructed by M. Thenard, are deposited in the School of the Bridges and Highways, and were shown to Mr. Bermingham. It is most higlily creditable to M. Thenard and to his brother Baron Tlienard that they permitted Mr. Bermingham to bring these inventions to this country unencumbered with patent rights. From the enormous sums which he knows have been spent, and are in course of expenditure upon the river Shannon, he is most happy to lay these invaluable inventions before the public, as in his mind they will tend to lessen the expences on works of the same nature in future.] Report made to the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry,^ hi/ M. VANViLLiEns, in the name of the Committee of Mechanical Arts, on a System of Flood-gates, for Water-courses, loith !\foveable Jf'iers. Invented by M. Thenard, Principal Engineer of Bridges and Highways ; and crecnted on the river Isle, Department of the Durdogne and the Gironde, for which the Society on the Cth September, 1843, awarded M. Then.ard its Gold Medal. [Throughout the Report aie retained the French technical terms Barrage- •mobile (a moveable wier) and Hausse (Hoodgate or sluice.)] Navigation, irrigation and industry require that in almost every situation the running waters should be raised up, in the beds that hold them, at 3.5Society for the Encouragement of National Industry, founded in 1802, recognised as an establisliment of public ulility bv a Koyal ordonnance of 21st April, 1824, 42, Hue du Bac, Paris. those times when they are least abundant. In seasons of superabundance it is also of paramount importance, that waters should be promptly and freely permitted to flow on in their natural courses. For small water courses, these conditions have been amply fulfilled by the construction of sluices, flood- gates and wiers, the varied compositions and effects of which are well- known. In the case of great rivers, the problem is more difficult to solve, in consequence of ice and broken pieces of floating bodies being drawn in by the current, they require that all obstacles opposed to the free passage of the waters should be instantly removed ; to this purpose has the ingenuity of man been directed for the purpose of applying them for the uses of naviga- tion, irrigation, &:c. M. Thenard, engineer in chief, since 1828, of the canal operations on the river Isle, which stood greatly in need of carrying out the foregoing con- ditions, has been occupied unceasingly in the search of, and experimentingupon the means of arriving at this result. He has so far succeeded in combining and executing such dispositions, that he can sustain the waters of the river Isle at 7 feet 4 inches above the level of the bed, procure a convenient draught of water to get boats up during dry weather, maintain them at this level sufficiently long so that tlie free flowing of the river is incapable of drawing them away, and having arrived at this point, restore the waters to their natural course, in order not to expose the vallies to submersions prejudicial to establishments which have for their ob- jects the keeping back of water and navigation. The first report addressed to the Administration of Bridges and Highways, on the trials made by M. Thenard, is dated in 1831 ; it announced the good opinion formed of them by the Inspector of the Division. In 1839, so as to verify it, another commission composed of inspectors general and divi- sional of bridges and highways was appointed by the government. M. Thenard, having prefected with skill and success, a happy idea of a provisional flood- gate, suggested to him by the divisional inspector, M. Mesnager, during the inspection of the navigation of the Isle, was enabled to render his system of Barrage more complete and applicable to many other rivers. The commis- sion concluded at one visit, that experiment should be made and executed by the commission assisted by M. Thenard, the inspector of the division, and many engineers from the neighbouring localities. On the ■Ith of July, ISll, the commission concluded their experiments, and reported thereon. Up to this time M. Thenard had not had occasion to apply his system, except to fixed existing barrages, and to elevate the water of 2 feet 6 inches or more above the crest. The central government manifested a desire that he should elevate the water from 3 feet to 4 feet. Confiding in the certainty ot his system, M. Thenard obtained authority to make a trial, the important results of which are the object of his communi- cation to the society and of the present report, and in which the retained body of water above the lower level was raised to a height of nearly 9 feet. The convictions to which these trials and observations have successively led M. Thenard, are as follow. The trap doors or sluices that M. Thenard calls hausses, ate attached to hinges on the upper horizontal surface of the stationary portion or apron of the barrage, and in number sufficient to equal Its length, the sluices are in length horizontally about 4 feet, and in height 5 feet 6 inches. On the lower face there appears an iron prop similar to the props which are adapted to certain dressing glasses and reading desks, and which abuts against a stop fixed in the apron in the dock. When the hansses are raised and propped up they form a partition or bar- rage, which stops the water and raises it up the river, even to exceed its natural level ; if the hausses are let down, the water flows and resumes once again its natural course. To produce this eflect, there is placed, along the entire length of the bar- rage, and above the apron a flat iron bar which runs across the river and along the foot of the props. This bar has at one of its extremities a rack whieli works in a pinion fixed at the bottom of a vertical axis that can be made to turn fromabove by a capstan. This rack is made to move backwards or forwards as many inches as it has /iaH.wes that require manoeuvering. The bar has on its lower edge a tooth or cleet on the side of each prop, and which are subdivided in such'a manner Ih.at by the removal of the bar the foot of each prop, the hinge of which permits a slight circular motion, is succes- sively drawn away from its bed or berth wlien the /(mM.ses are left without support, to turn on their hinges, and lower themselves one by one at pleasure from up the river to its downward fall, on the apron of (he barrage ; the props at the same time stretching themselves down the stream. When the overflow of water lias stopped, and that it is required to raise up the hausses, the current is opposed to bringing them hack ag?in from the lower to the upper part of the river. To accomplish it, use is made of a sys- tem of contre hausses of the same length as the hausses, but of a height less by 7 inches, and being capable also of being turned down towards the up stream ; during all the time that the hausses are either raised up or lowered down, the contre hausses remain lying on the apron when a spring latch retains each of them against the action of the current which has a tendency 388 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [October, to lift tliem u\i. There is an interval of about a foot between the range of liaiissi's anil ofcmi/n- liaiisses. A tiat bar of iron of the kinil already deseribej, with shifting movement, regulates ilie opening anil closing the foH^/r /(«ussf.s. At each progression of an inch a staple presses and releases the latch, and the correspond- in" conire haiisse submitting to the effort of the current, turns round on its hinges and raises itself to a vertical position, a bridle chain cramped on the solid part of the apron prevents it from going too far. By this method, vhich produces an immediate ellect, is formed a second barrage above that whicli existed before the letting down of the Imusses ; the current remains suspended, the upper edge apposes the (lu«' of water, and allows tlie lock keeper to raise the haiisscs. To facilitate this operation M. Thenard has placed on the upper part of each ciiiitre luiusse an iron man-rope, which supports an iron gangway suspended at nearly the same level to which it is intended the retained body of water should rise. The lock keeper stands on the gangway, funii.shed with a little portable windlass wliich he rests on the man rope; and catches the haussc witli a hook attached to a rope ; he rolls lliis rope on the cylinder of the windlass, and draws towards him the hauxxc. and with it the prop or slay that supports it against the slipper, and at the same time he books it on to the lanlre haussc. He proceeds thus through all i\\e liciiisst's in succession. When all are hooked he hastens the tilling up of the space between tlie liausses and coiifre liaiisscs by drawing with his band the vent plugs fixed in the roidrc haasses. This done, the latter are balanced by a volume of still water ; the lock keeper then un- hooks in succession each nntre liavsse and abandons it to its weight, which exceeds that of the volume of water which it occupies, to fall down on to the stone work of the barrage, it then latches itself there anew, and the lodv of water is once again held in perfect retention by the hausses. These mana'uvres are performed with precision at d quickness. The report of July. 1841, states, that at the barrage of C'oly, which is .57 feet G inches long, with the hausses 2 feet 8 inclies high, two men, in 8 minutes, lowered the hausses, raised the contre hausses, then righted the hausses, and relaid the confer hausses. In this space of time, 16 seconds were suflfieient to lower the liausses and make the barrage disappear, and 20 seconds oiili/ were occupied in raising the euntre h'ausses ami restoring the mass of water in re- tention. Tlie report of the Commissioners appointed by the Academy of Science, Belles Lettres, and Arts at Bordeaux, of the 10th January, 1843, states that at the barrage of St. Antony, w hich is 27 feet long, formed by seven hausses of 4 feet Ittng each and .5 feet fJ inches high, and by seven couire hausses; the barrage manonivre was performed twice in 30 minutes — !.f.,in one minute per linear yard of hausses or ciiutre hausses. M. Tbenard tlatters himself that the height of 5 feet li inches is not a liuiit for the application of his sys- tem : be has been obliged to confine himself to this height at the barrage dam of St. Antony owing to local circumstances, he thinks he could carry it to the height of 10 or 13 feet the hausse. Already, by practical experience, has he solved a beautiful problem in hy- draulics, which has frequently occupied the attention of engineers, and of which there exists but one other solution, totally ditVerent, it is the work of M. Foiree, Divisional Inspector of Bridges and Highways. M. Tlienard has combined in his construction many capabilities which facilitate the working of, and prevent the inconveniences which floating bodies and matters deposited by the current might (tccasion, the consequences of which would be to per[)lex the operations of tlie hausses and the coiitre hausses, he has fixed vent holes in the partitions of the hausses to drive away down the river such bodies as may have been stopped or deposited on the apron. The teeth or elects of the iron bars move in the w birlpools, the entrance to which is closed by grooved traps which render the deposits less abundant than might be supposed. He can remove those which have already formed ihemselves by a pressure and a current produced by turning water through the upper open- ing of the pipe in which it turns the axis of the pinion. To avoid the loss of water which must ensue from openings or interstices of about an inch, which cannot be avoided between t«o consecutive hausses, or between the hausses and the side walls there is placed a little board which covers the joint and hinders the flow. Experience has proved that the lelllng down is unattended «itb hurtful jolting, because it is done under a sheet of water which is flowing with ilie greatest rapidity and which instantly deadens all shocks. The contre hausses under the trench of water whicli covers them over, seem to hesitate a moment in raising themselves up, under the impulse of the current ; they do not attain any great degree of velocity until in the last portion of their movement, the acceleration is greatly modified by the mass of water the rontre hausses already raised up send back laterally against the others. Up to the present time there has not been any serious difliculty ex- perienced in performing the manoeuvres; branches, weeds, gravel and sand which might interfere with them are easily dragged away or removed. It is easy to conceive that within certain limits hausses and eonire hausses of a greater height than 5 feet 6 inches, can be employed and worked. It is the work of experience and time to pronounce upon the preservation, keeping in repair, and replacing the moveable parts, under and out of the water, of which the apparatus of M.Thenard's barrage is composed. It is under the proof of ice formed underneath, raised to the surface and carried away by the current, against the hausses, that we can judge definitively of the power of resistance in the actual constructions and the modifications that may be applied to them. We can rely with confidence on the skilful perse- verance of M. Thenard to ward off any inconveniences that have not as yet presented themselves. In the mean time, the barrages-mnbHes, such as are executed at St. Antony, reflect honour on the inventive talent of M. Tbenard ; they appear to be sus- ceptible of numerous and important applications, and to justly the appro- bation that the Committee of Mechanical Arts deem ihemselves empowered to give, and recommend the Council of the Administration to award to them. The Committee proposes, besides, to insert in the Records of the Society the present Report, as well as the drawings and ileseriptious which accom- pany M. Thenard's memorandum. Explanations of the Figures and Plans. Fig. 1. Plan of the Barrages-mobiles, or wier with moveable flood-gates, with all their appendages, one set of the hausses or gates is thrown down. Fig. 2. Transverse section of the same on the axis of one hausse and contre haus.i^c on the line X X of fig. 1. Fig. 3. Another transverse section, the haiisse and contre hausse being down on the line Z Z of fig. 1. Fig. 4. Section of one of the slippers, upon which slides the support of the contre hausse. The same letters represent the same objects in the figures of the two plans. A. The left-hand gangway where the lock-keeper regulates the opening and shutting of the / ', spring of latcli. M. Vanvilliers has made another Report in the name of the Committee of Mechanical Arts, on the projects presented by M. Thenard, for the com- bination of liis system of Barrage-mobiles, with large sieve-like sluices of (J5 feet opening, and large channels also of C5 feet opening. This Report we propose to be the subject of a future paper, which is now being prepared by M. Thenard, and which he has kindly undertaken to forward, wlien com- plete, to Mr. Bermingham. ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEM— M. CHAMEROY. M. Chameroy disposes of his locomotives, applicable to ourdouble line rail- ways, in the following manner :— He places between the two ways a conduc- tor or pipe, formed of iron plates and bitumen, submitted to a high pressure. This conductor, which is of a diameter proportional to the impulsive force that is required, is buried in the soil ; throughout its length, and at certain distances, are established branches, which come and terminate at the centre of each line ; these branches are composed of a cylindrical tube, to which is attached a cock, the key of which carries a cog -pinion. On this cock is fixed vertically a pipe, in the form of a hollow cone, flattened, and divided internally by a transverse partition- This cone is surmounted by a cylindrical aspira- tory tube, placed horizontally, and parallel to the line ; the diameter of this tube is one-half less than that of the conductor; it is divided into two equal parts by a transverse partition, which closes hermetically ; its length is about a metre. At each of its extremities there is an external gear, and a hollow cone pierceil by a certain quantity of holes. On one of the sides of the branch a groove is placed back, in which slides a vertical rod ; the superior extremity of this rod is furnished with a plate, and the inferior extremity with a hook, which cogs with the pinion fixed to the cock. The inventor causes to travel on these branches an articulated tube, which he attaches under the wagons, by means of springs and chains. The length of this tube is that of the train ; its diameter is equal to that of the conductor; it presents a longitudinal opening, shut by a valve, with two parallel and juxta-posed partitions. Each extremity of this tube is widened, and armed with a valve and lever. Under the first and last wagon are fixed two moveable supports, placed obliquely, and parallel to the wagons. Description of its Operation.:— Stationary, hydraulic, or steam-engines, are established at a distance of 10,000 metres (about 6i miles), from each other throughout the extent of the line to be worked ; these engines serve to work pneumatic machines, which are put in communication with the conductor, or pipe, placed between the two lines. When there is necessity to set a train in motion, there is attached beneath the wagons a towing tube ; one of the valves placed at the extremities of this tube is opened, whilst the other re- mains shut, and that part of the towing tube which has the valve open must be previously fixed in an aspiratory tube ; this process being adopted, and after having effected a vacuum in the conductor, the cock of the branch in which the towing tube is engaged is then oj.ened by hand. The communi- cation is immediately established between the conductor and this towing tube by the interior of the branch, and by the aspiratory tube. The atmospheric pressure is immediately exercised in the fixed transversal partition of the as- piratory tube, forming the basis ; it exerts itself, at the same time, through- out the external surface of the valve formed of the towing tube, which forms the point of resistance. This pressure determines the movement of the towing tube, which slides in the gear, adapted to the aspiratory tube— at the same time, the longitudinal valve of the towing tube opens for its passing on to the branch to shut itself immediately afterwards. As soon as the posterior extremity of the train arrives at this branch, a support shuts off the cock and, at the same time, another support, fixed at the head of the first wagon, causes the cock of the second branch to open, by pressing the hook ; at this moment the vacuum ceases to be communicated to the towing tube by the first branch, whilst it is produced by the second. The shutoff valve of the towing tube then opens to slide over on to the first aspiratory tube ; this valve shuts instantly by its own weight. The atmospheric pressure acting again, the towing tube draws the train to which it is attached. To suspend the progress of the train, they avoid opening Ihe cocks, by raising the supports ; to stop or neutralise the spi'ed they employ breaks; to retrograde, they open the valve of the towing tube which was shut, and shut the other valve which was open. Chief Advantages of this System.— A single conductor, or pipe, of iron plates and bitumen, will cost one-half less than a conductor of cast-iron. It will perform the duty of a railway with a double line of rails. This conductor being buried in the soil is out of the w;iy of injury. Its internal and external maintenance amounts to nothing. This conductor forms a vast reservoir, which serves to contain the element of the locomotive power, which can be disposed of at will, either to give to loaded trains the greatest locomotive pi'Wer, and the greatest possible speed, or for the ascent of the inclinei. He can retrograde, diminish, or neutrali.se, Ibis power for de.scendiug the incines, or for slopping the progress of the triiins— in fact, this power will not be spent but for useful purposes. During Ihe stoppages, as well as when the trains are in progress, the pneum;itic engines perform and store up constantly into the conductor the locomotive power. The conductor being shut, and subject to a high pressure of its ciuileut.s, there is no fear of the entrance of air. Its position underground will permit its being laid on a level. It will be possible to start many trains on the same line, and, for this reason, to send assistant wagons. The nature of the towing tube, with articulations, will permit the clearing of curves of 300 metres (984 feet), radius, and the jump- ing motion of the wagons will be neutralised by the towing tube. M. Chame- 31 390 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [October, Toy lias cstablislied :i model of liis system at his factory for iron pipes ; this specimen is of 100 metres (328 feel), in length, and many trials have already taken place in the presenci' of engineers, who have pronounced the idea of M. Chameroy to he very simple and very ingenious. At this time, when the jevenue of the state is to be partly employed to di termine which is the most practicable and best system of atmospheric motion, it is necessary that every inventor should exhibit his own ideas, and that the ideas of all the inventors should be examined and discussed seriously and conscientiously. — Monitetir Jndustriel. Trans. Mining Journal. THE NEW METHOD OF EVAPORATION OF M. ADOR. Report ly Messrs. Armengaud, Civil Engineers. Having been ordered by Messrs. Ador and Bidault to prove the results of ■which the nevf system for distilling fuel was capable, when applied to the evaporation of water, and which is the patented invention of M. Ador, we repaired to the foundry of Madame Jamraetel, where the apparatus was fixed np, and which we were enaliled to examine minutely, ibis apparatus of M. Ador is composed of a cylindrical boiler of copper, 3 feet 4 J inches diameter, and 6 feet 6 inches in length, and inclosed in a brick furnace, from the end of which it projects 16 inches, or thereabouts. Under this boiler, in front of the furnace, is a cast-iron retort of a form nearly elliptical, having an internal length of .") feet 6 inches, and an extreme diameter of 21 inches, and a mini- mum of 104 inches. This retort is for the distillation of coal, and was heated by means of coke placed on a grating underneath. On the side, and in the same furnace, were two pneumatic heating tubes of 5 feet G inches in length, and of 9i inches internal diameter, constructed of cast-iron plates of about a fifth of an inch in tliickness, which are to receive the condensed air by two piston pumps, working rectilinear and alternating, each being of the follow- ing dimensions :— Internal diameter, 12J inches; the course, 9J inches. The diameter of the pipe which conducts the condensed air of the two pumps with the lieating tubes was IJinch in one part of its length, and an inch near the tubes. These tulies, as well as the retort, communicate with the interior of the boiler. The view, therefore, of this invention of M, Ador, is to effect the evaporation of water by the combustion of gases resulting from the distillation of coal, and brought'in contact with a current of hot air, and then to utilise these gases and heated air as an additional motive power to that of the steam from the engendered water. The apparatus works in the following manner : — The retort is charged with coal, as is done iu the or- dinary gas machinery, to about three parts of its capacity. The boiler is filled with water to the ordinary level, according to tlie work which is to be performed, when the fire is placed on the grating, this heat is continued until the retort arrives at a temperature sufficiently red hot for inflaming the gas hy a light, and its combustion Ijv a current of air. At this moment pumping is commenced and the air sent into the tubes, in the interior of which it heats itself, so as, ou going out, it inflames the gases in the interior of tlie boiler. The result of this conibustion is, that the water is heated, and soon gets into an ebullition. Therefore, if we collect the steam which is disengaged, as well as the gases and the heated air which combine with it. there is obtained a motive power so disposable as to be used like ordinary steam. We must remark here, that as in this operation the gases are entirely burnt, and the coke consumed in the grating, there ought to be no smoke from the chimney, and this was proved in the most decided manner. After having made our- selves perfectly acquainted witli the nature of M. Ador's apparatus, and its operation, we proceeded to work in the following manner: — The appa- ratus having been worked overnight, we caused the retort to be perfectly emptied, as well as the grating underneath, when we placed in the retort about 132 lb. of coal. We filled the boiler with a cubic metre (34 cubic feet), or 1000 litres (220 gallons), of water, and as the furnace was still hot, we observed that the temperature of this water was at the beginning of the operation 122° F.; we also weighed out 88 lb. of coke, so as successively to charge the grating. After this, we caused the retort to be heated, and placed the fire on the grating at 5 ruin, before three o'clock. Up to i p. 3, the fire remained very inactive; at 33 luin. p. 4 the gas was inflamed, hy opening the cock of a small escape tube placed in the Interior of the furrrace, and used for the purpose of knowing the degree of distillation at which we ar- rived, but it did not burn without some dithculty, and it was not until \ p. 5 that the gas was found to burn iir arr efficient manner by a continuous current of air ; at this time the pumps were nut going, for which purpose two men were placed at each extremity of the beam which moved the pimips, when we perceived that the water of the boiler bad preserved its primitive tempe- rature of 122° F., and that there had been no portion of heat used to heat the water of the boiler, whilst the temperature of the products of the com- bubtion was 248° F. The pumps were kept going, and the grating was charged until a i to 7 o'clock, at which time the steam from the water com- menced forming At a ^ to 8 we fouird 6 gallons of water evaporated, and at ten minutes past eight 12 gallons ; as the boiler was open at tbi; top, this steam disengaged itself with the gas and the hot ail'. The 88 lb. of coke weighed at the commencement of the experiment was consumed, and the grating was charged with a new supply of coke, when we continued going till ten o'clock, after some short intervals of stoppage, between eight and ten o'clock, for slight repairs. At the above hour the experiment ceased, when the total quantity of water evaporated was found to be 32 gallons, and the addition to the coke on the grate was 27i lb. On the next day, the 14th, we opened the retort from which we took 99 lb. of coke, so that 33 lb. had been converted into gas, and served for the evaporation of 32 gallons of water. Wc drew out from under the grating 26 lb. of waste, containing 18 lb. of cinders. On this quantity we might have employed again 16J lb., so that the total quantity of coke consumed on the grating was 99 lb. The above report which originally appeared in the Monitmr Industriel, and translated into the Mining Journal, is followed by a digest of the opera- tion, and concludes by observing that by the ordinary boiler and burning of coal, that the effect woiUd give less than 2 horse power, and that by M. Ador's improved method the effect produced is equal to 4 horses, from which is to be deducted the motive power of four men for working the pumps, which the reporters consider is equal to i a horse power, leaving a power 35 horses, and even admitting other losses they say that by Ador's system there is a saving of from 40 to 45 per cent. We are disposed to dispute this reasoning, but we do not consider it neces- sary to enter into the calculation of horse power, but simply to compare Ador's improved method of evaporating with that of the ordinary method of heating a boiler ; according to the above report there were 99 Ih. of coke consumed on heating the retort, and very singularly there were 99 lb. of coke taken out of the retort at the conclusion of the experiment, consequently the quantity of coal, 132 lb., that was put into the retort is the actual expense of evaporating 32 gallons, or 5 J cubic feet, of water, now according to Watt's data, 132 lb. of coal ought to evaporate (»f =) 16^ cubic feet of water, being three times as much as by Ador's method, and if we refer to I'ambour's ex- periments, it will be found that a locomotive boiler consumed on an average lO.i lb. of coke, and in some cases as low as 7-1 lb., for evaporating a cubic foot of water, at the present time this will be found nearer the average, and we have no doubt that many of our marine boilers do not consume more than Watt's allowance of 8 lb. per cubic foot. It will thus be seen that instead of Ador's system of evaporating being an extraordinary saving it will be an ex- traordinary dear one — when we take into consideration the expense of working the pumps. — Ed. C. E. 4' A. Journal. ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORIES, As it may frequently be of use to engineers in different parts of the country to ascertain the nearest observatory, we have given the fol- lowing table, showing the latitudes, longitudes, and names of the ob- servers, of the principal public and private observatories in England, Scotland and Ireland. The longitude is given in minutes and seconds, showing, when marked thus + tlie time is faster than Greenwich, and thus — the time is slower than Greenwich. It will be recollected that 1° is equal to a difference of four minutes in time, so that it will be easy to reduce the longitudes from time to degrees when required. Thus, to find the distance of Dublin in degrees, convert the time into seconds, 4' X 60 = 240", and 25' 22" = 25 X 60 + 22 = 1522", then W^ = 6-342^ Lat. Nortli. Long. Aberdeen— Marischal College 57° 8' 57-8" +0h 8' 22-78" Armagh— Rev. Dr. Robinson 54 21 12-7 +0 26 35-5 Bedford— Capt. Smvtb, R. N. 52 8 27-6 +0 1 51-97 Blackheath— Hon. J. Wrottesley 51 28 2 -0 0 2-7 Uushev Heath— Colonel Beaufoy 51 37 44-3 +0 1 2093 Cambriilge— Professor ChaUis 52 12 51-8 -0 0 ?3-84 Uubhn— Sir W. Hamilton 53 23 13 +0 25 22 Durham— Professor Chevallier 54 46 14-9 +0 6 18 Edinburgh— Professor Henderson 55 57 23-2 +0 12 43-6 Greenwich— Professor Airy 51 28 39 0 0 0 Makerstoun — Sir Thomas Brisbane 55 34 45 +0 10 4 Ormskirk— Rev. W. R. Dawes 53 34 18 +0 11 36 Oxford— Professor Johnson 51 45 40 +0 5 1-5 Portsmouth 50 48 3 +0 4 23-9 Regent's Park— G. Bishop, Esq. 51 31 30 +00 37-1 Slough— Sir J. F. W. Herschel 51 30 20 +0 2 24 South KUworth— Rev. W. Pearson 52 25 51 +0 4 26 Necbologv. — Leperc, the architect of the Church of St. Vincent de Paule, at Paris, in which work he had Hittorf for an associate, died July 18, at the advanced age of eighty-two. Beyond this we have not been able to ascer- tain the slightest particitlars relative to him, for on turning to the " Kunstler Lexicon" of the accurate and pains-taking Nagler (see ante, p. 204), all that we could lind there was that there is not a syllabic about him, notwithstand- ing that it contains such an innumerable quantity of names which have either been long ago utterly forgotten, or have never been heard of at all. Carlo Paginini, professor of architecture of Milan, died also very lately ; and he, we find, is one of Naglcr's very numerous absentees. Neither do we learn anytliing at all respecting him from the publication which mentions his death, — not even a single date or anything whatever to assist in research. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 391 REVIEWS. Geology, Introductory, DeacHptive, and Practical. By David Thomas Ansted, M. a., F. G. S., Prof, of Geology in King's CoIlegB. London : Van Voorst, 1844, It is one of the advantages attendant on the establishment of gpolo- gical professorships in the colleges of the University of London, that as the professorships are working ones and not mere sinecures, and as, too, they are addressed to students intended for many active pur- suits, that geology is now being more practically studied, and more practically applied. The engineer, well aware of the intimate con- nection his pursuits have with geology, and deeply interested in it, has hitherto, when willing to apply himself to the study, been checked either by the meagreness of the information most valuable to him, or by the preponderance of matter of a purely technical or theoretical description. Geological works are either of a purely popular and elementary character, or else addressed so exclusively to speculative points or questions of natural history, that the engineer has rarely been able to avail himself of such productions. It is true that in works of a miscellaneous character much valuable matter is to be found ; the writings of Smith, the father of geology, of Delabeche and of Sopwith, abound with practical hints, but the general student either does not know where to find them or has not the time to wade through so many works. In delivering geological lectures to engineering students, it was in the power of the professor to digest and systematize this scat- tered information, and by this proceeding the way was prepared for supplying a still more important want on the part of the engineering profession, a competent test-book on geology. A work was required which should form a good elementary introduction, but carried out in consonance with the advancement of science, and giving a fair view of general principles, without verging too much on mere speculation or giving undue predominance to the theoretical department, while of course it must be so carried out ;is to give prominently all the practical applications of geology to the pursuits of the engineer. Such a work has been undertaken by Mr. Ansted, a pupil of the distinguished Sedgwick, and Professor of Geology in King's College. Mr. Ansted has devoted himself conscientiously to the task, and not merely has he brought to bear upon it his own knowledge, and the latest published information, but he has in many cases held personal communication with eminent geologists, so as to make the work a text book of the state of geological science up to the latest moment of publication. Moreover, Mr. Ansted modestly states that, without pretending to be a practical miner or engineer, he has taken some little trouble to qua- lify himself so far as to be able to appreciate what is required by the practical man, a preliminary too often neglected, though of imperative necessity to form a competent practical teacher. In perusing the work, it appears to us that the author has weU executed his task, and we only regret that it has not been in our power to bestow upon it longer time than we have already done, or to devote more of our space than we do on the present occasion to a review of its contents. It is our intention specially to consider that portion of the second volume which is of practical application, and we shall defer until that period the few remarks we have to make as to the value of this study to the engineering profession ; although, perhaps, they ought to form our introduction, nevertheless we think it more proper in the first instance briefly to illustrate the necessity which exists for such a work in a general point of view. Those who have watched the history of geology are fully aware that it is a progressive science. An old text-book on anatomy may be still available, for it is sound as far as it goes, and the general features of the science are unaltered, though more minute discoveries have been made, and increased power of observation has been able to discriminate some of the finer details, such too is the case with regard to most other sciences. Geology, however, has not enjoyed the labours of centuries, it is an entirely new science, founded in our own day, developed under our very eyes, and progressing with the rapid growth of infancy. Every year brings forth some new and most important fact, and every such discovery, as it enlarges the boundaries of the science, throws fresh light on former discoveries, and very frequently necessitates a new classification and new terminology. The unthinking are too apt to complain of this treating words as facts, and not as the representation of facts, they do not well appreciate the nature of either nomenclature or system. Both these are essentially artificial; they are intended as a kind of artificial memory, to enable us better to appreciate the con- nection of facts and phenomena, but not to imply the existence in nature of such assigned classes, tribes or collections. The whole system is entirely artificial; if we collect together in a class or family for our convenience a number of animals or plants closely resembling each other, we are not to imagine there is in nature any dis* tinct boundary between several classes. It is diflieult for the na- turalist to draw the bounds between the whale asd the fish, between animal ^nd vegetable nature, yet no one disputes the benefit of the received system of classification, or believes that u line of division has been surveyed, staked out and accurately determined. So, too, in geology, we talk of secondary and tertiary formations, but we are not to believe therefrom that the Author of creation left oft' work and began a fresh and distinct series — the terms are only conventional and convenient. It will readily be conceived, therefore, that any important discovery will enable us to check and revise our existing system of classification, and that it becomes frequently necessary for the convenience of students so to do. Such is the case in every new science, and is particularly so in Geology, and it is essential that com- petent works should from time to time be compiled, which will enable the young student to begin on sound principles, and the old one to correct his previous studies. Most of our readers are aware that the classification for some time prevalent went to establish a system of primary, secondary and ter- tiary formations. The granites, syenites, porphyries, and other un- stratified rocks, being generally found as a basis to the strata of the crust of the earth, received the name of primary, it being intended thereby to express that they were of the earliest date. Here, by the bye, we may observe that these questions of classification are not of mere speculative value, but are of great importance to the engineer, the determination of the age of rocks being an important element to enable us to search for coal and other minerals, for slates and building stones, and influencing greatly the nature of the strata in tunnelling, boring, and subterranean operations. Such being the system of clas- sification, recent researches have established that granite and most of the unstratified rocks are of very various antiquity, some indeed being of the earliest date, others however to be found in very recent forma- tions. The establishment of these facts has necessarily very much altered the views of geologists, and these rocks of various dates have been formed into a class by themselves, of crystalline and unstratified rocks, including the igneous rocks, as granites, granitic rocks and por- phyry ; the metamoiphic or altered rocks, as gneiss, micashist, clay- slate, basalt, lava, and trap-rocks. The stratified rocks are still di- vided into three classes, but the first class is now denominated Palao- zoic, a term suggeited, we believe, by Mr. Murchison, and indicating merely the fact " that the strata so called contain the fossil remains of the earliest formed animals." The other great classes are still called secondary and tertiary, though it has been proposed to term them Mesozoic and Kainozoic, In the same way as the general classification has been so modified, the same spirit of improvement has all'ected the minor divisions of the palaeozoic, secondary and terliary formations. The reserches of Professor Sedgwick, in 1831 and l!5o2, followed up by Mr. Murchison, established the fact that an extensive region in Wales exhibited a distinct formation, the relations of which were de- termined, and it was thenceforth formed into a new system, and dis- tinguished by a collective name as the Silurian system. One useful result of this in our own country was to determine the true geological place of the older fossi.iferous rocks of Devonshire and Cornwall, and in America and Russia the application has been still more extensive. In 1S3G, Professor Sedgwick and Mr. Murchison examined a group of strata in Devon, that containing the culm measures, the true place of which had been completely misundi-rstood, and the determination of this again led to the establishment of a new system, called the De- vonian System, which in 1839 was recognized in the Rhenish pro- vinces, and subsequently in the Ural chain and in the United Slates. The Wealden System, it will be remembered, was principally deter- mined by Dr. Mantell. The Permian System has been most recently established by Mr. Murchison. Thus each new discovery has ex- tended the boundaries of the science, and advanced it to its present state, and as it is a matter of some interest to our readers to be in possession of the latest and most accurate information, we subjoin a synopsis of the present system of the classification of the fossiliterous strata, although in noticing the first part of Prof. Ansted's work we then also referred to it. f The Sub-Silurian and Lower Silurian Formations. {Proto- I zoic of Prof. Sedgwick.) I. J The Upper Silurian Group. PAL/EOZOIC. j The Devonian System and the Old Red Sandstone. The Carboniferous System, the Lower New Red Sandstone, |_ and the Magnesian Limestone. (-The Upper New Red Sandstone of England, and the Triassic .• System of Germany, &e. II. J The Liassic Group. SECONDARY.' The Oolitic System. I The Wealdon Formation. LThe Cretaceous System. 34* 392 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [October, nr. fThe Lower Teitiaries or Eocene Group. I The Middle Tertiariee or Miocene Group. _T,„~Y,'Uy ■( The Newer Tertiaries or Pliocene Group. IbKllAKi. u.,,g Superficial Deposits of Gravel, &c., or Pleistocene L Group. Tl]e progress of palscontology, or tlie natural history of tlie ancient world, is inseparably connected with classification. The fossils, cha- racteristic of a stratum, are the keys by which we can arrive at its true position, whether we find it in England, or discover it for the first time in the remotest regions of America or Australia ; nay, the transmission of fossils from a remote country will often enable us to arrive at an accurate decision as to its geology. This is a department which, as it has been studied with extreme minuteness by professed naturalists, is apt to deter the engineer from enquiring into it, though witliout adequate cause, as a competent knowledge of the most re- markable fossils can be readily, nay empirically attained, without the elaborate study necessary to make a proficient pala;ontologist. It will be evident that were we desirous of recognizing the coal measures only, an .icquaintance with their distinguishing fossil remains would be desirable, but, indeed, we can never become useful and practical geologists unless we extend this admission to strata generally. Prof. Ansted seems to us to have treated this portion of his work witli skill. He has given an admirable introductory essay, briefly but clearly illus- trating the general principles, and then he has followed up each sepa- rate system with a chapter describing its distinctive fossils, confined as much as possible to the most characteristic specimens, so as not to overburden the practical man too much in the study of what to him must, after all, be to a great degree, a subsidiary pursuit. The account of the several formations and their characteristics con- stitutes what is called Descriptive Geology, and to this the whole of the first volume and the beginning of the second is necessarily de- voted. The illustrations which are in the superior style by which all Mr. Van Voorst's productions are distinguished, comprise very nu- merous sections of the several formations. The fossils figured are no less than two hundred and twenty in number, nor is the ])ractical por- tion of the work less completely illustrated. On coming to the practical part of the work, we think it right, as we have before observed to point out the importance of geology to the engineer, which we do, not merely to call his attention to the study, but to point out to him the wide field of engineering employment, in connection with applied geology, which the engineer is the instructed man of science to occupy, and which we consider has hardly as yet been properly attended to. The engineer, it must be borne in mind, is not merely an official called in to perform a certain fixed task, but he is to be considered as a skilful counsellor called in to discover re- sources and to apply them beneficially. The knowledge of commer- cial economy possessed by our engineers has often to be turned to ac- count, they have frequently not merely to create a railway, dock, road, or canal, but to find the materials to construct it, or the traffic for its support. So, too, the engineer has to turn his geological knowledge to account. The discovery of a mineral or fuel in a convenient posi- tion, an adequate access to the market, or to other minerals necessary for the profitable working of an establishment, require able combina- tions and high powers of mind. The engineer must be a man of science and a practical man, but he must not be merely this — he must not be a mere mechanic, a mere drudge, but he must above all things be a man of business. If we look to the leaders of the profession we particularly recognize this quality, the Stephensons, Brunels, Walker, Locke, Cubilt, are all distinguished for their business powers, while, on the contrary, we shall find many men of great abilities, and who have had good opportunities, who, from want of these characteristics, only occupy a secondary position. Not unfreqnently do we find that an engineer, otherwise skilful, makes a bad witness before a parlia- mentary committee, or a bad adviser of a board of directors ; from his want of business habits capitalists have no confidence in him, and his sphere of usefulness is by so much diminished. It is by facts like these that the man anxious to hold a respectable rank in his profes- sion is urged to cultivate his mind in every respect, so as to bring to bear the greatest amount of knowledge and ability on the work in which he is engaged. Geological engineering particularly admits the application of these, and for this reason we call attention to it. Mining rests almost as much on geology as on engineering, the two however are closely connected together, and yet we find but few engineers who have devoted themselves to this branch. In Cornwall particularly, the direction of mining operations is almost exclusively left to the mining captains, though a preference would naturally be given to an educated man possessing the same degree of local information, well grounded in the principles of geology, mineralogy, metallurgy, and chemistry, competent to superintend the machinery and drainage operations, to . make the assays, and to conduct all the proceedings in a business-like way. It is very true that from the class of mine captains, as well as from that of coal viewers, we have obtained some very eminent engi- neers— Trevithick, Stephenson, and Buddie, are names of men of first rat- eminence — but it cannot be denied that generally the standard of education in the mining profession might be raised with advantage. It is too well known to those who have any connection with mining that from bad preliminary education, and want of superior special knowledge, great errors are committed, operations carried on in a heedless and wasteful manner, much money needlessly squandered, and jobbing of all kinds allowed, and it can scarcely be doubted that the resources of the mines are far from being made so available as they might. When, however, we find mines under the direction of men of high attainments, like the Taylors and Foxes, we find a state of affairs much more satisfactory, so that we are convinced the employ- ment of well-educated engineers, having a professional reputation at stake, would prove of considerable benefit even in comparatively small operations. Here, by the bye, we would pause to point out a great benefit, which might be conferred by Mr. John Taylor, or some other spirited engineer or capitalist having the direction of large ope- rations, and which would go far to supply the present want of mining schools. Let him appoint to the clerkship of one of his mines for two years some student who has distinguished himself in the preliminary studies of mining engineering, establishing a kind of mining scholar- ship or exhibition, which would give the holder bread and cheese and the opportunity of acquiring practical mining information on the spot. We have no doubt such appointments would be zealously contended for, and the proprietors would obtain a greater amount of skilled ser- vice for the ordinary salaries, as the opportunity of acquiring expe- rience would be by the student looked upon as equivalent to a con- siderable premium. Mr. Taylor is Treasurer of University College, and might advantageously give such an advantage to the engineering class of that institution, in the same way that another treasurer attached to it. Sir Isaac Goldsmid, has so liberally and munificently secured an East India surgeoncy for the most proficient medical student. King's college has good friends enough, and we recommend this hint to Pro- fessor Ansted's attention, and we have little doubt something may be done, for the conductors of King's College evince great zeal in the se- curing the efficiency of its engineering class. We give the same hint to Durham University, which is most favourably situated for carrying it out. If we find the want of educated mining engineers in our home es- tablishments, where the remuneration is on a low scale, we feel it still more strongly in all our foreign operations. However well the Cornish mining captain may get on in his native county, with his small woriks and among his own people, he is totally incompetent and most mns- chievous in a foreign country, so that in Mexican or Brazilian appoi t- ments, competently, nay often lucratively, remunerated, we find a m^st miscellaneous selection. In some cases German mining engineers have been appointed, but they are by no means calculated to give satisfaction to English capitalists, so that, for the most part, educated English gentlemen, not brought up as engineers, have been preferred, and in one case an Italian refugee. In an isolated establishment in the new world it would, however, be of incontestable advantage to have on the spot the varied resources of a well-trained man of science able to turn the produce of the mine to the best account, and efficiently to extend the operations of the company, and at the same time to con- duct the financial affairs in a proper manner. In Guanaxato, or Mnias Geraes, there is no mechanical engineer at hand to invent new ma- chinery, or adapt the old machinery to the workings in the best way, there is no geologist, no analyst, to be obtained at a short notice, all this should be done at the mine, but all this is unfortunately not done. It we were to go over the field of mining operations in this coun- try only, we should be able to show what a wide field there is for the young engineer, but we must restrict ourselves to the remarks we have already made. What may be done by skill is well shown by the case of George Stephenson and the Kilworth colliery. Now with regard to another branch, the great attention which is now being paid to scientific agriculture particularly claims the no- tice of the engineer. Here his engineering and his geology both come into play with advantage, 'fhe survey of an estate calls forth the skill of the engineer to determine its soils and subsoils, the nature of its available fossil products, the superficial and subterranean supplies of water, the drainage, the sites for buildings, the available natural power, the machinery and millwork which may be applied, the state of the roads, their direction and the mode of permanently and cheaply repairing them, the capabilities of the streams lor affording water conveyance — all these anil many other points admit of the ad- vantageous application of a very extensive range of study, in which geology enters as no inconsiderable portion. We have ro doubt that when Mr. Josiah Parkes vras appointed consulting engineer to the '844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 393 Royal Agricultural Society, a great many agriculturists and a g eat many engineers consifiered the appointment as little better than a sinecure, perhaps nothing more than the giving to Mr. Parkes a sound- ing designation. We cannot say that we ourselves anticipated the exertions he has since made. Onlv to instance his last communica- tion in the transactions of the Royal Agricultural Society will be suffi- cient to give Lin intimation of what may be done. He therein dis- cusses the size of draining tiles, and from a careful investigation of the quantity of water falling and the quantity to be conveyed, he has been enabled to establish on a scientific and practical basis the necessity for greatly reducing the size of the tiles. The economical results accruing from this will be at once seen, the saving in material, labour and fuel in forming the tiles, a reduced cost to the landowner and farmer, a diminished cost for cartage, and for repairs. Thus a most important diminution is obtained in the cost of all large draining operations, a grand point, when we consider that the large outlay is the great obstacle to the extension of draining. Yet this is but an earnest of what engineering can do for agriculture ; agriculture has, hitherto, been too much treated as a rule of thumb, petty chandler's shop pursuit, even when carried out on large farms, but the extension of farms admits the operations of the engineerwithgreatadvantage. The farmer is in truth a manufacturer, there is nothing mystic, nothing extra-economical in his pursuits, he is as much a manufacturer as the cotton or woollen manufacturer, and his operations must be conducted by machinery as good, as efficient, as cheap and as saving, and this, to a great degree, is yet to be done, although we have from Scotland a good deal of experience as to its advantage. Much ingenuity has been devoted to spades, and ploughs, cultivators, harrows, and thrashing machines, but the economical working of a farm as a whole, the pro- per application of power, and its adaptation to the resources of the locality, have been little studied, and here again the mechanical en- gineer will find wide scope. The possession of water power on the spot, and the power to transport to market a dressed article, instead of the material in its raw and rough state, may often make production profitable, which otherwise could not be undertaken without consider- able loss. Drainage is indeed a grand engineering operation, and with what advantage it can be followed as a pursuit Mr. Smith, of Deanston, has well shewn. It is evident, from the instance of Mr. Josiali Parkes' exertions just adduced, that draining canout cheaply be carried out empirically, for either we run the hazard of wasting money by too great an expenditure of material, or we jeopardize our proceedings on the other lianil by making insufficient provision. The ground must be well levelled, its nature examined with the eye of a geologist, so as to ascertain the causes of any extra supply of water and the means of preventing it, and also the most convenient natural outlet, whether by the usual water-courses, by means of one of the geological dikes which intersect the country, or perhaps even by an absorbent artesian well to reach some lower sandy stratum. While, on the one hand, the well- trained practitioner will be able successfully to deal with a difficult case, to relieve cheaply and efficiently a moss or submerged district, the blunderer may bore so as to get at more water, or expend much money without obtaining any adequate result. The artesian well places at the disposal of the engineer well trained in geology as com- plete a command over the drainage of the earth as it is possible to conceive, it enables him to select his water-course at any required depth, as the balloonist chooses his course, either by ascending or descending, among the various strata of the atmosphere. Not only can the engineer discharge below water which cannot be discharged above, but he can bring up, if need be, further supplies of water from the subterranean strata, and, a point of great importance, water of dif- ferent properties. Whereas, we may have above water strongly im- pregnated with mineral substances injurious to vegetation, we may get rid of that and obtain a wholesome water from a lower stratum, or a water, perhaps, having some required chemical property, coming, it may be, from a calcareous formation, and holding lime in solution. By acquaintance viith the laws governing the temperature of strata, and the progressive increase of temperature as we descend beneath the surface of the earth, we can procure water of a high temperature, which may be beneficially employed in ccltivation. Here, again, it will be noticed how studies, speculative in their origin, are ultimatelv made to bear practical fruits. The ill-informed man, who thinks there is nothing but practice, and snaps his finger at all theory, for- getting that the two cannot be safely associated, might have smiled in derision at the long and serious discussion as to the temperature of wells, and the height of tlie thermometer in mines. We may here observe, however, that even with regard to the ventila- tion of mines the study is important to the practical man, though we have a better proof still. We will, however, call the attention of the mining engineer to another result accruing from philosophic investi- gation. It has been well ascertained' that the state of the atmos- phere has a considerable influence on the c mses of explosions in mines, the barometer having in cases of such accidents been observed to fall suddenly, while, in many cases, the discharge of hydrogen gas is found to be most intense and powerful while the wind blows from the S. W. and the barometer is low, but diminishes when the baro- meter is rising. The sudden change in the weight of the atmosphere, and consequent pressure of the gases, is, indeed, with scientific men, held to be a powerful predisposing cause to those fatal colliery cata- strophes, of which one so serious has lately occurred. So far, too, as we are able to recollect these casualties have happened in paiticniar months, and at any rate we think it incumbent on the superintendents of collieries to keep a close watch on the barometer, and in case of any sudden and serious fall we think it should be incumbent on the managers immediately to stop the workings for the day. At sea very great benefit has been found from the observation of sudden changes in the barometer in preparing fot hurricanes, so that in well-conducted vessels it is the practice immediately on the change being ascertained to get in readiness for the coming storm. To return, however, to the practical results accruing from a higher temperature of air and water in the lower strata, we find, from Professor Ansled's work, (vol. ii. p. 528,) that advantage has sometimes been taken of the temperature of water from deep springs, conservatories have been warmed, cress- plots cultivated, and fishponds improved, particularly in Germany. At Erfurt, it is stated, the proprietor of a salad ground by availing himself of this means obtains a profit of not less than £12,000 per annum. The great Smith, the father of geology, who was as practical au engineer as he was a skilful man of science, was often called upon to apply his powers of command over subterranean springs and water- courses to important cases of draining. We shall leave Prof. Ansted to state this himself. Mr. William Smith, who at the close of the last century had made him- self much more accurately acquainted with the actual order of superposition of the Secondary strata in England than any person then living, was also on^ of the first to apply this knowledge to important practical purposes. About the year 1800 his reputation for " draining on new principles" was thoroughly established in the West of England, and on the occasion of nu- merous landshps taking place near Bath, lie was employed to prevent, if possible, a recurrence of this mischief, vvliich he effected by tunnelling into the hill on which the land was slipping, and intercepting the springs, and then providing a direct and convenient channel, by which the water could be discharged. In the year 1811 Mr. Smitli was again employed to report on a subject of practical science connected with the drainage of strata. About that time numerous canals were being cut in different parts of the West of England, and these, crossing the oolitic hills, were found to be particulary liable to accidents of leakage, being cut througli open jointed, and sometimes cavernous rocks, alternating with water-tight clays. In the passage across the former rocks, and more especially when the summit level of the canal occurs in them, the water escapes almost as fast as it enters, and all the skill of the engineer in puddling, and making an artiti- eial bed, is sometimes exerted in vain, and cannot prevent great and ruinous loss. But the existence of open joints and caverns is by no means the only, nor, indeed, the greatest source of injury, for innumerable small faults or slides traverse the country and confuse the natural direction of the springs, rendering them short in their courses, and uncertain and temporary in their flow, weakening by their irregular pressure every defence that may he op- posed to them, and causing leaks, which let through a portion of the water contained in that level of the canal. The general remedy for all these evils was understood by Mr. Smith, and proposed by him for adoption. It is " the entire interception of all the springs which rise from a level above the canal and pass below it through natural fissures and cavities. This is a process re«iuiring great skill and ex- tensive experience ; some of the springs for instance which it is most impor- tant to intercept come not to the surface at all in the ground above the canal, but flowing naturally below the surface through shaken or faulty ground, or along masses of displaced rock which extend in long ribs from the brows down into the vale, emerge or attempt to emerge in tlie banks of the canal ; these no ordinary surface-draining will reach, and none hut a draining engineer, well versed in the knowledge of strata, can successfully cope with such mysterious enemies. But Mr. Smith, confident in his gre'At experience, not only proposed, by a general system of subterraneous excava- tion to intercept all these springs, and destroy their power to injure the canal, but further, to regulate and equalize their discharge, so as to render them a positive benefit. This he would have accomplished by penning up the water in particular natural areas, or pounds, which really exist between lines of fault in most districts, or between certain riJges of clay (' horses,') which interrupt the continuity of the rock, and divide the subterranean water-fields into limited districts, separately manageable for the advantage of man by the skilful adaptation of science." — Professor Phillips' Life of William Smith, p. 69. In all those departments of engineering, which have to deal with 1 Traniactions of Nat. Hlat. Sov. of Northumberland, toI. i. p. 186. 304 -THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [OOTOBBR, extensive tracts of country, and large earthworks, geology is most e<^sential as a guide. Tlie selection of the line of country, the choice of materials, the nature of substrata to be mined and cut tlirougli, the springs likely to be met with require geological skill to produce a good and safe plan, and the same knowledge is requisite in conduct- ine subsequent operations, both for the engineer and contractor. Much of the waste of capital and subsequent litigation and in case of Ranger s contracts on the Great Western Railway was caused by want ot know- ledge as to the position of the Pennant stone and its probable hard- ness. Professor Ansted observes : — In the case of a railroad, more than ordinary care and attention is often required to enable the engineer to decide how far he may safely, and with justice to his employers, contemplate the overcoming of natural dilhcultiesin a country to he passed over, in order to escape from other ditnculties of a different kind, arising from the local value of property, and the arrangements that have to he made with landowners. In this respect, an acquaintance with the principles of Geology cannot fail to he exceedingly useful, as sug- gesting resources, the existence of which could not otherwise he guessed at, or, at least, which could not be discovered without a minute local knowledge of the district. For, let us suppose two engineers, the one unacquainted with the order of superposition of the strata, and ignorant even of the fact of stratification at all, in its Geological sense, and the other a practical and well-informed student of Geology. And let us assume these two men to he required to construct a line of railroad from London to Dover. The mere engineer, having no knowledge of Geology, would only he aware, in a general wiiv.that between London and the Weald of Kent, there was a range of chalk hills, (the North Downs,) but that afterwards the country was tolerably level, as far to the east as Folkstone. lie would soon find that, with the exception of the Dart and the Mole, two rivers running into the Thames, the one at Dartford in Kent, and the other near Kingston in Surrey, there was no complete drainage across the hills, and therefore no continuous valley leading to the level country, and these two valleys would both be found ill adapted for the object in view. On further examination, partial valleys would, however, he discovered, and one of these, we may suppose, would he selected as the most convenient. The rest of the work to Folkstone would he calculated for as work of the ordinary kind, and cuttings and embank- ments would be made without any reference to the peculiar circumstances of the strata. Let us now see what would be the inquiries and conclusions of the Geological engineer under similar circumstances. The line of road by Croydon is sufficiently marked out by the physical geography of the district, and need not be again referred to. Our engineer, however, having settled these preliminaries, would consider that in the course of his work he must cut through a considerable portion of the lower part of the London Clay, which he would know beforehand to consist of sand and gravelly matter, mixed with some tenacious clay, and that he would then have to tunnel througli the chalk, coming out upon the lower beds, which on examination he would find were considerably tdted towards the north. His hne would thus c.ury him along the direction of a small disturbance transverse to that which had originally elevated the beds of chalk. Through part of this he would have to tunnel, and he would be aware that in a district like that extending along the line of the chalk hills there was little danger ot meeting with hard beds, or with intruded igneous rock. The advantage of being thus able to predi- cate with considerable certainty as to the nature of the ground througli which the road was to be cut, must be evident to every practical man, and we shall soon perceive how far such knowledge is immediately applicable. Besides this acquaintance with the condition of the chalk the Geological en- gineer in this case would remember that his cuttings and embankments would have to be made for the most part at right angles to the strike of the beds, but that in some cases the London Clay, having a different local dip, would be cut in a slant direction. Lastly, he would be awaie that when he had crossed the chalk, and the other beds of the cretaceous group, he would come upon the Weald Clay, a bed dipping northwards, and which he would have to traverse in a westerly direction, and therefore directly on the line of strike. Now the beds of the London basin, consisting, as they generally do, of clay alternating with occasional sands, are exceedingly dangerous when deep cuttings or tunnels are made through them, which are not properly de- fended. And this is the case, because the rain, washing through and carry- ing away the sands where a section has been made, leaves the upper bed of clay barely balanced upon the lower, and with a slippery surface between them. The inevitable consequence of such a condition of things is, that after a short time the upper bed shps quietly down in the direction of its dip, falling upon and filhng up the cutting that has been made through it. Accidents of this kind have happened too frequently not to be familiar to every engineer, and the cause is now to a certain extent generally under- stood ; but nothing short of a knowledge of the structure of the country, or, in other words, of the principles of Geology, will enable any one effectually to avoid this danger, because it is one constantly recurring, and requiring different management, to a certain extent, for each individual case. The Geological engineer will know his danger, and will endeavour to provide against it beforehand. The mere empiricist who l• the haimony of geometry." The author, in proceeding to develop this science in detail, divides the circle into 3()0 degrees, and endeavours to prove that in the divi- sion of these degrees by the harmonic ratios the jirinciple of geome- tric beauty, or proportion, lies. In the first division, by two, the dia- meter of the circle, or horizontal line, the base of all geometrical figures, is produced. The second division by two, gives a radius per- pendicular to the base, producing the right angles of 90°, and this, again, divided by two gives the angle of 45", which is the first har- monic ratio ; the next harmonic ratio is the angle of 60 , which is produced by the division of the quadrant into three. Mr. Hay then goes on to show that rectangles only differ from one another in their proportions, that is the ratio that their length bears to their breadth, and this proportion is determined by one measurement, which is the diagonal. The oblong is simply a modification of the square, and this modification is regulated by the number of degrees in the angle of the diagonal, which when the oblong is placed vertically must exceed 45°, and when horizontally placed must be under that number. If, therefore, a scries of these diagonals be produced by a harmonic division of the degrees that occur in a quadrant, that is, by 2, by 3, and by 5, the rectangles formtnl upon these must bear an har- monious relation to one another. Thus, the diagonal of 45° relates to the right angle as 1 to 2 ; the diagonal 00° as 2 to 3 ; the diagonal 72° as 4 to 5. These diagonals form the groundwork on which Mr. Hay's theory of the harmony of form is based; and most admirable, so far as it can be judged of in its present stage of progress, is the structure of har- mony which will ultimately be reared therefrom. These diagonals are the rules by which the building must be constructed, in every line from its basement to the summit of its pediment. Already has Mr. Hay laid the groundwork, in a series of beautifully proportioned rect- angular figures, and whatever may be said about the analogy he has laboured to establish between sound and form, there can be but one understand as to his opinion of having been successful in discovering the harmonic divisions of a circle, when a series of figures of such perfect beauty, and in such perfect relative harmony is the result of such divison. Mr. Hay after showing that the circle and the square seem to have a reciprocal effect upon one another, in regard to the harmonious mode of division, proceeds to illustrate, by a series of diagrams, that if a quadrant be placed upon any diameter of a circle and lines drawn through any of the harmonic divisions until they reach the circum- ference of the circle, and another line drawn from this perpendicular to the diameter or base, until it again meet the circumference, the repetition of these two Hues from every similar division of the cir- cumference will produce an harmonious arrangement. These diagrams which are composed of a succession of harmonic angles and various curves, and which display every variety of figure harmoniously ar- ranged, are exceedingly ingenious and beautiful. In some the inter- sections of the straight lines in the circular mode of combination form various concentric polygons, which approach the figure of the circle so nearly that they at first sight deceive the eye, while the curve as- sumes the appearance of the straight line in those combinations that are angular. Again, when viewed laterally, obliquely or otherwise, these diagrams assume a variety of forms, all exquisitely beautiful, harmonious, and suggestive of an endless diversity Jof ornamental designs. A very clear and forcible illustration of the mode in which the har- monic angles may be applied is afforded by the two last plates in the work. They are harmonic combinations of rectangles, divided into triangles agreeably to the Platonic system, and the strong lines show how they may be formed into solids or vacuities in architectural com- position. After a very able dissertation on the harmonic ratio of numbers, which is also illustrated by a number of diagrams, Mr. Hay concludes his treatise as follows: — "Thus have I endeavoured to analyse the geometric principle of beauty — proportion — by showing that it is re- gulated by the harmonic ratios of numbers. And by the application of those ratiso to a quadrant of the tircle, I have shewn that an almost infinite series of rectangles may be produced, bearing to one another certain harmonious relations ; and that, within each of those a series of six other distinctive characters of figures may be systematically and harmoniously generated. In short, that the beauty arising from the harmony of form may be on all occasions with certainty produced. " But the application of this systt>m to the various arts in which it will be useful, must form the subject of another treatise, as it would be prematiirc to apply rules until their accuracy were acknowledged. 1 shall, however, in the mean time, add a few general rules which ob- viously arise out of this theory : — " 1st. Rectangles, when arranged in succession, either horizontally or vertically, should only differ from one another in one of their di- 1814.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 3^9 nicnsious; so that, when vertically arranged either as solids or vacui- tiis, their vertical sides must be in the same line ; and when horizon- tally arranged, their horizontal lines must also be in the same line, their harmony being regulated by their diagonals alone. " 2nd. Triangles must on all occasions correspond to the rectangles with which they are associated— acutely when the rectangle is verti- cal, and obtusely when it is horizontal. As the harmonious propor- tion of every rectangle, when in a vertical or horizontal position, is determined by an oblique line, called its diagonal, so is the proportion of every regular isosceles triangle determined by a vertical line. This being in a positive position, it can have no change but in its lineal dimensions, which will be always as 1 to 2, or 2 to 3. When, therefore, triangles are employed in succession, their proportions must be in other respects the same ; if they be not, they generate between lliem a discordant figure. " Curvilinear figures, in like manner, must always correspond to the rectangles with which they are associated, and in succession their harmony will depend upon the ratio of their radii, therefore, they can only differ in size, annd not in degree of curvature ; this difference can only be in the ratio of 1 to 2, or 2 to 3. The curve can never be greater than wd\at may be inscribed by the rectangle with which it is associated, and can never harmoniously leave the rectangle, unless at the tangental point, or at right angles with it. " As a circle may be described within any rectangle tangented to its longest sides, this peculiar curve may terminate any vertical rect- angle." In conclusion, we cordially recommend " Hay on Proportion" to all engaged in the ornamental arts designers for shawls, carpetings, paper hangings, mosaic work, stained glass, will find here an ample field for the exercise of their t;dents. To all such Mr. Hay's diagrams must, indeed, be most valuable in suggesting designs altogether new, all re- gulated by fixed principles, agreeable to those inherent in our nature, and which must of course always be productive of pleasure. To ar- chitects, we think, the work will be most acceptable. Those edifices which have been and continue to be most admired are those wherein tiie geometric proportion of beauty has been most closely adhered to. The finest of the ancient cathedrals in Britain and on the continent are remarkable for the geometrical knowledge developed in their general construction, as well as in their most minute details. The harmonic ratios of Mr. Hay appear to us altogether a new branch in this department of art. By following them closely the result is cer- tain to be agreeable, and we cannot help indulging in a hope that, re- gulated by these principles, new architectural designs may yet gladden our eyes, not depending for our approbation on a slavish and close imitation of what has gone before, but exciting our admiration no less by their originality than by their beautiful symmetry. It has long and often been maintained that so much has been done in architecture that there is no room for anything new ; we have always maintained an opposite opinion, and are now more convinced than ever that there is no end to human invention. New schools of poetry, of painting, of every branch in art, science and literature, are daily arising, why should we, therefore, despair of seeing a new order of architecture ? We have now to return our best thanks to Mr. Hay for the plea- sure which the perusal of his book has afforded us. He has entered into the examination of his subject with his whole heart and soul ; he possesses a deep and penetrating intellect, and his best energies have been evidently devoted to the work he had in hand. He states his opinions firmly, although with the modesty which is always the characteristic of true genius; and if ho has not been the first to dis- cover that the ancients constructed all their great works on geometric principles, he is the first who has probed the matter to the bottom, and has thus been able to lay down exact rules, by which beauty can be produced and deformity for ever avoided. B. REJECTION OF BRITISH AND ENGLISH ANTIQUITIES BY THE BRITISH MUSEUM. SiK, — Within the last month it has been pointed out, in more than one publication, how highly desirable it is that there should be, and how strangely perverse it is that there should not be, some collection of national art and antiquities in the British Museum. But, with oni' exception, none of the parties who urge the propriety and expediency of a gallery of the kind being formed in that building, seem to be at all aware that a proposition to that effect has actuahy been made to the trustees. Only in one instance have I seen your correspondent Mr. Lamb's spirited attempt to obtain for the public such a valuable addition to the contents of the Museum, spoken of with the commen- dation it deserves, and at the same time with severe but justly me- rited reproof of the conduct of tin; trustees in the affair. Those good, easy gentlemen were, it seems, quite taken by surprise — absolutely_/?a6- 6er^a.s7erf,at so very out-of-the-way an idea as that of introducing British antiquities within the walls of a British Museum, but retained only so much of their wits about them as to find out that f hey were "not prepar- ed" to n^coramend the scheme to Her Majesty's government. "Not prepared" was, no doubt, the very literal truth, but it also evidently implied what it would not have done to utter in plain words, namely, that they did not mean to prepare themselves, or take any initiative stops at all in the matter; whereas, the reply should have been that although "not prepared" to pledge themselves to any thing further, the trustees were well disposed to give their serious consideration to what appeared to be an important and desirable object, and one likely to obtain the decided approbation of the public. Instead of returning an off-hand, frigid, decisive negative, tantamount to a supercilious rebuff, the trustees might, at any rate, have left the matter open for deliberation, and might have waited to see how far public opinion was at all in favour of what had been proposed. Had that course been pursued, there would have been opportunity afforded the Institute to step in and add their testimony and influence in behalf of a project that they ought in fact to have originated — ^at least have taken up and promoted with alacrity and earnestness. But somehow or other there is a strange want of vigour and activity, to any really good purpose, in all such bodies; and their vis inertm and apathy appear to be even contagious, for even those individuals among them who are not deficient in zeal become in a manner paralyzed by the general torpidity. Hardly anything that would be of real benefit, either as putting down some abuse, or securing some improvement, is proposed without being met by the evasive and childish objection of its being dilhcult. But of what use are Institutes, Societies, Associa- tions, with all their apparatus of councils, committees, secretaries, &c., if they cannot even attempt to take in hand difficulties which indi- viduals cannot overcome? One thing there certainly is which persons gain by entering into associations, because they are thereby liberated from all individual responsibility and exertion, and they become one and all alike invulnerable to reproof, and utterly impenetrable to shame, as are the big-Wig trustees of the British Museum! Zero. J, S. COTMAN. Sm, — Knowing of no readier one, I resort to this mode of making inquiry respecting an artist whose works are well and widely known to architects and antiquaries. The name of the late John Sell Cotman is assuredly one of more than common note, nevertheless I have hitherto been unable to ascertain from what time that mortuary epi- thet is to be dated. I have been able to gain no nearer information than that he died some time lust year; for, most strange to say, I can discover no mention whatever of that event in any obituary, or in any of those journals which are in the habitof giving necrological notices, however brief, of individuals of any note in literature and art. For this marked silence, in regard to one who had been so long be- fore the public as Cotman had, and who had distinguished himself by a peculiar yet masterly style of architectural drawing and engraving, I know not how to account, and were it possible to do so, I should take the report of his death to be a false one. Thus completely baffled, my hope now Is that the insertion of this letter in your Journal may elicit, from some one of your correspon- dents or readers, the information I have hitherto vainly endeavoured to obtain. I remain, Sir, vours &c., E.D. THE CAM-CAMS. Sir, — la the Morning Herald of to-day is a letter from a " Quon- dam Member of the Cam-Cam Society," assigning as the reason for his withdrawal from it the discovery that, instead of promoting its original ostensible object, it is now all but openly declaring, what it had long been suspected of, an earnest endeavour to revive amonc us, and re-introduce into the church, some of the most puerile and gro- velling superstitions— such as it might be supposed even Ro« 400 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [OOTOBKR, manists tliemselvps, at least intelligent and educated ones, would now be ashamed of. The Society's organ, Tlie Ecclenwlogist, is now vastly laudatory towards that ultra-Roman Catliulic gentleman Mr. A. \V. Pugin, whom it styles " the great master of Christian device," albeit the specimen of his talent wliich calls forth that eulogy, vix. the " new and beautiful seal" of the Camden Society, is by no means remarkable for either taste or ingenuity of design, or fur aught so much as the conspicuous introduction of that symbol of Romanism — the "Mother of God and the Infant;" the very ostentatious adop- tion of which, under their own band and seal as it were, is either ex- ceedingly bold or exceedingly indiscreet, and sufficient to convict them either of both temerity and effrontery, or else of besotted stupidity. I remain, &c., S.P. AREAS OF CUTTINGS AND EMBANKMENTS. Sir, — In the August number of your excellent Journal there is an article, taken from the Journal of the Franklin Institute aud written by me, on Short Methods of Calculating correctly the Sectional Areas of Excavations or Embankments, in copying the illustration of which an error has been made, which may cause difficulty in demonstrating the rules. In the Journal of the Institute the irregular pentagon is divided into four triangles, by dotted lines drawn from the point marked f to the points a and c, but in the copy the position of the lines is reversed, and they are incorrectly drawn as 6 e and 5 g, which division of the figure is not applicable to the purpose intended. Respectfully yours, Philadelphia, U. S. of America, S. W. Roberts, C. E. Sept. 1 IM, 1844. We have given the diagram corrected together with the rule. Multiply the extreme width of the excavation, or embankment, measured horizontally, by one-half of the depth at the centre; multi- ply the sum of the depths at the sides, by one-fourth of the base line, or bottom width (e. g.J — the sum of these products will be the sec- tional area required. Thus, in the following diagram the centre stake standing at b : C 0* X */) + („-^+7^x'f )= Sectional Area of a 6 c g/e. The diagram in this position represents an excavation, by inverting it au embankment. RAILWAY KEYS. Sir, — The drawing of my hollow iron keys, which is given in your last number, is calculated to produce an erroneous im- pression as to one of the great advantages which they pos- sess over modern keys. In your drawing you have shown the key as only fit- ting into the upper pin the of rail. In the en- closed sketch you will per- ceive that they fit into both the upper and lower fins, and this gives them a great advantage as joint keys, for the key being elastic the driving causes the contact with the rail to be very perfect, and the metal being hard no unevenness of the joint, or canting of the joint chair can take place, which is one of tlie great evils felt with wooden keys, for here the wood being coni[)aratively soft and soon affected cy abrasion, also the hold of the key on the rail being subject to great variation and shrinking of the wood in wet and dry weather, the joint chairs become canted and the two ends of the rails out of level, which not only interposes with the comfort of travelling from the noise made in passing the joints, but produces unnecessary wear and tear in the en- gines and carriages, and increases the labour of repairing the road. About tvfo miles of the Midland Railway, that is four miles of sin- gle line, in the neighbourhood of Rugby, which has been laid with these keys, show a remarkable difference in the steadiness of the road and the quietness of the joints, as compared with the wood keys. It has been laid about six months, and the keys maintain their posi- tion and hold on the lail as firmly as the first day they were put in. The hollow iron keys require rather more care and accuracy in laying the road than the wooden keys, but in other respects they are quite as easy to use, and drive readily into their places with the com- mon keying hammer ; however, I must not say too much in favour of my own invention; several engineers are now making trial of these keys, and we shall probably in a few months learn tlieir opinion of them. Your obedient servant, W. H. Barlow. It H ill- EXPLOSION OF HARDENED STEEL. By John M. Batchelder. is well known that dies, and all articles of solid steel, are very liable to become fractured at the edges, if made too hard, but an actual explosion, as detailed below, is, I presume, of rare occur- rence. The annexed figure represents a fragment of a step for an upright shaft, made of round steel lith inch in diameter, with a hole Jth of an inch in diameter, passing through the centre. Twelve pieces were cut from the bar, and ~ after being finished in the usual manner, were tempered separately, each being heated to a cherry-red heat, and plunged in water until perfectly cold : they were then laid aside, where the temperature was at sixty-five de- grees. In about an hour, one of them burst into two parts, with a report as loud as that of a pistol ; one of the pieces was thrown about twelve feet, the other struck the wall of the shop two or three feet distant. Of the whole number made, eight were broken at intervals of several days, but without any violent explosion. Examined with the microscope, the steel appears distinctly radiated, or fibrous, to the depth of a line from the external surface, while the iuside is granular, but without the slightest appearance of flaw, or want of actual contact of the particles at the point ruptured, previous to the explosion. The specific gravity of the bar-steel in 7'825; that of the fractured pieces 7-850. The cause of the fracture is, probably, the same as is observed in the glass toy called Prince Rupert's drops, made by pouring melted glass into cold water! the outside is suddenly contracted, wliile the particles in the interior, cooling more gradually, assume a dittereut crystalline form, and burst asunder as soon as the cohesion of the ex- ternal coating is destroyed. — Franlkin Journal. A TRIANGULAR COMPENSATING PENDULUM. The problem of a compensating pendulum, made of a single piece of metal, occupied my attention several years ago . the subject passed from my memory, but was recently revived by looking over some old memoranda — a copy of one of which is subjoined. Besides other objections, an impression that an instrument, like the one proposed, would be of too awkward a shape to be adopted in practice, induced me to lay thi- project aside. The principle is, however, applicable to other matters ; if, therefore, nothing of the kind has been suggested, and the idia be deemed sufficiently novel to be worth recording, you will, perhaps, give it a place in the Franklin Journal. Let the distance from C to D, be the required length of a pendulum, C being the point of suspension, and D, tke oscillating body ; it is required that the distance between them shall remain the same under all changes of temperature. Now, instead of directly con- necting C, D, by a straight rod, (with the use of which the con- dition premised is in incompat- ible,) let a triangle be formed as in the figure, of a piece of iron, steel, or other wire, of a 1^ uniform thickness and density. It is obvious an increase of heat will lengthen the sides, A, B, and 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 401 tend to thrust D, further from C; l)ut the side C, expanding at the same time, pushes the upper extremities of A, B, wider apart, as re- presented by the dotted lines,) and, consequently, — if the length of C, be properly proportioned to A, B, — D will remain at the same distance from C, as before. Again, suppose A, B, shortened by cold, the length of the pendulum is not effected, because the contraction of the side C, draws A, B, near together, and keeps D, where it was. Hence it would seem that whatever variations of temperature may take place, such a pendulum, if correctly made, would be invariable. As the compensating property depends on the figure of the rod, no adjusting apparatus would be required. In simplicity, and other qualities, it surpasses the mercurial instrument of Graham, and the grid-iron of Harrison — that is, if the principle be found correct, and no mistakes in the inferences drawn from it. One striking defect, besides that of figure, is the want of stiffness, or rigidity, an impor- tant desideratum in a pendulum rod. The spring of the side C, might be fatal, To obviate this, in some measure, that side might be a Hat bar, or the whole might be cut out of sheet metal, in which case the edges would oppose less resistance to the air. The position of the instrument, as shown in the figure, might be inverted— D, being made the point of suspension, and the weight placed at C. Such is the memorandum referred to. If it be found of little worth, as regards the pendulum, it may, possibly, suggest, to some minds, more valuable speculation.— iVew York, July 5, 1844. T. E.— Frank- lin Journal, ARCHITECTURAL AND ENGINEERING PREMIUMS. The Society of Arts have announced the fotlou'hig premiums: — I. The Gold Medallion is offered to the candidate who shall produce the best original design for a town a»d county hall, containing the requisite accommodations for holding assizas, a large room for public meetings, and offices for magis- trates' clerk, &c ; to be sent in on or before the third Tuesday in January, 1845. The expense of the building not to exceed 40,000/. The drawings to consist of two plans, one or more geometrical elevations, and two sections, drawn to a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot ; also a perspective view. 2. Acton Premium. — In the year 1837, a gift of .500/. was made to the society by Mrs. Hannah Acton, of IJuston-square, for the purpose of enabling the society to offer an annual reward for the promotion of practical carpentry, applicable to civil, naval, and military architecture. In compliance with the terras of the above donation, the society offers a Gold Medallion for the best design for a roof of 100 feet span and l.'iO feet in length, with the walling necessary for its support. Each design to consist of a plan, and two sections, neatly outUned in Indian ink, and tinted, with a scale annexed ; also a model of one bay, or larger portion (as the candidate shall see fit), should accom- pany the design. The model and drawings to be sent in on or before the third Tuesday in January, 1845; and to become the property of the society if the candidate be successful. 3. The Gold Medallion is offered for the best design for the hull-timbers of a steam-vessel of 1,000 tons burden. Such design to consist either of a model or of a plan, section, and other drawings sufficient to explain the same. The model or drawings to be sent in on or before the third Tuesday in January, 1845 ; and to become tlie property of the society if the candidate be successful. 4. For the best original design as a subject for modelling or carving, adapted to furniture or internal decoration, by an operative mechanic in either of these branches of art — the Sdver Medal and i'ive Pounds. BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. FocBTEENTH Mkbting, 1844. — Held at lor*.' The Influence of Light on the Germination and Growth of Plants. — By Mr. R. Hunt. The author postponed a full Report on this subject untU he had been en- abled by the experiments of another year to reconcde, if possible, some very anomalous results. Several experiments were described, all of which went to confirm the statement originally made by Mr. Hunt, that light prevented healthful germination, and was detrimental to the growth of the young plant. The author now gave the results of some experiments made with a view of determining the question of the production of the woody fibre. He finds that plants growing under the influence of light which has permeated blue and red media, contains more water than those which had been grown under the influence of rays which had permeated yellow and green absorptive media. On the contrary, the formation of woody fibre is greatest in the plants grown under the yellow and green relatively as follows : — 1 We are indebted for the reports to the local papers and partly to the ' Atlnnseum.' Those under the blue leaving 7'16 per cent, of woody fibre, the red 7-25 the green 7'60 the yellow 7-69 Young plants in a healthly state were removed from the garden to the in- fluence of the isolated rays. In all cases, the plants died under the yellow light in a few days; they slowly perished under the influence of the green, and only grew healthfully under the red and blue light. Prof. Grove wished to make some inquiries relative to the supposed ex- istence of a new principle in connexion with light, which was regarded by Mr. Hunt and others as the active chemical agent, to which was to be ascribed all the phenomena of photographic action, and the most genial in- fluence on the growth of the young plant. — Mr. Hunt explained that the luminous calorific and chemical spectra were capable of producing extremely dift'erent effects. That the light coming from the sun was not at all equal in quantity to the heat ; and that that element was much less than the amount of chemical power. He showed by diagrams, that the quantity of chemical power increased in the spectrum as the light diminished, and that when the light was at a maximum the chemical action was at a minimum. It was also stated, that by the use of absorbent media, light of great intensity could be obtained, which possessed scarcely any chemical power: and on the con- trary, that this chemical principle of the solar beam could be obtained in the same way bu twitli a very small amount of light. On the Excavations of the Rocky Channels of Rivers, bv the Recession of their Cataracts. Mr. Featherstonhaugh drew attention to the manner in which extensive lacustrine and merecageous districts upon the continent of North America, have been drained and rendered fit habitations for man. During his re- searches in that part of the western hemisphere, he found evidences upon all the rivers whose valleys were bnimded by lofty escarpments, that the gorge in which each river flowed had been cut out of the land by the recession of a cataract. The river Mississippi flowed in a valley of this character. From the Falls of St. Anthony to its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico, the distance was about 2,000 miles, during the first 1,200 of which these escarpments, varying from 200 to 450 feet in height, were everywliere found, divided from eacli other by a width varying from one to two and a half miles, the valley being during the greater part of this coiuse thickly studded with well-wooded islands, amongst which the waters of the river flowed. Upon a level with the surface of these islands were extensive plains connected occasionally with lateral valleys coming through the escarpments, the soil of which was iden- tically the same with that of the islands, being a light vegetable sandy soil much mixed up with decayed freshwater shells; showing that these soils were the old muddy bottom of the river, deposited when it occupied the whole breadth of the valley from escarpment to escarpment. These, and analogous appearances upon the courses of other American rivers, especially the immense lacustrine deposits separating Lake Erie from Lake Huron, seventy miles in breadth, were adduced as proofs of a great diminution of tlie quantity of fresh water once occupying the lakes, and the fluviatile courses of that continent : indeed, from the difference of level between a point on the Wisconsin River and the channel of the upper Fox River, over which boats now pass in time of great floods, the water communication be- twixt the Mississippi and Lake Erie seems to have been uninterrupted. This portion of the paper was intended to show, that the quantity of water in the rivers in ancient times so far exceeded the quantity flowing in them at pre- sent, that the cataracts in the rivers must have been much more powerful, and that therefore the process of excavation of the rocky channels of rivers by the recession of their cataracts, must have been then effected in much shorter periods of time than at present. From all these considerations, and from the known fact that the Fallsof St. Anthony had not receded more than twenty yards in the last 100 years, the author drew the deduction that the whole valley of the Mississippi, from the Falls of St. Anthony to the point where the escarpments terminate, had been excavated by the recession of that cataract, and that the excavation had proceeded at a much more rapid pace than it does in our times. The author next proceeded to explain the peculiar mechanical power which streams employ in forming their channels by the operation of cataracts, and divided it into two methods, the molar or grinding process, most common in mountainous countries constituted of primary rocks, and the subtractiny or undermining power exercised upon strata of a softer quality. To illustrate the first of these methods, Mr. Featherstonhaugh exhibited a beautiful pictorial view of a remarkable cata- ract in the Cherokee country, called Ovnay Kay Amah, or White Water, which he visited in 1837, and which had not attracted the attention of any other traveller. This cataract was at a point several miles from the extreme edge of the mountain, and was upwards of GOO feet high, the water falling in vaiious pitches and inclined planes from the top to the bottom. Wherever the water found a depression in the surface of the gneiss it lodged there, and on the first fortuitous pebble coming into cavity the work of destruction would begin, the current incessantly whirling about the pebble, and grinding the sides of the rock until a pot-hole was formed. These were there in great numbers, some of them four feet in diameter, and six feet deep. Where great numbers abounded, and parietes became at length weak, and giving way, all the pot holes would coalesce into one. This process being repeated in various portions of the rock, the cohesion of the mass became 402 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [OCTOBBR, diminished ; and at the Season of periodical floods, huge masses, weighing forty tons and upwards, would be precipitated to the bottom. This was the state of the great fragments at the bottom of the ravine, all of them bearing evidence of having been dislocated by the power of the water exercised upon the pot-holes. Such was the method by which tliis gorge, several miles loug and about COO feet in depth, had been ground out of this mountain of gneiss. At this locality were the evidences of the volume of the river having once been at least ten times larger than at present. A semi-circular ledge of gneiss, at the top, east of the stream, and 1,200 feet wide, was worn bare for a great distance, and down its perpendicular face was concave, as if the river had been projected over the top, and the screen of water inface of the concavity, and the concussion, and the moisture, had produced the usual eflect, of peel- ing off the coats of the rock. It presented much such an appearance as the rock at the Horse-Shoe Fall at Niagara would do, if the water were to be so much diminished at tliat point as to abandon it, and to be projected only from the comparatively small fall of the Schlossa, on the American side of the river. For the other example of the snhtrnclhuj, or undermining power exercised in the recession of cataracts, the Falls of Niagara were taken, of which a flat view was given, together with a section of the rocks. Mr. Fea- therstonhaugh had published a paper, in 1831, explaining the recession of this cataract. It is well known that the river Niagara flows upon a bed of limestone from which it projects itself, and that this rock is supported l)y a strong bed of friable shale upwards of seventy feet thick. The moisture arising from the screen of water, the current of wind behind it, and the con- cussion, loosen and remove the shale, and the superincumbent limestone, losing its support falls down. In this manner the cataract has receded at least six miles from the Queenston heights. Mr. Featherstonhaugh expressed an opinion that tliis operation of excavating long channels of rivers, as in the instance especially of the Mississippi, may be considered in the class of pro- vidential aTrangemcnts, since by it the lakes, swamps, and immense mereea- geous surfaces become drained, and rendered salubrious and productive habi- tations for man. There were many other interesting points brought forward in this paper, of which we have only room for this abstract. Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Irelanc. In July 1843 thermometers were placed at the copper mines of Knnck- matson Company, Waterford, which are worked to the depth of 774 feet. Of the four instruments employed, one was hung in the open air four feet from the surface ; one hung freely in the gallery at the depth of 774 feet; one in the rock at the same depth ; and one in the lode or metallic vein. The rock is indurated clay slate, the ore massive copper pyrites in quartz veinstone. The average of all the readings of these thermometers during eleven months was as follows : — Thermometer at the Depth of 774 feet. At the Surface. Air. Rock. Lode. Average 50'026 57-176 57-369 57-915 Maximum 58-25 58-5 58-5 Minimum 56- 56-5 Taking the average temperature in the rock as the mean at that depth, and allowing 100 feet for the depth to which the action of solar causes may ex- tend, or to the line of no variation, there is an increase of 7343 for the depth of 674 feet, equivalent (o 1" in 91-82 feet, a rate of increase about one half as rapid as the rate deduced from a large number of observations in England, which gave an increase of 1" in 45 to 50 feet. Mr. Oldham also noticed the fact, that there was a gradual decrease in the actual tempera- ture, during these observations : the average of the thermometer in the rock being 57-718 during the first half of the observation, and 57-004 during the latter half, being a decrease of -674 during the eleven months, although more men were employed, and the works more extensive than at the commence- ment. on the causes of the great VERSAILLES RAILWAY ACCIDENT. By Mr. J. Gray resident engineer to the Hull and Selby Railway. This paper commenced by observing that having seen the name of a near relative published as among one of the sufferers, he immediately set ofl" for Paris, and that whilst there he endeavoured to possess himself of all the in- formation which might in any way bear upon the occurrence. Having traced the order in which the train left Versailles for Paris, he proceeds to inquire into the cause of the fire which followed the overthrow of the train. This he attributes to the fact of the fire of dne engine being scattered about and coming in contact with the carriages behind, and especially the combustible matter contained therein. He then goes on to describe the cause of the ac- cident which he traces to the breakage of an axletree first at the one and afterwards at the other end. He says, from various facts and circum- stances connected with the great accident of the 8th May, J842, on the Paris and Versailles Railway, it was shown, step by step, that nothing but a failure in the front axle of the engine could have been the first cause of her right hand wheel slipping within the rail. Following this he gives a series of observations on tlie axle, with remarks and illustrations of the importance of uniform elasticity or vibration in the preservation of all articles subjected to sudden strains or percussive forces. He says, in conclusion, with good materials and proportions and the axles in a state of repose as received from the forge, or, in other words, perfectly free from the effects of cold swaging or hammer hardening, an axle in such a state, and of ample dimensions for its intended work, will, I have no doubt, most effectually resist fracture, for any period the wear of the jour- neys may enable it to run. But, if the dimensions be deficient, the iron will be taxed beyond its permanent cohesive power and elasticity ; and, however slight the excess of exertion and fatigue may be, a gradual and inevitable dissolution of particles must result ; but beyond this I have not met with anything, «ither in print, in observation, or in the course of experience, that would at all warrant my belief in iron necessarily changing its quality, or he- coming crystallized by forces within the range of its permanent cohesive force and elasticitv. On Steam Navigation in America. — By Ur. Scoreshy. After alluding to steam navigation as having an important bearing upon the national prosperity and the development and employment of the national resources of America, equal to that of the steam engine upon the national wealth and commercial greatness of our own country, the author proceeded to notice the extent of navigable waters in North America, which he said, including the coast lines and the waters of the British possession, might be roughly estimated at 25,000 to 30,000 miles ; for such was the vast extent even now traversed by steam-boats, partly coastways, but mainly inland in the United States alone, that the summing-up of the steam-boat routes given in a guide book not of the most modern date, made a total distance, omitting repetitions of the same track, of 13,444 miles. In enumerating the various waters, and particularly in reference to the Mississippi, he observed that none but steam-boats liad any or little chance of making way, from the rapidity of tlie current, the average of which in Ihe Mississippi was four miles an hour. The author went on to allude to the introduction of the steam-boat by Mr. Fulton, in 1807, and the rapid progress that had been made, and then directed the attention of the section to the peculiarities of some of the boats, namely, the general attention to elegance in the style of fitting up, the construction of the cabins on deck, and the application of the hull of the vessel entirely to cargo, the working of the rudder at the forepart of the vessel by means of communicating rods, the use of a distinct boiler and machinery to each pad- dle, &c. With regard to the speed he observed that it was much beyond that of our steam-boats, from the circumstance of the Americans adopting the high pressure principle, and that too to an extent at which the generality of Englishmen would be loth to trust themselves. Whilst our boats were worked at a pressure of 5 lb. to the square inch, tliey thought nothing of 1001b. or 1501b. pressure; and, in addition to loading the valve, the engi- neers had been known to sit upon it in order to gain increased speed. The most extraordinary performance of American steamers was eft'ected by the " J. M. Whitp.," in the summer, of this year. She made her way against an average current of from 3 to 4 miles an hour, from New Orleans to St. Louis, a distance of 1200 miles, in three days and 23 hours, remaining a day and a half at St. Louis, unloading and loading, and reached New Orleans again, having performed a distance of 2300 to 2400 miles in little more than nine days. The average speed, taking certain advantages and disadvantages, into consideration, would be 16 miles, or perhaps near 14 knots per hour. With regard to the dangerous character of the western boats (improved now, but far from safe,) the author observed that in 1834 an American paper stated that 1500 persons had lost their lives in American steam-boats, by the burst- ing of boilers, during three years, and that in two years, from 1832 to 1834, 67 steam-boats were lost or abandoned in the western waters. A Micrometer. Mr. Whitworth exhibited a machine for ascertaining the diameter of metallic cylinders or gaugeis, with an extreme degree of accuracy, amounting to the ten thousandth part of an inch. The gauges or cylinders are to be used as standards of size, where practicable, instead of the two-feet rule. The truth of the machine depends upon the perfect accuracy of the screw. The object to be measured is passed by the hand between two surfaces, which are actuated by the screw, and a difference indicated by one division of a wheel, on the screw, amounting to the ten thousandth part of an inch, is distinctly sensible to the hand. This occasioned considerable surprise, that a difference in size so extremely minute shoidd (by touch) be distinguished. The thickness of a hair was taken, and found to be 0019 decimal parts of an inch, and the thickness of a piece of tissue paper 0017 decimal parts of an inch. Grenier Mobile, or Moveable Granary for Preserving Corn. Professor Byrne explained the nature of this invention, it was the result of the ingenuity of the French, and they were introduced here in order that the intelligence of the EngUsh, if they thought them practicable, might be brought to bear upon them in the way of improvement. The machine con- sists of a cylinder, divided into compartments, which will hold SOO quarters of corn. It is made of zinc or galvanised iron, and turns round like a barrel, so that the grain is thus turned over by one man daily. The advantages are that the corn gets gradually dried, may he preserved for a longer period, bad corn is improved, grain generally comes out heavier than when it went in, and it is not bruised and wasted by being turned over with the shovel. With regard to the increase (?) in weight, it was stated at 6j lb. in 110 cwt. The cost of the machine is about 1/. a quarter. — Mr. Bermingham supposed that a person expended 100^. on one of these machines, which would hold 100 quarters of grain ; the interest of the 100/. would be, say 5 or 6 per cent., 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 403 and he thought no farmer would fay lie lost less than that by rats and other vermin, which would be obviated by the use of this machine. On Heating by Steam, Mr. W. West read an account of some experiments on heating by steam. Having reason to believe that water heated by steam did not reach the boil- ing temperature, even when the steam escaped in abundance, and the water was violently agitated, Mr. West made a number of experiments to ascertain the fact. In one nf these experiments, the water only reached 20ri", in another 190°, and in another 207 ". Steam from water in the same appara- tus which was used throughout was then passed through water ; but with an addition of the receiving vessel, of a second, or false bottom, pierced with numerous small holes. It was then easy to maintain a temperature of 21 2^ with the same means of producing steam, and apparently a similar, or rather a smaller quantity, O.v THE Resistance or Railway Trains. — By Mr. Scott Russell. The paper detailed a number of experiments on the Sheffield and Man- chester Railway. For tlie purpose of these experiments it is necessary that the railway should present long and very steep gradients, and no where else, were these advantages presented in greater al)UTulancc tlian on the Sheffield and Manchester railway. The experiments were as follow : — 1. Trains of carriages, empty, were put in motion at the summit of an in- clined plane, at about 30 miles an horn', and were allowed to descend freely. 2. Trains of carriages, loaded, were tried in the same way. 3. The engine and tender were treated in the same way, being put to a velocity of between 30 and 40 miles per hour, and allowed to descend freely the whole length of the inclined plane without any train attached. 4. The engine and tender, with a train attached, were propelled to the top of the inclined plane, and then allowed to descend freely by gravity. By these means the following results were obtained ; — 1. The resistance to railway carriages at slow velocities does not exceed 8 lb. per ton. 2. The resistance to a light railway train of six carriages, at 23'6 miles an hour, was 19 lb. per ton. 3. The resistance to a loaded train of six carriages, at 30 miles per hour, was 19 lb. per ton. 4. The resistance to a light train of sue carriages, at 28 miles an hour, was 22 lb. per ton. 5. The resistance to a loaded train of six carriages, at 36 miles an hour, was 22 lb. per ton. 6. The resistance to a six wheeled engine .md tender, at 23'6 miles an hour, was 191b. per ton. 7. The resistance to a six wheeled engine and tender, at 28-3 miles an hour, was 22 lb. per ton. 8. The resistance to a train composed of six light carriages, with engine and tender, at 32 miles an hour, was 22 lb. per ton. 9. The resistance to a train composed of nine loaded carriages, with en- gine and tender, at 30 miles an hour, was 221b. per ton. From these experiments Mr. Russell drew several deductions, one of which was that a train, when coupled with the engine, met with less resistance than when put in action singly. He observed that the subject was at this time of considerable importance, inasmuch as the system adopted for laying down the gradients of new lines was of necessity regulated chieHy by the opinion of the engineer on the question of resistance. How much mechanical force is required to move a given weight of train, along a given gradient, at a given speed, was a question of which the solution was essential to sound en- gineering, but the profession had long felt that they were not in possession of sufficient practical data to determine this question. In answer to a question from Dr. Green, Mr. Russell said that a large por- tion of the resistance no doubt was due to the atmosphere, but still, allowing for that, there remained a wonderful increase over the above supposed resist- ance of about 8 lb. per ton, and the object of these experiments was to learn from what cause that increase arose. Mr. Roberts hoped, in future experiments, the size of the wheels would be taken into consideration. Both he and Mr. Fairbairn were of opinion that if the wheels were made more cylindrical they would give a more comfort- able action to the carriages. On the Great Fountain at Chatsworth, erected by the Duke OF Devonshire. — By Mr. Paxton. This fountain is supplied with water from a reservoir which covers eight acres of land, and which receives the waters from the moors. A hundred thousand yards of earth have been cut away for this reservoir, and 2621 feet of piping, having 29H joints, have been constructed for conveying the water. The fall of the pipe is 381 feet, and the height which the water attains from the fountain, (or which it is expected to attain when the whole work shall have been brought into full operation,) is 280 feet, or, as the chairman ob- served, about 60 feet beyond the bigliest point of York Minster. The de- scription of this fountain was given as applicable to the study of hydrostatics, showing the friction of water upon pipes and the impediment to its free course by friction against the air. One gentleman observed, with reference to the force of water thus emitted that the sensation produced by putting a finger in the pipe was just like that which would be experienced by putting a finger into the flame of a candle. Report on a IIydrogen Furnace for Vitrification, and other Applications of Heat in the Laboratory. — By the Rev. W. V. Harcourt. At the request of the British Association Mr. Harcourt had undertaken some years since to make experiments on vitrification. Dr. Faraday, in his experiments on glass, had the greatest difficulty in procuring perfectly homo- geneous masses, arising in most cases from the almost impossibility of pro- curing a regulated heat in the ordinary furnaces. Mr. Harcourt, impressed with the advantages which might be gained for optical purposes, by procur- ing glasses formed by other salts and bases, instituted some experiments with a view of ascertaining this point. It was considered, that if a tribasic phos- phate formed a glass, and the bibasic phosphate formed a glass, we should have, in all probability, glasses having different optical properties. Finding difficulty in proceeding with these experiments, at the heat given by ordinary furnaces, and the risk to which the platina crucibles were exposed, he was induced to try the effects of hydrogen burning in common air. Dr. Dalton was consulted on the construction of the first hydrogen furnaces, and he suggested the difficulty which was found to arise in practice— that hydrogen gas burning, through small orifices, with great pressure, would blow itself out. This difficulty was, however, overcome in the management of the ap- paratus brought before the Section. This apparatus consisted of an iron tube, in which the gas was generated by the addition of 15 ounces of zinc to three-quarters of a pint of oil of vitriol and ten pints and a half of water. The gas produced was found to be in ten minutes imder a pressure of 21 atmospheres, in sixteen minutes and a half under a pressure of 2.'j atmo- spheres, and in eighteen minutes under a pressure of 26 atmospheres. The gas was conducted into another cylinder, and from thence to the jets, over which was suspended a platina crucible. The gas being ignited at these jets, maintained, with the above charge, the platina crucible at a white heat for twenty minutes. Gems had been fused by the heat thus generated. Several kinds of jets were used, as it might be necessary to surround the crucible with heat, or only to apply the heat to the bottom of it. Experiments with this apparatus have been made upon the phosphates of antimony, zinc, ba- rytes, and cadmium. The results have not been, however, quite satisfactory. In some the strice interfered with the transparency of the glass formed ; and in the case of the monobasic phosphate of zinc, it was found that, to what- ever heat the compound may have been exposed, the glass thus formed was deliquescent. The reading of this Report was accompanied by some expe- riments with the hydrogen furnace in question, for the purpose of showing the intense heat which coidd be produced. Dr. Faraday bore testimony to the advantages of this arrangement. He had found in all his experiments on glass, in which the elements were chemi- cally combined, that crystallization took place. He regarded all common glass as examples of solution, rather than of chemical combination. Borate of lead and silicate of lead, if fused in small quantities, so that they cooled quickly, were transparent, but if fused in masses, which required a longer time, they were in a crystalhne condition. — Mr. Harcourt remarked, that in the monobasic phosphate of zinc, which was transparent when vitrified, the quantity of acid was probably exceedingly small, but this glass was striated. — Dr. Faraday said, that some of the purest speciiuens of American ice show similar stria;, although it was in a state of exceeding purity, yielding the purest of all water when liquefied. — Some remarks were then made by Mr. Pearsall, on the action of hydrogen on platina. An experiment was named by Mr. Harcourt, in which a platina tube was destroyed by an attempt to fuse ultramarine in it. Prof. Mebig stated, that pliitina was soon fused if exposed to a charcoal fire, from the action of the silicon contained in the charcoal. TiDAi. Observations. The Astronomer Royal gave a verbal account of the results of tide observations on the coast of Ireland. For the purpose of these observations stations had been established at different places on the coast, and the obser- vations had been continued two months, namely, from the 22d of June to the 25th of August. There were four critical periods daily in the tides, namely, high water twice, and low water the same, one of which, at least, must occur in the night, and it was necessary that these periods should be watched. They were requisite, in order that proper allowance might be made for the diurnal tides, because, at some of the stations, the forenoon tide was higher than the afternoon, and again on the contrary. The plan, therefore, was that about an hour before high water the observer began to watch the water every five minutes, and watched it at those intervals until it had decidedly taken a turn the other way. The same process was con- tinned at the time of low water, and the observations were continued at night in the same way. The result was that it was found the tide along the S. and S. W. coasts was simultaneous, and along the west and north and north-east, it was the same, but at the south-east there was a difference of six hours. At Portadown, there was scarcely any tide at all, or the tides flowed so frequently that it had been impossible to make an observation. It 401 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [October, was a remarkable fact that the water washing to the north of Ireland was a foot higher than on the south coast. There were several other remarkable facts whicli the Astronomer-Royal detailed, to which he gave philosophical explanations, and his observations were of that highly interesting character as to demand for them the applause of the section. Jlr. Scott Russell made his final report " On the Tides of the East Coast of Scotland." He said he had little more to add to the report which he had submitted to tlie last meeting. He recommended that observations of this sort should be made at the highest and lowest point of the tide, and should be kept perfectly continuous, which might be done by employing two sets of observers, one for the night time, and the other for the day. He mentioned a self-registering tide gauge which had been invented by a gentlemen at Port Glasgow, and which gave the heights in the most simple and accurate manner. Mr. Russell also made some remarks upon " The Nature of Sound Waves," which were principally details of experiments in which he has been engaged. A paper was then produced, written by the Rev. ■ — ■ O'Brien, '■ On the pro- pagation of Waves in a resisted medium, with a new explanation of the dis- persion and absorption of light, and other optical phenomena." The com- munication was read, and its contents verbally described by J. J. Sylvester, Esq. On Specific Heat. — By J. P. Joule. — After examining the law of Duloug and Petit, that the specitic heat of simple bodies is inversely proportional to their atomic weights, the author proceeded to detail the attempts made by Haycraft, De la Rive, and Mercet, to discover the specific heats of gases and liqiiids. The observarions of Newraann and Regnault on the specific heats of simple and compound bodies were next examined. Mr. Joule then exhibited to the Section a table, in which the theoretical specific heats of a variety of bodies impartially selected were calculated, on the hypothesis, that the capa- city for heat of a simple atom remains the same in whatever chemical com. bination it enters. On the whole, the coincidence between the theoretical and experimental results was such as woidd induce a belief that the law of Dulong and Petit, with regard to simple atoms, is capable of a greater degree of generalization than chemists have hitherto been inclined to admit. On the Alteration that takes place in Iron by being exposed to long-con- tinued Vibration. By Mr. W. Lucas. — At Cork, this subject was brought forward, and certain specimens of iron exhibited, in order to show the effects produced upon the iron by being exposed to a certain degree of concussion or vibration during the process of swaging, and again restored to its original state by being annealed, in accordance with the results detailed by Mr. Nasmyth, at Manchester, in 1842 ; in addition to these, also were ex- hibited specimens of portions of the same iron that had been exposed to the concussion of a large till hammer, working at the rate of about 350 strokes per minute, which occasioned the bars of iron to break short off at the point of bearing in the course of twenty-fonr hours; there was also shown a por- tion of one of the hammer shafts, the texture of which had evidently been altered, probably by the long-continued and repeated concussions to which it had been exposed, for instead of breaking with the peculiar splintery frac- ture common to wood, it broke with a peculiar short fracture, and this, I am informed, is a common occurrence. In continuance of these experiments upon the effects of concussion or vibration, Mr. Lucas laid before the section the results of some further experiments. EARL OF RO-SSE'S REFLECTING TELKSCOPE. The Earl of Rosse commenced by stating, that the Council having inti- mated tlipir opinion that some account of the experiments in which he had been engaged on the Reflecting I'ele.s'cope would not be altogether devoid of interest, he would endeavour to describe, as briefly as possible, the manner in whtch he had attempted to accomplish the object in view, and the princi- pal results (ibtained. Two objects required to be kept in view : first, to give the telescope sufficient aperture to secure a sufficiency of light; secondly, to increase to a sufficient extent the magnifying power. On tliese depended what might be called the optical power of the instrument, but particularly upon the former. For instance, the large telescope, of which a model stood before them, to be used effectually, must have a magnifying power of 300 times. Now, another instrument, very inferior in size, might have a much higher power, but. from the vast quantity of light which it collected into the image, objects in it became distinct w hich could not be at all seen by those of inferior aperture. The next question he had to determine was, whether he should attempt refractors or reflectors. Just at that time very large and very fine discs of the proper glass had been produced upon the Continent, and a strong hope was entertained of bringing the refracting telescope to a degree of perfection which had been hitherto rather hoped for than attained. But, upon a calm balancing of all thedifficulties which oppused their construction, he determined to attempt the improvement of the Newtonian reflector, and that notwithstanding it was well known that an error of form of the reflector produced an error in the image more than five times as great as the same error in the refractor would produce. It was to the steps by which he at- tained this object that he was now about to direct the attention of the Sec- tion. " Having concluded that upon the whole there was a better prospect of ob- taining by reflection, rather than by refraction, the power which would be required for making any effectual progress in the re-examination of the ne- bul;e, the first experiments were undertaken, in the hope of obviating the difficulties which had previously prevented the application of the brilliant alloy which may be formed of tin and cojiper in proper proportions to the construction of large instruments. The manner in which the difficulty had been met, was, by adding an excessive proportion of copper to the alloy, but tlie mirror was no longer susceptible of a durable polish, and, wiien used, its powers declined rapidly. It appeared to me, therefore, to be an object soim- portant to obtain a reflecting surface which would reflect the greatest quan- tity of light, and retain that property little diminished for a length of time, that numerous experiments were undertaken and perseveringly carried on. After a number of failures the difficulties appeared to be so great that I con- structed three specula, where the basis of the mirror was an alloy of zinc and copper in the proportion of 1 zinc to 2"74 copper, which expands with changes of temperature in the same proportion as speculum metal. This was subsequently plated with speculum metal, in pieces of such size as we were enabled to cast sound. These specula were very light and stiff, and their performance upon the whole satisfactory ; l^ut they were afl!ected by diflfrac- tion at the joinings of the plates; and althougli very brilliant and durable, defining all objects well under high powers, except very large stars, still as the effect of diffraction was then perceptible they could not be considered as perfect instruments. In the course of the experiments carried on while these three specula were in progress, it was ascertained that the difficulty of cast- ing large discs of brilliant speculum metal arose from the unequal contraction of the material, which in the first instance, produced imperfections in the castings, and often, subsequently, their total destruction ; and it appeared evident, that, if the fluid mass could be cooled throughout with perfect regu- larity, so that at every instant every portion should be of the same tempera- ture, there would be no unequal contraction in the progress towards solidifi- cation, nor, subsequently, in the transition from a red heat to the tempera- ture of the atmospliere. Although it was obvious that the process could not be managed so that the exact condition required [should be fulfilled, still, by abstracting heat uniformly from one surface (the lower one), the temperature of the mass would be kept uniform in one direction, that is, horizontally; while in the vertical direction, it would vary in some degree as the distance from the cooling surface. These conditions being satisfied, we should like- wise have a mass which would be free from flaws, and, when cool, would be free from sensible strain , nothing could be easier than to accomplish this, ap- proximatelj-, in practice ; it would be only necessary to make one surface of the mould (the lower one) of iron of a good conducting material, while the remainder was of dry sand. On trial, this plan was perfectly successful ; there was, however, a new, though not a very serious defect, which was im- mediately apparent— the speculum metal was cooled so rapidly that air-bub- bles remained entangled between it and the iron surface; but the remedy immediately suggested itself, by making the iron surface porous, so as to suffer the air to escape; in fact, by forming it of plates of iron placed verti- cally side by side, the defect was altogether removed. It only then remained to secure the speculum from cooling unequally, and for that purpose it was sufficient to place it in an oven raised to a very low red heat, and there to leave it till cold, from one to three or four weeks, or perhaps longer, accord- ing to its size. " The alloy which I consider the best, differs but little from that employed by Mr. Edwards : I omit the brass and arsenic, employing merely tin and copper in the atomic proportions, namely, one atom of tin to four atoms of copper, or. by weight. !)S9 to 126'4. As it was obviously impossible to cast large specula in earthen crucibles, the reverberatory furnace was tried ; but the tin oxidized so rapidly, that the proportions in the alloy were uncertain ; and after some abortive trials with cast-iron crucibles, it was found, that when the crucible is cast with the mouth up it is free from the minute pores through which the speculum metal would otherwise exude ; and therefore such crucibles fully answered the purpose. It was very obvious that the published processes for grinding and polishing specuU, being in a great mea- sure dependent on manual dexterity, were uncertain, and not well suited to large specula ; accordingly, at an early period of these experiments, in 1827 ; a machine was contrived for the purpose, which has subsequently been im- proved, and by means of it a close approximation to the parabolic figure can be obtained with certainty ; as it has been described in the Philosophical Transactions for 1840, it is unnecessary to do more than to point out the principle on wfiicli it acts. The speculum is made to revolve very slowly, while the polishing tool is drawn backwards and forwards by one eccentric or crank, and from side to side, slowly, by another. The polishing tool is con- nected with the eccentrics by a ring, which fits it loosely, so as to permit it to revolve, deriving its rotatory motion Irom the speculum, but revolving much more slowly. It is counterpoised, so that it may be made sufficiently 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 40.5 tiff, and yet press slightly on tlie speculum; the pressure being about one pound for every circular superficial toot. The motions of tliis machine are relatively so adjusted that the focal length of the speculum during the po- lishing process, or tuivards the lateral end of it, shall he gradually becoming slightly longer, and the figure will depend in a great measure upon the ra- pidity with which this increase in the focal length takes place. It will be evident that a surface, spherical originally, will cease to be so, if, while sub- iecteJ to the action uf tlie polisher, it is in a continual state of transition from a shorter to a longer focus ; in fact, during no instant of time will it be actually spherical, but some curve, dilU'ritig a little from ihe sphere, and which may be made to approach the [larabola, provided it be possible in practice to give effect to certain conditions. An immense number of expei'i- ments, wdiere the results were carefully registered, eventually established an empirical formula, which affords at present very good practical results, and may hereafter, perhaps, be considerbly improved. In fact, when the stroke of the first eccentric is one-third the diameter uf the speculum, and that of the secund eccentric is such as to produce a lateral motion of the bar which moves the polisiier. measured on the edge of the tank, equal to "27, the dia- meter of the speculum, or relerred to the centre of the polisher, of 17. the figure will be nearly parabolic. The velocity and direction of tne motions which produce the nece.'.sary Irictiun being adjusted in due proportion by the arrangements of th? machine, and the temperature of the speculum being kept uniform by the water in w hich it is immersed, there remains still other conditions, which are essential to the production of the required result. The process ot polishing ditfers very essentially from that of grinding: in the latter, the powder emp'oyed runs loose between two hard surfaces, and may produce scratches possibly equal in depth to the size of the particles; in tlie polishing process the case is very different ; there the particles of the powder lodge in the comparatively suft material of which the surface of the polishing tool is formed, and as tbe portions projecting may bear a very small propor- tion to the size of the particles themselves, the scratches necessarily will be diminished in the same proportion. The particles are forced thus to imbed themselves, in consequence of the extreme accuracy of contact bet« een the surface of the polisher and the speculum. But as soon as this accurate con- tact ceases, the polishing process becomes liut fine grinding. It is absolutely necessary, therefore, to secure this accuracy of contact during tlie w hole pro- cess. If the surface of a polisher, of consitlerable dimensions, is covered with a thin coat uf pilclT, of sufficient hardness lo polish a true surface, however accurately it may fit the speculum, it will very soon cease to do so, and the operation will fail. The reason is this, that particles of the polishing powder and abraded matter will collect in one place more than another, and as the pitch is not clastic, close contact throughout the surfaces will cease. By em- ploying a coat of pitch, thicker in proportion as the diameter of the specu- lum is greater, there will be room for lateral expansion, and the prominence can therefurc subside, and accurate contact still continue ; however, accuracy of figuie IS thus, to a considerable extent, sacrificed. By thoroughly groov- ing a surface of pitch, provision maybe made for lateral expansion cont:- guous to the spot where the undue collection of polishing powder may have taken place. But, in practice such grooves are inconvenient, being constantly liable to fill up : this evil is entirely obviated by grooving the polisher itself, and the smaller the portions of continuous surface, the thinner may be the stratum of pilch. '•There is another condition, which is also important, that the pitchy sur- face should be so hard as not to'yield and abrade the softer portions of the metal faster than the harder. When the pitchy surface is unduly soft, this defect is carried so far that even the structure of the metal is made apparent. Whilst, therefore, it is essential that the surface in contact with the specu- lum should be as hard as possible, consistent with its retaining the polishiu'"' powder, it is proper that there should be a yielding where necessary, or con- tact would not be preserved. Both conditions can be satisfied by formin" the surface of two layers of resinous matter of difierent degrees of hardness ; the first may be of common pitch, adjusted to the proper consistence by the ad- dition of spirits of turpentine, or rosin ; and the other I prefer making of rosin, spirits of turpentine, and wheat Hour, as hard as possible, consistent with its holding the polishing powder. The thickness of each layer need not be more than one-fortieth of an inch, provided no portion of continuous sur- face exceeds half an inch in diameter, the hard resinous compound, alter it has been thoroughly fused, can be reduced to powder, and thus easily ap- plied to the polisher, and incorporated with the subjacent layer, by instan- taneous exposure to fiame. A specidum of three feet diameter thus polished, has resolved several of the nebulse, and in a considerable proportion of the others has shown new stars, or some other new feature." In conclusion. Lord Kosse exhibited drawings of the nebulae, as figured by Herschel, and also as they appeared in ihe telescope constructed by his Lord- ship. Fig. 88 of Herschel, or 2 Messier, and 21 h. 2j ra. 5—1° 34' south, many of the stars into which it is reduced by his telescope, are as large as those of the first magnitude to the naked eye. Fig. 81, Herschel, the bright nebula nearflauri, figured by Herschel as perfectly elliptic and resolvable, but no stars seen, is seen in the telescope, with three feet aperture, as a rather oval cluster of stars, with projeciing filaments of stars ; some of these filaments exteniling considerably, so as to give something of the idea of a scorpion. Fig. 29 of Herschel. The ring nebuia of Lyra, shows in the three feet telescope, seven stars, one triple. It is an annular cluster, with fringes, and the nebulous-looking centre in patches. Fig. 'B of Herschel, ;i planetary nebula, is also seen as an annular cluster. Fig. 26 of Herschel, the " Dumbell Nebula," is seen as an irregular cluster, or raiher two in jiixta-position and nothing of the exact elliptic termination of llerschel's figure. AMERICAN PATENTS. (Frnm the American Journid o/ the Franklin Inslilute.) I.MPROVED REV£I1BEB.\T0RT AND PUDDLING FUUNACES. Specification of a Patent for " an improved reverheratory furnace far convert- ing mineral, or ore. into iciougld-ironat tliefirst operation.'' Granted to.SiMEO.N Beoadmuaeow, of Manayunk, Pennsylvania, and assigned to Wm. Green, jun., of Woodbridge, New Jersey. — January 20, 1844. The new and improved reverberatory furnace is lor Ihe purpose ofdirectly converting mineral, or ores of iron, into wrought-iron, ;.t the first operation, by the process of puddling, using either anthiaciie, bituminous coal, or other fuel, for that purpose ; which furnace is also usid for the puddling of pig- iron, or of iron in other states, which is lo be submitled to that process, and likewise for the melting, or healing, of metals forvarious purposes. The improvement consists in the so constructing it as that the hearth of the furn;ice shall be heated both on its under and upper sides. For this pur- piose a fire chamber is constructed, in which the fuel rests upon grate bars directly under the hearth of the puddling furnace, there being an ash pit under said grate bars, such fire chamber and ash pit being in the ordinary form. The direct heat of the burning fuel which is contained in the fire chamber, is, consequently, made to operate on the under side of the hearth, and the heated air and flame ascend through a due space at the rear end of the fire chamber, then along the puddling compartment, to the front of the furnace, and thence back along a flue over the roof thereof leading to the chimney, which is to be elevated in the ordinary manner to create a sufficient draught.! Fig. I, Fig. 2. Scale, one-eigtlth of an inch to a foot. In Ihe accompanying drawing, fig. 1, is a front elevation of the furnace ; the masonry which encloses it, and the chimney being omitted for the pur- pose of showing the outline of the] interior. Fig. 2, is a vertical section 35 406 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [OCTOBEK, through the middle of the furnace from front to Lack. A, is the ash pit ; B the fire chamber ; Cthe hearth of (lie puddhng furnace B, into w hich the heated air and flame jiass through the flue space E, and operate upon the material ivithin the furnace in the usual manner; F, is the roof of said furnace; the hearth and roof should be formed of suitable fire stone; G, is a flue above the roof stone, leading to the chimney H : I, represents a front door to the puddling furnace, but the main working door is to be made at the side, as seen at 1', this being its usual place ; J, is the door of the fire chamber for supplying fuel ; K, is a basin at the front of the hearth, and L, a tap hole for the removal of slag, &:c. : as it is desirable to keep the hearth at this part well heated, the fire chamber is sometimes so constructed as to allow it to pro- ject a foot, more, or less, in front of the furnace, by which means this end is effectually accomplished. The lower part of the basin may be strengthened ty giving the hearth stone the form shown by the dotted lines a, a ; M, is the grate, and N, level of the ground. When tills furnace is used for the purpose of converting mineral into wrought-ir.n directly from the ore, said ore is to be finely pulverized, and thrown upon the hearth, which must be heated to whiteness; in about half an hour the mineral will be fused, and it is then to be treated in the same manner as when pudling pig-iron ; by this means the sulphur and other volatile matter contained in the ore will be driven off. and the ore will be subjected to the full action of the heated air. Most kinds of ore may be treated in this way without the addition of any flux, or of carbonaceous mat- ter J but where the ore is refractory, and does not fuse readily, fromicontain- ing an excess of oxygen, a small portion of charcoal may be added thereto- When the ore is too fusible, owing to its containing an excess of carbon, I add the scales of iron, or soinc analogous substance, such as the highly oxi- dized ores, as is sometimes done in the puddling of pig-iron. No rule can be given for this, but the judgment of every competent iron master will supply all the information that is necessary. Most commonly, as before remarked, the metal will be brought into nature without any such addition to the iron. When the mineral, or pig metal, has been thus heated until it approaches the melting point, the fire is to be slackened, until it is reduced nearly to a red lieat ; in this state the ore, or the metal, is to be worked with a scraper and paddle until the mineral, or metal, shall have tiecome, as the technical phrase is. sufficiently drif. At this period the heat is to be raised, and, when the welding of the mineral, or metal, commences, it is to be balled into suit- able sizes, cither for the hammer, or the rollers. The claim is for the constructing and using of a reverberatory furnace that is heated by means of a fire chamber, situated below its hearth, or floor, and from which the flame and heated air are conducted over its top, so as to heat it as well below as above; the respective parts of the said furnace being com- bined, arranged, and operating, as represented and described. Specification for a patent for " mamifaciuring maUeahte iron directly from the ore, in a puililling furnace." Granted to Simeon Broadmeadow, of the city of New York.— May 30, 1844. The improvement is the process for manufacturing iron, by means of which malleable iron is obtained directly from the ore, by treating the same in a puddling furnace. The form given to the furnace, is somewhat different from that usually given to the pudling furnace, as will be seen by reference to the accompany- ing drawing, which represents it as having one of its side walls removed for the purpose of showing the form of the interior. A A, is the arch, or roof, which, instead of curving down as it approaches the chimney, rises regularly from that part which is above the fire chamber, as it approaches the stock which it may do at an elevation, say of about ten degrees ; it may, however pass horizontally, or even be slightly depressed, without materially interfer- ing with its action; the object of giving to it this form is to prevent its taking the character of a reverberatory, as the reflecting of the flame and heat so as to cause them to reverberate, or impinge, upon the ore, converts the large portion of it into slag, instead of reducing it into malleable iron. The inven- tor elevates the hearth or the furnace at its near end, and prefers to do this to an extent greater than that of the elevation of the roof ; this elevation is shown at D. The object thereof is to contract the throat, or opening, from the furnace into the flue, so as to make it much less than in the ordinary re- verberatory, wliich is usually about two ieet, or two feet six inches, whilst he reduces its height, between the floor and the roof, to about one foot. In the lower part of the chimney, as at a, a, where a sliding register, or damper, is placed, which can be closed at pleasure, so as to retain and regulate the heat ; such regulation being essential to the success of the process, in a fur- nace, 30 constructed, the mineral and the metal obtained therefrom, will be sufficiently heated to produce the intended eflect ; but the form of the fur- nace may, as above indicated, be varied to a considerable extent without ma- terially nterfering with its use; and there have , probably been puddling, or other furnaces constructed, which, under due management, might answer the purpose equally well with that described. No claim is made to the par- ticular form of the furnace which is described, but only to indicate the main conditions necessary to the success of the process. In this process of reducing the mineral to the metallic state, the inventor does not use any of the earthy, or other fluxes which are employed in the smelting of iron, nor does he, of necessity, mix therewith any carbonaceous matter, as has been uniformly done in the attempts heretofore made to ma- nufacture malleable iron directly from the ore. The most notable of these is the process for which letters patent were obtained in England by W. N.Clay, dated on the 31st of March, 1841. In that patent a claim is made to "the mode of manufacturing wrought, or malleable, iron in reverberatory furnaces from iron ere, by combining therewith twenty-eight per cent., or upwards, of carbonaceous matter." In this present process, on the contrary, the ores of iron are employed alone, by mixing together, in due proportions, such ores as, by their chemical composition, are calculated to react upon each other when duly heated, and to bring the metal contained in each of them into the malleable state, the inventor takes any of the ores which are known as oxides of iron, which he reduces to coarse powder, and with this he mixes a due proportion of the ore known as a carburet of iron, also in powder; this mix- ture he puts into his puddling furnace, and by means of anthracite, or other fuel, subjects it to the proper degree of heat for efi'ecting the reduction. The mass so placed in the furnace, he does not stir, but leaves at rest, until he finds that it is brought into a state in which it is prepared for balling, which condition is produced in consequence of the union of the carbon of the car- buret with the oxygen of the oxide, and the consequent production of parti- cles of iron in the malleable state. When charcoal or other carbonaceous matter is mi.xed with the ore which is to be reduced, the carbon will begin to combine with the iron in the oxide which is to be reduced, before the oxygen of said oxide is so far disengaged as to be ready to combine with it, and the metal will become highly charged with carbon, and the whole contents, will, consequently, be converted into a fluid mass, and this may occur notwithstanding the utmost care on the part of the operator ; a very slight deviation in making the mixture, or in the heat to which it is subjected, converting the materials into slag. But when this mixture consists entirely, or nearly so, of the ores to be reduced, as above described, there may be a considerable variation in the temperature without deteriorating the mass, the carbon of the carburet, and the oxygen of the o.'iide, being given out simultaneously, and these, by their affinity, combining with each other, the iron of both the ores will be left in the metallic state, requiring only to be balled up. — It will be manifest to any one acquainted with the nature of ores, that in mixing them no proportionate quantities can be designated, as scarcely any two ores will be found to be identical in com- position ; but the proportionate quantities maybe learnt from analysis, or will readily be ascertained by experiment in the hands of a competent iron master. — Although the addition of carbonaceous matter is not necessary in this process of reduction, the inventor does not interdict its use, as it is mani- fest that a deficient proportion of carburet might find its compensation in such addition, but this would he only a variation of, and not a departure from, the principle upon which he proceeds. ^Vhcn the iron is ready for balling, the slag is to be removed, and the balling is to be efi'ected m the or- 1844.1 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 407 dinary way ; the working' and feeding doors, the tap liole, and the general appendages of furnaces for this purpose being such as are well known. The inventor claims as new the efiecting of such reduction hy mixing in due proportion the ores known as oxides, and as carburets of iron, and by exposing them to a proper temperature in a puddling furnace, without the addition of any of the ordinary fluxes, or the necessary admixture of carbona- u CO s matter therewith. Specification of a patent for *' an imp7-ovemeni in the maimfacturing of steel. Granted to Simeon Broadme.vdow, of the city of New York.— May 25, 1844 The improvement is in the construction of the furnace for converting iron into steel by cementation, and in the process of manufacturing such steel. In the ordinary mode of constructing the converting {furnace, the bars of iron, after being piled in the coffer, or oven, in combination with carbona- ceous matter, to the proper height, arc covered with a stratum of fire clay and sand, or some analogous substance, which has to be renewed every time the oven is cliarged. The inventor's improvement in the structure consists in the using of a permanent roof of fire stone, or fire brick, in place of the temporary ;covering heretofore employed ; he also uses a sliding shutter, which is placed in front of the furnace, so that it may be brought down as required for a purpose to be presently made known. This improvement in the manufacturing of the steel, after the process of cementation has been com- pleted, consists in the taking of the bars first from the upper part of the con- vertory, whilst they are at the highest temperature to which they are to be brought, and subjecting them immediately to the action of tilting, or of rol- ling, without the necessity ot re-heating. To do this, a part of the upper layer of bricks which enclose the converting oven is first removed, so as to enable him to draw out the upper bars, and as the bars are successively operated upon, the bricks are further removed, until the whole contents of the con- vertory have been tilted, or rolled. As this process goes on, the sliding shut- ter is brought down so as to enclose the part from w hich the bricks have been removed. By this procedure several advantages are atlained, in the process of manufacturing steel. Under that liitberto followed, the whole charge has been allowed to cool down before removing the stee! from the convertory. and this necessarily resulted in great less of lime; the bars after being re- moved had lobe re-heated, in order to their being tilled, or rolled ; by this re-heating time was consumed, and ihe steel actually injured, it being a well established fact, that every time steel is highly heated, it is deteriorated. The steel manufactured by the improved process, has proved to be very superior to that made from the same iron in the ordinary way ; it has, in this parti- cular, exceeded the anticipated benefit. In the accompanying drawing, fig. 1, is a front view of the converting fur- nace, the temporary brick work which is used to enclose the cofler, or oven, and likewise those that enclose the flues A, A, the arch B, and the chimney stack C, being removed. D, is the roof of fire stone, or fire clay, which ex- tends over the whole top of the coffer, or oven E. Fig. 2, shows the top of this roof in plan, being a horizontal section of the furnace, in the line X, X, of fig. I ; D, is the roof stone, and A, A, the flues leading from the fire chamber into the arch, as usual. Fig. 1. Fig.; The inventor claims as new, the improvement of taking the steel from the oven in its heated state, and subjecting it to the action of rollers, or of the tilt-hammer, without the necessity of reheating the bars, by which improve- ment the said manufacture is greatly facilitated, and the quality of the steel much improved. REGISTER OF NEW PATENTS. (Uniltr this heart wr propose giving abslracis of tlie speciBcations of all tile most im- portant patents as tliey are enrolled. If any additional Informatiori be required as to any ??>r,'';^V,'. , ?"""* ""^y ^^ obtained by applying to Mr. LAXTON at the Office of tilis RAILWAY RAILS AND WHEELS. ANnRE Deonot de Charlieu. of the SablioniSre Hotel, Leicester Square, Middlesex, gensleman, for " Improvement.-! in rails for railways and in wheels for loromotive earriages." (Communication.)— Granted March 20 ; Enrolled September 20, 1844. This invention consists in manufacturing the rails with an angular projecting flange at one edge or side ot the rail, to prevent the carriages from running ofi'. The rail may be so made that the flange shall form a portion of it, and there- fore be inseparable from it , or the same may be made distinct and bolted to it. Another improvement consists in covering rails of wood or other material with flat plates of metal in such manner ihat the wheels of the carriage shall press upon such parts, whereby the rails may be made much thinner than those heretofore constructed. The improvements in wheels for locomotive carriages consists, in making them without a flange as such will not be required when rails of the above description are employed. The an- nexed wood engraving shows a section of one of the rails with a loose flange wheels may be bolted to the side of the rail ; the drawing of the specification shows several forms of rails, in some of which the flange furms a portion of the rail, and which flange the patentee prefers to be at an angle of 105 de- grees, but does not confine himself to that angle, and concludes by saying, I would have it understood that I am aware that rails have been constructed with a flange, but in such case the flange was at a right angle to the rail or nearly so, 1 do not therefore claim the so constructing rails wilh flanges, but what I claim is the constructing rails with flanges when the flange is at an angle to the rail at not less than 93 degrees, whether such flange is fixed or bolted to the rail, and also the application of metal bands to wood or other rails. And lastly, the dispensing with flanges on the wheels of locomotive carriages. It evidently appears from the above that the inventor claims the making or application of a rail, having a projecting flange of not less than 93 degrees, (as much more as you like], rails having been constructed with a projecting flange at right angles to the rail, that is to say, 90 degrees, or nearlij so, consequently the angles from 90° to 92° 59', are not included in this patent, and a rail having a projecting flange of 92° 59', may be made and employed without infringing on the same, presuming the patent to be good. LIFE PRESERVER. Charles Whliam Spioer, of Portman Square, Middlesex, Esq., for "an invention called a nautilus or portable life preserver and swimming belt,'* — Granted March 28; Enrolled September 28, 1844. Fig. 1. T-T^irfWf L\l\(\ ifl\ A IU\ 1 C \lrAJ\\\l\l\j\l Fig. 3. ig- The annexed drawing .shows the nautilus or life preserver in two positions. Fig. 1, being in an inflated state ready for use, and fig. 2, in a portable state. The following is a description of the apparatus and its mode of construction ; a, a, fig. 3, is a spiral spring attached at each end to ring b; e,e, e, are four 408 THE CIYIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [October, pieces of tape nliicli are fastened to the rings b,b, and also to the springs tlieir object being to prevent llie apparatus extending beyond a certain length ; d, d, fig. I, is an eiastic covering ot india-rubber fabric, uliicb is drawn over the spiral spring and douM-d down at the ends, and then passed over or upon the projecting pins or screws seen in fig. 3 ; e, e, are plates lia\ing an opening /, provided with a valve uhicli opens inward, and is actuated by a spring in such manner as to press it against the plate, this plate being screwed or rivetted against the rings as seen at figs. 1 and 2, firmly secures the india- rubber fabric or outer covering d, d. Supposing the apparatus to be in a portable or closed slate, as at fig. 2; then in order to inflate it with air ready for use, it is only necessary to take the nautilus and by pressing with the fore finger of e.Hch hand, open the valves//, then by drawing out or extend- ing the apparatus, the nautilus will become inflated with air, which is pre- vented from escajung by the spring valves//; i, i, is a spring clasp for fas- tening the nautilus or life preserver and swimming belt, round the body of the wearer. MOSAIC WORK. John Rodert Dicksee, of Old Compton Street, Soho, Square, Middlesex^ artist, for " improvements in tite manufacture of mosaics.*^ — Granted March 30 ; Enrolled September 30, 1844. The material employed by the inventor for producing mosaic work is prin- cipally opaque glass, but he also employs transparent glass, the mosaic pieces may be made of any size or colour, or of any combination of colours, the same (according to this invention) being produced by casting, moulding, or pressing, and in order to jjroduce the larger pieces uf mosaic work, the in- ventor takes two smooth iilates cf metal, in one of which there is a hole or holes of the required size and form for the mosaic piece to be produced, this hole or holes are to be made a little taper or somewhat wider on one side of the plate than the other, this plate is then laid upon the smooth metal plate with the widest side of the holes downward or next to the smooth plate, the hole in the upper plaie is then filled with glass in a fused state, either opaque or transparent ; and the same is pressed by means of a screw or lever and plunger, the object of pressing of glass in the manner described, is that a smooth and polished face is produced which may form the upper part of the mosaic work ■, by this process of moulding a great variety of pieces msy be produced. For moulding smaller pieces of mosaic work, the inventor pro- poses to have plates as above described, one of which is to have a number of holes formed through it of a size and f jrm intended for the pieces of mosaic work to be produced, these plates are then to be clamped together, and a quantity ofglass in a fused state placed at one end, the plates together with the fused glass is then passed between a pair of rollers which will press the glass into the Iioles of the plate, the glass being afterwards taken out and annealed in the ordinary manner. AV'hen joining a number of pieces of mosaic work together, the inventor proceeds by stretching a piece of calico tightly upon a slate or slab, the sur- face of the calico is then to be rubbed over «ith wax or gum, for the purpose of holding the jiicces of mosaic work together which are to be arranged, with their faces downward, according to the pattern or design intended, the several pieces forming the design are then fixed together by applying a cement over the whole, the inventor prefers tliat knoun as patent Portland cement- From readnig the specification it appears that the principal olject of the invention is the casting, moulding or pressing the pieces of mosaic work, and als) the application of opaque glass in successive pieces placed side by side, or alternate, and in combination with transparent or coloured glass. SHEAVES AND BLOCKS FOR SHIPPING. Geore William Lenox and John Jones, of Billiter Square, in the city of L^mdon, merchants, for *' Improvements i« the vmnufaeture of Sheaves and Sliells fur blocks, and of Bolt rings or Washers, for the purpose of shijnvrights and engineers." — Granted April 10 ; Enrolled October 10, 1844. This invention consists in manufacturing shells and sheaves for blocks, and also bolt rings or washers for engineering purposes of malleable cast iron, which is to be afterwards annealed. In carrying out this invention, the jacntees cast the sheaves and shells for blocks in the ordinary manner of casting articles of malleable cast iron, without confining themselves to the peculiar form or shape of the Ijlock or sheave, which may be varied without departing from the nature of the invention, which is the manufacture of the articles above described of malleable cast iron, and afterwards annealing the same. The specification ce cribes the sheaves as being cast hollow, and that the shells are very light and of great strength, and that very durable articles may be produced by malleable cast iron afterwards annealed, and which may be eHected by placing the blocks and washers into an annealing oven and surroumling them with Cumberland or Lancashire iron ore, .and then sub- jecting them to a red heat, as is well understood by those who are in the -^TDgO^ habit of manufacturing articles of malleable cast iron. The patentees claim the manufacturing sheaves and shells of blocks and also bolt rings or washers for shipwriglits and engineers, of malleable cast iron. IMPROVEMENTS IN STOVES. Frijderick Brown, of Luton, Beilfordshire. ironmonger, for " Improvements in .s/ot'fs."— Granted April 10; Enrolled October 10, IS^t. The object of this invention is to construct a stove which will be less liable to accident, and also much cleaner than those of ordinary construction. The accompanying figure which, is a sectional elevation, shows the interior and peculiar construeiinn of this im- proved stove : a a is what the inventor terms the fire pail, and is provided with a door, b, for supplying the stove with fuel, coke broken into small pieces being that which is intended to be consumed in this description of stove ; c shows one of the grate bars, and d an opening through which the ashes are to be removed, this opening is provided with a door constructed with a ventilator for regulating the supply of air to the fire ; the apparatus above described is supported by three pillars, two only of which are seen in the drawing, and marked e ; / is a conical top supported by two jiillars, g, one of which is shown in dotted lines; this conical top is entirely se- parate and distinct from the fire pail, and forms -an annular space between the top of the fire pail and the projecting' rib ;' ot the conical top, so as to allow of a current of air passing through such space, which has the double effect of preventing any accident accruing from the pipes becoming [over- heated, and also the thorough ventilation of the room in wdiich the stove is placed ; the products arising from combustion pass ofl through the aperture k into the pipe. Another advantage is stated to be, that the fire pail a can be removed for cleaning out the ashes and laying a fresh fire, thus avoiding the dust which would unavoidably arise from such operation. IMPROVEMENTS IN ENGINES AND TRACTION ON CANALS. John Aitke.n, of Surrey Square, Surrey, gentleman, for " improvements in water maeliines or engines and steam engines, and the mode of traction on or in canals or other waters." — Granted April 10^; Enrolled October 10, 1844. The first improvement set forth in this specification has reference to a pe- culiar mode of working dredging machines : this the inventor proposes to effect by means of undershot water wheels, which wheels are to be attached to the side of the barge or boat containing the dredging machinery, and worked by the flow of the tide ; the inventor not confining himself to any peculiar mode of constructing or transmitting motion from the water wheels to the dredg ng machinery, which latter may be of the ordinary construction^ The second improvement relates to a mode of raising stone or other heavy bodies by means of a vacuum produced by^displacing water : this apparatus consists of a tank divided by a plate into two compartments, upon this plate is fixed a cylinder provided with a piston and piston rod, similar to an ordi- nary steam engine cylinder, the piston rod being connected by some con- venient arrangement to a crane, this cylinder is provided with a valve or slide, and also with eduction and induction ports, the induction ports com- municate with the water placed in the^ lower part of the tank, the eduction ways communicate with the lower part of the tank only, the object of this arrangement being that as the water is raised from the lower part of the tank, which is effected by means of a pump, a partial vacuum will be formed in the cylinder on the upper or underside of the piston depending upon the position of the same. .Suppose for instance the plate to be at the top of the cylinder, then by pumping out the water from the lower compartment of the tank a vacuum will be formed in the lower part of the cylinder, and the water from the tank will be forced by the pressure of the atmosphere into the upper part, or top side of the piston, w hich wili cause the same to descend, the slides or valve is then moved and a similar action takes place with regards to the up stroke of the piston. The third improvement relates to certain improvements in condensing steam engines, and consists in the application of a cylinder having a piston and piston rod, this cylinder is to be of such dimen- sions as to contain as much water as will condense the steam flowing from 1S44.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. 409 the steam cylinder to the condenser, " and the piston rod of such cylinder is to be in connection witli the steam," to assist in giving motion tliereto, this cylinder is to bo provided with a slide valve and induction and eduction ways, the [induction way being so constructed as to open into a tank containing ■water, which is to surround the cylinder, tlie eduction way being made to communicate with the ccmdenser, so that the water contained in the cylinder may be tin-own in any suitable manner into the condenser, for condensing the steam that comes from the steam cylinder. The operation of this new combination of parts is stated as follows: supposing the piston of the addi- tional cylinder to be descending the eduction part will be open to the con- denser, and the induction poit will be open to the tank to receive the water uhich will be forced in by the atmosphere, and will force down the piston owing to the vacuum in the condenser, by this arrangement the pressure of air in the additional cylinder will aid the steam in the cylinder in giving motion to the beam of the engine. The fourth improvement relates to a mode of traction on canals by means of a partial vacuum produced by the displacement of water, tliis the inventor proposes to effect by means of an apparatus similar to that described in last month's journal, in which will be seen a tranverse section of a pipe having a longitudinal opening or slit on the top side, which is to be provided in the same manner with a valve suitably prepared for withstanding the action of the water. This pipe which is to be placed at tlie bottom of the canal, is provided with a piston and a projecting arm, the same as is now practised with regard to atmospheric transit, the latter being attached by any con- venient means to the boat, thus by removing the water from the pipe in ad- vance of the piston, a partial vacuum will he formed therein, and the piston will be forced along by the pressure "f water and air on the back .side of the piston. The mode of discharging the pipe of water is by means of pumps, or «here the supply of water is great and the situation admits, by means of a branch outlet of not less than 32 or 33 feet long. The fifth and last part of these improvements relates to a mode of loading and unloading ships and other vessels of their cargo by means of the tide. This the inventor proposes to efiect by means of an undershot w at^r wheel, mounted upon a raft, whicli can be floated to the ships side, and the power of the water wdieel applied to give motion to suitable machinery or apparatus tor unloading or loading vessels. IMPROVEMKNTS IN SHIP BUILDING. James Kennedy, of the firm of Bury, Curtis & Kennedy, of Liverpool, ■engineer, and Thomas Vernon, of the same place, iron ship builder, /or '• cer- tain improvements in the building or construction of iron and otlter vessels for navigation on water. — Granted April 15, 184'1; Enrolled October 15, 1844. Iron ship building is daily becoming an object of the greatest importance, it having recently been adopted by Government ; it is therefore necessary that ship builders and engineers should turn their immediate attention to the construction of vessels in the strongest manner wiih as small a weight as possible. Heretofore iron vessels have generally been constructed with angle iron, usually employed for the ribs of vessels, and also by uniting one or two pieces of this angle iron with a plain bar of iron, and sometimes with rolled iron of a T form ; both these systems it is well known are not so strong as a bar of iron, having ribs or flanges on both the top and bottom edge, which from experiment has been found to be the most economical manner of con- structing girders in buildings, and also railway bars ; but hitherto this form has never been introduced for shipbuilding: simple as it may appear, it is an improvement in ship building of the greatest importance, in the con- struction of vessels either of iron or wood and iron. The patentees claim the introduction of iron rolled in one piece having a flange on one edge projecting on one or both sides, and a rib or flange on the other edge projecting on one or both sides, for the purpose of strengthening the iron to be used for the beams of decks and hulk lieads, and for the ribs or frames of the sides of vessels. They also claim the intro- duction of rolled iron, with a lib or flange on one edge projecting on one or both sides, and a piece of angle iron ri vetted on to the other edge on one or both sides, or instead of angle iron, a piece of T iron ; the patentees de- scribe in their specification thirteen forms of beams, ribs or frames, and also claim the use of any of the different forms of beams or frames for keelsons. The drawings annexed to the specification show, among others, the form of four different sizes of beams and frames or ribs now being used by Messrs. Vernon & Co. of Liverpool, in the construction of some large iron vessels they are building. BRICK MAKING MACHINE. WiLUAM Hodgson, of No. 42, King street, Kingston-upon-Hull, Agent, for " A rnacliine for making and compressing brichs, small paviors, floor bricks^ flat tiles, ornamental bricks, 4'C-, "' one operation." — Granted April 17 ; En- rolled October 17, 1844. Ttiis invention relates to certain arrangements of machinery or apparatus for making or moulding and compressing bricks, tiles, &c. ; that part of the invention which relates to the making or moulding bricks, consists in having a mould constructed in such a manner that all its sides shall fall down so that the brick can be removed. The sides and ends of this mould are co- vered with moleskin, which is turned over the upper edge and fastened , thereto by means c,f brass beading or plates and screws ; this mould when in use is placed within an outer mould, which during the making of the brick keeps the sides of the inner mould in a vertical position. The outer mould here spoken of is fi.xed upon a table, on the underside of which there are two or more treadles to suit the convenience of the workmen wfien on dif- ferent sides of the table ; these treadles communicate with a vertical spindle, the upper end of which passes through the table and is attached to the inner mould having the moveable sides; the object of this arrangement being that when a brick has been formed in the inner mould, in the usual way of making bricks, such mould is raised from the outer one by placing the loot upon some of the treadles, the sides of the mould at the same time falling down admits of the brick being removed by means of a pallet board in the or- dinary manner. Upon the same table and near the machine just described is fi.xed the compressing apparatus, which forms the second part of the inven- tion and consists of a mould having its two sides attached to the bottom part by means of hinges, the ends of the mould being movable and capable of approaching each other ; this mould is made to drop within another similar to that just described, and over the mould is a pressing box liaving inclined ends, which come in contact with the movable ends. This pressing box can be raised or lowered upon an arrangement of levers, the parts being so arranged that when the pressing box is lowered for the purpose of com- pressing a brick, the underside of such box comes first in contact with the upper face of the brick, the inclined ends of the pressing box coming at or near the same time into contact with the movable ends of the mould cause the same to approach each other, and thereby compress the brick wliich is contained in the mould. The inventor claims the arrangement of making bricks by means of a mould having falling sides and ends, and also the ar- rangement for making and compressing bricks, paviors, and tiles by a mould with falling sides and moveable ends, as above described. BKINE EXTRACrORS. Sm,— I shall feel extremely obliged if you can inform me wliat is ll^e most approved method of extracting the brine from tubular boilers. I understand that vessels with tubular boilers have been fitted so as to keep constantly blowing off without the use of brine pumps. If you can "ive me any information concerning the arrangements employed for effecting this I shall feel deeply indebted, and remain. Your constant reader, R. Ricii.\EnsoN. Manchester, Sept. 18, 1844. There are three ways in which saturated water, or brine, may be, and is extracted from tubular and other boilers. Istly. By the common method of blowing off at stated periods, by means of pipes and cocks connecting witli the bottom of the boilers, and which is, perhaps, the most ellective system, although attended with considerable trouble and loss of heat, as well as the possibility of neglect. 2ndly. By brine pumps, refrigerators, and other apparatus, such as loaded valves, cocks and pipes, an excessively complicated affair, and we understand very irregular in their action, unless each boiler has its separate pump, pipes, cocks, &c., otherwise the varying pressure in the boilers, arising from unequal evaporation, irregular firing, or other causes, prodrces a greater efllux of water from one boiler than from its neighbours, and so is uncertain in its action. Consequently, this apparatus becomes-very expensive and requires considerable attention in its working. 3rdly. The btine may be ejected by the pressure of the steam only ; for it must be evident that with brine pumps, a haded valve on the suction of the pump, is required to overcome this pressure. Various schemes have been used to effect this object, among others, a simple valve connected to the boilerand opened by a tappet fixed to the main or paddle shaft, allowing a certain por- tion of the saturated mixture to escape during each stroke, the exact quantity being regulated by a screw. This scheme is open to one objection only ; that the engine may be stopped in such a position that the valve is raised, and thus placing the boiler in jeopardy. If any plan can be devised by which this may be obviated, and the regular action of the valve be ensurced, we are disposed to think favourably of this latter device. — Editor. 410 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [October, THE NEW JIETROPOUTAN BUILDING ACT. Tlie Committee of Magistrates for Middlesex appointed to examine and take into cnnsideration various matters to them referred connected with the new- act, made their report on the l?lh inst. to a Court of Magistrates, when it was ordered to he adopted. The following extracts relate to the appointment of surveyors, &c. " That there shall be no immediate interference in the subsisting districts, until any alterations ODCur by removal or death, when the following altera- tions are to take place. To divide into two districts the following parishes, viz., Islington, .St. Marylebone, Paddington, and St. Pancras. To separate the parish of St. Sepulchre Without from Islington, and add it to the district of Safl'ron-hill Liberty, St. Clement Danes, St. Mary-le-Strand, and the Savoy. And— to separate the parish of Shadwell from Spitalfiolds and Mile- End New Town, and add it to tlie district of St. Catherine's, Wapping, Rat- cliff, and Limehouse. That the proposed new districts, viz. Fulham, Ham- mersmilh, Kensington, Hampstead, Hornsey, Tottenham, Stoke Newington, and Bromley, should form distinct districts, excepting Kensington, which is to form t«o, to be divided into north and south districts by theGreat Western road. "That the election of all the surveyors for the new districts shall take place on 28th Nov., being the county day of the Middlesex Session. "That no district surveyor shall be directly or indirectly concerned in building in any department, nor shall deal in any building materials, nor act as surveyor or agent of any estate within his district." Dover. Harbour. — In these days of improvements in all directions and of all manners and kinds, the ancient town of Dover is not entirely back- ward in the march of amendment. Not content with restoring the fine old church of St. Mary at a very large cost, and adorning the town and neigh- bourhood with new buildings of all classes, Dover will soon possess a vastly increased and improved harbour. It was, indeed, at one time contemplated to make it a harbour of refuge, and it is well known that the Duke of Wel- lington (vvlio, as Governor of the Cinque Ports, has at different times taken so active a part in matters connected with the welfare and advancement of the town) has ever been in favour of such a desirable object being ert'ected. The work, however, would be of so expensive a nature that nothing short of national means could hardly hope to accomplish it. His Grace is under- stood to have remarked, " We will improve the existing harbour ; but such a work as that must be done by the nation." Yet, it appears, it is not likelv Dover will be converted into a harbour of refuge : but the town commis- sioners, it is declared, are determined to do all in their power to render the harbour as useful and perfect as possible. It is well known that at present it is not very good, yet it can now accommodate ships of 500 tons. It is chiefly used for sailing and steam packets to and from France. Immense sums have been expended upon this haven, from the period of Henry VIII. ; but it is so imperfectly formed at the present time that a vessel coming in with a direct south wind would be driven against the walls, as there is neither room to turn nor for the ship gradually to expend her force before reaching the extremity of the docks. The harbour has been undergoing re- pairs of various descriptions almost constantly for many years, but, early in this summer, an extensive improvement and enlargement was decided upon and commenced that is well calculated to remedy many of the most import, ant objections now existing. Thus " the poor haven,'sucb as it is" (rather derogatively termed in an old description thereof), is likely to he materially raised in the rank and utility of harbours upon the southern coast of Eng- land. It is to be so extended by another wing, as it were, being added, that a vessel may enter in full sail, and have room to turn and come gradually to its stoppage, an object that cannot now he attained. A. large piece of land to the east of the existing harbour and between it and the parade has been purchased for the purpose of enlarging the docks, and gates are to he added. Upon the land so appropriated stood, until quite recently, building yards, houses, &c. There also remains as yet upon the site (although they vvill be removed in the course of the speedily-approaching alterations) a battery con- taining several cannon, and buildings that have been used as a magazine, guard-house, &c. A great portion of the space to be converted to the en- largement of the harbour is now in an advanced stage of excavation, and some parts are already being walled in. It was originally intended to have wooden walls for this addition to the haven, but a wiser, though more immediately expensive plan has been adopted, and stone is to be used instead of the former more perishable material. •' Wooden walls" have for many ages proved good defences for old England ; but a harbour intended to endure requires something more substantial. Some notion of the important nature of these works may be formed when it is mentioned that no less a sum than 100,000^. is proposed to be laid out upon them, in addition to the large amounts that have been spent upon the docks during the last few years. The time which has been specified for the alterations to be completed is three years ; but, extending regard to the extent of the improvements, and the difficulties that are so often met with in like undertakings, it seems more than probable that they may not he finished until a somewhat longer period has elapsed. The etTect, even now, is advantageous, as it gives more room lu some portions of the harbour; but eventually it cannot fail to be most important to Dover, in advancing in no slight degree its prosperity as well as utility. — Imies. STEAM PIAVIGATIOK. " THE PRINCE OF WALE.S" .STEAMER. Many erroneous statements have been made in disparagement of the " Prince of Wales," on the score of the want of sufficient strength when she first began to run. We have the satisfaction now to say that at the termi- nation of a long season, and after takingthe dry harbour at Margate when- ever necessary, she is as perfectly free from any symptoms of weakness by change of form, Sic, as it is possible for any vessel to be, and which, consi- dering her great length, 180 feet between the perpendiculars, is, we think, a remarkable fact, and another indication of the superiority of iron over wood posssessing the additional tightness that it does, but this can only he when the mechanical construction is judiciously and carefully done, and the work well put together. The machinery is also as perfect as on the first day of the season, and the vessel has not been stopped an hour for repairs, another proof of the strength of the vessel, as we have frequently known wooden vessels strain so seriously by entering Margate harbour, as to destroy very soon the cement joints between the cylinders and condensers, and thus seiiously deteriorate the power of the engines. The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Company. — This Company, for the purpose of carrying out their new line to China, have given orders for three first class iron steam vessels nf 1100 tons, two of them to be built by Mr. Wigram, of the late firm of Wigram and Green, of Blackwall, and ihe other by Messrs. Vernon and Co., of Liverpool. These large ships being ordered by a company so well and carefulry managed are, we think, decisive as to the opinion in favour of the superiority of iron over wood, particularly when we see Mr. Wigram, one of the oldest and largest shipbuilders in wood, has now turned his attention to building with iron. The three vessels are each to have a pair of engines of the collective power of 450 horses, to be consirucledby the e:iiinent firm of Me.ssrs. Miller, Ravenhill, and Co., of Blackwall. " The Wonder," an iron steam-boat built by Messrs. Ditchburn and Mair. the successful builders of iron vessels, for running between Southampton and Havre, made a trial trip down the river Thames on the 27th September last ; her length is 160 feet, breadth of beam 22 feet, depth of hold 12 feet 9 inches, draught when light 5 feet 6 inches, when loaded fi feet 6 inches. She is fitted with 3 engines on the atmospheric principle by Messrs. Seaward and C'apel, of the Canal Iron-woaks, Blackwall ; each engine has an open topped cylinder 53 inches diameter with a 3 ft. 6 in. stroke, they work on the direct action principle ; the lower end of the piston rods move on a joint attached to the top of the piston, and the other end is connected to the crank of the paddle wheel shaft, the 3 cranks being placed at different angles, so that when one piston is at the top of the cylinder, another is at the bottom, and the third about the middle ; the three cylinders exhaust their steam into one condenser, with one air pump. The engines during the trial made 38 and 39 strokes per minute, the paddle wheels are 10 feet diameter to the ex- tremity of the float boards, and are on the self-feathering principle, being a modification of Morgan's paddle wheel ; the nominal power of the three en- gines, at a velocity of 220 feet per minute, is equal to 150 horses, but the real effective power is nearer double, as proved by the great velocity of the vessel. She ran the mile distance in 4 minutes 17 seconds against tide, being a velo- city equal to 14 miles per hour, the tide running at the time about 2i miles per hour. The boiler is of the tubular principle, with five furnaces, and is only 7ft. Bin. long; it is furnished with a brine apparatus for constantly drawing off a certain quantity of water, this water is pressed by the force of the steam throng a pipe dipping down to near the bottom of the boiler, and coming out in the front near the top, where it is furnished with a cock to regulate the emission of the water, this pipe passes along the front of the boiler then alongside of the engine-room to a cistern in which the water runs and is allowed to overflow to the outside of the vessel. The water for supplying the boiler is taken from the hot well, and forced by the feed-pump through a pipe which passes backwards and forwards 2 or 3 times in the brine cistern just described and thence into the boiler, by this process the boilers are supplied with waternearly at a boiling temperature. There are several other ingenious contrivances adopted by Messrs. Seaward and Capei for w ork- ing the valves, &c. The " Trident" Iron Steam-Ship.— Messrs. Boulton aud Watt are the eon- tractors for supplying this iron steam-frigate, building by Messrs. Ditcliburn and Wair, at Blaclvwall, with a pair of oscillating engines, of 350 h. p.— the price to be given for which is 10,750/., and they are required to be ready about Christmas. Steam-Engi.\es of Irish Manufactire. — The first trial of the new engines of the * iJhanuon' has proved most satisfactory. These engines are upwards of 200 h. p., and are the largest ever made in Ireland, having been just completed at the iron works of ntcssrs. Perry and Co., Ringsend. On the experimental trip they went olT in admirable style, when the distance from Kingstown Harbour to the Kish Light was accomplished ia forty-five minutes, and bactv in the same time ; there is no question but that when every- thing is finally adjusted in working, their performance will be equal to any ever built ia England or Scotland. — ' Irish paper.' Her Majesty's Ste.am Ship Rattler.— This fine steam frigate, after having made a great variety of experiments with the different propellers that have been projected by Mr. Smith, Mr. Woodcroft, Mr. Blaxlaud, Mr. Steiniuau, Mr. Sunderland, and other 1S44.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 411 persons, in order to ascertain their comparative merits, lately made her final trial in the river. 'I'he screw that has been found to produce tlie highest rate of speed with tha smallest consumption of pou'er is that of flir. F. T. Smith, known us the inventor and adapter of the Archimedean screw. The Admiralty have in con9e(iucnce determined to send the Rattler to sea, titled with a propeller in acconiance with the suggestions of that gentleman. The last trial was made piirtly with the view of ascertaining the precise rate of the ship in steaming in smonth water with Mr. F. P. Smith's propeller, and partly to determine its effect as compared with what had been done with other propellers that have been recommended to tli« notice of the Admiralty. On this occasion the average of 12 trials at the measured distacce in Long-reuch showed a sjieed of !)"D (inots, or 11^ statute miles, an hour, which rate of speed, considered in comparison with the small amount of power, viz., L'UO h. p., the amount of power of the engine of the Rattler in relation with her tonnage, 88S tons, ranks her performance higher in the history of steam narigation, than the performance of any vessel of her class, either in the service of Her Rliijesty or in the commercial steam navy of the empire. It should be mentioned that the Rattler was built in every respect as a sister ship to Her Ulajesty's steam ship the Prometheus, with this difference, that the Prometheus has paddle-wheels. The Prometheus on her trial at the measured distance reached only to the rate of 83 knots an hour. The Rattler has al- ready got her masts onboard; she is rigged with a foremast like a frigate or sloop, her middle and mizenmasts are rigged as schooner masts, her gun carriages are also on board, and fhe is ordered to be equipped for sea as speedily as possible ; and in conse- quence of the complete success which has attended the application of the screws to her, several others, we believe six, iron ships of a large class are forthwith to be constructed on the same principle. The trials were marie under the superintendence of Mr, Lloyd, chief engineer of Woolwich Dockyard, and Captain Smith, R.N,, of the Royal Dockyard. — * Times.' Large J^TEAM-BOAT. — A maernificent steam-boat has just been completed in America, called the * Empire ;' she is 260 feet in length, engine t>on h. p., and measni es 122U tons— being 200 tons larger than any other fresh water steam-ship in the world! The main cabin is probably without equal, being 211 feet long, lighted the entire lengtn through painted gUss under the roof, and so arranged that it can be divided by folding doors into three apartments, and fitted up in the most splendid style. The Water Lilt Steamer — This vessel is of inin, 170 tons burthen, built by Messrs. Ditchburn and Mair, and fitted with engines by Messrs. Maudslays and Field, she is propelled by a screw, 8 ft. diameter ami 16 ft. pitch, placed at the stem between two rudders, as patented by Mr. Joseph RIaudslay, and reported in our Journal for January last, p. ^7. It is reported that at an experimental trip, made on the lUtli inst., she realized a speed of nearly 13 miles an hour, bnt the report does not say whether this IS a mean velocity, or a velocity obtained with or against the tide, nor does it give the DOwer of the engines. Wherries and other Boats Propelled by the Screw-— The experiments made bp Mr. James Aust, with his wherry, upon the river Usk, have proved the suj)e- riority of the screw principle, set in operation by manual labour, to that of rowing or sculling with oars. Mr. Aust entertains no doubt that he shall construct a boat capable of being propelled by manual labour alone, on any river, at 12 or lo, or even 20 miles an hour ! He considers that life-boats may be constructed upon this principle, and capable of being sent out, when other boats could not live. — ' Cambrian.' The " Great Britain " Steam-shii'. — Bristol, Oct. 26. — This noble vessel is at length released from her protracted confinement in our float. The necessary altera- tions in the upper lock leading from Cumberland Basin imo the float having been made, she was yesterday evening, betwt^en G and 7 o'clock, removed from her moorings on the Sea-banks, and proceeded majestically down the floating harbour to the entrance of the lock, where she remained for the night, nnd this morning at 7 o'clock she was brought safely through the lock into Cumberland Basin, where shv will remain for a few days to have the screw affixed, &c. It is then intended that she shall make one or two trial trips after which she will proceed to London. — 'Times.' Launch of a War Steamer-^Oh the 15th instant the Gladiator, a splendid steam boat, was launched from Her Majesty's Dockyard, Woolwich, in the presence of about 1000 ]iersons. She is of 1,190 tons' burden, is bored for 20 guns, and will carry a complement of 175 men. She is built after the model of the Sampson, which was launched on the 1st instant from the same yard, and is less in length by 11 feet ihan that ship. Her dimensions are as fellows : — Length between perpendiculars, 203 feet 6 inches; kewl for tonnage, 17tJ feet 5 inches ; extreme breadth, 37 feet 6 inches j tonnage breadth, 37 feet j moulded breadth, 35 feet 4 inches. Locomotive Engine Power in the United States — Perceiving severa notices in your Journal respdcting the powers of English engines, the following facts may not prove uninteresting :— A train from Schnectady to Troy brought over, with one loco- motive, 1250 passengers in nineteen cars. If the average weight of each passenger was 120 lbs., and that of each car four tons, the whole weiget would be 151 tons. The weight was carried over an ascent of about foityfeet to the mile for a portion of the distance. This is, I believe, one of the heaviest loads ever drawn up such an inclluation by a single locomotive. The locomotive used was from the manufactory of Messrs. Baldwin, Whit- ney, and Co., of Philadelphia. — ' Mining Journal.' Trial of a New Locomotive Engine. — A new locomotive engine, the • Liver,' built on an improved principle by Mr. Thos. Pearson, of the Liver Foundry, Liverpool (and to be employed in the transit of coals froM Wigan to Preston and Lancas- ter), was tested with thirty-one luaded wagons, averaging six tons each (including wagons), up the incline from Wigan to the Boar's Head, and with thirty-live wagons up Coppal in- cline, of 1 in 100, which she performed with the utmost apparent ease at the low pressure of 70 lb, to the inch. — ' Liverpool Mercury.' Compressed Air Engine.— M. Andraud has performed with his locomo- tive, charged with a vessel full of compressed air, 3400 metres (about 2 miles), going and returning. At starting the pressure of compressed air was 7i atmospheres only— at his destination, the pressure was only three atmospheres; therefore, there had only been ex- pended 4A atmospheres. But M. Andraud proposes to employ more considerable vessels, at a much greater pressure— viz., vessels from eight to ten cubic metres (340 cubic ftfet), having a pressure of from 25 lo 30 atmospheres (450 lb. !), so as to be able to run over four leagues without having occasion to refill the vessel. — ' Monitear Industriel.' New Locomotive Engine. — Mr. Kearsley (late superintendent of the loco- motives on the Midland Counties Railway), has just had constructed under his immediate direction, by Messrs. Hick and Son, and put upon that line an engine which took fifty-five loaded wagons up an incline of •002, or ten and a half feet in a mile, at twenty-seven miles an hour; it has 15-inch cylinders, 2-feet stroke, and 4 feet S inches driving wheels, and works at 75 lb. pressure. The engine is of simple riescrintion, the general form being much similar to the Rlidland Counties engines (Bury's appearance and plan), but longer, so as to admit of six wheels between the fire-box and smoke-box (Stephenson's patent). The boiler is 13 feet fi inches long, a round fire-box, with 112 iron tubes. The wheels are entirely of wrought-iron, welded throughout, the form of Bury's cottered wheel, having round arms, running diagonally from the nave to the tyre, and welded to both. The framing is twenty-two feet long of wrought-iron, and welded solid, with the plummer blocks on it, and with peculiarly strong fixings for the cylinders, which are attached to the framing alone. The working gear, as well as the reversing gear, are all carried on one piece of forged work, or bracket, or hanger, running transversely from frame to frame, and having all the bearings forged solid on it. French Railways. — Contracts tor thirty-four locomotives, with their ten- ders, were awarded at the office of the Minister of Public ^\'orks, in three lots ; the first was ceeded to M. Cav^, at 44,800 f., the second to M. Alette, at 47,000 f., and the third to Messrs. Dernsne and Caille, at 49,000 t., per locomotive, with its appurtenances. A con- tract for 608,000 iron bolta was awarded to Messrs. Labrenr and Grefix,at 467f,45c.aton. i — « GaUgnani.' MISCSLIiAMSA. The RovAt Exchange was opened with re^^tl honours on Monday the 28th ult.; we purposely abstain, in the present month's Journal, offering any remarks on the new structure, that we may be able to devote some attention to the interior when divested of the temporary fittmgs and scaffolding; next mouth we propose giving a full account of Its architectural character. The New Building Act.— The London Gazette of tlie 4[h Sept., contains the following notice:— "The Commissioners of Her Majesty's Woods and Forests have just issued a notice that they have appointed Sir Robert Smirke, James Pennethorne, Esq., and Thomas Cubitt, Esq., to constitute with the oflicial referees a Board for the examination of persons who may prusent themselves for tlie purpose of obtainiue certifi- cates of qualification for the office of District Surveyor within the limits of the New Me- tropolitan Building Act. All communications for the said examiners are to be addressed to the Registrar of Metropolitan Buildings, at his office, No. 3, Trafalgar-square." The jUphallc is now receiving a new applicaiion. The uses of this material are now no longer confined to pavements and footways, they extend to the very pipes un- derground. It is now employed for protecting the long metallls pipes which run under- neath the streets ot Pans, troni the effects of oxidation. These pipes being covered over with damp earth, become in a very short time so coroded as to be almost completelyeaten away by the rust. Hence they frequently burst, causing the water to overflow, and inter- rupting its circulation, thereby occasioning much expence for repeated repairs, to say nothing of the great inconvenience attending them. All this will be obviated by the new system, which consists in coating the metallic pipes with with a layer of asphalte, one or two centimetres thick. The asphalte being impervious, oxidation can hardly take place. The better to secure this advantage, zinc is substituted for the cast metal, as being less subject to oxidation, and the pipes are screwed together instead of being adjusted end to end. This improvement will effect a great saving in the coit of keeping the water pipes in repair. Rfevue de Paris. An Extraordinary Ne^t Levelling Lnstrument.—'* A Iiighly ingenious and most scientific instrument for Uvelliug," says a contemporary journal, " has been in- vented recently by Mr. Emslie, civil engineer; the opinion of several competent persons is greatly in its favour. The objects to be gained by its use, we are informed, are increased accuracy, with the capability of operating with it even in the dark, mist, or rain, or "through thick cover, high walls, or buildings," &c. ! these advantages will be considered by the profession undoubtedly of great value, and meet with corresponding support. The plan is about being registered, after which full particulars will be laid before the public through our columns." Antiquities.— We learn from a paragraph in ihe Foreip;n Quarterly that extensive researches are now going on at Khorsabad, in the immediate vicinity of the ancient Nineveh, under the direction of M. Botta, assisted by Eugene Flandin, an artist sent out by the French government, for the purpose of making drawings of whatever may be discovered. Hitherto, however, discovery does not promise much that is likely to prove of intrinsic interest to art,— certainly not to architecture, unless abundant frag- ments of briek and marble, literally mere 'rubbish,' can be considered so. The only remains of building, in an intelligible shape, yet found, is a structure having two doors, uniformly adorned with bas-relief, representing a colossal bull with a human head, and a human figure with an eagle's head and wings. These doors are fifteen feet in height, and open into a hall 120 fett Ion?. The only wall which is yet cleared from rub- bish (that on the south side), is covered with a series of bas-reliefs, representing battles, explained by inscriptions. Of what quality or styles these sculptures are is not said, but we suspect very uncouth and barbarous, in very extravagant and ultra-pagan taste. Ne- vertheless, it must be confessed, to be both curious and interesting to find in that remote region a personification of ourselves; there being no doubt that the colossal bull with a human head is if not the genuine 'John Bull'— his ancestor and prototype. Perhaps that member of the Bull family will now be carried away captive to Paris, to captivate if it can the French, and console them for having suffered us to get the start of them in securing those valuable treasures the Lyciun Marbles. Still we would now gladly give them all in exchange for the Bull gentleman, who would feel himself so comfortably at home in the British Museum. As to the Foreign Quarterly itself, we are sorry to perceive that it has now entirely changed its original chaiacter, as indicated by its taste, that it now bestows scarcely any notice on continental literature, properly so called, but takes up English pub- lications for revising, and deals in such articles as •* French Aggressions in the Pacific," and the " Military Power of Russia." Metal Furnace for Heating Shot.— Messrs. Smitliard and Atllison, of Guernsey, have invented a plan for heating shot to a red heat, by placing sixty lli-pounders into a square cast metal furnace, nearly similar in appearance to a stove. The invention was lately tried at Woolwich, when the shot were admitted six each, at ten different en- tries, five above each other, and, after the furnace was heated, which occupied 13 hour in the first instance, the heat became so great that the shot were heated red hot in twenty minutes, and afterwards in less than a quarter of an hour. The invention appears far superior to the rough grating hitherto used, and it does not consume much fuel. It ap- pears to be formed in such a manner that in a time of peace it would ansiver the purpose admirably of heating store or barrack-rooms, and only requires some modifications to re- gulate the draught according to the state of the wind, to render it highly useful for many purposes. We learn from Parma that the theatre of the ancient city has just been discovered at a considerable depth in the earth, and in a remarkable state of preservation. The Government has ordered researches to be made, and has purchased several bouses which stand in the way of the operation. — ' Galignani's Messenger.' Bethlehem Hospital. — "Works of considerable magnitude are now in pro- gress at this hospital, th^y are fiom the design, and are being executed under the direc- tion of Mr. Smirke, architect, ana consist of two new wings, containing wards for conva- lescent patients, a new chapel, and a range of workshops. The wings are about 80 feet long, and comprise 12 rooms for male, and the like number for female patients, in which they are to be employed variously, according to the nature and circumstances of their cases. The chapel, which was rendered necessary by the increase in the number of pa- tients, is in the centre of the building over the portico, and is to be surmounted by a new dome, now in course of erection. 1 his dome will be about 150 feet high, and on its sum- mit will bean octagonal cupola terminating in a copper vane. The workshops forma quadrangle of considerable extent, and comprise nine large rooms, all ' en suite,' varying in size from about 21 feet square to 35 feet square ; they will consist of shops, where the patients can be employed under proper masters in the trades of plumbing, painting, masonry, &c. It is in contemplation to erect a simiiar range of workshops connected with the criminal wing, which is under the control of the Secretary of State. The dome already referred to will be by far the largest structure of the kind in England, with the exception of St. Paul's ; it is built of Portland stone and brick, covered with copper. The base is octagonal, and consists of an order of Corinthian pilasters coupled with a range of windows between them, forming the clerestory of the chapel; and over the entablature are ornamental lunettes, by which the ventilation of the chapel is effected. Evaporation of Water under Electrical Insulation. — M. Rowles sus- pended two similar capsules of 8i inches diameter by silk strings over a stove. In each vessel Si ounces of water were poured ; one of the vessels communicated with the earth, byacopper wire. At the ^nd of twenty-four hours, 2 02. 271) grs. had evaporated from, the insulated capsule, and 3 oz. 144 grs. from the other, making a difference of 345 grs. in favour of the capsule in commuuicatioo with the earth. The same result was obtained, with the heat of the sun. 412 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [October, An- Ikon Life-Boat.— About twelve months ago a subscription was raiseil -,t ri'.vre Cor tlie cousliuction of an iron life-boat, by M. Liihure ! this lio^t. being hnished, wati short time ago submitted to trial in the presence of a committee appomted tor the •nVrn'osf who declared it to be perfect, and, consequently, it la noiv placed at the port tor serv ce in case of need j it is built of cast-iron sheets, is 215 ft. 3 in. in lenKth, and o It. ■i in in' breadth. The reservoir of air is divided into three compartments, perfectly dis. linct from each < ther, so that any accident happening to one of them, would not destroy Us buovancv , self acting valves let in and out such quantities of air as may be required to preserve Us equilihlium, according to the weight with which it may be charged, and, by means of a water.proof cloth, so arranged as uot to confine the motions of the rowers, excludes the possibility of its being swamped bv shipping water. PL\Tl^G Stei-.i. dy a Solution of Silver.— "This solution, remarkable for its intensely sweet taste, is readilv obtained by disso'ving recently precipitated chloride of silver in a solution of hvpo. sulphite of soda, and though the steel may be plated, as stated above by immersion in' the solution, it will be found more advantageous in practrce to use a paste formed by moistening a little whitening with the solutioir, with which the surface to be pl'ater4 should he rubbed oi-er." It appears that whilst in some instances the silver deposited •• presents a perfectly uniform and adhering surf.ice," in other cases its precr. pitalion " is attended with a roughening of the surface" of the steel -an objection which the writer anticipates will be overcome, as the process receives more general attention. Should this anticipation be realised, the discovery will be found of no less utility in its ap- plication to tlie arts than of present interest as a new fact in metallurgical science.— the PharmactuticalJournal. GiGVNTic Scheme.— We have liearil that the praclirability of connec ing the opposite shorts of the Mersey by a stupendous chain bridge is under consideratron. It is said, that by the formation of a viaduct, on the principle of an inclined plan.i, on arches, commencing at the lop of James-street, to the msrgin of the river, a snnicient eh vation may be obtained. A similar erection on the Woodside bank of the river would. of course, be requisite. Our active and enterprising Che-hire neighbours would, no doubt, readilv assist in piomotini; a project so magnificent. .Such a work would throw au other suspension bridces into the shade, and be a world's wonder. 01 its practicaUility nodoubt, we believe, is entertained, and it will be allowed that the enterprise is worthy the combined energies of Liverpool and Birkenhead.—* Liverpool Albion.' Injoruu-s EFFEns OF Lead.— At ihe Aeulemic iles .Science?, Paris, a pa|ier by M. Cbevreul was read, " on the injurious effect, in a commercial point of view, of the presence of lead in certain preparations used in manufactures. He states that he was some time since consulted as to the cause of a brown tint which made its appearance in some white shawls which, in the finishing process, had been submitted to the action ol steam On examination, he found that the parts thus stained were only those which had received a preparation of glue, and on analyzing some of the same glue, he lound that it contained oxide of lead, and a small quantity of oxide of copper. This glue was prei"''''" in the neiiihbonrhood of Lille, and it was ascertained that a quantity ol white lead nau been added to it. Steam Enoine Chimnevs Sdpeksehed,- Cr Arnott has recently ailapled an air-pump to supply a draught to lurnaces, that will supersede the necessity of liinnels in stcam-boals, and if the costly chimneys which now demand so great an outlay in the erection of engine houses. This pump, when worked by a wuight of 1 cwt., furnishes a draught etrual to 100 cubic feet ot air in a minute, in an uncompressed state. A slignt Iransferof power from any engine, would thus suffice to create a strong draught, which can be so directed as to cause the consumption ot tlie smoke. Church Bells.— The Irish Ecclesiastical Journal informs the clergy that they can substitute cast.steel bars for the ordinary church bells with very considerable advantage, as regards both tone and cheapness. Any clergyman can procure for .Ws. a bar of cast steel, producing a better tone than the ordinary small church bells, which cost from -i;. to 61. Abfp.ystwith.— On the 2(iili ult. tlie ceremony of laying the foumlation stone of a new County Hall was performed here, in consequence of the present one being too small for the transaction of public business. The cost for ereclion, &c„ will be about ^.iOOO. Architect, Mr. W. U. Coultart. Nasmyth's P.\tent Steam Hammer— One has lately commenced opera- tions at Oevonport Dockyard. Gfrman Associ.\tion of Architects akd ENGISEERS.—The Germans are carrying out associations, or periodical meetings of men of science, even more extensively than onrfelves, anil they have as perhaps our readers are aware Iroin our columns, an Association of Architects anil Engineers, which this year met at Prague, being its second meeting. Some long remarks have appeared in the ' Algeraelne Zeitnng in reference to it fronV which it appears, that as last year no practical papers have been produced, and only a meagre assortment of theoretical papers on architecture or antiquities, wot a paper was read on practical constructions, as railways, or on machinery, this account might be thought to belong to establishments nearer home. WE.STMINSTER BRIDGE.— This brirlge was closeil on Momlay the 14lh lilt, for the purpose of lowering the roadway of the centre of the bridge ; this desirable object has been accomplished, and the steepest inclination of 1 in 14 reduced to 1 m J,j, which will render the ascent easier than Blackfriars Bridge. This alteration has been t^one in the incredible short period of a fortnight, the bridge being again opened on Monday the 28th ult The lowering of the footpaths is deferred until the new parapets are ready, together with the widening of the bridge, when this is done the view of the New Houses of Parliament will be greatly improved : we hope there will be no delay in proceeding with so desirable an object. lilST OP KEIS?' PATENTS. GKANTED in ENGLAND FROM SEPTEMBER 26, TO OCTOBER 23, 1844. Six Months allowed for Enrolment, unless othenmse expressed. Edward Coke Wilmot, of Haddenham, Bucks, for " Improved apparatus for warming beds, persons, carriages, and rooms. "Sealed September 20, 1144. James Malum, of Huntingdon, gas engineer, for "certain Improvements in purifying coal gas, and incieusing its illumiualing power, and preventing the circulation ol it being impeded by frost.— September 26. Edwin Edward Cassel of Millwall, Poplar, mei chant, for " n material or combination of material suitable for paving, piping, rooting, and most other purposes to which wood and iron are applicable."— September 20. Thomas Clark, of Wolverhampton, iroufounder, for " an Improved domestic conve- iiience.— September 2G. Sir George Steuart Mackenzie, of Conl, county of Boss, baronet, for " an Improvement or improvements in the manufacture of paper, and particularly for the purposes ot writing and copying writings, and machinery for efiecting the same, also the manulacture of a Huld or fluids to be used with the improved paper in the mannei ot ink. —Septem- ber 21). John Berkeley Cotter, of Dublin, gentleman, for " Improvements in the preparation and manufacture of woven fabrics, or tissues applicable to various useful purposes. — aeptenilier 20- Alexander Turnbull, of Knssell-square, doctor of medicine, for " a new mode or method f more expeditiously and effectually tanning hides and skins, and of extracting and tepa- ratiiig the catechuic acid from the tannic acid in the catechue or terra japonica used in tanning."— September 26. Alexander Ramuz, of Frith Street, Soho, cabinet-maker, for " Improvements in sofas, wardrobes, ottomans, bedsteads, and other apparatus for reclining or sleeping on, and in the construction of dining and billiard tables. (Being a communication.)— September 2/ . James Carter, of Delabole, Cornwall, gentleman, for " Improvements in cutting slite for roofing, and other purposes."— Sepiember 27. William Henry Ritchie, of Lincoln's-inn, gentleman, for " Improvements in carding engines." (Being a cummunication.}— September 27. John Harcourt Quinrey, of Old-street, gentleman, for " Improvements in the manufac- ture of blinds and shutters."— September 27. Samuel Cunliffe Lister, of Manningham, worsted spinner, for " Improvements in pre- paring and combing wool."— September 27. William Thomas, of Cheapside, merchant, for " Improvements in looms." (Being a communication.) — October 3. ■Samuel Pritcliett, of Charlbury, Oxford, glove-maker, for "certain Improvements in cutting and making up gloves."— October 3. Albert Daniel Hindley, of Bernor's-street, Oxford-street, carpet manufacturer, for " Im- provtments in the manutactuie of carpets, and other piled fabrics."— October 3. William Newton, of Chancery.lane, civil engineer, for " Improvements in macllinery for letter-press priming." (Being a communication.)— October 3. Obed Mitchell Coleman, of Fitzroy-square, gentleman, for "Improvements in piano- fortes."—October 10. William Henry Ritchie, of Lincoln's-inn, gentleman, for " Improvuments in obtaining copper from ores." (Being a communication.)— October 10. John Bower Brown, of Sheffield, merchant, for " Improvements in combining cnst-ateel with iron, and in the construction of cairiage springs."- October 10. loseph Eugene Cbabert, of Ch,ancery lane, gentleman, for " Improvements in preparing m.iterials to be used in making picture and other frames, and for aichitectural, and other purposes." — October 10. Henry Oliver Robinson, of Old Jewry, engineer, for " certain Improvements in steam machinery and a]iparatus for the manufacture and refining of sugar."— October 10. George Hurwood, of Ipswich,en3ineer, for "Improvements iu apparatus formovingand fastening windows.''— October 14. John Smith, of Salford, weaver, for " certain Improvements in the manufacture of fa- brics suitable for ornament or dress." (Being a communication.)— October 14. Adolphe Nicole, of Dean-street, Soho, watchmaker, for "Improvements in watches and chronometers."— October 14. Sir Graham F-i'en Hamond, baronet, K.C.B., of Norton Lodge. Yarmouth, for "Im- provements in the mode of fasteningon and reelingpaddle-wbeels, flout- boards, or paddles. (Being a communication.)— October '4. William Clarke, of Nottingham, lace-manufacturer, for " certain Improvements in ma- chinery lor manufacturing ornamental bobbin net or twist, lace, or other fabrics.' —Oc- tober 14. Peter Borrie, of Princes-square, St. George's in the East, civil engineer, for "certain Improvements in the machinery for the manufacture of sugar."— Octoper 17. Arthur Parsey, of Spur-street, Leicester-square, Artist, for "Improvements in obtain- ing motive power." — October 17. Edouard Guigucs, of Feckham, gentlemen, for " Improvements in printing on leather and skins."— October 17. Paul Chappe, of Manchester, spinner, for " certain Improvements in machinery or ap- paratus for spinning and doubling cotton and other fibrous substances."— October 17. Abxander Wright, of Hales-place South Lambeth, engineer, for " ceit.iin Improved ap- paratus for measuring gas, water, or other fluias, and in the means of manufacturing the same."— October 17. Frederick Herbert Waberly, of Stowmarket, clerk, Stephen Geary, of Harailtcn-place, New-road, architect, and Joseph Croucber, of James-street, Buckingham-gate, gentleman, for " certain Improvements in the construction and arrangement of machinery or appa- ratus for clearing, cleansing, watering, breaking up, and raking, of streets, roads, lands, and other ways. "—October 17. John Grieve, of Pottobello, Scotland, engineer, for " cert.ain Improvements in the pro- duction and use of steam, applicable to steam-engines."- October 17. James Nasmyth, of Patricroft, Lancaster, engineer, and Charles May, of Ipswich, en- gineer, for " Improvements in working atmospheric railways, and in machinery for con- structing the apiiaratus employed therein."- October 22. John Henry Rehe, of Moscow-road; surgeon, for " Improvements in the manufacture of starch aud farinaceous food." — October 22. Frederick Ransome. of Ipswich, caster, for " Improvements in the manufaclure of ar- tificial stone for grinding and other purposes."— October 22. George Osmond, of London-street, Tottenham-court-rnad, cabinet maker, for " Im- provements in fastenings for doors, draners, window-sashes, and riining-tables, and in apparatus for suspending looking-glasses, and other articles."— October 22. James Napier, of Hoxlon, dyer, for " Improvements in treatingmineral waters to obtain products therefrom and for separating metals from other matters."- October 22. Moses Poole, of the Patent-office, London, gentleman, for " Improvements in ma- chinery lor emptying privies .ind cesspools." (Being a communication.)— October 22. Henry Carbines, of Hayle, Cornwall, brazier, for " certain Improvements in fusees, cart, ridges, and other like explosive instruments."— ""'"b""- "J -October 24. POWEE OF WATER WHEELS. " Aquarius" has not given sufficient data for the calculation which he requires. The power of overshot wheels depends not only on the width of the bucket but also on their caoacity, form, or number, f ome buckets are formed so us to retain the water durrng a greater part of their revolution than others. Also, creleris paribus, the slower the velocuy maintained in the wheel by the amount of work done hy it, the greater the lorce ot the water. The " theoretical" duty of an overshot wheel is the whole weight of water multi. plied by the velocity of the stream. The " actual" duty aiipears from Smeaton s Experi- nients to bear to the theoretical the proportion 2t3 ; in overshot wheels the proportion is about 2:6. All practical deductions from the theory of hydrodynamics are very difiicult, owing to the present inadequate knowledge of the theory itself; but the following rule lor calculating the effect of overshot wheels, taken from the Encyclopaidia Britannica may he considered tolerably accurate. Multiply ^ of the number of buckets hy I, 4a6, and this product by the number of gallons in each bucket. The result gives the number of pounds acting on the circumference of the water wheel. In breast-wheels, however, the current of witev generally acts as well as the weight i and the torce of Ihe stream must therefore he ascertained. As all these calculations are experimental, Aquarius, if anxious on the subject, will get a much more satislactory result, it he can make a direct exper,. ment on his own wheels, of the weight which each will hft by means of , rope coiled lound the wheels themselves. The machinery should, o make tha experiment accurate, he disconnected, as far as practicable, from the water wheels; and he will he doing a ser- vice to practical science by communicating the result. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 413 NEW SCHOOL BUILDINGS FOR QUEEN ELIZABETH'S HOSPITAL, BRISTOL. Architects, Messrs. Foster and Son, of Bristol. (With an Engraving, Plate XVI.) This charity was established under an Act of Parliament passed in the 39th year of Elizabeth, the said act having been obtained by the trustees of tiie will of John Carr, gentleman, of the city of Bristol, who at his death left the principal part of his property for the found- ing and endowment of this charity. The object of the institution, as set forth in the said will, was "for the bringing up of poor children and orphans in such order, manner, and form, aud with such founda- tion, ordinances, laws and government as the hospital of Christ Church, nigh St. Bartholomew's hospital, in London," From this time down to the present century this charity has been enriched by gifts and bequests from many of the principal merchants aud inhabitants of Bristol, among whom the names of Edward Colston, Lady Mary Ram- sey, James Gollop, Samuel Hartnell, William Bird, Thomas Farmer, Richard Hughes, and Samuel Gist stand conspicuous. The building originally purchased for the purposes of this charity was the commodious premises near College Green, now occupied by the Grammar School, which latter was formerly held in St. Bartholo- mew's Hospital, situate in one of the low parts of the city. By an Act of Parliament, obtained in the 9th year of George III., these two buildings were exchanged the one for the other, and since that period Queen Elizabeth's Hospital has been carried on in the last mentioned building. Until the late changes in reference to the public charities, 40 boys only were clothed and educated with the funds of this charity, but since that period the numbers have been increased to 100, the greatest number that can possibly be accommodated in the present building, but the funds being amply sufficient to provide for a much larger number, by the permission of the Court of Chancery a very eligible site for new buildings has been purchased, and contracts en- tered into for the ereclion of a noble and commodious edifice suitable for the reception of 200 boys. The site selected for the building is a sloping field of about 4 acres situate on the side of Brandon Hill, it is rather a commanding one and extremely salubrious, and the premises will form a connecting link between the fashionable suburb of Clifton and the ancient portion of the borough. The basement story of the building will be raised about 28 feet above the level of the road, and will be approached by a broad flight of 40 steps opposite the centre of the building, with a carriage drive on either side all communicating with a terrace extending the entire length of the main building. A noble staircase, with panelled free- stone balustrade or parapet, leads from the entrance hall to the centre of the principal floor, where it has the master's apartments behind it, commanding the play grounds ; the school room, class rooms, teachers' sitting rooms, library and lavatory on the right hand, and the dining room, the baths, &c. on the left hand. This floor is on a level with the play ground, which is divided into two terraces, the first of which 400 feet long and 90 feet broad, and is provided with two spacious arcades for the accommodation of the boys in wet weather. At an elevation of IG feet above this is a second terrace 320 feet long and 70 feet broad ; these terraces will have a smooth gravelled surface, and will be provided with a fives court, and in the arcades will be gymnasia and other means of recreation; above the terraces will be a private garden for the master, which will command a view of the entire grounds. On the next story are three large dormitories which are overlooked by the bedrooms of the ushers ; and on the third story in the centre of the building are the sick and convalescent wards witli the necessary appendages. Large iron tanks are provided in the an- gular turrets in case of fire. The basement story contains the matron's apartments and store rooms in the centre, on the left hand the offices connected with the culinary department with an apparatus for raising the provisions to the dining room, and on the right a large wardrobe or dressing room. The dimensions of the principal apartments are as under: — ft. ft. ft. ft. Entrance hall. . 3(iby2G Bathroom .... 55 by 19 Dining room.. 85 ^2 Two dormitories 85 32 each. .•schoolroom.. 70 32 One ditto 00 26 Lavatory .... 55 19 Dressing room.. 85 32 The walls are to be built with a species of sandstone, raised upon the site, with Bath stone dressings, which will produce a pleasing coiitr.ist with the warmer tint ot the other stone. The ceilings ot the principal rooms are divided into panels by moulded cast iron bearers, serving as girders and binders for the floors above. No. 87.— Vol. VIJ— November, 1844. Contracts have been entered into by the trustees, under the sanc- tion of the court, for the erection and completion of the building for the sum of £13,9 12 18s. The masons are Messrs. Willcox and Sons ; the carpenter Mr. R. Hamlen ; the slater, plasterer and painter Mr. Henry Lee, all of Bristol ; and the contracts are to be completed in the autumn of 1846. [The wing on the right hand side of the building is not shown in the engraving for want of room, it is however the same as the one on the left hand side, with the exception of the door and small windows in the basements story, which are omitted.] CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK. FASCICULUS LX. " I must have liberty Withal, as large a charter as the winds, To blow on whom I please." I. My reply to Dr. Fulton ought to be one of thanks; not because he has convinced me by his arguments any more than I have convinced him by mine, but for the compliment he is pleased to pay me, — so high a one as far as it goes that I might be well content with deserving the quantum of praise he allows me, being under no great apprehension that most others will consider me not sufficiently "correct," ortoo latitu- dinarianin taste for vindicating in a derivativestyle, where windows, not columns must be the essential features, a practice which he condemns as both unauthorized by and incompatible with original Grecian archi- tecture and its principles. — I cannot, however, let the Doctor off with- out clearing myself from the charge of an inconsistency into which he fancies I have fallen. I certainly spoke " with very decided appro- val" of the houses in Maddox Street, where there are no pediments to any of the windows. What then? — I have never said either in this Note Book, or any where else, that a pediment is an essential and indispensable part of the dressing to a window, — one that ought never to be omitted but employed alike on every occasion and under all circumstances. Were such the case, it would follow that all the win- dows in a facade should have pediments without any distinction in that respect. As well might the Doctor have remarked that the win- dows in question have neither columns nor pilasters, and that I have therefore rather inconsistently expressed my approbation of what evidently falls far short of that degree of decoration which I am dis- posed to allow of for windows. Far greater inconsistency would it be in me to maintain that there should be but one uniform model for doors and windows, and that the same character as to embellishment ought to be preserved in every design. For my own part, I could wish to see architects avail them far more frequently and more freely than they now do, of the resources both in regard to composition and detail which such features afford them ; and also see them abandon stereotype and treat detail generally with more artistic feeling, adapting it to the particular design and occasion; whereas at present many of their compositions look no better than architectural centos, — as if, in order to escape the charge of being wholesale plagiarists, they had merely committed a series of petty larcenies, pilfering one feature from one design, filching another from a second, and so on, till the ensemble so produced looks very much like Miss Edgeworth's " Miss Tracey," "a perfect monster formed of every creature's best : Lady Kilrush's feathers, Mrs. Moore's wig, Mrs. O'Connor's gown, Mrs. Leighton's sleeves, and all the necklaces of all the Miss Ormsbys." II. If Dr. Fulton be scandalized at pediments to windows in a style which does not profess allegiance to Grecian precedent and taste, he ought to be almost equally scandalized at windows being introduced at all where the severity of the Greek temple style is both ostenta- tiously and pedantically affected for the ensemble. As soon as we begin to introduce windows the purity and genuine character of that style are forfeited. There is but one alternative, either to abandon the idea of applying that style in its classical seventy, and to modify it accordingly, if windows there must be; or to arrange the plan so that there shall be no occasion for windows on that side of the build- ing which is to be d I'anligite, but make what is externally the front, a screen facade coming at the rear of those principal apartments with- in which must be lighted by side windows. At any rate if windows there must be in a facade professedly classical, they ought to be as few as possible, and as they cannot be got rid of, to be rendered noble and ornamental features, as is the case with the doorways of ancient temples. Were that done, beauty of design and riclmessofeftect might reconcile us to such departure from the too obstinate severity of our 36 414 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL, [November, prototypes, whereas as now treated in our modern ultra-classical, yet at the best only pseudo-Greek buildings, the windows are left to show themselves hardly better than so many holes in the wall, having for the most part little other architectural dressing than a scanty border- ing of flat architrave, no matter of how decorative character the order — which ought to regulate all the rest — may be, or how highly wrought in its enrichments. Between the most florid and the very plainest Ionic no distinction is made as far as windows are concerned, it being thought, it seems, that those which will serve for the one, will serve equally well for the other ; or as to the matter of that, for all orders alike. Such at least appears to be, if not avowedly his doctrine, the principle — the idea of harmony and unity, and of due consistency of character, manifested in the works of one great modern classic, — who has been content to go on all his life with just one ide;i. That he should have done so is, perhaps, not very strange, because it may fairly be questioned if he could possibly muster up a second one ; yet strange it certiunly is that his employers should be content with the humdrum things he has supplied them with. III. Ecce ikrum! — Dr. Fulton fancies that I am prejudiced in fa- vour of Palladio and his school. Next, I suppose, somebody will say of me, — who have shown myself to be Nullius addictus jurare in verba magistri, that I am too bigotted an admirer ofVitruvius. I cannot just now point out to the Doctor the precise passages where in the course of what now amounts to Sixty Fasciculi, I have expressed my opinion of Pal- ladio, but it certainly has not been one of admiration and respect. I therefore fancy in my turn that the Doctor's acquaintance with my Note-Book is not of very long standing, and if so, there is probably some amusement and edification still in store for him: — so very far indeed am I from entertaining any alfection for Palladio's own works, or from being able to discover in any of them that refined taste which is so liberally attributed to him by Italian critics and ciceroni, and by those who write or speak after them, that I consider them to be for the most part stamped by meagreness, littleness, and dryness of man- ner, and to abound to such degree with sins against ordinary good taste, that there is hardly a solecism or a deformity for which autho- rity— if authority can avail aught in such cases — might not be pro- duced from his designs and buildings. Even his admirers do not seem to speak from self-conviction or from their own perception of his merits: they extol him, it is true, by wholesale in those safely vague generalities which amount to nothing more than the mere asser- tion of praise; but as soon as ycu begin to ask them for more explicit criticism, and to enter a little into the "why" and " hom," and Ihe pros and cons of the matter, or set about cross-questioning them at all, they turn a deaf ear u|ion you, or else cut you short by saying that Palladio has always been held to be one of the greatest masters in his art, and that if you are not of that opioion, your opinion is contrary to that of all the rest of the world. IV. Few architects appear to have much siorge or natural affection for their productions, or any of that sensitiveness in regard to them ■wliich induced Queen Elizabeth to prohibit spurious counterfeits of her fair features and person by unskilful "limners;" — or else we should have more publications supplying authentic representations of modern buildings, whereas of late years, a vfork of the kind has be- come almost a rarity — in this country at least, nothing of the kind having appeared for a long while except Barry's Illustrations of his Travellers' Clubhouse, and the two separate works On Windsor Castle, neither of which, by the bye, explain the interior of that edifice. One plausible excuse for architects not bringing out authentic delineations of their own buildings, is that such kind of publicity is not needed : there are the buildings themselves for people to judge of. Very true ; but they forget that they cannot prevent others from putting forth to the world vile misrepresentations and caricatures of them, called "views," — which, wherever they go — and many of them, un- doubtedly find their way abroad, — are calculated to make the most unfavourable impression. Besides which, it frequently happens that by being published original designs become faithful and valuable — at least interesting records of structures that have either been destroyed by fire, or have else been so greatly altered as to present quite a dif- ferent character from their first one. There can be little doubt that the publication of their "Entwiiife" or "Designs," tended, not indeed to establish, but certainly to widely extend the fame of Schinkel and Klenze, and as little doubt can there be that many who would else not have thuught of doing so, have been in consequence induced to visit Berlin and Munich for the express purpose of beholding the structures themselves. — Why does not Biiriy begin at once to edit the drawings of the New Palace of Westminster ? — first of those portions that are already executed, and then in like manner of others at intervals, whereby the progress of their publication would nearly keep pace with that of the edifice, and both be completed tog^'ther. Whereas if the one — which it is to be presumed will be undertaken some time or other — is not to be commenced until after the other shall have been terminated, it will be a far more laborious task than if it were executed as here suggested. V. The Royal Exchange gives us a foretaste of that general splen- dour of decoration which we look forward to for the Palace of West- minster; therefore, although in all probability it would never have been thought of — or if thought of, scouted as extravagant, had it not been for what is contemplated for the other edifice, it has got the start of the latter in point of time. In truth, the new Exchange seems to be the commencement of a new era in our public buildings ; at least so, it is to be hoped, it will prove, and that we shall not now revert to, or any longer tolerate that bald and beggarly style of so-called sim- plicity and purity which has heretofore prevailed from the commence- ment of the century, and whose parsimoniousness has, after all, con- duced nothing to economy, — quite the contrary, if it be true, as has been stated, that notwithstanding its richness of decoration, the Ex- change has not cost more than half what the Post Office did. Never- theless it may be called a wicked building, inasmuch as it puts wicked thoughts into one's head, making one wish many other public buildings we are now heartily ashamed of, were to meet the same fate as the old Exchange did, in order that they might rise from their ashes " transformed, transfigurated" like the new one. VI. Seldom has any one obtained credit for superior critical acumen more cheaply than Horace Walpole. His remarks are often lively and epigrammatic enough, yet seldom amount to more than brief dicla unsupported by any show of arguments. No wonder, therefore, that he has been styled by some a flippant critic : the won- der is that those who consider him such should sometimes adopt his bare ipse-dixits, without attempting to show the justice of them. Nevertheless this is done by Gwilt, who approvingly quotes Wal- pole's sneer at Hawksmoor's church of St. George's, Bloomsbury, whose steeple it pleases him to term a masterpiece of absurdity. Gwilt, indeed, allows that there are considerable merits in other parts of the building, yet without specifying one of them ; while as to the steeple, he too, leaves us quite at a loss to understand whether apart from the "absurdity" of a statue being placed on the summit of it, it possesses any merit in its general design as a campanile. Consequently, instead of at all confirming Walpole's opinion, he merely repeats, just as any one else who had no opinion of his own to offer — as any of those self-constituted critics, reviewers, and ama- teurs might do, upon whom Gwilt affects to look down with so much contempt and scorn. But "masterpiece of absurdity !" wherefore so, most critical Horace, or most critical Joseph ? Does the absurdity consist in placing a statue upon the very summit of a lofty structure, where it chiefly serves as an ornamental finish or pinnacle to it, littie more than the general shape of the figure being distinguishable? If so, precisely the same sort of absurdity attaches to all statues simi- larly placed, — whether on the top of a monumental column, or on the apex of a dome by way of substitute for a lantern — of which there are instances, or placed as terminations to gotliic pinnacles, let alone spires. Or does the particular absurdity here consist in the statue's representing a modern king instead of an ancient saint ? That, how- ever, need scandalize no one — at least not when considering the matter merely architecturally : the figure may just as well pass for the one personage as for the other, at such a distance ; so that this master- piece of absurdity is at least reduced to a minimum. However unfa- vourable may be the traditional criticism given in books, since Wal- pole's time, I never yet met with an architect who has not confessed that there is something no less masterly than original in the general composition and effect of that campanile. It has a look of solidity and lightness combined, without any of that appearance of being a Romanized or Italianized version of a Gothic spire, as is the case with those of Wren. Fall of a Stalk at St. Rollox. — On Friday, Nov. 1, in the afternoon, a little past three o'clock, the stalk, 240 feet in lu-ight, situated at the corner of the works at St. Rollox, immediately adjoining the Glasgoiv and Garnkirk Railway, gave way at the foumlauon, anil in an instant not one brick was left above another. This stalk, we understand, was only finished a lew weeks ago, and abiiut the same time it was discovered that its base was not secure. Means were accordingly taken to insure its stability, by iiroppin,.; and other- wise, and little fear was enterlained but tlfat it would stand a while, when on Friday, as lias been staled, it fell with a most tremendous crash, lis descent was almost perpendirular, and it tlicreiure occasioned little additional damage, for aldioiigli a portion of the bricks fell within the Railway depot, and upon the rails, no further accident was the result. Several m^n who were working close by the slalk hoard it cracking a few seconds before it tell, and, fortu- nately, having quickly left its vicinity, escaped. The wind was blowing very fresh at the time, and the stalk fell in the same direction ; but had its loun- dation been anydiing like secure, it would not have aliected the stability of the structure,— C'n/i'(/o«ia« Mermrtj, 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 415 THE ART BLISTER. No. I. The George Jones and Martin Sliee principle of election in the Academy has, I am happy to see, been slielved for the present. Two artists have been elected, both creditable, both talented, yet the sculptor of infinitely a sounder taste than tlie painter. Every man must have observed of late years, since the German school revived, a strong tendency to introduce into British Art the wild childishness of the leaders of that eminent renovation. Munich is so much nearer than Rome, that young men have continually swept through Paris to Munich, and returning during Autumn through Ger- many to London again, brought back more vicious taste than they car- ried out, and certainly in their practice proved they believed rigidity was beauty — distraction of effect, simplicity — flatness, angelic — and gold grounds and glaring colours the ve plus ultra oi elevated thought. To keep what is acknowledged to be good, and add vfliat is defec- tive ought to be the basis of all reforms, politically, religiously, poeti- callv, or pictorially ; — but will it ever be so, or has it ever been so ? In all reforms men go to excess, and therefore a Royal Academy ought to be very cautious in sanctioning any men who give evidence, or have given it, of being bitten by a false taste. The Academy has one talented man of this species already, who has done more to ruin the art, and the youth in it, than any one who ever took the lead in the most corrupt times of corrupt art ; to elect another to help him is to add to the danger instead of stemming it, and to whatever lamentable condition the art may shortly sink, the Aca- demy will be in a great measure answerable for the eft'ect produced on the public taste, by the puffing and the prominence with which they obtruded his productions, at the expense of their own repute, their own sagacity, and their own decided conviction they were doing wrong, or ever enquiring with themselves, what would Reynolds have thought ? The painter they Lave now selected is an accomplished and amiable man, but of the same taste as the other alluded to ; compelled to resign his situation as Master of the School of Design, which he had not sense to conduct, and which he nearly ruined, his powerful friends, of whom he is the pet, procured him to be elected as Member of the Council which controls the Master, though he had given evidence he was totally unfit to be the Master himself; and alter having misled all the students he directed in London, he was dispatched to inspect the country schools, because he had proved he was totally unfit to conduct the London one! Ignorant of fresco, in reality, from the evi- dence he gave before the Committee, he is one of the selected to de- corate the Lords, and lastly, the Academy has given its sanction to this tissue of absurdities, by preferring him to better men on their list. To get out of so many scrapes, with such tact, shews great diplomatic skill, and let the Academy beware they have no occasion to repent their decision hereafter. At any rate, however, any men are prefer- able to incompetent men, for let the Academy be assured, that it is a great mistake to elect inferior men, under the notion they will become useful as tools for the dirty work of the institution ; there should be no dirty work, the official situations should be all rendered worthy men of genius, by the yearly income, and not fit only for fools as a re- fuge from destitution ; the consequence given to mediocrity by many of their elections has been fatal to the dignity of genius in t'ae body, from the impulse they have given to the most incompetent out of it. Let the Academy remember, what disgrace, what turmoil, what loss of character, ensued from the admission of Farrington and his clique. They very nearly destroyed the art, they kept it in one perpetual contest of intrigue, and violence, and recrimination, and insult, till at last the interest of the students, the honour of the sovereign, the ad- vance of design, were utterly sunk in the squabbling and vulgarity of a benefit club, to the disgrace of all breeding and taste. I know it is difficult always to keep 40 men in a right direction ; influences will be used, and put in practice totally inconsistent with the known interests of the institution; but the quicksands always to keep in view are men of intriguing mediocrity, creatures whose very want of fame or of power leave them leisure, first to make themselves useful, and then necessary, till at last, the members of genius, for the sake of relieving themselves of the trouble of a duty, resign their liberties to those whose only chance of distinction and importance at all is the trouble they are always ready to take olf the shoulders of their superiors. No man can deny that sometimes men of mediocre talents in art can be useful to a body, for instance Martin Shee, he came in when me- diocrity was in full bloom, and he has kept it blooming ever since, ard really he can be justly called "the distinguished head of all the me- diocrity in Europe;" but such gifts of Nature are rare, and let the Academy not risk diluting the body by any future experiments of the like nature, for out of the thousands cf painters throughout Europe of the exact calibre of the worthy President, not two perhaps have his fluency of speech, to conceal poverty of thinking, or his activity in common business, to make amends for his wretchedness in Art. Per- haps Shee is unique as an example of a man being placed at the head of a profession on the principle of being the most incompetent man in it. Never had any country such a crop of reigning mediocrity, as since the elevation of Sir Martin ; and yet his whole life is one continued illustration of opposite principles. An upholder of the dignity due to authority for its own sake, now, to the v^ry marrow, he once wrote a tragedy so finely radical in rebellion against its power that the Lord Chamberlain forbad its coming out. Formerly maintaining that Genius all over Europe had preceded Academies, and that none had appeared since, he is now ready to die in asserting that no Genius can ever come without them! Swelling with ambition, and yet cursed with impo- tence; hating the genius he can never equal, yet thirsting for the dis- tinction he feels is its inherent right ; cunning, designing, talkative, and intriguing; never more deeply plotting than when most artlessly affecting to be open ; frank, to conceal an intrigue ; bustling, to be- wilder suspicion; eloquent, when he wants to distract, and humane and compassionate for those he detests, when pity may lead to con- tempt for their condition ; by flattering the vanity, pandering to the weaknesses, and soothing the appetites of the herd he despises, he elevated himself and elevated them, and in baffling the Genius who opposed him (Wilkie), bestowed a boon on all those who cursed his great talents, feared his private worth, and abhorred, with the grovelling baseness of degraded spirits, his illustrious and immortal name. The most popular man in the Art is the President, because in him the mediocrity of the Art is represented ; and every man who aspires to immortality by daubing for an Art-Union patron, when no other can be had, feels his breast swell with delight as he remembers the inhe- rent tact of Sir Martin for snubbing genius by tickling impotence, and making every fool at a fund dinner believe he may one day be as great as himself! The immediate danger to British Art, however, is the tendency to Germanism by the introduction of fresco, we have three men of talent that way most fiercely inclined ; because fresco is to be chosen, the patrons seem to believe it is contrary to sound taste to carry the beauties of the school into that species of decoration, as if the defects hitherto endured were not an accidental omission, but an inherent concomitant of the material and the style ; as if clearness, touch, execution, tone, colour, softness, were not to be attempted, but banished ; as if, because light is more required than shadow in deco- ration, the light must be crude and the shadow black. This ridiculous absurdity has got into the heads of every member of the Royal Com- mission, and, being agreeable to German theory, the eminent Secretary is too delicate to explain to the Prince what ought to be, must be, and will be the doctrine of British decoration. We will not have and endure the lime illuminations of Munich walls; in all the graces of colour, light and shadow, irapasta, execu- tion, and simplicity of expression without imbecility of look, we are the masters of the Germans, and will remain so ; what the British are defective in can be added ; what they have, if they lose, they will never regain ; and I call on every eminent British artist, and every budding student, to resolve, in the contest next year and the one the. year after, to keep, in all their attempts in oil, fresco, or cartoons, the great beauties of British Art, whilst they add knowledge of construc- tion and correctness of form without hardness, light and shadow with- out sootiness, colour without gaudiuess, and touch of the brush without being brassy or brittle. For the honour of Old England let them beat down the bastard theories of foreign travel — " I'd have our English Mounseers know, A man may yet be wise and never see the Louvre." TiMON. Railway Tdnnei.ung. — At a meeting of persons interested in the South Wales Railway, at Cardiff', on Friday, Mr. Brunei stated, that ihe Box Tun- nel of the Great Western liadway cost lOO;. per yard; the White Ball Tun- nel on the Eseter Railway, cost but 53/. ; the CTieltenham Tunnel, in con- nexion with the Great Western Railway, was estimated at 136?. per yard — it cost but 34/. per yard ; and to show the reduction in this department alone, he mentioned, that within the lust three weeks he had contracted for tun- nelling at 28/. per yard. 35* 416 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [NOVKMBER, SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS. Sir, — All intelligent correspondent, Wilhelm de Winterton, has asserted, page 37S of your last number, " that contrary to the allega- tion of the person who professes to hold, in Sir Joshua's own writing, a diary of practice, very ingeniously woven out of scraps and patches by some keen observer of his habits, he kept no journal, and declared in the hearing of Sir Martin Shee and othi-rs still living 'I'd give a thousand guineas if I knew how I painted this and that, &c.' " So, because chattering people assert they heard Sir Joshua say he ■would give a thousand guineas if he knew how he painted some par- ticular picture or two, of vvhich he had evidently kept no memorandum, therefore Sir Joshua never kept any journal at all, and ilitre/ore the journal he did keep in his own hand of the vehicles of the great pro- portion of his pictures, now in the possession of his relations, cannot be his jourual, because it may he written in scraps from his conversa- tion by other people!! Very likely certainly, and very beautiful Logic. On reading this delicious deduction, I wrote Mrs. Gwatkin, at Plymouth, Sir Joshua's niece and descendant, and who is in possession of Sir Josliua's private papers, stating to her what had been asserted, and requesting to know if Sir Joshua did or did not keep memoranda of his daily practice, as I had in my possession extracts from such memoranda, copied by SirW. Beecliy from the original book, but yet, before replying to your correspondent, I wished her confirmation, as I had never seen the original book myself, though the extracts I pos- sessed bore evidence of being genuine in every sense of the word. By this morning's post, Mrs. Gwatkin has actually enclosed me a leaf of the book in Sir Joshua's hand-writing, to make what use of I please, saying: — « Plymoulh, Nov. 1 1, 1844. "Dear Sir, — I am sorry it has not been in my power to give you an earlier answer to your note, and hope the document I send you will be satisfactory in putting an end to the falsehood you mention; I have cut it out of the book to which I imagine you allude. * :i: + * * * * "You will be so good as to return the leaf when it has answered your purpose. " I am, dear Sir, yours, &c., " B. R. Haydon, Esq." " Theoi'hila Gwatkin." There never was such an interesting document made public for the art, and we are indebted to Wilhelm for mooting the question, which has produced so satisfactory a refutation of the chatterers, who con- cluded what they heard on sl particular occasion was a principle to be applied to all occasions. Faithful Copy of a Leaf from Sir Joshua's Secret Memoranda Book of haily Practice, nom in the Possession of his Niece. "Prima — Umbra et (latin) Biacca — Poco de olio — "Seconda — (Then he has written) — " My own Portrait — Asphaltum, Minio, Giallo e turchino (Prussian blue) per lo campo. "Umbra Verm, and Biacca, thick, occasionally thiiied' with tur- pentine. "Primato | Nero, Cinabro, Minio, e Azurro. Thick. " Lord Henry and Lady Charlotte Spencer, first, olio e poi colori cou cera senza oho. — Mr. Weyland, ditto — Miss Newport, ditto — Mrs. Mordaunt, ditto — Mis. Morris, ditto — Tyrconael, ditto (Lord). "My own, Florence upon raw cloth, cera solamente (wax alone).' "The Children on Mrs. Sheridan, poi cerata. "Mrs. Sheridan— The face in olio, poi cerata (waxed) Panni (drapery) olio, — poi coo cera senza olio, poi olio e cera. "Mrs. Montague — Olio e cera | Asphaltum nero e cinabro. 1 His own spelliDg. s Of this portrait Wilkie says, when at Florence (see Life), " perfect as the day it was paiotud, not a crauk." — B. U. H, " Lady Dysart — Prime olio, poi cera solamente et pour (French) il viso (Italian). "My own Picture, marked t behind, finished con Vernice di Brim, senza olio (di Brim, perhaps copal from Birmingham.— B.R.H.) " My Lord Althorp— Minio, e nero, sol. poi giallo, e verm, senza biacca— Olio, (It must have been exquisitely rich, makingyellow the light, without white, like Rubens and Titian.— B. R. H.) " Mrs. Montague — Olio poi cerata e ritoccata con Biacca. Oct. 2, 1772.— Miss Kirkman— Gum Dr. et whiting— poi cerata (waxed,) ovata poi (egged), poi veinicata (varnished), e ritocc.ita (and retouched.)— "Cracks." (By Heaven, I should think so.— B. R. H.) To us artists, this is exquisitely interesting— getting into the tricks of so great a man— Sir Joshua wrote all his memoranda in such a mix- ture of Euglish, French and Italian, as if to conceal them from every body. To proceed. "Aug. 15, 1774.— White, blue, asphaltum, verm, senza nero— Miss Foley— Sir R. Fletcher— Mr. Hare. "Aug. 2(i, 1774.— White — asphaltum — verm. — minio piincipal- mente, e giallo de Napolino, nero ni turchino — Ragazxo con Sorella. " To glaze con Asphaltum e Lacca the Boy with Child at his back A. "Sir R. Fletcher "Biacca, nero, ultramarino, verm, sed (latin) principalmente minio senza giallo, e ultima volta (Italian) oiled out and painted all over (English). "Ditto Mr. Hare, except glazed with varnish and Giallo di Napoli. "Finito quasi con asphaltum — minio — et verm, poi con poco di ultramarino quella senza giallo. "Mr.Whiteford' — Asphal. verm.iuinio principalmente senza giallo. "Blackguard Mercury and Cupid," black and vermilion, afterwards glazed, "Sir John Pringle— Verm, minio— Giallo di Napoli et nero. Mrs.Joddrell— Head, oil— cerata (waxed), varnisht, with ovi (eggsj, poi varn. (varnished) con Wolf (Wolf's varnish)— Panni, cera— size— oiled— verniciata (varnished) ccnovo (with egg) poi cou VVollf." Good heavens! Let us recapitulate in English. The head painted in oil, then waxed, varnished, egged, varnished again with Wollf's, then waxed, sized, oiled, egged again, ai:d then finally varnished with Wolff! 1 ! That is, varnished three times with different varnishes, and egged twice, oiled twice, and waxed twice and sized once— perhaps in 24 hours. The surface Sir Joshua got was exquisite, his delight must have been intense, and though the reward was wortli the risk, in such extra- ordinary infatuations he must be a beacon. The artists ought to feel greatly indebted to Mrs. Gwatkin's libe- rality in permitting this curious extract to be published, and I hope I have satisfactorily proved Sir Joshua did keep a journal of his prac- tice, and that the journal thus held iu care and veneration by his ami- able descendant is not a journal "of shreds and patches by some keen observer of his habits," but a journal by his own hand, of his own mind in its secret and coutidential meditations, invaluable to art, to the distinguished aitist and the eager student. I am. Sir, yours, &c., 14, Burnood Place, London, B. R. Haydon. jS'owmber 12, 1844. P. S.— I shall be happy to show lo any artist this interesting docu- ment during the week. > Caleb Whiteford. « Lately exhibited at the British Gallery, and has stood well.— B. K. H. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 417 <0N THE PRESENT STATE, THEORY AND PROSPECTS OF PAINTING. No. III. Chalk Drawing, Chalk Fixing and Water Colour Painting. ' Having glanced at fresco, en passai}/, with the intention of recur- ring to the subject again ; having hastily traced the more important errors and desiderata of oil, and suggested the means of improving the art to the full extent of our present or probable knowledge; let us return, with Father Matthew, to water, without quoting Ezekiel for trick ; although, niaugre any charge of egotism — for he who knows must/ul he knows, and in saying so, in the confidence of his strength, is the better man than be who, with lengthened chin, and upturned eye, and oily tongue, and glavering yet half-masked smile, begins with a certain bishop, "In all due humility, my Lords," or in private life, " I confess I am an humble judge, &c. &c." and which, forsooth is mocked with a titular " modesty of mien." Pshaw 1 as Timon would say, and say truly, I am not thus modest. Sir, and hate the craft : — inaugre, I say, the milk skimmers of life and all their opinions, "All those who use water shall be comforted to the nethermost parts of the earth ;" and if, with Dickon among the doctors, we show the fallacies of the faculty, we shall not be classed with Morrison, for we have no personal interests to puff", no motive to deceive. To chalk, in all human probability, or charcoal,' used as such, we owe the origin of an art capable of, humanly speaking, defying time and stampiDg immortality on the works of man. Take RatFaelle and Caracci as the proofs; for if the cartoons had been fixed as we could now fix them, fully, firmly, imperishably, evenly, without stain or gloss, without size or gluten, without steaming or disorder, and finally without injuring the slightest half tint,^ where is the man who could approximate their possible age? and taking the constant copying and multiplication of them, with the powers of the modern press, into question as a beacon and a guide to posterity — where is the man who could calculate the probable period of time at which, from the contact of a comet with this earth's revolving ball, they should cease to be ? I allude obviously to those cartoons and those drawings carefully preserved and decently used ; while those in the print room of the British Museum cry aloud for the cheesemonger's scale or the house- maid's hand ; they are notoriously depreciated and depreciating,^ are worth little and soon must be worth-/ess; imbedded in oatmeal and guarded by wire-haired curs, no man leaves them gratified but the ratcatcher serf, accustomed to thumb the thing he examines, and who feels unusually pleased to be led humbly by self-important hands. And if Isay, with deference to better judges, Haydon's " Black Prince* leading Jolm through the streets of London," or his much abused and ridiculously mangled "Curse," the so-called uglinesses of which have been bandied abroad probably as ironic praises of Challon's figurantes, or Corbould's powder blue and washing tub forms — candelabra orna- ments aad sliced turnip bosoms; or real slurs upon Armitage's bandv legs and Puddle-dock grandeur, — if these, I say, had been thus fixed, the Duke of Sutherland might have left to his posterity heir-looms of realwoith; and I say, also — for men are omnipotently so cast as to differ in opinion as in form — the Commission of the Fine Arts thought wisely, and did well in making chalk the nucleus of worth, aud have done more to exalt it than all the patronage of the last half century by the impetus thus given to art — would to Heaven the same impetus bad developed its force in mind — aye, more than all the efforts of genius during the last century. Had Watts's Caractacus been thus fixed or the Fight for the Beacon been thus rendered permanent with- out size, the steaming of which must disconnect the coluurman's pasted sheets, disfigure the face of the cartoon by blisters, folds or curruca- tions, and finally give so fierce an affinity for damp, so inherent a dis- position to mildew, the twin sister of dry rot," as, in such a climate as this, can never permit the drawing to reach a RatVaelle Age or Caracci term — they might have infinitely surpassed both with reference to 1 Such is Plutarch's account at least, 2 This effect it. certainly p-oduced Ijy the Translixing Liquid sold, I believe, exclusively by Newman, in Solui Square. 3 This was modestly pointed out two years ago to tlie person in charge of the Print- room, rather as a compliment than otherwise, as Sir Heniy Ellice was assuredly the most proper person, and the means of Dreservation gratuitously sugL'ested; but either the man mistook a gtntleman fur some brother of the north seeking to rob him of his jilace and no gent eman at all, or he rememheied llie Spanish proverb — "There is a tig at Home for the man who gives when nut asked, or gives more than be is asked (or;" Scotchmen pro- verbially giving nothing, but bows to the rich aud insolence to the poor. 4 And yet, it is but justice to say. Haydon's cartoons were as little disligured by this UDsetting of the paste and bad joinings as any in the exhibi'.ioni some drawings there were disgiislint; specimens of want ol mmd and matter too. fi So iuh rent and inevitable is this effect of size on exposed surfaces in damp atmos-- pheres I cannot believe llailaelle or Caracci used it at all; and nothing but an experi- menlal examination ol the carlouns by tests would change my belief that historians have deceived or misled us ou the subject. mere preservation. The only obstacles are trouble and cost to the artist; and these, a higher grade in life, more patronage, more means as the result and increasing self-respect will teach him, ere long, to scorn. What the means are, and the modus operandi of their action, I do ncit feel at liberty to develope, the confidence of friendship having placed them in my keeping by one who had also sold the result of his labours to an artist's colourman^ in the way of existence ; more espe- cially too, as the existence of such men, among the moderns, vastly resembles that of their brethren of old — a wearied, incessant, restless, laborious, costly and precarious scene ; they are men who none but the street mendicant can envy, and he only because he cannot as clas- sically ask the Data obolum Beisarto ? Men on whom the shopo- crat looks with all the scorn of a till; and merely adopts, aids or trusts, in fact tolerates, at all in the " pale of civil and social relations" as the stage autocrat does the talented buffoon — because he feels his own nothingness, and that he caimot live without him; men who, if they serve the trader are served out — if they serve the ])ublic weal are treated with a letter of thanks, equally matter of course and un- meaning, as it is void of intrinsic use, in a word delusive, vain, empty, and a blight; the principle, however, is the simple evaporation of spirit from the surface after permeating the texture of the paper, when applied to theback — and leaving, in such evaporation, sufficiently well modified matter behind as effects the desired end; many trashy at- tempts at which have been formed of camphor aud other powerless and objectionable agents before for sale. Let us now examine for the painter in water colour the present state of his art, its wants, wishes, and hopes; its historj, origin and present usage, open as it is like oil, from his not being his own manipulator, to every trick of trade. Of tempera, so long and so beautifully practised in Greece, and by no means to be confused, much less identified with distemper, from which it markedly differs in vehicle and effect, Mr. C. L. Eastlake has given, in the Report of the Commission of the Fine Arts, a better his- tory and description with more elaborate authority than I can presume on, or the space of this Journal permits. Suffice it then to say, it is one of the most permanent species of painting, very brilliant in effect and worthy of more consideration than it has hitherto received among us; and I can hardly conceive a more to be wished for improvement in the amusements of our amateurs and occupation of our artists of the lighter class, or a more delicate one either for our females, than tempera painting on artificial marble slabs. The chief defccis of thi; art, as handed down to us by ancient historians, — however, much what Plutarch says casually and delusively may be relied upon infinitely more than all the gossiping twaddle and bookinakiiig detail of Pliny, who in all probability was in the constant pay of some Longman of his day, — were the use of the yolk abounding in colour, and sulphur in lieu of the white of the egg, and the disposition of that agent to scale or crack, and these are real defects indeed ; but, acetic acid and sugar candy, pure boracic acid and ether, or both, might do more than liquorish-toothed jujubes, a trashy mixture of East Indian gum, jujubes, currants and lump sugar do for Sir William Newton in lieu of mure simple, dignified and intelligent agents; by the bye, why not enquire about the nature of sugar candy. Sir William ? — Ask Etty I The Egyptians evidently painted much and, in their way, well in tempera, and in all probability were the discoverers of it, and they, like the Greeks, varnished with wax ; with reference to which I would ask — does it follow, of necessity, that what Plutarch describes as " cera punica in oko liqmjacta" should have really been bleached wax ? ' Plutarch would have described, and his Latin followers surely reiterated, the cera alba or ceia decolorata by some definite language if the wax had been bleached at all. 1 would also enquire whether many Egyptian paintings, very beautiful in aspect to the inex])erienced eyes of some travellers, might not be indebted greatly to mere contrast for that beauty as to effect, and to density of body for their permanence? giving thereby a false idea of the permanence of the vehicle. Some Chinese paintings, at a hasty view, are equally beautiful, though mere trash — real Poonali-daubings as to art, because of this contrast uf dense, unsuftened, unblended purple and gold, gaudy yellow and scarlet, deep black, and sky-blue ; while the pigment must be changeable G Newman. 7 III this translation, therefore, of "cera Punica in oleo liquefacto," we must differ with Mr. C. L. Eastiake's report, in which it is translated white wax ; now surely cera alba would have been used, or cera cindid.a— in fact there was no paucity of language— cera depurata, cera purilicata, or some expression to dehne or express bleached wax. Vitru- vins was probably his authority, and Vilruvius used tlie txpression as a vulgarism eqUrilly aoplied to red wax. Cera Punica I humbly conceive could only be properly translated or spoken of as * Punic or Carthaginian wax in its natural state ■,' and, en passant, I may here notice a very ignorant, silly thing transmitted to iilr. Eastlake, vii. a recommenda- tion to use ** salt of tarter, cream of tarter, or soluble tarter," as synonymes for one and the ^ame end, when, equ:illy as to language anil chemistry, they are diifeient things— op- positea and inefficient; caustic ammonia being tlie proper agent for maliiiig wax soap, or, i potas must be used, caustic not carbonated polas. 418 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [November, ndeed not to stand, being, unlike our tliin tints and mere washes, in fact, solid bodies of colour literally dredged upon, not mixed with the vehicle ; — a species of painting followed also by the ancient inhabitants of Peru. I question, also, whether Davy was quite correct as to Egyptian azure. A blue pigment may be made, of course, by fluxing flint, copper filings, &c., but it is a poor, weak, drossy, bodyless frit of little worth; no painter of the presentday would use it twice ; indeed, Davy," maugre the cackle of the F.R.S. tribe, though of brilliant mind and ingenious, was infinitely more practical and practicable on salmon fishing than on painting; on good living than on the arts. Distemper painting now claims our notice; and comes strictly wiihin the express position laid down in my first paper, viz., that while oil painting must place its reliance on the vehicle used, water painting must rely only on the individual permanence of its pigment, to which may be added, in the cases of tempera and distemper, its varnish. The best vehicle for distemper is unquestionably parchment size, which though inferior to sulutions of isinglass in colour and ior glazing has none of the chilling or setting powers of it, and only requires precautions to be taken against cracking from its drying power," of which the use of sugar candy is the most eflScient, with this advantage, that the bearing-out is also achieved by it; and the painting may not only be looked upon, when dry, but looked into; its very base and inmost core is open — deep, clothy, rich, and full. Lakes and carmine should never be used a second time ; carmine and scarlet lake deteriorate by every wetting with distilled water alone, that is, go back to the purple hue of the cochineal, and only two means exist to prevent it; either to use, as formerly, a purple-toned carmine, the «e plus ultra of Guyton Morvean or Gay Lussac's day ; or, in using the present butterfly of art, carried to excess in the scarlet tone by an ad- mixture of a fugitive yellow, to keep up that tone by using on the palette, as the flower painter does, citric acid, and still better citric acid and nitrate of ammonia, in very minute quantities; the same minute quantity of phosphate of lime (not burned bones as for oil, but the artificial phosphate,) will retain the purple tone as long as any modern water painting will last or can last. Barytic sulphate white — commonly called permanent or often constant white — not the native sulphate, which some anserine scribe, delighted with his grey "goose quill," suggested to the Royal Commission of the Fine Arts in the Athenaum some time back, but that which any respectable colourman would use for his cakes — should be used in delicate pic- tures and retouchings, while good German kremnitz suffices for others, but requires very rapid varnishing, not being itself permanent. The use of barytic white, however, is never fortunate in effect if impure or at all iron-tainted water be employed ; for, this turns it foxy. Distemper, without a question, has manifold good qualities for de- corative purposes; and as many of the Venetian masters, and in the best days of art, employed distemper in the highest order of pictures, two modern imitations of which 1 have before spoken of as executed by Bonnington and Mr. Henderson in Paris, I am yet to be informed why the junction of distemper and oil, in one painting, should be aban- doned? The luce de dentru of a white ground of Cornish porcelain clay, washed until clean, white and silky, would, in such cases, pro- duce that grand ettect, that tone, that clearness and beauty which oil alone can never reach ; and the glazing in oil, as a real varnish, pro- tects you from the chief evil of water painting — viz., the «0H-perma- nence of many colours where all ought to be ultramarines in pov/er. Much as I admire fresco in the mighty hall and majestic dome ; much as t think fresco practice \\ill improve the arts ; durable as I know it is, and practised well and successfully as I am sure it ?vitl be ere long; I am still bound to confess I bi-lieve tempera, distemper, and oil will infinitely suit us better, be more pleasing to the general eye, be more patronised, more profitable, and ultimately more beneficial to man. Wax painting, of course, I exclude from present consideration. It is very beautiful and very permanent in proper atmospheres; and cer- tainly well adapted fur mural decoration. In the vestibules and por- ticos of the anci( nt Balbec or Palmyra, in Carthage or Herculaneum equallygrand; and, imperishable in the chambers of the pyramids, but s Such I am aw.ire. is high treason, and may raise a hornet's nest, of this I am reck- less. Davy was hiyhiy gifted, ingenious, and showy; but, saving his detompositioo of the alltalies —by such agency as Uaroo Born liad not possessed, and therefore could only suggest the facts — he was practical and practicable in nothing else; and in the zenith of his assumed name applied tr) iUr. Fitld, the author of Chromotography, to assist him in ' getting iron from lapis lazuli.* Air. Field is still living, and his grey hairs hairs too re- spectable for the splutterers about Uavy to impugn his veracity ; but more anon, when lir. Faraday and his wether-bcU tingle about the " Uavy lamp" come fairly before me, then this unwarrantable data-!ess assertion shall have justice, justice of the bhylock school, to a hair. Indeed, the animus is simply this— sometliing must be said on emerg- ing from his mission to the collieries, and Davy, the immortal Davy's mantle is the pano- ply and shield. 'I'lie man of theory pockets his tea tor saying a practical nothing ; but benelit he must, as the the ministers godsend. y More than half the nonsensical praises lavished on the Chinese flexible varnishes originate in ignorance of the fact that many of their very bad ones are flexible merely be- cause sugar candy is used in the colouring beneath, which therefore cannot crack. in the name of common sense, I ask, what figure will it cut in Corne- lius's very a(/;/»>a6fe situation for a palace? How will it look near Sir John Cowan's candle shop, in defiance of Gresham's name or Sang's flowery festoons, fat grffins and incomprehensible shapes of nameless things, neither seen in the earth or the sea, in the heavens or the regions below? Can it be supposed possible that, in seven years, the smoke and filth and cent, per cent, degradation of the city of London should leave his yellows, and greens, and reds, and blues visi- ble at all except as the finger posts of scorn? But Sang probably fol- lows the Turner school, and they will last "his time." Oh, that he had been patronized by persons of more faith — yes, a little more, faith, and a thousand sovereigns down had shone brighter far than Indian red; and, Sang's important secrets burst forth in more than meteor glare ; then, indeed, might high art have hidden her head, beneath her vest and sat like "Patience on a monument smiling at grief;" but, Sang was right thus far; it is dangerous to be a volunteer with "more fighting and 7io pay," for as the Spanish proverb says — "there is a fig at Rome for him who gives advice when not asked, or gives more than he is asked/or." Looking to men, manners, and things of real life — things as Nature made them or as they are, for I detest polished frippery as much as learned, pious, philanthropic, or artistic affectation — 1 hate the trum- pery fig leaf of Haydon's Curse'" equally with the unnatural and mon- strously denuded Omphale at Gwydyr House ; looking at things as they are in actual life, ninety persons out of every hundred stand too close to all pictures: how disgusting then the general effect of the fresco must be — I mean the genuine fresco, not the frittered-away, tempera-loaded dowdy of a small apartment — to such a near-sighted race? I now repeat the axiom, that with reference to permanence, water colour must place no reliance whatever upon media, but wholly and solely on the individual permanence of each pigment wherever such can be attained, or, on subsequent varnish : water colour may, with glazing, become an approach to oil effc'ct, but except in such cases as those spoken of before, viz., a mixed style, never can equal it. Still may greater richness, bearing out and effect, be gained when colour- men advance a step beyond A, B, C. I have said nothing of the ordinary cakes now made by three" of the makers, both neatly and free from that miserable mixture of trash common thirty years ago: the late Mr. Reeves used to boast that his colours mashed injinitely better than those of other men ; and well they might, Windsor soap was a very conspicuous ingredient, and Windsor soap washes neatly enough, a slight dash of water will wash it out. The chief defects of cake colours are, the total vvant of " bearing out powers," when dry; and total absence of all " resisting" or preserva- tive power in the compound ; so that scarlet carmine becomes purple, in fact depreciated by the making and worthless, if used, from the palette a second time ; hence miniature and flower painters have each their nostrums, like Sir William Newton's solution of jujubes, better adapted to the mouth than the pencil, and bespeaking an infinitely greater degree of intelligence in the stomach than the head; or Mister Bartholomew's colour cups, adapted to nothing earthly beside ; for these are marked blue esquire, yellow esquire, green esquire, and so forth, — and yet Bartholomew, maugre this weakness of oar Uiitiire, is a man of unquestionable talent, and by supplying what the colourman ought to have supplied before hand— produces fine work, — flowers which might have deceived King Solomon's bees, and placed his far- famed wisdom at a discount. WiLHELM BE WiNTERTON. November 8, 1844. 1 o To shew the mawkish affectation and mere caprice of such pseudo-delicacy — a gen- tleman who had just been descanting on the indecency of a certain nude ligure in a line picture and really dignified subject, went to prayers in the cathedral at Lincoln with bis daughters, over the doorvvav of \vhich an immense casting, in high relief, of the fieeds of .Sodom and Gomorrba stands too conspicuous tu pass unseen. O tempora ! O mores ' The authorities would have been petrified if an engraving of such a thing iiad appeared in a book, or had it been painted ou canvas, while that which had nothing impure in it gave real ott'et'ce ; veritably, we have academical as well as polemical Agueivs, and the artistic as well as dramatic Miss Nancy. 1 J Newman. Winsiu- and Newton, and Roberson; the rest may be taken by the lump at twenty-live per cent, discount for sale, with an extra hve percent, for the drawing master's recommendation. Iron Ships. — The National states, that ihc Government proposes to permit the importation of iron ships, subject to a duty of 45 francs the 100 kilo- f;rammcs. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. 4fd THE HIMALAYA FUNNEL, For the Cure of Smohj Chimneys, Registered pursuant to Act of Par- liament, G Sf 7 Vic. c. G5. iiole Proprietors, James Boyd and s. The specification contains eight claims. The first is for an improved form of rails on which Ihe carriages run. They are formed of timber ; the upper surface is flat, with a plate of iron for Ihe wheels to run upon, the plate is slightly inclned at the curves so that the inner edge is rather lower than the outer one. The wheels of the carriage are formed without flanges, but the carriage is guided and retained on Ihe rails by means of two horizontal wheels connected to the frame of the car- riage and running in a groove formed iiaidway between Ihe rails by means of two wooden rails. At Ihe curves it is necessary to fix an iron plate for the guide wheels to run along in the inner side of the outer central rail. The second claim is for a tramway consisting of wooden sleepers with a portion of the inner side cut away at the upper edge to receive an iron tram plale. The third claim is for increasing the adhesion of the' driving wheels ; the wheels are formed of .segments of wood a, inserted in a cast iron boss or nave b, wiih the grain of the wood standing in a radiating direction and braced together near the circumference by Iho flat rings of iron c, one on each side of the wheel, with pins d, passing tbrough both ringsand secured by screwed nuts or by rivelting. To promote Ihe adhesion Ihe peripheries of the wheels ate scored wiih minute oblique or transverse grooves, or are imlenttd with numerous small holes, and filled in wiih a composition of sand or similar substances mixed « ilb glue or other adhesive matter ; the inventor has found marine glue to answer this purpose well. The fourth claim is for diminishing the effects of vibration and concussion, 37 422 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [November, which the patentee proposes to accomplish in the folloH'ing manner — buffers are fixed at one enJ of tlip carriage, they act principally by the elasticity of air. A number of strong hollow spheres of caoutchouc filled with compressed air are placed in a cylinder attache 1 to the frame of tlic carriage, and the cylinder is closed by a piston attached lo the spindle of the buffer, whicli moves in a guide fixed across the mouth of the cylinder ; when any pressure is tliroivn upon the buffer the spheres, from the elasticity of the air inclosed within them, as also in some degree from the elasticity of the material of whicii they are composed, yiolil to the force :^ nd become comjiressed, thereby allowing the piston to advance further into the cylinder, and on tbe pressure being relaxed the bufier is again forced outw ard by the expansion of the air. The springs for siipy)orting one end of the carriage are upon the same princi- ple of constructiorf? they consist of a cylinder open at bottom and fixed be- tween the axle guides, within this cylinder is jdaced a bollovv sphere of caout- chouc filled with comi'ressed air, and upon the top of the axle box is fixed a plug or piston which enters the cylinder and forms the support upon which the sphere rests. The buffer springs at the opposite end of tbe carriage are upon a different principle, and are constructed with a flat drum or barrel mounted in beatings attached to the carriage frame and containing within it a strong helical sprinfr, one end of which is attached to the a.\is and the other end to the barrel ; a chain is attached at one end to the barrel and at the other end to one arm of a lever w hich turns upon a fulcrum fixed to the back of the car- riage frame, the other arm of the lever is forked and works upon the spindle of the bufier between two collars or ruffs. The supporting springs at this end of the carriage are upon the same principle but somewhat differently applied, they consist of two spring barrels, the axes of which are supported by the axle guide ; a chain attached to the two barrels passes over the axle box and thus supports the carriage. Tlie fifth claim is for stopping and retarding the carriages by an improved break. It consists of a block of wood saturated with water placed in an iron case whicli is open at tlie bottom, the block being retained in the case by pins. The case is moveable in strong iron guides attached to the frame of the carriage, and is connected by a link to one end of a lever, the oilier end of which is connected to a screw, whereliy the block can he raised off the rail or pressed down upon it with great force. A supply of blocks are to be kept constantly in a vessel of water at the stations for the purpose of replacing them when they become too dry. The sixlh claim is for preventing the en:.;ines running oft the rails when going round curves at a great velocity. Two horizontal wheels are a'taclied to the fore part of the engine and w ithin the rails, so that the deviation of tbe engine to either side causes the horizontal wheel on that side to come in con- tact with the inside of the rail, these wheels are attached to vertical spindles with levers for raising and lowering them. The seventh claim is for preventing accidents from the engine or carriages getting off the rails at curves. It consists in placing a preventer tram plate tietween the rails and nearly close lo the inner rail, leaving a little more space between them than is required for the flanches of the wheels in the cases where the wheels have flanches. The eighth claim is for preventing the loss of water ; in lieu of the flexible hose commonly used to connect the tank wilh the feed pumps an arrange- ment of metallic pipes is employed, capable of motion In all directions. SEASONING WOOD. EoET. Davison. C. F,., of Brick Lane, Spitalfields, and William Symington, C. E., of Kast Smithlield, for " A mi>lhod or methoth of ilrifiitg, stasoning, and hardening wood and other arth /ti- ; pd'ts of which an also applicable to the de- siccation of vegetable substances generally."— Granteii April 28; Enrolled Sep- tember 28, 1844. The first or principal part of tbe invention consists in drying, seasoning and hardening wood and other articles, among » hich other articles are in- cluded generally all things m:ide of wood or chiefly of wood, such as ships, barges, punts, tanks, &c. l>y means of rapid ciirrenls of healed air. Tlie man- ner in which these rapid currents of healed air rire produced is hy an appara- tus consisting of a furnace and a series of pipes withinsiile of a case of bricl' work. On each side of the fcrnaco, on a level w iih the fire bars, is a horizon- tal tube, communicating with and springing from these tuIies are a ser es of 18 tubes, placed vertically and par.illel to each oilier over the furnace. The outer end of one of the horizontal lubes cnnimunicales willi a fan, or other impelling apparatus, for driving a constant stream of atmospheric air through the tubes ; as the air passes through ihe tubes it becomes heated at a high femiieraiure and rushes out at the fariher end of the oilier horizonlal tube, and IS then conveyed to the place w here it is lo be applied. The articles to be sulijecled lo the healed currents may he of lno sorls ; either such as can he heated byexlernal application as logs, deals, and porla- bV wooden articles of all sorts, or such as must have the heated currents ap- plied interiorly, as ships, tanks, 8ic. In the case of the former class of arti- cles, they must be placed in closed chambers, galleries, vaults, or flufs. These chambers and other places may be of any suitable form or magnitude, but it is recommended that Ihey should be built of fire brick, and have double doors or shutters for introducing or removing the wood. Flues or channels for the heated air may be constructed in parallel lines either in the floors or in the upright walls of a building, having narrow openings through w hich Ihe heated air may issue in thin streams and spread itself over the surface of the wood. If the opening are in the floor the wood will require tu be placed in an upright position, but if admitted in a horizontal direction, standards and skeleton shelves will he necessary to lay it upon. The great object in all cases is to bring the heated air as speedily as possible into contact with Ihe wood, and to alio wit, after it has done its office to pass away as speedily. Furnaces and apparatus f( r the production of rapid currents of heated air may be erected to prepare any quantity of timber or articles in wood at one time, hut care should be taken that whatever the size of the outlet may be from the series of pipes or vessels by w hich the heat is generated, an outlet of at least equal dimensions is left for the free exit of the air and vapours thrown off. It should also be observed, in constructing the open spaces in tlie floor or up- right walls for ihe stream of heated air to pass towards the timber, that the superficial area of the whole of them combined does not exceed the outlet of the principal outlet of Ihe pipes at the extremity of the furnace so that a free current of hea'ed air maybe allowed to pass uniformly throughout Ihc cham- bers containing Ihe wood to be prepared. With respect to the secmd class of articles, namely those which must have the healed air applied to them in- ternally, as ships, barges, &;c., they must, before introducing the hot currents of air, be covered in from the exieri al atmosphere and made as air light as may be conveniently practicable, except at the inlet provided for the admis- sion of the hot air, and the outlet for the escape of the hot air and vapours. The temperature proper to be given to the air and velocity to the current in each case will depend on the size, density, and maturity of the wood to be acted upon. The inventors find by their experiments that wood generally may be advantageously subjected to currents of air raised to a temperature of from 400° to 500° F. w hen the currents are impelled at the rate of 100 feet per second. But when the wood is in a green state it is better to commence at a lower temperature, say from 130° to 200°, and gradually raise it to the high degrees tiefore staled as Ihe dessicalion proceeds, an object which may in some cases be facilitated by c.irrying a cold air drain from the fanner or other propelling apparatus and attaching a damper to it, so that any quantity of cold air required to reduce the temperature of the hot current may from time lo time be admitted. When, again, the wood is in the log or unconverted stale it should be bored or angered out in the centre, and Ihe current uf hoi air caused to traverse it as well interiorly as exteriorly, whereby much time will be saved in Ihe process of dessicalion and a more uniform re- sult obtained. Woods treated in this manner and with the above modifica- tions when requisite, part rapidly with their natural sap, and any other aqueous niitter whicli they may contain, and the fibres are brought closer together, acquiring thus more rigidity and strength. With respect to the time required to season the wood upon this plan, much must depend upon the original stale of dryness it may be in, as well as the qualily and lemperalure of the healed air forced into contact with it, and it may suffice to remark that the wood may safely remain thus exposed till any escape of moisture ceases to be perceptible. This may be readily known either by applying a mirror or any other polished surface to the outlet, or by calculating ihe quantity of moisture removed from Ihe wood, which will be found to range between J and -ri of its whole weight. For the purpose of ascertaining more correctly the amount of moisture removed from time to time, where Ihe articles are placed in seasoning chambers as before described, an opening should be constructed in the chamber in any convenient position through which a specimen of the wood may be withdrawn and weighed. The second part of the invention consists in purifying wood and oilier ar- ticles, as well as drying, seasoning, and hardening them, by subjecting them to the combined action of steam and of rapid currents of heated air ; and the manner of doing so is exemplifiel in the following description of ihe m ide ot treating wood which is intended lo be made into casks for containing articles such as beer, beef, butler. &c. which would be injured by any emana- tion of colouring, odour.", or noxious matters from ihe wood. It is now a fre- quent practise to steep such wood, wdien made into staves, in cold water for a long period before making them uji, ihe water being renewed from time to time as it becomes discoloured and foul. Instead of Ibis Ihe patentees place the slaves, or pieces of wood of a scantling suiiable for conversion into staves, in a close chamber piled edgeways, either vertically or horizontally, so as to le.ive a space of about an inch between every two pieces or ranges of pieces, and then ciiarge the chamber w ith steam conveyed into it from a boiler, w hich is placed over the beating pipes. As the steam becomes condensed it is al- lowed 1o run off from the boltom of tlie chamber, and a rapid current of heated air is iheu forced through tlie chamber by the means before explained. Alter this the sleam is once more let on ami as it becomes condensed a rajJid current of healed air is a second lime passed througli. And this alternate 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. 423 proci-'ss ol sleamin;; and r;n)iil air licalin),'is cimlimieil until the water (if con - deiisalion oumes ofT colourless or nearly so ; llie rapid current of heated air which IS last introduced being kepi U[i for a considerably K nger time than in any of the precedinjj; instances. The purification of wood and other ai tides of wood by this combination of the action of steam and rapid air healing, is eflected in much less time and much more effectually than by any other method known to the patentees as bein;; heretofore in use. The claim is for the employment, as hereinbefore described, of rapid cur- rents of heated air to eflect llie drying, seasoning, and hardening of wood and other articles, and the application, as hereinbefore exemplified, to the desiccation of vegetable substances generally of so much of our invention as is applicable thereto. SLATE COVERING. Thomas Martin, of Withybush, Haverfordwest, Pembroke, for "certain Itnprovcments in the coiisl ruction of slated roofs or floors, tanks or cisterns or re- servoirs for water, and in pipes, tubes or channels of the same materials for the conveyance of wafer. "—Granted May 22 ; Enrolled Nov. 22, 1844. This invention consists firstly in the construction of roofs, flats or floors, by combining squares or slabs of slate togelher, and attaching them to the boards or rafters in such a manner that the contraction of the timber will have no eflect in disturijing the joints or junctions of the slate ; and secondly in combining slabs, and other forms of slate hereafter described, for tlie pur- pose of holding water and other fluids, and also for conducting the same from one place to another. The first claim consists of three methods of com- bining slabs or squares of slate together, by which means the contraction of the planks and rafters of a roof or floor is prevented from affecting the slate covering. The first method is by fastening on to the boarded roof square slabs or blocks of slate from i inch to J inch thick. In the centre of these blocks a pin or trannel is cemented which projects out from the under side of the block, fcjr the purpose of being inserted in a hole in the boards of the roof, this hole is of a rather largerdiamefer than the I'in to allow of the con- traction and e.xpansion of the wood. A series of squares of slate cemented together are then so placed on the boarded roof (after the blocks are inserted in the boards) that one corner of the four adjoining slates comes immediately over the block of slate, and are there attached by pins or trannels which enter holes made about two-thirds of the way through the thickness of the block to receive them. The holes which pass from the upper to the under square of slale must be larger in diameter than the pins or trannels by a .J or | of an inch, and previously to placing the squares of slate upon the boarded rcof these holes must be luted ; the pins or trannels are likewise luted, and when inserted into the holes a cement or composition in a fluid state is poured down the holes, and uniting with the composition at the joints of the squares a per- fect and indestructible mass is formed. Blocks and squares of slate arranged and cemented together as above described may he applied directly to the rafters of roofs, without using boards, and likewise to the joists and framing of flats or floors. By the second method a roof is constructed of rows of square slates cemented together, with each row lapping over that which is below it, and the junctions of the slates arranged so as to break joint. The rows of slate arc united together by pins or trannels passing through the laps of the slates into holes in the boards of the roof, as before explained. By the third modification longitudinal slabs of slale are laid with square blocks attached thereto by pin or trannels and cement. These slabs are affixed to the roofs by the pins or trannels which pass through the square blocks of slate and the slabs and enter the wood as above explained. The second claim relates to the construction of tanks and reservoirs for holding water, and pipes or channels for conveying the same, in the following manner. A number of square slabs of slate (cut to any required sizej are connected together at their edges as before mentioned, and upon them are cemented other slabs of slate in such a manner as to break joint; four such combinations of slate being made form the sides of the reservoir or cistern, and a similar one is to form the bottom. Around the bottom of the tank or cistern are grooves in which the sides are cemented. To the vertical edges of the bides upright grooved pieces of slate are afli.xed by trannels and cement, and the other sides of the tank are secured thereto in like manner. Leaden rivets are passed through the bottom at the outside of the grooves to prevent the lamina from splitting. Continuous lines of trough, the sides of which form an obtuse angle to each other, are constructed on the same principle as the tank. The third claim is for the construction of pipes, tubes, or channels for con- ducting water from one place to another, in the following manner. Any suit- able number of blocks of slate are hollowed into a semi-cylindrical form, and two of them are first joined together by means of cement and pins or trannels which run through both blocks. In the ends of the pipe thus formed a circular hollow is made and has an opening to the outside of the pipe, with vertical holes leading down to horizontal holes which are made to receive lialf the length of an iron rod or wire. Anolher couple of blocks being simi- larly prepared and joined together as above mentioned are ready to be con- nected lo the former couple ; this isellecteil by inserting the iron rods or wires into corresponding holes, and by pushing one part until it up comes flush with the other, by which means tlie junction is effected; a fluid cement is than poured into the opening, and flowing round the circle the joint is made air tight and impervious to the escape of water. Into ihe pin holes melted lead is poured, which flowing into the holes firmly secures the pins in their place, and thus connects the pipes firmly together. The composition which the patentee prefers fur uniting the sections of slate employed for all the above described pur|ioses, consists of equal portions of carbonized coal tar and resin, and a ninth part of linseed oil melted and mixed together. LIGHTING MINES BY GAS. James Murray, of the Garnkirk Coal Company, Gadder, Lanarkshire; Scotland, for " a new method of nsinf; and applying artificial gas made from coal, oil, or other substances, for lighting and ventilating caverns, pits or mines, or other pits where minerals or metals are worked or ej, b, &c. will be nearly the same, or about 9} tons. This is the breaking weight of an average quality of iron; and, allowing for tlie difl'erence of metals, it could not be raised much above 10 or lOJ tons." They must of necessity be broken, with a weight of from 10 to lOJ tons. 1 have taken the average at 10 tons. " The breaking weight would therefore be about 10 tons when the beam is loaded in the middle, and 20 tons when equally distributed over the whole surface of the projecting flange of the beam." Now, there is a wide difference between the beam being loaded on one point in or near the middle, and being loaded along the whole beam. In the latter case, it would carry just double the weight, Consequently, you have in ar- ches an equally distrbuted weight ; so that a beam supporting them, and which would break with 10 tons, applied to a single point in or near the middle of the beam, will take 20 tons to break it, when the weight is so dis- tributed. "Having ascertained the bearing of the beams, we shall next compare their strength with the actual loads they were called upon to sustain ; and, in making that comparason. it must be borne in mind that the two beams a. a, next the side wall, had their loads unequally distributed, which reduced their bearing powers to 15 tons." Now, you see, that on the west side of the beam o, it was equal to carry 10 tons ; but the cross beams on the east side threw the whole weight upon the middle of the beam ; and, consequently, instead of the breaking weight of the beam a being 20 tons (as it would have been, if equally distributed], it was only 15 tons, having a distribution of the weight only on one side ; and the weight on the other bearing upon one point only. " Now, the load which these beams had to support was 13} tons, 8J tons being supported on a single point on one side, and 5J tons distributed over the surface of the opposite flange on the other. From this it will be seen, that the actual load was to the breaking weight as the numbers 1375 to 15, [* Mr. Faivbairn added, that these beams were rather weaker in original con- struction than the transverse beams ; and that the whole of them were cer- tainly not such as would be considered safe.] or as 1 to 109 being within a mere fraction, or one tenth, of absolute des- truction." That was the very critical state in which this building was standing, as to those beams, just previously to the fall. " Viewing the subject in this light, and taking the above calculations as data, we are no longer at a loss as to the cause of the accident. Even sup- posing the arches to have stood, it will appear obvious that so close an ap- proximation of the breaking weight to the actual load was extremely unsafe ; and that, ander such circumstances, no precautions could have prevented the rupture of the transverse beams n, a, a, whenever they happened to be sub- jected 10 the slightest impact, or any vibrationg motion tending to disturb the parts under strain, and eventually, still further, to lessen their already too much diminished powers of resistance." It is clear, that they must have gone some time or other. I believe Mr. Bell- bouse and I are of the same opinion, that that was the real cause of the ac- cident; that, probably, from the vibratory action of the mill gearing on be- ing set going, or from some other cause, the slightest shock in the wi rid would fracture either of these beams (a, a,) ; and then it is easy to conceive how the others would follow. It would not only carry the gable end down, but it would loosen the whole of these arches on the same floor, and the whole would soon come down in the mass. It would be impossible to account for the entire destruction of the whole building, unless, by some cause, the whole of the framework of one floor came down; and one of these beams [a, a] giving way, would account for that. — The Foreman : I called the coro- ner's attention at the time to the evidence of Mills, taken as he lay in bed, to the effect, that after the arch fell, where he was working, the whole gable- end fell. This seems to confirm the view taken by Mr. Fairbairn. — The Coro- ner: "It fell bay by bay," was Mills's expression. — Mr. Fairbairn: Of course, we were not present at the time of the accident. All we can do is to reason upon it from the facts given in evidence : — " Irrespective of the weakness of the iron beams, w hich we consider as the primary cause of the accident, we would beg to advert to the tie-rods, which, although suflScient in number and strength, were not judiciously placed as respects their position for resisting the strain of the arch, their miiximum poini of tension at the bottom flange of the beam ; but, that Ijeing inconve- nient, they should on no account be placed hiiiber than the soffit of the arch ; and in this position, they would perforate the neutral axis, and give sufficient security to the arch, without injuring the strength of the beam. Instead, however, of approaching this point, they were on the top of the beam, and 18 inches from the bottom flange." Now, with respect to the tie-rods, instead of their being placed above the arch, the true position of the tie-rods should be below, forming the chord of an arc. But that, especially in low rooms, would be found exceedingly in- convenient; and, according to the experience of Mr. Bellhouse and myself, we say, that it should never go higher than the soffit of the arch. " As respects the aiches, we found the versed sine, or rise of the arch, too low ; on mo.st occasions they arc \\ inclies to the toot." We generally prefer an inch and a half rise to every foot of span, if it can be obtained. If this be done, you will find the arch come out a very fair and correct form of arch ; and it is only at the sacrifice of an inch or two in ihe floor, which would not be an object, com|iared with the security of the arches. 1 do not know that this has any relerence to the present inquiry, except that it is a proof that the arches were too low. — Mr. Bellhouse : I think it bears directly upon it ; because the arch in the top slory gave way or sunk, simply from that cause, — a want of sufficient rise. — Mr. Fairbairn : I have already stated, that we had two objects in our inijuiry ; the one to trace out the true cause of this accident, and the other to direct public attention to these facts, in order to prevent not only tlie loss of property, but, above all things, the loss of life. In this latter view, every thing bearing on the construction of these buildings is important. " As respects the arches, we found the versed sine, or rise of the arch, too low : on most occasions they .■ire IJ inches to the foot. But, in order to in- sure perfect security, we should advise, in all future buildings of this descrip- tion, ihat the rise be U inches to every foot of span. In the arch which first gave way, the rise was only a small fraction above an inch, having a rise of only 12 inches in a span of 11 feet (i inches-" [The Foreman suggested an alteration in the reptrt (which is made above), to prevent any mistake as to the supposition that the proportion of rise was the same in all the arches; and Mr. Fairbairn observed thai, of course, a rise of one inch in every foot of span would be a greater rise in that arch which was only 10 feet 2 inches, than it would be in that which was II feet 6 inches. The correction was accordingly made, and Mr. Fairbairn resumed reading.] "On viewing the columns, several imperfections were observed in the va- riable thickness of the metal ; but, in other respects, the pillars wcie satis- factory, and presented no features of weakness indicating nanger from those parts: one inch more in oiameier, inth ilie same weight ol metal, would, however. Iiave given greater seiunly and greater sirengili." On the whole it would have been better, probably, if the pillars had been a little larger. " We cannot close this report, without adverting to the anxious solicitude of Messrs. Radclille. and the strong desire evinced by those gentlemen, to have every part of the siruciure upon the first and strongest principle; and we should imperfectly discharge our duty, if we neglected, on this occasion, 3i* 432 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [November, to bear testimony to the superior strength of all parts of the builcling, except those we have just described, and on which it could not he expected they could form an opinion." We cannot expect that gentlemen who are not acquainted with the principles of building should have an adequate knowledge of all the proportions, and as to what is necessary on such an occasion. "In conclusion, wc have h'reat ple.isure instating, that it appears to us that no pecuniary considerations whatever were present to tlie minds of Messrs. Radclifle in the due and perfect construction of tliese mills. "WM. FAIRBAIRN, "DAVID EELLHOUSE. •' Manchester, November 6th, 1844." In addition to the above, we have procured drawings of the girders, to farther illustrate Messrs. Fairbairn and Bellhouse's report and observations. Fig. 2. Fig. 2, section of beam supporting cross beams at the end of the mill. Depth in the middle, 16^ inches; depth at tbe end, 13| inches; bottom flanch, 6 inches by 1| inch thick; top flanch, 3 inches by J inch thick. Fig. 3 is a rough sketch of the form of one of the wall beams, and the others being nearly the same it may be taken as a fair average of the whole. The longitudinal beams which rested on the extreme gable were i inch deeper in the middle. The arch tie rods, of | inch square Fig. 3. -ja^ /4..0 iroHi were at the top of the beams, as represented by the holes a a a, (fig. 3,) whereas they are generally fixed in the position as under, at e e, (fig. 4;. Fig. 4. From the above it will be easy to conceive the nature of the building, and the mode of construction in general use in these districts. The arches, it will be observed, are composed of a brick length from c to rf, | brick from d to e, and half brick in the centre. The top of the arches is then filled up with a concrete of lime and ashes, on which is laid either the stone flagging or tiles, as the case may he. The verdict of the jury was accidental death. THE NEW -ROYAL EXCHANGE. The intelligence of the tesselated pavement of the Mercliants' Area being since taken up has given us rather a chill, for it seems at present rather doubtful whether it will ever be laid down again, and if so that part of the building will be deprived of what was not only a magnificent piece of decora- tion, but one quite unique in this country. We suspect that this unfortunate failure must have been, in a great measure, owing to the hurry wiih which the work was urged on, merely for the sake of getting the place in readiness by a certain day for a ceremony that was manifestly premature. A mis- nomer it certainly was to call that the " opening" of the Exchange, which was only the prelude to closing it again; and surely it would have been far more respectful towards the Queen to have delayed the " inauguration" until the whole had been perfected in every pari, and rendered fit for immediate occupation. That economy could have been the motive for this strange pre- cipitancy is utterly impossible, because tlie expense it occasioned for tempo- rary preparations and fittings-up must have been a very formidable item in- deed, considering that there is nothing now to show for it. What then is to be put into the opposite scale against it, those best can tell who are au .fait in the mysteries of city politics and diplomacy. To us the affair of the "open- ing" appears to have been hurried on very injudiciously, if only because it now looks like a mere " flash in tlie pan," or a sudden start off before the signal of " all right ! " had been given. However, if we care nothing for the manner in which that business was managed, we can speak with satisfaction of the edifice itself. We do not, indeed, pretend to have as yet so fully examined it as to be able to give a decisive and mat\ired opinion as to every part; but speaking from such ob- servation as we have hitherto had the opportunity of making, and taking it as a rich and dignified pile, fully equal to what we expected— in some resp els superior to what tbe architect's first designs promised. At present it is diffi- cult to collect what is the general opinion of competent judges in regard to it, until the mere hubbub of newspaper praise shall have subsided. That it should be universally admired by professional men is not to he expected, if only be- cause it throws some of them and their productions into the shade, and re- proaches the poverty and dryness of manner which they would palm upon us for simplicity and purity. Accordingly we are not at all surprized at finiling that a disposition to carp at the E.\change has begun to manifest itself. It is alleged to be overloaded with ornament, and coarse in its details; and it cer- tainly must be acknowledged to be the first in an eminent degree, in comparison with the bareness generally, and the blankness with respect to sculptured en- richment in particular, which we have been accustomed to in other public buildings — some of them principal ones— erected in the present century. As to coarseness — what may appear such to some, we might call energy ; and if both the design itself and the treatment of it in regard to style are somewhat 5id generis, so also is the purpose of the building ; and it was probably consi- dered desirable that it should at all events e.\press both stateliness and libe- rality of ornament, even though tinged in some degree with heaviness and quaintness. With regard to the shops we certainly do not approve of iheni, being decidedly of opinion that there ought not to have been any at all ; nor do ■we see what particular advantage can accrue to the tenants from their shops being incorporated with the Exchange, since there is no sheltered walk before them as was the case in the former building. At all events they ought to be occupied as offices and not as shops for retail business. However, they were made a sine qua non, and the architect had no alternative but to comply with immutable instructions. — We annex a very able description of the Building from the Times. The Site, Is remarkable for its commanding importance in on« aspect, the western, and for its irregularity on the other three sides, having, as is well known, a wedge-like form, produced by the convergence of Cornhill and Threadneedle- strert towards the Mansion-house. The munificence of Parliament having facilitated th« purchase of the isolated property to the west of the late Ex- change, an opportunity was obtained for turning the most important facade of the new structure in that direction, instead of placing it to the south, as formerly. By this means the space unintercepted by buildings in advance from the centre of the present portico becomes extended to the unusual length of between 500 and 600 feet. On the other hand, the large and still increased amount of accommodation required in the new Exchange, together with the necessity for keeping that accommodation within an easily accessible elevation from the great thoroughfares, rendered it imperative that all the available ground on the north and south boundary lines should be occupied with building, in spite of the irregularity and want of parallelism to which we have just referred. We pass on, then, to examine what is the nature of that accommodation which principally governs the extent and distribution of the building under our notice. In the structure first raised by Sir Thomas Gresbam only two objects seemed to have been provided tor — the daily meeting of the merchants, and the reception of the shopkeepers ; the upper part of the building having been, as it seems, arranged very much after the manner of a bazaar. Its successor, the late Royal Exchange, rebuilt after the great fire, ultimately received some new and important bodies of occu- pants, in lieu of the upstairs shopkeepers of the former establishment. First in order of time, came the association that originated in Lloyd's Coffee- house ; their introduction was followed by that of the Royal Exchange As- surance Corporation, and this again by the provision for the Greshani Col- lege, on the purchase of its establishment by Government for the use of the E.xci8e. In rebuilding the Exchange once more, the Gresham Committee have made provision, not only for an increase in the extent of accommoda- tion to the shops, but for the reception of an additional company, that of the London Assurance ; while they have assigned the Gresham College to a separate edifice, and provided a suite of rooms, hitherto unallotted, in the situation at first devoted to that body. The principal departments of //«? present building consist, therefore, of the following portions, as to number and order : — The Merchants' Quadrangle. Lloyd's. The Royal Exchange Assurance. The London Assurance. The unappropriated offices. The offices and shops of private parties. Plan of the Building. Setting the portico out of notice for the moment, the mass of building pro- duces a figure about 272 feet in length from east to west, with a frontage of 118 feet at the west end, and of 176 feet at the opposite extremity, the north and south sides being equal, and connected with the eastern face by 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 433 large quadrant corners. The portico gives a further extension to the west of about 28 feet in depth, by a length or frontage of 90 feet. Nearly in the centre of this entire mass is the Merchants' Quadrangle, occupying a space of 168 feet from east to west, by 111 feet across, these dimensions being in- clusive of the covered arcade or ambulatory all round, which is about 26 feet wide, leaving an open centre in the proportion of a double square. In the interval remaining to the east of the Merchants' Quadrangle occurs another little court, some 60 feet in length from north to south, and 19 feet in width. It is only necessary to add to this general description of v\hat is technically " the plan," that there is an entrance to the quadrangle from the centre of each of the four fronts of the building ; that the centre of the portico is re- cessed to a depth equal to its projection ; and that the entrance from the east front occupies the base of the tower. We may, however, mention further, by anticipation, that the height of the building embraces a basement story, ground floor, mezzanine, one pair or principal floor, and in many cases, a two-pair stoiy. Returning, then, to the distribution of the ground floor, we have all its western portion, between the quadrangle and the portico, occupied by the Royal Exchange Assurance, with an entrance within the portico on each side. The London Assurance engages a small portion of space on the south or Cornhill side for an entrance ; while the establishment of Lloyd's has its ap- proach by the small eastern conrt, before referred to, between the quadrangle and the tower. Almost the whole remaining space on the ground story, both in the three street frontages and in the eastern court, is devoted to the shops and private offices, some 37 in number, which, accordingly, form the characteristic external features of the lower portion of the building. It is on the one- pair, or principal floor, that the three great public establishments have their chief accommodation. Two-thirds of the space to the north and east of the quadrangle are occupied by Lloyd's rooms. Thence, from the south-east corner, past the centre of the Cornhill front westward, extend the rooms of the London Assurance. The Royal Exchange Assurance continues the range to the south-west extremity, and then northward past the centre of the west front, where the unappropriated ofiices complete the circuit by the occupation of the north-west corner. It would be tedious and unneces- sary to particularize the rooms in each department ; a sufficient notion of their extent may be gathered from the following comparison of surface. M"e believe that we shall not be found far from the truth, if we estimate the whole covered superficies upon this story at 31,000 feet. Out of this total a rough allotment will give to Lloyd's .. .. .. 15,500 superficial feet. London Assurance . . . . 5,900 — Royal Exchange Assurance 5,700 — Unappropriated oflices , . 3,900 — 31,000 The only rooms that appear to demand a more detailed notice are the im- portant suite devoted to the business of Lloyd's, which, however, will more properly engage our attention in the course of the examination which we proceed to institute into the architectural composition and decoration of the structure. Architecthral Character of the Exterior. To consider the Royal Exchange, then, as a work of art, we presume that the west front — the principal, though smallest of the four — furnishes the governing lines to the rest of the external design from the proportions of its portico. The order employed is Corinthian, 50 feet in height, that is, 41 feet for the column, and the remainder for its superincumbent entablature. This order is continuous round the entire building, being elevated upon a granite stylohate or pedestal, varying in height from four to eight feet, ac- cording to the fall of the ground ; and it is also surmounted generally by an attic and balustrade about ten feet in height. To this mention of the order and its proportions we will just add, that in all matters of detail preference appears to have been given to the Italian school of design, that reigned uni- versally in this country at the beginning of the last century. Portico or West Facade. But, to return to the west facade, we have a portico of eight columns in width, and two in projection, leaving a narrow blank wing in the back ground on each side. The front rank of eight columns is backed by a line of four, so placed as to give an internal space to the centre and sides in the propor- tion of three to two ; the centre, as we have before intimated, is also deeply recessed. To avoid a multiplicity of small windows for lighting the various apartments behind the portico, that object is attained by means of two large and boldly arched Venetian windows of Ionic detail; and between them, in the central division, is an archway of corresponding outline, which gives access to an inner vestibule communicating at once with the quadrangle. These thiee arches are finished with well executed keystone shields and foliage, exhibit- ing in the centre the merchant's mark of Sir Thomas Gresham, and, over the windows, the bearings of the old Merchant Adventurers, and the Merchants of the Staple of Calais. The distribution of space in the portico affords an opportunity for carrying over it a vaulted ceiling in three compartments, en- riched with panelling and flowers. Of the pediment, which contains a dis- play of sculpture by Mr. Westmacott, we shall speak hereafter, in noticing the accessories to the general design : and shall only add to this description of the portico that, as it occupies the lowest position in the declivity of the site, it is approached with effect by a flight of nine steps, well flanked by the advancing stylobate at each end. The abuse of such an architectural appliance as that of the Greco-Roman portico is so much more common than its felicitous use, that we do not won- der that professional men of high genius forgo its application altogether, rather than have recourse to it in an unfavourable position and aspect, or under circumstances where it would be nnsuited to internal arrangements. Wren's porticoes of this description are extremely rare, and so are those of the late Sir John Soane. M'c have already in London porticoes usque ad nauseam, crammed with little openings at the back, telling all tlie story of a house built within the shell of a temple. On the other hand, those architects whose taste has led them to avoid this incongruity and trifling have produced by the reverse an effect that may he classical, if that be any recommendation, but which is too frequently sombre and destitute of anima- tion, manifestly nnsuited to the dull atmosphere of Britain, and especially so to the genius of commercial London. It is a great relief, therefore, to meet with a specimen that does not excite our indignation at the repetition of the " everlasting portico;" and that relief we certainly enjoy in the inspection of the west front of the Royal Exchange. The situation it occupies is one so temptingly commanding, that though we might have recommended the trial of some more novel combination, we can excuse the architect's preference for a portico, since his choice has been conducted to so happy a result. The composition under notice has the merit of character ; it is manifestly the portico to an important secular building, and not to a church, much less to a pagan temple. It has, in an eminent degree, the advantage of artistical " breadth," and possesses a play of outline and force of shadow unequalled in any other example in the metropolis, the west front of St. Paul's excepted. The arrangement of its plan bears some resemblance to that of the Roman Pantheon ; while the niches or recesses in the latter off'er, to the sticklers for precedent, some lines of authority for the introduction of the Venetian win- dows of the Exchange. As to these windows, we may just observe, that while their outlines eminently help the eft'ect of liveliness in this portico, they are so designed as distinctly to express their multiform duty, though combined in such a way as to preserve perfect unity. The management of the portico ceiUngs, which in the Pantheon are of bald timber, is here so conducted, by the vaulting we have described, as to complete the expression of the internal design, to enhance the effect of loftiness and general magni- tude, and to meet the eye of the passer-by with a succession of pleasing forms that would have been lost under any of the older modes of arrange- ment. It is not superfluous to add, that the slope of the pediment, or roof- line of the portico, approaches more nearly to the outline of beauty for such subjects than in most cases to which we can refer. This may be felt by any one who looks at the two extreme instances in Trafalgar-square ; the one pediment gaping for more than its allowance of the Royal arms — the other incapable, from its flatness, of receiving any sculptured device worthy of at- tention. Resuming our description, it only remains to be stated, respecting the wet front, that the narrow compartments beyond the portico on the north and south are occupied by solid rustication in the lower part, above which, in each case, is a panel containing a flowered wreath and mantle, charged, with the Royal cypher ; this again is surmounted by a festoon, and the crowning attic exhibits a device formed with the prajtorial insignia. South Facade. But it is time that we look at the other fronts of the building. Through- out the south facade the main order is continued by pilasters, dividing the whole length into thirteen equal portions, the pilasters being doubled at the extremities of the front. In each of these thirteen divisions is a rusticated arch of due proportions, the rustic arrangement, with its surmounting mould- ings, occupying about two-thirds of the available height beneath the general entablature. The arch we speak of contains ordinarily a shop, with its mez- zanine story above ; in addition to which, each shop has a room in the base- ment, furnished with all appropriate accommodation. Above the rusticated shop arches appear the windows of the principal story, deeply sunk, and surrounded by enriched architraves with Ijuldly-carved keystones and panel- ings. Of the thirteen compartments into which this front is divided, the central one, as the entrance, and that on each side of it, are deeply recessed within the main order; in each is a screen arch carried upon corbels, and decorated with a bold shield having rich festoons of flowers attached. These shields are charged respectively with the arms of Sir Thomas Gresham in the centre, those of the city of London on the dexter, and of the Mercer's Com- pany on the sinister. In the spaces above are three windows, boldly com- posed with scrolled piers, carrying enriched segmental pediments, and deco- rated with lion-masks and massive drops of flowers. The attic, which crowns the five middle divisions of this front, is elevated above the wing portions, its extremities being charged with devices of mantles and regalia, with the cyphers of Queens Elizabeth and Victoria, and the dates at which their re- spective Exchanges were completed ; while the three middle compartments are recessed like those below, and occupied by deeply enriched panels. The quadrant corners which connect this facade with the eastern, and that again with the north front, are without |iilasters, but contain three rusticated arches below, and as many windows above. The central window is finished semi-circularly, with somewhat massive accompaniments ; and above it, to give variety to the line of attic, is a pedim6nted tablet-composition, exhibit- ing the grasshopper, as Sir Thomas Gresham's crest, surrounded by branches of the oak and palm. East Facade. The east front, at which we now arrive, sustains in general the character 434 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [November, of the south, and is divided into seven compartments, three of them being formed into a centre, and the remaining two on each side being treated pre- cisely in the same manner as the ten wing-divisions in the Cornhill front. The three central compartments are somewhat recessed, and are divided by four columns instead of pilasters, two of the columns being isolated, and two partly attached. The arches in these are of a more ornate character than their neighbours, each being surrounded by a band of oak leaves, and finished with a massive keystone, that branches out with scrolls to form a corbelling for the support of the window dressings above, which are of large propor- tions and elaborate finish. The attic above this portion of the design is ele- vated, and fortified with massive inverted consoles, one rising from each portion of the entablature which breaks over the columns below. In each of the three divisions of this attic is a large shield, with foliage, displaying, respectively, the arms of the city, Gresham, and the Mercers. Each extremity of the attic is crowned with a fanciful terminal, bearing the caduceus of commerce, and apparently designed to produce a proper combination with the outline of the tower, which rises from the centre. This important fea- ture, whose practical object is to contain the clock, with an improved chime- apparatus of fifteen bells, is carried to a height of 170 feet from the ground by four successive stages of design, above the general order of the building. In the first or lowest of these its plan is a square, fortified with double but- tress-like piers at the angles, of which the two on the eastern face are made to carry up the perpendiculars of the columns below, so as to produce con- tinuity of line from the ground. This stage of the design is occupied in the east front by a niche, and, in the others by corresponding openings, with architraves and bold keystones, the whole being bounded by a massive cor- nice. The niche is intended for the reception of a colossal statue of Sir Thomas Gresham, from the chisel of Mr. Behnes. The next story of the design exhibits in four aspects the clock. dials, which are nearly nine feet in diameter; it is flanked at each angle by two vases, and is somewhat more broken than the former stage. The next consists of an octagonal lantern pierced with a long ornamental outlet on each alternate face, and fortified anglewise on the remaining four by two columns of a composed order, with their appropriate accompaniments. The fourth and last stage consists of a circular tambour, surrounded by eight consoles, and pierced with outlets in the intervals; the whole carrying the dome, from which is elevated the grasshopper vane rescued from the former building. North Facade. We pass on to the north front, which differs in its subdivisions from the south, having, instead of thirteen, fifteen arches of narrower proportion, five of them forming an advanced centre, and the remaining five on each side being carried by rusticated piers without any pilasters. The centre of five arches consists again of three, with recessed divisions in the upper story, flanked by two of a more solid character. In the former, between the arches and the richly decorated windows which surmount them, is a tablet-course bearing three inscriptions: over the entrance the motto of Gresham, in old French, Fortun a my ; to the east, or dexter. Due dirige nos ; and on the west the Honor Deo of the Mercers' Company. The advanced compartment on each side of these central three contains, on a level with the windows, an enriched niche ; that on the east is intended to receive a statue of Sir Richard Whittington, by Mr. Carew, and that on the west a figure of Sir Hugh Myd- delton, by Mr. Joseph. As the upward termination to these portions of the design, the attic is raised to form ornamental groups of ehimnies, faced with carved festoons of fruit and flowers. The three intermediate divisions of this attic follow the recessed lines of the architecture below, and have the piers surmounted by altar-like terminals, carved with the Mercurial caduceus. The wing portions of this front have, above the shop-story of arches, a tier of elaborately composed windows, whose dressings reach the entablature above, an arrangement which is evidently intended to obviate the feebleness of efl^ect that would otherwise result from the absence of pilasters. These wings are terminated by the general balustrade. General Remarks on the Exterior. Having thus carried our survey round the exterior of the building, we will briefly otter our opinion that the merit of expression, which we conceded to the west front, maybe justly claimed by the other three; the whole effect is distinctly commercial ; the structure solid, as the representative of British trade, yet ornate, as the centre of our mercantile wealth. This fitness we conceive to constitute tlie first requisite of good design; and we find it in this building not unacconijianied with unity aiul breadth, nor yet destitute of the variety attainable from light and shade. The detail is of a clear and de- cided character, evidently studied with a view to future efl'ect under the dis- colouring hand of time. It is generally original in design, and free from the charge of uninventive repetition. Among otiier points we may notice the windows in the principal story, of which we have counted seven carefully- studied varieties, yet so applied as to avoid any frivolous disturbance of con- tinuity and breadth. M'e could have wished that some of the shops had been dispensed with, so as to have allowed of more spacious entrances to the quadrangle from the north and south sides ; but this we presume was a considertion of rental too powerful for the architect to encounter. A threefold, instead of single external vestibule in these aspects, would have formed an important accession to the efl'ect of the design. The treatment of the tower, considered as a portion of the building, is felicitous, whether as combined with and growing out from the sub-structure, or viewed with re- ference to its outline at various angles of sight. The obstruction of its front view from the eastern approaches is a much less misfortune than that which would have arisen from the discordance of outlines, had the tower been placed either in the north or south front ; and to have raised it in the west, behind the portico, would have been in point of character the most fatal of architectural errors. Situated as it is, the tower produces one of its happiest effects as a termination to the vista obtained on approaching the quadrangle by the great western entrance. The Merchants' Quadrangle. To this portion of the building it is necessary that we should now direct our attention. The Merchants' Quadrangle, of which we have already stated the dimensions, presents to our view an open court, whose length from east (o west, is twice its width. Its height presents us with a composition of two orders — Doric below, and Ionic above, the columns being engaged to the soUds behind, and elevated upon pedestals. Each of these orders compre- hends a line of well-proportioned arches, with appropriate imposts and dress- ings. The arches of the lower tier being open, communicate with the am- bulatory or arcade that surrounds the court; and at the back of this ambula- tory are corresponding divisions of piers with arches deeply recessed. The arches of the upper tier, comprised within the Ionic order, are treated as large curved recesses, enriched with panelling both reticulated and plain, and containing each a window, whose dressings are advanced in a very prominent relief, standing within a carved stone balcony, and finished above with an elaborate and pedimented top, that occupies the head of the great recessed arch. Above this window, in the crown of each arch, is a keystone, forming a liandsome cartouche-shield, charged with the arms of one of the states with which we have commercial intercourse. This is surmounted by the entabla- ture of the order, the cornice of which is of unusually bold projection and detail ; and from this rises the attic, which, with its broken outline of piers and open panelling of playful design, terminates the composition. This de- scription embraces one vertical compartment of the general design ; to com- plete the circuit, it must be understood that on each side of the length of the court there are seven of these compartments with two small ones, and, at each end of the court, three such compartments with two small ones. These smaller compartments, being two at each corner of the quadrangle, have each a rusticated double arch below, and, variously, a window or niche above, surmounted, successively, with a carved festoon and apanel containinga wreath of oak and laurel. An ornamented group of ehimnies terminates the attic over each of these corners. We consider the composition of this court eminently successful. It is more imaginative than any of the external design ; the combination of forms is grateful even to the uninitiated eye, while the subdivision and character of detail are calculated to enhance its apparent magnitude. We are only un- certain whether we should not have proposed a greater width of proportion — whether that of three to five, for instance, would not have been preferable to the present of one to two. But, we must complete our description of the surrounding ambulatory, by observing that its ceiling is formed on a principle somewhat analogous to that developed in the wooden ceilings to some of our churches of the later Gothic period. Every pier of the arcade has a band or beam crossing over to its neighbour against the opposite wall, which beam is curved down to its springing at each end, and carried by a corbel or console. In the opposite, or longitudinal direction, these beams are intersected by two others, so as to form in each division of the ambulatory one large panel between two narrow ones. Pendants of varied foliage are applied at all points where these beams or bands intersect each other. A similar arrangement is recognized in the pavement, which repeats in party-coloured stone the architectural lines of the ceiling. The Encaustic Decoration. It is on the ceiling and walls of this ambulatory that the extent of the so- called encaustic painting, of which we have heard, has been executed by, and under the direction of, M. Sang, the artist of Munich. Some notices of the day have proved a verbal description to be of so little use in elucidating mere matters of colour and pictorial device, that we shall abstain from anything more than a very general notice of M. Sang's performance. His object has been to obtain colour by the Raft'aellesque style of decorative design, and in this he has admirably succeeded, displaying a most inventive fancy, great elegance of outline, large resources for the enrichment of purely architectuial members, a perfect knowledge of the harmony and balance of colours, and extreme beauty of execution. Under the advice of the architect, he has maintained the expression of the edifice by the various national heraldic sub- jects, introduced into the leading compartments of the ceiling, while the somewhat minute character of his detail increases the expansivcness of the general architectural effect. Notwithstanding its frequently-questioned ap- propriateness, we are glad to see this class of decoration finding its way into the mart of merchandise ; even there, the loiterer may now become impreg- nated with some of that zeal for art, which shall ultimately vindicate us from the alleged tastelessness of the mere nation lioit/iijuiere. Not that we speak of this mode of embellishment, for a moment, in the same tone that we should adopt towards the highest school of pictorial composition ; but it is still a department well calculated not only to please but to improve the com- mon taste, and quicken the perception of beauty in general. It is, moreover, a department to which English skill has been very 'jttle directed; while on the continent, and especially under the auspices of the King of Bavaria, it has for years been cultivated with great assiduity and success. Hence the difliculty in the present instance, where expedition seems to have been a 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 435 primary object, of decorating sucii a large extent of surface without some assistance from those accustomed to the same work abroad. Had the Gresham Committee been prepared to authorize the execution of a series of paintings of a far higher order, in the historical and descriptive depart- ments, so far as these might have been applicable, it is matter of evidence that English talent would have been more than adequate to every exigency ; it is from the novelty and peculiarity of the work alone that any necessity arises for extraneous assistance. We have hitherto omitted to state, that the north and south approaches to the quadrangle, as well as the entrance under the tower, have also had their ceiUngs painted by M. Sang, in fresco ; the eastern entrance is particu- larly successful. We must also mention, before leaving the ambulatory and its decorations, that its north-east and south-east extremities contain niches, which are tenanted respectively by the statue of Queen Elizabeth, by Mr. Watson, and of Charles II., by Gibbons ; the latter being the identical occu- pant of the central place in the former Exchange. These statues, of course, refer to the buildings for the same purpose erected in the reigns of the sove- reigns they represent. Tesselated Pavement. In closing our account of the quadrangle, we have only to observe that its open area is floored with tesselated pavement, under the care of Mr. Singer. ' Its design consists, generally, of a large fret and accompaniments, forming a broad external border, after which the elongated form within is subdivided by other bands of ornament into a square between two oblongs ; each of these figures has then a lozenge inscribed within it, entwined with a circle at each of the angles. The space left in the centre of the larger figure is in- tended to afford the site for Mr. Lough's statue of Her Majesty ; the centres of the smaller lozenges are occupied by a semi-arabesque flower. he general design is by no means characterized by the exuberant fancy of some of the Roman remains ; but its efi'ect of colour is rich and good, harmonizing well with the tout ensemble of M. Sang's adjacent performance. We have only to hope that the dust of traflic may not totally obscure, nor exposure to the elements quickly destroy, Mr. Singer's production ; as the experiment which he has here made is one which we would willingly see repeated, and with success, wherever a favourable opportunity may present itself. The Sculpture. We are sorry that, after going the round of the building we find we must be very brief in the consideration of the remaining accessory, that of sculp- ture. Mr. Westmacott's production, which occupies the tympanum of the pediment, seems to us a display of individual figures, civic, commercial, and foreign, rather than a composition, those figures being well executed, but minute withal. The whole is meagre as to descriptive interest ; and the isolated as well as emblematical character of the presiding figure of Com- merce, amidst sixteen occupied realities, leaves it open to the charge of that want of significancy urged by the author of a jeii, d'esprit which appeared in The Times about a month since. The general effect, however, is rich, the relief powerful, and the principal lines in harmony with and subordinate to those of the architecture. We object to the motto from Scripture, as being a mere sculptural subterfuge, and especially out of keeping with the Latin inscription beneath. The department of architectural sculpture, such as that of devices, drape- ries, flower-carving, aud the like, has, we are given to understand, been com- mitted to Mr. Westmacott. The golden days of Grinling Gibbons are gone, without leaving to us his worthy representative. Greatly is it to be lamented that our present architects are not more solicitous to revive the ancient school of carving, and reject the trumpery and meretricious finery of plaster and composition, which affords to every pretender a means of display as equivocal in taste as it is cheap in execution. The mischief of all this, is that it substi- tutes the mechanical for the imaginative, the perpetual repetition of one idea for the renewed creations of individual genius. As ordinary spectators, we never walk round the inside or outside of St. Paul's, without wishing that all the members of the architectural profession could be made to feel this fact as deeply as we do. In the Exchange, however, there appear many steps taken in the right direction ; and we hope to see the same track followed with increasing success by all future practitioners who value their art for any- thing more than its commission. Lloyd's Room. Before closing our remarks, we must notice Lloyd's rooms, which are the only apartments of any public interest. They occupy, as before stated, the north-eastern portion of the principal story of the building, and are ap- proached by a staircase of amplitude and solidity, arranged in easy stages, but exhibiting little eflfort at display. From this we enter the archway lead- ing to what is, specifically, the lobby, a lofty apartment, equal to a square of about 35 feet, but of irregular form on the north side. From the irregular portion, however, a symmetrical space is cut off by the intervention of a columned arcade of three openings. This lobby communicates to the west with the commercial-room, to the south with the subscribers' or under- writers'-room and its suite, and to the east with the captains'-room. The commercial-room is affected in plan by the general obliquity of the site, but is treated in such a way as almost entirely to disguise that fact. Its extreme » The tesselated paving since the openiog of the Exchange has been removed, it is a failure either through its being exposed to the open atcQosphere, or not being properly embedded in a cement that would withstand the Influence Of moisture. Ihe area is to be covered with Seyssel Asphalte. length is about 92 feet ; its average width 40, and height 30. It is divided into five compartments in length by means of broad enriched piers on each side ; these compartments answering to the same number of windows, which derive light from the upper part of the merchants'-court. Each corner of the room is a quadrant, in the centre of which stands an Ionic column, ele- vated on a pedestal, and giving support to an advancing angle of the entab- lature, which is continued round the room considerably enriched. From this springs a cove to meet the plafond of the ceiling, across which all the prevailing lines of the vertical architecture are continued, and from which, by the five principal compartments, light is liberally introduced through ele- gant horizontal glazing. But the principal of Lloyd's apartments, for size and symmetry, is the subscribers'-room, which looks into the quadrangle at its eastern end, and is an oblong of 98 feet in length by 40 in width. It is divided in length into six compartments, by members very similar in effect to those in the room last described, though their detail is totally different. Like that, it has its ceiling commenced with a cove-like arrangement, but pierced in each compartment into a half-groin, through the top of which light is introduced by an ornamentally glazed hexagon. The chief supply of light, however, is obtained reflectively, down the centre of the room, each of the six compartments of the ceiling being there elevated into a dome, with a window beneath its springing on each side. The effect of this mode of light- ing is less brilliant, perhaps, than of that in the commercial-room ; but it is beautifully diffusive and gentle, while abundant in its supply. The decora- tive detail in this room is very cousiderable, but far from overpowering ; wc observe in it the frequent repetition of the heraldic bearings adopted by the establishment of Lloyd's. Leaving this room by an archway on the south-east, we enter the reading- room, an apartment 40 feet long by 25 wide, lighted by a lantern and fitted at mid-height with a gallery on each long side, approached by a double stair- case on the east. The decorations of this room are not so elaborate as to detain us for a description ; and we turn, therefore, by the north, succes- sively through the secretary's-room, its anti-chamber under the tower, a clerk's office, and the kitchen of Lloyd's, which suite completes the circuit of the eastern court, and brings us to the captains'-room. More need not be said of this apartment than that it is a cheerful combination of three rooms in one, connected by wide archways, and occupying the north-east angle of the building ; from this we are led out again upon the great lobby first noticed, and from which we retreat without thinking it necessary to carry the reader through a series of various other and less accessible apart- ments of no public interest. Here, then, we conclude our review of this important structure ; and in doing so we shall not pay the architect or his co-operators the adulation with which the crowd are too apt to laud every new building of magnitude when clean from the mason's hands, as a superb edifice, magnificent pile, and what- ever else the use of equally discriminative terms can make it. Be it enough that we offer the expression of our opinion that the building has merit suffi- cient to secure for it the approbation of futurity ; which is the highest ob- ject a true artist aims to secure. That we may not leave our account incomplete, we subjoin the names of those gentlemen who have been immediately and statedly engaged in super- intending the building, or conducting its decorative departments, not omit- ting to recognize at the outset the services of Mr. Richard Lambert Jones, as the chairman of the controlling Gresham Committee : — Mr. William Tite, architect. Mr. Ebenezer Trotman, assistant. Messrs. G. and R. Webb, builders of the foundations. Mr. Thomas Jackson, builder of the superstructure. Messrs. Westmacott, Behnes, Carew, Joseph, Lough, and Watson, sculptors. Mr. C. H. Smith, architectural carver. Herr Frederick Sang, decorator in fresco and encaustic painting. M. A. Singer, maker of tesselated pavement. Mr. E. J. Dent, clockmaker. Messrs. Mears and Son, bellfounders. In conclusion, we derive satisfaction from a belief that the general state of professional, and even of public taste, as well as the recently increased facili- ties for building, are in favour of great advances in architectural excellence. Within less than an interval of 20 years, we find that an edifice, not far dif- fering in size from the General Post-office, and displaying incomparably more studied composition and elaborate detail, can be raised at about half the cost which that structure demanded. We wish all success to art aud its profes- sors, and hope that, for the national credit, its interests may never be disso- ciated from the favour of those influential men who shall hereafter assemble in the new Royal Exchange, the centre of the commerce of the world. Atmospheric Railway. — The ConstUutiomiel states, that " the first trial on a large scale «as made of M. Hallete's phin of applying the atmospheric system to railroads a fuw days since on a space of 300 feet in his manufac- tory at Arras. The result appears to have been so satisfactory, that Messrs. Arago, Seguier, and other distinguished engineers, are to be invited tu wit- ness a second trial in a few days." 436 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND AUCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Novembbr, REVICWS. Lectures on Painting and Design. By B. R. Hatdon, Historical Painter. London : Longmans. 1844. Haydon lias created such a sensation in the artistic world that the greatest interest has been felt with regard to his boolc. Those who have heard him lecture knew how to settle the matter, but many of the public Icnew scarcely what to expect. Was it to be something very bad and very horrible, abusing the cocked hats of the Academy, and putting forward a farrago of trash and discontent? This many have asked, and many will ask, on hearing of a book from the pen of the Great Satan of Art, which many innocent people, on the ingenious suggestions of their neighbours, believe him to be. To this we can answer that it is a mighty pleasant kind of book, hardly a word about the Academy but what is good, no treason about Queen Elizabeth, and a great deal of sound and useful information. It will be as pleasant to tliose who appreciate the exertions of a hard-working man to know this, as it is unpleasing to those who treat him as a bugbear to find that they have no points on which to lay hold. As to ourselves, we are not Haydonites, but we know of no allegiance we owe to the Royal Academy to take part in squabbles against Haydon, and we think we are able to form a good judgment of our own with regard to him. He has very likely been an indiscreet man, he has involved ■ himself in artistic rows there can be no doubt, and he is morbidly sen- sitive as to the feelings of the Academy towards him, but what we have got to deal with is his public conduct as a teacher of art, and we can readily ascertain that. He has for the last ten years been engaged in diffusing public information on art among the literary institutions of the country, sometimes receiving an inadequate remuneration, but often, to our personal knowledge, making great sacrifices and putting himself to much inconvenience in order to promote some public object where he could meet no reward but the conviction of having rendered a valuable service. In his lectures he may on some points have been unsound, no man is perfect, but there cannot be the slightest doubt in the world that he has done more to give the public information on art than any man in this country. Haydon's lectures have co-operated more than anything else in the extension of schools of design and of artistic instruction, and he has every reason to be gratified that he has been listened to, upon a little known subject, witli attention, with admiration, and v\ith the determination to profit by his advice. These discourses have also roused the public as to the fresco competitions, and prepared them to appreciate the works exhibited for their inspec- tion. Art Unions have also benefitted by the popular sympathy so excited, and no impartial inquirer will doubt that immediately and indirectly he has done more for the arts than any single individual. On these grounds he is entitled to our gratitude and our attention, and all the private demerits in the world, if any attached to him, could never cancel these public benefits. We believe, however, that as to the squabbles between Haydon and the Academy the exasperation is much moderated on both sides, and that with the good feeling of the public a better disposition will be infused. The lectures of such a public servant demand, therefore our atten- tion, but do so the mure strongly as Haydon's exertions have greatly advanced the public taste for art, and excited a feeling which we have endeavoured to stimulate, and which is already bringing a pow er- ful influence to bear upon architecture, as we hope it will yet more decidedly do. Let us have better educated architects, a better edu- cated public, aye, and we say better educated critics, and we may hope for the advancement of architecture, and on these grounds we now, as we have always done, devote our attention with pleasure to one of the collateral branches of the fine arts, which we firmly believe are essentially united. We cannot but think it would be much better if painters and sculptors wore more of architects, and architects more of painters and sculptors, for we are certain this is essential to the exertion of every energy of art. A great source of Charles Barry's power undoubtedly is his appreciation of colour and design in con- nection with his architectural monuments. Who does not prefer the Reform Clnb to the British Museum or National Gallery whitewash? These lectures of Haydon we have had the pleasure of hearing more than once, and yet we read the book with as much delight as if it had been quite novel, and so, too, will all its readers. Difficulty, indeed, has been already experienced in finding fault with it ; it has been intimated to be unsound, but it has not been proved, while that it is entertaining none have expressed a doubt. It is pretty certain, indeed, that it must become a manual not only for the student but for the public, and it is well qualified for this, including in a small space the rudiments of artistic knowledge, with adequate illustrations from Mr. Haydon's pencil. The anatomy is carefully got up for the use of the artist, elarging on practical applications, and free from non-essen- tial anatomical minutiae. Haydon's doctrines are well enough known. First, that High Art is everything ; second, that the Greeks were the greatest masters of High Art ; third, that the ideal in art consists of the selection of the best points from the best models ; fourth, that dissection and a know- ledge of anatomy are the essential preliminary to the artistic career ; fifth, that Michael Angelo is not to be swallowed wholesale ; and lastly, that people may stop at home and become great artists by studying the Elgin Marbles. The last words Haydon says he wishes to utter on art are "Elgin Marbles, Elgin Marbles," and to them and the Cartoons he constantly refers. To Haydon's practice the public will of course appeal, and we think there he has many points in his favour, for though we believe he often misconceives liis powers and has painted as many bad pictures as any man, yet we think few have produced more good worlis, and in those he shows more mind than any of his competitors. Unfortunately he paints for halls such as are not yet built here, and his efforts are often ill-appreciated, and yet such works as the Napoleon Musing and the Leap of Curtius would be alone sufficient to stamp him as a man of high genius, had he not other and not less valuable works. It is of course a great temptation to rifle the stores of such a book, and we have many excuses for the author's benefit, but we feel we need be sparing, while as we can scarcely enter with our readers into the minuticB of painting and design we must string together a number of desultory extracts and remarks. The anecdotes of artists and public men are often good illustrations of valuable doctrines. Here is a tradition of Vaiidyke — In the same way, as the above descriptions come direct from the great men themselves. I can give you authentic intelligence from Vandyke's own painting-room. An old lady of eighty sat to Richardson ; she, when a girl, had sat to Vandyke. She told Richardson, Vandyke's pictures looked whiter and fresher than at present ; Richardson told Hudson, Hudson told Reynolds, Reynolds told Northcote, and Northcote tuld me. So that I can give you positive information up to Vandyke. Wilkie's first public appearance with the Village Politicians may follow — Never was anything more extraordinary than the modesty and simplicity of this great genius at the period of this early production. Jackson told me he had the greatest ditBculty to persuade him to send this celebrated picture to the Exhibition ; and I remember his (Wilkie's) bewildered astonishment at the prodigious enthusiasm of the people at the Exhibition when it went, on the day it opened, May 1806. On the Sunday after the private day and dinner, Friday and Saturday, the News said, " A young Scotchman, hy name Wilkie, has a wonderful work." I immediately sallied forth, took up Jack- son, and away we rushed to Wilkie. I found him in his parlour in Norton- street, at breakfast : " Wilkie," said I, " your name is in the paper." " Is it really ?" said he, staring with delight. I then read the puff " ore rotundo," and Jackson, I, and he, in an ecstacv, joined hands and danced round the table. Haydon himself may come in on the subject of ears — Not one in ten thousand perhaps, Mr. John Bell says, can move his ears. The celebrated Mr. Mery used, when lecturing, to amuse his pupils by saying, that in one thing he surely belonged to the long-eared tribe; upon which, he moved his ears very rapidly backwards and forwards ; and Albinos, the celebrated anatomist, had the same power, which is performed by those little muscles not seen. I tried it once in painting with great effect. In my picture of Macbeth, (Painted for Sir G. Beaumont, 1812, now at Colchorton Hall,) when he was listening in horror before committing the murder, I ventured to press his ears forwards like an animal in fright, to give an idea of trying to catch the merest sound ; and it vi'as certainly very effective, and increased amazingly the terror of the scene, without the spectator's being .iwaie of the reason. Of his favourite Elgin Marbles he tells as follows — •' What are these marbles remarkable for?" said a respectable gentleman at the Museum, to one of the attendants, after looking attentively round all the Elgin marbles. " Why sir," said the man with propriety, " because they are so like hfe ! " " Like Hfe," repeated the gentleman with the greatest contempt ; " Why, what of that .'" and walked away. To this gentleman it might appear no great thing to render works of art like life ; but if he had reflected — so many are the by-paths which branch from the main one, so much do men sophisticate in favour of their own pro- pensities,— so easily are all deluded hy the seductions of idleness — that, in 4000 years, few indeed are the men who have made their imitations like that life with which they are eternally surrounded. Opie is brought in for the following illustration— In the infant, the jaw not being formed, the shape of the mouth is not altered ; but in age, the jaw having been formed in manhood, the moment 1844.] THE CIVIL E^fGrNEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 437 the teetli and ah'eolar process fall away, the jaw rises up, the lips douhle in, and the external shape, in consequence, is one of the greatest characteristics of age and feehleness, and more mortifying to human nature than any other that happens to it, in its progress to the grave : there is nothing so pros- trates human vanity. There is a story told of Opie : he was painting an old bean of fashion ! Whenever he thought Opie was touching the mouth, he screwed it up in a most ridiculous manner. Opie, who was a blunt man, said very quietly, " Sir, if you want the mouth left out, I will do it with pleasure." And wbile on the subject of pictorial effect, we may sketcli tlie fol- lowing— A critic has no more right to find fault with a picture where the effect of smoothness is given by roughness, than a lover has because the softest face of a beautiful woman is not as soft apparently, however soft in reality, on close inspection, as where it can be best seen. I remember an old lady being astonished at the Duke of Wellington's Velasquez, and expressing great delight, and then looking close in, and say- ing in disgust, " Why, it is painted for the distance I see." The following it is very clear applies to Brougham — For thirty years I have urged the point of public encouragement, inde- pendent of academic influence, and all our greatest men seemed absolutely abroad on the subject. Even Canning was not at all aware of the connexion of art and manufacture, or the moral importance of High Art as a comme- morative power. They shewed the best dispositions ; they took it up always with enthusiasm, because their common sense was appealed to ; they then proceeded to inquire of the official academician. He replied, the nation had no taste, the artists did not require it ; and the minister, astonished at such remarks, received me the next time like a distempered madman. Lord Brougham, Ijord Durham, Lord Farnborough, Lord Colborne, all took up the cause and dropped it in a fright. Wonder no longer at the fate of history, at Hussey's persecution, Barry's struggles, or my prostration of fortune. Would you believe that a noble Lord, known to you all, to whom we all owe obligations, actually said to me, when laying before hiiu my plan to adorn the House of Lords, in 1823, " Do you think the people will ever have any taste?" Suppose I had said to him, when he was founding a university, Do you, my Lord, think the people will ever have any knowledge .' No, he would have replied, unless you give them schools and books, and open their understandings ; and so I say of art. How can they have taste if you found not schools of design, or shew them tine works ? Of all the ministers with whom I have bad the honour of communication, none paid so much atten- tion as the Duke of Wellington ; he replied at once, gave bis opinion, and received mine with the frankness of his character; he entered into the ques- tion, allowed me to argue it, and to prove him wrong if I could. I got no cold otScial sophistry from him, his mind is a mind not to be talked over by an academician ; he saw the value to the country of public support to art, he lamented its dreadful condition, and I believe in my conscience he would have remedied its defects. I know he has said so since, but not to me. Coleridge is one of the personages of tlie next extract. Coleridge, with all his wild dreams, was always selecting for the artist ; and I never in my life remember one of his subjects which had a single qua- lification. Coleridge was seldom intelligible, with the subtle distinctions of words, much less likely was it in art, which requires gross palpability, he could make himself understood. I have seen the finest scenes in the world between Coleridge and Sir George Beaumont. Sir George's adoration of Sir Joshua was sincere. Cole- ridge would often attack him ; the agony of Sir George between his enthu- siasm for the genius of Coleridge and his awe for his departed friend are not to be done justice to. The mania of Reynolds for colour is thus characterized — The imitators of Reynolds endeavoured to get this beauty in their pictures by all sorts of solid materials, never considering it was not the solidity of the vehicle, but the manner of using the vehicle. The richest and most solid impasta can be got by taking the colour half dry and touching into it, thus half dragging up what was put on before, and embodying both in one rich gummy surface ; this requires that rare quality — genius. The contimial out- cry of imbecility is, that the Italians had better reds, better yellows, better oils, and better brushes, than the moderns : this is a great delusion. Titian got his colours from the colour shops in the Kialto, as we get ours from Brown's ; and depend on it, if Apelles or Titian were living now, they would paint just as good works with our brushes and colours as with their own. Sir Humphry Davy says, that the finest works of the Greeks and Italians were executed in the ochres, reds, blacks, whites, and blues, we all now use. Reynolds, from a craving for superior excellence, was at the mercy of every new freak — fancying one day, one material was the thing, and the next, try- ing a new one ; to show you his extreme readiness to try every thing, Mr. Prince Hoare told me he once carried him a colour in a shell from India, a beautiful purple — he was glazing those three angels embracing each other, — he dipped a brush at once into it, and used it; the next day it had all tjown. in reality, the Old Masters had by no means so many advantages as ourselves ; Titian painted often on table-cloths ; Rubens's pictures are often seamed ; canvass was then narrow and coarse. And it must nut be said that H.iydou depreciates Reynolds, though he contests with apparent justice many of the ductrines in his lectures. He says — In the dignity of portrait, no heads exceed Reynolds', though Titian's and Vandyke's are more delicate in execution. He was a great man, but cer- tainly a light thinker; and yet, considering his incessant practice in indi- vidual resemblance, it is extraordinary he wrote as he did. He first brought the principles of art into something like consistency ; and, though greatly indebted to Coypcl, he first rescued it from the trash of De Piles, the com- mon-place recipes of Lionardo, great man as he was, and all the old bewil- dered theorists; and, in his immortal notes on Du Fresnoy, he has settled ou a basis, never to be shaken, the leading rules of effect, light and shadow, and colour. Here be was truly great ; it was only where his previous education and previous habits had not been deep enough that he wandered in his theory of beauty and form, which nothing but dissection of the brute and man can ever illustrate clearly. His eye for colour was so exquisite that I do not think there is a single instance in all his works of a heated tint which is called foxy. This cannot be said of Rubens or Rembrandt; and I believe in my conscience it can only be said of Reynolds and Titian. And Sir George Beaumont's merits are also enumerated. One of his dearest friends was Sir George Beaumont — he was one of those links between people of fashion and artists, who placed artists at tbuir table with all who were distinguished iu poetry, philosophy, oratory, rank or fashion. There was a school in High Life of this description, which was formed by Sir Joshua, they looked up to him as a god, listened to him like an oracle, and believed a great painter to be the greatest of mortal beings. On them Sir Joshua left his mantle, and they were principally instrumental in founding the British Gallery, and keeping alive in the fashionable world the taste for pictures. The loss of Sir George nothing has compensnted us for,- — his taste and genius were exquisite. Had be not been born in hiRli life, in my opinion, he would have been our greatest landscape painter — he talked of art, he dreamed of art, and seemed to think nothing else on earth worthy consideration. The moment he came to town, he set the whole world in an uproar, and made it an evidence and a necessity for any one of any pretensions of fashion to meet artists at his table, and to visit their painting-rooms, and buy their pictures. He it was who laid the foundation of our National Gallery; he was the friend of Wordsworth, when the world denied his genius; and though be was capricious, and laid the foundation of all my distresses, as well as others, yet as painters we felt his loss bitterly in the art — a loss that never has been repaired, and probably never will ; and when his admirable letters on art are hereafter published, it will be found his pretensions have not been over- rated. It was his decided opinion, and uo one had greater right to hold one, that breadth and essential detail were the true excellence, and ought to be united ; he knew the materials of art and the splendour of nature, and he knew nature could not be approached but by the most judicious artifice ; and when painters painted all light, in hopes of getting brilliancy, or all dark, in hopes of getting depth, they entirely missed their object. I have beard many artists complain of the disposition of people of fashion to bring forward young men — after having had the full advantage of such disposition themselves, — tlie more young men brought forward the better for the art ; if the young men have not talent to keep the stations in which men of rank from the kindest feelings are disposed to place them, surely you are not to blame the patron for his good wishes. Lawrence is also in our mind fairly appreciated. Haydon says — Lawrence drew better than Reynolds, but Reynolds was never guilty of many ignorances of composition and design that Lawrence was guilty of every day. In invention there is no comparison. Reynolds was a genius, and so he was in colour: whereas Lawrence had no eye, and I rememljer but one head of exquisite colour that might bear comparison with Reynolds — a head of Lord Bathurst ; Gonsalvi, and the Emperor of Austria, per/iajjs, may be added. In composition, Lawrence was a child, and Reynolds a great master. Rey- nolds, from his knowledge of perspective, always planted his men on their feet ; while all Lawrence's nobility stand upon their tip. toes, and will do so whilst the canvass lasts. Reynolds appeared, as Burke said, to descend to portrait from a higher style, while portrait and portrait only seemed to be the extent of Lawrence's understanding. Reynolds was the philosopher of art, Lawrence the gentleman, with a tendency to dandyism. Lawrence's great power was seeing, transferring, and identifying the bap. piest expression of a sitter; and no man can bear testimony to this power more than myself, I had several under my own eye of the nobiUty he bad painted ; for the first half hour I saw no resemblance ; at last, some lucky remark lighted up their features, and iu these few moments I witnessed Lawrence's choice. Before Lawrence went to Italy, which sobered his meretrieiousness, Fuseli used to say, and truly, that iiis pictures in effect were sweepings of a tinshop ; but through all bis works there rcigus a .'ense of beauty, whicli if it had been tempered and eorreeted by a reverence for the great names of the ait, in- stead of being pampered by medals, with other young gentlemen and ladies 39 ^38 HIE CIVIL ENtJlNliER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Novkmber, in early life, "ould liave corrected liis taste; tlioiijili Sir Cieorge lieaiuiioiit feared his eye was defective, anil Reynolds predicted liis style wonld attract tlie iuiiorant and ruin tlie art; lie has not ruined it, bnt he did it serions harm. There is an interesting anecdote of the two men, so completely illus- trative of each, that I will relate it. At a nohleman's house, there exists an exquisite picture by an old master. Ueynolds, when there, always had it taken down, and witli due humility dwelt on it for hours. Lawrence subse- quently used to visit the same house. The nobleman, astonished at Law- rcnce's apathy, offered to have it taken down, which Lawrence declined, and retired to billiards. Will) regard to the necessity for the artist to dissect, Haydon is most strenuous on that point, and we think with justice, even if abstract reasoning did nut sanction it, practical ex[)erience is evidently in its favour. Let any one who can draw try lo compose a figure in any attitude, and put in the muscles of the tliigli or of the calf of the leg without a mode), and he will find what uncertainty he will have as to their form, and the difhcully of getting a resemblance to nature. Thestudy of the living model and of the antique will of course do much, but even this will be greatly forwarded if the student knows whence his musc'cs come, whither they go and how they act, and for this there is nothing like dissection. The author states what led him to his opinions on the essential characteristics of man. Many years ago, whilst dissecting a lion, iu my early youth, I was amaz- ingly impressed with its similarity as well as its difl'erence in muscular and bone construction to the human figure. It was evident the lion was but a modification of the human being, varied in organic construction and muscular arrangement, only where it was necessary be should be, that his bodily powers might suit his instincts, bis propensities, bis appetites, and his lower degree of reasoning power. On comparing the two, I found the human being stood erectly on two feet, the lion horizontally on four. On placing the lion on bis two bind feet, resting on the heels and toes like a himian being, I found be could not remain so ; I found he had no power of grasping with his fore- paws (answering to the human hand, and but a moditir-ation) ; I found he could not move his fore-paw arms right from the shoulder, nor his hind-feet limbs right from the hip; I found his feet flat, his body long, his brain di- minished, his eyes above the centre of his head, his jaw immense, and vast muscle occupying that portion of the skull, to assist the action of tlie jaw, which is filled by brain in a human creature; I found his spine long, his pan- bone narrow, his inner ancle lower than the outer, his chest contracted, and his fore-arm as long as his upper arm. I put down these distinctions as points characteristic in head and figure of a brutal and unintellectual being. I tlien examined the man : I found his power of grasping with the hand, by the action of his thumb, perfect ; I found the motion of his arm free from the shoulder-joint, and bis thighs free from the hip ; I fcuud his feet arched, his inner ancle the highest, his pan-bone large, which, by resistance to the action of the great extensor of the legs, increases their power, his eyes at the centre of his skull, his upper-arm longer than the fore-arm, his spine short, and his brain enormous. I put down these distinctions as characte- ristic in face and figure of a superior and intellectual being. These differences are facts — they were intentional, or accidental I: — they were formed by the Creator, or they were not ! — if they were as they were, there was reason in the differences, and that reason issued from the Creator's mind. Surely, then, it was justifiable to lay down a principle of form from ascertaining these distinctions. Full of delight, reference was at once made to the Metopes of the Temple of Theseus (which, being executed fifty years before the Parthe- non, were more likely to develope system than the later works from the Parthenon itself, where art is so exquisitely concealed) ; and all the points put down as characteristic of a perfect human figure, were so evident, as not to be mistaken; and both in the works of the Parthenon, executed by Phidias and his school, and in those of the Temple of Theseus, the principles of a standard figure were so distinct, that I will defy any artist to have developed them so systematically and so decidedly witliout intention and without knowledge. We are inclined to agree with tlie author that the Greeks dissected, we liave positive evidence on the point, and the reasoning moreover on the negative side is, as he shows, defective. We agree with him, also, as to Michael Angelo ; with him, we fully appreciate the talents Michael Angclo possessed, but it is incontestable that his sculpture really is generally extravagant and wanting in repose. We agree also with liim that a man may become a great master without going to Italy, hut his own impressions in the Louvre (p. 2oS) must show him that there is the greatest benefit in foreign travel, were it only to make a break in the conventional effect of home study it would be desirable. A young man mixing only with fellow countrymen and among exhibi- tion works wants some lesson to remind him that there is other art besides the meretricious parades of Trafalgar Scpiare or Pall Mall. The assertions of our author as to the supremacy of Greek painting must have the support of actual facts before we can receive them as anything more than ingenious assumptions. We must confess we are strongly inclined to believe that Greek art did not make the advances assumed, and we set at naught the hyperbolical expressions of con- temporaries, for investigation will teach us how such have been rais- applied even in modern times. A good feature in Haydon's instruc- tion, and a fine characteristic of the man, is that he never forgets natiuiuil interests, nor the connection of High Art with the humblest pursuits of manufacture, inculcating the importance of design as a grand principle in education. Among the good advice with which the volume is thickly sown, the foUowing will be appreciated by the young architect and engineer, by the old architect and engineer, as well as by the young painter and the old painter — It was exceedingly fine of Sir Joshua, after making a large fortune, to tell the young men : " Were I now to begin the world again, to catch the slightest of Michael Angelo's perfections, to kiss the hem of his garment, wonld be glory and distinction enough for an ambitious man : I would tread in the steps of tliat great master." The question is, why did he not do it when he heijan the world .' for this simple reason, he never had genius for it ! Genius, he assured, is not a passive quality, and cannot conveniently be buttoned up for another opportunity, to be let out as .Eolus does the winds, whenever the possessor is in the caprice. Genius is a gilt which sits on a possessor like a night-mare ; haunts biui when a lisping cliild, a restless youth, or in con- firmed manhood. Ueynolds, Romney, Lawrence, and Chantrey, were always predicting what grand things they would do, as soon as they were above the necessities of life ; as soon as snow ceased to fall and water to be frozen ; as soon as babies cease to be tormented with ahdominal twangs, and Daffy's elixir was no longer wanted ; as soon as all was calm and sinless, and free from bad passion: when they were so, would not their judgment he more mature ? When they have secured an independence, would not their genius he in a fitter condition for fancy .' To this millennium of quiet they are always looking ; at last it is the very time, to-raorrow they'll begin. In comes another sitter — then come the guineas — then the dining out — then tlie bewithing flattery of some darling be has just painted successfully, and very like about the eyes. In the mean time, some youth, whom God has gifted, in poverty and struggle, spends his money, meant for food, to get clay for a model; coiicei\es a grand figure — sets to work, without waiting for the three per cents., and you find, in an obscure, cheerless, wretched room, a gigantic figure of Milo towering to the ceiling, as fine a combination of High Art and true Nature as has ever appeared since the Greeks 1 I am no friend to that lachrymose croaking about time of life ; I am juit as able now, at fifty-eight years, to set to work on a new acquirement as at eighteen years, and perhaps more able. " Was I to begin the world again," said Reynolds ; of course he would do all sorts of things he had neglected to do, and follow Michael Angelo's steps. Now, he had been saying this forty years, why did he not at once, like Tintoretto, write over the door of his painting-room, " The day to Titian, the night to Michael Angclo .'" and in six months we should have had his limbs more like legs and thighs than nine pins. Why ? because he only had the consciousness of imperfection without surticient power to impel the remedy. After lamenting thus to Burke, he would sit down to a game of whist, or adjourn to the club, to listen to the declamations of Johnson. Let every man begin at once, not to-mor- row, hut to-day, not by and bye at four, but now, at six in the morning, or as soon as it is light. No, no; Lawrence never would have executed a great historical picture, Chantrey, a grand heroic statue, nor Reynolds have be- come the Michael Angelo of the eighteenth century, had he began the world again ; he would have done precisely what he did when he began it before : these lamentations of mispassed time are only artful palliatives to conscious defects. It is a refutable sophistry to say, the higher walk addresses the mind, the lower, the senses ; the higher walk addresses the mind through the senses, and if the senses are shocked by the wretchedness of the imitation, and the want of power in the instrument of producing reality, the thoughts conveyed are not more impreisive, because the means are inefficient — they are less so — and every thought, poetical, epic, pathetic, or comical, will have ten times more effect on the imagination in proportion to the abstract per- fection of the reality of imitating the objects used to convey them. Study the great works of the great men for ever, bnt never as a substitute, always as an assistant to nature. Never hold any communion in early life with those who set out despising the illustrious dead, and you will find many — don't argue, fly ; and above all things study alone. I can always predict the fate of any student who shares a painting-room with another for the sake of society. God help him who feels such a want with such a delightful vision in bis brain, or at his side, by day and by night, as Painting ! If you have genius, industry alone will make you ready for its inspirations ; if you have not, industry at least will give you knowledge. As to the grand doctrine of the ideal in art, we have long since de- clared that we do not believe in it. We think common sense in art is of much more importance than the ideal, and we are convinced a living human being, with all his imperfections, is worth tlie finest coaguluin of selected beauties which ever were, or ever could be put together. This does not, however, affect the practical value of Haydon's work, which we are satisfiied must, for a long while, be a great and popular authority, and as such we strongly recommend to all our readers engaged in the pursuit of architecture or the other branches of the fine arts, while we are firmly convinced that it adds to the claims of its author on the public gratitude and public admiration. 1844.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. 439 The Companion to the Atmannc for lSi5. With Seven }Voodcul» of Buildings. With respect to the general character of Hiis annual publicalion, we need not say anything more than that it is still kept up with the same diligence and ability as have uniformly been displayed in if. Indeed, as regards that portion of its contents which is of more immediate interest to our own readers, and which, we think, must be the most attractive to the public generally, this new volume contains about half as much again of architectural mformation and description as the preceding one did, which space we should like to see still further in- creased, although the labour of collecting materials even for no more than is at present given must, no doubt, be very great, since, unlike all others, architects are apt to be far more reserved than at all com- municative with respect to their works. The buildings here spoken of most at length are — the Royal Exchange ; a cluiieh at Haugh, near Bolton-le-Moors, entirely constructed of terra cotta, and having an openwork spire; the two chapels at Nunhead Cemetery; Pugin's Roman Catholic Church at Nottingham, and St. Bernard's Monastery ; two Institutes at Preston, the "Philosophical" and the "Mechanic's" ; the Conservative Clubhouse ; and the New Law Courts, or Guildhall, at Bristol. ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS. Session 1844-45. — Ordinary Mketings. Chair to be taken at 8 o'clock on the following Monday evenings : — De- cember 2, 16, 1844; January 13, 27; February 10, 24; March 10, 31 ; April 14, 28 ; May *5, 12, 26 ; June 9, 23 ; July 7, 21. * Annual General Meeting of Members only. THE LATE COMPETITION KOR THE CHORISTERS' SCHOOL, MAG- DALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD. Sir, — Having seen from the careful perusal of your paper the great interest you take in the prolossion generally, anil the desire you have aluays evinced towards exposing any grievances with which it may be assailed, 1 have taken tlie liberty of addressing you on llie subject of the present faulty mode of competing for new buildings now so generally adopted, and frequently so unjustly terminated, and woidd call your attention particularly to that fur the Choristers' School for Magdalen College, Oxford, which has, I hear, been decided in favour of a design sent in by Mr. Derrick, aichilect, of thai city. In the printed instructions issued to architects who might be willing to compete, it was disanclly specified that the designs must be sent in by the first of October, ample time being given (nearly two months) for completing the designs in question. In commencing a competition two ques'ions of the greatest importance na- turally suggest themselves to the architect, first the sum of money to be e.'i- pended, secondly the time allowed for preparing the plans, these are then considered as fixed points to be scrupulously observed, and he proceeds ac- cordingly, however, on the present occasion all such general rules appear to have been treated with contempt by both parties, the facts of the case being simply these,— Mr. Derrick, who sends in his dravyings at least two weeks after the time specified, is appointed to carry out his designs, he bein- a resident at Oxford, and having access, as any one had who was taken in by a member of the college, to the room where all the drawings already sent in were exhibited. The sum of £20 each has, I hear, been voted to Messrs. Allom, Pugin, and another; the estimate of the furmer being flKOO more than the sum mentioned to be expended (£5000),' and the second only sub- mitting a pen and ink perspective view ot what he considered the building ought to be, instead of sending plans, sections, and elevations as expectiil from the other competitors. I most say I am much surprised at such a ter- mination to a competition wdiich I hoped, knowing the high characters of the parties who had to make the selection, would have proved itself a pattern of justice and impartiality, and can only attribute U to a want of knowledge bf business on their part, and must in conclusion call upon ihc profession generally to come forward and appeal to the Instilutc of British Architects to take the necessary steps to put an end (o a system marked with such gross injustice. The Institute is an incorporated body ]iussessing a royal charter, and It is scarcely necessary to add that public bodies can easily accomplish that which a private individual would not venture to attempt. Unless some remedy is found lor this crying evil, these repeated acts of inconsistent conduct must necessarily lend to lower the profession in the eyes y inserting the above in your very useful paper you w ill put others on their guard in future, and at the same time oblige your obedient servant, A Constant Reader. London, Nov. 25, 1844. 1 This amount was not specilied in the printed instrntlions, but that can he no cxcnse lor of course on so essential a point application would he made to the bursar of the col' lege, who named £!>W> immediately n the sum to b« spent on the proposed new building. THE CAMBRIDGE CAMDEN SOCIETY. The Ecclaiclogisl. The present age is characterized by a retrospective spirit, which prevails at once in literature, in science, and in art. At a time con- fessedly favourable to the progress of knowledge, and to the discovery and development of new ideas, there exists a mania for resuscitation, a general anxiety that old intellectual treasures should not be forgotten or neglected by reason of the abundance of new wealth. A feeling of this nature cannot be objectionable per se, and if ever liable to objec- tion, it will be only when exhibited in an intemperate manner, or on unworthy objects. It is an almost universal feeling, and has manifested itself in ways strangely various, and by eH'ecIs most ludicrously dis- crepant. It has produced, for instance, the various societies which republish obsolete and forgotten books, it has renewed a taste for old music, resuscitated Bach and Jomelli, stimulated the study of the older dramatists, and eftected the public performance of the plays of Massinger. To this same endemic we owe the revival of the harpsi- chord, and to it the fashion for frescoes and cartoons, Flanders chimes and encaustic tiles ; and unconsciously inHuenced by one and the same spirit Fanny Ellsler and Doctor Pusey have introduced, she the minuets of the old French court at the opera, he the ail-but system of theology at Oxford; at Cambridge the disease has assumed a mililer form — it has terminated in a Camden Society. The Camden Society, most of our readers are aware, is a collection of amateur architects, reverend tectonick enthusiasts, modern Nehe- niiahs, who, under the somewhat pagan motto Donee lempla rtj'eceris, aim at a radical reform of church architecture, send their younger members flying about the country with "lead-tape" to copy mould- ings, and with "heel-ball" (of the nature of which composition, as well as the orthography of its name, we own ourselves profoundly ignorant,) to rub avv.iy at old brass monuments and obtain delineations of them; also hold monthly meetings with honorary president, hono- rary secretary, and all complete ; restore churches and drive the in- cumbents out of their senses by their modern-antique zeal, and finally publish the somewhat flippant, and occasionally ungrammatical, but withal, in many respects, excellent periodical before us — the"Ec- clisiologist." That this publication has done much to revive the true spirit of Christian architecture, to protect the old memorials of that art from the injuries of time and the still more ruthless attacks of officious ig- norance, to give back to the cathedral its grandeur, the village church its simple beauty, none but the biassed will deny. Bui, alas, the un- prejudiced observer will too often have reason to grieve that in a cause so noble, and so worthily advocated, zeal has degenerated into intolerance, confidence into dogmatism, boldness into bigotry, that assertions have been made without proof, and maintained in defiance of it ; that accidental accessories of the art have been mistaken fur its fundamental principles, and mere architectural rules have been con- founded, or at least intimately connected, with religious doctrine. If anything of human art may elevate the soul to noble purpose, cheer it when exaninate, solemnize it in its careless or impassioned moods, it is those venerable records of olden piety the stately minster lifting itself up, sternly and alone, speaking thougli silently, and telling ever wondrous stories of the dead and of the past; or the sweet sim- ple country church, moss-grown, time-stained, which raises its beauti- ful head above its coeval trees, the simple and touching memorial of ancestral faith. If anything of human ignorance may excite indignation, instead of pity or contempt, it is the meddling barbarism of churchwarden archi- tecture, which mars the reverend piles more hopelessly than the ravages of the elements, and still worse, far worse, the Wesleyan Gothic of modern sciolism, which apes the ancient Christian archi- tecture accurately enough to travesty it, and copies it in the letter with a fatal fidelity by which its spirit is violated or altogether con- cealed. How, then, must the lover of beauty grieve that they who 3B« 440 THE CIVIL JCNCJINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [November, betake tlieinselves fo remove these clelesfable evils sliould perform tlieir task witli such liot zeal fis to defeat their own purpose, and by intemperance and excess awaken tlie fears, and influence the preju- dices of ignorance, and so perpetuate the very errors they strove to correct ? That we may not be accused of bringing unsupported charges, we intend to consider some of what we believe the erroneous doctrines of the "Ecclesiologist," as exhibiteii in the last two or three numbers of it, and we may do so with tlie greater facility, as the editors usually exhibit in eacli successive part, in one form or anotlier, the whole of their somewhat scanty stock-in trade. Commencing vvith the number of the " Ecclesiologist" last pub- lished (in September^, we find it opening with a paper on the arrange- ment of chancels. M'c suppose then a Chancel raisiil a single slt-p of six inches" depth at the Chancel-arch, and, considerably Eastward of this, on t«o oilier steps at least; that it has a plain Allar of substantial malerial placed leuglhi\ise under the East windou', and well furnished with changes of hangings and with Sacred Vessels of proper shape ; that the soulli wall is furnished wilh a single Piscina to carry oil' the water in which the Priest has washed his hands belore Celebration, and westward of this with three Sedilia, or seals for Ihe Celebrant, Kpistler, and Gospeller, eonstrucled, if possible, in the masonry of the wall, if not, consisting of oaken tabernacle-work of appro- priate pattern ; that the north wall is provided wilh a tLVedeuce, resembling either a table, or a niche or bracket ; and that in all oilier respecis our C'han- cel is entirely free, open, and unoccupied : what more does it recpiire P We do not think this a fitting place to stop to ask whether the above passage tends to aggravate tlie fears of those who charge this work with favouring Roman Catholicism. We confine ourselves to the architectural tenets, and we wish to show that the doctrines so earnestly advocated respecting the form and position of chancels are, at least, not inexpugnable. We may commence by observing that the above sujipositions are wholly at variance with many existing models - — for instance, the Temple Church, and the Camden Society's pet church, St. Sepulchre's at Cambridge, even if we concede the position of the "Ecclesiologist," that in both of these the whole building east- ward of the circular part be considered a chancel, the aisles of which are alone to be occupied by the laity, who are consequently excluded from (in the former instance at least) the greater part of the sacred edifice. The alleged absolute necessity of a distinct and spacious chancel leads to a difficulty, owing to the general insnificiency of church accommodation, which the conductors of the "Ecclesiologist" cannot have overlooked, but they defend themselves against the dif- ficulty by " many and sound reasons," of which the principal seem to be that a distinction of structure must be made between churches and "conventicles" or "preaching-houses," and next that the ancient churches were all built in the manner they are prescribing. To which last argument we have merely to object, first, that even //'all the ancient churches were built in the manner asserted ; that o/oi/e is not a sufli- cient argument lor so building modern churches: secondly, that tlie ancient churches were j/o/ all so built ; thirdly, that there is reason to believe that in ancient churches the airaiigement of the chancel was altered at the time of the reformation. With respect to our first objection, which may be termed the theo- retical, we must consider on what principles it is deemed absolutely necessary to follow the ancient models of Christian architecture with- out the slightest deviation. Obviously on two only; first, that the 7)r£Sf)(//)H)7;oses of churches could not be obtained without so doing ; secondly, that all changes of structure must lead to architectural errors. Now it can hardly be said, that the present purposes of churches cannot be adequately obtained witlioul excluding the laity from a large part of them, since sneh an assertion would lead to the conclusion, that the rites of the church had never been celebrated ac- cording to the rubric in any one church in the kingdom for centuries. And if it be contended that the absence of a distinct chancel is neces- sarily an architectural error, the onus probandi lies with those surely wdio make the assertion, to show how it is that the fundamental essence, spirit, and principle of pointed architecture are so indisso- lubly connected with the existence of the chancel as to be incapable of vitality without it. This difficult task the Camden Society have never undertaken, or at least, only by \.\\s petitio principii of quoting ancient authorities. We consider that simple considerations such as the above, suc- cessfully dispose of this incessantly urged " necessity of a spacious chancel ;" and our opinion will be much confirmed by reflecting that the ancient churches were bnilt of every form and under every variety of circumstances ; that the laws of Christian architecture, unlike those of Grecian architecture, are susceptible of almost endless adaptation and modification of structure ; that in manv instances the eastern part of the church was built first, and even in the times of Roman Catholicism, filled bv the laity, until the western part of the church was erected, and that in many instances the western parts vpere not completed at all. The supposition respecting the Temple Church in London, we consider preposterous, and should probably pronounce the same opinion respecting the Round Church at Cambridge, had not the Camden Society so altered it as to render it impossible to remember its original form. Their alterations in that building they can scarcely call nsloralioiis, in the ordinary acceptation of the word, since they themselves will scarcely assert, that it ever has since its foundation, presented anything like its present appearance. They have destroyed real perpendicular architecture of the time of Henry VII., and built up perpendicular architecture of the 19th century; they have paved the interior with plain brown crockery; feloniously insinuated a table of prothesis; forced the minister into a litany desk; brow-beaten the parishioner into the endurance of a communion table made of stone; and when complained of, make much the same answer tiiat the lion in the fable did to the stork, who pulled the bone out of his throat. But we promised to show that there were grounds for believing that the arrangement of church chancels was altered at the Reforma- tion. The canons of the Church require, that " the commandments shall be set up at the east end of every church where the people may best see and read the same." The writers of the " Ecclesiologist," fairly confess themselves in a difficulty respecting this canon, and suggest various means of rendering it inoperative — in their own words " considerations which may help to explain (!) this ordinance." The first of these suggestions is that the east end of every church means the east end of the nave ! Now, supposing for an instant, the east end of the nave to be meant, where can the commandments be placed so that " the people may best see and read the saitie." The "Ecclesiologist" candidly owns " it can only be above the chancel- arch; so high, in most cases, as to be out of people's sight." This admission forces us therefore to believe that when the canon speaks of the east end of the church, it really means the east end of the church. A dangerous assumption truly! For the reformers were such imperfect churchmen that they are seldom allowed to have said what they meant, or to have meant what they said. If, however, the commandments must be placed on the eastern wall of Ihe chancel, and that be the best place for seeing and reading th^^m, we suppose the people must be admitted into the chancel. We shall now notice, briefly, a few more of the arrangements which the " Ecclesiologist" would have in their chancel : — Tlie entrance-arch must he crossed Ijy a screen. This will be composed of an unequal number of arched compartments, of which the miildle one will span the main alley of the church: that alley, wliich commencing from the lont at the dour stretches along the pathway of a life ot meek devotion, and passing at this poin the gate of death, conducts into the blessed mansion of the church invisible This in the nineteentli century ! The recipe for making stalls is excellent: — " Prayers are to be said, we therefore need a prayer-desk. But an injunction of King James directs that a convenient seat be made for the minister : at the back of our desk we must therefore liave a chair. And putting these two parts, the desk and chair, together, we get a complete stall. But it appears in the contemplation of the prayer-book that more than one person shall take part in the per- formance of divine service — there will be more stalls than one. But since confirraatiop and visitations are, or ought to be held peri- odically in every parish church in the kingdom, and on these occa- sions there will be present a bishop and many priests, it maybe stated generally, that every chancel will be furnished with rows of stalls — say six or nine on each side, and returned against the eastern side of the roodscreen." There is something quite dramatic in all this. How the plot thickens. The simple innocent "prayer-desk" multiplies and increases as if it were a trick in a pantomime, till at last we have " complete rows of stalls" and, oddly enough, arranged j(is/ in the Roman Catholic manner. Singular coincidence! Quite accidental of course, but curious notwithstanding. Before leaving this part of the subject, we may observe, that the principle which the earlier numbers of the " Ecclesiologist" warmly opposed, that Christian architecture may admit modifications in com- pliance with modern requirements, has latterly been distinctly recog- nized, for instance, in the following remarks on Lancet architecture : " It cannot be denied, that there are circumstances attending church-worship at the present day which render a certain quantity of light indispensable." + » * "Additional light should be gained rather by the repetition and judicious repetition of single lancets. We have very small printed prayer-books to read, and very popular I 1R44.] THE CIVIL liNCINEKR AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 441 preacliers to behold. We cannot follow old proportions. Then, we say, adopt ;i style in wliicli you can [do what ?'\ Do not abuse ancient designs, &c." As far as we can understand this curiously-worded passage, it tacitly admits the expediency of adapting ecclesiastical architecture to our present wants — a principle absolutely the reverse of that so earnestly advocated in these papers at their comniencenient. 11 then, a year or two have coniertod the Camden Society .so far, that they now contradict their own primary dogmas, may we not luipe that at no distant period, they will apply tin- principle which thry have ad- mitted, and allow that it is well that a Protestant congregalion should be so placed as to hear the minister as well as sec him, and that it is not well, while our churches are already too small to contain even a fraction of the population, while so large a proportion of the people are suffering from spiritual starvatinn, are practically without a Sab- bath, and never participate in the most ordinary rites of a Christian land that one-third of the existing church room should be taken away to satisfy a controverted antiquarian tenet. We cannot better conclude these remarks on cliancels and their uses, than with the following quotations from the paper under review. The restoration of the rood-screen being determined upon, the writers proceed : — " Assuming it impossible to restore rood-lofts — wo shall get as near as we can to the old position, by reading the epistle and the gospel on the eastern side of the rood-screen. And there will be this practical advantage gained, that the jieople will belter hear icliat as being addrtssed to tliem it is proptr that they should hear, namely, the epistle and gospel. [It is of no consequence whether the people hear the rest of the service.] We do indeed hope that the time will come when he that evangelizeth may again, as in ancient days, get him up into the high mountains." That our readers may comprehend tlie dark sublimity of the above passage, we mav inform them that the latter part of it refers to the known Catholic custom of reading the gospel from an elevated place. And here we leave the subject, with this simple question — If these be the uses to which chancels are to be applied, had we not better have no chancels at all ? We have not time to consider so fully as we hoped to have done, some other favourite doctrines of the Camden Society. We had in- tended, for instance, to have controverted their assertion, that gal- leries are wholly ina/. IP 3 PiffZ. tl> Fii/3. than the ordinary steam-engine. The beam of the common sleam-engine oscillated in its centre, while the beam in Messrs. Samuda's engine had a motion af the end. In fact, there were two separate beams. He believed that Messrs. Samuda were, in making these engines, under contract to use all the serviceable parts of the engine of an old sleainer which the new one was to replace. But whether portions of the old engine were used did not know. Could not say what they were called, as they were not worked up to the power they were intended to be worked at. They were condensing engines. The engines were never working higher than 10 lb. to Ihe inch all the while he looked at the gauge, till Ihey stopped at the F.ast India Docks. The number of strokes she gave was from 20 to 24 per minute. The safety valve would not rise at a pressure of 10 lb. to the inch. The maximum pressure calculated to go before any mischief might be apprehended was stated by Mr. Samuila at 40 lb. to the inch. He (witness) supposed she was working on Tuesday at nearly 200- horse power. The diameter of Ihe cylinder was 45 inches, and Ihe struke was (as the reporter understood) 41 feet. The engines wer« tti«d on Ihe Friday previous. She was tried at lier moorings. Could I8i4.] THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 443 not toll what cnuscdtlic accidfiit. The pipes arc perfect at the joints. The pipe is not broken. It is one of the spigot (and faucet joints tliat has been Hfteil out iif its place. Mr. .Samuda had no power over the weight in the safety valve ; nor any one else. It was in a chest, secure from any person's interference. The weight upon the safety valve was set at 26 lb. Witness diflered from Mr. Samuda as to the amount ; Mr. S, said it was 26 lb. and he thoiiglit it was 27 lb. No steam could blow off at the valve till the pressure ivas at 26 lb. When Mr. Samuda sent him on deck a very little steam was just oozing out. The motion of (he engines had ceased about 10 minutes. The main pipe is joined with what is called a spigot'and faucet joint. This was lifted out of its socket. In answer to a ijucstion " was there no fasten- ing to the joint? No bolt or screw at all?" witness said it had a packing of liemp. The joint is used to allow for eximnsion. They were cast-iron pipes, and all (hose pipes must have these joints for expansion and contrac- tion. Had seen one twice the size. It is the customary mode of joining in all engines that are filled with cast-iron steam pipes. As already stated, Messrs. Samuda were bound to work up jiarts of the engines of the old ves- sel, and the cast-iron pipes were p:irlsof the old vessel. They used the cast- iron pipes, the air-pumps, and the cross-heads. The engines were in their places before he joined the work at all, and he could not speak at all of the quality of the work. The Coroner said there did not, from the evidence of Mr. Low, appear to have been any fracture in the pipe from which the fatal explosion had taken place i therefore the solidity of the material did not become an important point in the inquiry. There was, therefore, on lliis head nothing to find fault with as far as the evidence had gone. He, however, thought further infor- mation should be obtained about the amount of security afforded by the de- scription of joint that had given way. Judj;ing from the evidence, it did not appear to him that there was anything like security against similar fatal occurrences, if the spigot and faucet joint (vere used under the pressure spoken of by the witness Low. He, indeed, did not see hov*, with so ineffi- cient a mode for joining steam-pipes, or packing them, as the witness had described it, latal accidents could be prevented. Mr. Low's examination continued — The joint which had given way was 14 or 15 feet (as «.as understood) from the builer. Had the pressure never been more than 8 or 10 lb. to the inch, at which the engine worked on her trip, there would not have been any danger, but the additional pressure put upon her required something more than that fixture (viz. the spigot and faucet joint.) The vessel started with the steam pressure at 61b. and while working her they were unable to get it higher than 10 lb. Had no doubt that the occur- rence was entirely accidental. Mr. Pirn, treasurer of the Dublin and Kings- town railway, here asked permission to put, through the coroner, two or three questions to the witness. He (Mr. Pim) was a friend of the deceased gentleman, Mr. Samuda, and being in town lie had taken the opportunity of attending the inquiry to elicit facts upon one or two points. I think, Mr. Low (continued Mr. Pim), you said the cause of the accident did not arise from any peculiarity In the construction of the engine itself P Witness The primary construction of the engines had no connection with the accident at all. Neither did it arise from any peculiarity in the construction of the boiler. Neither had the material of which the steam-pipe was composed any- thing whatever to do with the accident, because the pipe is whole yet, but were 1 to make the same pipe of the same material I would not make it in the same form. The material of which the steam-pipe was composed did not at all contribute to the accident. With the view of having the evidence of other practical men the inquest was adjourned till .Saturday, Nov. 16. The Coroner said that Mr. Hensman, a draughtsman, en board at the time of the accident, and Mr. Low, the engineer, had given some additional evi- dence on the inquest held on Friday on the bodies of those who had died after their removal to the London Hospital, which would be repeated. The great question was, how to prevent such accidents occurring in future. A brother of one of the men who had died at the hospital, named Riley, and who was on board at the time, was sati.stied that this was an accident: but if accidents from similar causes were to occur again, it was desirable for persons to know thai death from such a cause would then amount to manslaughter. In a case "The Kingv. Carr," reported in Carrington and Payne, it was held that where a man made a cannon which burst, and it was sent back to him and repaired, and it burst a second time, that death from such repealed accident amounted to manslaughter. So in this case, if an accident from the same cause were repeated, he should have no hesitation in directing a jury to find a verdict of manslaughter. But Mr. Samuda, the engineer and chief owner having paid the penalty of his life for this imperfectly constructed joint in the steam-pipe, he thought it would be harsh to bring in such a verdict against the younger brother and partner in the firm. Mr. Low then gave additional evidence, that if a collar or ring had been on the end of the spigot pipe, it would have allowed for contraction or ex- pansion, without permitting the pipe to be withdrawn from the socket It was customary to have such a collar. Its own weight would keep the pipe I in its place (?) at a pressure ofjsteam of 101b. to the inch, but a pressure of 261b. to the inch lifted the pipe out of the socket. Mr. Henry Hensman corroborated the testimony given by Mr. Low in all respects, except this, that he thought the same pipe, if it had been joined wilh iron cement, would have been perfectly safe. He did not think that provision for the expansion and contraction cf this joint was so absolutely necessary, the expansion of the middle joint being sufficient. The joint as made and packed, would have been perfectly safe, if there had been a stay between it and the deck, or if it had been strapped with an iron strap to the engine, so as to pievent the pipe rising from its socket. A Juryman-Do you happen to know whether this pipe was new or was part of the machinery of the old Gipsy > Mr. Pim-We shall be prepared in a few minutes to show that it was a new pipe cast for the purpose. A Jury- man said It appeared to him. on examination, that the head of the spigot pire had been chipped off. Mr. Low said, it also appeared so to him He was perfectly satisfied if the late Mr. Samuda had known it, he would have con- demned the pipe as unsafe. It must have been done without orders, and ought not to have been done. The Coroner-Might it have chipped itself in coming out ? The Juryman— No ; that was not the case evidently. The Jury then retired to consider their verdict, and returned in about half an hour, having found a verdict of " Accidental death." They also expressed an opinion that the deaths of the deceased were " caused by the false and im- proper conslruclinn of the joint of the main sleam-pipe, in its not being suf- ficiently secured ; and they express this opinion in order that] due calition may be used to prevent similar accidents in future, which, it appears to ihe jury, may be eflTccted by a collar or ring to prevent the severance of the pipes." At another inquest held on the bodies of Riley, Donovan, and Mills, who died after their removal to the London Hospital, the Coroner remarked' that he thought there was decided blame with respect to the fatal occurrence, in- asmuch as that the steam had been put to 251b. to the Inch, wlien it was slated that from the parting of the S[.igot and faucet joint, it was not capable of resisting steam of that power. The following evidence was given. Mr. Low was asked one or two questions as to the position of the steam- pipe, and the place of its separation. He explained that the pipe went up from the boiler vertically, then on a line over wliere Mr. Samuda was stand- ing at the time of Ihe explosion, and turned down to the cylinder. It was in the centre of the longitudinal portion that the spigot and faucet joint was placed, the parts were forced from each other by the pressure of the sleam against the elbow. M'itness attributed the yielding of the sjiigot and faiicct joint to Ihe great pr.ssure ; but he believed if there had been a collar or ring on the end of the spigot, that being encased in the faucet six or seven inches allowing for expansion and contraction, it would have prevented it from being withdrawn. Mr. Henry Hensman, corroborated in all points the testimony of Mr. Low but he would go further than he had done, and say that the same pipe, if joined by iron cement, would have been perfectly safe.— Mr. Low, being here asked if ihat was also his opinion, answered in the aflRrmative.— Mr. Hens- man did not think any allowance for the expansion or contraction was abso- lutely necessary. Being asked by Mr. Pim, who attended on behalf of the friends of Mr. Samuda, whether the joint, as made and packed, would not have been perfectly safe, if there had been a stay upon it to keep it in its place, he replied certainly. There were two U ties to hold up the horizontal portion of the pipe ; and if the pipe »ith the joint as made ard packed had Ijcen strapped to the engines, it Hould have been perfectly safe, as the pipe would have been prevented from moving either way. — Mr. Pim— Was not the spigot and faucet joint introduced by Mr. Samuda rather as a refinement to avoid accident, and as an improvement? Mr. Hensman— Yes. And in an- swer to inquiries if there had not been a ring or collar originally to ;he pipe which belonged to the old engines, the witness said, he believed there had, but that it was cut off probably because the pipe was too long, without Mr. Samuda's knowledge ; and if Mr. Snmuda had known that the joint had been fitted in the way it was, he would have had it altered. Mr. .Samuda could hardly look at every joint fitted by his workmen, although he was always exceedingly anxious personally to see the work was done in a proper manner. Mr. Pim observed, that the inefficiency of the joints arose fiom an error of judgment, and not from a want of care, and a juror observed that Mr. .Samuda evidently thought it safe, or he would not have placed himself in the dan- gerous ixisitio.i that he did. The jury having expressed themselves satisfied with the evidence, returned a verdict of " Accidental Death." Cyanogen.- M. Wohler has shown that when nitrogen gas containing moisture is passed over a mixture of potash and charcoal, cyanide of potas- sium is formed, but if the gas be dry no cyanogen is formed. , 444 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [NoVE MBER* ATHLONE NEW BRIDGE. On Saturday, the Uth November, a new bridge crossinj^ the Shannon, in the town of Athlone, erected under the Shannon Cuinmissiun, was opened to theri"'j''c at one o'clock, p.m. and the old bridge, erecled in Ihe flays of good Queen Bess, closed for ever at three o'clock. The ancient structure, which was placed at tlie lowest point of tlie town, and shallowest portion of the river, was a long range of small semi-circular unequal arches, carrying a stripe of roadway so narrow as scarcely lo allow a single carriage to pasF, with recessed parapets, and of that inconveniently picturesque character which marked the work of early bridge builders, it was directly under the guns of the citadel or ancient fort, and was the scene, or connected with the events of some of the must stirring passages of Irish Iiistory. An ancient in- scription stone, now presented to the Royal Irish Academy collection of antiquities, recorded some of those, and alluded tu others in a style w Iiich the present town council of Athlone did not consider sufliciently complimentary for its re-erection on the new briaI Gas, &c." — To James Braidwood, Assoc. Inst. C.E., for his Paper and Draw inga descriptive of " The means of rendering hrge supplies of \Vater available in cases of Fire, &c."- — To Jacob Samuda, Assoc. Inst. C.E. , for his "Ac- count of the Atmospheric Railway." — To Charles Ilutton Gregory, Grad. Inst. C.E., for his Paper " On RaUway Cuttings and Embankments. "^ — To Captain "William Scarth Moorsom, Assoc. Inst. C.E., for his " Description and Draw- ings of the Avon Bridge at Tewkesbury. "^ — To Thomas Grissell, Assoc. Inst. C.E., for his " Description and Model of the Scaffolding used in erecting the Kelson Column." — To Charles Manby, Secretary and Assoc. Inst. C.E., for the translation and arrangement of the " History of the Canal and Sluices of Katwyk," and the " Description of the Works of the Amsterdam and Rotter- dam Railway," by the Chevalier Conrad, M. Inst. C.E. Walker Premiums of Cooks, suitably bound and inscribed, to the Cheva- lier Conrad, M. Inst. C.E., for his " Description and Drawings of the Works of the Amsterdam and Rotterdam Railway."- — To James Leslie, M. Inst. C.E., for his " Description and Drawings of the Iron Lock Gates of the Montrose Docks." — To John Geale Thomson, Grad. Inst. C.E. , for his "Description and Drawing of the Landslip in the Ashley Cutting, Great Western Rail- way."— To John Timperley, for his " Account of the building of the " \Vel- lington Bridge, Ijceds." — To George Willoughby Hemaus, Grad. Inst. C.E., for his " Description and Drawing of a wrought iron lattice Bridge on the Dublin and Drogheda Railway." — To William Evill, Jun., Grad. Inst. C.E., for his " Description and Drawings of the London Terminus of the Eastern Counties' Railway."— To Arthur John Dodson, Assoc. Inst. C.E., for his " Description and Drawings of the Hydraulic Traversing Frame, used on the Great AVestern Raihvay."- — To James Forrest, Jun., for his " Drawings and Diagrams illustrative of numerous Papers read at the Meetings." LIST OF NE^V PATENTS. GRANTED IN KNGLAND FROM OCTOnER 29, TO NOVEMBER 23, 1844. Sl^ Months allowed for Enrolment j unless ofherivise expressed. George Ferguson Wilson, of Belmont, Vnuxhall, gentleman, George Gwynue, of Princes- street, Cavemiish-sqviate, gentleman, and James Pillnus Wilson, of Helniont aioresaitl, gentleman, for " Iniprovements in the niannfatttire of night lights."— Sealed Oct. 'Z\). Alexander Parkes, of Birmingham. Artist, for "Improvements in the manufacture of certain ulloys or combinations of metals, and in depositing certain metals."— Oct. 2!>. George Uobjrt-D'Harcourt, of Old Jewry, London, gentleman, for "Improvements in ascertaining and checking the number of checks or tickets uhtch have been used and marked, applicable for railway offices and other places."— Oct. 29. Thomas Squire, of Warrington, County of Lancaster, Tanrier, for *' Improvements in tunning hiiles and skins." — Oct. I'lK Thomas Fuller, of Manchester, Engineer, for "certain Improvements in machinery, tools or apparatus for turning, boring, and cutting metals and other substances." — Octo- ber 2!t. William Crofts, of Lenton, Nottingham, lace manufacturer, and James Gihbonc, of New Radford, machinist, for " Improvements in the manufacture of tiguredor ornamented lace, or net of various textures." — October 31. George Ferfjuson Wilson, of Belnionl, Vaiixhall, gentleman, George nwynne,of Princes- street, Cuvendish-square, gentleman, and James Pillans Wilson, of Behnont aforesaid, goMitlemau, for " Improvements in treating fatty and oily matter, and in the manufacture of candles." — October 31. George Beadon, of Taunton, Somerset, gentleman, for " Improvements in life-boats or rafts, and in apparatus for raising or lowering the roasts of vessels, which icnprovements in raising or lowering are applicable to other purposes." — October 'A\. William Newman, of Birmingham, brass founder, for "a certain Improvement or cer- tain improvements in window-blinds." — November 2. Charles Smith, of Newcastle-street, Strand, gentleman, for "new and Improved methods in the construction and application of a variety of cooknig, culinary, and domestic articles and utensils, some of which are applicable to cleaning and a variety of similar uselul pur- poses."— November 2, Jean Baptiste IVIaniquet, of Sablionere Hotel, Leicester-square, pentlemnn, for " Im- l)rovenients in doubling, twisting, and reeling silk, cotton, and other substances." — November 2. W^illiam Bewley, of Dublin, gentleman, for " Improvements in fastenings for doors, windows, and other places where fastenings are used." — November 2. Thomas Brown Jordan, of Coitage-road, Pindico, mathematical divider, for " Improve- ments in the manufacture of blocks or surfaces for surface printing, stamping, embossing, and moulding."— November 2. William Brunton, jun., of Pool, Cornwall, engineer, for " Improvements in apparatus for dressing ores." — November 2. Thomas Unsworth, of Derby, silk ivaaver, for "an Improved manufactuie of elastic fabric." — November 2. Josepli Thomas, of Finch-lane^ publisher, for "anew and Improved tube." Being a communication, — November ^>. Henry Atkios, of Nottingham, lace manufacturer, for "certain Improvements in tlie manufacture of net lace." — Novemlier b, John Groom, of Oldham, Lancaster, for " certain Improvements in the machinery or apparatus for prei>aring, slubbing, or ruving cotton, wool, and other librous substances." — November 7. Stci»hen Geary, nf Hamilton-place, New-road, architect and engineer, for "certtiin Im- provements in the machinery, apparatus, and arrangements for the supply and distribu- tion of water for public and private uses, but more particularly in cases of tire." — Nov. 7 . Henry Bcrriskill Taylor, of Piccadilly, lamp manufacturer, for " Improvements in appa- ratus for transmitting light from lamp and other burners." — November?. Daniel Chandlar Hewitt, of Hanover-street, Hanover-square, musical instrument maker, for " Improvements in certain stringed and wind musical instruments." — November 9. David Auld, engineer, of Dalmaruock-road, and Andrew Auld, of West-street, Triideg- town, Glasgow, for "an Improved methods or methods of regulating the pressure and generation of steam in steam-boilers and generators." — November 9, William Prosscr, jun., of ^\'indsor.terrace, Pimlico, gentleman, for " Improvements in the construction of roads, and in carriages to run thereon." — November 0. Richard Harris, the elder, of Leicester, manufacturer, for " Improvementsin machiuery employed in the manufacture of looped fabrics." — November 9. Charles Derosne, of Rue des Batailles Chaillot, near Paris, gentleman, for "nn exten- sion of an invention for certain Improvements in extracting sugar or syiups irom cane- juice and other substances containing sugar, and in retining sugar and syrups." (For the term of six years from the expiration of the original grant.) — November 9. John Dearnian Dunnicliff, of Nottingham, lace manufacturer, William Crofts, of Pen- ton, lace manufacturer, and John Woodhouse Bagley, of New Radford, mechanic, for " certain Improvements in the manufacture of lace and other weavings." — November 13. Mark Freeman, of Sutton, esquire, for *' Improvements in working or dressing the sur- face of stone." — November 14, Fredericl: Steiner, of Hyndburn Cottage, Lancaster, turkey-red dyer, for " A new co- louring matter to be used in dyeing certain colours on cotton, woollen, silk, and linen fabrics."— November \A. William North, of Stangale, slater, for ** Imi)rovemenls in covering roofs and flats with slate." — November 14. Isaac Fairell, of Great Brunswick-street, Duldin, architect, for " certain Improvements in machinery, whereby carriages may be impelled on railways and tramways by means of stationary engines or other po»ver, including certain apparatus connected with the car- riages to run en the same." — November 14. Francis Watteen, of Finsbury s(iuare, merchant, for " Improvements in preventing in- crustations in steam-boilers and steam-generators." — November 10. Joseph Muudslay, of Lambeth, engineer, for " certain Improvements in steam-engines." — November l(i. Francis Higginson, of Rochester, lieutenant in her Majesty's navy, and Edward Robert Coles, of the same place, merchant and ship-owner, for "certain Improvements in the construction of buildings generally." — November 21. David Bletcalf, of Leeds, dyer, for " A new mode of manufacturing or prepaiing a new vegetable preparation, applicable to dyeing blue and other colours." — November 21. John Spencer, agent of the Ph