[HUtunniil

ti f ;

"!!f"!I!!'P!f

W ^:

■ I

;

■ -1

■riU 'i

1

t['.

JUtbrarg

|bk:

BaaatM- .

■CHARLES__B»R5Y^ ESQ. R.A. ARChT-

SRItP©EWATER, HOUSE, * ST JiAMES PARSi

tall

THE

CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S

JOURNAL

SCIENTIFIC AND RAILWAY GAZETTE.

VOLUME Xll.

1849.

LONDON:

^o'/"-'^' o«o'

R. GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW; J. WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORN; WIETEV AND H'TNAM,

NEW YORK; GALIGNANI, AND MATHIAS, PARIS.

Printed and Published by WILLIAM LAXTON, the Proprietor, at No. 10, Fludyer Street, Whitehall.

THE

CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S

JOURNAL.

BRIDGE WATER HOUSE .—Charles Barrv, Esq., R.A., Architect.

C Tilth an Engraving, Plate l.J

It is only exceptionally tliat any of our English nobility or aris-
tocracy build for themselves mansions in the metropolis. In Italy,
every city of any note is indebted for much of its architectural
reputation to the private palazzi of noble families; nhich, if they
sometimes exhibit very questionable taste, possess at least phy-
siognomy, and have an air of patrician dignity. Here, on the
contrary, rank and opulence do not seek to distinguish themselves
by their habitations making any architectural display, externally :
the abstinence from wliich may be partly attributed to indiifer-
ence for architecture itself, but is also in a great measure owing to
the system, prevalent here among even the wealthiest classes, of
occupying houses only upon lease — a system almost prohibitory of
the erection of town residences of a really palatial character.
Like any other wholesale manufacturer, the speculator-builder can
only provide such houses as are likely to meet the general require-
ments of a class of occupiers ; and that class must suit themselves
as well as they can from the stock provided for the market.
Actual accommodation and fashionahlpness of situation are the two
points chiefly considered by those who resort to that market ; for
as to the architectural fashion of the commodities, that must be
taken for better or worse, or just as it can be had: and whatever
the taste of it be, that is no aft'air of the occupiers, since they are
" only lodgers here." A duke and a drysalter may be next-door
neighbours to each other, and their dwellings Dromios, — two slices
of the same piece, and consequently just of the same pattern.
The speculator-builder cannot possibly tell beforehand who are to
be his customers : duke or drysalter is to him all one. Besides, he
cannot, or else fancies he cannot, aiford to look to taste : had he a
third eye, he probably might be able to do so ; but as he has not,
he must keep both the eyes he has upon per cent. People who
build for themselves, build also for their posterity ; but a specula-
tor has no posterity, — he looks only to number one and to-day.
Under such a system, what can we expect better than the mush-
room architecture which has sprung up in that ultra-fashionable
spot, Belgravia. As to Belgrave-square itself, it is to us far more
unsatisfactory than Russell-square — the butt of the very vulgar
and very flunkey wit of our Hoods and Crokers. The latter place
is, at least, exempt from all paltry architectural pretension; which
is more than can be said of the other. It honestly confesses itself
to be very — or for "very" we should, perhaps, say "rather" — dull
and stupid; whereas the other is a grimacing pretender, who gi\es
himself what he fancies are high-bred airs. As architecture, Bel-
grave-square is only bloated insignificance; of design, properly so-
called, there is not a particle in it. It is a compound of the most
hackneyed ideas vulgarised. Where there is no aim, there is no
miss ; but there a good deal — at any rate, much more than was

No. 136.— Vol,. XII.— January, 1S49.

then usual — %vas evidently aimed at, and the result is intolerable
insipidity of ensemble, and equally intolerable cockneyism of de-
tail ; the style, if such it may be called, being best described as
Cockneyfied-Italian. Yet, what better can be expected from the
present system of building streets and squares by wholesale ? It
would be objectionable enough, if only because it flings away op-
portunities for architectural design, a single idea repeated again
and again being made to serve for several scores of houses.
Merely such wearisome repetition would be bad enough; yet, as if
it were not sufficiently so, the architectural pattern set for what
is afterwards to be carried on ad libitum, is invariably of the most
trumpery and tawdry character,— crude and unstudied — appa-
rently the production of either the speculator-builder himself, or
of one of his drawing-board journeymen.

Under such circumstances as these, Bridgewater House may be
regarded as an architectural phenomenon in the British metropo-
lis. The term "phenomenon," however, is not meant to imply that
there is anything extraordinary in regard to the general idea, or to
style or design. Being, strictly speaking, a palazzo, Bridgewater
House identifies itself architecturally witli a class of structures of
very recent date in our metropolis. Any one unacquainted with
the' fact of its ownership, would, almost of course, take it for a
clubhouse ; it having, in every respect, far more the character of
an edifice of that kind, than the appearance of being a private
residence. Almost the only other mansion erected within our
memory, which makes any pretension to rank as a work of archi-
tecture, is the neighbouring Stafl"ord, alias Sutherland, House,
originally designed by two of the Wyatts as a residence for the
late Duke of York. For this reason, and also on account of their
propinquity, some comparison of the two mansions naturally sug-
gests itself ; and although comparisons are said to be odious, we
may be very well satisfied with the result of the one on the present
occasion, since it makes evident how greatly architectural taste
has advanced among us in the interim between the dates of the
two buildings, which may be taken as the representatives of the
ante-Barry-an, and the Barry-an period. vV^hile the style of
Sutherland House is essentially mean and undignified, and partakes
of the regular or ordinary office drawing-board school of design,
and is utterly devoid of aught approaching to gusto, it might
be many degrees more faulty without being by several so trivial,
flat, and mesquin in taste. It can find favour only in the eyes of
a surveyor or builder, for there is not a single touch of the artist
perceptible in it. Perhaps even such a piece of honest, unso-
phisticated dowdyism as Marlborough House is the less offensive
of the two ; for to be at once dowdy and pretentious is, if not in-
tolerable, amusing — that is, ridiculous. Frederick of York was

7 5 ^S ^/

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

not a connoisseur of architecture himself, and he seems to have
trusted to very ill-informed advisers, althou^jh the royal Duke
miplit have known how dangerous it is either to trust or to be
trusted.

Thanks to Barry, we arc now {rot out of that humdrum sort of
desif^n wliich prevailed during the latter half of the last, and at
tlje beginning of the present, century ; — not that no mischief has
attended his example, because, to say the truth, many of his fol-
lowers, or those who fancy that they are following him, have only
caricatured hin. For Mr. Barry himself we do not claim any great
originality or inventive power, but exqviisite taste and tact he
certainly possesses. There is artistic sensibility and sentiment
in whatever lie does, the value of wliich may he best estimated by
tlie absence of those qualities in the same style as it is treated by
others.

As is well known, solicitous carefulness of finish is Mr. Barry's
forte; which being known, it would seem easy for others to rival
him by bestowing etpial attention on the more delicate touches
of design — minor ones, perhaps, if ciuisidcred only as so many
separate matters of detail, but very im|)ortaiit and influential as
regards aggregate effect. Yet, although the means to be pursued
seem to be plainly enough prompted, they are not acted upon — at
least, not with anything like the same success. In their treat-
ment of the same style, Mr. Barry's followers are apt to fidlow him
posfiihii.s luiud (Pquin; showing great inecpiality of taste, and ex-
hibiting together with carefulness, perhaps, in some respects, care-
lessness in others.

Although like his two clubhouses, an astylar composition — con-
sequently deriving character and embellislinient chiefly from fe-
nestration— this work of Mr. Barry's has, along with a certain
family resemblance to them, many traits in which it differs from
them ; some of which are tolerably obvious. In the first place,
the ground-floor is not so much raised above the level of the
street ; in the next, it is treated as a distinct, rusticated basement,
without other dressing to the windows than what results from
the articulation and jointing of the masonry, which last is properly
expressed, because consistently so : whereas the other mode — now
unfortunately too much in vogue^of showing the joints only in
one direction, is not only un-Italian, but poor, monotonous, and
solecistical, inasmuch as it does not express hand. Among other
differences, besides that the principal cornice is here not so
pronoiici' as those of the two clubhouses referred to, it does not
terminate the elevation, but is surmounted by a balustrade. In-
stead of being a la Sansovino — both meagre in design, and so ridi-
culously enlarged as to contradict its apparent purpose, and to
operate most disadvantageously, it being a scale by which the eye
is apt to judge of the dimensions of other parts, the balustrade
here is well proportioned, because it does not exceed the height to
which a jiarapet is necessarily limited. A balustrade on the top
of a building twice as high as those to the windows is a palpable
absurdity, because either the former is proportioned only to giants,
or the latter only to dwarfs. This may seem to amount to no more
than saying tliat Mr. Barry has in that respect avoided an absur-
dity ; but wiiy do not others avoid it too.'' The design of the
)irincii)al-floor windows may be called axtyhir, in contradistinction
from tlic niirrosti/hir decoration of the windows on tliat floor, both
in the Travellers' and the Reform Cluliluiuse; yet they are of not
less ornate diaracter — in some resjiects even more so, if only on
account of the sculpture within their pediments — a touch of em-
bellislinient to wliich we are by no means accustomed, and which,
though it may he deemed pi'odigal in regard to cost, is chaste in
effect, and not at all inconsistent with the elaborate finish and
richness of those window compositions.

We have omitted to mention that the building is intended to
form a town residence for the Earl of Ellesmere, and is situated
on the cast side of the Green Park, and on the north side of
Cleveland-row. The elevation which we have given in Plate I.
is that of the south front, abutting on Cleveland-row, and is
14-2 ft. Gin. in length, and G8 feet high above the ground-line to
the top of the balustrade. The frontage next the Green I'ark is
122 feet. The whole of the building forms a square, of the above
dimensions, and contains comiilete suites of a]i:irtnients. The
ground-floor is 20 feet high, and will be aiqiropriated for the ]ii'i-
vate aiKirtmcnts of the noble owner, and the flour above to state
rooms. The iiortli end of the mansion will be set apart for a n(d)le
gallery, to exhibit the splendid collection of pictures in the pos-
session of the Earl.

CANDIDUS'S NOT E-BOOK,
FASCICULUS LXXXIX.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the wlnda.
To blow on whom I please."

I. This Fasciculus is dedicated to James Fergusson. Had
Candidus obtained — as he has endeavoured to earn — any palm of
desert in criticism, he would transfer it to one whom he acknow-
ledges his superior in ipsthetic philosophy. As it is, I can only
hold out my hand to him in token of sincere admiration and
hearty approbation; and by merely doing that, I shall jirobably
distinguish myself, mine being likely to be the only hand exlendeil
to him in cordial amity — thus publicly at least, for his book*
abounds with such awful and fundamental heresies, — attacks
stereotype opinions and time-hallowed prejudices so unsparingly,
that it can hardly fail to excite a deep and rancorous feeling
against it, althougli whether it will meet with a bold and open ad-
versary is very doubtful. The writer has, as he himself says,
thrown down his glove to all comers; but he must have more than
ordinary courage who ventures to pick it up. Yet, whoever does
so may be certain of having the good wishes, not to say the
earnest prayers, of numbers for his success in the fearful combat
— a combat upon the issue of which so ■\ery much would be at
stake ; because, should the public champion of established opinions
and inveterate prejudices happen to be worsted— to be unsaddled
in argument, instead of anything being gained, positive mischief
would have been done to "'the good old cause." What, then, is to
be done .'' Will the Institute throw lots to decide who is to go
forth to encounter the formidable testhetic Goliath, who has
started up to disturb their drowsy slumbers? — the arch-heretic, if
not the arch-fiend, who speaks of "the monkey styles of modern
Europe.''" Monkey styles! — What a universal groan of horror
must have responded to that most audaciously libellous charac-
terization of our actual phiropean architecture ! Monkey ! — the
epithet is really so unendurable, that I venture to propose in
amendment of it, that of — asinine.

II. In no quarter has Mr. Fergusson sought for popularity, or
attempted to make himself friends, by flattering existing Jireju-
dices, and sparing, if not deferring to, erroneous yet long cherished
opinions. His startlingly bold estimate of Roman literature and
Roman art, must shock' the classical scholar, and all those who
are interested in upholding the present vicious mode of education
established at our universities and public schools. — As little has he
spared the feelings of the aristocracy, for he gives it as his
O])inion, that "there is not, as far as I am aware, one single indi-
vidual in the ujijier ranks of society who really knows what art is,
or is seriously anxious for its advancement"! Nor has he the grace
to qualify such sweeping censure by adding: "the members of the
Fine Arts' Commission" alone excepted." At any rate, Mr. Fer-
gusson shows himself to be no courtier. — Perhaps he has made
friends with the jiaiuters: hardly that, wben he observes that many
pictures would rank as works of art, "below a good ,to»JW('/ or a
vol-au-vent, where I should certainly class many of the pictures
annually exhibited in London"! ! It must be left to Soyer and his
fraternity to applaud wliat must scandalise the Royal Academy
and all other picture-exhibiting societies. — With antiquaries and
archaeologists, Fergusson is not at :ill likely to stand in higher
favour than with iiaiutcrs, wjien he talks of "the infamous draw-
ing in the old paintings that adorn the walls or windows of our
cathedrals;" and adds, in a note, "Among the strange manias to
which a false system of art has led us, none is more exqiiisitc/ii
absurd tlian the attempts often now made by a set of archaeological
artists, to imitate these ancient productions, iVc." Quite contrary,
too, to the servile doctrine hitherto inculcated by architectural
teachers of every sect and school, he ventures to dedai-e that
"freedom and hope are the first true principles of greatness in art,
as in everything else; and ser\'ility and despair of doing better
than has been done before, must cramp the noblest genius, and
hide the highest aim." Noble and inspiring sentiment ! Yet, how
fraught is it with scornful reproach to au age wliich piques itscjf
upon its talent for the most direct and mechanical copyism, and
which preaches up the most abject servility, and the most cowardly
despair; "and when, as in modern Europe, art is letrograde, ai:d
its fundamental principles retrogressive, either to Greece, or Rome,
or to the Middle Ages " __^

* "All llisloiical liiquiiy into the Pniitiples ol Beauty in Art, more es| ccially tvitk
refereuci to Aichiiecluie." Loudon: Loiibinai), lb4y.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

3

III. To the venerators of Vitruviu?, Mr. Ferpusson certainly
does not look for applause, for presuming to characterise their idol
as follows: — "If there were no other work to prove it, that of
Vitruvius might alone suffice to show how little appreciation his
countrymen had either of the spirit or the aim of true art. From
the first page to the last of hix hook\ there is not one expression which
shows that he had more sympathies for its beauties than might be pos-
sessed bi/ an uneducated house-carpenter or stonemason: he merely
collects a set of dry formal rules from ohserved examjjles, and

repeats them as if he were writing a catalogue of minerals

That nation must have been singwlarly ignorant in art that could
produce a work so cold and soulless as this, which shows so little
knowledge of the common-sense prosaic properties of his art, and
still less appreciation either of its beauties or its aims." — What,
then, is to be said of those who adopt it as a code and an oracle .'
That Vitruvius was a poor, plodding creature, there can be little
doubt; and if the man himself was not an arrant liiimbug, certain
it is that his writings have been made the means of humbugging us
moderns on the subject of architecture, and diffusing maudlin cant,
and that worst sort of ignorance — learned stupidity. I have said
as much as this before, and others besides Fergusson have ventured
to impugn very freely the writings of Vitruvius ; so that although
many still speak of them, not for the purpose of vindicating their
worth, but as if their former credit was entirely unimpaired, there
is reason for hojiing that the contemptible Vitruvian superstition
wiU die out — in this country at least — with the present generation
of those who have been trained up in it. — May the time not be far
distant when the writings of the Roman architectural classic will
excite not enthusiastic admiration, but unmitigated astonishment
— merely contemptuous wonder that so much fustian and so much
old-womanism should ever have been regarded as a compendium of
architectural philosophy.

IV. As little as the admirers of Vitruvius will the fanciers of
the "Invisible Curves of the Parthenon" feel obliged to Mr. Fer-
gusson, who is somewhat sarcastic— my readers know tliat I am by
far too innocent ever to deal in sarcasm myself — upon that subject.
"The idea," he observes, "that a form, the existence of which can
be detected only by the most perfect mathematical instruments,
should be a cause of beauty in a visible and tangible oljject, is what
I can neither understand nor appreciate. I hope, however, it will
be tried in tlie next portico we build. Perhaps the failure of the
e.xperiment may convince men that something more is wanted to
produce a true specimen of art than such abject servility as copy-
ing not only what we can see, but what our eyes will not enable us
to detect even when pointed out. We have long copied what we
do not understand : it seems carrying the system to its acme of
absurdity, to attempt also to copy what we cannot see." — Truly so:
the only way of refining upon such absurdity would be to have
recourse to ponderation, and estimate buildings l)y the aggregate
weight of their solid materials. It is, indeed, extravagant a
T outrance for people to direct their attention to the most exqui-
site hair-breadth minuteness of mere measurements, while they
altogether overlook and take no account of those esthetic qualities
and effects which, althougli they elude the most cunning mechanical
appreciation, contribute to the fascination of every genuine work
of art.

V. Not the least, perhaps, among Fergusson's heresies, is his
attaching the importance he does to Polychromy, a species of de-
coration for architecture all along considered, till very lately, a
trait of barbaric taste, and not even so much as suspected to have
been practised by the Greeks; and which although it excited atten-
tion as matter of curious inquiry some few years ago, has led to no
results, and may be said t(.) be again ignored. — It may, howe\'er, be
remarked, oi passant, that such practice of the Greeks has been, if
not recommended for imitation, strongly extolled by Mr. R. N.
Wornum, in a lecture on Greek Art, lately delivered by him to the
School of Design, at Somerset House. — In this climate, polychromy
is hardly to be thought of for external decoration: it would no
more thrive liere than would the plants of tropical regions; yet, as
we rear the latter in conservatories and "palm-houses," as botani-
cal curiosities and specimens of exotic vegetation, we might rear,
under cover and protected from the weather, a few specimens of
external polychromy. There would be nothing extravagant in
erecting, at the extremity of an avenue in a so-called "winter-
garden," a full-sized model of the Parthenon, with all its polychro-
matic embellishment restored; — not, indeed, a model of the entire
structure, but merely of its fafade and pronaos; for which no more
costly material than wood would be required, nothing more being
necessary than to exliibit efect; and such exhibition of it would be
likely to settle the now doubtful question as to the taste which
sanctioned polychromy, far better than a thousand pen-and-ink

debatings about, it, pro and con. As to the cost of such an experi-
ment, it would be to many a mere bagatelle — a far less expensive
folly, should it happen to be called one, than many of those in
which some of our milliunaires indulge, or else do penance, in
order to obtain a little brief newspaper notoriety, in exchange for
some of their superfluous cash. — But Cynthius aurem vellit.

VI. If not externally, we easily enough might have architec-
tural Polychromy internally, — by which term, something more
than the employment of different-coloured materials, or painting
for the general surface of the walls, is to be understood. Never-
theless, we have not yet advanced beyond the application of co-
loured marbles, or the imitation of them in scagliola, for what are
considered the strictly architectural features in interior design and
decoration. Go into any of our most palatial clubhouses or man-
sions, and scagliola shafts to columns and pilasters ap])ear to be
the bout de leur Latin of our architects in regard to arcliitectural
decoration, properly so called. For aught further they are con-
tent to be indebted to Mr. Sang, or Mr. Somebody-else, for whose
brushes they provide blanks of ample verge and space enough to
be filled up ad libitum.

VII. To return to Mr. Fergusson: were there nothing else
that I admire in him, I should admire the utter absence in
his book of that nast)', crawling, creeping, lickspittle, flunkey-
ism, which is the prevalent vice of a great part of the public
press at the present day, though it is equally the disgrace of
manhood and of criticism. Were he deficient in all besides, Fer-
gusson is the very reverse of a flunkey sycophant, and possesses
what in this age of wonders is tlie rarest, if not most wonderful,
thing of all — moral courage. And of such courage it requires not
a little to give utterance, as he has done, to some exceedingly
strong truths, that are likely to be equally unpopular in every
quarter. AVlien AVelby Pugin attacked his professional brethren,
he imputed their degeneracy in a great measure to their Protes-
tantism, and, no doubt, reckoned upon ingratiating himself with
the Catliolics — perliaps also with those whose antiquarian studies
and feelings prejudice them in favour of art as it was cultivated in
Catholic times. Mr. Fergusson, on the contrary, has placed himself
in a very different position, and has made himself friends among
no party — at least, no existing one. Pugin's cry was : Let us go
bade! — and backwards we have been going ever since; but Mr.
Fergusson's is: Let us go forward! — a matter far more difficult of
accomplishment tlian the other. Against that Forward, we have
thrown up barricades in the shape of inveterate prejudices. Be-
cause we cannot get forward all at once, at a single bound, we are
not to strive to get forward at all. Architecture has been hrought
into a complete fix. Yet, strange to say, instead of the impossi-
bility— eitiier real or imaginary — of getting architecture out of
that "fix" being at all regretted, it is rather made matter for
triumph and congratulation; for we have, ere now, been told that
we ouglit not so much as to think of advancing a single step fur-
ther than those who have gone before us, and whose stopping point
ought to be considered the ultima Thule of the art, and of our am-
bition.

ON ISOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE.

By R. G. Clark.

In my last article on "Isometrical Perspective" (vol. xi., p. 294),
I gave an easy rule by construction to determine the axes of the
ellipse, being the isometrical projection of a circle, the angle OAB
being 30°, (see the figure in that article). But it is sometimes
necessary to draw a vertical isometrical projection of a circle, as in
the case of a water- wlieel, or a wheel of a locomotive, thus (fig. 1) :
Let A B C D E F G be the iso-
metrical projection of a cube,
the side A B being in this case
drawn horizontal ; produce B
to H, then the angle H B C =
60° ; draw the two diagonals B F
and C G. The two diameters
can be deteimined by con-
struction by the last rule. But
as the angle C B (i is in this
case 30°, tlie multipliers are
therefore different. The num-
bers to be used as multipliers
to determine the two axes, are

respectively 1'408 for the trans- Fig. 1.

verse, and "365 for the conjugate.

2*

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Januabv,

Ex. — Suppose the diameter of a locomotive wheel is 6 feet ; re-
quired the transverse and conjugate diameters of its isometrical
projection.

Here 6 X 1 "408 = 8-448 = the transverse diameter, F B
G X -365 = 2-190 = the conjugate diameter, C G.
When the angle H B C is 30°, then the rule in last article applies.
It appears, therefore, that the ellipse in last article is the isometri-
cal projection, both of a vertical and a liorizontal circle, when the
angles C F (i and C B G are each 30°. But when the angle H B C
=: 60°, then the elliipse, as alluded to in this article, is the isome-
trical projection of a vertical circle.

E

Fig. 2. Fig. .1.

Sometimes it is necessary to find the isometrical representation
of an ellipse, in the case of an elliptical form of buildings. In
such case, when the transverse and conjugate diameters of the
ellipse are given, the given ellipse must be circumscribed with the
rectangle A B D C (fig. 2), and then its isometrical representation
dra%vn as in fig. 3. Bisect aft in c, and erf in/; draw c/ parallel
to C A, and then the curve along the oblique axes can be drawn
with a trammel. It will be also proper to remark that the curve
has two pair of foci.

As many buildings are often requii-ed to be erected in the form
of regular pentagons and hexagons, it would be desirable to ex-
hibit some ways of drawing the isometrical representation of the
two polygons.

I. First, with respect to the Pentagon : it is a form usually re-
quired in permanent fortification, especially in citadels. In this
case, I shall give some numbers to enable any one to draw its iso-
metrical representation in the most commodious form. Let
A B C D E (fig. 4) be the isometrical representation of a pentagon ;
let A B be considered as unity : then will the whole height D F =
-889 ; F H = -398 ; E H or H C = -810; the semi-conjugate dia-
meter of circumscribing ellipse = -49, and the semi-transverse =
-89. By means of these numbers, we can easily draw the isome-
trical representation of the polygon when its side is given. The
circumscribing ellipse is not required, but only the semi-conjugate
DO, to determine the centre O, where all the corresponding ra-
diating lines in the original figure must be drawn thereto. With
regard to tlie making an isometrical representation of a fortifica-
tion, as Vauban's First System, or of Cormontaigne's Modern Bas-
tion system, in the form of a regular pentagon, it is only necessary
to multiply the above numbers by 180, and then will be given the
number of times in lengtb of the constructive lines of the isome-
trical representation.

^^/^

D

\

0

/

A

B

Fig. 4. > Fig. 5.

II. Tlie Hexagon is commonly required, as being of a most con-
venient form for prisons, workhouses, &c., and can be easily drawn
by a common-set square of 45°, as in fig. 4. First of all draw the
front side A B, and construct a square ABEF, and then complete
the remainder of the figure with the square, as before mentioned.
The method of construction is clearly elucidated by fig. 5. Al-
though the ellipse is exbibited, yet its representation is not neces-
sary. Any other isometrical projection, as making it an angle of
30°, would be extremely tinsigbtly. This method of projecting
would, in many cases, be very convenient in drawing the nuts and
liolts of machinery, when exhibited isometrically. Tlie above
metliod could be easily proved geometrically, but it was deemed
quite unnecessary to enter on so simple a matter.

THE GIANTS' STAIRCASE, VENICE.

La_^JtAJ^a;L^■^J^.^AAA.^fu^-^X)^A.^J^.^-^^^-r^J^-^-l^J

jllfn^itfflliTliri iffl

The celebrated Giants' Stairs, Ducal Palace, Venice (named from
the two colossal statues, by Sansovino, of jMars and Neptune on its
summit), is formed out of the beautiful wliite marble of Carrara,
and deservedly admired on account of the splendid effect of the
material, as also the art tliat has been displayed in its decoration.
Witli great taste, jjurple (or roswo) marble is intermixed with the
white in the s(iuare panellings into wldch its flanks are divided.
From tlie exterior surfaces, beneath its perforated parapets, the
annexed engraving is a sketch of one single slip of the sculpture,
as an example of the Imstii-rt'/ievi of this interesting structure. It
appears that when originally planned, and when the sculptor
worked upon it, no pains were spared, and no expense grudged,
in making this ascent a fit, appropriate, and worthy approach to

184-9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

the Dog-e's palace — that the steps which the robed senators and
great men of the Republic were accustomed to ascend could not
be too rich or too nobly ornamented. On these steps, for the pur-
pose of producinsf a contrast with the white marble, an inlay of
metal was formerly introduced. Spoiled of these to-day, it is
still an object of great admiration. The huge, rough, but expres-
sive, tutelary divinities on the summit — emblems of the naval and
military prowess of Venice — by Jacobo Sansovino, impart to it a
high degree of interest, and have conferred upon it much of its
celebrity. They were placed upon their present pedestals about
the year 1566, though commenced by him some years previously.

The Giants' Stairs is vivid in the recollection of all who have
seen it, and has been copied and contemplated by generations of
artists. It has been a favourite study with our Prouts, our
Leitches, our Stantields, and our Turners. It abounds in histori-
cal and romantic associations; and no one who has read the history
of the Doges, but would remember it was these marlde stairs

" Down which the grizzly head of old Faliero
Koll'd from the block."

From Temanza's "Life of Sansovino,"* we have collected some
of the fcdlovving particulars of this excellent sculptor and archi-
tect. He was born in Florence, about 1479 ; died, aged 91, 1570.
His first studies were from the well-known cartoon by Michael
Angelo (the War of Pisa), which was ordered to be drawn for a
painting in the Council-hall at Florence, and which Michael An-
gelo gained in competition over Leonardo da Vinci. It was a
great object of study among the students of the day, and Sanso-
vino upon this masterly production laid much of his foundation of
drawing the figure, and knowledge of design. From Florence he
repaired to the Eternal City, where he studied the Apollo Belvi-
dere, &c. Bramante, then the Pope's architect, seeing Sansovino
modelling in the Vatican, and pleased with a small vase which he
held in his hand, that served him as an inkstand, and wliich he had
designed, ordered him to model in wax from the celebrated statue
of the Laocoon ; giving the same example to three other young
artists likewise to copy. Raphael was to decide as to which was
the best among the four, and his approbation fell upon Sansovino.
This model was cast in metal, and was considered to be a most
perfect specimen. At this period, Sansovino derived advantages
from his inhabiting the same house with San Gallo, being in conse-
quence induced to go through a course of architectural studies.
Subsequently, he was with Pietro Perugino, and enjoyed the com-
pany of the first literati and architects of the day, among whom
was Cesare Cesariano (the commentator of Vitruvius), and Andrea
del Sarto. The praises he now received, and the fame he acquired
as a sculptor, though little more than the age of thirty, served as
a stimulus to exert his talents and produce works from which he
might command higher and yet higher commendation. Temanza
says (note. p. 13), it is not easy to fix the true period in which
Sansovino came to Venice. Vasari places it in 1527, after the
sacking of Rome. In Venice he met with congenial spirits, and
the friendship of Aretino and Titian ; upon which Temanza truly
remarks — "£■ tutti e tre formarono vn Triunwirnto in cut trovavono /e
bell' Arti come la lor residenza" (p. 15). In 1529, Buono, the archi-
tect of the Proeuratie, dying, Sansovino was posted in his stead,
with a provision from the State, and a house near the Orologia, on
the Piazza. He was considered to have shown some skill in the
mode in which he repaii-ed, by means of circles of iron toothed and
wedged, the cupola of St. Mark, which liad been dilapidated for
many years. Some of the work was assigned to him in the school
della Misericordia, and in the church of S. Francesco della Vigna,
though the elevation is Palladio's ; and very beautiful are his
bronze bassi-retievi to the doorway in the chapel royal of St. Mark,
which are given by Cicognara in the 2nd vol. of his "Storia suUa
Scultura." He built anew the Zecca, in 1535, which is constructed
entirely of stone from Istria. The admired Loggia, at the foot of
the Campanile, was erected about 1540; the pedestals, architraves,
and cornices of which are of the beautiful ronso of Verona, the
columns of the best Brescia and Grecian marbles, and the remain-
der of Carrara marble. It is richly adorned with statues, in niches,
of Pallas, Apollo, Mercury, and Peace; and bassi-relievi, emblema-
tical of the States of the Republic. The greater part of this most
elegant building is by Sansovino; the rest by his pupils.

Frederick Lvsh.
* Fublisllcd in Venice, 1752, quarto, with portrait, engraved from a painting by Titian.

IMPROVED SAFETY-VALVES.

By Alfred Gregory, Esq., C.E

Fig. 1.

r^^^^i

Fig. 2.

The above engraving shows an improved form of safety-valve
for steam-boilers, invented by Mr. Alfred Gregory, and described
in the Mechanic's Magazine, wliich has met with tlie approbation of
several eminent engineers.

The advantages do not require to be much insisted on. The
practice of overloading the safety-valve is much more common
than is generally supposed : sometimes it is the act of ignorance,
but most frequently that of will, not only endangering life, but
injuring ihe pocket also, in the destruction (which is very serious)
that ensues to the boilers, fire-boxes, &c. The number of fines
levied on locomotive-enginemen furnishes sufficient evidence of
the frequency of its occurrence.

Description. — Fig. 1, represents the safety-valve in a form appro-
priate for stationary use. Fig. 2, another modification, on the
same principle, applicable to boilers of every description — locomo-
tive, marine, and stationary.

A A, fig. 1, represent the top plates of boiler; B B, the steam
space inside; C, the ordinary conical valve, having a perpendicular
spindle, to which a weight, D, is attached; E E, valve-box; F F,
a chain, which is connected to the valve at one end, and at its
other end to the short curved part of the lever G; H is a regulat-
ing weight; I, a shield to protect the valve from injury or Inter-
ference; e, e, e, e, four bars or stops to the shield I, for frustrating
any attempt to damage the valve.

The mode of working is, for the steam to raise the valve, as
usual, when its pressure exceeds that of the weight D, less the
lifting power of the lever G, and weight H. The weight D,
being inside the boiler, cannot be for any mischievous purpose got
at ; and it is equal to the extreme pressure allowed upon the boiler,
or may be made so by hanging weights to the eye-loop of D, which

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

additional wpiafhts may be reduced, or altogether removed, as the
boiler deteriorates bv wear. For any /('.«• pressure, accordinf? to
the working- necessities of the engine, the engineer has the same
control over the valve as at present, by sliding the weight H, on
the lever O, which operates in taking off weight, reguliiting the
rejiiiction as lie ]deases ; hut he cannot increase the load upon the
valve beyond what the weight D, inside the boiler, gives ; for, if
hanging more weight on the lever G, he takes off, instead of in-
creasing pressure ; and, on the other hand, if raising the handle
end of the lever, it has no effect upon the valve, on account of the
connecting medium being a chain, which, of course, can only ope-
rate in one way, hanging loose, as it does, and throwing no stress
upon the valve when moving downwards.

Fig. 2 is another form, involving the same action, but instead of
the heavy weight attacheil to the valve-spindle, as before, there is,
inside the boiler, a lever M, having a weight N, and fulcrum at O,
equal in its effect to tlie extreme pressure allowed, and which may
be reduced as the boiler, by use, weakens, by fixing the weight N,
nearer the fulcrum, convenience for which is shown. Instead,
also, of the protecting shield, as in No. 1, the blow-away steam is
here carried off by a double u-bent pipe, the accessible half of which
is made of thin sheet copper, strong enough to carry away the steam
as it blows freely into the air, there being then little or no pres-
sure; but if the steam be confined within it, through any wilful
attempt to plug the pipe up, the copper will rend {a result peculiar
to that metal); and permit the necessary escape. There is like-
wise shown a small roller P, to counteract the curvilineal action of
the lever M, and keep the valve-spindle from "sticking." But
both this and the copper pipe are precautions no more necessary
than at present with the best constructed valves, and might
safely be dispensed with. The remaining parts and action of fig. 2,
are the same as fig. 1.

Both plans represent the principle of a valve, the mechanical
arrangement of which, however modified, embraces every ad-
vantage, as to security, of a "/ocfrcrf valve," in frustrating any
attempt to overload it," either by accident or design, through igno-
rance or will, without the usual attendant disadvantages of incon-
venience, expense. &c., of a second valve, and liability to '■'■stick"
by corrosion of parts through standing long unused, &c. — a liability
which the present form has not, as it is the engineers'./>e(;«eni
"■'working" safety-valve, which is a locked and limited one, but pos-
sessing all the facility of regulating his pressure that he has now,
though not allowed to exceed the fixed extreme safe point.

GEORGE STEPHENSON.

[The following communication was addressed to the author of
the article on George Stephenson ; but as it contains some inte-
resting facts and coi'rections, we thought it far better to give the
communication in the Journal. Our readers must see by the
numerous quotations, that the papers written in the Journal have
been got up with considerable labour, and that the writer has only
stated that which is supported by some authority. We shall feel
particularly obliged for any information regarding the Life of
George Stephenson, as it is our anxious desire to make the memoir
as complete as circumstances will allow. It being a life so inti-
mately connected with the great advance of modern engineering,
it is highly desirable to make it as perfect as possible. On this
account, we have postponed the continuation of the memoir for
another month. ^

•'Sir, — In reading the article on George Stephenson in the last
number of the Journal, I noticed some ernu's connected with
the descriptio]! of the Stockton and Darlington Railway, which I
thought it would be well to point out to the writer of that paper,
and to endeavour to correct them as far as I am able. Speaking
of the Stockton and Darlington Railway, you say, " this could
hardly be named as more than a tramway": — now, from the very
commencement, this line was indeed a veritable railway; it could
not properly be called either a tramway or wagon-way: — In using
those terms, we ought to be careful to apply them according to
their proper and genuine signification, or serious errors may even-
tually creep into our descriptions of works of this class; and
which, may, in course of time, become perpetuated, and the true
meaning of the terms lost. Like railways, those three terms had
their birth among the extensive collieries of Durham and Nortli-
umberland. The tramways are principally used underground, for
the purpose of conveying the coals from the working district of
the mine to the shaft, up which they have to be drawn. In some

of the extensive collieries, these tramways will extend for three or
four miles. The gauge of the road is about IH inches: the carriage
which runs upon this way is a small four-wheeled rollev or tram
(hence the term tramway). Upon this carriage is placed tfie basket
containing the coals. Previous to tlie introduction of tramways
and trams, barrows were made for this purpose, the corf or basket
being placed on the barrow, and a luirrow flagged-wav for tlie
barrows to run on was laid down, called the barrow-way, — which
term is even yet, in some cases, applied to the more modern tram-
way. It is perhaps 150 years since the barrows and barrow- way was
superseded by the tram and tramway. The first tramways were
made of wood, and may still be seen in some places. The two
rails were fixed together by a cross-sleeper and a 6-foot length of
double-way laid down at once. The wheels, of course, were
without flanges, and at first were made of wood, with an iron
rim: the wheel loose on the axle, and the axle also loose, to
allow for "play" on going round the sharp curves or turns:
after this, cast-iron tram-plates were introduced, and eventually
malleable iron; the weight of the latter about -Ig lb. or 5 lb. per
foot. The flange was still a portion of the plate, and not
of the wheel: this form of plate is known as the '■'■edge-rail."

The wagonway is used for conveying coals from the pit to the
ships, &c. The wagons hold 53 cwt. of coals, the Newcastle
chaldron, and are called chaldron-wagons: the wagon is placed on
four wheels, about 2 ft. 6 in. or 3 feet diameter ; the wheels have
flanges, and are wedged fast to the axle: they are of cast-iron.
The wagonways in the first instance were made of wood, and
plated with iron at the curves. A specimen of this way may yet
be seen in use at JNIr. Curwens, Harrington Colliery, iii Cumber-
land. The gauge of the Newcastle wagonway is 4 ft. 8^ in. The
cast-iron fish-bellied x rail superseded the wooden one, and
eventually the malleable-iron rail took the place of the cast-iron
one ; the present wagonway rail weighs about 28 lb. to the yard.
After wagonways, came railways, which I need scarcely define.
Had the Stockton and Darlington line been made solely for the
conveyance of coals from some individual collier)', it might have
been called a wagonway; but even then it could not witli any pro-
priety have been named a tramway. But in the first instance, it
was constructed as a public railway; not merely for the purpose of
conveying coal-wagons, but for coaches, merchandise-wagons, and
all kinds of carriages for the con\eyance of passengers, coals
from a great and extensive coal-field, lead, iron, and general mer-
chandise. Passengers have travelled on it from the first — hence
it was different in its application and uses from the old wagonway,
and different in its form from the tramway. I believe it was some-
times at the first designated as a tramway, but improperly so, as
you will see from my description of the latter: but in all cases it
is well to give to things their ancient and proper names.
Edward Pease, the father of Joseph Pease, who was the member
of parliament, may be looked upon as the "Father of Railways."
It was through his strenuous endeavours and support that the
Stockton and Darlington Railway was constructed ; and it was
chiefly in consecpience of his patronage and support, that George
Stephenson was brought prominently Ijefore the public as a railway
engineer.

For "Hobarts of Etherly Pit," read "Stobarts of Etherly."

Jose])h Pease was treasurer for the Great North of England,
but such is not now the case, I believe ; it is in the hands of
Hudson, or a portion of the York and Berwick. — The Peases, I
believe, were never connected with the Liddels as bankers, as you
state.

'I'he line was not to ship coals from the "Dale of the Tees,
between Darlington and Stockton:" there is no coal between Dar
lington and Stockton. It was to ship coals from the Auckland
coal-field and the Dale of the Wear, mit the Tees. — In 1847, they
leased the Wear Valley, Bishop Auckland and AV'eardale, AVear-
dale Extension, and a portion of the Stanhope and Tyne or
Derwent Railways, also the Shildon Tunnel ; the wiiole lengtli,
instead of being 35 miles as you state, is, I believe, now upwards
of 90 miles.

Stephenson iKvcr tried any locomotives on the Hagger Leases
Branch; it was not opened until after he had left the line. But,
indeed, there was never a locomotive seen on this branch; it is
worked altogether by horses, the Brusselton Incline preventing
the locomotives from getting over. They only work from the place
of shipment uj) to the east foot of lirusselton bank or New
Shildon.

Whishaw must be wrong in stating the speed of passenger trains
at only 12 miles an hour in 1837: at that period they were worked
i)y the fast-coaching engines, 20 miles or upwards \iev hour.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL.

The greatest work on the line was the hridge over the Tees, at
Stockton; it was originally a suspension hridge, of 281 feet span,
erected by Samuel Brown, R.N.; it was the first and only apjdi-
cation of the suspension principle for the support and continuation
of a railway. The experiment was not successful : the bridge had
to be supported, and was afterwards replaced by one of Robert
Stephenson's trussed girder bridges, of about 90 feet span; this
was, I believe, the first application of the trussed cast-iron girders
to such extended spans. The present bridge has been strutted
since the failure of the Dee Bridge at Chester.

You state, "the number of travellers was 428,514 (in 1847); of
these, it is said, 33,222 were by horse-coaches (showing that some
still ran on the line), and 1,840 by coal trains; each passenger
travelling about 6^ miles, and paying about lOrf. as a fare." I cannot
understand this statement at all as to the number of passengers
conveyed by horse-coaches, and the inference drawn from it,
seeing that there are no hnrse-coaches at all on the line. The
passengers travel from Redcar to AV'olsingham, about 50 miles,
riiere are three through-trains each way in the day, with inter-
mediate trains between Middlesbro' and Stockton, and Stockton
and Darlington. The passenger-trains travel at about the same
velocities as the ordinary passenger trains on other railways; hut
as to horse-coaches, there are none.

Again, you state, " It may be said that the manager (of the
Stockton and Darlington Railway) is now Mr. George Stephenson,
nephew of the engineer ; so that the name is still kept up." This
is not the case. There is a person of the name of George Stephenson
connected with the line, but not as manager; he fills some subor-
dinate situation, I believe, in looking after the coaching and traihc
at the Darlington Station, but is no relation to the late Geoi'ge
Stephenson, engineer. The present engineer of the line is Mr.
John Dixon, who resides at Darlington, and is, since the death of
George Stephenson, the oldest railway engineer on the list. Tliey
commenced together on the first of railways, the Stockton and
Darlington ; and after its completion he accompanied Stephenson
to the Manchester and Liverpool, and had a portion of the line
under Stephenson during its construction. After the line was
opened he remained on it for many years as resident engineer, and
was afterwards connected with several other of Stephenson's lines ;
and is now engineer on the original line, where he and Stephenson
commenced their career as railway engineers upwards of a quarter
of a century ago. Had you been aware of the fact, anda])plied to
him, he could have given you every information on a subject which
you regret so little is known about — viz., the Stockton and Dar-
lington Railway, the first great work on which Stephenson's talents
were more particularly developed, and especially interesting on
that account. I have no doubt but he could also speak as to Ste-
phenson's labours on the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, as
they were together during the whole of its construction. He was
intimately acquainted M-ith Stephenson during the %vhole of his
career as a railway engineer ; and could speak of many little traits
of character, acts, and opinions of that eminent man, which would
have been of the greatest interest in your paper, as exhibiting
more minutely tlie workings of his mind ; whidi can be but imper-
fectly shown by the scattered facts from so many imperfect sources,
which you have, with praiseworthy labour, laid' before the readers
of the Eiiyhii'er's Journal.

The Stockton and Darlington Railway was the first public rail-
way that was constructed, and the one on which Stephenson
more particularly commenced his career of railway engineering,
which was to do so much for the world. This was the beginning of
that system of railways whidi was eventually, and witiiin a ^ery
short period of time, destined to expand itself so rapidly, and to
attain such a magnitude and influence as to completely revolu-
tionise the previous system of travelling : within the short space
of a quarter of a century it has grown into a gigantic system,
affecting, and calculated to affect, the whole of the civilised world.
When we consider what it has grown to, and the perfection it has
attained, well may we look upon the Stockton and Darlington
Railwaj', wliich stands as the first on record, with a degree of in-
terest. It wasa cheai)ly-constructed line ; and being the first, it
is a curious fact that this line, of all others, has been the most suc-
cessful to tlie shareholders, by realising the greatest profits ; and
looking at it in an engineering point of view, we can scarcely de-
tect any material diilereuce between the line as a whole, its bridges,
and other works, and that of the most recently-constructed rail-
way of the present day ; although, in the latter case, we have the
experience and great practice of 25 years to eft'ect, as one miglit
naturally suppose, great changes and improvements. There is
certainly a diii'erence and imj3rovement in the locomotives and car-

riages, &c., but scarcely any in the railway itself. It is reported
that Hudson, or the York and Berwick Railway Company, have
leased the line for 22 years, at 15 per cent., and the branches at
6 per cent., and is about to enter upon it on the 1st of January
next : they have already given notice of going to parliament to
get powers to lease.

Yours, &c.,

A Reader of the Engineer's Journal.

*^* Had I been connected with the line, I might have given you
more detailed information on some points ; but from a long resi-
dence in the vicinity, and particular acquaintance with the facts,
I can vouch for the correctness of my statements.

THE COMBINED VAPOUR ENGINE.

THE INVENTIO.N OP M. DU TREMBLEY.

The Combined Vapour Engine has recently attracted consi-
derable attention, in consequence of the announcements in the
daily and weekly press, and caused a large concourse of scientific
persons to assemble at the engine manufactory of IMessrs. Home,
High-street, AVhitechapel, to witness the performance of the
engine. W'e were induced to pay two visits, to make ourselves
acquainted with its action, and to ascei'tain wliether it possessed
the merits set forth by our contemporaries and the French commis-
sioners ; but in consequence of the clumsy character of the engine
exhibited, which we understand was constructed in France, we
were unable to satisfy ourselves as to the real value of the prin-
ciple upon which it worked. We must, therefore, for the
present simply record what we observed, and gi^■e some extracts
from the Report of the commission, ajipointed by the French go-
vernment to examine and re])ort upon its merits. The commission
appears to have devoted considerable labour and time in investi-
gating the diaracter and value of the invention. When a more
perfect engine has been constructed, we hope we shall have an
opportunity of again investigating the invention, and be able to
lay before our readers a further description and the result of our
examination.

The accompanying engraving is a back view of the engine exhi-
bited. It will be perceived that there are two cylinders, each
8| inches diameter, with a stroke of 22 inches. The pistons of
both are worked togethtr, upwards or downwards, and are con-
nected to the same cross-head. The steam-pipe was connected
with a steam-pipe that was wtu'king another engine at rather high-
pressure, and only a small quantity of the steam was allowed to
pass through a throttle-valve, to work the Combined Engine.
The quantity of perch/oride of formoyle used in the engine was
stated to be 40 lb., which costs 8.«. per lb. ; and the loss occasioned
by evaporation in a month is not more than 1 lb. It is intended to
use, instead of the formoyle, the perchloride of carbon, as being
considerably cheaper, its cost being only Sd. per lb.

The invention is applied either to a single engine, with two
cylinders and pistons (C and D), or, as is usual for maritime pur-
poses, two distinct engines with a cylinder and piston each. In
either case one of the pistons is acted upon by steam, and the
other by the vapour of perchloride, or of any other easily- vaporised
liquid. The steam-power is generated and applied as in the ordi-
nary engine; but, upon the escape of the steam from the first
cylinder (C), after having exerted its expansive force therein, it
passes into an air-tight case, termed a vaporiser (A), containing a
number of small tubes charged with perchloride or some easily-
vaporised liquid, penetrates into the space between, and thus comes
into contact with the entire surface of the tubes.

The faculty of absorbing caloric possessed by liquids of the
before-mentioned class is so ])owerful, that, immediately upon the
steam coming in contact witli the surface of the tubes charged
therewith, a large portion of the caloric of the steam is absorbed
by the liquid in the tubes, which becomes thereby vaporised; and
the steam, being thus deprived of its caloric, is immediately con-
densed, and is then returned into the steam-boiler, or, being by
this process perfectly distilled, may be applied for culinary or any
other purposes for which pure water is required.

The vapour thus obtained, by the action of the steam upon the
perchloride or other liquid in the tubes (A), is conducted into the
second cylinder (D), and, alter exerting its elastic force (which is-
greater tlian that of steam), upon the piston in the second cylinder,
is condensed, and, by means of a force-pump, is returnedinto the

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[.January,

vaporiser (A), which it thus keeps regularly supplied, and is
alternately vaporised and condensed.

THE COMBINED VAPdlR KMUNK.

References to Engraving.

A, Vaporiser of the perchloijde, serving also as a condenser of the steam.
B, Condenser of the vapour of the perchloride. — C, Cylinder in which the
steam acts. — D, Cylinder in which the vapour of perchloride acts. — E, Air-
pump withdrawing the water resulting from the condensation in apparatus
A. — F, Air-pumps withdrawing the perchloride after condensation in appa-
ratus B, and conveying it hack to feed-apparatus A. — G, Pump re-conveying
the condensed steam to feed the steam-boiler. — H, Pump to supply water to
the apparatus used to prevent the escape of the perchloride ahout the piston
rods. — I, pump conducting cold water from the well to apparatus 15, to con-
dense the perchloride vapour. — J, Apparatus tn cunse the vacuum in the dif-
ferent parts of the engine where the perchloride at:ls.

No. 1, Pipe thriiugli which the steam is supplied to cylinder C. — 2, Pipe
through which the perchloride vapour is supplied to cylinder D. — 3, Pipe
through which the steam esc.npes for condensation in apparatus A, after hav-
ing performed its work in cylinder C. — 4, Pipe through which the perchlo-
ride vapour escapes for condensation into apparatus li, after having per-
formed its duty in cylinder D.

We take the followinir extr.ict from the Report of the French
(lommissioiuM's, apjiointed in 1846, to test the capahilities of the
(omhiiied \'a|>oiir Engine, wliich extract explains tlie principle of
the engine, and tlie mode and result of tlie experiments thereon : —

"Tlie etiier-liydric apparatus was constructed in consequence of
the favourahle o]iinioii jjiven hy the Board of Works as to the
|)ossihility of makiii;,^ use of the calorie lost in the ordinary mode
of condensation to vapcu'ise ether. Two engines, of 10-liorse
power each, were coupled upon tlie s.ime heam: the one sup])lied
from a holler (for lO-horse power) nets in the usual manner, hy
the intro<l«ctioii of steam and its discharfre after exjiansion. The
condensation of this steam takes place in a receiver cimtaininp;' a
numher of small tuhcs previously filled with ether. This litpiid,
owinff to its avidity for caloric, rohs the discharged steam of its
heat, and is vaporised at a pressure de])ending upon the tempe-

rature and volume of the discharged steam. The other engine,
identical with the former as to its diameter and the motion of its
piston, works under the influence of ether- vapour: it receives this
vapour during a portion of its motion, and discharges it after
expansion into a receiver, similar to the former, kept constantly
at a very low temperature hy a continual injection of cold water.

"Taking care to adapt to each engine a proper expanding appa-
ratus, we are enahled to regulate, at will, the introduction and the
expansion of vapour in each cylinder, and thus combine these two
elements of power — expansion and volume of steam for the former,
and expansion and volume of ether-vapour for the latter; so as to
arrive at a total maximum force, with the smallest expenditure of
steam, or, which is nearly the same thing, with the smallest ex-
penditure of fuel. The working of the two engines was satisfac-
tory, and the apparatus fit to be employed without any alteration
whatever in its construction.

''Having once ascertained the certainty of its ability to work in
perfect security, we have endeavoured to ascertain the force de-
veloped under the three following cases: 1st, of a steam-engine
working alone by waste steam; 2nd, engines coupled, the one
put in motion hy the expansion and condensation of steam, and the
other likewise by the expansion and condensation of ether; 3rd,
of an engine working alone by expansion and condensation of
ether.

Force produced. — "The index was placed over the cylinders
during the various experiments ; a lever acted constantly on the
main axle. The general conclusions we arrived at are as follows :
— As regards the force measured upon the piston by means of the
index. The diagrams drawn hy the ether-vapour exhibit always
an excess of power over those drawn by the steam. The final
]iressure of the ether is generally greater than that of the steam ;
rarely upon a level with it, hut never less. The two cylinders
being erpial, it follows that, when a volume of steam is discharged
at a given pressure into the ether-vaporiser, a volume of ether-
vapour is obtained — at the very least, equal, and of the same pres-
sui"e. Several times an excess of pressure was gained of 10, 20.
and 30 per cent., with an equality of volume. If then we con-
sider the combined effects of these engines proportionally to the
niean pressure given by the diagrams, we must conclude that, bj'
the em])loyment of ether, a force measured by 100 becomes at
at least 200, at times 210, 220, 230, with the same expenditure of
fuel.

"Thus have we verified and evidently exceeded the inferences
drawn from the experiments made in 184-6 at M. I'hillippe's, and,
consequently, confirmed the faviuirahle conclusions in considera-
tion of which the Council proposed a more decisive trial, to as-
certain whether the use of ether doubles the power without adding
to the consumption of fuel.

"Extract made from the diagrams of the index, taken from ob-
servation of the arm of the lever, placed so as to measure the
power of the two engines cinipled together, the lever gave 80, 90,
105, and even 120 kilogrammes, at 40 and +6 strokes, the weight
attached to the lever in the experiment being from 38 to 4-2
kilogrammes. The steam-engine, hy itself, was unable to lift
the "weight attached to the lever, being from 38 to 42 kilo-
grammes: it stopped immedi.-ttely upon tightening. The ether-
engine, by itself, lifted it without difficulty, with a load of ahout
200 kilogrammes and more; that is to say, that a direct and con-
tinual injection of steam into the ether-vaporiser, produced upon
the ether-engine alone the maximum of work given hy the lever."

The inventor observes: "The Rejiort omits to take notice of
the vacuum, which in this engine gives a jxiwer of as much im-
jiortance as the power of both vapours combined. An examina-
tion of the gauges affixed to the engine at Mr. Home's, will ex-
plain my meaning. The pressure of steam on its entrance into
the steam cylinder, as given by the indicator, was only 5 lb. i)er
square inch (the piston making 46 strcdves per minute); whilst the
power of the vacuum, caused by the condensation of the steam,
and acting in conjunction with it, upon the piston in the steam
cylinder, as given by the indicator, was double, viz., 10 lb. per
square inch : total ])ower exerted in steam cylinder, 1 5 lb. per
square inch. — In the other or perchloride cyliiuler, the expansion
of the vapour was equal to a power of 21 lb. per square inch, and
the vacuum ot 8 lb. only: together, 29 lb.; or an average pressure
in the two cylinders combined of 22lh. jior square inch, without an
expenditure' of more fuel than is necessary to produce a power of
steam of 5 lb. per square inch."

PLATE -Jl

ST ISAACS ' CATHEDRAL — S^ PETERSBURG

HALF PLAN .

/'/„J^

^

m

CHURCH OF S^ ISAAC AT ST PETERSBURG .

184.9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

THE CHURCH OF ST. ISAAC AT ST. PETERSBURG.

EKECTED BY THE CHEVALIER DE MONTFERRAND.

( With an Engraving, Plate II. J

Description of the Church of St. Isaac at St. Petershurfj. By
T. L. Do.vALDso.v, Esq. — (Paper read at the Royal Institute of
British Architects.)

One of the most important features of this Institute is the nohle
body of distinguished professors of our art, who compose the list
of honorary and corresponding members. It forms the immediate
link of connection between the professional men of this and
foreign lands. We have thus the privilege of knowing the impos-
ing edifices which arise in the principal cities of the continent,
and are stimulated by their example, instructed by their genius.
If in point of some facilities in matters of construction, we have
the advantage of them, they, on tlie other hand, have more fre-
quently tlie o]iportunities of bringing into co-operation the sister
arts, and by the abundance of the means placed at their disposal,
can more profusely adorn their edifices by the production of the
pencil and the chisel, and by an abundance of rare and exquisite
materials, such as granite, marble, bronze, and precious stones,
can give that splendour of enrichment, in vain to be looked for in
our modern buildings, until the present completion of the House
of Lords, by our distinguished member, Charles Barry.

I have had occasion in a previous session to call your attention
to the stupendous column of Alexander, erected by the present
Emperor of Russia, to the memory of his predecessor and beloved
brother, after the designs of the Chevalier de Montferrand. In
that work we particularly admired the monolithic shaft of granite,
and the mechanical means employed in the elevation of the huge
block. The chevalier, our honorary and corresponding member,
has since favoured us by sending to the library a superb volume,
illustrative of the magnificent church of St. Isaac, just completed:
a niouunieut of such leading consequence in every respect, and
holding so important a rank in the cathedral churches of Europe,
that it well deserves a passing notice, as introducing us to a peculiar
combination of plan, and an application of granite and iron, and
other ingenious processes, on so large a scale, and in some points
of so novel a nature, as to be very instructive and interesting.

The origin of the church of St. Isaac dates from the foundation
of the city of St. Petersburg; for Peter the Great conceived the
idea of erecting a place of worship under the invocation of this
saint; but he was not able to do more than construct a provisional
church of wood in the Naval Yard, which was shortly after burned.
The Czar then laid the foundation, in 1717, of the second church
of St. Isaac, not far from the Neva, on the site of the present
palace of the Senate.

This church was also partly burned by fire in 1735, and the
quarter of St. Isaac becoming more populous, and a place of
greater resort, the Empress Catherine directed the erection of a
new church in honour of this saint, in that part of the city, and
the architect Rinaldi prepared the designs, and it was commenced
in 1768. It was intended to build this church entirely of marble,
but the death of the Czarina took place when it had only been
carried up as high as the entablature, and the Emperor Paul I.,
anxious to clear away the immediate vicinity of the church, in
order to render the site less obstructed, and the original plan
more complete, directed the architect Breinia to finish it provi-
sionally; in the mean time omitting or diminishing some of the
principal features, until its proper completion, when a develoj>-
ment more commensurate with the ideas of the emperor, the
church, and the people, could be carried into effect.

Tiie plan of this church was strictly in conformity with the tra-
dition and usages of the Greek church, the national rite of the
Russian empire. It consisted of a Greek cross, of four equal
arms, having apsidal ends, the intersection or crux of the arms
being surmounted by a dome with four abutting chapels at the
angles, also surmounted by internal domes and exterior steeples.
Tliere was a projecting tower at the west end advancing consider-
ably in front of the mass of the church, with a lofty steeple and
entrance doorway; and there were doorways at the north and south
at the ends of the transepts. There were three inconostases of
the class described by Herr Hallman, in his able paper on the
Greco-Russian Church, contained in the second part of the
"Transactions of the Institute." The plan, therefore, is simple
and majestic — its parts well defined and presenting a great variety
of effects. The perspective view also offers a busy and pic-
turesque aspect. The lofty spire and the central dome, sur-
rounded by its four minor turrets, has an effective and distinct

character, devoid of monotony, although perhaps not very pure in
detail, or severe iu its composition as a whole. The outside di-
mension of the square mass of the church was 173 feet. Its
greatest width from outside to outside of the apsidal ends of the
transept was 222 feet. Its extreme external length from the front
of the tower to the exterior of the eastern apsis 280 feet; conse-
quently it was an edifice of no mean dimensions.

The magnificent ideas of the emperor, who desired to have a
temple commensurate with the vast empire over which his rule ex-
tended, led him to submit to public competition the project for the
new fabric, but none of the plans submitted seemed calculated to
meet the jiublic expectations.

Alexander the First then directed the Chevalier de Montferrand
to prepare designs, with the express command, to preserve as much
as possible the old church, particularly the space occupied by the
three inconostases, or altar screens, already consecrated. Many
projects were consequently submitted to the Czar, who adopted
one, which seemed best adapted to the special purpose of its desti-
nation, and combining best with the buildings by which it was
more immediately surrounded.

In order to carry the works into effect, the architect immedi-
ately proceeded to clear the locality and to erect spacious work-
shops, offices for the clerks, habitations for certain of the police
and officials, barracks for a military guard, a steam-engine, and
other indispensable contrivances.

The foundations were immediately excavated to the depth of
above 33 feet below the surface of the ground. Fir piles were then
driven throughout the whide extent, 12 inches in diameter and 21
feet in length, their distance apart being equal to tlieir diameter.
The earth around the heads of the piles was cleared to the depth
of 14. inches, and charcoal driven in to fill up the vacuity, and the
whole surface presented 10,762 piles.

Upon these were placed two courses of granite, composed of
large blocks. The points of support, and particularly the founda-
tions of the four piers of the dome, were also carried up in solid
granite, and the rest filled up with ordinary construction, but
forming a regular mass of compact masonry throughout the whole
surface of the monument.

While these works were proceeding, the architect was directed
to proceed to Finland, to e.xamine the quarries whence were to be
extracted the forty-eight monolithic blocks for the shafts of the
columns of the portico. These quarries are situated in two small
islands on the shores of the Gulf of Finland, between Vibourg and
Fredericsham. These shafts in the rough were 7 feet in diameter
and 56 feet long. They were embarked two on a vessel, and then
transported by the Neva to St. Petersburg, and there finished off.
These columns are certainly the largest ever employed for such a
purpose. Those of the Pantheon at Rome are only between
46 and 47 feet long, and they exceed in size any others of antiquity
now remaining. The peristyle of the dome has 24 columns, 42 feet
high. Those noble columns, which many of us know, in the Baths
of Diocletian, and those in the Baths of Caracalla, are only 38 feet
high.

Again, there are 32 columns in the steeples of this church, also
monoliths; they are 30 feet high — thus presenting a series of 104
monolithic columns in granite ; in number and size, and costliness
of material, excelling every other monument of ancient or modern
times.

We will now proceed to consider the plan of the building, which
presents the elementary type of the Greek cross. (The engrav-
ing, Plate II., exhibits one half of the plan, the south side of the
cathedral, the otlier half being precisely similar.) This, however,
is hardly marked with such distinctness as in the older church,
there being several supplementary chapels and vestibules, which
give somewhat of complexity to the arrangement. In the centre
is the intersection of the four equal arms of the cross, surmounted
by the dome; and again at the extreme angles of the parallelo-
gram are four square divisions, surmounted by the four steeples.
The church is placed due east and west — .the altar to the east,
with its several iconostases, and the principal entrance at the west,
with its three doorways under an octastyle portico, projecting only
one intercolumniation from the body of the building. The east
end has a similar portico. In the ordinary arrangement of
churches we should expect that the west end would form the prin-
cipal entrance, and consequently would receive the greater degree
of embellishment. But in this instance there are two nobl'i por-
ticoes at the ends of the north and south transepts; octastyle,
like those at the east and west end, but having a depth of three
intercolumniations, instead of one, with deeply-recessed large
niches, the whole composition being in imitation of that at the
Pantheon of Rome in every respect. Apparently, this greater

10

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[J .4

magnificence at these points arises from local considerations, as
facinff more important appioaches ami more imposing public
edifices. The bases of the cohimns of these porticoes, as also the
CJipitals, are of hron/.e; the shafts 6ft. Gin. in diameter, 11 feet
apart, and 45 ft. (i in. hijrli, {livinjf a total lieiglit to tlie columns,
including the base and the capital, of 5(i ft. (i in. The entablature
is 14 ft. (i in. high: together 71 feet. Each portico is surmounted
by a pediment, crowned by statues; and the summit and aeroteria,
and the tym))anum, are enriched with bronze groups. This order
runs round the whole e.\terior of the church, and has above it a
double attic, equal in height to half that of the entire principal
order — an enormous disproportion, which renders the building top-
heavy, and tends to detract from the vastness of the order beneath.
It is most likely that the arcliitect may have adopted this lofty
attic to hide the roof; liut the expedient has been more destructive
to the eflfect of the building than the apprehended unsightliness of
the roof.

We will now enter the church under the western portico, and
immediately we are admitted into a vestibule, similar to the
narthex of the ancient Christian temple, with smaller vestibules
to the right and left, which are surmounted by the steeples already
alluded to. There is a centre nave, 43 feet wide, 175 ft. 6 in. long,
upto the iconostasis,and presenting a total length, from the inside of
the eastern to the inside of the western wall, of about 278 feet.
The greatest width inside between the walls is 153 feet.

The grand iconostasis, of white marble, rises up and forms the
altar-screen, or image-hearer, in front of the large piers which
terminate the eastern arm of the cross. It is 150 feet wide and
70 feet high.

Three steps lead up to the level of the altar platform. There
are three lofty circular-headed doorways, about 14 feet wide by
34 feet high. Tlie ]iriiu'ipal order is 46 feet high, the eight Co-
rinthian columns 37 ft. 6 in. high, the shafts and those of the ])ilas-
ters are fluted, and consist of exquisitely inlaid malachite from the
province of I'erm, discovered in 1831 in a copper mine of M.
Demidof, the largest seam ever known, being 17 ft. 6 in. long,
8 ft. 2 in. wide, and 4 ft. 6 in. high; the weight of which mass has
been calculated at 120,000 lb., or 50 tons. The bases and capitals
are of bronze gilt — I should state that there is a cylinder of cast-
iron to each column, forming a core, covered by a b:"ass cylinder,
to which the malachite is attached, the pieces being fitted with
such exquisite skill that the columns and pilasters appear to be of
one enormous block. The whole iconostasis has incrustations of
porphyry, jasper, malachite, and other jirecious stones of tlie
country. An attic 20 feet high rises above the order, which in the
centre is again surmounted by a supplementary attic, flanked by
two angels, and forming the pedestal upon which is raised the
cross, with a group of angels at the base in the attitude of ])rayer,
grief, and devotion. Groups re]n-esenting the resurrection of our
Saviour, and the ascent of the \'irgin ISIary, flank the circular-
headed aperture of the central doorway. There are three tiers of
pictures of saints, the Virgin, our Saviour, and the Almighty, who
occupy the central compartment, and other sacred personages the
side divisions, all painted on a gold ground, clad in rich vestments,
and bedecked with jewels. In conformity with the canons of the
Greek church, there are no other figures in relief than the angels.
The door which closes the centre aperture is of silver, 34 feet high;
the side doors are of marble. A profusion of lamps, all of massive
silver, are pendant from the ceiling, hanging in front of the
pictures.

Behind the iconostasis are three sanctuaries, the central one
with the high altar, which is surmounted by a baldachin, or
canopy, supported by eight marble ccdumus. Each of the side
chapels has its own iconostasis and altar, dedicated respectively to
St. Alexander Newsky and St. Catherine. These secondary icono-
stases are 40 feet wide each, and above 25 feet high, b\it a central
attic and surmounting group of the Ascension increase the total
height of the loftiest part to 40 feet. They are of wliite marble,
designed in the cinque-cento style, and elaborately (jrnamented,
the panels being filled with gorgeous pictures of saints on a gold
ground. But, in truth, all these paintings, although executed
with consummate art, are but temjxyrary, as they are ultimately to
betaken out and re|ilaced with resplendent mosaics. In fact, this
^ouj) of three sanctuaries, with their iconostases, altars, and side
door-screens, dividing tlie central altar-place from the side chapels,
composed of the most exquisite marble, profusely enriched with
sculptures, paintings, and bronze gilt, make a dazzling group, of
which we can form no adequate conception, even if we can in
imagination realise the restoration of the sanctuary of the most
ornate of our ju'lncipal cathedrals, carved and painted throughout
— emblazoned in all the ponij) of the most profuse polychromy,

and abounding with statues and groups of the Saviour, the Virgin,
the Patriarchs, the Prophets, the Apostles, Saints, and Martyrs of
the religious calendar of the middle ages.

The general decoration of the interior of the church consists —
first, of a low stylobate or da<bi, nearly 5 feet high, above which is
a Corinthian order of columns and pilasters, 42 feet high; and
this is again surmounted by a lofty attic, with pilasters and cor-
nice, 21 feet high. The loftiness of the attic, being lialf that of
the principal order, detracts materially from the inqiortance of
the order; and, in fact, there seems no necessity for dividing the
height into two, for if the outer order of the porticoes had been
continued inside, the effect would have been ludiler, and the ex-
pectations of the beholder, excited by the pro])ortioiis and scale of
the outer order, would have been realised also within the church.
From the top of the attic spring the vaultings of the ceilings of
the church, which are sumi)tuously enriched. The cornice of the
attic is not of sufficient importance to ai^t as the impost of the
vaultings. The intersection or crux of the arms of the cross is
surmounted by the dome, 96 feet in diameter, and 196 feet high
from the pavement to the cupola of the lantern, and 332 feet to
the top of the cross. Immediately over the pendentives formed
by the intersection of the vaultings, and the naves and transepts,
is a lofty stylobate, 27 feet high, in the peri])liery of which are
twelve angels, 19 feet high, supporting consoles.

The wall of the drum of the cupcda is jiierced by twelve circular-
headed windows, and the order, 46 feet high, is Corinthian, like
that of St. Peter's and our own St. Paul's, and most other similar
cathedrals. The pilasters are fluted. The diune rises to a height
of 40 feet above the entablature of the order of the drum. It is
not divided into compartments, but forms a vast plain surface,
decorated with a picture of the celestial glorification of the Virgin
Mary. In the centre of the dome is an aiierture 21 feet in
diameter, ojiening into an upper dome, formed by the interme-
diate cone, and on the surface of this is also a jiainting of the glori-
fication of the Redeemer. The whole surface of the walls of the
interior of the church and vaultings, with the columns, pilasters,
and dressings, are all cased with white and various coloured
marbles, from Finland and Italy; the bases and caps are of bronze
gilt, in or-molu. For the purpose of procuring a white marble,
superior even to that of Carrara, a Tuscan company undertook to
open a new quarry at Seravezza. Bridges were constructed over
torrents and rai'ines, roads were formed on the sides of jierpen-
dicular rocks, and habitations and workshops were erected for the
workmen, in order to provide this choicer material. The marbles
from Finland were red, violet, black, and mixed, and were used
in the mosaic pavement, in the construction of the basement, and
in the four smaller cupolas to the steeples, at the angles of the
church. The Chevalier de Montferrand has paid great attention
to the decoration of the vaultings of the interior, which are dis-
tributed in large divisions. Forty colossal figures, in high relief,
of galvanised bronze, and in the proportion of 21 feet high, form
the chief features of this decoration. They represent the pro-
phets, patriarchs, and angels, with their various attributes. Some
stand on corbels; others are seated within niches.

Before continuing the notice of the building, perhaps I may he
permitted to call attention to the enormous application of the
electrotyjie or gahano-plastic process in the sculpture of this
cathedral by the architect. After having made very important
experiments, he was authorised to adopt this mode in the execu-
tion of the metallic sculptures and carvings for the following
reasons: —

1. The identical reproduction of the sculpture without chiselling.

2. The lightness of the pieces, which enabled the architect to
introduce sculptures of higher relief than any hitherto known,
and to fix the pieces suspended from the vaultings, without fear
of accident, or of their being detached.

3. The great saving of expense between these castings and in
bronze.

The gilding also was efi'ected by the same process, and presented
equal advantages.

The se\en doors of the cathedral will he of bronze and electro-
type, the framework being of the former, and the sculptural parts
of the latter. Three of these doors are 30 feet high, and 14 feet
wide; the four others 17 ft. Sin. wide. They contain fifty-one
bas-reliefs, sixty-thiee statues, and eighty-four alto-relievo busts,
of religious subjects and characters.

There is so remarkable a departure in the construction of the
dome from tlie systems hitherto adoiited, that I shall be jierhaps
pardoned in trespassing further on your attention by describing,
with the aid of the engraving, the whole assemblage of this
imj)ortant feature.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

11

In alluiliriE; to the cupolas previously erected, the chevalier pays
a just tribute to the g:enius of our illustrious ^rreii, and recog-
nises St. Paul's "as the only existing dome presenting- an irre-
proachable solidity." He, therefore, adopted the principle of Sir
Christopher, carrying it out in a combination of wrought and cast
iron, and hollow pots.

The walls of the drum of the dome are carried up in solid con-
struction of brick, with tiers of stone bond, and ai'e above 8 feet
thick. On the level of the top of the cornice of the circular
colonnade, which girds the drum, there is a series of twenty-four
cast-iron ribs A, the feet of which rest on a cast-iron plate B, 7 feet
wide, which runs quite round the circumference. The lowest
division of each rib rises to a height of about 23 feet ; in its
narrowest part is 3 ft. 4 in. wide, in its broadest 5 feet, with upper
and lower ril)s, and the central part lightened by large apertures.
At their head all the ribs are attached to a horizontal plate or
curb, C, () ft. 3 in. wide, which follows the periphery of the dome.
At this height the rib is divided into two «, «', the one ]>art a about
2 ft. 6 in. dee]), following the sweep of the inner dome for a height
of 20 feet; at its summit bolted to a cast-iron perforated cylinder
D, 21 feet in diameter, and 7 feet high: this forms the central
aperture at the summit of the inner dome. The other part «',
follows the line of an intermediate cone, with a catenary outline,
and similar to the one in our St. Paul's: it is also 21 feet long,
and 2 ft. 6 in. deep, and perforated to render it lighter. At this
height the heads of the ribs are again secured to another horizon-
tal plate or curb E, which forms a complete circle, and is 3 feet
wide; and this curb and the ribs are tied to the cylindrical open-
ing of the inner dome, already mentioned, by radiating beams, e,
2 ft. 3 in. deep. The conical ribs have then another length of
21 feet, rt", and their heads are again connected by another hori-
zontal plate, F, from which spring the circular ribs, a'", about
16 feet long, forming a dome to the intermediate cone, and their
heads also bolted to a cylinder G,8 ft.G in. in diameter, and 18 inches
high. But the upper portion of the ribs diverge at top, so as to
form a base for the octagonal cupidino, H, which consists of a
series of cast-iron stoi-y-posts, ribs, and bracketings, inclusive of
the dome of the cupolino, with its bail and cross at the apex, which
last are of brass gilt. The filling-in between the ribs consists of
pots, the surfaces of which were subsequently rendered with
plaster, and painted with sacred subjects. Tlie sphere of the
outermost or third dome, J, consists of a series of wrought-iron
T ribs tied to the conical dome by rods, y. The external face of
this outer dome is divided by twenty-four bold ribs, and is covered
with bronze, gilt in three thicknesses of leaves of ducat gold.
The three principal gilders of St. Petersburg were charged with the
inspection of the execution of this portion of the work, and rejected
every leaf that had the slightest spot or blemish.

The whole entalilature and flat, and the balustrade over the peri-
style of the drum of the cupola, likewise consist of cast and wrought
iron framing, faced with plates of co]>per, to form the profiles and
mouldings. The twenty-four pedestals of this balustrade carry
winged angels of bronze, above 9 feet high, each of a single casting.

The quantity of metal employed in the dome is as follows: —

Ducat gold . . . . . . 247 lb.

Copper .. .. Wl^ tons.

Brass .. .. ,T_'|J tons.

Wrought-iron .. .. wi\\ tons.

Cast-iron .. .. loiiH tons.

Total .. liwtij tons 3471b.

The foresight of the architect has provided the following pre-
cautions against lightning,— much the more liable, as the summit of
each dome is in metal: at the top of the crosses of the hell
towers and of the cupolino of the central dome are rods of platina,
terminating in a point: each dome at its springing has isolated iron
conductors, which go down to the roofs; and in the direction of
the cast-iron rain-water pipes are continued in the interior of the
walls down to wells in the basement, the overflow of which dis-
charges into the town sewers.

In justification of the system here employed let the architect
speak for himself:— "We think," says De Montferrand, "the
mode we have adopted superior to that of any other cupola. For
what can be more absurd than those vaultings raised 250 or 300
feet in the air— whose frightful weight, unceasingly in action,
tends to disunite the points of support which uphold 'them. Our
new system offers a stable combination, which allows of no dis-
union—which has no thrust, and which reduces to a tenth the
weight of any previous combination. In our plan, the iron and
bronze entablature of the peristyle of the drum is not a mere
architectural embellishment: it is a solid girdle, whicli embraces
firmly the dome, so as to give it a great stability; and can the

superiority of this system be contested, when it is considered, that
here is employed the material which can alone, with prudent care,
brave the effects of a rigorous climate.^"

The arches and vaults of the na\e and transepts and the soffits
of the porticoes are carried out in like manner by means of cast-
iron girders, to which are attached the marble facings and decora-
tive embellisliments.

The rooting is wholly of iron, covered with copper. There are
thirty-four small columns of cast-iron, resting on the walls and
vaultings of the ceiling. These are tied together by a series of
invei-ted ([ueen trusses of wrought and cast-iron mixed, about
6 feet apart, with wrought-iron lathing to receive the copper.
The whole presents a very light effect, and is very simple in its
combination; and although the roof rises about 9 feet above the
level of the attic outside, yet it is not seen unless by those at a
very great distance from the building.

In determining the thickness of the drum of the cupola, M. de
Montferrand has adopted the principle laid down by Fontana, of
making the thickness of this cylindrical wall equal one-tenth of
the internal diameter; although Rondelet and others allow a
much less thickness. Notwithstanding, a substantial base for this
great thickness of wall and the projecting architectural embel-
lishments of tlie dome, is afforded by the pendentives, which rise
from the four great piers of the dome, and form the circle for the
cylinder of the drum.

The raising of the monolithic shafts of the twenty-four columns
of the exterior peristyle of the dome, — each of which weighed
near 66 tons, — to the height of ISO feet, was an operation re<|uir-
ing considerable skill. Each shaft was surrounded by a stout
casing, to which were attached strong cables. It was then placed
on an immense truck, calculated for the size of the vast block, and
drawn by capstans upon an easy incline to a platform, which was
on a level with the tops of the columns of the interior order,
42 feet high. Upon this platform was a moveable incline, 92 feet
high, but with a very sharp rise, and up this the monolitli was
again drawn by capstans. At the summit was a large platform,
180 feet square, upon which was a nmveable wooden framework,
answering the purpose of a crane, with blocks and falls. There
were twelve capstans around this framework. The monolith being-
dragged up the incline, reached the summit, and, by its own
weight tilting over, reached the framework; it was then by it
raised to a vertical position, and gradually lowered on a granite
die prepared to receive it, and wliich was cased with a bronze base.

As soon as one monolith was in its place, the moveable incline
and the mo\eahle platform and frame were all wheeled round,
ready to raise the next column; and so on the operation was re-
peated until the whole series were securely fixed in their respecv-
tive places. It only required two hours to" raise one of the shafts
from the platform on a level with tlie capitals of the inner order,
and to fix it on its base. Three hundred men performed this
operation: the most perfect order and silence were maintained
throughout, and the different movements directed by the sound of
a bell. A silver rouble was placed on the base of each column, in
a hole sunk for the purpose.

Tlie first column was raised on the 17th of November, 1837,
just eleven years ago from this period; nor was the operation com-
menced without prayers to Almighty tiod to bless the undertaking
with success. In two months the twenty-four columns were com-
pletely fi.xed, and, be it remembered, in the very depth of a
Uussian winter.

The skeleton of the entablature of the peristyle of the dome is
of cast and wrought-iron, resting on the columns, and affixed to
them by wrought-irou pins, which are let a considerable depth into
the shafts; and the framework is also let into the cylindrical wall
of the dome, securely affixed to three templates. The cornice,
with its modillions and mouldings, rest on cast-iron corbels; the
caissons and rosettes of the inner soffit also rest on cast-iron
girders. The balustrading above is similarly framed, and the
pedestals support bronze figures of angels, already mentioned,
liolding their attributes, each 9 feet high, and of only a single
casting, weighing i;^ tons. The balusters are also of bronze.

I may perhaps be permitted to observe that the bronze bases,
capitals, figures, and other decorative details of this material on
the outside are neither gilt nor painted; consequentlv, the dark
tone ot these parts has a heavy appearance, and ill accords with
their purpose and the stonework of the outer facing.

In the presence of such an assembly, so competent to judge of
the merits of this important monument of our art, it would ill
become me to offer any remarks, other than those which I have
already made, upon the most striking points in regard to taste and
skill, which distinguish this production of our honorary member.

3*

12

THE CIViL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

lie has cliospn the most appropriiite materials, and has with con-
siderable skill a|i])lied to liis construction the improved system
which cast-iron ]irescnts. I have not stopped to consider whether
he has adopted all the expedients which we should consider neces-
sary for counteracting tlie expansion and contraction to he ex-
pected in ironwork ; particularly as regards the movement which
might he expected at the feet of the rihs of the dome, and which
possihly we might have regulated hy rollers, and by allowing space
for the development to be expected in a warmer temperature.
The interval of ten years must have proved the efficacy of his
provisions, and I should ill requite the courtesy of our generous
donor were I to analyse with the severity of a critical eye the pro-
portions and details of this remarkable monument. The unspar-
ing nature of the materials employed prove the pious liberality of
the em])eror and tlie nation. The careful skill with which the
architect lias fulfilled his part, and the deeji feeling for decorative
art with which he has embellished the cathedral of the Russian
capital, and the brief space of time in which he has erected the
lofty pile, must ever render the church of St. Isaac one of the
most striking edifices of the nineteenth century.

GENERAL SCALE FOR MEASURING EARTHWORK.

Sin — Enclosed herewith I send you a printed description of a
new method of measuring earthwork, thinking that you might
insert it as a communication in your valuable Joiii-iia/, for the
benefit of such of your subscribers to whom I have not the oppor-
tunity of remitting this circular, which explains a simple and novel
application of a scale to earthwork measurement. As the circular
so fully explains the use of the scale, it is not necessary for me to
mention anything concerning its practical use; but as the mathe-
matical principle is not so obvious as students of these kind of
j)roblems may desire, I beg to supply this demonstration for their
benefit. I was led to perceive this principle, as I have apjilied it,
<iuite accidentally while investigating a totally different problem —
^'iz., the geometrical extraction of the cube root, of which I have
obtained a very simple and approximate solution. The principle
on which the construction of the scale depends, is as follows: —

Let RDF be a circle; A, its centre; H, a point without the
circle in the diameter B E produced ; and let each semicircle be
divided into n number of parts at C, D, F, G, &c. : then,

ATj « -f A H « = B H X H F X H D ;

or equal to the continual product of the lines drawn between H
and alternate points of division of the circle.

The diagram shows the semicircle divided into threr equal parts;
and if A II = H, A B = /(, ri = 3, the above equation becomes

II ' + h:< — II F = X B II, because H F = II D.
Also, B H = A II - A B = H - A;
H •■* 4- h^

•'• "F' = "h-J = n"- + m + hK

But on referring to the 176th page, line 11, of my work on the
"Prismoidal Formula," it will be seen that this expression for H F-
is identical with the variable part of the second term of the gene-
ral rule for the contents of a prismoid. Hence we derive the
application of this problem to the computation of earthwork.

If you inspect the diagram at the head of my circular, the cor-
respondence is evident: the point A corresjjonds with tlie gradient
or formation line; A E is the height of cutting at that point = A;
A H is the last height [dotted below the gradient := II ; and H F
is the diagonal along which the scale is applied to measure the
slopes. For those who desire an authority without the tnudde of
investigation, for the foregoing diagram, a reference to "iMathema-
tics for Practical Men" (Weale, 1818), p. 108, will suffice.

I have only another observation to make concerning the conve-
nience of this scale. It is engraved for a plot of 20 feet vertical ^
1 inch : but if the plot is otherwise, then, after the measurements
have been taken by the scale, it is necessary to multiply or divide
the resiilts by the proper ratio due to the difference of plotting.
Thus, su))pose the plot were 40 feet to 1 inch ; then all measure-
ments for the base or middle are too little by 40 : 20, or 2 to 1 ;
and too little for the slopes or sides by Vio : V20, or Vg to 1.
If the ])lot were 10 feet = 1 inch, then all the measiirements are
too great — for the base, as 1 to 2; for the slopes, as 1 to V'2.

Apologising for occupying your time thus, though with a view to
benefit others,

I remain, Sir,
Wanfiteiid, Essex, Yours truly,

December, iSth, 1848. J. B. Huntington.

The following is a copy of the circular referred to by Mr. Hun-
tington : —

B Surface B

Let the above diagram represent a section of a railway plotted
in the usual manner, with a vertical scale of 20 feet to 1 inch.
Divide the section into prismoids in the ordinary manner, by per-
pendiculars (B D) throughout. The present mode of measuring
earthwork is to measure the several heights, 1 B D, 2 B D, 3 B D,
4 B D, &c., and then to compute the mean areas by referring
to tables prepared for the purpose by Macneil, Bidder, and others,
whose methods have been explained in the appendix to the Second
Edition of " Huntington's Tables." In measuring with a scale
divided into feet, it unavoidably happens, in a large majority of
cases, that the heights B D do not measure exactly integral feet,
but some fraction or decimal part of a foot, more or less ; that is,
the plotted height of the section rarely coincides with the divi-
sions of a scale. It becomes generally necessary in using Tables
to omit these fractions, and to compute the quantity due to the
nearest number of integral feet found in the table; so that by al-
lowing the measurement to be sometimes more and sometimes
less than the truth, a compensati(ui is provided, and a tolerably
accurate result is obtained. But where cuttings or embankments
are very great, it will be found that the number of cubic yards
computed by the above method will vary by a large per centage
from the true amount, because the allowance for compensation is
always discretional with the measurer, whose judgment must be
constantly exercised with a doubtful pros])ect bef(U'e him, as to
whether the fractional measurement should become nearest the
foot above or below.

In order to avoid this chance — indeed, I miglit almost say, cer-
tainty of error — I considered whether it were luit possible to con-
struct a scale so as to determine the cubic quantity, by making the
degrees of the scale exnctlji mincide witli the plotted heights;
there would then be no necessity to give or take; and if I could
divide the scale so minutely that, with the further assistance of
sub-division by the eye, the graduations should become less than
any fraction of a foot, for which tabular nundiers .are prepared, I
might fairly assume, that the coincident quantity thus read from
the scale, must he far more accurate than by the methods usually
adopted. In 1839, I first made some scales on this principle for
the use of the Eastern Counties Railway, adapting them to the
particular base and slnjies of that railway. I hive described them,
with a cut, in my work on "Eartliwork," &c. Since then, having
been asked whether I could make a general scale, to effect the same

1819.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

13

purpose, applicable to all bases and slopes, and extending to very
great ciitthiys and evili(nil<iiient<i of ISO feet vertical section; I
again turned my attention to the subject, and discovered a very-
simple means of successfully performing the operation; and
having for some time submitted the method to the test of private
use, which is quite satisfactory, I now offer its advantages to the
public. The scale is made, of the usual materials and length of
12 inches, so as to fit into boxes or sets of scales now generally
employed, thereby ensuring its portability and general utility.
As most working sections are plotted to a scale of 20 feet to 1 inch,
I have constructed the graduations to this standard.

The application of the scale is as follows, all dimensions being
in feet : —

Having divided the section, as before described, in the usual
manner, produce the perpendiculars B D beyond the gradient
to A, and through D draw the lines U C, so that the angle B D C is
always 60 degrees. This is very easily done, as every draughtsman
is provided with such an angle. Then with the compasses make
IDC, 1AD= IDB; 2DC, 2AD = 2DB; and so on through-
out. The section is then ready for measurement.

To find the Mean Area of the Sides:— With the scale marked A C,
measure across from A to C, and note the graduation from O of
the scale. This measurement, multiplied by the slope, is the mean
area, or the cubic yards, due to 1 foot of length.

To find the Mean Area of the Middle. — Apply the scale marked
A B to the distance A B, and note the graduations from O of the
scale. This measurement, multiplied by the base (in feet), is the
mean area, or the cubic yards, due to 1 foot of length.

The sum of these two measurements multiplied by the length in
feet will give the cubic yards contained in the prismoid.

The process above detailed, when put into a formula, appears
thus —
[(AB X base -f AC X slope) = mean area] X length = cubic yds.

From the above statement it appears, that there are two mea-
surements of this scale, set against two measurements of the
heights, and their respective tabular numbers ; tlie remaining pro-
cess being the same by both methods: thus showing, that besides
the greater accuracy due to the coincident measurements of quan-
tity, a saving of time is effected by not having to refer to tables.

Having thus described the use of this general scale, I beg to
refer to the particular scale already herein noticed, and fully de-
scribed in my work, page 210. Tliis is constructed on the same
principle of coincident measurements; and is adapted for the use
of any railway, by simply altering the graduations of the part
called " sectional areas," which can be easily done by means of tlie
rule given in the volume.

To Measure a Cutting hy the Scale. — Apply the zero of the scale
of "'sectional areas" vertically to the gradient or formation line,
and read oft' where the surface line intersects; put tliis in column
1 or 2, as the case requires: then, at the smaller end of the pris-
moid, upon the scale of vertical yards, with zero on the surface
line, observe where the gradient intersects, then place the .same
point of intersection on the gradient at the other end, and read off
above the zero on the scale of "differential areas," where tlie sur-
face line intersects; put this in column 4, and then, having mea-
sured all the lengths by the scale of horizontal yards, and inserted
them in column 6, proceed as in the use of the tables. To save
time, it is desirable to take a pair of dividers and mark off at each
division the difference of the heights in succession, and then the
differential scale above zero need only be applied. The arrange-
ment of the columns used for this scale is as follows : —

[(Col. 1 -j- col. 2 = ) col. 3 — col. 4 = ] col. 5 X col. 6 = col. 7 =
cubic yards in the prismoid.

ADD TOGETHER

SUM

DEDUCT

DIFF.

LENGTH

CUBIC YARDS

Col. 1

Col. 2

Col. 3

Col. 4

Col. 5

Col. 6

Col. 7

The scales above described can be had by applying to Mr. Elliot,
268, High Holborn.

CAST AND WROUGHT IRON BRIDGES.

On the Strength of Materials as applicable to the construction of
Cast or Wrought Iron Bridges. Tart III. — " 0)i the Transverse (tr
Cross Strain."-* By George Buchanan, Esq., F.R.S.E., President
R.S.S.A. — (From a paper read at the Royal Scottish Society of
Arts.)

The President stated that he proposed now to complete the
third branch of the subject — namely, the transverse strength of
MATERIALS, but would iirst advert to one or two points connected
with the preceding expositions, namely : —

First, the Conway Tubular Bridge, in regard to which it was
gratifying to observe, that it had now been in operation for up-
wards of three months, the regular traffic of the line going on,
and trains passing and re-passing daily, everything connected with
it proceeding in the most satisfactory manner, and this truly won-
derful design crowned with complete success. He then exhibited
a drawing of the great Britannia Bridge, now in progress of ex-
ecution across the Straits of Alenai. This was exactly on the
same principle as the Conway Bridge, but on a still more magnifi-
cent scale, the Straits liere being so much wider, and the bridge,
in order to keep the navigation free from obstruction, being ele-
vated 102 feet above the surface of the water at the highest
equinoctial tides. The breadth across the Straits at high-water
is about 1,160 feet; and, including the banks to the abutment
piers of the bridge, 1,490 feet. This space is divided into four
spans by a massive pier in the centre of the water-way, termed
the Britannia Tower, 45^ feet thick, and two small piers or tow ers
in the water at each side, 32 feet each, forming two spans in the
centre, 460 feet in length each, and two half spans, one on each
side, 230 feet. *

Secondlv, having been particularly requested by the Society, at
the last meeting on this subject, to extend and complete his expe-
riments on the tensile and compressive strengths of different
stones, he would now state the result of these experiments. The
mode of trying the direct tensile strength was formerly exhibited
by appending weights to the substance till it was actually torn
asunder. In this way the strength of the different stones, by
careful and repeated experiments, was found at an average as
follows, viz. : —

Craigleith stone

Hailes

Redliall

Humble

BinDie

Breaking weight.
453 lb.
336

28:i
27S

Several other specimens had been prepared of marble, whinstone,
Caithness and Arbroath pavement, and the results on these would
be afterwards communicated.

The compressive strength of these substances, or their power to
resist crushing, being generally far beyond their tensile strength,
could only be tried conveniently by mechanical power, and he
showed the apparatus nhich had been used for the purpose, con-
sisting of a combination of two levers, giving an increase of
power of 30 to 1. The sjiecimens, consisting of nearly exact cubic
inches of the material, being placed near the centre of motion,
and the upper lever brought down with a plate of metal to fall ex-
actly on the stone, the weights were applied at the extreme end of
the lower lever until the stone gave way. On trying, at the meet-
ing, with this apparatus a piece of Hailes stone, it bore 3,540 lb.,
and then gave way with a violent crash. A specimen of Craig-
leith stone was next tried, the side of the cube being about one-
eighth part more than a square inch. This carried upwards of
6,500 lb., when the sides began to skirt oft', and with 6,81011). it
suddenly gave way, and was crushed to powder. In all these ex-
periments it was' obser\ed that when any part of the stone re-
mained entire, it exhibited the same appearance noticed by Hodg-
kinson in the fracture of cast-iron ; pieces breaking olt' at the
sides at certain angles, and leaving a nucleus of a conical shape.
Specimens of these were preserved, and may be shown at another
meeting. By experiments of this kind, carefully made and re-
peated, he had found the compressive strength of the different
stones as follows : —

Craigleith, gave way to a pressure of 4,iH)0 lb.

Huml)ie .. .. a.74U

Hailes .. .. a, .WO

Redhall .. .. 3,32"

Binnie .. .. 2,t52ll

In regard now to the transverse strain, this, as formerly ex-
plained, is of a compound nature, both the tensile and compres.sive
forces being brought into play. A beam supported at the one

* For the two previous portious ol this paper, see "Journal," vol. xi., p. 125, aud 153.

14

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Janiary,

pxtremity, ami loaded at tlie other, lieeomes a lever, at the ex-
treme end (if which acts the vveiirht teiidiiisr ti> heiul and break tlie
material, by turning it round tlie iioint of support ; while tlie
power of resistance, residin;:^ in the section of fracture at the
support, acts in the middle of that section, and at a distance
from the centre of motion equal only to half the depth of the
beam. The same is the case with a beam supported at the two
extremities and loaded in the middle ; the beam, in that case,
dividing itself in the centre into two levers, and half tlie weight
acting at the extremity of each ; wliile the strength of the beam
acts, as before, in the centre of resistance, which is in tlie middle
section of the beam. The notion of tlie beam turning round the
point of sup|)ort and distending or stretching all the particles in
the section of fracture, which was that of Galileo, is not correct ;
the centre of rotation is in a point somewhere near the middle of
the beam, and all the particles below this point are distended,
while all the particles above this point are compressed or crushed
together, while in the centre they are neither compressed nor dis-
tended, and hence this point has been termed the neutral axis.
Much discussion has arisen regarding the exact position of this
neutral axis — the limit between the tensile and compressive forces
— a nice question, and one of abstruse and difficult investigation ;
and the probability is, after all, that it is not a fixed point, but is
liable to vary with the nature and intensity of the strains. Be
that as it may, it fortunately happens that the practical result as
to the strength of the beam is almost exactly the same, whether
the axis be supposed, with Galileo, at the point of support, or,
with succeeding philosophers, at a point near the centre. In every
case the strength depends, as formerly explained, on the length and
depth of the beam, combined with its area at the section of frac-
ture ; and by these three elements the strength can be calculated
in every case, provided we ascertain fty experiment the actual
strength of a beam or beams of given dimensions. Numerous
exjieriments have been made with this view, and particularly on
cast-iron, by Messrs. Hodgkinson and Fairhairu, and other ob-
servers. These were made on beams of various dimensions as to
length, breadth, and thickness, but the calculation is simplified if
we reduce them all to a unit or standard of 1 cubic inch ; taking,
for example, a bar 1 inch square, resting on supports 1 inch
apart and loaded in the middle, and the average result of all the
different experiments is, that such a bar of cast-iron would bear a
weight of 24,400 lb., or very nearly U tons. The strongest spe-
cimen was of No. 3, cold blast, which gave 31,212 lb., or nearly
14 tons ; and the weakest being one of No. 2, hot blast, gave only
1.1,278 lb., or better than Si tons. The difference as to strength
between the hot and cold blast appears to be trifling. The follow-
ing are the .strengths of some of the irons, given by Mr. Hodgkin-
son : —

Carron, No, 3, hot blast

llo., do., cold blast

Do., No. 2, hot blast

L)o., do., cold blast

Low Hloor, No. *J, cold blast

Wuirkirk. No. 1, hot blast

Buffery, No. 1, hot blast

12 7 tons,
109
111
11'5

11-4
lll-l

llr.'j

Every other beam, then, will bear in this average proportion of
1 1 tons, in respect of the three elements above mentioned — namely,
1st, the section of fracture ; 2nd, tlie depth of the beam ; anil,
.Srd, the length or distance between the sujiports ; and the rule is,
to multiply this average unit of strength of 11 tons, 1st, by the
section of fracture; 2nd, by the depth ; and, 3rdly, divide the pro-
duct by tlie length. This is an universal rule, and one of most
extensive application, and is here given in a somewhat simpler
form than is generally found in elementary works. He then
.sliowed the effect, by experiment, on a cast-iron beam, one inch
square, siipporteil at the extremities at two feet apart, and loaded
in the middle till it broke. Bv the above calculation of 11 tons
for the unit, the strength would be I,0(iH lb. ; and it first deflected
greatly, and then broke, all of a sudden, with a weight of
1,140 lb. ; and as the exact area of the bar is about l-lotli more
than an inch, this gives a unit of strength very nearly that of the
average above mentioned. This specimen of iron was from
Broughton Foundry, and he understood was of Summerlee iron, ■
No. 2.

Form of the beam. — The sim])le rectangular beam is not the one
best fitted for strength in proportion to the weight of the ma-
terial emidoyed. In the first place, the centre being the weak
Jioint, the mass at the ends may be redui^ed and accumulated in
the centre, giving the beam a curved shape on the upper or under
or on both sides ; and this is the form generally adopted in large
beams or girders. The ends may be safely reduced to half or
two-thirds of the depth in the middle; and' for a load uniformly

distributed over the beam, the surface should be formed to an
elliptic curve, and for a load at the centre, to a parabidic curve.
But, 2ndly, the cross section of the beam, instead of being rect-
angular, can be modified with great advantage by removing the
material from the central parts, and accumulating it, in the form
of projections or flanges either at the top or bottom, or both. If
the flange be at the top, the cross section or the figure of the
beam looking endways is that of the letter j ; and if the flange be
at the top and bottom, the figure is that of the letter I, with the
head and tail extended. Originally the j form vvith the head or
flange downmost was adojited in large manufactories or buihlings
for carrying brick arches, chiefly for the convenience of obtaining
a bearing from which the arches on each side might be sprung.
Afterwards the 1 or double t form was recommended, on no less an
authority than Tredgold. But the knowledge and consideration
of the property of cast-iron, already described, in possessing a
compressive strength much superior to the tensile, has given an
entirely new view to the subject, and led to very important practi-
cal results. This is a discovery due to Mr. Hodgkinson, and the
experiments and investigations which he has undertaken, in con-
junction with Mr, Fairbairn, have rendered most essential service
in this branch of practical mechanics. The upper part of the
beam being compressed by the application of a weight, and the
under part distended, and the tensile resistance being three or
four times less than the compressive, it is evident that the ma-
terial of the beam ought to be accumulated much more at the
bottom than at the top ; and in order to ascertain practically how-
far this principle might be carried, Mr, Hodgkinson made a variety
of trials of different forms, beginning with the flanges equal at
top and bottom, or the letter I form, then increasing the bottom
flange by ten or twelve difterent steps, till he found at last the
greatest strength was attained vvhen the bottom flange (as in this
figure X) was si.x times greater than the top ; and some very curi-
ous results arose from these investigations. The strength of the
beams, formed according to these views, is easily calculated on the
principle already explained ; for, whatever be the form, it will be
found that the strength is still very nearly proportional to the
three elements — length, depth, and section of fracture; but the
unit of strength or standard for each beam is diff^erent. For rect-
angular beams of cast-iron, this unit, as explained, is at an ave-
rage 11 tons. For the equal flange beam, which was formerly con-
sidered a model, the unit is no greater, but rather, if anything,
less ; but when the bottom flange is increased beyond the top in
the ratio of 4^ to 1, the unit of strength of every inch of the
beam is increased to fifteen tons ; and when the bottom flange is
farther increased in the ratio of 6 to 1, the strength is increased
to nineteen tons. He then showed by experiment the strength of
a cast-iron beam 2 feet by 2 inches deep, bottom flange five times
greater than the top, and area of fracture 1 inch. If rectangular,
it should have broke with 2,280 lb., but it carried 3,750 lb., and then
gave way, showing an increase of strength equal to 4,170 lb. gained
by this form of the section. Since these experiments of Mr.
Hodgkinson, others have been lately made by Bramah and others,
particularly those under the sanction of government, in reference
to the fall of the cottou-mlll at t)ldham, by Sir Henry de la Beche
and Mr, Thomas C'ubitt, These are important, as being made on
a larger scale than the others. They entirely confirm the views
and results of Hodgkinson, but the beams experimented on not
being of the same forms, do not give the same degree of strength.
On the whole, therefore, the results given above may be relied on;
but the strains for perfect security ought on no account to be car-
ried beyond one-fourth or one-third of the breaking weight.

Now, that the nature of the transverse strain has been so tho-
roughly investigated, an important consideration arises, — how far
improvements may not still be made by the introduction of mal-
leable iron in conjunction with cast-iron, so as to form beams of a
compound nature, having all tlie parts liable to compression of
cast-iron, and all the parts liable to tension of malleable iron.
This has already been adopted, in some cases with success, by the
introduction of what are called tension-rods of malleable iron ;
but it is extremely doubtful if the best combination of the two
metals has yet been ascertained. The great point is to keep the
two metals clearly and distinctly to their different offices of re-
sisting compression and tension, and unless this be done there is
difficulty and risk of bringing the one or other of them into
action ; and neither of them, in such cases, sustaining its proper
share of the load or pressure, the most serious consequences may
result from the combination. Owing to this, the use of tension-
rods has been rather condemned by engineers, and not without
reason ; but Mr. Buchanan thought the objections were not so much
to the use of the tension-rods, as to the injudicious manner in

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

15

which they have heen or may be applied. No general rule, he
said, could be laid down, but one principle should never be lost
sight of — that the strongest form is the simple one of the roof : the
two rafters butting against eacli otlier at the top producing a
simple compressive strain through their length, and at the bottom
a horizontal thrust on the extremities of the tie or tension-rod,
producing simple distention. Forms might require to be modified
by circumstances, but to this they ought all to tend, as to a centre
involving the most perfect distribution of the forces. He then
gave several illustrations of the mode of applying these ties,
jjointing out where they would be of essential service, and where
they were objectionable and inefficient.

In many cases of railway bridges, the space between the level
of the railway on tlie one hand, and sometimes a road, sometimes
a stream, or navigable river, on the other, is so confined, that even
with tension-rods well ap])lied, or massive girders, the span is so
great as to occasion too enormous a strain to be safe or expedient;
it is much better in such cases, rather than attempt to span the
opening with too limited a depth of beam or girder, to acquire
height by setting tlie girders on the outside of the railway, where
an unlimited height can be obtained for arching, or framework of
timber or iron ; and this leads to the consideration of a remark-
able species of bridge much used in crossing the vast openings of
the American rivers, both for common roads and railways. It is
termed the Frame Bridge or Lattice Bridge. These bridges have
been most extensively applied, and with complete success, and, by
successive impro\'ements, have now been brought to great perfec-
tion ; and as they possess some remarkable properties, and form
en e.xcellent illustration of the principle of dividing the tensile
and compressive strain into distinct members of the bridge, he
thouglit it might not be uninteresting to the Society, to give a
short explanation of them here. A very interesting account of
these bridges, one !of which, over the Susquehannah at Columbia,
of twenty-nine arches, each of 200 feet space, is about a mile and a
quarter in length, will be found in Mr. Stevenson's excellent work
on the "Civil Engineering of North America," and through two
engineering friends he had been favoured with farther information
and drawings, which were exhibited.* The great principle of the
frame bridge he then illustrated by reference to a small model.
It is nothing but a simple modification of the principle of the
roof; two rafters meeting in the centre of the bridge, and resting
at their extremities on a tie-beam ; from tliis centre the tie-beam
is extended longitudinally on each side, and running horizontally
to the opposite abutments; and along with it, at regular intervals,
a series of rafters, running parallel with each other and parallel
with the centre one, are extended the whole length of the bridge ;
the feet of these rafters rest on the tie-beam ; the tops of tliem
cannot meet, but are connected by an upper longitudinal beam
running horizontally. On this the rafters are all abutted and act
exactly as if each pair had met in the centre, only that the inter-
mediate connecting beam is subjected to a compressive strain,
arising from these rafters all pushing on towards the centre, in
the same manner as the lower beam is subjected to a tensile
strain from all the feet of the rafters pushing off from the centre.
The upper beam is termed the top chord, the lower beam the
bottom chord, and the rafters are called the braces ; and one mem-
ber more is only wanted to make the structure complete — namely,
a beam or tie standing vertically, to connect the top of the one
rafter with the foot of the next adjacent, towards the centre ; and
in this manner every part of the frame is supported, and there
being no cross strains w-hatever, it is truly astonishing how much
such a structure will bear. The last-mentioned beam, from being
subject to the tensile strain, is termed the tie, and a great im-
provement has been effected by the introduction of malleable iron
rods in place of timber ; by means of this, and of screws and nuts,
the whole structure can be brought to a perfect degree of tension,
60 that every joint and member may bear its due share of the
load ; and in the case of shrinkage of the timber, or other derange-
ment, the equilibrium and perfect form of the structure can
easily be restored and maintained. By screwing up the ties in
tliis manner, the bridge tends to assume an arched form, rising
with a camber in the middle ; to prevent this, another member has
been introduced, termed the counter-brace, which is a beam of
timber, extending from the top of one rafter to the bottom of the
next adjacent, from the centre towards the extremities of the
bridge. This counter-brace crosses the braces and resists any
change of form whicli the screwing-up of the rods would bring on;
and there is this remarkable advantage obtained, that the action

* For one of these drawings he was indebted to his old friend and assistant, Mr.
Laurie, now engineer on some of the American railways; and for the other, along with
Interesting views as to the principles of construction, to Mr. Lawson, a friend and
engineer, lately returned to Britain.

of these counter-braces, thus screvved-up to a certain degree of
tension, prevents the weight of the passing loads from having any
effect in straining or deflecting the bridge. Instead of any addi-
tional strain on any part, these loads rather relieve the counter-
braces from the tension to which they are subjected. No deflec-
tion or change of form can occur, except what may arise from the
mere compression or distention of the parts, and these being all
strained endways, and there being no cross or oblique action, this
effect is absolutely nothing ; and the form of the structure and
strains on it become in a great measure, if not entirely, indepen-
dent of the fluctuating traffic. The bridge is already strained to
the utmost extent of any passing load, and cannot be affected by
it ; whence arises a principle of stability and safety, w ell worthy of
consideration, particularly in the case of railways. The strength
and stiffness of the small model was then shown, and the enormous
load whicli it carried ; and the whole of this interesting subject
was concluded by the exhibition of a much larger model of one of
the American bridges. Bridges of so great a span as 200 feet are
common enougli in that country, and the model represented one of
these. It was exactly 1-lOth of the dimensions, being 20 feet long,
and the frames on each side 2 feet deep, consisting of the top and
bottom chord, ] inch by 2^ inches; the braces in pairs | of an
inch square; the tie-rods in pairs 5-inch diameter; and the
counter-braces each single, |-inch square. One of these frames
w as placed at each side of the bridge, connected at the bottom by
ci'oss beams on which was laid the planking of the roadway. The
whole weight of the bridge was only 113 lb., and although 20 feet
span and of such slender materials, it carried six persons, equal to
at least 7 or 8 cwt., standing on the centre, without deflecting
more than j of an inch.

Another advantage he also mentioned of these bridges was the
simplicity of construction; the braces and counter-braces were all
cut exactly to the same length and square on the ends; no
morticing or jointing of any kind, but resting simply on blocks
attached to the top and bottom chords, through which blocks
were also passed the tie-rods. Nothing could be simpler, and the
whole britlge could be taken down, removed to another site, and
there put up with facility. It is easy to see also, that as the
malleable iron ties have been substituted for the upright timbers,
so may it be for the bottom chord; and the braces and counter-
braces could be made of cast-iron in the form of hollow square
tubes, which would altogether form an extremely simple and
strong girder or bridge. One remark, however, he must make re-
garding all these bridges or girders of a rectangular form — namely,
that though they may be practically convenient in many respects,
they are all attended with a sacrifice of material, in so far as they
deviate from the principle of the arch. Tlie top chord might be
in the form of an arch, starting from the lexel of the roadway at
the abutments, and rising to the original height at the centre. In
this way much material would be saved, while the strain on the
chord would be greatly less, owing to the curvature; and this
form is often used in America, but not combined with the princi-
ple of the braces and counter-braces as it might be. The same
remark applies also to the iron tubular bridges, which possess ad-
vantages in simplicity and great steadiness, but no doubt the
material at the ends is redundant, and the strain in the centre
beyond what would occur in the case of the arch. He now begged
to conclude these expositions, which had been extended to much
greater length than he had anticipated.

After the reading of the paper. Professor Fobbes observed, that
in regard to these American bridges, which appeared to possess
])eculiar projierties, he vvould put a question or two which Mr.
Buchanan might probably answer — namely, how far they did not
resemble in principle the iron tubular bridges of Mr. Stephenson.
The frame-work in the model of the American bridge at the sides
was no doubt open, but he observed from the drawing that there were
double the number of frames as there were in the model, and he
understood that the sides were often formed by numerous little
lozenges, or lattice-work, foi-ming nearly a continuous web, and
he should like to know whether the sides of the tubular bridge,
with the angle-irons to strengthen them, did not much resemble
this web of lattice-work. In regard to the top and bottom also,
it appeared from the model that those also were united by diagonal
beams or frames, forming a sort of enclosure at top and bot-
tom, and as the side frames were twenty feet in height, this left
ample head-room for passengers and carriages.

Mr. Buchanan could not help expressing how much he felt gra-
tified by the countenance and approval of such high authority as
Professor Forbes. In regard to the American bridges, the resem-
blance in principle to the tubular bridges had struck liimself
forcibly in considering these structures. The top and bottom

16

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jamuabv,

chords of the former, answered to the cellular tuhes in the roof
jiiid floor of the latter, and the frames on each side to the iron
plates, forming the sides of the main tube, with their numerous
anjjle-iron pieces, which were laid on tlie continuous g-round of
the plates to give stiffness to the sides. The frames of the
American bridges were also connected at the bottom by cross
frames and timber planking ; and at the top, he believed, they
were also, in some cases, connected in a similar manner, and
covered in l)y a roof, for protection against the weather ; so as, on
the whole, to form, as it were, a complete rectangular tube in
skeleton. Still, however, the tubular bridge was, in many re-
spects, a very different structure; and the design of a bridge, of
one vast malleable iron tube, was an idea at once happy and
original, and was, he considered, due entirely to Mr. Stephenson.

Mr. Buchanan having explained, in regard to the tensile strength
of malleable iron, stated at 27 tons for the breaking weight, tliat
this was from the old experiments of Telford, Brown, and Rennie,
Professor Forbes said he understood from Mr. Stephenson tliat
he considei'ed this result too high. Mr. Buchanan stated that he
was not aware of this, but he knew Mr. Stephenson had taken the
safe load of malleable iron of the Tyne bridge at 9 tons, which
was ratlier larger than Mr. B. had been used to calculate, so that
the final results were very nearly the same. He would, however,
endeavour to obtain Mr. Stephenson's results accurately.

REVIE-WS.

Rudimentary Architecture : the Orders and their JEsthetic Princi-
ples. By W. H. Leeds, Esq. Weale, 1818.

We do not expect to obtain much credit for impartialitv, in
speaking of what comes from the pen of one whose name has, in
one or two instances, appeared in our own Journal, as that of a
contributor to it, and who is suspected by some to have written in
it incog, to a considerable extent. Although this consideration
does not and ought not to deter us from noticing a treatise whose
subject is of immediate interest to our own readers, it will serve to
render us guarded in our expressions, and at any rate prevent us
from falling into the strain of common-place puff. Were we the
first to notice this production of Mr. Leeds's, and to speak of it in
the laudatory terms which some others have employed, our praise
might be received with mistrust. But it has already been noticed
with pointed commendation in more than one quarter, as treating
the sul)iect admiiably. In an article on "VVeale's Rudimentary
Treatises," in the Mechanics' Magazine, the reviewer says: "The
treatise on ARCHiTEcruRE is by one of the first architectural critics
of the day (perhaps the very first), and has nothing to fear from
the worst that rival critics or chastised pretenders can advance
against it — which, assuredly, is saying a great deal, but not more
than we conscientiously believe to be true. It is confined to 'the
Orders' and their '.Esthetic Principles' — of which modern term
^Esthetics, tliere is a clever definition in a most useful 'Glossorial
Index,' and which definition we here quote for the 1)enefit of those
— not a few — to whom the exact import of the phrase is still a
mystery, &c. &c." — From what has been quoted, it is evident that
meritorious as the treatise is, opposition to tlie views promulgated
in it may be expected. Undoubtedly, sucli is tlie case: however
they may lie hailed by those wlio come quite fresli to any study,
and make their first entrance into it, original and more rational
views of it than what had hitherto prevailed, can never be greatly
relished l)y those who discover — even if they will not confess as
much — that they have been all along guided, or rather fettered, by
very contracted and narrow-minded, if not absolutely erroneous,
doctrines.

In another review of this treatise on the Orders, which we have
met with, it is said: "Unambitious as is tlie form in which it ap-
liears, it is likely to effect an important and desirable change in the
mode of architectural study and teaching — so far, at least, as the
Orders are concerned, by explaining their rationale upon broad and
liberal principles, and by getting rid of all those dull and pettifog-
ging rules, the adlierence to which has rendered architectural
design little better than a system of blind copyism and mechanical
routine. It is anything but a compilation manufactured for tlie
market: on the contrary, it is the production of an experienced
writer, and an original thinker.- — Neither are those from whom we
<|Uote the only notices that have appeared, and all which we have
«as yet seen are commendatory. Still, it is very probable that
otliers will either speak of this little treatise iu a very different

tone, or else pass over it in silence, as being too insignificant to
challenge criticism. That it will produce the slightest effect upon
those who are already confirmed in their opinions on the subject
(having been trained up in the old routinier system), we do not at
all suppose. They, of course, will continue as they liave begun,
trusting that their system will continue to retain its credit during
"their time;' and then — apris nuns le deluge! It is only the rising
generation of architects who will adopt Mr. Leeds's heresies — for
heresies they undoubtedly are at present, though in time they may
come to be considered orthodoxy. A good deal of architectural
heterodoxy, we may remark, is just now abroad: for Mr. Fergusson
is to the full as great, or even a greater, heretic than Mr. Leeds.

With respect to the publication before us, wliat, it will be asked,
is the particular doctrine or theory in regard to the Orders, which
it enunciates.^ In the first place, then, although a mere trifle, if
considered as a book, this treatise is evidently the result of much
and unprejudiced tliinking on the subject; and not its least merit
is the sincerity of purpose shown in regard to communicating in-
struction, by completely dealing away all that mystery and mysti-
fication with which the study has hitherto been more or less en-
cumbered, and obscured, and made to appear — intentionally, per-
haps, though not laudably so — too formidable, or at any rate far
too repulsively dry, to be approached by any except those who
apply to it professionally. Hitherto, architecture has been studied
and taught only either merely historically or merely technically.
Its nature and privileges as a Fine Art — in which character all
ought to be able to sympathise with, and appreciate it — have,
instead of being placed prominently forward, been nearly over-
looked,— at the most, briefly and vaguely insisted upon in the
abstract, but neither intelligently explained, nor dwelt upon with
real feeling.

We do not pretend to say that Mr. Leeds's treatise fully supplies
the desideratum, liecause, being strictly confined to tlie Orders, it
elucidates only their "aesthetic principles;" and notwithstanding
that they are the basis of wliat may be called the general modern
European style of the art, that style includes many other elements
of composition. As much as is professed to be taught, is taught
ably and rationally; so as clearly to explain, in the first place, the
natural constitution of the Orders as all belonging to one general
system, and then considering them as divided into three leading
classes, each of which includes several varieties, — some of them
differing very widely from each other, yet all having something in
common which at once marks them as belonging to that particular
class or Order, in contradistinction from either of the other two.
This theory — according to which the generic character of each
class may be modified ad infinitum — affords the architect a degree
of artistic freedom hitherto denied him. Whether such freedom
will be welcomed by those who have been reared up in slavery to
arbitrary mechanical rules, may be doubted; therefore, it is only
to the rising generation of the profession that we can reasonably
look for the adoption of more liberal and artistic principles. If
such principles — those advocated in Mr, Leeds's treatise — can be
shown to be erroneous, their adoption is of course to be dejirecated.
Yet, before they are rejected, let them be impugned, and fairly
convicted of error. Otherwise, although intended to be expressive
of contempt, silence may be misconstrued; and instead of its being
supposed that the opinions brought forward by the author of the
present treatise remain unopposed because not worthy of being
replied to, it may he fancied that they are not answered because
they are found unanswerable.

"Are our architects artists.''" is the question put by another of
those who have spoken of Mr. Leeds's treatise.'* Highly as he com-
mends the views entertained, the reviewer is of opinion that they
are too much in advance of the present practice. " Have not," he
asks, "all the monstrosities of modern times originated in at-
tempting to avoid mere routine, and attain the merit of originality?
And whilst we would rejoice in seeing architectural genius de-
veloping itself in forms of beauty hitherto unappropriated, is there
no danger of Mr, Leeds's advice being acted upon too literally ? —
There is." Yes, undoubtedly there is; but to what does the ob-
jection amount.'' Is only maintaining tliat because liberty may
be abused and converted by some into lawless license, we ought to
renounce freedom, as being frauglit with danger? Therefore, lest
some shinild go astray, all arcliitects are to be clogged, and com-
pelled to plod along in tlie path of routine already traced out for
them. The reviewer's objection would have been a decisive and
unanswerable one, could he have shown that the ill conse-
quences to the art now apprehended have invariably taken place
whenever architects have been left free — as was the case in former
times, both classical and mediaeval— to design their own detail,

• Tlie Edinburgh News, of Dec, 16lh, 184d.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

17

and exercise some invention — in a word, were not bound down to
precedent. We do not find that the freedom then enjoyed was
abused to any alarming extent, or productive of many monstrosi-
ties unless contemporaries regarded as monstrosities what we now

admire as the productions of happy and fertile imaginations.

Before rejecting as dangerous the freedom claimed for architects
bv Mr. Leeds, we ought to be convinced that the system now followed
effectually guards us against monstrosities, and invariably ensures
to US ediiices that are "to the credit of our national taste." And
until that can be fairly proved, we must claim liberty — the liberty
of doubting, if not actually denying it. If we do not get mon-
strosities, we get dulness and mediocrity, — correct and respectable,
but mediocrity and dulness still. We do not hiss, indeed, but we
ynwn, — and hissing is much the livelier employment of the two.
The National Gallery, for instance, is the butt of newspaper criti-
cism, and enables it to show its sprightliness ; whereas the poor
British Museum lulls both newspaper criticism and critics fast
asleep.

To return to the reviewer and the reviewed, Mr. Leeds's advice
is to be interpreted cum grano salis. By no means does it follow
from what he urges, that all are bound to strive to display
originality. All, as we conceive, he means is, that those who feel
themselves capable of doing so, should not be deterred either by
fear or by paltry iimid^aise honte, from doing so. Something is, of
course, ventured ; but the courage which dares not to venture
anytliing, or to come forward unless assured beforehand of success,
is not, in our opinion at least, many removes from cowardice. We
do not at all imagine that there are many — at any rate, not at
present, who could successfully put into practice what Mr. Leeds
recommends. Yet, there are surely — perhaps it would be nearer
the mark to say, instead of "surely," uncertaiiili/ — some, capable of
availing tliemselves of the liberty held out to them. If no others,
we have our Barrys and our Cockerells, who, it may be presumed,
are artints, and as such, trustwortliy. Those who do not feel the
requisite impulse and confidence within themselves, may be left to
go on as heretofore, confiding in rules and adhering to routine.

It is not only a stale, but an unfair trick, to bring forward
instances of notoriously extravagant caprices as argument for re-
straining an entire profession from any exercise of inventive
faculty, lest they should fall into similar excesses. Just as fair would
it be to condemn rules altogether, as useless, or worse than useless,
by referring to the numerous tasteless, insipid, and prosaic designs
that have been manufactured acccording to rule, and may so far
be unimpeachable, — very respectable, but utterly worthless.

Besides, no one can mistake Mr. Leeds's meaning so egregiously
as to imagine that he advises arcliitects to put fortli rashly whatever
crude fancies may occur to them. On the contrary, he strongly
inculcates the necessity of iesthetic study. In architectural design,
decided innovations are not to be adopted lightly, being left to
take their chance for success or failure. It is for the authors of
tliem to study them thoroughly and mature them, before they put
them forth to the world, — to consider and re-consider them again
and again. And if, after such consideration and contemplation of
Lis idea in drawing or model, the architect is satisfied in his own
mind that he has accomplished his purpose, and can account ra-
tionally for what he has done, hardly will he have perpetrated a
monstrosifij. After all, too, it is better to have to endure some
monstrosities, than to be condemned to endure universal medio-
crity, and the wearisome repetition of tlie same stale ideas.

The present generation of architects, trained-up as tliey have
been to depend entirely upon rules and precedent, may not be
capable of profiting by the more liberal views now promulgated.
They are to be pitied rather more than to be reproached. But
let us hope that their successors will be trained-up better — so
trained-up that there will be no occasion for the invidious ([uestion:
"Are our architects artists.''"

The Popular Atlas ; with Geographical and Statistical Descrip-
tions. London: Wyld, 1849.

This work, which has been in progress of publication for the
last two years, is now completed. It is an atlas of large maps,
with statistical letter-press by Mr. WylA., M.I'., and Air. Hyde
Clarke, being the only work of the kind.' It is not so complete as
it might have been; but still it is more so than any other, and is
the latest work of reference on the subjects to which it relates.
Although it is necessarily a compilation, there is much originality
in it, and it suppplies in the cheapest form which lias yet been
attempted what has been hitherto scattered in many books. It
gives a very full view of the English empire and colonies. Under

the title of Ancient Britain, is a new theory of what have been
called Druidic monuments, in the suggestion that they are of
Iberian origin. The ethnological characteristics of the English
are more fully investigated than has yet been done, and a new
light is thrown on the history of the Anglo-Saxon and other Ger-
manic races. The Anglo-Saxons, here called English and Sue-
vians, are traced in several of their connections, and a novel
branch of history is laid open by the identification of a Suevian
race, which, under the names of Varini, Warings, Rugians, and
Russians, took part in the invasion and peopling of Britain and
Slavonia. Since the identification of the Medes, Alans, and Osse-
tinians, no fact of equal importance in ethnology has been at-
tempted to be established. For tlie detail of geographical, politi-
cal, and commercial statistics, the Popular Atlas may be advan-
tageously consulted, and will not be soon superseded, while it
gives for three pounds a work what has hitherto cost twelve or
fifteen. It seems to be a fashion now for M.P.'s to produce such
books, as before they did pamphlets, and we have Mr. Macgregor,
Mr. Wilson, and Mr. Wyld, starting in this new line. We hope
the production of bigger books on political subjects will be accom-
panied by better information. It is certainly a proof of progress
in political studies, as much as is the class of historians, repre-
sented by Lord Mahon, Mr. Macaulay, and Lord John Russell,
and seems as if it would now be required that statesmen should
know something of their business. We thought it something
formerly if parliament was illustrated by poets and novelists.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE AND AET.

An Historical Inquiry into the True Principles of Beauty in Art,
more especially u-ith reference to Architecture By James Fergusson,

' Esq., Architect ; Author of " An Essay on the Ancient Topography
of Jerusalem," " Picturesque Illustrations of Ancient Architec-

I ture in Hindostan, &c." Part the First. London : Longmans,

! 1849.

The writer of this book has set forth fully the great difficulties
he has had to struggle with in drawing it up, and has owned in
how much he is wanting for its rightful execution. There are evils
which still more beset the reviewer, for while the reader looks for

1 a close examination, sound criticism, and a decided judgment, the

I reviewer finds that much time is required, much knowledge, and
deep and careful thinking, before he can fairly begin his task.
He is led over a wide field of learning; he must strengthen his
remembrance as to much which has faded from his mind; he must
bring back again many things which he had altogetlier forgotten;
he must learn much that is new. This must be always hard work ;
but much more so when time is not given, for the reader looks for
an early notice of such a work. With most books this may be readily
done; indeed, it is enough to see them, without reading, to know
what to say of them; they are knocked up for the market, made
for a speedy sale, and tlieir freshness is all that needs to be asked
ab(uit. But when a man spends a score, or two score years — ^a life,
indeed, in making his book ; when he brings to it not handiwork,
but thouglit — how, in a few hours, or few days, is his book to be
grappled with, its strength to be felt, and its weaknesses to
be found out and set forth .? Such a book, nevertheless, is that
now before us, which has taken years in its accomplishment,
and for wliich the writer has gone through the whole round of
knowledge.

Our readers will like to know who the writer is, and happily we
can tell them, from his own words. They look, perhaps, for a mem-
ber of the Institute, with a fair share of wealth, who has gone
through his pupilage, posted to Rome, steamed to Athens, sent in
a competition design for a poor school, and built a Tuscan cotton-
mill, and an Elizabetlian workhouse. This does not seem to be so;
and tliough Mr. Fergusson calls himself an architect, we do not
know that he ever put up a building. For the woi'k he has under-
taken few men, he says, have, either from education or tlie profes-
sional pursuits of their life, been less prepared. From boyhood
he was destined to the desk. From school he passed to tlie count-
ing-house. In early life he was kept so closely to the desk as to
have no time for society ; and having likewise no taste for the
common amusements of his fellow-clerks, he unbent his mind by
reading. Like most young Scotchmen, the science that charmed
him most was metaphysics ; but he read likewise much on che-
mistry and geology — tried hard to understand crystalograpliy, and
puzzled himself with problems of mechanics and astronomy. " In
short," he says, " I bought any book on science my limited means
would allow, and more with reference to the price than the con-
tents."

13

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Ja.nvarv,

The effect of scrambling reading was confusion of views. Tliis
Mr. Ferffusson soon found out, and he set liimself to order and
arrange his stores of knowledge. Tliis led liim to his first sketch
of the classification of the arts and sciences.

From the counting-house his way took him to an indigo
factory in the East; of all places in the world the one he
thinks least suited for a cultivation of any knowledge of the fine
arts. lie then became an acting and active partner in a large mer-
cantile establisliment, from the trammels of which, in spite of every
endeavour, he has never been able to free himself; and during the
time this book was in hand, he wrote more about the state of the
money-market, indigo, sugar, silk, and sucli like articles, than lie
did regarding architecture, painting, or sculpture. The last
eigliteen months Mr. Fergusson complains of as times of anxiety
and distress to every one connected with mercantile pursuits, and
more es])ecially to those connected with the East, and as having
drawn himself into its whirlpool.

His mercantile pursuits, he laments, have shut him out from the
best class of intellectual or artistic society for years ; and even his
writings have not given him that introduction which might have
been of use. Thus he lias been cut off from counsel and advice in
a task of no mean weight ; and he has not had all that help from
books which he would so much have wished. He has, neverthe-
less, made the most of his time and means, and has spent as much
of his time latterly in the study of his subject as most men Iiave
been able to do ; and to this we can bear witness from the fruits.

He has, moreover, had the good fortune to spend the best years
of his life in the East ; and in travelling he always travelled alone,
with only one end in view. Thus he has seen much of art, and has
had plenty of time to think over what he saw. For months to-
gether he lived among buildings and the works of art they con-
tained, and looked on them long and steadfastly; following, even
to the chisel-marks, the thought and bent of the artist and the
workman. AVhatever schoolmen may think, this is no mean train-
ing in art ; and such a man is more truly an artist than nine-tenths
of those who draw, carve, and build.

Our readers will rememlier that Mr. Fergusson has written of
late years, " Illustrations of the Rock-Cut Temples of India," " An
Essay on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem," and " Pictu-
resque Illustrations of Ancient Architecture in Hindostan," The
work now before us is of higher bearing. The first part only is
published ; other two are to follow, and one is ready. This is to
be on Eastern, Asiatic, Mahommedan, Byzantine, Gothic, and
Mexican art. The third part is to hold what the writer calls " A
History of the Monkey Styles of Modern Europe, from the time
when men fii'st began to copy instead of thinking, till the present
time, when they have ceased to think, and can only copy." It
will be seen that there is no wavering as to the ovei'bearing evil
of modern art. The two latter parts wiU be as thick as the first,
which holds above five hundred large octavo pages, with many
drawings.

None of the common writers or readers on art will be ready to
believe, or pleased to hear, that the beginning of a book on archi-
tecture is a treatise on what Lord liacon has named Pliilosojjliia
Prima. Yet so it is ; and there are few works of this day — not
even those of Whewell, Hcrschel, and Brougham — of a higher
philosophical bearing. Shall we go where Mr. Fergusson has
thought it right to lead — shall we follow him round the wide fields
of knowledge, afar from art — or shall we pen ourselves up in what
is held to be strictly architectural .'' By doing the latter, we shall
please the mass of our readers; by doing the former, we sliall
awaken the anger of many, and meet with the apjilause of but
few. We shall do the latter; first, as we think Mr. Fergusson has
set a noble example by writing a work to be read and be thought
about, and therefore ought to be upheld ; next, inasmuch as the
Journal has heretofore done the same things that he has done, and
said the same words, and, as we believe, has in scmie way strength-
ened and encouraged him in the task he has fulfilled. \Ve believe
Mr. Fergusson to be right, and ourselves to be right, and we ought
not to lose tliis opportunity of enforcing the truth. If we are
merely to be flatterers of the crowd, to tell our readers not what is
true, but what is pleasing to them, we may as well at once cut off
the architectural portions of our Joiirna/, and leave them to the
dry chroniclers of news, and the namby-pamby praise of publishers
of tours and illustrated guide-books. There is something of more
weiglit to be done in these days, than giving details of styles and
orders. We have to bring art to life, and not to rest till this is done.
We are upheld by the trust that the Journnl has already done some
good in unsettling wrong feelings, and awakening right ones; and
this is a good ground for going on.

We may say further, that we have often shown that architecture

and engineering have many common ties, and a wide bearing on
each other — and in nothing more than in right trainini; and e(iuca-
tion ; and therefore, whenever anything of couinioii interest comes
before us, we are hound to lay it lief'ore our readers of both ])ro-
fessions. We have too many readers who are not ]iractising mem-
bers of either jirofession. We shall therefore follow Air. Fer-
gusson tliroughout.

We must own we were never more struck than bv the begin-
ning of this work ; and so unlike is it to wliat would be looked for
in a book on art, and what we have always had from writers on art,
that we read with the greatest distrust. The great body of them are
so wanting in real learning, so narrow in their minds, and in their
sight — so little of artists, and still less of philosophers, that we
are too ready to think that no other kind of writers have ever
given their time to high art. The world is to be forgiven for this;
for those who call themselves artists have most of all forgotten
that Aristotle, Plato, Cicero, Bacon, Burke, and Brougham, not
to name many otliers of great name and great mind, have written
more or less upon art and its principles. After all, this is what
should not be forgotten, that art as much belongs to the kingdom of
philosophy as anything w hich is more commonly allowed to be under
its sway ; and it is from having broken loose, that art alone has gone
back, while everything else in these days has gone forward, till we
speak with pride and joy of what has been seen and done in our
days, with only one blot — that we have done nought in art.

Mr. Fergusson treats art as the offspring of mind — its physical
expression or representation ; bearing in its shape, as do the chil-
dren of men, the impress of the youth or eld, the strength or
weakness, the soberness or riot, which marked the parent at the
time of birth. Art cannot be upheld by one man, or by a score,
nor can it be made in a day ; but the minds of nations, and the
thoughts of years, can alone give it the breath of life. He brings
it into immediate connection with the great social system, and
treats it as under the same influences as any other human insti-
tution. The way in which Mr. Fergusson does this, and the sys-
tem of philosophy to B-hich it leads him, are in every way remark-
able. They are another comment on the signs of the times, which
so many now look upon with wonder. The struggle as to art is but a
single fight on a wide battle-field, which, end as it may, will not
sink the beam either way. One side may win, but many of its
best men be slain by those whose flag has lost the day. Thus has
it been before with art — nay, the freedom of others has been the
contemporary and signal of its own downfall. In this day, every-
thing shows one of those epochs in history which stand forth to
all times for good or for evil. It is not alone that war is let loose,
that kingdoms and commonwealths are unsettled, the bounds of
the mighty taken away, and those of the weak set wider off ; but
the mind of man is everywhere, and in everything at work — driven on
to some great and mighty end. If the wielders of piditical theo-
ries are emboldened by seeing their way to power, how much more
are those who look forward to the application of the resources of
science ? It is a great thing to have driven the steam-horse or
the steam-ship faster — to have stretched afar the tongue of the
telegraph — and to have drawn with the beams of the sun : but
these are no more than the handsel of the inventor ; the first
fruits, it is true, but the earnest of greater bearing. If speed has
been got, it is only to show us that more may be done. If we have
made lightning our messenger, why not our carrier ; if we have
brought the jieople of the wide Atlantic nearer, why not hand to
hand, or rather, nuuith to mouth ? Steam is a servant with a ready
and a mighty arm ; but we know not yet that we have called fortli
the greatest genii of the hidden world. The lamp may have been
rubbed, and the steam wreathed from the jar ; we may have
workers of wonders before us : hut these arc only among the low-
liest of those doing the bidding of an Almighty Master. The seav
of the ring is at our beck ; and yet he is only one of a numberless
fellowship. The field of knowledge is known to be wide; there
are those gone forth to search it : and whatever may be brought
back, so much are we on the stretch for something new, that
nothing can raise our wonder.

Everything betokens a gre.it action on mankind — greater than
anything which has been before, inasmuch as the physical condi-
tions of time and space no longer narrow the field to its former
bounds. Europe may have been the field before ; but now the
wide world is open, and the blow stricken at Paris is felt in Poly-
nesia or Hindostan. It is not that there is any settled way before
us; it is that we are ill at ease as to those we are now in. Dis-
content as to the past, mistrust as to the future ; a restless long-
ing for something better, without shaping what it is, mark the
politician, the economist, the socialist, and the religionist. This,
too, is felt in the world of art. It has not sprung up with the

184.9.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

19

French Revolution, nor does it take its aim from this ; it hegan
before, and has long been vrorking ; and revolution and reaction
are amona; its phenomena, not among its causes, nor is its shape
taken from one side. The Puseyite, who leans towards Rome, and
his foeman, who would rush further from it, are both under the
same spell ; the same yearning for higher motives, and for a better
sphere of action, is the influence operating with each. The
Times and the A^orthern Star may be opjiosing forces, hut they
result in impressing the same direction on the public mind ; both
agree that what now is, is wrong ; both that something is to be
done, though neither knows well what that is. Look at art: can
we anywhere find satisfaction with the present, or anything but
looking back to Greece or the middle ages, or looking on to a
hereafter — misty and mis-shapen .-' There are plenty of preachers
against us ; but few show us what to do, or anything which if
shown is worthy of adoption.

There was much the same seeming in the fifteenth century, the
sixteenth, the seventeenth, and the eighteenth ; but, as already
said, never had the minds of men so wide a field whereon to strive
together — never before was the whole world so moved — never be-
fore did the lot of so many millions tremble in the beam. The
fall of tlie Roman empire may have been felt by the tribes who
fed their flocks under the Great AVall of China — from the Pacific
to the Atlantic — fi-om the ley Sea to the Mediterranean ; hundreds
of tribes may have shifted their liomes, and whole nations may
have been brought upon the stage of history : but this, the events
of which exercised the greatest physical influence, will give no pa-
rallel to that which now looms before us — nay, has already set in,
in mighty outlines. The great French Revolution did nothing
like this will do, because that was narrower in its bearings.

Each, however, is a part of the same system of progress: — each
a sequence of those which went before — this, too, of the others ;
but each has its own likeness, as well as that of its fathers — each
has had its own philosophy. That of the last century, as said by
Mr. Fergusson, though beginning in the inductive philosophy of
Bacon, was divided into two narrow schools. The sectarian party
fought not for truth, but for the safety of what they thought to
be the dogmas of their system. Hence, being often wrong, they
were often beaten by their foemen. These, again, had set up a
system, in which they not only threw over all the sectarian views
of the others on religion, hut left out religion altogether. They,
too, did not fight for truth, but to set aside religion, and to up-
hold a system of morphology, in which tlie present was e\'olved,
by a series of regular changes, from the rudest elements, without
any interference of design. A scheme was made out for nature or
creation, on what were supposed the simjjlest philosophical prin-
ciples, and nature was never to be thought to wander from them.
Each side was always winning, but the other never thought itself
beaten.

With these two schools we have still to deal : but there is now a
third, which is likely to exercise great influence, as particularly
representing the phenomena of the epoch ; more material in its
bearing, narrower in its sympathies, less symmetrical in its com-
position— and yet of higher aim. AVhewel, Ilerschel, Whately,
Prichard, Babbage, and Brougham, may he looked upon as having
led the way to what has resulted in this new form, but without
agreement and without design ; while as yet no great teacher has
sprung up to give a name to the new section. Its teachings are
most to be found in the press of England and the United States ;
and, therefore, they have already exercised a powerful but silent
impression on the public. The newspaper writer of this century
will perhaps fulfil the task of the encyclopaedist of the last — and,
assuredly, with much greater might. The Times, with no definite
end, has perhaps, alone, already done more to revolutionize the
nineteenth century than all the encyclopsedists of France and Ger-
many did for the eighteenth.

To those accustomed to rail at the nineteenth century, and par-
ticularly the systematic supporters of the morphological school,
nothing will give wider scope than this philosopliy, witliout agree-
ment in its teachers or its teachings ; no certainty of aim, or far-
seeing object — nay, not the same object. It is patchwork, confes-
sedly, to suit an emergency, made for its day, acknowledged to be
perishable, and expected to be destroyed. Its great point of dis-
tinction does not seem to be open to these reproaches ; but there is
little else but what is. By making theology and religion an essen-
tial part of this philosophy, its votaries give a greater field for
its support ; for though they cannot satisfy tlie sectarian, who
wishes his sect only, they enlist men of all forms of worship ; and
the zealous Protestant may as consistently enrol himself, as the
Jew or tlie Mahommedan. The adoption of this principle is, in
reality, the key to the apparent inconsistencies. The object of

the inquirer is not to attribute a sectarian or morphological mo-
tive, but to seek for the evidences of design, and examine its tend-
encies, believing that notliing has been done without an object and
an aim. Hence the apparent conservative tendency, so far as con-
cerns what already exists — hence the revolutionary tendency, if
we may so term it, as to the future. A man is to be found like
Mr. Fergusson or tlie writers of the Times, denouncing social evils
one moment, and the next appealing to the existence of the dis-
tinctions of rich and poor, high and low, as established facts.
There is, nevertheless, nothing inconsistent in this or such a sys-
tem, though by the morphologists it will be denied to be philoso-
phical. Jilr. Fergusson cannot avoid gi\ing a note to attack Li-
berty, Equality, and Fraternity; and theTimes has baffled many of
its readers by following such a course for months. The morpholo-
gists believe that everything in nature is regular and systematic :
the others, that this regularity and system are governed by laws
much more complicated tlian those the narrow capacity of the mor-
phologists has assigned.

It is but another development of this principle to find the strong
agreement of the new school in Anglo -Saxonism. In the message
of President Pcdk, in the leaders of the Times or the Chronicle, in
the " True Priiu-iples of Beauty in Art" of Mr. Fergusson,
and with Mr. Hyde Clarke, in 'the "Popular Atlas," Anglo-
Saxonism is the key or cuckoo note. This is sure to bring down
severe criticism, and to pro\'oke no gentle feeling, for it savours
most strongly of illiberality, as such matters have hitherto been un-
derstood. As certainly as morphologists have had their chief seat
in France and Germany, so must the others be narrowed to
England and the United "States ; for it is not likely that others
will take u\} a system which argues an inferiority of nature and
destiny in their races. It seems most decidedly "to give up to
party what was meant for mankind." The ground upon wliich it
is done is this: the English have, from a handful of men in a nook
of Jutland, become a mighty peojile — the dwellers in the orbis (titer
of Britain, in North America, and in Australia, and the holders of
the greatest kingdom. The design has been that they should do
this, and they are doing it — ergo,they are to do this until some new
law is put upon tliem.*

It must, however, be said for the Anglo-Saxonists or Englishists,
that many hold out that other races can be brought up to tlieir
model of perfection. The Times is always inculcating this for the
behoof of the Celts, though we are not s>n-e but some of the
others teach that it is the destiny of what they call the inferior
races to die ofl" before the superior influence of the others.

We cannot help remarking that this Englishism comes with sin-
gular significancy in the present day. A war of races has been
proclaimed — the mighty Italian people, the great Teutsh or Ger-
manic people, the Scandinavian hive, and Panslavonia have set up
their flags : others are to follow. \Vhat is the destiny of Eng-
lishism ?

Mr. Fergusson brings this dogma to bear to illustrate the pro-
spects of art in England. He relies on the capacity of our people
in the former time and in the present time, to attain distinction in
the arts ; if there were but the will to do so, or the right way be
set about.

The new school having once brought morals and religion within
the pale of philosophy, are for applying them everywhere ; in poli-
tics, in art — nay, in meclianics. They wish to give earnestness to
even the lowest walk of life. On every branch of science and of
art, these views are brought to bear; and it is by the practical de-
velopment of them tliat a scheme of philosophy is worked out,
really different from those wliich have been before laid down.
Adopting Plato, Aristotle, Bacon, and Newton, and yet often re-
jecting each ; learning from Bentham, La Place, Cuvier, and Lyell,
without agreeing with them ; a new monument is being heaped up,
for wliich the workmen labour with earnestness, such as has never
before been surpassed, and for which each lays down his contribu-
tion without any regard to its ultimate shape.

The only acknowledged end is to do good to society — to carry
out the progressive tendencies of the human race, which the mor-
phologists likewise hold: but there is no acknowledged way of
doing this. Mr. Fergusson, in reference to re-modelling art, says
(p. 161), "It may be asked, if I propose to throw over all prece-
dent, and to abandon at once all Grecian pillars and Gothic pinna-
cles, and all the classical and mediasval details which now make
up the stock in trade of an architect, what would I propose to
substitute in their place.'' The answer is a simple, though scarcely

* Perhaps we ouj^tit to say EnKli&hisin, not Anglo-Saxonisni, according to some of
these writers. Tiie " Ptip'.ilar Atl;is," ivhicli is as much written under the new inspira-
tion as the ** True Principles of Keauty," gives a lull development of Englishism in all
its beatings, statistically and minologically, most of which is so far from the comraou
statement of historical facts, that it must lead to much controversy.

4*

20

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[J.V.NUAnY,

a satisfactory one, as it is merely — 'I do not know.' But if anyone
reflects a moment, he will see that it is im|iossil)le 1 or any one
else could know, without, at least, the fjift of prophecy; for the
very essence of projrress is its procession towards sometljin^' we do
not now see ; and the essence of invention is, findinif out wliat we
do not know, and what could not hefore he known." This is
honest; whether it is satisfactoiy, we leave others to judge.

Ila\ injLT now shown the relevance of Mr. Fergusson's book to
tlie school of philosophy to which it relates, we shall proceed to
examine it hy itself; which we could hardly do to the satisfaction
of our readers until we had made them sufficiently ac(iuainted
with the position and views of the author; for otherwise, we
should he under the suspicion of criticising a detail, which is irre-
levant to the scheme of our work or the wishes of our readers.

Mr. Fergusson begins by considering the progress of mankind,
and the state of this country, so far as vice and virtue are con-
cerned; and the constitution of society as affected thereby. He
asserts that there is no ])hysical nor mental equality between men,
hut tliat tliere is a perfect natural ecpiality of all conditions of
mankind, as far as the power of attaining happiness is concerned
(p. 4.) lie looks uptni "all states of society, from the merest bar-
barism to the highest civilization, as having its advantages and dis-
advantages, its virtues and its vices, and that, in fact, there is no
natural advantage possessed by one over the other; in all, vice does
and must exist, — in all, virtue is attainable hy those who seek it;
there is no state in which it is not in man's ])ower to inijirove his
condition: none in which a neglect of what is right may not
render his jiosition intolerable." He regards evil as inevitable and
necessary, but that there is a full power of improvement. This
leads to the question, "What are we to do to extract all the possi-
ble good out of our present condition ?" Mr. Fergusson's answer
i.s, "Cultivate the sciences and the arts; no purer faith — no real and
permanent good can be effected, except from an improvement in
Knowledge; no higher or more elevated tone can be given on the
all-important subjects of morals or religion, except hy imparting a
higher degree of refinement, and a better appreciation of the
purely beautiful to the public mind. This last is — or at least,
should be — the true mission of art; and were art so cultivated and
based on knowledge, we should have higher aims and nobler pur-
poses than we now have, and we might be struggling forward
towards the Divinity, instead of grovelling in error, as we are now
doing."

In our present condition, the writer considers us as a mere money-
making, power-accumulating people — undignified by higher pur-
suits. If we remain so, the fate of Rome must be our's. He
points out the mass of idle wealth, seeking and finding its only
gratification in frivolity or sensuality; and a still more powerful
mass of want and misery festering at the base, and preying on the
vitals of society. It is upon the healthy mass that he relies for
redemption in the future.

The evil which Mr. Fergusson points out as the most prominent
is, not that usually selected, but which ought to be. "What is most
wanted, says he, is a better style of education for tlie u]i]ier
classes. It is in them that the great danger to society exists,
and from them the example must come, th;it will elevate the tone
of society." This is most true,and so is what follows. "At present
we have not an upper class capable of conceiving or creating, and
consequently, no lower class trained merely to exeoite ; but art
rests half way on a class combining both attributes, and who prac-
tice it only for its money-value as a trade, thinking and executing
themselves" ()>. 9.)

The system of education given to the higher classes the writer
considers particularly to blame; but we think he does not suffi-
ciently «cigh the influence of tireek and Latin grammar. They
may form "a distasteful and treadmill system," but those very
properties constitute their essential worth in education, as a con-
venient mode of training. Their use, howevei, is one thing, and
their abuse another; and it would be as wrong to throw them
aside, as it is now to take them up as a panacea. It is no less a
mistake to teach the wrong things at the wrong time; in boyhood,
strict tochniciil training strengthens the miml, and notliing can
be more fatal than (jvcrtaxing the imagination or the reason. In
manhood, it is as great a waste to train the lower faculties and
neglect the higher. While we would strongly upludd what are
called tlie (dassics in the lower schools, so would we keep them
down in the higher schools, and give the time now devoted to
them to the mathanietical and practical sciences; to natural history,
the fine arts, literature, and political science. "Useful knowledge"
might be brought into our universities with goo<l, instead of being
part of the cram of boys and girls' boarding-schools and mechanics'
lustitutions.

In coming to the important subject of classification in his in-
troduction, the writer alludes to the failure of Bacon in the clas-
sification which he has set forth in his treatise "De Augmento
Scientiarum" (p. 17.) and we agree with him that it was not because
science was not enough advanced, but because, though Bac<in's great
merit was his contempt for the philosophy of the tireeks, he could
not throw off, in mental science as in physical science, the dominion
of Aristotle. To late systems of classification attaches the evil,
that they want to chain down creation to lines and s(|uares and
circles, which have no place there. To Whewell, Mr. Fergusson
makes the objection of Hellenism, and he candidly proposes one
of his own as an outline to be filled up.

The first step taken by Mr. Fergusson is the division into two
great natural classes of sciences and of arts; the former being a
knowledge of all that creation does without man's intervention;
the latter, a knowledge of all those modifications which man works
on nature's productions.

Mr. Fergusson, like most of his school, and as opposed to the mor-
pliologists and sectarians, has a great dislike to metaphysicians, and
he says that the mistake of former classifiers has been classifying
according to some metaphysical idea of how it is perceived and
learned by man (p. 23.) lie asserts that the fundamental idea of
a science is its total independence of man, eitlier directly or indi-
rectly, and instances botany. "If man had never been, or were to-
morrow blotted-out from creation, would not the forests remain,
and the 'small flower lay its fairy gem beneath the shadow of the
giant tree.-"' AV^ould not every natural production of the vegetable
kingdom, and every phenomenon, remain identically the same,
whether man observed them or not? All that man can do is to
observe and try to understand; but he cannot alter one jot or
tittle."

If we superinduce a change in the natural appearance of plants,
and increase the size of their roots or flowers, this belongs to the
province of the arts — agriculture, horticulture, or floriculture.

This seems to us a good distinction, but Mr. Fergusson has not
supported it so fully as he might have done. Had he done so
rightly, he would have saved himself from representing the divi-
sion of labour and progress as the emblems of mind in distin-
guishing man from other classes of organised beings (p. 64.) Tlie
great distinction is the subordinate creative power, or voluntary
power of modifying the forms of creation. No other animal has
this power or exercises it, and it is the true means of progress.
The acknowledgment of this power at once establishes the
justice of Mr. Fergusson's two great divisions — physics, or a know-
ledge of nature; anthropics, or a knowledge of nature as modified
by man.

Before these, he places those sciences which are universal in
their relation, and concern equally physics and anthropics. These
he names Universal Sciences.

The Universal Sciences (A) are classified into Theology or a
knowledge of God, and Somatology or a knowledge of the laws
relating to bodies. Here is a singular defect; for our writer has
given no proper place to his own sciences of Biology, Ontology, and
Psychology, whicli may be named Pneumatology. His classifica-
tion of Somatology is not carried out on his own princijiles. If
termed I'oemology, it tlien includes the whole range of creation.
Atoms or particles are considered as in space, under the relations
of number and form; and in lime, under those of rcxt and mutiuii
(p. 35.) Poemology includes, therefore. Universal Mathematics
and Mechanics, in their relations of arithmetic and algebra;
geometry and analysis; statics and dynamics. It may, however, be
questioned, whether there is such a condition as rest in nature
(p. 35); and what is called statics, really considers a point or unit
in motion (p. 37); dynamics, continued motion. Arithmetic and
geometry, when considered in relation to numbers and bodies in
motion, or as here called in the condition of time, belong to a
higher range of science than when limited to fixed numbers and
forms. So far as nund)ers, rest, and motion, are concerned, these
must apply to what we have called Pneumatology; the laws of
which have been little investigated (p. 2().) The apjilication of
mathematics and mechanics to creation, constitutes the applied
sciences under head (A), as ojitics, perspective, hydrostatics, hydro-
dynamics, electro-statics, and dynamics, &c.; some of which, Mr.
Fergusson has arranged among the i)ure sciences. The forces ex-
erted by vegetable or animal life, the combined influence of vit:.l
dynamics and physical dynamics, and the combination of these again
w'ith mental forces, call for a systematic study which they have
not yet received. So linig as our mathematics and mechanics are
those of matter only, the highest branches of their ajiplications
remain untouched, aiid the political sciences must be arbitrary in
their principles and details. That a great deal is to be safely

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

21

done, is shown by the process which lias been made in vital
statistics; but what is to he done, must be done inductively.
Takings the operation of moral laws as an example, it is quite as
competent to give the statistics of the evils which have followed
on their infraction, as it is to chronicle the result of physical
disease. We may sketch out general laws, but the men of the
liresent age require the evidence of facts. Here we may point
out that the movements or dynamics of phenomena or events of
what Whewell calls cntiistrophic laws, have never been carefully
considered. The doctrine of probabilities is an empiric mode
of escaping the investigation of facts, and the foundation of
a new science is to he laid by gatliering together, recording
and investigating, the phenomena known to us; the orbits and
and forms of the planets and comets, their revolutions ; the periods
of earthquakes, volcanoes, meteors, electric storms, hurricanes,
famines, plagues; the forms of crystallization; the aggregation of
atoms; the catastrophes effecting human, animal, and vegetable life.
Whatever has been done in this, has been by laying down so-called
regular circles, ellipses, and lines,and by taking means which are not
recognised in creation. iNIr. Fergusson has shown (p. 32, 33, 69),
that there must be a mudi higlier arithmetic and geometry than
that we now possess; and it is only by the belief that we cannot
attain them, that we debar ourselves from their acquisition. If
we examine the history of mathematics, we shall find its higher
branches have all been consequent on the advancement of the
sciences of observation. A discovery in astronomy, in optics, or in
electro-magnetism, drives the mathematician to more advanced
and a more elaborate system of explanation. Had Galileo and
Kepler never observed, the need of a system of fluxions or a
calculus could scarcely have been felt. Progress in the observa-
tions we have enumerated, may thus be the initiative to an advance
in mathematics and meclianics, beyond that which Newton made on
those who went before him. At present, facts are attempted to be
explained by science as it is, or rather, w as; not to induce the
science as Newton did, so as to lead the way to further facts.
So little, indeed, is the teacliing of Bacon remembered, or the
example of Newton understood, that the few attempts which have
been made to follow in his path (as by Mr. Herapath, for instance),
have been decried — not on their own merits, but as acts of heiesy
and treason against time-honoured doctrines. What has been
taught before may be true; but that is no reason for not learning
more. Mr. Fergusson says (p. 29) "In nothing is man's conceit
more painfully apparent than in his dread lest he should know too
much, and thus learn to despise the Deity; his fear, lest the very
limited space and time he can grasp should equal or surpass
infinity or eternity; or, that the small modicum of knowledge
wbicli, from his formation, he can ever hope to attain, should
exceed omniscience."

In defining S(miatology, Mr. Fergusson considers the arrange-
ment of atoms, and states his belief that "all the observed phe-
nomena might be represented by some such hypothetical assump-
tion, as tliat all space is filled with definite atoms in a neutral
state, and, consequently, inappreciable by us, either directly or in-
directly; but that these, at the same time, may exist in two states,
wliich, for want of better terms, may be called negative and
positive states, or male and female (to borrow a somewhat distant
analogy). 7'hese may combine with one another — not like witli
like, but with their opposites, in certain definite proportions.
That these combined atoms or particles, again combined, accord-
to the same law, form chemical atoms; and these last combined
in certain proportions, which we know, form tlie sensible matter
of this globe." "I cannot help thinking," says tlie writer, "there
would be considerable advantage in representing our chemical
philosophy according to this simple theory; and I know it can
be done." So far as our investigations on the atomic proportions
have gone, we are inclined to the latter opinion. Tliis view of
antagonist principles or forces has been often put forward; it will
be found in the works of Mr. Rooke, of Akehead, and last, by Mr.
Hyde Clarke, in the Popular Atlas, already named, under the head
of Phenomena of the Universe, where it is extended by the as-
sertion tliat this antagonism is exerted in every phenomenon and
operation, preventing tlie repetition of the same movements or
forms. "The paths of tlie planets are in irregular-shaped ellipses,
because, according to physical laws, they cannot be circular, for in
nature a circle or a right line is not found, nor is the same shape
ever gone over again, w hich would be so if a perfect figure were
formed. In nature, tliere is always a contest between the opera-
tions of centricity and eccentricity." It is this assumption of an
individuality of creation in each object and operation of nature,
which is a prevailing doctrine throughout Mr. Fergusson's intro-
duction.

Mr. Hay has, we consider, done a great deal of good by his
investigations on form; but we cannot by any means agree in his
theories or his results in the limitation of forms. Mr. Joplin has
done much more to our mind, by showing the infinite vai ietv of
curves which may be produced. Mr. Fergusson, in the definition
of geometry, gives, we think, reasons against Mr. Hay, which tlie
inspection of the great room of the Society of Arts w ill confirm.
"W^e are in thehabit of call ingsquaresand circles, cubes and spheres,
and such like simple figures, perfect forms, and fancying that they
are more beautiful or more perfect than more complex ones; and, in-
deed, they are so to us, as they are the only ones we can comprehend.
But the amorphous* mass of granite is quite as perfect in nature's
eyes, and as complete and certain in all its forms and relations,
as a lens of glass or billiard hall (assuming them to he what thev
pretend to be), and more so; but the latter are so simple in their
outline tliat we can reason upon them. The other defies our
powers; but were our analysis sufficiently perfect to enable us to
master its complexity, we should arrive at a very different con-
clusion."

The Physical Sciences are included in Table 3 (p. 40 and 56)
which is only a sketch, and requires to be filled up and corrected.
Mr. Fergusson begins with the stars or Astronomy, and proceeds
to Etherology or the imponderables of the Uuivei-se (Light, Heat,
Electricity); Mineralogy, the substances of the globe (Air, Water,
Minerals); Botany, and Zoology; but though he afterwards es-
tablishes man as a separate class, Anthropology does not take its
proper place in his series.

Each of these great classes, the writer treats under the relations
of space and time, as in class B. Thus, under space in Zoology,
are ranged Chemistry, Anatomy, Physiologj', Ontology, Zoography,
and Geogra]ihy; under time, Palfeozoology, and History.

Chemistry becomes the doctrine of elements ; Anatomy shows
how these are put together; Physiology, how they work; Ontology
treats of the special law s of instinct or mind in animals; Zoograpliv
is the description of individuals; Geography, their relation to the
earth, — and we should suppose Mr. Fergusson means to the
uni\erse or Cosmograjihy. Palaeozoology treats of the changes
which took jilace in animals before the period of man, or man's ob-
servation; History, those wliich have taken place within his ob-
servation. t)n Mr. Fergusson's principles, the laws of design
relating to these classes of animals should be eliminated; but
unless they are included under Physiology (p. 52) or Geography,
we do not see that Mr. Fergusson has provided for them.

The following is a development of ]Mr. Fergusson's system of
classification on his ow n jirinciples, but which he has left incom-
plete, it will be seen how many of these sciences are at present
uncultivated and undevelojied.

Physical Sciences. (B)

ASTRONOMY.

Cliemistry

Somatology

Cosmorgics

ETHEROLOGY.

Cheniistry

Etherology

Etherorgics

MINERALOGY.

Chemisiry
Clirystallography (?)
Geoigics (?)

Astrogra|ihy
Cosmography
Cosmogony
History

BOTANY.

Chemistry

Anatomy

Physiology

Etherography
Cosmography
Geology (?)
History

ZOOLOGY.

Clu'riiistry
Anatomy
Physiology
Ontology

Morphology
Cosmography
Geology
History

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Chemistry

Anatomy

Physiology

Ontology

Psychology

Ethnography

Cosmography

Palaeoethnography

History

Pliytography Zoography

Cosmography Cosmography

Palseophy tography I'alaenzor graphy

History History

In reviewing tlie state of Astronomy, Mr. Fergusson points out
that it is at present most limited; and it maybe added, that on his
principles it is to be much extended. The assumption of spheroidal
forms and elliptical paths, acted upon by a simple and continuous
force, may be convenient in a rudimentary state of science, but he
requires the investigation, not of theoretical, but of exact forms
and orbits, and of the laws of design; under which the impress of
form and motion have been communicated. Hitherto, astronomy
has been within the range of Soniatological mathematics only;
and Mr. Fergusson claims it for universal mathematics, in whicli
the laws of mind shall he investigated as well as those of matter.

* Mr. Fcrgusaun means amorphous ia the ordinary ienac attached to ** form.*'

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

Etherology estaWislies the connection between this plobe and
the universe. Liu;ht, we know not to be confined to the sohir
system; heat, we may ))resume not to be so; and electricity has
liiost probably a universal range. Of these imponderables, we
know verj' little. Mr. Ferffusson is opposed to the view that all
the imponderables are only diflFerent forms of one substance or
power, except, of course, in the sense in which he has spoken of
atoms; and he thinks that the contrary view is much more philo-
sophical, and Mill lead to more satisfactory results. He holds
that it does not follow, because electricity, mafrnetism, galvanism,
light, colour, sound, heat, aiul actinism, jierform certain functions
in common, or are governed by similar laws, "that they are one,
or one genus, more than it follows because all quadrupeds walk
on four legs, that they are of tlie same genera and species. On
the contrary, by carefully marking every distinction, and classing
apart every form which is not in all things identical with any
other, we are more likely to distinguish their true characters and
true relati<ms, than by slurring them over to produce a superficial
similarity." ^Ve cannot but agree in this view.

Of the laws which influence the imponderables connected with
the globe, scarcely a trace is known. The investigation of mag-
netic tides and waves forms but a spot in the wide field of study,
which is open.

Mr. Fergusson contends that minerals are absolutely inert, and
calls for the ap))lication of a physiology to them. He might have
said more on this head, and the application of a physiology to
astronomy and etherology. We take a bladder of air, a jar of
water, or a bunch from a mineral vein, and we treat them as inert.
^Ve might as well draw the same conclusion from other specimens
in our museums — from the joint of a reed, for instance, or the
broken limb of an animal. The organization of the globe must be
a conse(pience of the general law of design, and we trace evidences
of it in the flow of the tides, the movements of the atmosphere,
the waves and poles of magnetism, the electric currents of mine-
ral veins, the outbursts of volcanoes, and the shocks of earth-
quakes. These are as strong evidences of the organization of the
whole globe, as we can find in the organization of any plant or
animal. Whether this organization was in a higher state formerly
is another question, as is what are its laws of movement. They
may vary as those of the organization of an animal. Neither is
the organization of the solar system, when properly viewed, less
eflicient. Numerous large and small planets, comets, and meteors,
in constant motion, constitute an aggregate of movements and
forces as various as those of the animal kingdom.

The views we have here expressed will be a sufficient comment
on Mr. Fergusson's next subjects of Botany and Zoology, and they
will apjily with full force to the consideration of Ontology.

fTo be continued.J

Tlif Young Survei/or's Preceptor.
London: J. Basevi, 1849.

By John Reid, Surveyor.

This, a volume which we have much pleasure in announcing, is
really a practicable work, and is what its title states, "a clear and
comprehensive analysis of the art of architectural mensuration."
The author takes each trade separately : he first gives the specifi-
cation of the works to be done, and then offers some remarks for
the guidance of the student in taking dimensions, which are very
similar to those given for many years in " Laxton's Builders' Price
Book ;" but in i\Ir. Reid's book they are given in a collected form,
and are more extended. After these instructions, he states the
dimensions, as taken by the most experienced surveyors; next, a
copy of the abstract, and finally the bill of (piantities, monied
out ; all of which are \ery j)laiiily and accm'ately set f(U'th, and in
.such a manner as to make the work clearly understood by any one
who has had a little practice in a sur\eyor's or builder's office.
The book contains the whole of the Dimensions, Abstracts, Bills
of Quantities, monied out, and a set of twelve drawings of the
])lans, sections, elevations, and working details of a first-rate
dwelling, in conformity with the Metropolitan Buildings Act.

At the conclusion of the work there is a glossary of technical
terms used in each branch of the building business, which, how-
ever, is not so comprehensive as it ought to be; and to render
a glossary complete, it ought to be accompanied with illustra-
tions.

There is one observation in which we must differ from Mr.
lleid — that is, in recommending the dimensions in all cases to be
entered with tlie description in full. This appears to us quite un-
necessary. Many of the abbreviations used by experienced sur-

veyors are so comprehensive, that with a little explanation to the
student, tliey could not be misunderstood; fur instance, take tlie
plasterer— instead of writing " Render, float, and set," or " Lath
plaster, float, and set," any surveyor would understand the book if
they were entered, R. F. S. ; L. P. F. S. : and again, in the joiner
— instead of writing "iJ-inch deal four panel, bead flush and
square door," it might be entered as "I'^-dl. 4 P., B. F. \- Sq. door."
In conclusion, we recommend Mr. Reid to publish the plans
separately, for the use of students who wish to practice.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE "CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL."

Sir — I beg you will accept my thanks for pointing out an error in the
example at page 205 of my work on Mechanics. The blunder, however, is
only in a single letter: if for ton you put tun everywhere except in the last
line, all is right — reckoning 216 gallons to the tun, which is the old mea-
sure.

There are two typographical errors in your paper that are not in the book .
In the last line but one iii the solution, for 778,584 ; 83-04, read 77858483-01.
In the last line, for 463,180,11-5367, read 46318011-53G7.

If you will insert tliis in your next number, you will much oblige

Yours obediently,
King's College, James Hann.

Decemler 16, 1818.

REGISTER OF NE-W PATENTS.

MANUFACTURE OF TUBES.

William Taylor, of Birmingham, machinist, for "o?j improivd
mode of tiiriiiiif/ up or beudiugflat plates of malleable metals or mix-
tures of metals by aid of mtichinery into the form of tubes." — Granted
May 18; Enrolled November 18, 1848.

The plates of metal to be formed into tubes are to be first rolled
of suitable length, breadth, and thickness ; the plate being either
feather-edged or not, according as the tubes are intended to be
jointed. The diagram represents a transverse section of the ma-

chine, showing the mode by which the plate receives its first curva-
ture. The plate of metal is laid flatways upon a long, narrow iron
bed b, which has a semi-cylindrical concave groove formed in its
upper surface, along the middle of its breadth, and extending all
its length from end to end. The coiu-avity of the groove is made
to fit the exterior circumference of the intended tube. The
grooved bed is made to slide successively in the framework in the
direction of its length, — firstly, under a revolving convex roller,
G, which presses down the middle part of the width of the plate
into part of the depth of the concave groove, and thereby causes
the edges to turn up into angular directions, and the plate to
assume the form of a shallow trough or concave gutter ; secondly,
under another conve.x ndler, which presses down completely the
plate into the groove, and gives it the form of a deep trough or
gutter, witli semi-cylindrical bottom and nearly upright sides.
On passing from beneath this roller, the plate slides over the bulb
of a fixed mandril, and, at the same time, between a pair of rollers,
the circumferences of which nearly meet, and have axes inclined
from vertical positions in contrary directions to one another. The
edges of these rollers are conical, but concave to a quadrant of a
circle of the same size as that of the groove in the bed, so as to

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

28

leave a semicircular aperture between their conical and concave
circumferences corresponding to the groove. The effect of these
rollers is to bend the edges of the already bent plate in towards
each other, and down upon the mandril. The plate then slides,
with the mandril inside, under another revolving grooved roller,
which completes the bending down of the edges, and renders it
more effectual and permanent, and the tube is thereby completed.
The seam may be closed by the means usually employed.

The tubes may be made oval or polygonal by forming the groove,
the concavities, and conve.xities of the rollers to suit the required
shape.

BOOMERANG PROPELLER.

Moses Poole, of the Patent Office, London, gentleman, for
'■'■ improremetits in propelling vessels." (Communicated from Lieut.-
Colonel Sir T. Levingston Mitchell.) — Granted May 2(i ; En-
rolled November 35, 1848.

This propeller is called by its inventor the " Boomerang propel-
ler," from its action being supposed to be similar to that of the
boomerang, a wooden missile used by the natives of New Zealand.
On observing the motion of the boomerang in the air, whirling
round a hollow centre and leaving a vacant centre of gravity, it
occurred to Lieut-Col. Mitchell that its centre of motion would
be found to be on a right line, which wo\ild divide the boomerang
into tliree portions, in such manner as that the eccentric portions
should equal the central one ; and this he subsequently proved to
be the case. The bearing of the boomerang propeller, in which
the rotary shaft fits, is consequently to be placed in this newly-
discovered centre of motion, and suitably attached. The advan-
tages of this form of propeller are stated to consist in itS working
in the water obliquely to the radius of rotary motion, and being
free from lateral pressure.

The form of this propeller and its centre of motion are shown
in the annexed diagram, A being the shaft on which it revolves,
and B the propeller blade.

PREVENTION OF SMOKY CHIMNEYS.

Sir Henry Hart, Commissioner of Greenwich Hospital, Rear-
Admiral R.N., for ^'■improvements in apparatus for preventing what
are called smoky chimneys." — Granted June 13 ; Enrolled December
13, 1848.

The claim of the patentee of this invention is for the employ-
ment of wheels made to rotate by the wind, so as to withdraw tlie
air from the cliimney or flue, and brought into position by means
of an arrow or vane. The patentee represents three modes of
applying his invention. One consists in placing a fan-wheel par-
tially within the revolving part of the top of the chimney; so that
a current of air may act upon the fans which project above it, and
thereby create a draft. Another, in c\itting away a portion of the
top part of the chimney, and placing the fan-wheel therein, taking
care however to leave a portion of the fans exposed to the action
of the wind. A third, in placing the fan-wheel within the side of
the chimney fronting the wind, and covering the top fans with a
shield, so that tlie air may act upon the bottom ones, and drive the
smoke up the chimney.

STEAM-BOILERS.

William Seaton, of Camden-town, Middlesex, gentleman, for
" improvements in closing tubes, and in preventing and removing in-
crustation of boilers. — Granted May 30 ; Enrolled November 30,
1848.

The first part of this invention consists in a method of closing
the ends of the tubes of steam-boilers, by contracting the metal
into a hemispherical form. When the tubes are of iron they are
heated to a welding heat, and placed on a vertical mandril, with
the end to be closed projecting slightly bej'ond it, and submitted
to the action of a suitably-formed die under pressure. When the
tubes are of copper, or of any alloy of that metal, they are sub-
mitted to the same process, with the exception of heating ; and as
the end cannot be perfectly closed, a small hole is left or made in
it, which is afterwards closed by a rivet of the same metal, in the
usual way.

The second pai't of the invention consists in removing and pre-
venting incrustation in steam-boilers, by precipitating the lime
(of which the incrustations are generally formed), by oxalic acid,
or carbonate of potash, or carbonate of soda, or other chemical
agents, in a tank, and filtering it through charcoal and sand. Or,
in employing chemical agents, such as nitric, muriatic, or acetic
acid, «S;c., to hold the lime in solution, and enable it to be blown
off from time to time. Or, in using in the steam-boiler or gene-
rator, sawdust or charcoal, w hich by its mechanical action prevents
the formation of deposits. ^Vhen operating on salt water, salt,
soda, or saltwort is used. The relative quantities of the chemical
agents to be employed, are to be determined by a previous analysis
of the water ; and to remove any incrustation which may have
been previously formed, an excess of the chemical agent employed
must be used.

GAS APPARATUS.

Richard Barnes, of Wigan, Lancashire, gas-engineer, for "cer-
tain improved apparatus for manufacturing gas for illumination; part
of which improvements is applicable to retorts for distilling pyrnligneous
acid, and other similar purposes" — Granted June (J; Enrolled De-
cember 6, 1848.

This apparatus is intended for the manufacture of gas in a small
way. The stove is built of fire-brick, with openings in the front
or side, but without grate or bars. The retort is suspended in the
stove by its flanges, which rest upon horizontal iron supports let
into the brickwork, and to which is attached a circular iron plate,
standing upwards. The cover is formed with two rims, one within
the other. The inside one takes into a groove formed by the pro-
jection of the retort above the flanges and the circular iron plate,
while the outside rim dips into another groove, filled with water,
and supported from the brickwork of the stove. The circular iron
plate passes up between these two rims, so as to intercept the ra-
diation of heat from the inside one, and consequently to prevent
the evaporation of the water which is contained in the groove in
which the outside rim dips. The tar, &c., which drips from the
cover between the projection of the retort and the inside rim,
together with the water-joint, prevent the escape of gas into the
atmosphere.

Inside the retort is the cradle for holding the coal from which
the gas is to be evolved. The gas passes from the retort, through
a pipe fitted into the cover, into the refrigerator, the hydraulic
main, the condenser, the wash vessel, the puiifier, and lastly into
tlie gasometer. Tlie gasometer contains the purifier, the advan-
tage of which arrangement is, that the gas is constantly exposed
to the action of the lime. The gas, as it is evolved, passes through
the apparatus into the gasometer: and when the coal is exhausted,
the cradle is taken out, and placed in an extinguisher, so con-
structed as to prevent the admission of air to the coke, and also
the escape of noxious vapours from it.

The patentee claims the constructing the stove with openings in
front or in the sides, but without grate or bars, and in closing the
mouth of the retorts used in the manufacture of coal gas, or py-
roligneous acid, or other similar purposes, by a cover made gas-
tight by a water-joint. Also, the peculiar construction and gene-
ral arrangement of refrigerator, condenser, wash vessel, purifier,
and gasometer, as described.

24

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

£Jani:aey,

OSCILLATING STEAM ENGINE.*

RicHARn Want arul George Vernum, of Enfield, Middlesex,
engineers, fur " an unproved steam-engine, which may also be worked
hy air and other JIti ids"— Gr^nteil Juno 10; Enrolled December 10,
1848. [Reported in the Mechanics Magazine.~\

The disting^uishing feature between this invention and the oscil-
lating; eiif^ines hitherto made, consists in their having the point of
oscillation at the bottom instead of in the centre of the cylinders,
hy which arrangement the piston-rjd makes a much less angle with
the crank-shaft. The engraving, fig. 1, represents a side eleva-
tion, and fig. 2 a front elevation, of a double-cylinder high-
pressure engine made on this principle. A A is the framework ;
B B are two vertical cylinders wliicli oscillate on a hollow trans-
verse bearing, or trunnion, U, with which they communicate at
bottom. B' B' are the piston-rods, which are attached at top to
the crank sliaft, C. Tlie cranks are jjlaced at right angles to each
other, so that the piston of one cylinder may be passing through
the most eftective portion of its stroke wliile the other is at its
dead point. The hollow transverse bearing D, is divided into two
sets of passages, and F, a six-way cock, occupies the centre of the
liearing, through wliicli steam may be admitted from the pipe G,
which communicates directly with the boiler, into either of the
sets of passages. The passages are so arranged in connection
with the six-way cock, as to admit the steam into the cylinders,
and to permit it to escape at the proper times ; the wliole of the
pipes for supply and eduction being introduced through the hollow
trunnion. In the single-cylinder engines, and in the locomotive
engines constructed on this principle, some alterations are made,
to adapt tliem to their different circumstances ; but in tlie main
principle of the invention they are alike.

The patentees claim the manner in vvhicli the cylinders are cen-
tred on and communicate witli the liollow trunnion, and the mode
in which that trunnion is constructed internally.

* By reference to the " Civil Engineer and Arcliitect's Journal," vol. vii., 1S4''J. Pl'tte
IV.,ttieie will be seen described tlie same description of engine, invented by iM. Legen-
ilre, and exhibited at the Kxposition in Paris, In 18-14.

SAWING MACHINE.

Thomas Hunt Barber, of King-street, Cheapside, London, for
" improvements in mactiinery for sawing wood." (A communication.)
— Granted June 1 ; Enrolled December 1, 18i8.

The specification of this invention became due only a week
before the trial involving the validity of Mr. Junius Smith's patent
for a similar machine, which occupied tlie Court of t^ueen's Bench
six days ; and it would appear as if tlie principal object of tliis in-
vention were to supply the omissions in tlie former, which caused
the verdict to be given against the patentee. The objects of Mr.
Barber's invention are to provide, in tlie first place, fur supporting
timber otherwise than at tlie end, wliile being cut at the various
bevels which may be required. Secondly, he claims certain addi-
tions in the chucks, or apparatus for holding timber while being-
sawn. Thirdly, a means of giving the log the necessary turning
motion, in order to facilitate the cutting or siding to the desired
bevels. Fourthly, improvements in the gates or frames for hold-
ing the saws in the macliiue. Fifthly, improvements in the means
of moving the bevelling bar, or apparatus for governing the bevels
to be cut. Sixthly, a means of giving stability to the head-block,
or apparatus for holding a log when being secured ; and lastly, im-
provements in the apparatus for indicating the directions and
bevels of the cuts in the timber.

With regard to the support for the timber, it consists of a roller
placed transversely immediately under the log near the saw frames.
This roller is of small diameter, but of sufficient length to receive
a log in any portion of the width of the machine, and is supported
at each end by pivots in a swing frame, supported on a journal in
the centre of the machine. The journal, which forms a point of
oscillation, is carried by an upright, moving in a vertical guide ;
and is supported on tlie end of a lever, by which it is either raised
or depressed to suit the size of the log. This is eft'ected by tha
other end of the lever being raised or lowered by a chain wound
on a barrel, the spindle of which is furnished with a screw-wheel
gearing into an endless screw, actuated by a suitable hand-wheel
The supporting roller being free to oscillate on the central ful-
crum, it adapts itself, at a suitable angle, to the inclined position
of the log when turned. From the method adopted for supporting

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

25

the log in the chucks, by tliis movement, the log is thrown out of
the centre to counterbalance wliich, tlie under-side of tlje roller-
frame carries two weights, one at either end, which slide on arms or
from the fulcrum; tlie distance being regulated to suit the position
of the log, when being cut.

The chuck for holding the timber, consists of a vertical plate,
pendant from a shaft, wliich oscillates in suitable Ijearings; the
lower end of the plate projecting at right angles, and forming: a
table on which the wood rests. The improvement consists in the
addition of a claw, hinged at the upper part, which is brought
down and driven into the wood.

For the purpose of giving tlie necessary inclination to the log
to cut a bevel, the patentee employs a bevelling-bar, secured to
the chuck at the lower end. The upper part being hinged to a
nut, works on a transverse screw over the top of the machine;
but, as the distance between tliis nut and the chuck, will vary ac-
cording to the inclination given, the bevelling-bar is therefore
made in two pieces, the one to slide on the other, for the purpose
of elongating or contracting as required.

The improvements in the saw frames consist in applying a double
frame within the same gate or outer frame; these saw frames are
one within tlie other, and admit of giving a separate motion and
adjustment to the saws. The improved means of giving stability
to the head Idock consists in the adaptation of a central rail, on
whicli the table part of the chuck slides during the operation of
sawing; it has also the addition of a right-angled piece at the
back part of the chuck-plate, which also slides on this rail.

The apparatus for indicating the bevels being cut, consists of a
plumb line, whicli hangs from the apparatus at the upper part of
the bevelling-bar; this is immediately in front of a graduated
index, showing the number of dettrees from the centre, or zero,
which is the horizontal position of the log. This line is readily
moved to suit the position of the log when first placed in the
machine.

WATER SUPPLY FOR PLYMOUTH.

Mr Beardmore has recently issued a report in the form of a
letter addressed to Lord Ebrington, on improving the supply of
water to the important towns of Plymouth, Devonport, and Stone-
house : the three may be considered as one large town. He first
investigates the present supply, and shows that the mode by which
it is now obtained is most objectionable ; and then explains, very
successfully, how it may be vastly improved. "With regard to that
part of the report which describes the way the water is to be col-
lected in the reservoir, we have one alteration to suggest ; that is,
instead of making the one at Torr both a settling and distrihutiny
reservoir, we recommend that it be used only for the latter purpose ;
and that the intermediate reservoir should be made larger, so as to
allow the water there to deposit its solid particles, and become
perfectly pellucid before it goes into tlie Torr reservoir. With
these few obs ervations, we shall proceed to give some extracts from
the report : —

The waler is to be taken from the River Plym or Mew, at a weir two
miles above Meavy, and runs in an open winding leaf, 18 miles in length,
until it arrives at I'lynionih, v here part of it falls into two small reser-
voirs, about 135 feet ahove high-water, from which the distributions are
made; hut at this point, a diverging branch carries about two thirds of
Ihe entire quantity brought into Plymouth, into a miil-rourse, which suc-
cessively works ^everal mills on its passage to the tide at IViillbay.

The evil of this to tlie public health is not, pei'hrips, a' present great,
until the water arrives at the lower part of the lowu; here, for about
halfa-mile, it is ponJed up for working a mill situate at the poiut where
it falls into the tide at JliilbdV.

My first proposition is, that the (ntire water-power on the leat-eourse
through Plymouth, and the profit arisiny from it, should be abandoned, so
that tlie whole water entering Plymouth could be diverted to domestic use,
public and trade purposes, surface and sewer cleansing, and for streH water'
ing in dry weather.. .. I apprehend that the utmost obstacle to the exlinc-
tion of water-mill power, would be the purchase of the leases. Assuming
the available fall to be about 50 feet, and the supply 10 cubic feet per
seconil, which is very much bejoiul what the miller can ever obtain, the
power is equal to -83 horsepower per foot of fall, or 50 X 'H3 = 4lo
horse-power Hi foto, which, if valued as sieiim-po«er to be extinguished
in 16 jears, would represent a loss to the curporaliou of oSOZ. per annum,
or 14/. per horse.

A most imporiant niaiter of economy is in the use which can be made
of water for street cleansing and summer watering. The general streets
of Plymouth are well paved for cleansing by hose, and the cost of placing
additional stand-pipes or valves, required as they are for other purposes,
becomes a mere trilie. At a small expense, stand pipes, or a few more

fire-plugs than now exist, should he placed so that a range of hose from
100 to 200 feet in length can be attached, at least once a day, for the pur-
pose of washing and waiering. One man, with the head of water avail-
able, and the general rapid fall of the streets, coidd wash thoroughly
10,000 square yards per diem, or, at an average of S yards wide, a leuixlh
of 1.250 yards, or two-thirds of a mile of street, per diem. Now, in efti-
cieut sweeping by hiind, one man can cleanse not mure thau 800 square
yards, or 100 yards lojeal at S ynrds wide. If the sweeping cart be used,
tlie compaiisou is not so good, bnl waiering then becomes an advantage, as
it enables the machine to work more edicieully, especially on macadamised
roads.

Wilh the astounding number of persons living in single rooms in
Pl\ mouth, there should be a svslematic arrangemeut for a vertical pipe,
with branches to the diilerent tluois of houses let <)ir in rooms, like the
plan of supply up the coninion stairs of the flats of Edinburgh and Glas-
gow, where, of course, each tenant is i barged a separate water rent.
Now a charg-- of ihree shillings per annum, allowing a deduction of 25 per
cent, for pay ment by the landlord, would at once bring accession of revenue
to a large amount, and be au incalculable boon to tlie poorer community.
An olijection may be taken to Ihe apparent expense of this arrangement ;
but if galvanised wrought-iron were used for the vertical pipes, it would
be small. If a service were combined with a sink and waste-pipe for
each floor, the cost would be thus —

£ s. d.
Thirty feet of vertical iron pipe at yd. lixed, including 3 branches I 0 0

Three iiipes and taps 0 10 6

Three sinks ol sh\te, to be erectcl in staircase angle I 4 0

Waste-pipe (stack pipe available) 0 15 0

Cost per house with three floors £3 il fi

This would he a charge upon the landlord, including inlerest and re-
pa>meot of first expendilure \l. 3«. per floor, or per service; or
assuming two rooms let off per floor, having the joint use, his weekly
loss would be ^ of a penny per tenant, which would be fully made
up by the increased convenience of the lodging, as a merely volun-
tary question. If compulsory service of water be put into force, houses
let out in rooms or floors ought to be treated as separate tenements, and
charged at cottage rates ; a measure of this kind would save the poor
laliour. remove bad habits, and promote cleanliness in every way. The
effect of obtaining small tenants is always beneficial to the revenue ; more
water is paid for, and cmteris paribus, little more is taken, as the poor must
have water to some extent.

The charge lor houses under 6/. per annum rack rent, is fixed by Act of
Parliament for Edinburgh and Leilh at 'is. if paid by the Undlord, or is.
if paid by the tenant. Out of 25,410 houses supplied in the whole dis-
trict, 11,519 houses (floors or single rooms in fai't)are supplied at this low
rate. In (ilasgow the average rales for domestic purposes in 1843 were
V>s. Id. per renter— a striking proof of the advantage of selling waler for
trade purposes.

The subject of Hre is one that will he immediately responded to, as it is
not many niou'hs since the lamentable destruction of life in the lower
part of Plymouth, when there was delay in procuring the tire-engines.

An instrument used at Leeds, is so simple, and has so entirely removed
the necessity of fire-engines, that it is worlhy of descriptitiu as an excel-
lent example for the surveyor of the borough, for it might easily be at
once adopted for the lower and thicklj-inliabited parts of Plymouth,
where the mains are constantly charged with sufficient pressure for the
purpose. A light-built tumbrel or hand-cart is kept at various stations,
wilh a hose coiled rountl a reel ou ils axle, carrying, likewise, a copper
stand-pipe with two diverging branches.* On alarm of tire, one man caa
run with this, stop at the nearest tire-plug, run it out, and attach the hose
to the nozzle of the stand-pipe, wliidi he iiumedialely introduces into the
fire-plug seat, and by a few turns of the apparatus, the waler is let into
the hose and at full play on Ihe site of danger. There is, likewise, no
reason why the arrangement for tire-cocks should not be the same as that
required for washing and waiering streets, but with less expensive hose,
and this might obviously vary to suit locality, water-mains, iXc.

i\Ir. Beardmore next proceetls to exi>lain the two questions of quality
and height of supply, and successfully shows that Ihe delicious and
springlike quality of the water, as taken from the Mountain Plym at
Meavy, might be delivered, with a head of 275 feet above high-water, in
lieu of the present pressure of 135 feet, and placed in a reiervoir, at this
height, in such manner that the entire course froui Knai kerskuowle to
Plymouth, should be no longer used for the co.'ivejauce of the towu sup-
plies ; thereby avoiding about five miles of circuitous and sidelong course
through pasture fields, for three-fourths of the distance, where, with Ihe
utmost care, it will and must receive a vast quantity of drainage of au un-
pleasant character, if of no further detriment.

Mr. Beardmore j^roposes to take the leal into a culvert beloto JVidf-g Mill,
and carrying the water thence by apipe across the Manadon Valley, would de-
lioer it into a large distributing reservoir, at an excellent site on ihe elevated

* [The best arrangement is a lire-cocli that shall always be ready, either for watering
the streets or in case of lire, u-ithout requirinij a -stanu-pipe The Edimr hasiectfllly
had a coctc made lor the Falmouth Waterworks, by lilessrs. I^aml'ert and Souii.— The ar-
rangement consists of a li-incll diiij.hragni patent cock made in iron, with a biiyonet joint
to receive the brass swivel of ihe hose-pipe, a cast-iron case and cover, and a flange elbow
to attach to a2-iiich branch fiom the main. The whole cost is only 32d.— Kd. C.E. St A.
Jouruai].

26

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

ground in f roil I of Torr-house. This pusition is cnmmanding and centri-
oally situate, not only for Plymoutli, but for Devonpor/ anJ S/onehonse.
The reservoir could be made at moderate expense to hold six days' supply
for the entire population of the three towns, with an increase of 50 per
cent, or say 159,000 people, supposing that the large quantity of 30 gal-
lons per head per diem be required ; it would be 2T5 feet above high-
water, a heigiit sndicient lo give full fire engine Dower, at the most elevated
point in Plymouth or the neighbourhood, including the high quarter round
Lipson-terrace, which is now quite ^bove all water supply.

Tije available supply is proposed to be taken fr<jm a water-shed district,
under tlie control of the Corporalion of I'lymouth, and contains about
5.000 acres. The minimum rain-fall. taken at 42 inches per annum on
5,000 acres, is 702,300,000 cubic feel per annum, representing an
average of 1.450 cubic feel per ininule. flowing oil the ground To make
this available for supplying l'lyni>'Ulb, we may assume that one-third
would unavoidably run to waste, which would leave a stream of 900
cubic feet per minute. If so much as 200 feet was let down for the mills
on the I'lym, — below the Head Weir, there would be 700 cubic feet per
minute, left for Plymouth.

Now the quantity of 30 gallons per head for 150,000 people will require
only GOO cubic feet per minute, consequently there would still be an ample
margin ; but this is only to be secured as a regular supply, by forming
a Slore Reservoir on the River Phjtn, — by walHng or embanking up the
narrow and picturesque gorge below Sheepstor-hridge ; this done, 40 to 50
acres of waier may be gathered with a depth of 20 to 25 feet ; the land
is inexpensive, and the dam would be of a trifling cost.

The foregoing outline of my plan has been described in a somewhat
retrograde form, so as to show the suggested improvements in the order
that they might be executed, and of their necessity. If fully carried out,
the purest water, in sufficient quantity, lo supply 150,000 people «'ith 30
gallons per head per diem, can be delivered into a settling and distributing
reservoir 275 feet above high-water, affording 00 feet of head to the highest
parts that can be built upon, and distant only two miles from the centres
of the towns of Plymouth, Devonport, and Slonehouse,

The total expense, of course, cannot be precisely stated from the general
plans only that have formed my study, nor is it my object lo give precise
estimates, because if thought worthy of notice, there is sufficient to show
the line of policy that should direct to the results iu view. On a general
calculation the cost would be as follows : —

For extending Services, Pipes, and Fire-plugs, &c. Hose- £ s. d.

reels, and Stand-pipes in Piymoutb, say 4,(100 0 0

For abandoning mills, purchasing leases. &c

For Great Distributing Reservoir at Torr I itinnrt o n

Fur Line of JIain from Torr to Plymoutti ! '°'''" " "

For Tanks and Pipes across Manadon Valley ^

Improving Leat Course 1,000 0 0

£20,000 0 II
For Store Reservoir on the River Plym, at Sheepstor-bridge 8.000 0 0

Total £28,0011 0 0

The report next proceeds to make some observations on the ad-
vantages tliat will arise from a surplus of water to the washing of
sewers, and how sewers might he formed in Plymouth ; and it con-
cludes hy showing the economy that might arise by amalgamating
the Plymouth works with those of Devonport and Stonehouse.

VULCANISED INDIA-RUBBER JOINTS FOR WATER
AND GAS PIPES.

From the Report of Thomas Wicksteeu, Esq., Engineer to ike East
London Waterworks, ^-c.

On the 29th of February last, Mr. liroikedon* called my attention to a
new method of making the joints of socket-pipes for water and gas. He
exhibited a spigot and socket-pipe made of glass of 2 inches bore, and upon
the spigot stretched a ring of vulcanised india-rubber, the external diameter
of the ring, when stretched, being greater than the internal diameter of the
socket into whicli it was to he introduced. In stretciiing the ring upon the
extreme end of the spigot, care was taken to avoid twisting it. He then,
with very great e.ise, iinshe.d the spigot, with the ring upon it, into the
socket, and the operation of making the joint was completed. When tlie
spigot, was puslicd into the socket, the ring rolled along the pipe until the
end of the spigot came home, tlie ring remaining fixed about tlie middle of
the depth of tl)e socket. If the ring bad been twisted it would nut have
rolled in regularly, and would Dot therefore have been equally compressed.

The facility with which the juint was made was very remarkable, the
wbole operation being completed in a minute, and in this respect the saving
of time and lalmur, as compared with that required for lead or wood joints,
is very considerable. >

Mr. Urockedpn wished me to try experiments upon this new joint, and
make such investigations as I might consider necessary to satisfy myself of
its -value with a^view lo its general introduction. This I have done, and the
rwurt i& v^y flsvotj'ia)jla, \

+

* Of Ihe firm of Ulessrs. Mackintosh and Co.

The facts to be ascertained were, the durability of the material as
compared with materials usually employed, its cnpability of resisting pres-
sure, and the cost of making the joint, all equally important in a commer-
cial point of view.

First. As regards its dnrability. I consider it a question that should be
determined by chemists ; and the report of Mr. Arthur Aikin, given at the
end of this report, satisfied me of its superiority, in this respect, to lead or
wood ; and I believe practical experience, since the introduction of vul-
canised iurlia-rubher, fully corroborates these opinions. As, however, the
question of durability cannot be practically determined in a few years, and
as it is most important, in a commercial point of view, that the material
used for joints should be very <lurable ; so, the time since the introduction
of this material being comparatively shurt, I felt it was necessary to have
the opinions of those wlio were well qualified to give them upon the proba-
ble durability of the material, as compared with others now employed.
One fact is well worthy of notice, as regards the action of the products of
coal upon this material, especially as they appear to be the only liquids that
affect it. Naphtha, it appears, will dissolve simple or unvulcanised caout-
chouc, but only stvells it when vulcanised ; and thus the eifei:t, which for
some purposes would be injurious, for this purpose is advantageous, as the
effect of it is to make the joint tighter.

As a general principle, there can be no doubt that, ceeteris paribus, the
more elastic the material for a joint the better, as the friction of an elastic
body pressing against the pipes is much greater than that of an inelastic
body; and hence the resistance to pressure, or force exerted to displace it,
must be much greater. In a joint made with lead, the resistance to the
pressure is owing to the melted lead filling up any irregularities in the
surfaces of the spigot and socket, thus forming a key, and also to the com-
pression of the lead, effected in *' setting up." Now, this etfect does not
extend above a quarter of an inch beyond the external face of the joint,
and, therefore, it is most important that this operation should be carefully
performed. Great force is employed in " setting up ;" it is, therefore, neces-
sary to have the thickness of the sockets greater than the rest of the pipe,
to prevent its splitting during this operation. Again, in a wood joint, the
operation of driving in the wooden wedge causes it to be compressed; thus
the wedge which, before driving, is from ^ an inch to £tbs of an inch in
thickness, is compressed to the thickness of gths of an inch when in its
place, this compressed part being about 1 inch in depth of the socket. Now,
in this operation, although the wedge may he driven in so tight that neither
air nor water can pass through, and so far this cause of decay avoided,
nevertheless, the fibres of the wood are injured by the operation of driving,
and its elasticity consequently much impaired. In this case also it is neces-
sary to have the sockets made strong to resist the force applied in driving in
the wedges. With a body as elastic as the vulcanised india-rubber, how-
ever, such force is not necessary, the material cannot he forced or driven in
with a hammer, it is merely rolled in ; and the ring which, before compres-
sion, is round, when its place takes the form of a flat belt instead of a cir-
cular ring. Thus, supposing the thickness of a ring to be fths of an inch
diameter before compression, when rolled into the socket, with a space of
i of an inch between the spigot and socket, it becomes a belt of ^"^ x ^4 ;
or the depth of the belt is more than double its thickness; and this elastic
flat belt of rubber, which has naturally an excessive tendency to resist
sliding, is constantly endeavouring to resume its circular form, and hence
the great friction exerted on the sides of the pipes, while in this compressed
state.

[Here follows an account of seventeen different experiments made by Mr.
Wicksteed to test the efficiency of these joints.]

The time occupied in these trials has been above five months, and I am
now enabled to speak very confidently of the value of the new joints.

It appears that, for a 4-inch joint, the space between the spigot and socket
being -} of an inch all round, the vulcanised india-rubber ring should
weigh 14 ounce, and for a 12-inch ring; the space between the spigot and
socket being the same, viz., J of an inch, the weight of the ring should be
5} ounces.

Section of spigot-end of pipe.

A, end fillet or belt. B, upper fillet. C, section of vulcanised india.rubber ring.

The spigot and socket ends of pipes to suit the vulcanised india-rubber
rings should he formed as follows : — The depth of the socket for all pipes
up to 12 inches, which is the largest I have experimented upon, should be
3.i inches; the thickness of the joint or space between the outside of the
spigot and inside the socket, should be J of an inch. There will be no oc-

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

27

casion for extra strenglit in the sockets, as they are not exposed to any
blows or to the force of the wedge in making the joint, as in lead and wood
joints. The spiijot should have a square head or belt -nfths of an inch
thick, and ' an inch deep, cast on the end, then a clear space of 2i inches,
and then another helt of the same dimensions, as shown in the engraving.

This will allow a i)lay of tu*'' "' "" '■"''' ''" ■'"'"id, and the upper belt
will effectually prevent the joint hluwing out ; shouM there be any slight
deficieucy of thickness in the india-rubber ring, or should the ring be put
on the spigot carelessly, so as not to roll regularly ; this, however, can
scarcely ever happen, as the fillet at the end of the spigot will be a guide to
the workman, and very much facilitate the fixing of tbe ring properly.

I have calculated the weight and cost of 100 rings of various sizes, which
will be the number required for 300 yards of pipes, as follows : —

Size.

Weight.

Inches.

lb. oz.

3

7 0

4

9 6

5

12 5

6

15 4

7

18 3

8

22 2

9

24 1

10

27 0

11

29 15

12

32 14

Per lb.

£

s.

d.

At 5s.*

1

15

0

2

6

lOi

3

1

6f

3

16

3

4

10

m

5

5

n

6

0

2|

6

15

0

7

9

n

8

4

4i

le cost

of

the

ind

a-rubber joints, and

lead or wood joints, 1 have in the following statement included the mate-
rial, tbe labour in making the joint, and the excavation, and filling in of the
trench only, hut including 10 per cent, profit : —

At per yard run.

Vulcanised India-rubber.

Lead.
9. d.

Wood,
s. d.

India-
rubber,
s. d.

•'■m

cheaper than
Lsad.

cheaper than
Wood.

4 inch 6fu 4-^ 3.^ 100 per cent.f 42 per cent.

12 inch 1 7 11 9^;, 91 „ 11 „

3,4,5,0, 7, S, "I

9,10,ll,12,in. I 10 0 6 2 5 2 93 „ 19 „

one yard of each J

Taking one yard of each sized pipe, from three inches to 12 inches inclu-
sive, and in addition to the above, adding the average cost of carting the
pipes to the trench, removing surplus earth, repairing drains, lead pipes, &c.,
and all other charges and risks, and guarantee for twelve months, excepting
the charges of the Commissioners of Uoads or Streets for paving, &c., the
cost will be as follows : —

India rubber India-rubber

Lead. Wood. India-rubber. cheaper than lead. cheaper than wooJ.

23s. lOrf. 20s. 6(/. 19s. 6rf. 22 percent. 5 per cent.

The prices given may vary according to the locality and nature of the
ground, but, I believe, will he found in every case very moderate for good
and sound work. Where there is rock, or paved or Macadamised roads to
be excavated fur tbe trencb, the saving in laying the joints with India-
rubber rings will be very great, as the extra excavation required round the
Joint (or lead, cement, or wood joints, to afford sufBcient room for the joint-
maker to work all round the joint, will not be required for the India-rubber
joints ; and hence the saving in excavating through rock, and excavating or
taking up and renewing the paved and Macadamised roads, will be con-
siderable.

When the wood joints are used (and they have been used very extensively
in the East London district for the last sixteen or seventeen years, and found
to answer remarkably well), it is necessary to expose the joints to the pres-
sure of water they are intended to bear, before the ground is filled in, to be
certain that the joints are tight ; hence, uidess in counection with mains
already charged, tbey cannot be employed, for the expense of working a
force pump to fill every length of pipe before it is covered, swallows up all
the saving that, under other and more favourable circumstances, is effected ;
so that for new towns, or places where there are no charged mains already
in existence, they cannot be used; and for gas pipes they are not at all ap-
plicable.

An objection was made many years ago to tbe wooden joints ; that where
the pipes had to be much curved, it would not be safe to make an unequal
joint thick on one side and thin on the other, while with lead this might be
safely done by a clever joint-maker. The same objection may be made to
the proposed joint, on account of the belts preventing a greater play than
■Jj-th of an inch in the socket, — tbe answer given in the first instance will
do in the second, should it be made; viz., that the number of joints required
to be so made, formed an inconsideral)le percentage upon the whole number
made, and, therefore, formed no sufficient objection to ihe general use of a
cheaper joint.

As regards its applicability to gas pipes, I have some hesitation in giving
a strong opinion ; but as Mr. Aikin's Report proves that it is a durable mate-
rial, and is not injuriously affected by the producis of coal gas which collect

* The wholesale price of vulcanised india-rubberj fur small quantities it is 6s, per lb.

t 100 per cent, cheaper is an erroneous expression ; it would make the india-rubber cost
nothing, for if iOO per cent, be taken from 1' 0. there remains 0. It should be 60, 4d, and
is per cent, less than lead, and 29, 10, and It! percent, less tlmn wood.

in the pipes ; and as it appears from my experiments that the joint can stand
an enormous pressure, I think it may, probably, be found tbe best material
that could be used for a gas joint, i believe it will be admitted, that with
the materials ordinarily emjiloyed in joining gas pipes, it is difficult to fill
the joint so thoroughly as to prevent tbe escape of gas, which the colour of
tbe earth near the joints of gas pipes will prove : and although a lead or
wood joint may be made capable of withstanding great pressure, and so as
to prevent water leaking through, nevertheless gan will escape through.
Reasoning upon the matter would, therefore, lead to the conclusion, that if
a very elastic body is used, pressing with great force on all the surfaces of
the iron in contact with it, so as to fill every space, there is much greater
certainty of forming a tight joint than with a non-elastie substance, where
the density of tbe material is all that prevents the escape of jras; it must
be borne in mind that the India-rubber is impervious, and can never be
liable to have fissures in it, or pores through it, which may be the case with
lead, cement, or wood, if not perfectly made, — not so large as to allow a
liquid to pass through, but sufficiently so as to allow gas to pass through.

As regards pipes made of earthenware or glass, or other brittle material,
which would be broken, if it were attempted to make joints of lead or
wood, to witiistand a pressure of water, this material is very applicable, as
no force is applied in making tbe joint that would in the slightest degree
tend to split or break the socket of the pipe. This joint removes the only
mechanical objection that I believe exists to the use of these materials ; but
tbe chances of breaking when laid, and the cost of the pipes when so joined
(increased by the shortness of the lengths of the pipes requiring a greater
number of joints), are questions to be considered by those who propose
using such materials. It appears that none of tbe products of the sewers
would injuriously affect tbe vulcanized India-rubber. The improvement in
making the india-rubber rings since I received tbe first for trial is very great.
The first set varied in thickness and weight very.; much ; tbe last are as re-
gular in thickness, as can be proved by the weights of several of the same
size being as nearly as possible the same. This is most important, as a va-
riation in weight, which is the same as a variation in thickness, would pre-
vent the cerlainty of tightness of the joint. 1 have, nevertheless, in the
weights given in the table, allowed an extra weight as a precaution.

In conclusion, I beg leave to say, that it appears that for strength, dura-
bUity, resistance to pressure, and for tbe closeness of the joint preventing the
escape of gases, this material is better suited than the ordinary materials in
use; and, that the cost of the joint is less than tbe cost of those inordinary
use for iron pipes.

REPORT OF ARTHUR AIKIN, ESQ., F.L.S., ETC,

Will Rings of Vulcanized Caoutchouc, when used as Fastenings of Cast-
iron Pipes, retain their Elasticity, and what will be their probable Du-
rability ?

The resilient spring of vulcanized caoutchouc is far more complete than
that of the caoutchouc not vulcanized. In other words, the former is far
liable to tire than tbe latter. Caoutchouc is vulcanized by combination with
a certain small proportion of sulphur. As long, therefore, as caoutchouc
remains vulcanized, that is, as long as it retains its sulphur, it may be ex-
pected to retain those qualities by which it is characterised. But iron has
a strong attraction for sulphur. Is it not, therefore, probable that ml-
canized caoutchouc remaining long in contact with iron, may give up its
sulphur to this latter, and thus be reduced to the state of common caout-
chouc .'

I see no satisfactory way of bringing this question to the test of experi-
ment, as both cast-iron and common bar uot unfrequently contain sulphur in
various proportions. Tbe rings of vulcanized caoutchouc that I have seen
taken out of iron pipes return to their original form as soon as tlie nip or
strong compression to which they were subject while in the pipes has been
relieved ; and they are stained externally by a little oxide of iron rubbed off
from the inner surface of the pipe, in consequence of the strong friction and
compression to which they are exposed in the act of inserting one pipe into
the other, beyond this merely superficial attrition, I do not think that any
sensible action would take place between the ring and the iron, even for a
very long time, at common temperatures.

If tbe pipes are intended tor the conveyance of water, the exposure of
the projecting edge of tbe ring to this liquid at common temperatures can-
not possibly have any injurious effect ; for I have boiled vulcanized as well
as common caoutchouc tor an hour in water at 300°, and the pieces, when
they have become dry, have shown no diminution of their respective degrees
of elasticity. If the pipes are to be employed in conveying coal gas, the
original question becomes complicated with the consideration, how far the
volatile products of the distillation of coal are capable of acting on vul-
canized caoutchouc? The principal matters driven off from coal during its
distillation are carburetted hydrogen and defiant gas, sulphuretted hydrogen,
ammonia, tar. I believe, that in a very short time the projecting edges of
the vulcanized rings would be covered with a thin layer of tar, which would
effectually prevent their contact with the other matters, even assuming these
latter to have any action on vulcanized caoutchouc. Naptha, the product of
the rectification of coal tar, is capable of dissolving caoutchouc; but the
only effect which it has, even when boiling hot, on vulcanized caoutchouc, is
to cause it to swell. If the crude tar should have any such effect (which I
doubt), the consequence would be, that the projecting edge of the ring

5*

28

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

would swell, and tlais render still more effectual a fastening which was snfR-
tienlly so hefore. 'I'he strongest liquid amniouia. as 1 know by experiment,
has no sokent action whatever, even on common caoutouche, hy digesting in
it for several months. Sulphuretted hydrogen has no sensiide cft'ect on
common caoutchouc immersed in it for some days. If by loUL'-continued
action on vulcanized caoutchouc, any sulphur was taken np, no injury to the
ring would result from this; for vulcanized caoutchouc may contain a great
excess of sulphur, without at all impairing its elasticity and other valuable
properties.

With regard to the durability of vulcainzed caoutchouc compared with
that of wood or lead, which, 1 believe, are the only substances at present
used in joining iron pipes, the following circumstances must be taken into
consideration.

The compression and violence which wood nndergoes in the act of being
driven in, will more or less damage its texture, and weaken the lateral co-
hesion of its fibres. Caoutchouc being without visible pores, and being of a
perfectiv uniform consistence, and possessed of great elastiiitv, will not only
exclude'air and moisture from the space which it occupies, Imt is scarcely
susceptible of mechanical itjury, even from the strongest compression.

Lead is no mote porous than caoutchouc, but being almost totally inelastic,
will, on this account, be a less effeclual preventive of leakage. Some
galvanic action will probably take place between the lead and iron tending
to oxidise this latter ; and, when galvanic action has ceased, from the inter-
position of a layer of oxide of irorj between the two metallic surfaces, the
lead itself will become oxidised superficially, from the combined eft'ect of
air and moisture.

I do not, therefore, see any reason to doubt that rings of vulcanised
caoutchouc, « ben used as a fastening of iron pipes employed in the con-
veyance of water or coal gas, would be, at least, as durable as the best of
the methods now practised, and probably more secure from leakage.

FROCBEDINGS OF SCIBNTIFIC SOCIBTIES.

SOCIETY OF ARTS, LONDON.

Nov. 29, 1843. — J. K. Brunel, Esq., in the Chair.

" On HydravMc Pressure Engines, and on the employment of High Falls of
Water, actiny by their Weight or Pressure upon a Piston workiuy in a
Cylinder, to produce a Reciprocating or Allernatiny Motion." By Joseph
Glynn, Esq., F.R.S.

"It appears," observed Mr. Glynn, "that in the year 1769, this subject
had been brought before the Society of Arts hy Mr. Smeaton, the celebrated
engineer, whose construction of the Eddystoue lighthouse has since served
as a guide in similar works.

Owing to the great improvement subsequently made in the steam-engine,
hy Watt, water-engines of all kinds were thrown into abeyance, and the
water-pressure engine remained unemployed in England until its use was
revived by Trevithick, who was distinguished liy the invention of loco.notive
engines to be used on railways, or rather upon the tramways of his time.
Trevithick erected several water-pressure engines, and in 1801 he made one
for a lead mine in Derbyshire, which is still working well in the Alport
Mines near Bakewell. In 1811, the proprietors of the mines, by the advice
of Mr. John Taylor, resolved to erect a very powerful engine of this kind,
to clear the mines from water; this was made by the Butterley company,
under the direction of Mr. Glynn, and set to woik early in the following
vear. It is one of the most powerful and efficient engines of this kind
idtherto made ; the work it performs is equal to lli8-hclr^e powei.andits
useful effect is equal to 70 per cent, of the theoretic power of the water
fall. The column of water in this instance is 132 feet high, the stroke of
the piston is 10 feet, and the diameter of the cylinder 50 inches; conse-
quently, the pleasure on the piston is equal to a weight of 50 tons. This
engine is capable of making 7 strokes per minute, without any concussion in
the descending column. An excellent model of this engine, now in the Mu-
seura of Economic Geology, was made by Mr. Jordan, whose admirable in-
vention of machinery for carving in wood has since established his reputa-
tion for mechanical skill. — The water-pressure engine, nUtiough neglected
in England, has been extensively used in Germany, and drawings of some of
the best German engines were exhibited, to illustrate the paper.

A lengthened discussion followed the reading of the paper, in which Mr.
JoKDAN suggested a means of overcoming the concussion, hitherto so ob-
jeciiunable in the working of all engines of this class.— Mr. Glynn also
stated the situations in which he considered hydraulic engines could be
advantageously employed, and in which it would be impossible to make use
of any class of water wheel. He also described an ingenious a|)plication of
hydraulic power, in the case of a crane used on the Quay at Liverpool.

The thanks of the meeting were presented to Mr. Glynn for his commu-
nication.

Messrs. Staite and Petrie were present at this meeting, and exhibited
their Electric Light, and showed the prismatic ray, and the ray concentrated
by means of a lens. — A lengthened discussion ensued, as to the peculiar
form of the shadow from the Hame of a candle, and the band of li^lit which
surrounded it.

The thanks of the meetiui; were presented to Messrs. Staite and Petrie,
who promised on an early eveniiig to submit a paper on the two leading fea-
tures of the invention — namely, rendering the light permanent by means of
a self-regulating magnetic apparatus, also rendering the system economical
by allowing only so niucli of ilie current to pass through the electroes as is
developed in light; and also to make a statement as to the cost of producing
and maintaining the light.

Mr. C. RcDiNG submitted a paper on Mr. J. B. Piatti's " Compressed-Air
Atmospheric Railway," and a model of the tube, valve, and piston were
exhibited.

Dec. 6, 1848.— J. L. Ricakdo. Esq., M.P., in the Chair.

Mr. T. B. Jordan read a paper " On improvements in Carving machinery."
The three great improvements which Mr. Jordan has effected in his carving
machine are as follows: — Firstly, in the construction of what he terms a
Vertical Machine. The peculiarity of this arrangement is that it enables
liim to carve blocks of stone of any required size, for architectural or deco-
rative purposes, without having to move the weight of the block, as would
be the case if it was placed on the horizontal bed of his first machine. The
cutting drills are, by the vertical machine, brought in contact at right angles
to the face of the stone, the stone itself being placed on a chuck or centre,
upon which it is made to revolve, so as to afford the necessary facility for
bringing every portion of the surface into contact with the drill. — Secondly,
in applying mathematical instruments on the floating tables to the produc-
tion of working mouldings from drawings, without the use of models. This
he does by having the cutting edges of the drills made in the form of one-
half of the section of the moulding to be produced. — Thirdly, in aft'ording
the means of producing a reverse copy of any required pattern, so that the
two curves on a chair-back, or other piece of furniture, can be cut out from
a single mould at one and the same time. This he effects hy dividing the
upper floating table info two parts, and fixing a centre under the machine
and between the two floating tables ; on this centre is a fixed lever, which is
connected at each end, by means of iron rods, to the floating tables, so that
whatever motion is given to the right-hand table, is exactly copied, in a
reverse direction, by the left-hand table. This is the case only so long as
the radii of the two arms of the fixed lever are exactly alike; but by altering
the length of either arm, a fourth improvement is efl'ected, as the inventor
is enabled to compress a pattern so as to produce a narrow panel from an
original of much greater breadth.

A model of the Horizontal machine, and diagrams of the Vertical machine,
with specimens of work cut by each, were exhibited.

Dec. 13, 1848.— T. Webster, Esq., F.R.S. , in the Chair.

" On the Present State of Electricity, as applied to Telegraphs." By
Mr. N. J. Holmes.

Mr. Holmes, in bringing the subject forward, stated that it was his inten-
tion on this occasion to consider only the principles of the best known forms
of existing telegraphs, and not to enter into the various modifications into
which the subject had extended, as many of the recent adaptations were
merely simple evasions of original patents, without any claim to merit for
the advancement of science. Having given a succinct, but comprehensive,
historv of the state of electricity, with respect to the application, sicbjudice,
from i746 to 1800, when Volta'discovered that the current obtained from
his pile had the property of overcoming the difficulties presented by the use
of free electricitv, be dated the progressive advancement of the science from
(Ersted's grand discovery, in 1S19, of the rotatory influence exercised by an
electric current upon a magnetic needle, immediately followed hy that of
Arago, in the formation of'^the electro magnet. The intiuductjon of the
telegraph into this country did not take place until the year 1837, at which
period the subject was occupying the attention of the scientific, and many
were endeavouring to carry out practically the idea, hut without success ;
and it was not nntil Professor Wheatstone's researches into the more theo-
retical portion of the science, that the requisite perfection was obtained.
The existing telegraphs were classified into two great divisions— namely,
those of a mechanical nature, in which the inter venlion of clockwork, set in
motion through the agency of electricity, was used to produce the necessary
indication; and others embracing a more theoretical construction, depending
upon the diiect action of the ( urrent, either hy induction upon a magnetic
bar, producing deflection, or by the decomposition of certain chemical solu-
tions, placed so as to form a part of the metallic circuit. With respect to
telegraphs generally, it was stated that their adoption could not be advo-
cated for either railway or commercial purposes, where great attention
could not be bestowed on their working in detail — the imperfections arising
from their mechanical liabilities destroying their utility. The only railway in
this country, out of the 2,000 miles of telegraph laid down, upon which they
had been adopted, was the South Devon, and there they were used to give
the signals for starting the fixed engines in connection with the atmospheric
svsteni. Previously to the abandonment of that principle, such was the
perfpition to which Mr. Holmes (under whose superintendence they were
erected) had arrived, that as many as 2,000 signals were sometimes given
through the series without the commission of a single error.

After adverting to the numerous varieties of printing telegraphs and
alarums, Mr. Holmes exhibited his new signal, as a substitute for the old
clockwork bell, producing the sound by means of an air-whistle. Mr.
Holmes then proceeded to the second division, pointing out the various

1S19.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

•2<J

errors in the old forms of needle instruments, es well as tlie several im-
prcivements which had been effected — first, by the introducion of his dia-
mond instrument, now working over all the commercial stations in Eng-
land, and producing an enormous decrease in the battery power; and, se-
condly, by his new form of helix, which further reduced the helical resist-
ance in the instrument, which was a point of considerable importance.

In speaking of the chemical telegraph, recently improved by Mr. Bain, by
which communication had been effected between Liverpool, London, and
Manchester, he observed, that owing to the imperfections in the instrument
nsed, the powers of that improvement were not fully developed — great
resistance and want of rapid reciprocity, in cases of error, still existing.
With respect to insulation, be (Mr. Holmes) stated, that the application of
electricity to telegraphs was still very imperfect. The uncovered wires, ex-
tending over the lines in the country, were necessarily exposed to the inju-
rious influences of the atmosphere, arising from rains, fogs, deposition of
saline matter in the neighbourhood of the sea-coast, as well as the action of
decomposed vegetable matter. This existed to an extent that frequently
interrupted the communication, and rendered it necessary to clean the insu-
lators with soap and water. The street work in the metropolis was also
open to serious objection, being founded upon a fundaniental error — namely,
that of enclosing one conductor in another improperly protected. To re-
medy the defects, he (Mr. Holmes) exhibited a plan hy which it was pur-
posed to improve the insulation — the wires being enclosed in a noncon-
ducting substance from end to end, and illustrated the practical operation
of his theory by some very beautiful specimens of the improvements it
would effect. Mr. Holmes concluded, by briefly noticing (he derangement
the telegraph was liable to receive from lightning and the influence of mag-
netic storms; and the methods hitherto adopted were demonstrated to be
quite inadequate to counteract the eflfects of these phenomena.

ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS.

Nov. 13, 1848: Annual General Meeting. — George Buchanan, Esq.,

C.E., F.R.S.E., President, in the Chair.

The President, before proceeding with the business of the evening,
begged to congratulate the Society on their re-assembling for the commence-
inent of a new session, and on the prospect which their past experience
afforded that this session would not prove behind any of the others in the
importance of the subjects to be laid before them, and the discussions to
which they might lead. During the last session, various interesting commu-
nications had been received, and ingenious inventions, as the Prize List now
circulated among the members would show, and which, he trusted, would be
satisfactory to the inventors, and an encouragement to perseverance in the
field of improvement. From what he had seen of the proceedings of this
Society, the truly useful and practical nature of the subjects brought before
it, the free discussions with which they were canvassed at the meetings, and
their merits, farther investigated and sifted in the committees, and rewarded,
according to their abdity, with a liberal but impartial hand; and the oppor-
tunity afforded by the meetings of friendly intercourse among men of all
professions and parties, he was satisfied that this Society was eminently cal-
culated for promoting the great object of the "Improvement of the Useful
Arts;" and he had no doubt it would continue to flourish and maintain its
high character among the important institutions of this country.

Notwithstanding the unexampled depression in the general business of
the country, and in every branch of industry and the arts, twenty-two new
members had been admitted during the session. Losses, however, he la-
mented to say, they had met with by death, of valuable and distinguished
members, of whom might be noticed —

The Duke of Argyll, the Marquis of Bute, and the Earl of Moray,
noblemen whose station and character, and their great attention to agricul-
tural and othLT improvements in the useful arts, were of essential service in
promoting the interests and uiiholding the character of the Society;

Sir George Mackenzie and Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, two most
eminent members, whose character and talents, and their great interests in,
and attention to, the matters of the Society, and whose valuable services, as
well when they presided over it as at other times, were too well known to
require any eulogy here;

Sir Charles G. Stuart Menteith, of Closeburn, well known by his
great attention to the arts, and by various interesting communications to
the Society.

Of the professional members, he could not avoid noticing the late eminent
Mr. Nixon, architect in this city for the Woods and Forests Commissioners,
and whose talents aud high character, during the period he had been in Scot-
land, had gained the esteem of all who had the pleasure of knowing him.
The Queen's Drive alone, which was entirely designed and executed by him,
will remain a monument of his taste and skill. The Society has also lost
Mr. Brookes, a young and promising engineer, cut off suddenly. Lastly,
among the associate members was the name of the celebrated Mr. Thom, of
Ascog, near Rothesay, whose magnificent improvements in hydraulic archi-
tecture, exemplified in the Shaws and other waterworks, and his ingenious
inventions of self-acting sluices, and plans for conducting and rendering
available the waters of different districts, have raised him among the distin-
guished engineers of the day.

A paper on Cast and Wrought Iron Bfidges, by Mr. Buchanan, the Pre-
sident, was read, which is given in another part of the Journal, p. 13, and
also in vol. xi., p. 1^3 and 133.

Repoi't of the Committee appointed to award Prizes for Communications
during Session 1847-8.

The committee awarded the following Prizes : —

1. To George Buchanan, Esq., for his "Description of a Marine Hy-
drometer, for ascertaining on the spot the comparative Saltness or Freshness
of Sea and River water." (See Journal, vol. xi., p. 91.) — The Honorary
Silver Medal.

2. To Andrew Fyfe, M.D., for his communication "On the Value of
Gases from ditt'erent Coals, and the price of Light in different places ; also a
new mode of estimating the Consumpt of Gases, &c., and of estimating
Illuminating Power." (See Journal, vol. xi., p. 181.) — The Honorary
Silver Medal.

3. To J. Stewart Hepburn, Esq., of Colqulialzie, for bis "Description
and Drawing of an Improved Railway Break." (See Journal, vol. xi.,
0. 32.) — ^The Honorary Silver Medal.

4. To Thomas Stevenson, Esq., C.E., for his "Description, Drawing,
and Model of a Portable CotiFerdam, successfully used by him in Marine
Works." (See Journal, vol. xi., p. 62, and 231.) — The Honorary Silver
Medal.

Note. — Though unknown to Mr. Stevenson, the committee find that a
portable cofferdam, with double walings, had been previously used in
engineering works by the late Mr. Smith, of Montrose, which was put
together on dry ground, and then floated to its place. But the commit-
tee consider that iMr. Stevenson's cofferdam differs from it, and possesses
certain advantages, from its greater portabiliiy, and more ready adaptation
to an irregular bottom.

Silver Medals were awarded —

5. To Mr. .John M'Dowall, for his "Description and Working Model
of a New Machine or Screw Pump lor Lifting Water."

6. To Mr. Robert Montgomery, for "a Self-acting Safety-Break for
Railway Carriages."

7. To Mr. William Kemp, Manager of the Gasworks at Galashiels, for
his communication "On Ecouomising Fuel in Gasworks." {See Journal,
vol. xi., p. 153 )

8. To Mr. Frederick Schenck, for his communication, "On the Pro-
gress and Position of Lithography in Scotland, and, in particular, his method
of preserving Correct Register in Colour Printing."

9. To Mr. Daniel Erskine, for his " Description of a New Ball-Cock
and Nose-Cock, for Cisterns and other purposes." (See Journal, vol. xi.,
p. 185.)

10. To Mr. James RnBB,for his "Description and Model of a Stop. Cock
for Corrosive Fluids." (See Journal, vol. xi., p. 185.)

11. To Mr. John Kolee Milne, for his "Description and Model of an
Overarch Suspension Bridge." — It being understood that it is recom-
mended in its present form not for Railway Bridges, but for Foot Bridges
and others of comparatively small span. (See Journal, vol. xi., p. 32.)

A variety of other prizes were also awarded.

Nov. 27.— John Cay, Esq., F.R.S.E., President, in the Chair.

The following communications were read ; —

1. " Description, with two Drawings, of an Hydraulic Doctc. especialhj
adapted for places wtiere Diere is little or no rise and /all of tfie Tide.^' By
Mr. James Scott.

This dock is built of boiler-plate iron, with a cavity in the bottom and
round the sides, capable of being filled with water, which sinks the dock,
and the ship is floated inio it; the water is then pumped out, when the dock
rises, bearing the ship with it, and that part underneath the ship being left
perfectly dry, the ship-carpenter can have access to every part of the ship's
bottom for all necessary repairs, without having recourse to the dangerous
process of " heaving down." The inventor states that a ship is much less
liable to he strained in such a floating dock, than by being hauled up a long
and irregular inclined plane, as the present slips are found in practice to be
when laid down in places where there is little or no rise aud fall of tide, and
where there is frequently an irregular coral bottom.

2. " Description of an Electric Clock, on an improved principle." By Mr.
J. Blackie. — This clock was stated to he an improvement upon Mr. Bain's
electric clock, both in the mode of adjusting the permanent magnets, and
in the mode of breaking and re-establishing the circuit; the break being less
liable to oxidise. It was also stated that the electric current acted to greater
advantage on the coil of the pendulum. Mr. Blackie also claimed as new
the simple train of the movement, which consists of very few wheels; and
he also claimed a delicate method of adjusting the length of the pendulum.

3. " Description of an improved Balance or Equilibrium Valve fur Loco-
motives, S^-c." — The object of this valve is to extinguish the friction usually
attendant on the use of the common slide-valve in locomotive engines, and
which is the result of the pressure of the steam acting upon the back or

so

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

exterior surface of these valves. By tlie proposed construction, tlie steam is
brought to the ports by a method tiiat places the valve in an equilibrium of
pressure, on the principle of action anil reaction being equal and in opposite
directions. The usual friction of the slide is expected to^be thereby almost
entirely removed.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
Dec. 4.— T. Bellamy, V.P., in the Chair.

A paper " On the Ivfitiity of Geometric Design as regards Tracery,"
was read by Mr. R. H. Billiugs.

The object of ihis paper was to show that design, as regards Gothic
tracery, is a fit- Id as yet almost untouched ; from diagrams of the most
simple characti-r, and composed of purely geometric curves, an infinity of
beautiful tracery may be produced. By varying the diagrams which serve
as the ioundalion of the tracery to be produced, an endh'ss variety of
designs may be obtained. This IMr. Billiugs illustrated by means of one
of the most simple forms of diagram ; consisting of a circle, wilhin
winch were four others touching the circumference, and whose diameters
were oue-lhird iliatof the larger one. Nunierous drawings of tiie designs
produced from lliis simple form were exhibit-id ; as well as engravinss of
upwards of one hundred others, all obtained from the same skeleton form,
— and which are a porlion of a work by which Mr. Billings is about to
make known to the profession at large the results of his studies ou ibis
subject.

Dee. IS. — .'Vmongstihe donations announced was a IMS. volume from a
Dutch architect, containing notices of 100 Dutch architects, from the
middle ages to the present time — A discussion took place on the merits
and defects of sea sand in the formation of mortar. Mr. Burn expressed
an opinion that au analysis then on the table buie out his own feeliug, that
ilownsea sand «as not the cause of damp in houses. — Mr. W. W. Hocock
staled that in two houses in the Isle oi \Viglit near the sea, 'ouilt simulta-
neously ,ou sea sand, covering a stone foundation, salme to taste, one
finished with pit sand was perfectly dry, while that in which the ceilings
were worked out with sand from the seashore gave water out to the ex-
tent of dropping. He added that a chemist supplied a powerful wash,
boding hot, which removed the evil. — Dr. Dickinson mentioned that sul-
phuric acid in an earthen vase placed in a damp room would soon absorb
the vapour. — Mr. C. H. Smith suggested alum might have been employed.
Mr. Donaldsiiu observed that sea sand could ouly be used when well
washed by the rain.

A communication was read from Messrs. J. and T. Smith, of Darnick,
on the use of Whiustone rubble in construction of bridges, with details of
one lately built over the Tweed at Ashiestiel, price l,200i., 131 ft. 6 in.
span, 10 feel wide in the middle.

Messrs. Fox and Barrett's patent floor was explained (see Journal, vol.
xi., p. 359), and a plan of Northwoods was exhibited.

At the meeting held Nov. 20th last, the following Royal Medals, toge-
llier with the Premiums in Books, awarded during the last Session, were
presented by the President, as follows:- —

The Kojal Gold Aledal of the Institute, to Charles Robert Cockerell,
Esq., R.A., Professor of Arihilecture in the Royal Academy of Arts,
London, Member of the Institute of France, &c. ; in testimony of his dis-
tinguished merits as an Architect.

The Soaiie iMedalliun, to Mr. James IMaclaben, of Edinburgh; for a
Design for a Building to contain Public Baths.

The Silver Medal of the lustiiule, to Mr. Henry Bayiv Garling, As-
sociate ; for the best Es^ay on the application of Sculpture and Sculp-
tured Ornament to Archilecture,

A Copy of Sir W. C'hamber.-i' Treatise on the Decorative Part of Civil
Architecture, to Mr Thos. Hill, Student ; for a Design for a Garden
Pavilion, &c.

A Copy of Gwilt's Encyclopaidia of Architecture, to IMr. Bright
Smith, Student ; fur (he best Series of Sketches from Sulijecls given
monthly by the Council during the Session.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

Dec. 7, 1848.— Ihe Earl of RossE, President, in the Chair.

Dr. Faraday delivered the Dakerian lecture, " On the Crystalline Polarity
of Bismuth and other bodies, and on its Relation to the Mayuetic Form of
Force."

The author states that in preparing small cylinders of bismuth by cast-
ing them ill glass lubes, he had often been embarrassed by the anomalous
magnetic results which they gave, and that having determined to investi-
gate the mailer closely, it ended in a reference of the elfecls to the crys-
talline condition of the bismulli, which maybe thus briefly slated. If
bismuth be crystalized in the ordinary way, and then crystal, or a group
of symnuuic crystals, be selected and suspended in the magnetic lield
between horiziiiital pules, it immediately either points in a given direction
or vibrates alioui that position, as a small magnetic needle would do, and
if disturbed from this position it returns to it. On resuspending the crys-

tal so that the horizontal line which is transverse to the magnetic axis shall
become the vertical line, the crystal then points with its maximum degree
of force. If it be again resuspended so that the line parallel to the niag-
netic axis be rendered vertical, llie crystal loses all directive force. This
line of direction therefore, which tends to place itself parallel to the mag-
netic axis, the author calls the ntayne-crystallic a.vis of the crystal. It is
perpendicular, or nearly so, lo the briglitest and most perfect of the four
cleavage planes oftlie crjstal. It is the same for all crystals of bismuth.
Whether this magne-crjsiallic axis is parallel or transverse to the magnetic
axis, tne bismuth is in both cases repelled fioiu a single or the stronger pole ;
its diamagnetic relations being in no way affected. If the crystal be broken
up, or if it be fused and resolidified, and the metal then subjected to the
action of the magnet, the diamagnetic phenomena remain, but Ihe mague-
crystallic results disappear, because ot the confused and opposing crys-
talline condition of the various parts. If an ingot of bisniuili be broken
up and fragmentary plates selected which are crystallised uniformly
throughout, these also point; the magne-crystallic axis being, as before,
perpendicular to the chief plane of cleavage, and the external form, in
this respect, of no consequence. The ert'i'cl lakes place when the crys'al
is surrounded by masses of bismuth, or when it is iiiiuierscd in water or
solution of sulphate of iron, and with as much force apparently as if
nothing intervened. The position of the crystal in the magnetic field is
affected by the approximation of extra magnets or of soft iron ; but the
author does not believe that this results from any attractive or repulsive
force exerted on the bismuth, bul ouly from Ihe disturbance of the lines
of fore or resultants of niaguctic action, by which they acquire as it were
new forms; and, as the law of action which he gives is, thai the line or
a.ris of magne-crystallic force tends to place itself parallel, or as a tangent,
to the magnetic curve or line of magnetic force, passing through the place
where the crystal is situated, so the crystal changes Us position with any
change of direction in these lines, .\fler noticing the magne-crystallic
condition of various bodies, the author enters upon a consideration of the
nature of the magne-crystallic force. In the first place he examines
closely whether a crystal of bismuth has exactly the same amount of re-
pulsion, diamagnetic or otherwise, when presenting its inagoe-crystallic
a^is parallel uv transverse to the lines of magnetic force acting on it. For
this purpose the crystal was suspended either from a torsion balance, or
as a peudulum thirty feet in length, but whatever the position of the
magne-cryslallic axis, the amount of repulsion was the same. In other
experiments, a vertical axis v^as constructed of cocoon silk, and the body
to be examined was attached at right angles to it as radius ; a prismatic
crystal of sulphate of iron, for instance, whose length was four times its
breadth, was fixed on the axis Willi iis lengili as radius and its magoe-
cryslallic axis horizoutal, and therefore as tangent ; then, « hen this crystal
was al rest under the torsion force of the axis, an electio-magnetic pole
with a conical terniinalion was so placed that the axial line of magnetic
force should be, when exerled, oblique to both the length and the magne-
crystallic axis of the crystal, and the consequence was, that, when the
electric current circulated round the magnet, the crystal actually reeerfed
from the magnet under the influeuce of the force, which tended to place
the magne-ciyslallic axis and the magnetic axis parallel. Kuiploying a
crystal or plate of bismuth, that body could be made to approach the mag-
netic pole under the influence of the magiieciystallic force ; and this force
is so strong as to counteract either the tendency of the magnetic body to
approach or of the diamagnetic body to retreat, when it is exerted in the
contrary direction. Hence the author concludes that it is neither attraction
nor repulsion which causes the set or determines the final position of a
magne-crystallic body. He next considers it as a force dependent upon
the crystalline condition of the body, imd therefore associated with the
original molecular forces of the matter. He shows expeninentally, that,
as Ihe magnet can move a crystal, so also a crystal can move a magnet.
Also that heal takes away this power just before the crystal fuses, and
that cooling restores it in its original direction. He next considers whe-
ther Ihe ellVcis are due to a force altogether original and inherent in the
crystal, or whether that which appears in it is not partly induced by the
magnetic and electric forces; and he concludes, that llie force mani-
fested in the magnetic field, which appears by external aciiiMis and causes
Ihe motion of the mass, is chiefly, and alniosi entirely induced in a manner
subject indeed lo the crystalline force and additive to il ; but at the same
time exalting the force and the effects to a degree which they could not
have approached wilhout the induction. To this part of the force he
applies the word magneto crystallic, in coulradislinctiun lo magne-crystallic,
which is employed to express the condition, quality, or power which
belongs essentially to the crystal. The aullior then remarks upon the ex-
traordinary character of the power, which he cannot refer to polarity, and
giies expre.-siou lo certain considerations and views which will be best
learned from Ihe paper itself. After this, he resumes the consideration of
Plucker's results '^ upon the repulsion of the optic a.ies of crystals"
already rilLrred lo, and arrives al the conclusion that his results and those
now described have one common origin and cause. He then considers
Plucker's re.->ults in relation to those \^ bicli he formerly obtained with
heavy optical glass and many other bodies, lu couclusiou he remarks,
" how rapidly the knowledge of molecular furces grows upon us, and how
strikingly every invesligatiuii tends to develope more and more their im-
portance and llieir extreme atlraclion as an object of study. A few years
ago magnetism was lo us an occult power ali'ecliog only a few bodies ; now
it is found to influence all bodies, and to possess the most intimate relations
wilh electricity, heat, chemical action, light, crystallisation, and, through

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

31

it, with llie forces concernpd in cohesion ; and we may, in ihe present
Slate of tbiiiss, well feel urged to continue in our labours, encouraged by
Ihe hope of bringing it into a bond of union with gravity itself."

EXPERIMENTS AT THE ROYAL ARSENAL.

Woolwich, Dec. 14. — A series of experiments have been lately carried
on in the Royal Arsenal, to ascertain the practicahility of Captnin Chnds'
suggestion of employing two shots at one firing in actual service, and hnw
far danger was to be apprehended to those employed in working the guns
when double-shotted. Captain Chads made several experiments on his prin-
ciple on hoard the Excellent gunnery-ship at Portsmouth, which were most
satisfactory to him, and on submitting the plan to the authorities, the
matter was referred to the members of the Select Committee at Woolwich,
who gave instructions that an 8-inch gun of G5 cwt., 9 feet long, should be
selected from a quantity recently received from the IjOjv Moor Company in
Yorkshire. The gun selected had been previously tested in the usual way
by firing two rounds with one solid shot and 20 lb. of powder each time,
and the experiments were commenced by firing two 56-pounder hollow shot,
with 5 lb. of powder each charge, and continued with the double shot and
the same quantity of powder up to the 60th round. From the 61st to the
70th round 6 lb. of powder were used in each charge ; from the 71st to the
80th round, 7 lb. ; from the 81st to the 90th round, 81b.; from the 91st
to the 100th round, 91b.; from the 101st to the 110th round, 10 lb. ; from
the lUth to the 120th round, 11 lb. ; from the 121st to the 130tb round,
121b.; from the 131st to the MOth round, 13 lb. ; from the 141st to the
150th round, 14 lb. ; from 151st to the 160th round, 15 lb.; from the 161st
to the 170th round, 161b.; from the 171st to the 180th round, 171b.;
from the 181st to the 190th round, 181b.; from the 191st to the 200th
round, 19 lb.; from the 201st to the 210tb round, 201b. ; and from the
211th to the 220th round, 21 lb. The last 10 rounds, with the heavy
charge of 21 lb. of powder, and the gun double-shotted each time, were
fired yesterday ; and on examining the gun after the experiment, it did not
appear to have sustained any perceptible injury, notwithstanding the severe
test it had undergone. The gun is only of cast metal, but this trial has
shown the superiority of the castings of the Low Moor Company, and the
small risk to the gunners employed in firing the guns under a test which it
was never contemplated they would be subjected to. It is intended to
carry on the experiment until the gun is burst, and to add an additional
pound weight of powder to each charge of every 10 rounds. The firing has
already disabled one carriage, and a carpenter attends the experiments in
case of injury to the platform by the recoil. The ultimate result is now
looked forward to with great anxiety, the test the gun has already experi-
enced having far exceeded the anticipations of the officers who have wit-
nessed the experiments.

Dec. 20. — The experiments were renewed in the Woolwich Marshes, in the
presence of Colonel Dundas, C.B., Inspector of Artillery, and Lt.-Col. Chal-
mers, Assistant Director-General of Artillery. X new description of 32-
pounder shell was submitted by Caiit. Thistle, of the American army, who
was also present. This shell is formed very similar in shape to a sugar-loaf,
only rather more tapering at the point, into which a nipple is inserted, and
grooves are made along the cone nearly its entire length, in a slightly curved
form, wliinb caused the shell apparently, when fired, to go forward in a
straight direction like an arrow, instead of revolving in the same manner as
the common circular sliells.

Eicperimentfi with Capt. Thistle's Shell, weight 32 lb., and 41b. charge
of Powder.

No. of Dimensions

Rounds. of Gun.

32- pounder

8-in. gun

32-pounder

8-in. gun

32-pounder

8-in. gun

32-pounder

8-in. gun
32.pounder
32 pounder

* Capt. Tliistle's 32-lb. Shell.
All the rounds of both guns were fired at an elevation of 3i degrees, and
showed that the service of the guns and the shells used in the British ser-
vice could be depended upon when Capt. Thistle's shells only in one instance
made a range of 950 yards, and the three others only 650 yards, with the
same advantages in every respect.

2
3
4
.■)
6
7
8
9
10

Charge

Shot or

Ranpe,

of Powder.

Shell.

in Yards

41b.

T. Shell*

.'i.'iO

41b.

S-in .Shell, in lb.

8-.0

411).

T. Shell

350

41b.

8-in Shell. 5C lb.

875

4 1b.

T, Shell

650

411i.

8-in Shell, ,')6 lb.

875

41b.

T. Shell

550

41b.

8-in Shell. .56 lb.

850

41b.

32-lb. Shot

1000

41b.

32-lb. Shot

1000

NOTES OF THE MONTH.

Royal Academy. — Silver Medals were awarded to Mr. J. Bidlake and Mr.
C. A. Gould, on the 9th ult , for drawings of the Whitehall front of Ihe
Banqueting House.— The Professor of Architecture, Mr. Cockerell, will, we
understand, commence his course of lectures to the students of the Aca-
demy on Thursday, the 4th inst., — and continue them during the five suc-
ceeding Thursdays.

Gas Meter for the Houses of Parliament. — A gas meter, of very large
dimensions, has been constructed for registering the gas at the New Houses
of Parliament, at Messrs. Glover's Iron-foundry, Drury-lane. It is con-
structed and cast under the superintendence of Mr. Defrles, of 67, St.
Martin's-laue, the inventor and patentee. This machine, which is to be
placed in Ihe New Palace at Westminster, is an almost stupendous piece of
mechanism, being upwards of 10 feet in height and 20 feet in circumference
or girth ; it is in form a hexagon, the designs are in the Gothic manner, and
in exact keeping with the interior of the New Houses of Parliament, so
that it is an ornamental as well as a useful addition to them, and ought to
be placed so as to be seen by the public. The machine weighs four tons,
and is of capacity to pass 10,000 feet of gas per hour, and of supplying
2,000 lights with, according to calculation, the loss of only half a tenth of
pressure; at whi-h pressure It will work with the greatest ease. The prin-
ciple anil the action of the machine are very simple, and yet very accurate.
There are two chambers, the lower containing three partitions, called
diaphragms; as the gas, in its passage through the valve, acts upon these
diaphragms, they move the machinery in the upper chamber, and by these
means the quanlity of gas consumed is registered. The index consists of
six small dials almost similar to those of watches; on these the consump-
tion can be calculated with very minute accuracy. The iron has been
bronzed, and has a fine surface, the castings being remarkably sharp and
clean. The name of the patentee and the title of the Chartered Gas Com-
pany and the Royal arms are introduced. This meter far exceeds in dimen-
sions anything of the sort ever before attempted.

The Tyne River.— The conservators of the River Tyne have for some
years been engaged in deepening the river and removing obstructions to the
shipping. One of the most formidable bars, which has long defied their
exertions, was Cockran Sand, about five miles below Newcastle. The re-
moval of this sand exposed a stupendous oak tree; which, on the 4th
ult, after being skilfully and securely chained to a vessel at low water,
was at high tide weighed and carried to Newcastle, where, by means of a
powerful crane, it was raised and laid on the quay. It measured 16 ft.
6 In. In circumference by 18 ft. long, and It is conjectured that It must
weigh at least 15 tons. A tree of such dimensions (and this may be consi-
dered but a moiety of the length of the stem) must lead us back to a very
early period. Certain it Is, that from the appearance of decay it must have
been many centuries In Its late position. Before it bowed its leafy head It
must have been at least of from 400 to 500 years' growth. The surface of
the side on which it lay is covered with a metallic coating of iron pyrites,
which, with another scaly covering of pyrites, forms a kind of gallery, in
some parts iin. to 1 Jin, apart, having in many parts the intermediate space
filled up with beautiful crystals of pyrites of minute size like needles. It
appears clear that the tree must have fallen or remained in the position In
which it was found; as below It and Imbedded with it were quantities of
small pieces of branch wood and hazel nuts, most of which were perforated
at the top, and empty. The wood or bark below the pyrites appears to the
extent of Jin. completely charred ; and for Sin. or 4ln. further the wood,
although it has not changed its colour (the lamina; being distinct), is yet
quite decayed. After this part is removed the rest is quite sound. — New-
castle Guardian.

Discovery of an Ancient Cily in Asia Minor. — The Constantinople Journal
gives some curious details regarding a cily said to have been discovered in
Asia Minor by Dr. Brunner, — one of the agents employed by the govern-
ment of the Sublime Porte in peueirating inlo the most remote and inac-
cessible regions of the empire for the purpose of taking a census. While
occupied in exploring the extensive excavations of Bosouk, on Ihe confines
of Pontus, Cappadocia, and Galatia, Dr. Brunner, whose alteution was
attracted by the bold and curious passages opened into the living rock,
was accosted by a villager who offered to show him things far more inte-
resting on the other side of tlie mountain if he would trust to his guidance.
After some hesitation, the Doctor armed himself and followed bis guide,
taking his servant with him. Half-an-hour brought them round the
mounlain ; and then the Doctor found himself, says the narrative, In pre-
sence of the ruins of a considerable town. These ruins are situated to
the soulb-east of the village of Yunkeu'i and to the north of the village of
Tschcpu^, dislant balf-a-lea;;ue from one another; and the Doctor's
profound study of all the accounis, ancient and modern, of Asia Minor
furnish no trace by which he can identify them. The site of the town is
half a league In length. Ii conlains seven temples with cupolas and two
hundred and eighteen houses ; some in good preservation, others half
choked up wllh Ibelr own ruins and with vast fragments of rock delached
from the overhanging mountain. The houses have comparlmenis of three,
four, and six chambers, — and the temples are also (lanked with chambers.
The largest of these edifices is twenty feet long by twenty-eight wide.
So far as the ruins would permit the Doctor to estimate it, he conjectures
the height of some of the temples to be from twenty to thirty feet. There
are traces of plaster on the interior walls ; but not an emblem or Indication,
says Dr. Bruuner, to suggest the origin or date of the ruined city. All
his inquiries on the subject produced from the natives no better answer
than that these remains are " monuments of the infidels." Some old men
remembered to have seen birds and trees painted in fresco on the walls. —
Dr. Brunner proposes his deserted city as a puzzle for the archaologlsts.

Statue of the Duke of Wellington. — The marble statue of the Duke of
Wellington, executed by Mr. Milner, was placed on Tuesday, 12th December,
within the Tower of London, of which his grace is High Constable. The

.^^

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

f Janlabv,

figure was deposited on a granite pedestal 19 feet in lieight, midway be-
tween the ^Ylute Tower and the green fronting the flight of steps leading
from Traitori'-gate. The figure'is about eight feet high. Ilis grace is re-
presented uncovered, attired in a plain military coat, with a cloak loosely
suspended from the shoulders by a cord and tassel.

Rcstorath7is nt Camhriilfre.—A correspondent of the Atlmtteum sends
the following notes relatiiif^ to improvements now taking: phice at Ciun-
bridpe : — The principal interest continues to be concentrated in Jesus Col-
lege Chapel, Cambridge, where the work of restoration is still proceed-
ing,—slowly indeed, but on the whole satisfactorily. I hail hoped long
ere Ihis to havt* been able to announce its completion; but funds have
tlowed in tardily ; while ihe didiculty and expense of the work have been
enormously increased by the unexpected failure of the N.E. Tower Fier —
whicii having for the last three centuries been propped up by the masonry
with which Bishop Aicock filled up the ai:^!e arches (like a man who has
accustomed himself to the support of a stick until at last he cannot stand
without one\ when this was I'emoved began to show alarming symptoms
<if speedy downfall. At first they tried to patch up the broken pier by
ashlar-work (as one puis splints to a broken leg), but in vain; the super-
irirund>ent weight crushed the new stones as it had dime the old, and the
whole seemed to be coming down on the heads of the renovators, — as it
were to appease llie manes of liie good old IJishop. The rii^ht course now
would have l)een to have underpinned the tower « ith timber shores, and
have removed the faulty pier, rehuilding it from the foundation,- — as has
been accomplished so successfully at Hereford and Armagh, umier the di-
rection of the late Mr. Cottiugham. But more timid counsels prevailed
at Cambridge; and INIr. Salvin contented himself with building an internal
buttress, and tiliing up the lower part of the arches with a wall — thus in
part undoing his owe work, and altogether making rather an unsightly
botch. Much time and money have been consumed in these operations,
but meanwhile the other works have not been quite at a standstill. The
large naked-looking east window has been replaced by three exquisite
lancets, — the eastern gable has been raised to its original high pilch, — and
the flat plaster ceiling has made way for a lofty carved roof of limber,
well according with the upwaid soaring tendency of the lines of llie
architecture below. By the munificence of one lay member of liie college,
to whose exertions this work of restoration owes much, the chapel has
been provided with a beautiful organ, for which Mr. Pugin has ilesigned
a very rich case. The same architect who has succeeded Mr. Salvin in
the superintendence of the work, has furnished an elegant oak screen to
he erected at the entrance of the choir; which, together with the rich
stalls to be arranged on either side, are the work of Uattee, the wood
carver of Cambridge. Painted glass is understood to be in progress for
the eastern triplet; and the five lancets to the south are to be filled in a
style corresponding with the Five Sisters at York, by Dr. French, the
Master of the College. It is to be hoped the four lancets opposite will
not long want the same appropriate decoration. The exterior of the
chapel has been left untouched, with tne exception of the elevation of the
choir roof; which, now that it is crowned with Pugin's favourite ridge
ornament of metal, has a very stately appearance. So much for Jesus
Chapel. Of the others, Magdalene, of which 1 have already t-poken on a
former occasion, has bad its noble roof of carved oak, which has been
brought to light by the removal of a fiat plaster ceiling (as represented in
Le Keux's *' Memorials'*) thoroughly repaired, — and the east window,
which had been bincked up by a plaster altar screen, opened and restored.
On the removal of the screen, fragments of exquisite niches were dis-
covered behind it, which had been pulled down to make way for this
modern excrescence. One of these has been already restored in the
most admirable manner, and the others are in progress. The win-
dows are to be filled with stained t;la5S ; and new and appropriate
stalls and other fittings are to be erected under the active super-
intendence of the Dean of Windsor, the present Master of the College.
The Chapel of Christ's has lieen decorated with a very gorgeous east
window of painted glass, by the munificence of Miss Caroline IJurney, — to
whom the Uiiiversity is already largely indehted in other w;)ys. The window
is designed to he a memorial of her brother, — who was a member of the
college. The artist is Mr. Clutterbuek, of Stratford-le- l5ow, who has suc-
ceeded admirably in the difficult problem of filling a large perpendicular
window with an historical sulject. That subject is tlie Crucifixion — and the
effect is rich without conlusion. The other windows will soon be filled by
the members of the college.

L.IST OP PffJS'W" PATENTS.

GRANTEU IN KNGLAND FROM NOVEMBER 23, TO DECEMBER 21, 1848.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

Pierre ArmaDcI Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, of Sl(inner*s-place, Size-lane, City, for
certain iinprovemfiits in the process of and apparatus tor treating fatty bodies, ami in
the application of the products thereof to various useful purooaes. (A communicaiiun.)
Sealed Nov. 2-i,

John Goueher, of Woodsetts. Yorkshire, agricultural machine maker, for u machine
for thrashing corn and other grain. — Nov. 'lb.

John Lane, and John Taylor, of Liverpool, engineers, for improvements in engines,
boilers, and pumps in rotary carriages, in propelling vessels, in the construction of boats,
in extinguisbing fire, and in brewing.— Nov. 29.

Edward Schunck. of Rochdale, Liuicashire, chemist, for improvements in the manu-
fr^cture of malleable iron, and in treating other products obtained in the process. — Nov-
2\i.

William Rolhivell I*omax, of Banbury, Oxford, engineer, for improvements in machines
for cutting hay and straw into chatf, and lore utting other vegetable subslar.ces.— Nov. 29.

Jonah Davies and George Davies, of the Albion Iron Foundry, Staffordshire, iron-
founders, for improvements in steam-engines. — Dec. li. ■

Uobei t Burn, of Kdinburgh, for an improved roller gin, used in separating the seed
from cotton. — Dec. 2.

Francis Hastings Greenstreet, of Liverpool, engineer, for certain improvements in hy-
draulic engines, — Dec. 2.

John Armstrong, of Edinburgh, brass-founder, for improvements in constructing
Water-closets. — Dec. 2.

George Aroistrouif, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, gentleman, for certain improvements in
steam-eng nes. — Dec. 2.

Fieiierick Collier Bakewell, of Hampsttad, gentleman, for improvements r c making
communications fmm one place to another by electricity. — Dec. 2.

William Young, of the firm of Henry Baniierman and Son<*, of Manchester, mtfrchanl'
for ceriain improvements in machinery or apparatus for winding, bailing, or spooling
tbread. yard, or other bbrous materials. — Dec. 2.

Nobert Nelson Collins, of Oxford-court, Cannon- street, druggist, for certain improved
compounds to be used for the prevention of injury to health under certain circumaiences
— Dec. 2.

James Taylor, of Furnival's-inn, gentleman, for improvements in propelling ships and
other vessels. — Dec. 2 ; two months,

John Henderson Porter, of Adelaide-place, f.ondon Bridge, engineer, for an improved
mode of applying corrugated iron in the formation of fire-proof floots, roofs, and other
like structures. — Dec. 2.

John Daley, of Norihampton. iron-founder, for certain improvements in the construc-
tion and arrangement of stoves for cooking, and other purposes. — Dec. 2,

Thomas Drayton, of Re? nt street, practical chemist, for iniprovements in silvering
glass and other surfaces. — Dec. 4.

James Young, of -Manchester, manufacturing chemist, for improvements in the pre-
paration of certain mateiials used in dyeing and printing, — Dec. 9.

John Gardner, of Wokingham, engineer, for improvements in girders for bridges and
other structuves. — Dec. 9.

William Ironside Tait, of Rugby, Warwickshire, printer and bookseller, for an im-
proved nietliod or methods of producing outlines on paper, pasteboard, narchment, pa-
pier mach . and olher like fabrics. — Dec. 9.

Andrew L;imb, of Southampton, engineer, and William AlUoft Summers, ot Millbrook,
Southampton. t;n{'ineer, for certam improvements in steam-engines dud steam-boilers,
and in certain apparatus connected there^vith. — Dec. 9.

John TiUton, of 20, South Audiey-street, London, mechanic, for certain improvements
in the construction and arrangement of certain parts of buildings. — Dec. S*.

Cbristt'pher Nickels, of Albany-road, Camberwell, gentleman, for improvements iu the
manufacture of gloves, and articles of dress and furniture. — Dec. I).

Wdliain Palmer, of Sutton-street, Clerkenwell, manufacturer, for improvements in the
manufacture of candles. — Dec. il.

George Lawrence Lee, of Holborn, Middlesex, lithographer, for improvements in pro-
ducing ornamental designs.— Dec. I>.

Edmund Hartley, of Oldham, Lancashire, mechanic, for certain improvements in ma-
chineiy or appa-atus to be employed in the preparation and spinning of cotton and other
fibrous substances. — Dec. 11.

Joseph Eccles, of Bloorgate Fold Rlill, near Blackburn, Lancaster, cotton spinner, and
James Bradshaw and William Bradshaw, of the same place, watch makers, for certain
improvements in, nnd applicable to looms, tor weaving various descriptions of pUiin and
ornamental textile fabrics. — Dec. 15.

W'illian Wharton, siiperintenflent of the carriage department of the London and
North Western Railway Station, Euslon-square, fir certain improvements in the con-
struction of vehiil s used on railways, or on other roads and ways.— Dec. 15.

Henry Walker, of Gresham-street, London, iieedle manufacturer, for certain improve-
ments in the process or processes of roanulacturir)g needles. — Dec. l'>.

William Wihi, of Salford, Lancaster, moulder, for ce-tain improvements in rotnry
Steam-en>;ine5. — Dec. Hi.

Alfred Vinient Newton, of Chancery- lane, for improvements in casting printing types
and othtu similar raised surtaces, and also in casting quadrats and spaces. (A conimuui-
cation.) — Dec. 1(5.

William Clay, of Clifton Lodu-e. Cumberland, engineer, for certain improvements in
machinery for rolling iron or other metals, parts of which im[irovements are applicable
to other machinery in which cylindera or lolitrs are used. — Dec. IG.

Joseph Deeley, oi Newport, Monmouth, engineer, for improvements in ovens and
furnaces. — Dec. Iti.

Edward Smith, of Kentish Town, window blind manufacturer, for irnprovements iu
window blinds, and in springs applicahle to window blinds, doors, and other like pur-
poses.— Dec. 1<>,

William Major, of Culchett, near Leigh, Lancaster, manufacturer, for improvements in
looms lor weaving,' certain descriptions ol cloths. — Dec. Hi.

John Cartwright, of Sheffield. York, tool maker, for an impioved brace for the use of
carpenters and olKers.— Dec. Ki.

John Clinton, of Greek-street, S'oho-square, professor of music, for improvements in
flutes.- Dec. l(i.

John Travis, and John M'Innes, of Liverpool, lard refiners, for improvements in pack-
ing lard. — I>ec. li>.

Wild am Cuitaiu, of Retreat-place, Ilomerton, gentleman, for certain improvements in
the method of manufacturing Brussels tai e.iitry, Tmkey, and velvet, or cut pile carpets
and velvets, silks, linen, mixed cioths, aurl rugs of all descriptions, by which method
less warp is required, and perfect and regular figures or patterns are produced. —
Dec. It;.

Thomas Dickins, of Middlcton, Lancaster,. «*ilk manufacturer, for certain improvements
in machinery or apparatus for warping and beaming yarns or threads composed of silk or
other tilirous materials, — Dec. 21.

William Wilkuison, ot Dudley, Worcester, manuf.icturer, for a certain improvement or
certain improvements in the cuustruction and manufacture of vices. — Dec. . 1.

James Henry Staple Wilds-nith, of the City-road, London, experimental chemist, for
improvements in the puriliciition of naphtha {culled wood spirit and hydrated oxide of
Metbytel, pyruligneous acid, nnd eupion, and certain other products of the destructive
distill.'-.iiou of wood, peat, and certain other vegetable matters, and of acetate of lime
and shale, and in the purification of coal tar and mineral naphtha, likewise spirit being
the products of fermentation. — Dec. 21.

Charles Augustus Hohn, of King William-street, civil engineer, for improvements iu
piinting. — Dec. 21.

John Penn, Greenwich, Kent, engineer, for certain improvements in steam-engines. —
Dec. 21.

Pierre Arnja d Le Couijjte de Fontainemoreau, of ^ outh-street, Finsbury, London, fur
certain hygienic appariuus and processes for [ reventing and curing chronical and other
adections, and to prevent or stup ceitain epideuiic diseases. (A couimunitaiion.J —
Dec. 21.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

33

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK,
FASCICULUS XC.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter aR the winds,
To blow on whom I please."

I. "Pedantic prejudice," says Taylor, in his Notes from Books,
"is of all prejudice the most obstinate;" wherefore, all the more
unlucky is it that it should so greatly infect both architectural
study and architectural practice. The consequence is, that while
the study is pursued chiefly historically and archaeologically, with-
out any exercise of impartial aesthetic judgment, practice is more
technical than artistic. Such is the state of the art at the present
day, that we are not only content with getting both modern and
second-hand antiquity, and modern and second-hand mediasvalism,
but actually plume ourselves upon doing so, as if we ourselves had
thereby accomplished some extraordinary achievement. To such
absurdly preposterous extent is the blind and superstitious
reverence for medifevalism carried by some, — or in other words,
such is the arrant humbug now practised, that with "art" in their
mouths, people do not scruple to affect admiration for the most
atrocious barbarism. I could name a very carefully and expen-
sively got-up publication, which exhibits as specimens of orthodox
mediaeval art some of the most hideous monsters and mon-
strosities conceivable, — truly diabolical angels, and hagiai or female
saints that would better answer to the idea and name of hags.
Still, such is the force of superstition, though it be only the su-
perstition of fashion, or fashionable archaeology, that it can pre-
vail upon people to overcome instinctive disgust, and pretend to
admire figures which, were they to appear to them in reality,
would throw them into fits. I particularly remember a figure of
St. George, of such intense ugliness and deformity that they of
themselves were quite sufficient to scare the poor dragon to death.
That things of the kind may and do possess interest for antiqua-
ries and those who have got an acquired relish for them, is not
denied. As records of the infantine lispings of art, and accord-
ingly as curiosities, they have a certain fictitious value; but to
propose them as actual studies, and to think of imitating them at
the present day, is as exquisitely preposterous as it would be for
grown-up persons to affect to speak in the dialect of the nursery,
and imitate the charming nonsense of the " pretty darlings."
Even papas and mammas themselves do not venture to do that.
Such degree of intrepidity in defying common-sense is reserved
for our Pugins and Puginists, whose ultra-orthodoxy in adhering
to venerable uncouthness and deformity is more calculated to
shock than to edify the uninitiated, and artists most especially.
Fashion can sanctify the grossest absurdities; therefore, so long as
Puginistic taste and orthodoxy can maintain themselves as a
fashion, they will go down, — as go down they also will and must in
a different sense of that expression ; and then fashion will cry out
against them as much or more than it now does for tliem.

II. As one instance of the length to which fashion can go, it
was once the fashion to admire Strawberry Hill, although it was
such a doggrel piece of architecture that it' ought to have entirely
destroyed Walpole's credit as a critic and connoisseur. Never-
theless, it has been expressely praised by one who passed in his
day for an eminent authority in the Gothic style. To our very
great astonishment now, we read from his pen as follows : " The
connoisseur will here" (viz., the Duke of Devonsliire's villa at
Chiswick) "contemplate all that is exquisite in the Palladian archi-
tecture, and all that is fascinating in the Gothic style at Straw-
berry Hill." Oh! James Dallaway— for thou art the man— thou
must have been mellowed by an extra pnH-prandian potation, ere
thou couldst have written that, and could not have got exactly
sober when thou printedst it. He goes on to sav: "The noble
architect, who pursued the study of English antiquities with so
much science and grace, withheld from his own work the merit of
a perfect imitation, attributed to it by his friends less versed in
architecture than himself." Alinost incredible is it, that a man
like Dallaway, who set himself up for a judge in matters of archi-
tecture, and of Gothic more especially, should have brought him-
self to speak as he did of Strawberry' Hill, instead of denouncing
it as the abortion of an equally vulgar and puerile taste. Although
Gothic was not tlien by any means so well understood and appre-
ciated as it now is, Dallaway himself, it is to be presumed, had
studied and was intimately familiar with the best models of all its
varieties in this kingdom ; and ought, therefore, in decency to
have been scandalised at Walpole's wretched parody and gim-

No. 137.— Vol. XII.— February, 1849.

crack imitation of it. As it is, his extravagantly hyperbolic
praise in that instance — and assuredly nothing else than extrava-
gant it was to speak of Strawberry Hill as exhibiting "all that is
fascinating in the Gothic style" — discredits his judgment generally,
and renders his opinions valueless, — at any rate, of very question-
able value.

III. Attention to rules and the authority of examples will
suffice for producing the prosaic — the respectable, but still prosaic.
The poetical, however, is not to be so achieved even in archi-
tecture; for criticism does not bestow that epithet on what is
merely borrowed or reflected from the genial conceptions of other
minds. At present, we are content with the mere moonshine of
art (alias Fergusson's "monkey styles"), reflected upon us from
luminaries now set and departed. And we are fain to mistake
such reflected lustre for the rising sun of art, and to bow down to
it like devout Persians. It must be admitted that moonshine has
its advantages, one of them being that people are not dazzled by
it; it is besides mild and melancholy, inspiring pensivenes and
cogitation; and reason we have to be thankful — no, not thankful,
but thoughtful — and pensive and melancholy when we find that we
are likely never more to have any of the genial and invigorating
sunshine of art. Melancholy I certainly am just now, mild I need
not add, — for when am I ever otherwise .''

IV. Even buildings have a sort of destiny attached to them
which, wholly irrespective of actual merit, either ensures or denies
them celebrity. While it is the fate of some to be continually
spoken of — to be noticed again and again in books, and represented
over and over again in engravings, it is that of others to obtain
no mention from tongue, pen, or pencil. Many of the smaller
towns of Italy, for instance, contain unedited specimens of archi-
tecture, quite as well worth studying, some of them perhaps
more so, than those which are repeatedly published and spoken of,
because they happen to be of greater notoriety and guide-book
fame, and also to be in the usual route of tourists, — a route which
even artists who go abroad professionally and professedly "in search
of the picturesque," like Dr. Combe's hero, rarely ever deviate from.
There are edifices, too, for which even celebrity itself cannot
secure from the pencil the attention which they merit. We have
one here at home which may he said to be a virgin subject, notwith-
standing that it is a most noble work, a monumental pile, and one
which England is justly proud of, it being what no other country
can match. I do not say that no view of it exists, since one there
is which seems to have been stereotyped, and repeated on every
occasion; but how far does a mere single general view go towards
the graphic and architectural illustration of a pile which would
furnish subjects for at the very least fifty engravings? Yet, so it
is: no one has ever thought, even as mere matter of speculation —
and a safe speculation it assuredly would be — of bringing out a
complete work, entirely devoted to — what I will not yet name.
Such a subject would employ the pen as much as the pencil, for
many are the heroes and the deeds of heroism — of British heroism,
with its achievements and triumphs, which might with great pro-
priety be recorded. It might have been thought that national
pride alone would long ere this have induced England and En-
glishmen to exhibit, in the worthiest possible form, graphic and
architectural illustrations of what, if nothing else, is still the
noblest pile upon the banks of the Thames, in spite of the New
Palace of Westminster. — Header, you will not now ask its name,
or inquire what it is that I allude to, or I must blush for either
your obtuseness or your ignorance, should you not have felt almost
all along that it can be no other than

Greenwich Hospital,
which, although certainly not faultless, possesses a majesty and
glory that would atone for far greater defects. My Public, only
put on your best spectacles, and compare the Palace hight Buck-
ingham, and the Hospital hight Greenwich, and if you be not
seized with exceedingly unpleasant feelings and qualms, all I can
say is, I do not envy your taste, however much I may envy your
stoical imperturbility.

V. Another noble edifice, St. Paul's Cathedral, is in the same
predicament as Greenwich Hospital, it being similarly slighted by
the pencil, instead of being made the subject of graphic illustra-
tion in a complete series of views. The interior would afford
many highly scenic subjects to an artist capable of doing them
justice, and selecting the most picturesque points, so as to bring
out the architecture and place it in its most attractive attitudes ;
which is certainly what has not been yet attempted. Hitherto,
the pencil has done for St. Paul's scarcely anything more than to
exhibit a formal frigid view of the nave, — a surt of dry architec-
tural anatomy; hardly at all more pictorial than a section, without

6

34

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

the accuracy and trustworthiness of one. It mie^ht he thought
that the professed admirers of "t)ie great Sir Christopher AVren"
would h)ng ere this have suggested, — and not only suggested, but
e;irnestly promoted, some work which should liave for its object
the satisfactory illustration of his master-piece. Indeed, a kind of
fatality, untoward fate, or destiny seems to hang over St. Paul's;
for to what else than fatality, excej>t it be to the most unaccount-
able ])er;'erseness, can we ascribe its truly-wretched emplacenient,
in which everything stands askew! It is not so much too confined,
as it is confusedly huddled-up. Were the same space equalised,
and reduced into some regular sha|)e, it would perhaps be suffi-
cient, and preferable to a more extended one; inasmuch as too
great space around it tends to diminish to the eye the apparent
bulk of a building. For the meanness of the surrounding houses
it is not at all difficult to account ; but most unaccountable it is
that they should have been permitted to grow up quite capri-
ciously,— zigzaggedly, and at all sorts of angles, without the
slightest regard "to that alignement vvhich is observed for ordinary
streets, and which ought most assuredly to have been enforced
there. At present, St. Paul's Churchyard is a reproach to the
City and its " powers that be ;" the more so as there is no spot in
the whole metropolis that holds out greater opportunity for archi-
tectural display, while at the same time such display could not
but be generally beneficial to the City itself, by serving as a
counterpoise to attractions at the west-end of the town. No
doubt the value of property just around St. Paul's is so very great
as to render any systematic plan of improvement a formidable un-
dertaking ; still, were any scheme of the kind carried out, a con-
siderable rise in the value of the property might reasonably be
looked for. If, however, the outlay required for improvement ac-
counts for the actual deformity of the wh(de area not being cor-
rected, it does not account for the deformity itself, which appears
to have been established perfectly for the nonce. Nothing less
than inexplicable is it, that whatever irregularity was permitted
elsewhere, some stringent measures should not have been enforced
to ensure at least a decent locale for the new cathedral, if only by
making the lines of the surrounding houses parallel to its plan,
and equidistant from the edifice on every side. Schemes of im-
provement have been put forth : one of them, nearly fifty years
ago, by the late George Dance, which, besides greatly extending
and sjinmetrizing the area immediately around the church,
planned a new street carried from the east end of the Churchyard,
in a straight line to the Monument, — now more wanted than it
then was, in order to relieve the excessive traffic through Cheap-
side, increased as it now is by that to the railways on the other side
of London-bridge. There was certainly something happy, too, in
the idea of approximating, as it were, two of Wren's works, by
forming a vista, one end of which would have been terminated by
the Monument, and the other by St. Paul's. Little more than
twenty years afterwards, Mr. James Elmes brought forward another
scheme, confined to the improvement of the "Churchyard," which
was ingeniously shaped to follow the outline of the plan of the
Cathedral, there being a small crescent facing each of the tran-
septs and its semicircular portico. The scheme was to have been
promoted by the Duke of York, hut he died before any steps could
be taken in it, and it dropped at once. Now, there exists an ob-
stacle to such complete improvement which did not at that time,
the present St. Paul's School not being then erected.

NOTES ON ENGINEERING.— No. XII.
By HoMERSHAM Cox, B.A.

The Centrifugal Strains of Wlieels of Railway Carriages.

The investigation of the strains of the tyres of wheels of rail-
way carriages, produced by rotation, is interesting, not only on
account of its importance with respect to public safety, but also on
account of the very instructive example which it affords of the
application of dynamical pi'inciples.

Little more than a year ago, a fatal accident occurred on one of
the principal railways of this kingdom, by the tyre of a railway
carriage iu motion being thrown off by its centrifugal force, and
striking a carriage of another train. Many other cases have
occurred of the similar disruption and violent projection of the
])onderous masses of metal of which the tyres of railway wheels
are composed. The practical importance of the question, there-
fore, becomes very great, when it is considered that the centri-
fugal strains upon tyres may be so great as to seriously atfect their

strength, and that the momentum which they acquire when pro-
jected may be so great as to render them most destructive agents.

When a material substance is moving in a curve, the total ex-
ternal force acting on it in a direction normal to the curve may he
estimated from a knowledge of the actual velocity and the radius
of curvature. This normal force is usually called centrifugal ;
and the principal value of the theory of centrifugal force consists
in this — that it leads to a determination of the normally-resolved
part of the external forces acting on a moving body, when the
magnitudes and directions of the external forces themselves can-
not be ascertained.

By a principle which need not be here demonstrated, since it is
to be found iu numerous mechanical treatises. The centrifiigiU force
(in ])ounds) of a small body moving in a curve = the weight (in
pounds) X the square of the number of feet described per second
-^ 32j times the radius of curvature (in feet). For instance — if
the weight of a body be 10 lb., and its velocity 8 feet per second,
in a curve of which the radius is 5 feet, the product of the weight
and square of the number of feet per second is 10 X square of 8
= 10 X C* = etO. This divided by 32i times the radius (= 32^
X 5, or 1()1) gives S-J^ lb., or nearly 4 lb. for the amount of the
centrifugal force.

The rule above enunciated, when expressed by a mathematical
formula, gives the value of the centrifugal force equal to

mv- W V-

r ~ g'r^
where m is the mass of the body, v its velocity, W its weight,
r the radius of curvature of its path, and g the force of gravity.
AVhen the velocity is expressed in feet per second, the force g
must be similarly expressed, and therefore ^ 32j, since that is the
velocity, in feet, generated during one second in a body falling
freely by the action of gravity.

The formula just given will now be applied to determine the
tension due to centrifugal force of a circular ring revolving uni-
formly about a fixed centre.

Since every part of the ring revolves with the same velocity
about the same centre, it is acted on by the same centrifugal force.
It is easily seen, then, that if the ring were perfectly flexible, its
circular form would not be altered by the centrifugal forces.
Hence, it follows that at every point its tension is tangential, or
in the direction of its length, as it would be if the ring were a
flexible string. If the tension were in any other than the tangen-
tial direction, it would tend to bend the ring. It is also clear that
the tension is the same in every part of the ring : let this tension
be called T.

This being premised, let us consider the forces acting on a quad-
rant of the ring. The quadrant at its two extremities is acted on
by two tangential forces, T, which are evidently at right angles to
each other; and also at every point by its centrifugal forces nor-
mally. If rf.v be an element of the arc, y^ds its mass, v its linear
velocity, and r tlie radius of the ring, the centrifugal force of any
element of it, by the principle above laid down, is

^a« . — .
r

If the radius at any point of the quadrant be inclined to the

radius at one extremity at an angle 6, the part of the centrifugal

force resolved parallel to that radius is

. t»- , ,

lids . - cos 6; or, uafl ti' cos fl ;
r

since ds := rde.

Now, the sum of the resolved parts of the centrifugal force

parallel to T must equal T, since there is eciuilibrium, and all the

other forces acting on the quadrant are perpendicular to these.

Hence, ,^ /" , „

T = I lids V cos e = IXV-,

integrating between limits 0 and 90°. Let / be the length of the
whole circle, and therefore /</ its mass. Therefore, putting its

weight = W, jti ^ - ,• Also, if t be the time of revolution, or

that in which any point of the ring moves through the space /, we

have vt = I, and v = - . Substituting these values of v and ft iu

the above expression for T,

Wl
tension of ring = — — ;

which formula gives the following rule for finding the tension due

1S49.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER ANP ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

35

to centrifiigal force in a ring revolving uniformly. The te.mwn fin
pounds) = the weight of the ring (in pounds) X by its length (in
feet) -^ htf 32^ times the square of the number of seconds in which
the ring revolves.

We shall next examine the effect of a progressive motion com-
bined with tlie rotation of the ring, and proceed to show that if
the centre of the ring have a progressive motion, the tension will
be the same as if the centre were fixed. This may be easily seen
from the following illustrations. Suppose that in a ship or car-
riage moving with uniform rectilineal motion, a string with a
weight at one end of it were whirled rai)idly, — it is quite clear
that the tension of the string would not be at all influenced by
the progression of the carriage or vessel ; the centrifugal force
would be the same, whether the plane of the string's rotation were
horizontal or vertical — parallel or perpendicular, to the direction
of progression. Again, a hoop rolled along smooth ground with
an assigned velocity, whether it be directed eastward or south-
ward, or to any other point of the compass — that is, whether its
progressive motion coincide with or be inclined to the course of
the earth's diurnal rotation. So also, a body resting at any point
on the earth's surface, except its poles, suffers a diminution of
weight on account of the centrifugal force arising from rotation
about the earth's axis ; but this diminution is not at all influenced
by the annual or progressive motion : the centrifugal force is also
the same for every hour of the day, and on every day of the year —
that is, for every angle at which the diurnal motion at the point in
question can be inclined to the earth's orbit.

We see then that the centrifugal force of a body rotating in a
circle about an assigned centre, is measured, not by the absolute
motion, but by the rotation relatively to that centre. Consequently,
the rule above given for determining the tension of a ring revolv-
ing about a fixed centre, applies to the tyres of railway wheels,
which have not only a circular motion about their axles, but a uni-
form progressive motion also.

It may, however, be more convenient to transform the rule, so
as to express the tension of the tyre in terms of the velocity of

"Wl

the train. We have shown that T = — ;, where / is the length of

the circumference, and t the time of revolution. Now, if the
wheel do not slip, the train moves through a distance / during the

time t ; therefore, if V be the velocity of the train, V := , and

the above expression becomes T

WV^

~7^

Let K be the sectional

area of the tyre, and t the tension per unit of area; T = tk. Also,
it is evident that the solid content of the ring may be put equal to
its length multiplied by its sectional area (= Ik). Hence, if the
weight of a unit of volume be w, we have W = wtic. Substituting
then for W and T,

TK = U)«— ; or, T = .

9 g

Now, this expression, if we take a foot for the unit of length,
gives the tension per square foot of the metal ; but what is usually
required is the tension per square inch, which is of course the
] 44th part of the tension per square foot. Hence the following
very simple rule, since \Ug = 144 X 32^ = 4637 : —

The tension of the tyre in pounds per square inch due to centrifugal
force equals the 4637 th part of the weight in pounds of a cubic foot of
the metal multiplied by the square of the number of feet which the train
travels in a second.

The facility of applying this rule depends materially on its in-
dependence of the rad'ius and other dimensions of the" tyre. As
the weight of a cubic foot of iron or steel varies from about 4,600
to 4,800 lb., the following rule is sufficiently accurate for i)ractical
purposes : —

The tension in pounds on every square inch of the sectional
area of the tyre ^ the square op the nu-mber of peet which the

TRAIN TRAVELS IN A SECOND.

For example, if the train moved 85 feet per second (a mile per
minute), the strain on the metal per square inch would be 7223 lb.
= 3-23 tons. It is curious to observe, that in the same train every
tyre would be subject to the same degree of strain, whatever its
radius, width, and thickness.

SUBMARINE FOUNDATIONS.

On Submarine Foundations; particularly the Screw-Pile and Moor-
ings. By Alexander Mitchell, M. Inst. C.E. — (Paper read at
the Institution of Civil Engineers.)*

The entire subject of the methods of preparing submarine foun-
dations, if treated of in as general and comprehensive a manner
as its importance demands, would not only far exceed the limits
of a paper for the Institution of Civil Engineers, but would be
tedious and unnecessary, as the majority of the members are tho-
roughly conversant with the various systems in their daily prac-
tice ; it is proposed, therefore, to limit the present inquiry to a
cursory mention of the ordinary methods, and to devote the greater
space to a description of the Screw Pile and the Screw Mooring,
and of the works in which they have been employed. Sheet piling,
whether of wood, or iron, is now familiar to every one, as the
driving it is an operation of daily occurrence, and the numerous
scientific treatises on stone foundations, placed in positions of pe-
culiar difficulty and danger, render all comment upon them quite
superfluous.

The Eddystone and Bell Rock Lighthouses furnish splendid ex-
amples of such works. The scientific skill employed in joining
and binding together their parts, giving to them almost a mono-
lythic solidity and strength, is beyond all praise; and yet were
lighthouses now required to be placed in similarly exposed posi-
tions, it is more than probable that strong open-work structures,
upon iron piles, would be substituted for solid stone towers, as a
vast saving would thus be effected, and the strength would be in-
creased by removing the only cause of danger ; for the waves are
only formidable when they are inflexibly opposed. In that part of
the subject which relates to foundations placed in banks of loose
sand or mud, covered by the sea, the author would confine his ob-
servations to his own practical experience, and studiously avoid all
comi)arison with other modes of proceeding, which he is aware
may, and probably will, be brought before the Institution, and will
doubtless receive the usual impartial consideration.

An account of the circumstances which led to the introduction
of the screw-pile and screw-mooring, would possess but little gene-
ral interest, and is not necessary. It will suffice to observe, that
a project, contemplated by the author, involved the necessity of a
much greater holding power than was possessed by any pile or
mooring then in use ; the former being nothing more than a
pointed stake of considerable size, easily either driven into or ex-
tracted from the ground, and the latter a large mass of stone or
iron, which when submerged became of limited power, and was
quite incapable of resisting an upward strain.

The plan which ap- *''B- '•

peared best adapted for
obtaining a firm hold of
soft ground or sand,
was to insert to a con-
siderable distance be-
neath the surface, a bar
of iron (fig. 1.) having
at its lower extremity
a broad plate, or disc of
metal, in a spiral or
helical form, on the
principle of the screw,
in order that it should
enter the ground with
facility, thrusting aside
any obstacles to its de-
scent, without materi-
ally disturbing tne tex-
ture of the strata it
passed through, and that it should at the same time offer an ex-
tended base, either for resisting downward pressure, or an upward
strain. Whether this broad spiral flange, or "Ground Screw, ' as it
may be termed, be applied to the foot of a pile to support a super-
incumbent weight, or be employed as a mooring to resist an
upward strain, its holding power entirely depends upon the area of
its disc, the nature of the ground into which it is inserted, and the
depth to which it is forced beneath the surface. The proper area
of the screw should, in every case, be determined by the nature of
the ground in which it is to be placed, and which must be ascer-
tained by previous experiment. The largest size hitherto used
has been 4 feet in diameter ; but within certain sizes, prescribed
by the facility of manufacturing them, the dimensions may be ex-

* An abstract of this paper was gireo io the Jouroa], Vol. XI. C1B48}, p. t2.

6*

36

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

PFebruaby,

tended to meet any case, and may be said to be limited only by
the power available for forcing them into the ground. Either the
screw-pile, or the screw-mooring can be employed in every de-
scription of ground, hard rock alone excepted : for its helical form
enables it to force its way among stones, and even to thrust aside
medium-sized boulders. In ports, harbours, estuaries, and road-
steads, rock is, however, seldom met with, except in detached
masses, the ground being usually an accumulation of alluvial de-
posit, which is well adapted for the reception of such foundations,
and is also that in which they are generally most required. The
ground screw has been already extensively used for several pur-
poses, and its applicability to many others will be evident from a
succinct account of its present employment.

Fig. 2.

PORT OF L0ND0^4

buoy shackled at the other end (fie;. 3). This sinker, which is a
block of stone or iron, is either laid upon the surface of the
ground, or Is placed in an excavation prepared for its reception.

Fig. 3.

UMEHOUSE

The fixed, or permanent moorings most commonly used are of
two kinds ; the span-chain mooring, and the sinker or mooring-
block. The former of these (fig. 2) consists of a strong chain of
considerable length, stretched along the ground (across the river),
and retained by heavy anchors, or mooring-blocks, at either end,
and to the middle of the ground-chain the buoy-chain is shackled.
Many of these moorings were formerly laid down in the Thames,
at great expense, and they still continue to be the only moorings
in use at the royal dockyards. The disadvantages of these moor-
ings are their expense and the obstruction they present to naviga-
tion ; for should a vessel cast anchor in the neighbourhood, it is
almost certain to get hooked into the cliain, from which it can only
be freed by the assistance of a chain-lighter, at considerable e.x-
pense and loss of time. In fact, mooring-chains across the an-
chorage were adopted to insure the anchors of vessels liringing up,
when the harbour was crowded, and in such cases the harbour flat
was obliged to attend to clear the anchor at slack water. Messrs.
Hemmans, Parkes, and others, state the expense of each govern-
ment mooring of this kind to be about 2,500/.

The other kind, which is more generally employed, consists of a
heavy sinker, to which a strong chain is attached, extending to a

i-ig. 4.

The advantages of this system are its simplicity and cheapness of
construction, with the power of holding nearly equally well in
every direction; but, on the other hand, when the sinker is sub-
jected to a heavy strain, it is generally found deficient in holding-
power, because it chiefly depends upon the specific gravity of the
mass, and because the ground, which must be greatly broken up
for its reception, offers only a feeble resistance to its subsequent
extraction. Another disadvantage is, that being generally confined
to shallow bays and harbours, vessels are often as seriously injured
by grounding upon' them, as when they come in contact with
anchors, which it is contended should never be permitted to be
used in harbours or rivers. Moorings are sometimes formed of
timber frames, loaded with stone and buried in the bed of the
river, as in the harbour of Sunderland, where they have been ex-
tensively applied by Mr. Meik.

These evident defects in the ordinary systems of mooring, in-
duced the author, whilst
seeking for a simple,
eft'ective, and at the
same time inexpensive
mode of holding the
buoy-chain down, to
adopt a modification of
the screw-pile (fig. 4) ;
because it offered great
facilities for entering
tlie ground, and when
arrived at the lequired
depth, it evidently af-
forded greater holding
jiower than any other
Ibrm.

K\ery description of
earth is more or less
adhesive, and the great-
er its tenacity the
larger must be the por-
tion disturbed before
the mooring can be dis-
jilaced by any direct
force. The mass of
ground thus affected, in
the case of the screw-
mooring, is in the form of the frustrum of a cone, inverted; that
is, with its base at the surface, the breadth of the base being in
proportion to the tenacity of the ground; this is pressed on by a
cylinder of water equal to its diameter, the axis of which is its
depth, and the water again bears the weight of a column of air of
the diameter of the cylinder. The comparative masses of ground
which must be removed in dragging up the two kinds of moorings
are shown by the dotted lines in figs. 3 and 5.

It is evident, therefore, that if a cast-iron screw, of a given
area, be forced into the earth to a certain depth, it must afford a

1849."]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

37

firm point of attachment for a buoy-chain, in every direction
(fig. 5), and will oppose a powerful resistance even to a vertical
strain, which generally proves fatal to sinker moorings, depending
(as they do) chiefly on their specific gravity.

Fig. 5.

The first trials were upon a comparatively small scale; but their
success was so decisive, that the merits of the moorings were ac-
knowledged, and their use soon became extended. The depth to
which these moorings have been screwed varies from 8 feet to
18 feet ; the former is deep enough where the soil is of a firm and
unyielding desci-iption, and the latter depth is found to give suflS-
cient firmness in a very weak bottom. It is evident from its form,
that every part of the screw-mooring is so far beneath the surface,
as to prevent a vessel from receiving injury from grounding imme-
diately above it ; the mooring chain alone protruding from the
ground, and it is also obvious, that anchors, dropped in the neigh-
bourhood, cannot be hooked into, or get foul of the chain, one end
alone being attached to the ground. Although economy should
be the last consideration where a large amount of property and
many lives are at stake, still if the end can be safely attained by
less costly means, it is the duty of those having charge of public
works to consider the question. It is right, therefore, to state,
that screw-moorings, of the most powerful description, can be put
down at a tenth part of the cost of the span-chain mooring (fig. 1),
and at even less than the common stone mooring (fig. 2), provided
it be of equal power with the former ; setting aside the defects
which have been noticed. Indeed, with respect to the screw-
moorings, it may be stated, that where they have been longest in
use and are best known, they are most appreciated, as is well
shown in the recent agreement with the Corporation of Newcastle-
on-Tyne, who paid for the permission to use the patent in the
Tyne, as applied to moorings alone, the sum of 2,500/., within a
few months of the expiration of the inventor's privilege, and
when the renewal of it appeared doubtful.*

In fixing these moorings in the ports and harbours where they
have been used, the persons hitherto engaged in the operation have
been generally compelled to avail themselves of any means within
their reach, for the construction of a floating stage or platform, on
which the men could execute the work. Barges, lighters, and pon-
toons have been therefore indiiferently employed ; those that were
without decks being planked over for the purpose. Two such ves-
sels being lashed broadside to each other, with a certain space be-
tween them, are securely moored over the spot, and the screw-
mooring lowered, with the chain attached to the shackle, from the
centre of the stage to the level of the water; and as it descends to
the bottom, the lengths of the apparatus for screwing it into the
ground are successively attached. This apparatris (fig. 6) consists
of a strong wrought-iron shaft, in lengths of 10 or 12 feet each,
connected with each other by key joints or couplings, the lower
extremity having a square socket to fit the head of the centre pin
or axis of the mooring. When the centre pin rests on the bottom,

* The patent has been renewed for a term of fourteen years, firom the year 1847.

a capstan is firmly keyed upon the shaft at a convenient height;
the men then ship the capstan-bars, and apply their power whilst

travelling round
upon the stage,
the capstan being
lifted and again
fixed as the moor-
ing is screwed
down into the
ground. The ope-
ration is continu-
ed until the men
can no longer
move the shaft
round, or until
it is considered to have been
forced to a suflicient depth.
In the river Tyne, where
many of these moorings have
been laid down, a barge of
peculiar construction has been
prepared for the purpose, con-
taining within itself all that
is necessary to facilitate the
work.

The most important purpose
to which the screw-pile has
hitherto been applied, to any
considerable extent, is for
forming the foundations of
lighthouses, beacons, jet-
ties, &c., in situations
where the soil or sand is so
loose and unstable as to be
incapable of supporting any
massive striicture, or where
the waves have so much power
of undermining by their con-
tinuous action, or beat so hea-
vily that the stability of any
mass of masonry would be
seriously endangered. Many
banks oft' our coasts are like
the Goodwin Sands, which,
although when dry scarcely
retain the print of a horse s
hoof, will, when covered by
the sea, swallow up the lar-
gest ship, and are moreover in
such exposed situations that
no solid structure erected
upon them could resist the
action of the sea for any
length of time. From the
number and dangerous nature
of the sand-banks and shoals
surrounding the United King-
dom, the means of placing

Fig. 6.

conspicuous and permanent marks upon them becomes an object of
the highest importance to navigation. But nothing of the nature
of a lighthouse upon a submarine sandbank was ever proposed
prior to the year 1 834, the project till then being considered ex-
tremely hazardous, if not impossible.

The author having at that time satisfied himself as to the hold-
ing power of the screw-mooring, and made some successful experi-
ments with the screw-pile, was applied to by the Society of ftler-
chant Venturers at Bristol, to devise the means of placing a fixed
light on the Dumball, an accumulation of mud and other alluvial
deposit at the entrance of the Avon, and about the end of the year
1834. he laid before that society the plan, specification, and estimate
of a screw-pile lighthouse, similar in principle to those since erec-
ted by him and his son ; but the Corporation of the Trinity House
having subsequently undertaken to buoy and light the Bristol
Channel, the author's plan was abandoned, and a stone lighthouse
was placed on the firm ground in the neighbourhood.

Between the years 1834 and 1838, some unsuccessful attempts
were made to introduce the plan in various localities. In the lat-
ter year, at the suggestion of Captain (now Admiral) Beaufort, of
the Admiralty, he laid a plan before the Corporation of the Tri-
nity House, by whom, at the recommendation of Mr. Walker, their
engineer, it was favourably considered, and in the month of August

38

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

f February,

in that year, the author and his son laid the foundation of Maplin
Sand Lighthouse. (See Jnuriml, Vol. V., 1842, p. 352.)

Before determininfr the leii^tli of the piles and the area of the
screws to be employed, a careful examination of the frround was
made, and it was ])roii<)scd to use nine malleable iron piles of S in.
diameter, and 26 feet in length, with a cast-iron screw of i feet
diameter, secured to the foot of each. Eight of the piles were
placed at the angles of an octagon, and one in the centre; these
were put down in nine consecutive days, being screwed into the
bank to the depth of 22 feet, leaving 4 feet above the surface.
The tide rises on the bank about 16 feet, and seldom leaves the
surface dry. The instrument used in trying the nature of the
ground was also employed in testing its holding power. It con-
sisted of a jointed rod 30 feet long, and 1^ inch diameter, having
at its foot a spiial flange of 6 inches diameter. It was moved
round by means of cross levers, keyed upon the boring-rod : and
upon those levers, when the screw was turned to the depth of 27
feet, a few boards were laid, forming a platform sufficiently large to
support twelve men. A bar was then driven into the bank at some
distance, its top being brought to the same level as that of the
boring-rod. Twelve men were then placed upon the platform to
ascertain if their weight, together with the apparatus, in all about
one ton, sufficed to depress the screw. After some time, the men
were removed, and the level was again applied : but no sensible
depression of the screw could be observed.

Although this was the first screw-pile foundation that was laid
for the reception of a lighthouse on a bank of loose sand covered
by the sea, it was not the first that was erected, as the piles re-
mained untouched for two years, in order to ascertain if any change
would occur from the action of the sea, or other causes.

Pending this term of probation, a lighthouse was proposed to he
erected in Morecombe Bay, and it was decided to use screw-piles
for the foundation. The novelty of the work, the peculiarity of
the situation, and the dread of failure if it were intrusted to stran-
gers or those who were not interested in it, rendered it obligatory
upon the author and his son not only to send in a design for the
foundation, but also for the superstructure, and afterwards to
devote their attention most assiduously to the superintendence of
the erection of the whole structure, which was commenced in the
latter part of 1839, and the lantern was lighted on the 6th of June,
1840, — every part, with the exception of the top of the lantern,
being completed in the month of March. As this lighthouse was
the first of its kind, aiul it was, perhaps, the first attempt to place
a habitation of any description in a position so proverbially un-
stable, a short description of the structure and of the locality be-
comes necessary.

The situation selected for the lighthouse (see Journal, Vol. III.,
1840, p. 181) is about two miles from the nearest shore, on the
verge of a bank of loose sand, which shifted occasionally, until it
was fixed beneath and around the house by a superposed mass,
several feet deep, of strong argillaceous earth and stones. It may
be remarked, that banks of pure sand are very liable to shift at
their surface, and it is extremely difficult to penetrate them to any
considerable depth, the absence of clay or any plastic material ren-
dering the particles nearly incompressible. In this case, seven
wrought-iron piles, 16 feet long, with cast-iron screws 3 feet in
diameter, were employed, one being placed at each angle of a
hexagon, and one in the centre. Seven balks of Baltic timber,
14 inches square, of the best quality, were selected for the sup-
ports of the house ; the six exterior balks were each 48 feet long,
and the centre one was 57 feet in length, to admit of its rising
through the house to the base of the lantern, which it assists in
supporting, and to give additional stability to the whole structure.
In the foot of each of these supports, a hole, 5 inches in diameter,
was bored to the depth of 7 feet, to receive the end of the pile
upon which it was shipped ; and to strengthen them for the same
distance upwards, several strong iron hoops were driven on hot. A
small spiral flange was fixed on the foot of each balk, to draw it
into the sand, in the same manner as in putting down the piles.
The diameter of the hexagonal base is 50 feet, and the diameter of
the platform on which the house stands is 27 feet ; the exterior
piles having an inclination inwards of 1 foot in 5. It should be ob-
served, that any degree of inclination can be given to a pile whilst
it is in motion, by merely placing at a corresponding angle the
platform upon which the men work. The floor of the house is 45
feet above the surface of the bank, and the tide rises about 32 feet
on the supports, at the equinoctial springs.

A more detailed account of this lighthouse would be superfluous,
the remainder of the work being of the ordin.iry character for
structures of this kind; l)ut it may he observed that since the time
of its erection in the winter of 1839 and '40, the only repair it has

received or required is the occasional application of a little paint.
The total expense of this house was about 3,350/., of which the
dioptric apparatus for lighting cost nearly 1,000/.

This, as before observed, being the first lighthouse placed on a
bank of loose sand covered by the sea, and from its proximity to a
deep channel, entering fairly into competition with floating lights,
a few words on the comparative merits of fixed and floating lights
may not be out of place.

In looking out at night for narrow and intricate channels far
from land, it is of the utmost importance that tlie mariner should
rely with undoubting confidence, not only on the stability of the
light, but also on its unvarying position and appearance. All these
advantages are possessed by the Fleetwood lighthouse, and the
others constructed on the same principle ; but in tempestous wea-
ther, the floating light ships are nearly obscured by the spray, and
their lights have no steadiness, on account of the constant motion,
whilst hundreds of lives and millions of property have been lost in
consequence of their breaking from their moorings. Nor can they
be said to occupy any precise position, shifting as they do with the
wind and tide, twice the length of the chains by which they ride.
The comparative expense of these two modes of lighting is yet
to be considered ; and here the advantage is still nuire in favour of
fixed lights. The annual expense of the Fleetwood lighthouse, in
lighting materials and attendance, amounts to 335/., as appears by
the statement of Mr. P. Bidder, resident engineer at Fleetwood,
laid before the Lighthouse Committee of the House of Commons
in 1845 ; while, on the authority of Captain Washington, R.N.,
the average annual expense of the floating lights of Great Britain
is 1,316/. A reference to the report of that committee augments
considerably their average cost.

In the summer of 1844, a screw-pile lighthouse, serving also as a
pilot station, was placed in Belfast Lough, Carrickfergus Bay, on
the tail of the Hollywood bank, about a mile from the coast of
Down. The depth at low water where the house is placed is 9 feet ;
the stratum for a few feet next the surface was coarse sand and
gravel, but the soil beneath was tenacious blue clay, and was easily
penetrated. The cast-iron screws were 3 ft. 6 in. diameter, and
were used with malleable iron piles, 5 inches diameter and 26 feet
long, and were sunk into the bank to the depth of 16 feet. The
structure is very similar in principle to that at Fleetwood, the only
difi'erence being that the house is larger and the lantern smaller, it
being only necessary for the light to be visible from a distance of
six or seven miles. This lighthouse, from a variety of causes, was
constructed at considerably less expense than that at Fleetwood-
on-Wyre. Amongst these may be mentioned the sheltered posi-
tion, less costly lighting apparatus, cheap labour, and summer
weather ; but above all, the desire of the author that his native
town should be benefited by his labours.

Three beacons have been erected by the author and his son for
the Dublin Ballast Board, on the Kish bank, the Arklow l)ank, and
the Blackwater bank. These have all been put down with the in-
tention of placing lighthouses on their sites,
should they appear eventually to suffer no
change by the action of the sea. All these
beacons are similar in form and principle
(fig. 7) ; each consisting of a single pile of
wrought-iron in two joints, connected by a
strong screw coupling, and measuring, when
together, 63 feet in length ; their diameter
at the surface of the ground is 8 inches,
diminishing from thence both up and down.
The incompressible nature of the sand off'er-
ing considerable opposition to the descent
of the pile, screws of only 2 feet in dia-
meter were used, and on the top of each
pile, when fixed, a ball was placed of 3 ft.
6 in. diameter. The screws used for the
Blackwater and the Arklow beacons were
forged of malleable iron, and turned in the
lathe, at great exi)ense ; but that will pro-
bably never again be necessary, as they can
generally be quite as well made of cast-
iron and at mucli less cost. One of these
beacons was fixed in June, 1843, the other
two in the summer of 1846, and are all
standing, though two of them diverge con-
siderably from the perpendicular, having
been frequently struck by vessels in heavy
weather.

In the summer of 1846, a larger and
more important beacon was placed between the Queen's and

Fig. 7.

1819.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

39

Prince's Channels; the two most frequented passages into the
Thames. It stands at the eastern extremity of the Tongue sand,
in a depth, at low water, of 17 feet. The foundation is formed of
five screw-piles in the form of the letter X, the diagonals being
40 feet apart, one being placed at each e.xtremity and one in the
centre. These piles are of malleable iron, 6 inches in diameter
and 43 feet long. Screws, 2 feet in diameter, were used, and they
were sunk to the depth of 19 feet into the bank, which was very
hard. The work was constructed after the design, and under the
direction of Mr. M'alker, C.E., and stands about 40 feet above the
level of low-water spring tides. The method of putting down
these piles was the same as that adopted at the Maplin Sand ; but,
owing to the greater solidity of the ground, a raft of much greater
size and strength was required, to admit of stionger apparatus
being used with levers of greater length. The raft required also
to be much more securely moored by its four angles, being always
in deep water and in a strong tideway.

In the summer of 1847, the screw-pile was subject to a new trial,
in the construction of a pier, or jetty, near the village of Cour-
town, about twelve miles south of Arklow, on an open and exposed
part of the coast of Wexford. On its commencement, a startling
difficulty presented itself. Barges, or strongly-constructed rafts,
had been previously found sufficiently steady to act as stages for
the workmen, when screwing down either piles or moorings ; but
the coast at Courtown being unprotected nearly from north to
south, with an open sea of 70 miles in front, a surf of great height
and force beats almost without intermission upon the shore, pre-
venting the use of any floating body in the construction of the
works. As a steady footing for the men is to a certain e.xtent es-
sential, it became indispensable that the screwing down of the
piles should be effected from the work itself. The method of con-
struction that was adopted was very cheap and simple. The piles
were to be placed 17 feet apart, in a direct line outwards ; a pro-
jecting stage was therefore rigged, extending that distance for-
wards, with the other end resting upon and temporarily attached
to the solid part of the pier. The screw-pile was then run for-
ward upon rollers, lifted by tackle, and placed vertically in the
situation it was intended to occupy. A wheel, 32 feet in diameter,
formed of capstan-bars lashed together at their ends, ^vith a deejily-
grooved end to each, was keyed upon the body of the pile, and an
endless rope-band was passed around it, and held in tension round
a smaller grooved pulley, fixed about 150 feet back towards the
shore. The tendency to pull the pile out of the vertical line was
resisted by a guide-pole, with a grooved pulley at its extremity,
which pressed against the shore side of the pile. These prepara-
tions being made, a number of men hauling upon the endless band
gave a rotary motion to the large wheel, and screwed the pile
down to its place with great ease. The same operation was re-
peated for the next pile laterally, — the cross-beams were laid on,
the overhanging platform was pushed forward, and two more piles
were inserted. During this time the cross-braces were applied,
and the permanent platform was finished.

The works were by this means conducted with such facility and
regularity, that, in spite of rough weather, one bay of 17 feet in
advance was generally completed in a day ; and it is evident, that
by a modification of the same system, even more could be accom-
plished, with greater distances between the sets of piles, if such
extension should be considered necessary.

The new part of the Courtown jetty is 260 feet in length beyond
the solid stone part of the old jetty. The main roadway is 18 ft.
6 in. wide, with a line of railway laid upon each side, leaving a
space for passengers in the centre between the lines. It is ter-
minated by a cross-head or platform, 54 feet long by 36 feet wide,
with a landing stage at each end, which can be raised or depressed,
to suit the convenience of the vessels loading or discharging.
Small coUiers, coasting craft, and the largest class of fishing smacks
can now receive or discharge their cargoes very rapidly and without
grounding. The bottom into which the piles were inserted con-
sisted of an average depth of about 8 feet of sand and gravel, upon
a firm blue clay. Screws of 2 feet diameter were therefore suffi-
cient, with wrought-iron piles, of 5 inches diameter, inserted in
the ground to a depth varying between 11 feet and 15 feet.

The expense of the construction of the extension of this Jetty,
including everything, from the screw piles to the finished platform,
with the lines of railway, turn-tables, landing-stages, &c., was
4,150/., 01 47/. 10s. per lineal yard current. In stating this sum, it
must be remembered, that it was the first work of the kind; ample
allowance was therefore made for contingencies, and as materials
were much more expensive than at present, works of this kind
could now be executed at less cost.

The success attending these applications of the system induced

its extension to other works, of which it will suffice to mention a
few instances, to demonstrate the large field opened for it, not only
in engineering works, but for agricultural and other purposes.

Messrs. Ilansome and May (of Ipswich) have constructed several
kinds of cast-iron screw points, shown in figs. 8, 9, 10, and 11.

Fig. 8. Fig. SI. Fig. lU.

Weight 3 qr. 22 lb.

Weight 2 cwt. 3 qr. 141b.

Fig. 8 shows the largest size, adapted for whole timber piles,
which are so often splintered and shattered, and even set on fire,
by the rapid blows of the steam pile-driver, when traversing com-
pact ground, and where wrought-iron shoes are generally crushed
into the timber, even in ordinary ground, with the force of the
common pile-engine. The small screw-point opens the way for the
conical part, and the larger screw not only draws the pile down,
but, when it has penetrated to a sufficient depth, affords an ex-
tended base for preventing further depression. Thus several feet
of timber must be saved, and the general length of the pile can be
reduced, as it will bear a greater weight, and offer a more solid
base, when introduced to a less distance than when it rests upon
the ordinary sharp wrought-iron pointed shoe.

Fig. 9 shows the shape adapted for railway signal-posts, and
fig. 10 that for the supports for the wires of the electric telegraph.
For these purposes the screw points must be very useful, as, inde-
pendent of the economy of labour in putting them down by merely
screwing them into the ground, instead of digging holes to intro-
duce the cross-feet, all possibUity of injury to the banks would be
precluded ; whereas, at present, there is always a liability of caus-
ing a slip by disturbing uncertain ground, and admitting water in
the sides of cuttings.

The cast-iron screw-socket points (fig. 8) have recently been
very successfully applied, for the supporting posts or columns of
timber-sheds and buOdings, for railway stations and other pur-
poses. These are generally constructed upon made ground, and
the foundation for each column is prepared for excavating a hole
about 6 feet deep, to be filled with concrete, which is either
rammed ro\ind the post, or carries a large stone into which the
column is inserted. Or sometimes by having a transverse sill and
struts at the foot of the post, which must all be buried in the
ground, and be liable to decay from the wet. By the system now
introduced, the iron screw-socket alone is inserted into the ground,
by screwing it in with capstan-bars; an operation which only oc-
cupies a very short time : the earth around is not disturbed, and
the timber cannot be exposed to injury or decay.

As an instance of the stability and the power of holding of these

40

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNTAL.

I Febbuaby,

screw points, it may be stated that when trying experiments upon
the various forms, Messrs. Ransome and May screwed a casting
of the form of fig. 9 to a depth of 4. feet into the gravel of the
yard of their works, and after fixing into it a pole 38 feet in height,
a man climbed to the top, and caused it to vilirate as much as pos-
sible, without apparently affecting the stability of the foot. A
steelyard was then attached to it, and a
power of 4 tons was applied with direct ver-
tical tension ; but without being able to
draw it out of the ground, and the pole is
now standing as firmly as ever. Since then,
with a larger sized screw point (fig. 8), a
mast 82 feet in height, with a vane at the
top 5 feet in length, has been placed, and
although only inserted 5 feet into the
ground, it is perfectly steady, with three
very short gye-ropes.

Fig. 11 shows the applicability to smaller
objects, and a tent-pin has been selected as
the most familiar example, as it requires to
be removed so frequently, and shows the use
that may be made of the screw, for the
standards of fencing, and for an infinite
number of agricultural and other purposes. f'8- H-

Remarks after the reading of the above Paper.
Mr. Brooks said he had considerable experience in the use and merits
of the screw-moorings, and must accord them his entire approval. It
was more conclusive to give facts than opinions, and therefore, although
he had not come prepared to address the meeting, he would state suc-
cinctly what had been done in the Tyne. A heavy ground chain, com-
posed of links each 3 feet in length, of round iron 3J inches in diameter, was
stretched along the bed of the river in the deep water, and in the direc-
tion of the current, instead of according to the old system, placing it as a
bridle across the stream (as shown i n the wood-cut, fig. 2.) To this
chain, at given distances, marking the centre of each tier, and the mid-
distance between, were shackled studded link mooting-chains of 2j-inch
iron, which had been previously laid down, with the lower extremity of
each attached to a screw-mooring, inserted into the bottom of Ihe river at
each spot to depths varying from 10 feet to 20 feet. The chain attached

Fig. 12.

'^■^^■<-'mmim}MMMMMmmm\

mmmmmmM^mmm

to the sheer-screw was two fathoms longer than that to which the mooring,
screws were shackled, so as to allow the strain to come upon Ihe niooring-
screws, instead of upon the sheer screws, which latter were only intended
to bear the strain arising from the vessels ranging across the stream, when
the wind was off either shore. The moorings were placed where the
depth varied at low-water spring tides from 15 to 24 feet. The bed of the
river consisted of sand for about six feet in depth, and then clay for about
four feet; rock was generally met with, but the latter, where it consisted
of a stratum of shale, was penetrated by the wrought-iron screw point,
for about one foot, or as far as the underside of the table of the screw.
The screw-moorings which were used were four feet in diameter, and un-
less they were stopped by rock, they were easily inserted to a depth of 15
feet into the sand and clay, in about an hour and a half. Some of them
had been screwed down to a depth of 21 feet in less than two hours. It
must be observed, however, that a very efiicient apparatus was constructed
expressly for the operation (figs. 12, 13, and 11) ): it consisted of a hop-
per barge, with semicircular leaves on each side, forming, when lowered,
a platform of about 40 feet in diameter. The capstan had eight bars, each
20 feet in length, requiring four or five men to each bar, according to the
quality of the soil into which the screws were to be forced ((ig.6.) Each
'jciew was intended by Messrs, Mitchell and Son to bear a strain of four

heavy ships ; but during the crowded state of Ihe port, for several months
of ihe winter of 1847, double that number of vessels generally made fast
to them.

Mr. Walker said, with respect to the screw.piles for foundations for
lighthouses upon sand or mudbanks, those upon the Maplin Sand had
been very successful; for, although the sand on the surface had shifted
considerably, being carried away and brought back again by different
states of the sea, the screw-piles stood perfectly ; in fact, tli*?y offered no
obstruction to the passage of the waves, and caused no scour. With
respect to the Goodwin Sands, it was not generally known, that the Cor-
poration of the Trinity House had caused a beacon to be placed on the
back of the sand, consisting of a base of cut stones well secured together,
with an octagon-sided vessel, or caisson, which was towed to the spot and
grounded; the sides were then unshipped, leaving the bottom under the
mass of stone, and an iron beacon mast was stepped into it. This beacon
was now the only one in existence upon the sands. He believed, that
beacons, or other structures, erected upon screw-piles, would stand as
well on the Goodwin Sands as on the Maplin and other places. Schemes
for lighthouses to be placed upon the Goodwin Sands were constantly
pressed upon his notice; but it did not appear to be understood, that any
solid edifice, to be erected in that locality, must have its foundation carried
Fig. 13. Fig. 14.

down to the chalk, to insure its durability. The Corporation of Ihe
Trinity House wished it to be understood, that it was not their intention
to place lights upon the Goodwin Sands ; but rather to place them around
that spot, in order that vessels might avoid its dangers. At present, float-
ing lights were employed ; but if fixed lights could be placed in Ihe same,
or equally useful localities, he had no doubt the project would be enter-
tained. He had a good opinion of the screw-piles for this purpose, and
when the question came before him in a tangible form he should be ready
to give it his attention, for he thought, that a lighthouse could be erected
on that principle, in a difficult position, more economically than by any
other plan. Tlie Corporation of the Trinity House was now about lu test
the stienglh of iron lishthouses, by erecting one upon the Bishop Rock,
in Ihe .Scilly Islands, in a situation which was even more exposed than
Ihe Eddystone. The plan adopted for fixing the foundations was, to bore
holes in the rock, to clamp masses of ircm into them, and then holt down
the lighthouse upon these fixed irons. Wliether this system would answer,
or whether stone or iron for the structure would be Ihe most durable, re-
remained to be proved. At the Point of Ayr, Mr. Walker had adopted
another system for the foundation of a lighthouse placed upon piles.
Cast-iron cylinders were sunk into the bank, the piles were plated within
them, and each was tilled with concrete; tiiis system was practicable in
certain situations, where the bank was dry at low water, but was evidently
not so generally available as the screw pile, which offered great facilitie.s,
by the rapidity vvilli which it could be inserted even at considerable depths
under water, with very simple and inexpensive apparatus.*

* Mr. Brunei has recently caused a very interesting and conclusive experiment to be
tried, near tile proposed site of the bridge for carrying the South Wales Kaihvav across
the river Wye, at Chepstow. A cast-iron cylinder, ."i feet diameter externally, \\ inch in
thickness, cast in lengths 10 feet each, with internal socket and jogi^le joints, secured
with pins and run with lead, was armed at the extreme bottom with a sharp wrought-irou
hoi>p, and a little above it was a helical flanch projecting 1*2 inches all round from the
body of the cylinder, around which it made an entire revolution, rtilh a pitch of 1 inches.
Ily means of capst^n-bais worked by manual labour, and by strong winches, this cylinder
was screwed into the ground, near the bank of the ri-er, but (ml of the influence of the
tide, to a depth of ."iH feet, in 4S hours and 14 minutes, through stitf clay and sand down
to the marl rock. In descending to that depth the cylinder made 142 levolutions. and
the average rate of sinking per revolution, very nearly accorded with the pitch of the
screw. The time quoted Is only that which was actually consumed in forcing the cylinder
down, as it was allowed to rest for long periods, whilst the interior core of clay was re-
peatedly cleared out, and on account of the breakai^es of the lopes and the capstan-bars,
and other casualties incidental to all first experimeuls. It is the intention o Mr. Brunei
to try a cylinder d feet diameter, with a larger helical flanch or screw, before deciding
upon the dimensions of the cylinders for the foundaiions ol his bridges, to be placed in
situations where there is a great depth of mud, stiff clay, and sand. Of this and the
subsequent experiments, accounts may probably be given hereafter.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

41

ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.

On the Strength of ilateriaU. as Influenced by the Existence or
non-Ejcistence of certain Mutual Strains among the Particles com-
posing them. By James Thomson, Jun., M.A., College, Glasgow.
— [From the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal, Novem-
ber, 184.8.]

My principal object in the following paper is to show that the
absolute strength of any material composed of a substance possess-
ing ductility (and few substances, if any, are entirely devoid of
this property), may vary to a great extent, according to the state
of tension or relaxation in which the particles have been made to
exist when the material as a wliole is subject to external strain.

Let, for instance, a cylindrical bar of malleable iron, or a piece
of iron wire, be made red hot, and then be allowed to cool. Its
particles may now be regarded as being all completely relaxed.
Let next the one end of the bar be fixed, and the other be made to
revolve by torsion, till the particles at the circumference of the
bar are strained to the utmost extent of which they can admit
without undergoing a permanent alteration in their mutual con-
nection.* In this condition, equal elements of the cross-section
of the bar afford resistances proportional to the distances of the
elements from the centre of the bar ; since the particles are dis-
placed from their positions of relaxation through spaces which are
proportional to the distances of the particles from the centre.
The couple which the bar now resists, and which is equal to the
sum of the couples due to the resistances of all the elements of
the section, is that which is commonly assumed as the measure of
the strength of the bar. For future reference, this couple may be
denoted by L, and the angle through which it has twisted the loose
end of the bar by e.

The twisting of the bar may, however, be carried still farther,
and during the progress of this process the outer particles will
yield in virtue of their ductility, those towards the interior assum-
ing successively the condition of greatest tension ; until, when the
twisting has been sufficiently continued, all the particles in the
section, except those quite close to the centre, will have been
brought to afford their utmost resistance. Hence, if we suppose
that no change in the hardness of the substance composing the
material has resulted from the sliding of its particles past one
another — and that, therefore, all small elements of the section of
the bar afford the same resistance, no matter what their distances
from the centre may be — it is easy to prove that the total resist-
ance of the bar is now | of what it was in the former case ; or, ac-
cording to the notation already adopted, it is now |L.

To prove this, let r be the radius of the bar, ri the utmost force of a uni'
of area of the section to resist a strain tending to make the particles shde
past one another ; or to resist a shearing strain, as it is commonly called.
Also, let the section of the bar be supposed to be divided into an infinite
number of concentric annular elements; the radius of any one of these
being denoted by x, and its area by 2xxdx.

Now, when only the particles at the circumference are strained to the
utmost ; and when, therefore, the forces on equal areas of the various ele-
ments are proportional to the distances of the elements from the centre, we

X

have ij— for the force of a unit of area at the distance x from the centre,
r

Hence the total tangential force of the element is

X

= 2 T xdx .Tj — ;
r

and the couple due to the same element is

X 1

= j:.27r.r(iar.r)— =27r n — . x^dx:
r r

and therefore the total couple, which has been denoted above by L, is

1 />r

•=2irr)- / x^dx, — that is
Vo

L = ^ IT 7) r^ (a).

Next, when the bar has been twisted so much that all the particles in its
section afford their utmost resistance, we have the total tangential force of
the element =2Trxdx.n;

and the couple due to the same element =x.2iTxdx.Ti = 2irT].x^ dx.
Hence the total couple due to the entire section is

= 2 7rij/ X'dx = f 7r7;r3.
-^ 0

* I here assume the existence of a defluite " elastic limit," or a limit witliin which if
two particles of a snlistarce be displaced, they will return to their original relative posi-
tions when the disturbing force is removed. The opposite conclusion, to which Mr.
Horigkinson seeiris to have been led by some Interesting experimental results, will be
considered at a more advanced part of this paper.

But this quantity is ^ of the value of L in formula (a). That is, the couple
which the bar resists in this case is ^ L, or ^ of that which it resists in the
former case.

If, after this, all external strain be removed from the bar, it will
assume a position of equilibrium, in whicli tlie outer particles will
be strained in the direction opposite to that in which it was twisted
and the inner ones in the same as that of the twisting, — the two
sets of opposite couples thus produced among the particles of the
bar balancing one another. It is easy to show that the line of
separation between the particles strained in the one direction, and
those in the other, is a circle whose radius is | of the radius of the
bar. The particles in this line are evidently subject to no strain*
when no external couple is applied. Tlie bar with its new mole-
cular arrangement may now be subjected, as often as we please,f to
the couple i L, without undergoing any farther alteration ; and
therefore its ultimate strength to resist torsion, in the direction of
the couple L, has been considerably increased. Its strength to
resist torsion in the opposite direction has, however, by the same
process, been much diminished ; for, as soon as its free extremity
has been made to revolve backwards through an angle of | 9 from
the position of equilibrium, the particles at the circumference will
have suffered the utmost displacement of which they can admit
without undergoing permanent alteration. Now it is easy to prove
that the couple required to produce a certain angle of torsion is the
same in the new state of the bar as in the old.J Hence the ulti-
mate strength of the bar when twisted backwards, is represented
by a couple amounting to only | L. But, as we have seen, it is ^ L
when the wire is twisted forwards. That is. The wire in its netp
state has twice as much strength to resist torsion in the one direction as
it has to resist it in the other.

Principles quite similar to the foregoing, operate in regard to
beams subjected to cross strains. As, however my chief object at
present is to point out the existence oi^ such principles, to indicate
the mode in which they are to be applied, and to show their great
practical importance in the determination of the strength of ma-
terials, I need not enter fully into their application in the case of
cross-strain. The investigation in this case closely resembles that
in the case of torsion, but is more complicated on account of the
different ultimate resistances afforded by any material to tension
and to compression, and on account of the numerous varieties in
the form of section of beams which for different purposes it is
found advisable to adopt. I shall therefore merely make a few
remarks on this subject.

If a bent bar of wrought-iron, or other ductile material, be
straightened, its particles will thus be put into such a state, that
its strengtli to resist cross-strain, in the direction towards which it
has been straightened, will be very much greater than its strength
to resist it in the opposite direction, each of these two resistances
being entirely different from that which the same bar would afford
were its particles all relaxed when the entire bar is free from ex-
ternal strain. The actual ratios of these various resistances de-
pend on the comparative ultimate resistances afforded by the sub-
stance to compression and extension ; and also, in a very material
degree, on the form of the section of the bar. I may however
state that in general the variations in the strength of a bar to resist
cross-strains, wliich are occasioned by variations in its molecular
arrangement, are much greater even than those which have already
been pointed out as occurring in the strength of bars subjected to
torsion.

What has been already stated is quite sufficient to account for
many very discordant and perplexing results which have been ar-
rived at by different experimenters on the strength of materials.
It scarcely ever occurs that a material is presented to us, either
for experiment or for application to a practical use, in which the
particles are free from great mutual strains. Processes have
already been pointed out, by which we may at pleasure produce
certain peculiar strains of this kind. These, or other processes
producing somewhat similar strains, are used in the manufacture

* Or at least they are subject to no strain of torsion either in the one direction or iu
the other; though they may perhaps be subject to a strain of compression or extension
in the direction of the length of the bar. This, however, does BOt fail to be considered
in the present investigation.

+ This statement, if not strictly, is at least extremely nearly true : since from the ex-
periments made by Mr. Fairbairn and Mr. Hodgkinson on cast-iron (see various Reporis
of the British Association), we may conclude that the metals are influenced only in an
extremely slight degree by time. Were the bars composed of some substance such as
sealing-wax or hard pitch, possessing a sensible amount of viscidity, the statement in
the text would not hold good.

t To prove this, let the bar be supposed to be divided into an infinite number of ele-
mentary concentric tubes (like the so-called annual rings of growth in trees) ; to twist
each of these tubes through a certain angle, the same couple will be required whether
the tube is already subject to the action of a couple of any moderate amount in either
direction or not. Hence, to twist them all, or what is the same thing, to twist the whole
bar, through a certain angle, the same couple will be required whether the various ele-
mentary tubejs be or be cot relaxed, wheu the bar as a whole 1« free from external strain.

42

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Febbwabv,

of almost all materials. Thus, for instance, when malleable iron
has received its linal conformation by the process termed cold
tv'iiginy, that is by hammerinff it till it is cold, tlie outer particles
exist in a state of extreme compression, and the internal ones in a
state of extreme tension. The same seems to be the case in cast-
iron when it is tal<en from the mould in which it has been cast.
The outer portions have cooled first, and have therefore contracted
while the inner ones still continued expanded by heat. The inner
ones then contract as they subsequently cool, aiul thus they as it
were pull the outer ones tog-ether. That is, in the end, the outer
ones are in a state of compression, and the inner ones in the oppo-
site condition.

The foregoing- principles may serve to explain the true cause of
an inipoi-tant fact observed by Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson in his
valuable researches in regard to the strength of cast-iron {Report
of the Brithh Association for 1837, p. 3«2).* He found that, con-
trary to what had been previously supposed, a strain, however
small in comparison to that which would occasion rupture, was
sufficient to produce a set in the beams on which he experimented.
Now this is just what sliould be expected in accordance with the
principles which I have brought forward; for if, from some of the
causes already jiointed out, various parts of the beam previously
to the application of an external force have been strained to the
utmost, wlien, by the ap))lication of such force, however small,
they are still farther displaced from their positions of relaxation,
they must necessarily undergo a permanent alteration in their con-
nection with one another, — an alteration permitted by the ductility
t>f the material; or, in other words, the beam as a whole must
take a set.

In accordance with the explanation of the fact observed by Mr.
Hodgkinson, I do not think we are to conclude with him, that
" the maxim of loading bodies within the elastic limit has no foun-
dation in nature. " It appears to me that the defect of elasticity
which he has shown to occur even with very slight strains, exists
only when the strain is applied for the first time; or, in other
words, that if a beam has already been acted on by a considerable
strain, it may again be subjected to any smaller strain in the same
direction without its taking a set. It will readily be seen, how-
ever, fnmi Mr. Hodgkinson's experiments, that the term "elastic
limit," as commonly eni])loyed, is entirely vague, and must tend to
lead to erroneous results.

The considerations adduced seem to me to show clearly that
there really exist two elastic limits for any material, between which
the dis))lacements or deflections, or what may in general be termed
the changes of form, must be confined, if we wish to avoid giving
the material a set; or, in the case of invariable strains, if we wish
to avoid giving it a continuous succession of sets, which would
gradually bring about its destruction ; that these two elastic limits
are usually situated, one on the one side, and the other on the
opposite side of the position which the material assumes when
subject to no external strain, though they may be both on the
same side of this position of relaxation,t and that they may,
therefore, with ))ropriety, be called the superior and inferior limit
of tlie change of form of the material for the particular arrange-
ment which has been given to its particles ; that these two limits
;ire not fi.red for any given material, but that if the change of
form be continued beyond either limit, two new limits will, by
means of an alteration in the arrangement of the particles of the
material, be given to it in place of those which it previously pos-
sessed ; and lastly, that the processes employed in the manufac-
ture of materials are usually such as to place two limits in close
contiguity with one another, thus causing the material to take in
the first instance a set from any strain, however slight, while the
interval which may afterwards exist between the two limits, and
also, as was before stated, the actual position assumed by each of
them, is determined by the peculiar strains which are subsequently
apjilied to the material.

The introduction of new, though necessary, elements into the

* For further int'urmutlun regarding Mr. Hodgkinson's views and experiments, see his
fommunications in the " TraiisuctioDS of the Sections of the British Association" for
the year lH4.'i (p. 23) and 1844 (p. L'.'-i), and a work by him, entitled •' P^xperloiental Re-
searches on tlie Strength and other properties of Cast Iron."

t 'I hus, if the section of a henni be of some such form
as that shown in either of the accompanying fiijures the
one rih or the two ribs, as the case may be, being very
wetik in comparison to the thick part of the beam, it may
readily occur tliat the two elaatic limits of delledioii may
be s'tiiat'-d both on the same side of the position assumed
by th« beam when free Irooi external force. For if ttie
Ijea'ji has been supported at its extremities and loaded at
i'B mi'idle till the rib A H hag yielded by its ductility so as
to make all its particles exert their utmost tension, and if
llie 111 'd he li'iw gradually removed. th.° particles at B may
come to be'compre«si-(l Iaj the ulniost belore the load has
ijeen entirely rtuiove -.

Svo. 1B46.

consideration of the strength of materials may, on the one hand
seem annoying from rendering the investigations more com])licated.
On the other hand, their introduction will really have the effect of
obviating difficulties, by removing erroneous modes of viewing the
subject, and preventing contradictory or incongruous results from
being obtained by theory and experiment. In all investigations,
in fact, in which we desire to attain, or to approach nearly to,
truth, we must take facts as they actually are, not as we might be
temjited to wish them to be, for enabling us to dispense with ex-
amining processes which are somewhat concealed and intricate,
but are not the less influential from their hidden character.

EDUCATION OF ENGINEERS.

The study of engineering presents peculiar difficulties; not
from the paucity of information, but from the multiplicity of its
sources, which are so many and so widely separated, that the
student may well be bewildered and discouraged when presented
with a map of his future course. Let us consider a few of the
branches of knowledge with which he must be adequately ac-
quainted before he can be said to have mastered the whole of the
principles of his profession.

As a large part of his business consists in adapting mineral pro-
ducts to useful purposes, he must be acquainted with the me-
chanical and chemical properties of minerals, and must be able to
di.stinguish good metal from bad, sound building materials from
those which are perishable, &c. He must, therefore, be acquainted
with the science of Mineralogy — or, at least, that part of it which
is susceptible of pi'actical application. The changes which in the
progress of time are wrought in those minerals by affecting their
molecular or crystalline structure, the value of different methods
of working them, the chemical changes wrought by the atmo-
sphere, and the action of foreign substances, are considerations
which render indispensable an adequate knowledge of Chemistky.
The engineer employed in constructing railways, roads, canals, and
harbours, must certainly be acquainted with Geology : for, how
shall he estimate beforehand the probable cost of his works, their
permanency, or the most judicious mode of carrying them on,
unless he know the n.iture of the soils in which he will have to
operate, the order of their succession, their relative depths, and
stratification ? To estimate the proper form and dimensions of
the structures which form part of his works, he must be thoroughly
versed in the science of Statics. To determine the most effective
agents of mechanical power, and the most economical methods of
producing and regulating motion, the knowledge of Dynamics
will be required. The operation of the steam-engine, atmospheric
railways, the air-pump, the ventilation of mines, &c., are to be
understood only by the investigation of tlie principles of elastic
fluids — Pneujiatics. The sciences of inelastic fluids — Hydrosta-
tics, and Hydraulics, are essential in constructing sea-walls,
breakwaters, canals, and docks, in ascertaining the power of
water-mills and hydrostatic-engines, in works of drainage and
water-supply, and in naval architecture.

The sciences already enumerated by no means exhaust the list
included in the engineer's curriculum. Most of them involve a
knowledge of Mathematics, and some of them of its highest
branches — in dynamics, for instance, the processes of the Diffe-
rential Calculus are involved at every step. Mathematical know-
ledge will, moreover, be required in a most important branch of
the engineers occupation — surveying, and the measurement of
works. To lay down the course of a railway or estimate the cubic
contents of an embankment, would be impossible without some
knowledge of Trigonometry- and Solid Geo.-heiky.

The institution of colleges expressly intended for the scientific
education of young engineers, is an ample evidence of the general
recognition of the value of the abstract sciences for practical pur-
poses. There are now three colleges in London, or its vicinity —
King College, University College, and the College of Civil En-
gineers, at Putney, in which a course of study is adopted for the
especial purpose of preparation for the practice of civil engineering.
In estimating the value of such institutions, it should be carefully
remembered that the knowledge of the engineer is of two kinds —
scientific and practical knowledge. The former may be acquired
from books in tlie laboratory or college lecture-room — the latter is
to be obtained in the workshop, or the canal or railway works.

The substitution of certainty for conjecture, of demonstration
for hazardous and imperfect analogies — these, in fact, are the
oljects of colleges ot ci-.il engineering. 'i'he details of the

1849.J

THE CIVIL EXGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

43

courses of lectures may differ in each, but to all of these insti-
tutions may be applied the words of a printed statement re-
specting the Putney College, in which it is said that "the founda-
tion of the system is laid in a knowledge of the exact sciences and
properties of matter — i.e., upon mathematics and chemistry."
The mathematical course includes, among the sciences above re-
ferred to, as forming a necessary part of the education of the
engineer, Geometry, Analysis (including the Differential and In-
tegral Calculus), Statics, Dynamics, and Hydraulics. Fortunately
— most fortunately — in all three colleges, the Mathematical lectures
are delivered by matliematidans, not by mathematical pretenders,
whose acquirements consist in a certain impudent dexterity in
dazzling the eyes of those who are more ignorant than themselves,
by a display of mathematical jargon. The practical classes of
Chemistry afford the student the o])i)ortunity of analysing and
assaying minerals by direct manipulation. The lectures on
Geology include the practical application of the science to archi-
tecture, marine engineering, and mining : there are also lectures
on civil engineering, machinery, mechanical drawing, &c. We
will not venture to assert that this course of instruction altoge-
ther supersedes the necessity of further pupilage in the office of
a civil engineer; on the contrary, tlie student is strongly urged
to avail himself of that advantage, for without it he never will
be fit to cope with any work of magnitude.

We cannot close this account without referring to an incidental
advantage of these colleges, in promoting the improvement of
engineering literature. For the wretchedly inaccurate works
which were palmed on the practical mechanic a few years ago,
we have new and admirable treatises on the various applications of
the sciences, by Mr. Hodgkinson at University College, Professor
Moseley and Mr. Hann at King's College, and of the Putney lectu-
rers, by Professor Ansted, Dr. Lyon Playfair, Professor Davies, &c.
It is also gratifying to add to this list, the name of Mr. Cowie, as he
has announced the publication of his lectures on Hydraulics, com-
bining his own researcheswith the results of the eminent continental
writers on the subject. The vexatie quextiones of hydraulics are so
many and so perplexing, that this work can scarcely fail of ren-
dering important service to science. Truly the labours of such
men are wanted to bring the engineering literature of tliis
country up to the same standard which in France the splendid in-
vestigations of Poncelet, Navier, and others scarcely less illustri-
ous, have attained.

THE DUNDEE COMPETITION.

By the time that this article appears in print, the designs for
"an Ornamental Building to be erected at the Harbour of Dundee,
commemorative of the landing of Her Majesty at that port in
1844," will have been sent in. In one respect, there is no differ-
ence between this and nearly all other competitions, the time allowed
for the preparation of designs being absurdly short. Committees
seem to think that architects are improvisatori, — that they require
only to have a subject proposed to them, when their stock of ever-
ready inspiration will enable them to pour forth ideas as happy as
they are unpremeditated. They seem, moreover, to fancy that
architects are alwaj^s at leisure to sit down to their drawing-board
at once, as soon as they have read an advertisement inviting them
to compete. Not only quite unnecessary and absurdly preposte-
rous, but this hurry is deplorably mischievous in its consequences;
nor is it at all to be wondered at that so many crude designs should
be produced on such occasions, since no time is allowed for due
study and leisurely consideration of the subject. Committees are
not at all aware that what are carefully-executed drawings may
nevertheless be exceedingly careless, unstudied designs, — even the
best of them inferior to what they would be were time allowed
for correcting first ideas. It is only by attributing it to ignorance
of its consequences, that we can account for the lamentable hurry
with which competitions are managed, we being unable to imagine
that any set of men would knowingly frustrate their own object —
viz., the obtaining a really good design — through their own childish
impatience, and their not affording architects leisure for properly
conceiving and maturing what they are required to do. Many times
have committees been strongly suspected of, if not openly charged
with, unfairness towards competitors: at least, it shows some grace
in them to be equally unfair to themselves, by defrauding themselves
of the benefit of artistic study. At the same time, too, that it is
contrary to the interest of those who invite — at least, pretend to
invite talent to their aid, the very uncalled-for haste imposed
upon architects in almost every instance of competition, is a real

grievance to them. It frequently compels them either to forego
competing altogether, or else to sit down to an additional task
after the avocations of the day are over, and perhaps to sit up
nearly all the night — not merely once, but two or three nights toge-
ther— in order to be able to send off their drawings before the ex-
piration of the term allowed. Thus, what should be cheerful em-
ployment is converted into mere toil, attended with feverish
anxiety. Nor does the hardship stop there; for even toil may be
patiently endured, if we feel assured that we are earning something
by it. To cheer those who engage in architectural competition,
there exists no such assurance: on the contrary, they have to bear
up against the disheartening assurance that they are exerting them-
selves for a mere chance, since only one can possibly be the suc-
cessful man.

There are surely unavoidable vexations enow attending compe-
tition, without their being increased by the heartless inconsiderate-
ness and aibitrary whims of committees, who seem to pride them-
selves upon showing that the power they possess is irresponsible.
Greatly would architectural competitors be relieved, were mere
sketches, instead of finished drawings, to be reipiired of them.
Such draughts would exhibit the ideas of their respective authors;
and when the best, or what should be judged to be the best, idea
had been selected, it would then be time enough to ask for a fair
and finished copy of it. Not the least advantage attending such
mode would be, that it would compel — at least lead, committees
to give their attention to ideas and matters of actual design;
whereas now, it is to be apprehended, they frequently suffer them-
selves to be biassed and misled by the mere manual ability
shown in drawing.* In fact, it may be said that, according to the
present system, while they exercise their power very arbitrarily,
they generally exercise it so as to dupe themselves in the end;
which, thougli it may be some, is but very sorry, satisfaction to
those wlio may have been, if not always exactly duped, toiled and
taxed by them.

These general and preliminary remarks have detained us longer
than we expected, wherefore we will not detain our readers by
apologising for tliem ; but continue without farther interruption
to notice the very unusual circumstances attending this particular
Competition. So far from there being the slightest vagueness or
ambiguity on the part of the Committee's invitation to architects,
it tells them exactly what it is that is wanted. In the case of the
Nelson Monument, the competitors were left to adopt whatever
form they pleased — arch, column, fountain, obelisk, trophy, pyra-
mid, temple; — a kind of freedom that was not a little embarrass-
ing, and which must have chilled by the perplexing doubts and
misgivings attending it. Unlike the "Nelson" one, the Dundee
Committee honestly inform architects that the "ornamental build-
ing" which they require is to be an arch ; so that there can be no
mistake in that respect. Besides which, the foundations being
already laid, the plan is shaped out, and its dimensions fixed : so
that the task extends to no more than that of designing a super-
structure upon it. There are to be three openings or passages, the
centre one 21 ft. wide, the smaller ones 10 ft. 6 in. each, and the ex-
tent of the whole rather more than 80 ft. These dimensions are so
considerable, that they seem to indicate the intention of producing
a monumental work; as will appear from comparing them with the
corresponding dimensions of some other structures of the same
nature.

Centre Arch. Side Arches.

Width Height. Width. Height,

tt. in. ft. ill. It. III. tt. III.

Arch of Conslaiifine 21 4 38 2 11 0 24 0

Arch of Titus 19 0 26 6 none

Porte St. Denis 26 0 50 0 none

Marseilles 20 0 37 0 none

Arch, Green Park 16 6 32 0 none

Marble Arch. Buckingham Pa!. 15 6 29 0 9 0 19 10

Arch of the Tuileries 14 0 23 0 8 3 10 6

These instances may suffice, although we should have liked to have
given the corresponding dimensions of the Arco della Pace, at
Milan, but cannot at the moment find our memorandum of them.
We believe, however, that its principal opening does not exceed
IS feet by 36 feet, consequently falls short of what is fixed for the
one in the intended structure at Dundee. As the width of this
last is to be 21 feet, hardly can it be under 40 feet in height, unless
it is to vary considerably from the usual proportions, and conse-

* Instead of operating as a recommendatiun, particular caretulnesa or merit in point of
mere drawing ought to be received with suSf.iciou, as iut^ndeU to cajole the judgment,
and divert from an impartial consideration of the design itself. Besides, iu all probabi-
lity, the author of a design has had no hand whatever in the lair copy of it, it being
now-a days a notorious practice for architects to employ other people for the purposu :
as is divulged by the advertisements of parlies who offer them their services in "the
getting-up of Exhibition aud Competition Drawings 1"

44

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND AUCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[FEBRrABT,

quently from precedent, — although precedent, such as it is — and it
is certainly more cockney than classical — may be found, namely
Temple Bar, whose gateway is only 19 feet high, although 21 feet
in width.

Supposing the large arch to be made iO feet high in the clear,
about 20 feet more will be required for the height of the whole
structure — that is, according to most examples of the kind ; so
that the whole would form a "mass about 80 feet in length by 60 feet
in height. Now, we do not object to a work of such magnitude ;
yet how is it to be accomplished for the inadequate sum of 2,000/.^
The arch in the Green Park, which is only 62 feet in length by
60 feet in height, is stated to have cost somewhere about 30,000/,
It must be admitted that it is so deep a mass, that two of the same
size in other respects, but much shallower, might have been erected
for the money : let us therefore take the cost at 10,000/, exclusive
of foundations. Yet, allowing for the same exclusion, only one-
fifth of that sum is to be expended upon an Ornamental Building,
of very considerable size. The epithet "ornamental" implies, we
presume, that a more than ordinary degree of decoration is looked
for, — perhaps sculptural embellishment as well as architectural. —
The problem seems to be so difficult a one, that we hope even its
difficulty will be productive of good, by compelling the competitors
to depart from the regular track, — to fling precedent overboard,
and strike out some new ideas.

REMARKS ON RAILWAY AXLES.

Sir — A few years ago, there existed a great difference of opinion
concerning the best form for railway axles, which often occasioned
much unprofitable discussion among some of our mechanical en-
gineers. The question has lately been silent, and experience or
imitation appears to have decided the form now most generally
approved. There is, however, a wide difi'ereuce in the dimensions
and quantity of material in the axles used for similar purposes by
different companies. This circumstance, together with the great
importance of having a safe axle, shows the necessity of an estab-
lished system of proportions for future guidance, as every one con-
nected with railways is aware of the important saving that would
be effected by dispensing with only a few pounds of unnecessary
material in each axle of a railway company's stock.

t^

1

t^

Ar

A B ^

The foiir annexed figures are intended to represent the different
forms that have been used. No. I, which is thickest in the middle
and tapered towards each wheel, appears to be altogether thrown
aside ; No. 2, which is parallel between the journals, is still fre-
quently used ; No. 3, which is parallel from A to B, and No. -t,
which is diminished from each wheel to the centre, appear to be
the two forms now most in use, — the latter, however, being, it is
believed, the most correct.

The writer is in favour of No. 4, although he has not had the
pleasure of seeing any satisfactory proof of its being the most
correct. In the following experiment he was, however, convinced
that these axles require to be smaller in the centre than at the
wheel bosses, but in what exact projiortion he has not been able to
decide. In the experiment alluded to, a parallel bar of cast-iron,
of longitudinal dimensions similar to those of an ordinary railway
axle, was placed upon two supports, C C, as substitutes for the

L

JliL

E F

a.

-^

ciT

wheel bosses, as here shown, and then submitted to forces acting
equally upon each end at equal distances from the supports, which

points, D D, were supposed to be the centres of the journals: the
force being gradually increased, the bar broke simultaneously
through E E. The experiment was repeated; but in the second
trial the bar broke only in one point, F, — being a little nearer to
the middle. This was considered sufficient proof tliat a portion of
the metal might be removed from the middle of the bar without
diminishing its lateral strength; and that by adding this metal
about the points E E, the lateral strength would be increased.

The result of this experiment was applied to a number of rail-
way axles for 4. ft. 85 in. gauge, which were to have been made of
4 in. parallel bar, but were altered to the form No. 4, being 4| in.

diameter in the wheel bosses, and 3^ in. diameter in the middle,

which was calculated to require no more material than if they had
been made 4 in. throughout, as originally intended. It still re-
mains a question whether this difference in the diameter of the
body of the axle was the most correct, as it was decided by mere
supposition subsequently to the above experiment.

Besides the most economical form for the body of an axle, it is
of importance to have journals equally well-projiortioued. The
journals were formerly very short compared with some of modern
make : four inches was not an unusual length, but they have kept
gradually increasing, and six inches is now become very general ; —
there are indeed instances which far exceed this dimension. The
gradual changes which have been going on in this, as well as in
other parts of the axle, also prove the want of more correct data.
The object of this paper is not to lay before your readers any new
idea relative to the form and proportions of railway axles, but
merely to call the attention of practical men to the subject, whose
long experience and observation could not fail to supply much that
is required.

The narrow limits of the writer's own observation in railway
matters, would not warrant him in offering more than a mere sug-
gestion, and as such he begs to submit the following formula, which
it is hoped will not be found totally void of utility.

a/

abw

= D

18c (a -1-6)

\/2D-

= diameter of G (fig. 4)

1/3 D-'

= diameter of M (fig. 4)

3D

= length of the journal.

Wherein a ^ A B (fig. 4) in inches , 6 = B C in inches ; c = the
number of wheels to the wagon ; D ^ diameter of the journals in
inches ; and w =: the greatest load to be borne by the wagon in
cwts., including the weight of the wagon.

Your obedient servant,
Manchester, Jan. 6, 1849. J. N.

REVIE^VS.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATI'RE A.Vf) ART.

An Historical Inquiry into the True Principles nf Beauty in Art,
more especially with reference to Architecture. By Jajiks Fkugusson,
Esq., Architect ; author of " An Essay on the Ancient Tojiography
of Jerusalem," " Picturesque Illustrations of Ancient Architec-
ture in Hindostan," &c. Part the First. London : Longmans,
1843.

fsECONP NOTICE."]

We continue Mr. Fergusson's review of the state of science, and
the field which is open for its further cultivation, because we think
it will do good in science as in art to show how much remains to
be done, and the encouragement there is for a zealous student. It
was the belief there were worlds to conquer that stimulated the
ambition of Alexander : it was because he knew of none open to
his ambition that his energies palled. The belief that we are too
near the goal has dispirited many a learner, and has done much to
retard the progress of knowledge ; whereas all that we have done
is only a reason and a means by which to do more.

In considering the state of Botany, Mr. Fergusson dwells upon
the importance of investigating the phenomena of life; but still
he does not show their full influence. Botany is too much looked
upon as a study of dead substances ; but without we contemplate
from the beginning the operations of life, we can have no good
system of physiology. Life introduces action, — action, counter-
action ; and the first moment of life is the first indication of decay.
There is a sequence throughout dependent on a first cause, and
this must be carefully observed. Life constitutes, the author

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

45

says, a great distinction between vegetables and minerals, for the
latter, so far as we know, have a course of existence whicli is un-
determined ; but the otliers have a period the bounds of which are
limited and in most cases known.

There are, it is true, great diversities between the lives of plants,
some which die almost as soon as born — some, the giants of the
forest, which live for centuries ; but the career of each has its
bounds. This limitation lias, too, its connection necessarily with
the performance of every function of being. Mr. Fergusson
speaks with reservation as to the existence of minerals being
limited or unlimited ; and this not without good reason, though
the common belief and the common systems of philosophy please
themselves with the eternity of the mineral structure of the globe.
If, however, there is a wide range between the life of an ephemeral
fungus and of an aged dragon-tree or oak ; and if, too, there is a
wide range, but a less one, between the life of a day-fly and an
elephant, a turtle or a raven, so, on the other hand, for aught we
know, there may be a wider range which in the mineral kingdom
may give thousands of years of being and a limited life to mate-
rials which we look upon as lasting for ever. We know that the
hardest granite, the best consolidated clay, the purest limestone,
had a beginning, and are the resultants of foraier combinations.
We know, too, that there are minerals so fleeting in their form,
that they can hardly be preserved or watched (p. 57). These are
incident to the machine of the globe, and if the phenomena are
not developed as those of individual beings, then they relate to
those of the globe itself as an organised body, and are subject to
the limitations of condition which the organs of other bodies un-
dergo. There is therefore nothing which, in the absence of posi-
tive proof, justifies us in believing that the existence of minerals
is without a limit, any more than that of plants and beasts.

We do not know whether INlr. Fergusson establishes a true dis-
tinction, when he says of the plants, that though the individual
must perish, to all it is given to live on in their ofl^spring, which
differ in nothing from themselves; till it becomes more like an
oscillation to-and-fro of one individual through an indefinite time,
than the limited career between birth and death, which seems the
beginning and end of each individual.

Botanical classification leads the writer to give some cautions on
the subject of classification generally. He says truly, that it must
be ever borne in mind that no such things as the classes established
exist in nature. Classification, indeed, is a legitimate application
of theory. In considering the laws of light, we assume the New-
tonian or Huygenian theory, not admitting thereby that either
represents the true facts or the true results, but taking either as a
convenient general system to enable us to follow out consistently
the various operations. The mistake of superficial learners is in
this — that they believe the direct contrary, and adopt Newton or
Huygens as the expounders of facts. The injury to science is the
greater, as many are deterred from propounding new theories,
which may tend to elucidate the facts. So in the classification of
plants or beasts, the classification is only a matter of expediency ;
for in nature there is no rosaceous province, no bound within
which the feline tribe is restrained. Mr. Fergusson explains that
an artificial classification is not to be found in nature, because she
works out her problems with a complexity and infinity of detail
which man can never comprehend ; and tliough every plant is sub-
ject to immutable laws, and perfect regularity reigns, from the
minute ultimate particles to the whole aggi-egated kingdom, it is
not such a formal arrangement as our classification attempts.

Mr. Fergusson approves of the retention for their respective
purposes of both the Linnean and Jussieuan or natural system, and
makes a very useful suggestion, that naturalists should, like gram-
marians, admit lists of irregular plants or animals, instead of
forcing them into places where they do not fit, or multiplying
genera to an inconvenient extent. He would likewise place be-
tween each class or genus a list of neuters, which belong equally
to either. We would extend his liberality as to the two systems
in botany, by using the same toleration in other branches of sci-
ence. If the Newtonian theory explains some phenomena which
the undulatory does not, why not admit both .'' — for neither New-
ton nor Huygens is more than a hearsay witness. A more catholic
feeling on these matters is indeed most needful for the right growth
of knowledge.

On proceeding to Zoologj', Mr. Fergusson gives some time to
Ontology, the intellectual functions of animals. Here, likewise,
he steps out of the common beaten track, and instead of binding
himself to the functions of instinct, he holds forth that beasts have
minds of the same kind as man. He at once sets aside the a priori
arguments derived from the Greek metaphysics and sectarian dog-
mata, and takes facts as he finds them. He comes to the answer,

that the growth of mind agrees with that of brain ; that this law
is followed from the lowest polyp to the hugest beast ; that man
has more power only by the higher development of his nervous
system ; and that his mind does not differ in kind from that of
beasts, but only in extent.

The next section brings us to the knowledge of man, or Anthro-
pology. The writer here comes in contact with the two classes of
philosophers, one of whom makes man into nothing more than a
beast, nearly akin to the monkeys; and the other strives to set
liim apart altogether from the beasts, in his zeal to save the ever-
lasting soul of man from the beasts that die. Had they, he says,
only made their system of metaphysics better, instead of striving
to set aside the truths of physiology or psychology, the errors of
both would not have happened. The consideration of man in this
respect is twofold — first, for his body, which belongs to zoology;
and second, as a being having properties and faculties of which no
other beasts have the like.

If, in body and in mind, man partakes of the same nature with
these, yet his works show us that he has other and higher powers,
and a higher destiny. Mr. Fergusson thinks that these are exem-
plified in the division of labour or employment, and in progress ;
neither of which is exemplified by the beasts. We do not think
his premises support his conclusions, nor that he has here well
wrought out his own system. As we said before, we consider that
the special distinction of man is his subordinate creative power,
and Mr. Fergusson's arguments are a proof of this. No other
living being has the like power, and the organization of man is the
instrument for developing this.

Mr. Fergusson says, very ingeniously (p. 65), after speaking of
the division of employment, that in a civilised commonwealth like
England, it would be easy to share out its twenty millions of
people into a thousand classes, as distinct in their functions and in
their action on the material world as the thousand species into
which naturalists classify four-footed beasts, and to sub-divide
them into a hundred thousand varieties; not only performing all
the separate functions of all the separate species of animals, but
thousands of functions which the lower beasts do not perform, and
have no trace of any power by which tliey might be taught to per-
form them. So, too, all the functions which beasts have in a
higher degree than man, are by him made use of for his purposes :
the fleetness of the horse, the keen scent of the hound, the strength
of the elephant, are made by man his servants ; and he engrosses
to himself the functions of the animal kingdom — nay, it may be
said those of the vegetable and mineral kingdoms. In all this
complexity of functions, says the writer, man is still one genus,
and for all practical purposes only one species ; and it is this unity
in multiplicity, and multiplicity in unity, which gives him his
infinite power over the material universe.

The writer asserts tlie will and the power to influence the ani-
mal and material world ; to alter the breeds of the horse, the dog,
or the sheep ; to change the courses of rivers ; to remove forests ;
to modify ulimate. The division of employment and the tendency
to progress, are only resultants of the original power and organiza-
tion which we have defined.

Mr. Fergusson, in contradistinction to many of the modern
schools, holds the essential inequality of men, in their physical,
mental, and psychological organization, resulting in an essential
inequality of all men in power and position. He allows, however,
of a real'aud essential equality of all men in means of enjoyment,
and of free will and power to improve or deteriorate their condi-
tions.

He opposes the morphological doctrine of Lamarck and his fol-
lowers, tliat one species of animal can be developed out of an-
other; and also that* which says that the more perfectly organised
species were developed out of those less organised, as the world
became fitted for their reception. Upon this Mr. Fergusson re-
marks, that if it prove anything, it proves too much ; for in that
case, when the world arrived at that state that the amphibia were
developed out of the fishes, or the birds out of the amphibia, all
the fishes or reptiles ought to have given birth to the more perfect
kinds, and perished themselves. So, too, when man was developed,
the female monkeys having given birth to him, tlieir own race
should have become extinct. There is not, therefore, one fact to
support the doctrine.

iMr. Fergusson, by a single reference, which is all he has given
to it, seems to advocate the doctrine of one pair only having given
birth to man ; and so with the other animals, — yet, on his own
principles, without any sufficient reason. With regard to the
human race, unless he adopts the morphological doctrines, which
he repudiates elsewhere, he cannot conciliate existing facts. There

* " Vestiijea of the Natural History of Creation."

46

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

may he no sppcific anatomical difference between man and man, hut
as the writer himself shows (p. .59), this is no reason for identity
when other and higher marks of distinction exist. How lie is to
account niiir|ihologically for tlie negro, for instance, a])penrs inex-
plicable, for we find the negro on Egyptian monuments three
thousand years old exactly as he is now ; whereas, ado))ting any
given ([uantity as expressing the tendency to change, the specific
relationsliip of the members of that race would have passed away.
Morphology admits of an arithmetical analysis being applied, and
the result is that it fails before the test. Morphology is incon-
sistent with a limited number of species ; for carried out arithme-
tically, it must be constantly ])roducing new species within the old
ones, and thereby breaking up the old ones ; so that, arithmeti-
cally, a species of negroes existing three thousand years ago, could
not now exist in mass.

This is the arithmetical working of the doctrine in question ;
while tested by historical results, we find at any time when we can
apply the test, ethnographic characteristics were the same as now,
and there are no suflficient means to deduce all the varieties from
one pair. Admitting, too, the identity of the human race, it does
not follow that it should be an identity of blood, but it may be an
identity of type.

Indeed, the same causes which have smothered other branches of
science, have smothered this ; and each party has been anxious to
set up a theory and fashion the facts to it, instead of studying the
facts. Tlie field for investigation is wide, but hitherto investiga-
tion has been cautiously eluded. If, instead of searching for facts
favouring morphology — and all parties hitherto, whether advocates
of one pair or of many, have been morpliologists — the whole facts
had been investigated, we should now be better able to form a
judgment. However many may be the facts brought forward by
morphologists, the one fact of continuous identity is one worth
them all. The identity of the Syrian and Negro of three thou-
sand years ago with him of tlie present day is undeniable ; but the
facts on this question of continuous identity have not yet been
gathered together. The fact of the continuous identity of other
animals has been proved over as long a period.

A remarkable class of phenomena, which have led to the con-
fused views which prevail, are in a similar condition. These are
the phenomena consequent on assimilation and association, and
which, if at all adverted to, have been only misunderstood by the
morphologists. First, there is the disposition in individuals asso-
ciating together to acquire a likeness in countenance, as between
husband and wife, and as in the negroes of the United States
towards the Americo-English. The next are the changes which
take place in different ages in the physique of the same nation. In
this country, collections of portraits will show very curious re-
sults as affecting the countenance of the English of the higher
classes, from the time of Queen Elizabeth to the present day. A
third are the changes which take place conse(pient on the removal
of a race to another soil : thus the English born in tlie United
States or Australia, are tall, slim, sallow, and lose most of their
teeth before the age of thirty. This is only one of an extensive
series of facts.

Tlie adoption of identity of type, instead of identity of blood,
is calculated to simplify the discussion, and is consistent with the
other facts. There is a relationship between the members of the
feline trilie, but no one has imagined that the lion and the cat are
of the same blood : neither is it necessary that the lion of Asia
and that of South Africa, though nearer in relationship, should be
any nearer in blood.

The assumption of the contrary, and the doctrine as to in-
breeding, have had much influence in producing confused ideas.
The endeavour to derive each class of animals from one stock, has
caused violent attempts to twist facts. This is because no distinc-
tion is made between those operations which are temporary and
those wliich are permanent. vV'hile it is impossible to make a
Negro into a Syrian, it is quite possible to modify either : it is
possible, likewise, to produce cross-breeds between the tvvo, — but
if they are cross-bred for ever, they will never yield an Indo-
P'uropean.

It is because we can produce many varieties of dogs, and make
the animals larger or smaller, that it is assumed all dogs are origi-
nally from one stock ; though the least consideration will show
that we cannot make all tlie varieties from any given pair, which
we ought to be able to do if all had the same origin. AH that the
breeders in this country could do, they could never make a dingo ;
nor before they had the variety in tlie country, could they have
made a newfoundland.

Indeed, so averse is nature to these artificial varieties, whether
of animals or plants, that it is only by constantly bringing fresh

stock that the varieties can be kept up. Hence has arisen the
doctrine, that in-breeding causes deterioration and extinction ;
whereas the truth is, that it is only in-breeding of artificial varie-
ties which produces such results, for natural varieties may be in-
bred for ever. Had not in-breeding been a law of nature, the off-
spring of the first pairs or individuals of animals and plants could
not have propagated, and could not now have existed.

Tlie breeder has nature always totliwart him : instead of giving
the expected half-blood, she will often repeat the grandsire; and if
the attempt be persevered in, the Bakewell sheep liecome extinct
or degenerate, the dahlia becomes single, and the cyder graft un-
productive. Porcupine men, albinos, spotted Africans, dwarfs,
giants, and six-fingered people, have been known for several gene-
rations, but they have never become permanent varieties ; nor have
all or a majority of each generation, even when in-bred, been en-
dowed with the parental alinormity.

When properly examined, there is no scientific evidence to show
that an Indo-European and a Negro have any identity of blood.

On the speculation whether man, being the last created animal,
must remain so, Mr. Fergiisson inclines to give an answer in the
aflirmative ; but we do not perceive the relevance of his remarks,
except that in which he says that it does not appear necessary that
a new animal should be created, because man being endowed with
the functions of progress, he is enabled to do what in all other in-
stances it required a distinctly new species to effect.

Upon the question of progress, Mr. Fergusson admits of a pro-
gressive tendency, though not a uniform one; and he gives a diag-
ram, in which in a curved and knotted line one end is in advance
of the other, though some intermediate points are retrograde from
others. Adopting tliis progress in the creation of animals, he
considers it as particularly developed in the history of mankind,
because man possesses within himself the power of progress.

By e-xplaining himself in this way, the writer guards against the
idea that progress being continuous is uniform, and is prepared to
admit, in history for instance, that very advanced periods may have
been succeeded by others in which society has been in a very low
state, until another rally has taken place. This will be found
very important in the ethnographical discussions.

Mr. Fergusson applies to art his two attributes of the division
of employment and progress. The first, he insists, is not only the
moans by which anything in art can be accomplished, but it is, at
the same time, tlie cause why there should be not only two or three
arts or forms of art, but thousands, to suit the various idiosyncra-
cies to which they must adapt themselves, to fulfil the purposes for
which they were given to man. Their aim, he s.-iys, may be, and
perhaps should be, only one; but to accomplish this object, their
forms must be as various as the intellects to which tliey address
themselves. The one only means, he holds, by which man ever did
anything great, either in the useful or fine arts, is by this aggrega-
tion of experiences.

In his Si.xth Section, the writer comes to the classification of
arts. His introduction describes mankind as capable of becoming
one vast animal, extending over the whole globe of the earth, and
living for an indefinite period of time. Hitherto, men have lived
only in detached fellowships of a few hundreds of thousands or
millions, and with an average political life of not more than a
thousand years; but Mr. Fergusson asserts that the tendency now
is to larger commonwealths, and consequently longer periods, with
of course corresponding accessions of greatness and power. Of
this the present movement of races — the English, the French, the
High Dutch, the Slavonic, the Italian, and tlie Scandinavian — are
strong and undeniable indications; and they must result in com-
monwealths, as much beyond the miglity states of modern Europe
with their ten, twenty, or thirty millions, as these are beyond the
townships or shires which achieved fame in the brightest days of
Greece. It is to this tendency that we are to look as giving a
stimulus to the artist, and a field for the exertion of his powers.

Mr. Fergusson divides the arts into tliose which may be exer-
cised by any one individual, which he names Anthropics : and those
wliicli have reference only to great bodies of men, and which he
names Politics. In tlie latter lie puts Medicine, or medical police;
iMorals, or moral police or government; and Religion, or ecclesias-
tical police.

Anthropics are divided thus : first, those resulting from muscu-
lar power — Technics ; next, those from the developments of sense
— ^Esthetics ; and tliird, those dependent on the power of speech
— Phonetics. Mr. Fergusson here purposely uses the term JEsthe-
tics in a special sense.

In defining the Technic arts, the writer says they arise from the
peculiarity that man, though he has all the limbs and organs of
other beasts, seldom uses them for any useful purpose without the

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

47

intervention of a tool of some sort. All other beasts can only do
what their own claws, teeth, or tails can eifect, or wliat the organic
tools with which they are furnished, as the trunk of the elephant,
is specially intended to perform. The powers and tools being de-
tached, man can do more, for he has the command of all ; whereas
the elephant is bounded by what his trunk can do for him. If all
men had to do the same thing, those who did not would possess a
vast quantity of unemployed and useless power : but as it is, man
may choose what tools he pleases, use them as he likes, and lay
them aside when he no longer wants them (p. 74).

Of the .3isthetic arts, Mr. Fergusson rightly says that the senses
on which they depend are capaljle of an extension, which, e.xcept
in the sense of sight by the invention of tlie telescope and micro-
scope, they have not received, and certainly not to the extent of
the technic and phonetic arts.

Speech the writer treats as the reflex of intellect, and as a dis-
tinguishing characteristic of man, from which result a number of
arts.

Having laid down these three groups, he does not require that
they should be accepted as strict classes, but as forming combina-
tions and modifications , and he arranges them thus, so as to make
seven groups :

Technic

Technic
Technic
Technic

iEsthetic
.^'Esthetic
iEsthetic

Esthetic

Phonetic
Phonetic
Phonetic
Phonetic

In carrying out this classification, Mr. Fergusson would have
benefitted by the application of the principles he laid down in his
previous classifications, for tlie tables he has given are meagre and
imperfect. It would take up too much room to give them in this
Journal, although such a conspectus is well calculated to show how
many branches of art are left uncultivated.

The Technic arts are considered under the heads of Powers,
Applied Powers, Primary Arts, Applied Arts, and Refined Arts.

In summing up the sources of Power, the writer has omitted
many which result from the consideration of the several branches
of creation. The light, heat, and actinism of the sun are used by
us as powers ; in the case of daguerreotypes, even the light of the
moon has been made available ; and we do not even yet know what
resources may be obtained from without this world. The recent
applications of electricity are among the most promising contribu-
tions to science ; but the powers derived from Etherology are still
undeveloped. The enumeration, as powers, of chemical attraction
and repulsion, gases, steam, elasticity, air, and water, is imperfect
and confused : but Mr. Fergusson was too anxious to proceed with
his subject to elaborate these.

If the muscle of man and the allied power of animals are to be
recorded, we should not leave out associated men, vital power,
mental power, and moral ])ower, for all these are necessary to be
considered in the practical determination of the question. Indeed,
the determination of these several powers requires to be closely
investigated; for the mere consideration of physical strength
throws no light on most human operations.

Under the head of Ajiplied Powers, the writer enrols tools, en-
gines, processes, and machinery.

The Primary Arts, Mr. Fergusson calls those for obtaining raw
materials; but here again the classification is imperfect.

The Applied Arts are those by which raw materials are worked
up and combined.

The Refined Arts are those in which, by the addition of the
element of "beauty," a higher character is given. While car-
pentry and weaving are called applied arts, upholstery and tailor-
ing are called refined arts.

Mr. Fergusson asserts that the existence of the fine arts depends
on a great primary law of human nature (p. 94), which he thus
gives: — To every function of which man is capable, there is at-
tached a use, and that function is necessary for his existence, or
for performing that part in the great drama of the world for
which he was created; while, to urge him to the performance of
this, severe pains and penalties are attached to the non-performance
which he cannot escape, such as hunger, cold, misery, and disease.
On the other hand, there is attached to the exercise of every
function, a certain inducement or gratification to its exercise,
which he thinks may be in man greater than the compulsory force.
To this inducement or attraction, the writer gives the name of
"beauty" or "sense of beauty," meaning thereby the gratification
we are able to extract out of every useful function we perform,
and which is necessarilv attached to it. He therefore considers

that all the useful arts are capable of becoming fine arts, — or, in
other words, besides ministering to our necessities, they may be-
come sources of pleasure and gratification; of course, in several
degrees, for some only minister to our sensual appetites, while
others tax to the utmost our intellectual powers. Thus, however
far removed, gastronomy and lyric poetry may equally be classed
as fine arts. All common and useful things may be refined into
objects of beauty, and all that is beautiful or high in art is
merely an elaboration and refinement of what is fundamentally a
useful and a necessary art.

This leads the writer to a review of the refined arts and lower
fine arts, after asserting that the taste of each man is unlike, and
that there is no mind so lowly that beauty may not creep into it,
if only through the song of the bird, the sight of the veide fields,
or the glow of the setting sun. Each, too, can feel beauty in his
own trade or calling, or in his own round of life. For each, then,
must some provision be made; and if only the lower arts are felt,
the lower arts must not be set aside. Gastronomy, tailoring,
millinery, floriculture, and landscape gardening, are broiiglit first
before us, and the writer has a word for each. Of the two latter,
he says, if we were to foster all the arts with tlie same singleness
as we have these two, they would not stand so forward in the list
as they now do.

It is to be observed of floriculture, that no art is under a system
more likely to foster it. In the metropolis, 1,200/. is yearly given
in rewards by the Horticultural Society, 1,000/. by the Royal
Botanic Society, and further rewards by others, — about 3,000/.
yearly, which is applied solely in the reward of merit. This sum
is competed for by private growers and by nurserymen; and to
gain the prizes, the most skUful gardeners are employed, and
great emulation created. The nurseryman obtains, too, a further
reward in the sale of plants, which earn rewards. At the Royal
Botanic Gardens, in the Regent's Park, the judges of the rewards
are named by the votes of the growers in each class. It is to be
wished that rewards should be given specifically for plants of fine
form, colour, and smell. The CKltivation of the two latter pro-
perties would open new branches of study. Tlie Royal Botanic
Society have devoted some attention to artistic botany, but not of
late years. It should be further said, that the expenses of the
exhibitors for conveyance of subjects are paid, and that refresh-
ments are given to them on the day of exhibition. Every facility
is likewise given in the public gardens for the studies of the florist.
The public taste and public sympathies are largely enlisted in the
pursuits of the florist.

If the same sum were devoted yearly to the reward of painting,
sculpture, architecture, or engraving, the same facilities given,
and the same mode of choosing judges adopted, a much better re-
sult would be obtained than as matters are now conducted. There
is no similar reward of merit for painting, sculpture, architecture, or
engraving, and there is no freedom for the artist. It may, too, be
said, that a much larger sum is spent on flowers than on paintings.
Many a man spends two or three hundred pounds a-year on his
greenhouse, who ne\er buys a picture, a cast, or an engraving,
which will last, and which can be handed down to his children;
whereas his flowers soon fade.

If an exhibition of architecture, sculpture, or engraving, should
be set up, as has been talked of, the best way to make it successful
will be to set aside the profits as rewards of works in several
classes; for thereby a direct stimulus is given to the artists in
each department, and the public take an interest in the race.

Mr. Fergusson says, if any Englishman abroad thinks of what
he left in his home which is most beautiful, it is not of our paint-
ing, or sculpture, nor of our architecture, nor of anything com-
monly called fine art; but between the great man's park, and the
little cottage garden, he will remember many scenes and objects of
beauty, which, if he have any artistic feelings, will not soon be
driven from his mind.

Of course, jewellery, plating, ironmongery, carriages, ships, glass,
porcelain, mosaic, paving, and upholstery, come in for their share
of attention, and they receive a few remarks well worthy of being
read.

Architecture, the writer says, arises out of the useful art of
building by such slow steps that it is hard to draw tlie line be-
tween them, or to say whether some buildings should be set down
as utilitarian, or take a higher rank. He says rightly, that ev»n
of those warehouses which lay no claim to high art, a few dressings
to the windows, and grouping these slightly together, and a little
attention in the arrangement of the several parts, might often
give a higher aud pleasing character.

While classing architecture in the same list as cookery and
tailoring, he says of its \iorks, that it has some adventitious ad-

4S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

LFEBBrAHy,

vantafjes, which apply to others only in a small degree. First, it
has size; next, it has durability beyond almost any other of man's
works, except perhaps the lay of the poet; and third, in its dedi-
cation to worship, to halls of meeting, to schools, to tombs, it has
a hallowed influence from the associations connected with it.
Beyond this, it admits and requires the adaptation of painting and
carving.

Thus, a perfect building, such as Karnac, the Parthenon, or a
middle age cathedral, becomes the exponent of the principal tech-
nic, festhetic, and phonetic arts of the age in which it was erected.
Architecture alone has hitherto been able to attract to itself so
many arts in a permanent form, and hand them down to after
ages; and it is for those reasons that Mr. P'ergusson has adopted it
as the web on which to embroider the story of his pages.

Before leaving this subject, the writer remarks that many of
the works of the engineer admit of a higher artistic treatment
than they have received; though he admits that they are free
from the affectation and servility which characterise those of our
architects. He regrets, however, that works unrivalled in the
world for magnitude and magnificence, should not have been trans-
mitted to posterity with some better testimony of the public taste.

He does not even let the military engineer alone, for he says
that it is no reason against artistic treatment, that if a place
should be beseiged the works will be destroyed; and he alludes to
some of the fortifications lately erected in Germany, as having
masonry well executed, the embrasures and openings surrounded
by bold and appropriate mouldings, and the bastions and curtains
surmounted by a bold cornice of machiocolations. These, with
their size and massive solidity, are held forth as making them
nobler buildings than those of almost any modern architect.

The Seventh Section is for the ^Esthetic Arts. These, Mr.
Fergusson very fairly arranges under the senses from which they
arise, and as Useful and Refined Arts. He considers, likewise, the
Tools used to produce the results, but does not include the consi-
deration of the Powers which contribute to them.

Under the head of Taste, Mr. Fegusson names only Gastronomy.
This is a sense, though much used, little cultivated; and the only
scientific recognition we know of it is by the Horticultural Societies,
who require fruits exhibited to have a good taste, as well as size.
Perhaps we may name the galvanic effects on the taste. The prac-
tical application of Taste would, no doubt, if its functions were
better understood, be widely extended; as it is, although there are
numerous classes of what may be called gastronomic tasters for
teas, wines, brandies, ales, &c., the only non-gastronomic pursuit
of tasting, is that of tasting whale and other oils, though metals
are sometimes tasted. The medical relations of taste have like-
wise been little cultivated.

Mr. Fergusson dwells at some length on the neglect of the sense
of smell, though if carefully considered its functions are most im-
portant,— indeed, they are essential to the human economy, and it
may be questioned whether the operations of electricity and
chemistry are ever unattended with the phenomena of smell. At
present, there is no good observation or classification of pheno-
mena, so that the technical or [esthetic uses are not developed.
It has been too much the custom to consider smell and sound as
dependent on the perception of man, instead of independent of
him. In our last," we extended Mr. Fergusson's theory (p. 44)
as to the imponderables, to actinism, colour, and sound, and we
here add smell; and we repeat, that the best mode of studying
them is by carefully marking every distinction, and classing apart
every form which is not in all things identical with any other.
At the same time, the study of each of these is calculated to
throw light on the laws which govern the others, and to suggest
new modes of observation.

The coincidences in the laws which respectively govern sound
and light are most remarkable; but they are explainable, because
there must be a priori laws and principles common to both. Thus,
the cultivation of one branch of little importance in itself, may
point out or corroborate some phenomenon in relation to another
branch of immediate and practical application. We are acquainted
with the existence of low degrees of electricity, with rays of the
spectrum which cannot be seen, with manifestations of electric
light too weak for our sight: we know that there are sounds which
we do not hear. Everything attests that there are phenomena
existing of which we have not yet attained the development.

In the consideration of the imponderables, no distinction has
hitherto been drawn between those which are naturally or or-
ganically, and those which are artificially developed. We are
familiar with the distinction between the light of gas or a candle
and that of the sun, but we are prone to assume that there is no

* C.E, aud A. Journal, ante p. 2'i,

difference in other cases between an organised and artificial im-
ponderable; yet the same relations may exist between organised
and artificial electricity or magnetism, as between tlie two classes
of lights. Indeed, the principle of organization, fundamental in
Mr. Fergusson's system of philosophy, is ignored elsewhere.
There must, however, be a great distinction : we see it in the
colours of nature and in those of art — the greatest painter can
never give the freshness of the former: we feel it in the odour of
the free-blowing violet, and in the faintness of the manufactured
perfume. Life is wanting. If we are to apply the teachings of
science to physiology, we must bear this broad fact in mind; the
mfire particularly at a time when so strong a desire is shown to ex-
plain all the functions of life by the chemist's workshop, and the
galvanic battery. In vain shall we strive to restore the impaired
functions of an organ, or to give motion to the animal machine,
if our instruments are dead instead of living. That there are
such distinctions, we may see again; for the electric currents of
our machines do not exhibit the periodic phenomena of the free
electricity of the globe. We have dead blood, as against a throb-
bing pulse. This may suggest the consideration of applying the
free electricity and im])onderables of the globe, as powers distinct
from their artificial representatives.

The fine art which Mr. Fergusson ranges under that of Smell,
is perfumery; but gastronomy also partakes of this sense. Mr.
Fergusson is inclined to recommend the greater cultivation of
perfumes, as among the ancients.

Of the sense of Touch, Mr. Fergusson has nothing to say,
though he places Eumorphics within its range. Bathing is an act
which certainly belongs to this art.

For the Sight, the writer provides the fine arts of Eumorphics
and Euchromatics, or beauty of form and beauty of c(dour; the
former of which he thinks is not studied enough, though most im-
portant in architecture and in all the technic arts, as in pottery,
glass-blowing, upholstery, &c., — as indeed is likewise the other
art of the arrangement of colour.

In this place, iMr. Fergusson advocates the restoration of colour
in sculpture; and, as we think, with great propriety. No good reason
was used against its application in Gibson's rtatue of the Queen,
and those who did not pretend to be classicists, were pleased
with it.

Under this head, as a useful art, the writer names only Optics;
but we think he should have added Telegraphing, unless he con-
siders it a phonetic art, and perhaps Illumination, or the prepara-
tion of artificial lights. The preparation of coloured lights and
fireworks are fine arts, producing good scenic effects. Testing
bodies by polarised light may come in here as a useful art.

While upon the subject of illumination, we may observe that
the science of it is in a very low state; for the endeavours of in-
ventors have been — rather to produce a substance for light, than
to produce the greatest light. The quantity of light seen has no
relation to the quantity of light existing in the substance, and
which may be obtained: nor have quantity and intensity any
correlation. Liglit is mostly attendant on the operations of elec-
tricity, but in so low a state that it is not always observable by our
organs, but can only be seen by increasing its intensity, or by
forming new combinations with it. Indeed, no consideration has
been bestowed on the media by which it can best be manifested.
Light is light, and air is air, and it is supposed that light and
sound cannot exist independently of the laws which are usually
considered as regulating the atmosphere and our organs. It is,
however, easy to conceive, and perhaps to prove, that the gaslight
of London might be doubled or multiplied in intensity, without
requiring any increase of material.

The sense of Hearing comes next, and the arts which belong to
it, which Mr. Fergusson puts down as neglected, though he names
acoustics and music, and to which we add acoustic telegraphing.

A great deal has been written on acoustics, as on optics, and
much mathematical learning expended; but this, as already hinted,
has been in one direction, and thereby has tended to throw en-
quirers into a single, and in so far the wrong path. It has been
pointed out in a late writing on this subject in the Jllechanics
Magazine (September, 1848), that the investigation of the trans-
mission of sound in air, gives very little idea of its capabilities for
transmission in other media; and this is applied to the conveyance
of sound to a distance — holding forth that the voice and tone of a
speaker may be communicated from London to Liverpool, and
perhaps further, by mechanical resources already existing. A dis-
tinction is there drawn between the processes of generating, con-
ducting, and diffusing sound, which may be very usefully applied
in the consideration of the adaptation of light to purposes of illu-
mination.

]S4.9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

49

Mr. Fergusson, before dismissing music, suggests that with the
resources of phonetic art, it has capabilities not yet brought out
in modern times; and that the sublimer passages of Shakspeare and
Miltun may be made to receive a higher expression, by being sung
in recitative, by one or more voices. In this case, however, he
considers music should be subordinate, and not as in the opera
or oratorio, preponderant.

The Eighth Section is for the Phonetic Arts. The introduction
to this, however, shows much less information, and much less accu-
racy than we have found in other parts of the work. In this
introduction, he traces the means adopted for giving wider ex-
pression to words by hieroglyphics and alphabetic characters, down
to the printing press and electric telegraph. He indulges, too, in
the hope and belief, for which we have already given assurance,
that other tools and engines will be invented, by which the natural
powers of man's voice may be extended as much or more than the
powers of his muscles have been; and, he says, not only in loud-
ness, so as to be heard almost instantaneously at the furthest
corner of the earth, but in durability, so as to last longer than the
pyramids of Egypt.

Mr. Fergusson says, let those who deny the progress and despair
of the perfectibility of mankind, look attentively at the two in-
ventions of the steam-engine and electric telegraph. "Is it
nothing," says he, "within the last hundred years, to have gained
for man the hundred arms of Briareus, and the seven-league boots
of the nursery tale, and to enable him to make his speech known
to any human being on the face of the earth, not only now, but
echoing to all after ages ?"

The Ninth Section'takes up the subject of Politic Arts, but we
do not intend to enter upon it here; and the more so, as con-
sidering that Mr. Fergusson is weaker here in carrying out his own
principles, we should be led into longer explanations than is
justified by the space at our command.

(To lie continued.)

Account of some Recent Improvements in the System of Navigating
the Ganges by Iron Steam-Vessels. By Albert Robinson, C.E.
London : Weale, 1848.

AVhat this book is, is an account by Mr. Albert Robinson of the
steamboats built for the Ganges by Messrs. H. O. & A. Robinson,
of Millwall, — a very unpromising announcement to many, for it
suggests the idea of a mere prospectus or advertisement. Sucli a
publication would come within the views of many firms, and is a
legitimate mode of pushing business ; but there is, however, a
higlier duty on the part of tliose engaged in a professional pursuit,
and that is to give some account of the works they perform. A
man who makes a coat after the received fashion would not be
thanked if he published its cut ; even in the case of a new paletot,
he would be exempt from any public communication : but men who
are engaged in more liberal pursuits, as they have largely benefit-
ted by the diifusion of information, are expected to contribute to
it in their turn. This duty, then, constitutes a valuable privilege,
a compliance with which is nevertheless too often neglected from
self-interested motives. Those, however, who have shown a better
feeling, have had no reason to regret their exertions, while they
have very usefully contributed to the annals of engineering litera-
ture. The compiler and the scientific historian may at some time
undertake the task, but no one can so well describe a work as
those \\ ho have been actively engaged in its execution ; and a
sliort pamphlet, or even a few lines, from them is worth the big
volume of strangers. Many valuable contributions will suggest
themselves to our readers, and we shall only name a few of those
which first occur to us, as Rennie's Breakwater, Mr. Edwin Clarke's
account of the Tubular Bridge, Mr. Alan Stevenson's Skerryvore
Lighthouse, the account of the Thames Tunnel, and Mr. Alexan-
der Gordon's Iron Lighthouses ; to say nothing of Smeaton's Ed-
dystone Lighthouse and Ramsgate Harbour, and Watt's directions
for putting up Steam Engines.

A man wlio publishes such a work, does not only a service to
himself, but is deserving of thanks for the service lie renders his
profession, and we shall always welcome even the slightest attempt
in this way. Mr. Albert Robinson has, however, produced a very
useful book, in which he has gone to some expense, and has shown
much care, in order to give every information on the subject. We
do not think this liberality misplaced on any occasion, for whatever
information may be given to others, the successful completion of an
undertaking is always a guarantee and an advantage to the first
promoters ; and the Messrs. Robinson and Russell are much more

likely to get further orders for India, Russia, and the West Indies,
than they are to awaken rivals. Still, there is everything that the
manufacturer, the projector, or tlie student re<]uires, to give a de-
tailed and accurate view of the whole undertaking, the drawings
and text being fully sufficient for all purposes.

The circumstances which led Mr. Albert Robinson to this un-
dertaking are stated by himself. He liad had some experience on
the great rivers of America, and being led into communication
with capitalists here on the mode of improving the steam naviga
tion of India, he proceeded there in 1843, and surveyed the Gang-es
from Allahabad to Calcutta. The result was the formation of the
Ganges Steam Navigation Company, and the building of a fleet of
steamboats by Messrs. H. O. & A. Robinson. These proceedings
Mr. Albert Robinson relates.

The Ganges is the natural channel for the commerce of northern
India, but it is distinguised by such natural peculiarities that
hitherto its resources have not been adequately developed. Mr.
Robinson thus describes it : —

The country through which it flows may be said to be one immense plain,
the soil of which contriins a very large portion of sand, and is of course
easily acted on by running waters. The bed which the river has formed for
itself in such a soil is, as might lie expected, tortuous or devious in its
course, and of very irregular breadth and depth : being composed of loose
sand, it is kept in constant motion, and the changes which occur in the depth
and locality of the channels are incessant. The banks too are continually
undergoing change through the action of the water undermining them at
one place, and forming new banks at another. Flats or shallows intervene
with deep narrow channels throughout the greater part of its course; and
when the river is low, small shallow channels or runs are formed through or
across the flats or sand-hars ; and in one of these channels frequently is to
be found the only passage for the navigation. The wiJth of the river is so
various that it is impossible to give more than an idea of it. When low, it
is from J mile to 1^^ mile ; when high, from 1 to 3 miles, and in some places
it extends over 20 or 30 miles of the flat country. The depth, when high,
is in the channels between 35 and 75 feet ; and when low, between 3^ and
10 feet. The perpendicular rise of water in the wet season at Jellioghee is
about 32 feet. 'I'he Bhaugruttee, though called a river, is a side channel
or mouth of the Ganges, and through which the navigation is performed
in the high-water season : the width varies from a furlong to a quarter
of a mile, and during the navigable season the least depth is from 3 feet
to 22 feet. For some months of the year it is not navigable for large
vessels. The Hooghly, which is a continuation of the Bhaugruttee, and
through which the navigation is continued to Calcutta, although resembling
in its general features the great Ganges, is less irregular and of easier navi-
gation ; its depth is generally greater than the Ganges, and the width of the
channel is satisfactory : at Calcutta, where it is a tidal river, it is nearly as
wide as the Thames at Gravesend. The Sooderbunds, through which the
navigation to Calcutta has to pass in the low-water season, are, in fact, small
mouths of the Ganges, flowing to the sea through a delta of fine sandy
alluvial deposit, covered with a rank vegetation and jungle. These channels
are very numerous, and reticulate with each other in the most extraordinary
manner, like a labyrinth. Their width varies from only 50 feet to ^ mile,
and beiug within the tidal action, their depth is much the same at all seasons
of the year ; and at low water is probably not less in the channels used by
vessels than 5 feet; their chief peculiarity is their extreme crookedness and
sharp bends.

In the low- water season, the length of the navigation between
Allahabad and Calcutta is 1,147 miles; in the high-water season,
787 miles : either length far beyond our English experience in
river navigation, but familiar to our brethren beyond the Atlantic,
whose system, as developed on the Mississip])i, Mr. Robinson has
applied to the Ganges.

The rise of steam navigation on the Ganges is thus stated : —

Under the administration ot Lord VVdIiam Uentinck, in 1834, the steam
traffic of the river was greatly developed by the estaldishment of a regular
line of steamers for the cuiiveyance of government stores, troops, passengers,
and merchandise. But although the government of India thus led the way,
it was understood that it was not intended to discourage or restrict private
enterprise.

Fortunately for the advent of steam navigation in India, coal had then
been discovered in several places; and at Burdwan, 63 miles from Calcutta,
mines had been opened and worked. This coal is, however, not so good as
British coal, the estimation being that it is only equal to 75 per cent, of
Newcastle coal ; but it is highly probable that as the pits are deepened the
quality will improve. The Burdwan coal is now brought to Calcutta by the
Damoodie river, at a cost of 20^. per ton, and to other places on tlie river at
prices varying trom 18s. to 2/5. per ton. The price of English coals at Cal-
cutta is from 3Us. to 33s. pei ton.

The system of steam navigation introduced by the Indian gsverment, and
which is continued to the present time, is that of placing the goods or pas-
sengers in small sep.irate vessels, and the steam-engine and coals in another,
which tu^s or tows the cargo-boat or passenger-boat, as the case may be.
The steamers or 'steam-tugs' are generally of iron, and abuul 12U feet long,
22 feet breadth of beam, 8 feet deep, and draw, when fully coaled, from

60

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Febbuabv,

3 10 4 feet water. The engines are of from 40 to 90 nominal horse power,
and of excellent worlinianship. The steamers are in fact similar to what
weie used on the Thames a few jcars ago, only shallower, and of fuller
huild. The vessel in which the passengers are placed is termed an 'accom-
modation /juaL' It is of similar dimensions wiih the steam-tug. and is fitted
up with passengers' cabins, and a 'cuddy' athwartships dividing them ; it
carries only passeneers and specie, and light packages and parcels. The
frfight-hoat or '.^a<' is also of the same dimensions as the steam-tug, viz.
120 feet long and 22 feet beam, and draws when loaded about 3 feet; it
has cabins for the captain and ship's officers only, and takes no passengers.

One only of these vessels is tugged or drawn by the steamer at a time, so
that the freight and the passengers are never conicyed together by the same
steamer.

The twin vessels are linked to each other at the bows and stern by a flat
beam of wood, which acts as a hinge, and serves also the purpose of a plank
for the crew to pass from one vessel to the other.

Like the native boats, steamers are obliged to stop running during the
dark of night. In the dry season, the average passage up is twenty-four
days, and down fifteen days. In the rains, the average passage up is twenty
days, and down eight days. The number of voyages made annually by
each steamer is nearly six. In 1844, there were seven government steamers,
with their accompanying vessels, all of which were kept in activity. This
number has since been increased by two more, specially adapted (or troops.

Besides these boats are those of another private company : —
The agitation of the question about the same time by other parties had
the eftect of drawing the attention of some of the Calcutta meichants to
the subject, who got up another steamboat company, raised a capital, and
ordered their steamers from London. It was named the General Inland
Steam Navicjalion Comjjany, and is perfectly distinct from the association
whose steamers form the subject of this paper. This company's steamers
are upon the tug system, but differ from those of the Government in being
of greater power, and being intended to tug or tow two small cargo-vessels
at once, the passenger cabins being on board the steamer. The names of
those which have been put on the line are, the Sir Herbert Maddock, the
General McLeody and the Sir Frederick Currie; the second of these was,
however, unfortunately lost in the llooghly, and the comjiany have recently
purchased the Assam Tea Company's steamer, Jssam.

Mr. Robinson's system is distinguished from these by using only
one vessel for steamer, passengers, and cargo.

The hull below the main deck is appropriated to cargo, with the exception
of the space occupied by the boilers, and the condensers and air-pumps of
the engines. The main deck projects over the sides all round, tapering in at
the bows, forming 'guards' which increase the room on deck. The engine
cylinders lie horizontally on the main deck. The saloon and cabins are also
placed upon it, 'forward' of the engines and boilers. Over the cabins, and
extending nearly to the stern, is a light promenade deck, and the part of it
or cabin passengers is coveied by an awning.

The frame and deck beams and paddle-box frames are of iron, and the
shell of iron plates. The main deck is of wood. The cabins and the pro-
menade deck over are entirely of wood. The length is, at load water-line,
196 feet. The beam or breadth of hull is 28 feet. The extreme breadth
over paddles is 46 ft. 9 in. The depth of iron hull is 10 ft. 3 in. at the en-
gine-room ; and the rest of the hull, 7 ft. 9 in.

The bottom or floor is nearly flat, rising on each side only sufficient to
throw the bilge-water towards the keel. The hows are full, hut with a good
and fine entrance. The stern is as full as was considered admissible, and is
in character with the bows. The tonnage of the hull, exclusive of cabins
and upper deck, builders' measurement, is 400 tons.

The engines are medium-pressuie condensing, unconnected, and of the
nominal power of 120 horses. The cylinders are two in number and are
horizuntal, aie of 30 inches diameter, and the stroke is 7 feet. 'J he boilers
supply steam of an elasticity of 20 lb. pressure per inch above the atmo-
sphere. The steam is worked expansively. The speed of the piston is 280
feet per minute. Each engine has a separate condenser of large size, and an
air-pump worked by a bell-ctank motion taken from the cross-head : they
are placed upon the floor of the vessel under the cylinders. The dianicler of
air-pump is 2 ft. 4 in, and the stroke 2 ft. 6 in. The vacuum kept up in
condenser, with water of the temperature of 80°, is 28 inches on the baro-
meter. The mean effective pressure upon each square inch of the piston
resulting from both the pressure of the steam and the vacuum is, when the
steam is cut off at two-thirds the stroke, 27 inches per indicator.

The boilers, four in number, are single-storied and tubular. The external
shell of each is curved at the fire-boxes, and cylindiical at the tubes. The
grates or furnaces are adapted for either wood or inferior coal.

The power of the engine is made available for hauling off the steamer
when she grounds upon the sand-banks or shoals by the very simple eon-
trivance of a 'whelp' barrel, similar to that of the windlass, securely put
upon the main crank. shaft of the engine, where it crosses the deck. The
chain cable, which is connected at one end to the anchor, laid out sternward
or abaft, is by the other end wound round the whelp barrel ; the engine is
then started, and exerts such a prodigious foice that the vessel is speedily
drawn off the sand-bank and afloat again.

The weight of the vessel and paddle-boxes has been stated to he 142 tons
— the engines, boilers, and propelling machineiy and engine-bearers, 106

tons — and the cabins and upper deck, 12 tons, — making a total of 260 tons.
In addition there is to be taken into calculation the water in bcjilers, 21 tons;
fuel for 12 hours' steaming, 10 tons; sundries, furniture, stores, ivc, la tons,
making the working weight 300 tons. This weight requires an equal dis-
placement, and which is obtained by an imuieision of the bull to 2 It. 10 in.
AH above this will be the carrying power for cargo. Thus at 3 ft. ti in. she
carries 85 tons; at 4 feet, 149 tons; and at 4 ft. Gin., 213 tons dead weight
of cargo. The carrying power for cargo is of course dirrrinished by the pas-
senger carrying accommodation to the extent of the weight of the cabins
and stores, shown above to be 27 tons; and without these the working
draught of the steamer would be only a fraction above 2 It. 7 in.

The difficulty of getting the vessel.^ out to India was thus mas-
tered : —

The iron vessel and the engines, which together form one of these steam-
ers, are both designed in all their details by the same firm, who, iieing iron
sbip-buildeis as well as engineers, were enabled to produce a combination of
the nature described. Each vessel and pair of engines were constructed
simultaneously at their establishment; and when completed, the engines were
fitted on board the vessel on the stocks; everything was put in place, and
the engines worked, to make sure that there would be nothing to fit or do to
them abroad. The parts of the engines where they were joined to each
other and to the iron vessel were then marked, taken asunder, and packed up
for the voyage. The whole work of the vessel was then painted in the
inside four diflerent colours, each quarter being of one colour; and the plates
of the shell and the ribs, as well as every piece, were marked with paint, and
stamped with letters and numbers, to facilitate and insure the correct putting
together in India. The vessel was then taken in pieces, and the whole care-
fully shipped and stowed on hoard a ship of the ordinary size, bound for
Calcutta. Accompanying the parts was .sent accurate drawings of the whole,
and a model of the vessel, painted and marked exactly like the original.
Upon arrival, after only a (our ruonths' voyage, the paits were landtd at the
establishment of the Ganges Steam Navigation Company, irear Calcutta, the
iron vessel put together in a dry dock, decked and floated out. The worK
was performed chiefly by native mechanics, under the superintendence of
the writer; and the first steamer was put togetlier in only nine weeks from
the day of landing. J he engines were then fitted in, and the cabiris put up,
of teak wood, to the working drawings. The whole was completely finished
and the steamer fitted out and started on the trial trip in a Iillle mjre Ihau
four months.

Tlie success of these steamers is complete, and the river passage
has been already greatly reduced,— in one case to five uays, as
against the eleven and thirteen days of the other steamers.
The following is tlie present state of the enterprise : —
The uew steamers put upon the Ganges up to the present lime consist of

Two of 120 horse power each for passenge.s aud cargo,

One of 140 ditto for cargo only,

Two of 200 ditto each for cargo only,
In all, five steamers, aggregating 880-horse power. Their cost is made up of
— 1st, the price of the vessels and engines in London ; — 2ridly, the expense
of transporting them in parts and pieces to Calcutta; — aud 3rdly, the ctiarges
of re-constructing in India.

Owing to the constructors in London having kept in view in their design
of the engines and boilers, that tlie parts were required to he adapted for
sttipment,- — to. the preparations made by them for laiilitating the Imsiuess of
putting together the parts abroad, — urul to economical iiiid aeti^e measures
in execulirrg the work in India, — the total cost of the whole five steamers
completed and started on the Ganges, exclusive of spare boilers, &c., and of
interest upon the capital employed prior to the steamers coming lutu activity,
does not exceed the sum of 96,000/., which is made up thus:

Steam-engines (880-horse power) .. .. i;41,800

Vessels, cabins, &c. . . . . . . . . 39,6b6

Cost in London
Transportation to India
lie-constructiou and equipment

81,486
5,8/3
9,199

Cost on the Ganges . . . . i)96,500

To which perhaps should he added interest for an average period of eighteen
nioutlis upon a part ot the sum, say upon 55,000/., at 7^ per cent, per an-
num, 6,187/. This would make up a suru of 102,747/. No preliminary ex-
penses or charges for the 'Direction' were incurred. Be it oljserved this is
no mere 'estimate,' but the actual cost of the thing done. They only who
have curried out a similar operation connected with a foreign country at a
great distance, can correctly understand the diflerence.

The iteiir of fuel is at prescrrt a heavy one (aljout 350/. each voyage of the
Patna) ; there is, however, little doubt that in another year or two coals will
be delivered on board at a lower price. The cost of the personal establish-
ment of each steamer is, even at its present high amount (about 148/. each
voyage of the Patna), niuch less than the steamers on the tug system.

As an appropriate finish to this exposition of the question, we
shall give JMr. Robinson's views on the improvement of the River
Ganges.

It has been aheady stated that the bed of the river is composed of sand ;

isig.l

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

51

the psceptions (of whii-h there arc a few) flo not affect the question, because
there is ahundance of depth over the hard parts of its bed. This sandy
formation, which is the cause of the evil of the extreme shallowness, affords
facilities for remedying it ; and the deepening of the channel where neces-
sary, without permanent or costly engineering works, is a task which the
author believes to he perfectly practicable. AU that is wanted is, to aid the
slow but certain powers of Nature by the application of scientific skill and
practical experience, combined with the cheap labour and the simple 'means
and appliances' already in existence in India, and with, in some places, the
steam-engine applied to macliinery afloat. In some places the improvements
might be etfected in a single season, whilst in other cases years of steady
perseverance in the necessary measures would be required ; and even when
the deepening is accomplished, the same measures must be continued in a
lesser degree, in order to secure what may have been gained.

The principles upon which these views are based, are, — 1st, that the water
of the Ganges holds in suspension the fine sand with which it forms the shal-
lows, the bars, and the hanks. 2nd, that just in the measure that the water
is kept in agitation (whether by the natural action of the current or other
means, (will it hold more or less of this fine sand in suspension. 3rd, that
wherevever the agitation exceeds a certain degree at any spot, there the
■water is deepening; and wherever at any spot it is minus this degree of agi-
tation, there the water is shoaling. This is aptly illustrated by a circum-
stance of common occurrence to the new steamers. From the great length
of one of these vessels, when it gets aground upon a shallow in an oblique
position with respect to the direction of the current, the water on the side
where the velocity is increased by the obstruction of the vessel becomes in a
little time deeper, and a channel is formed which generally enables her to he
got off; and on the other, or lee side, where the velocity of the current is
diminished, it shoals up so that in a few hours (should the vessel remain fast
so long) a sand-bank makes its appearance above the surface of the water,
upnn which one may jump out.

But an example of what was done by very small means, in an instance
that came witiiin the author's knowledge, will serve to show more definitely
what might be done to improve the navigation by adequate measures. In
the month of April (the worst part of the dry season) in 1847, at a place a
few miles above Benares, the water bad gradually shallowed to 2 ft. 6 in.
Upon this shoal several of the government steamers, as well as the new
steamer Benares, stuck fast, and met with much detention before getting
over. Being near a military station, the of^cer in command of it took great
interest in the proceedings of petting off the Benares; and after she had
passed down, he in the most spirited manner (acting upon the writer's sug-
gestion, that some good result might be produced by manual interposition),
collected a number of natives, whom he directed so skilfully to disturb the
sand at the biittom of the water with pointed poles or bamboos, that, in a
few days, so much of the s.irrd had been carried away by the current, that a
channel through the shoal of 4^ feet deep, and amply wide enough for a
steamer, s>as thus formed. This channel then remained open during the
rest of the dry season, and the steamers passed through it without once
grounding.

A Treatise on Public Slauqhter-Hmisipn. Bv Richard B. Grant-
HAjvi, C.E., M. Inst. C.E. London: Weale, 1848.

^V'hile other engineers have devoted themselves to several
branches of sanitary improvement, as the sewer system and the
supply of water, Mr. Grantham has very usefully taken up the
subject of slauarhter-houses, basing his work principally on the
operations of the Parisian abattoirs. Tliis is, of course, familiar to
our readers, having been so often published; but it is so far in an
original form, that j\lr. Grantham has made personal observation of
the establishments at Paris. He attacks the nuisance of Smith-
field, but without advocating the Islington cattle-market, which
has been lately opened with the view of mitigating the evil.

It is difficult to select anything from such a book which is not
trite, but tlie whole subject is of importance. Mr. Grantham's
practical remarks oil the French system may however be usefully
referred to.

I consider that, holding the opinions I do, I am bound at once to depre-
cate the attemp'; of any private company, fornred of persons wholly uncon-
nected with the butchers' trade, making it compulsory on the trade to
slaughter cattle in abattoirs remote from the great masses of the population,
and those only few in number.

I object to it upon the principle that no trade ought to be interfered with
to this extent by any party not connected with that trade, and that it ought
not to be confined to certain localities, and I do not believe that the public
will be better served by being subject to the coirtro! of an independent body ;
at the same time, if the trade will not or cannot see that it is incumbent
upon them to meet the demands of the times, and endeavour themselves to
abate the nuisance of the badly-conducted slaughter-houses, some one must
take up the matter, and they must he subject to their rules ; hut it ought to
be some constituted body already in existence.

It is preposterous to take the Paris abattoirs as a precedent for the cir-
cumstances of London. In Paris, as I have elsewhere stated, the number of

butchers does not exceed 500 in a population of nearly a million; and the
French citizens are not in the habit of consuming nearly the quantity of
meat per head that the English do; whereas in London alone, there are
about 4,000 butchers in a population of above two millions, and the con-
sumption, probably, four times greater in proportion. And although the
five Parisian abattoirs may not at all times be over-crowded, particularly
some of them, it forms no argument that six or seven public slaughter-
houses, placed round about this metropolis, will be sufficient, nor that the
distances at which they would probably be located prove the greatest possible
injury to the trade and inconvenience to the public. Unfortunately in this
country, particularly in London, we have no means by which we can, with
anv confidence as to the correctness, estimate the aruount of the consump-
tion of meat, but we have been informed by a good authority, that it may
he considered to be nearly double of that which is slaughtered in London.
I have before alluded, at some length, to the laws and restrictions to which
the butchers' trade, in all its branches, is subjected in France; hut that
system is totally inapplicable to this country. The surverllance and control
vvould not he submitted to here, — every man has always been accustomed to
conduct his own affairs in his own way ; and so long as he does not inter-
fere with, or prejudice, the public welfare, or violate the laws, he has a pre-
scribed right to perfect freedom. In France they have heeo taught to
respect that kind of control, not only by habit confirmed for a long period
in the general government of the country, but in the details of their trade,
ever since that traile assumed any importance in the internal economy of the
country. We cannot help fearing for the trade here, that should public
companies, not being butchers, establish public slaughter-houses, that it will
he reduced very nearly to the same state as the trade is in France, and that
of the most disagreeable description — namely, of a power which will have
only its own private ends to gain.

Data

THE DISTANCE OF THE SUN FROM THE EARTH
DETERMINED INDEPENDENTLY OF PARALLAX.

(Reprinted from the Ipswich Chronicle, of December 23rd, 184.8.)

To the Mathematicians of the Nineteenth Century.

Gentlejien — The under-mentioned equations demonstrate and
prove the distance of that beautiful luminary the sun (independ-
ently of parallax or transitorial phenomena), and will, 1 hope, set
at rest all mistrust upon this grand and sublime question, which
has engaged the attention of all lovers of astronomy, ever since
the cultivation of science began. The data which I employ are
the lengths of the apparent day and night on the longest and
shortest days of the year, the radius of the globe we inhabit, and
the versed sine of the obliquity of the ecliptic.

( 00 — y) s^ V4 ao2 y2 ^. ^ 00 _ y)2 j,2 _ 2 txj y

4coy(oo -Hy) -h (CO— y)-r ~ (00— j/)2

i 33 = ay

Seconds,
f a = the length of the day on 21st Dec. = 8643004
b -^ tlie length of the day on 21st June = 86412-93
s = the earth's equatorial radius = o962-5 miles

L I = verserl sine 23 deg. 27 min. 22-81 sec. = -0826363238
00 = tlie distance of the sun on the longest day.
y = the distance of the sun on the shortest day.

With this data, and the known fact that the earth moves nearly
in an elliptical orbit, I deduce two independent equations, and
having the same number of unknown quantities, their respective
values are truly limited to a known, definite, and satisfactory re-
sult. The absolute values of the required quantities, will prove
the nice accuracy of the distance (obtained by a transit of Venus
over the sun's disc), but they will also demonstrate an error, re-
specting the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, or half-distance
between the foci ; consequently the ellipse will be much nearer to
a circle than astronomers have hitherto considered it to be,

I am well aware that by making these remarks I place myself
antagonistical with mathematicians upon this subject, but truth
and demonstration will ultimately prevail over authority and un-
intentional error. In conclusion, and for the sake of publicity, I
intreat all gentlemen who are willing to aid pure tilgebra, to make
these equations as public as they possibly can, — for I wish them to
stand the test of the learned ; by so doing, they will succour the
cause of science in one of the noblest, grandest, most sublime of
all questions that ever came under the cognisance of erring man.
I remain, Yours, &c.,

Joii.v King,

Upper Brook-street, Ipswich,
Dec. 20, 1848.

8*

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNTAL.

[Febbuaby,

IMPROVED STEAM-VALVE.

Reghtprrd by Mr. Jostah Evans, of HuydocU Colliery, near
Warrington, Engineer.

Fig. 3.

area of the lid of the valve at H, and tlie area of the lid of the
valve at A, or in such other ])roiiortiiin. By this arrangement,
whon nsed as a safety-valve, and wlien tlie dirtercnoe is only one
ini-h in area, and the steam at a pressure of 60 lb. per square' inch,
the actual weif^'ht to be susi)ended to the rod D will be only 60 lb.;
or when used for the working valves of a steam-engine without the
centre part C, the area of the seatings A and I? can be so jiropor-
tioned that only the weight of the valve-lid will have to be lifted.

J'ig. 1 is a vertical view of one-half of the valve ; fig. 2, a verti-
cal section, showing the valve closed ; and tig. 3, a vertical section,
showing the valve open. The arrows indicate tlie flow of the
steam through the openings when it is admitted into tlie spaces,
a, a.

The object
part C^, e<|ii3l

of the
to an

improvement is to make the area of the centre
inch in area more than the difl'erence of the

ON THE PRINCIPLE OF RAILWAYS.

(From the Railway Chronicle.)

Tlie most important step in attaining a sound knowledge of any
subject is to obtain a clear view of the ^^ principle" on wliich it is
based.

Railways, in common with all other results of human intelligence
and skill, have their A B C, or elementary principles ; and were it
not that I am deeply impressed with the conviction that a con-
siderable portion of the railway public (both jirofessional and
shareholding) reipiire to be brought back again to school for the
purpose of learning-the very first lesson on this important subject,
I would not have presumed to beg for a corner in your valuable
pages, in order that I might have an opportunity of repeating the
elementary lesson which, through your indulgence, some four years
ago I attempted to give on the ABC of what I term the "princi-
ple of railways." But judging from the increasing number and
weiyht of those monster rail-crushing, permanent-way-destroying,
dividend-absorbing, Brobdignag engines, wliich are now, from
morning until iiiglit, making havoc with the 4,000 miles of railway
which branch to nearly every part of Great Britain, 1 am fain to
repeat my A BC, in the hope that I may make one or two apt
scholars, and, peradventure, reclaim some who ought to have
known better than to subject good honest wrought-iron rails to a
crushing treatment which neither art nor nature ever fitted them
to sustain.

Were any apology required for intruding the subject on the at-
tention of your readers, it would be fimnd in the fact, that such is
the havoc which these monster engines are making with the rails,
that by their "bills of mortality" their longevity is now reduced to
under eight years at the very outside, especially on those lines
where the traflSc is considerable.

Now, when we commercialise this fact in its most simple form, and
bring the result to a focus in plain £. s. d. upon 4,000 miles of rail
"used up" every eight years, to say nothing of the destruction of
other porticms of permanent way, and the increased deterioration
of the rolling stock pacing over rails in bad condition, we may
indeed say, "that's the way the diridcnds go."

Were this subject gone into and looked at in its proper liglit, all
other reforms would sink, on comparison, into insignificance. But
as "it is best in all things to begin at the beginning," permit me to
mount the desk and hold forth "for a brief while" on my A B C, or
principle of railways.

Lei-son 1. To what circumstance is it we owe the low amount of
tractive force requisite to move heavy bodies on a railway .''

Anmeer. Simply to the impenetrability or hardness of the sur-
faces, namely, of the rail and the wheel.

Denionalrntion. Let aaa represent a wheel of perfectly hard and

impenetrahle substance, and let h b
re]iresciit a rail of the same mate-
rial ; it is evident that the contact
of such a wheel witli such a rail
will be an absolute jioint, P. It
also follows that tlie force required
in moving forward the centre or
axle, C, will be infinitely small.

Tliis, then, is not only the prin-
ciple, but also the perfection of a
railroad — namely, the least possible
mutual penetration of the wheel
and rail, so as to (under all cir-
cumstances) maintain the absolute
point-like contact between the wlieel and the rail.

Now, let us take another e.xample — namel>', the same demonstra-

1S1.9."1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

53

tion applied to a case where the rail and the wheel are not of per-
fectly hard, impenetrable substances.

Lensnn 2. To what circumstance are we to ascribe the great
amount of tractive force required in dragging a wagon along a
soft or sandy road ?

Answer. To the penetrability or softness of the road.
Demonstration. Let aaa represent a wjieel rolling along a sandy

or penetrable soft road, into
which the wheel sinks from D
to D. In moving forward the
axle, f, of such a wheel, we
shall find, that as the wheel is,
as it were, in the act of mount-
ing an everlasting hill, whose
declivity is represented by a
tangent to the circle at the
point C, as great an expendi-
ture of force will be required
to move such a wheel along a
le\'el plain of such a degree of
softness or penetrability, as
would be required to roll the same wheel up a perfectly hard in-
clined plane of the declivity represented by the line /A.

Now, let us examine in what respect the preceding demonstra-
tion has reference to railways in general, and the action of heavy
engines in particular.

Hardness or impenetrability is a relative term. A rail which is
not sensibly penetrable to the action of the wheel of an empty
wagon, is quite penetrable to that of a monster locomotive, wliose
dri\'ing-wlieels are loaded with some eight tons.

In the case of the action of the wheel of an empty wagon, the
contact of the tyre of the wheel with the rail is very nearly an
absolute point ; but load that wheel with eight tons, and we sliall

find that we cause it to sinlv into
"the sandy road" condition of
things ; in other words, we cause
such a wheel and rail to mutually
compress or penetrate each other ;
and instead of the contact being a
point, it becomes a line, like the
side of a polygon, as here shown ;
and the force requisite to produce
motion will be equal to that which
would be required to roll such a
wheel and its load up a ])erfectly
hard incline equal in declivity to
the tangent of the circle of the
wheel, drawn from the point c, or
its parallel C.

Hence the vast importance of departing as little as the nature of
things will permit from the absolute hard-surface-state of affairs,
as indicated in the first demonstration. The way to do this is so
to arrange our system of traffic on railways, as that no one engine
will ever be required with a load on any of its wheels of more than
four tons at the utmost. Were this carefully attended to, the
saving of coke expended in perpetually ascending the hill of iron
they create before them would be vast ; while the saving in wear
and tear, or more properly speaking, destruction of permanent
way, would pay many times over for the wages and capital ex-
pended in the increased number of engine-drivers, and of lighter
locomotives required to perform the same traffic duty, which in
every respect they would perform with more economy, as so much
of the apparent or ostensible power of the present monster engines
is actually absorbed in their own efforts to maintain motion, and
roll continuously up a self-created hill of iron.

■If there be one subject more than another that calls for the most
careful and searching investigation, it is the commercial results,
for good or evil, which issue from the employment of lieavy en-
gines; and when we have such startling facts a's that, on the' ave-
rage of some of our lines of best traffic, we employ upwards of
eighteen tons of rolling plant, in the form of engines and car-
riages, to convey one ton of passengers, it ought to prove to us
that we are on a very wrong system ; and %vhen we add to the ex-
travagance of so disproportionate an expenditure of means to the
end, the rapid and wholesale destruction of permanent way, which
inseparably attends the heavy-engine system, we shall do well to
look to that question as a most certain cause of decreased profit,
and in returning to the employment of light engines as more cer-
tain to bring back the days of good bona fide dividends, than all the
petty diplomacy in which the railway interest have squandered
their means and attention during the last three or four years.

The system which Messrs. Adams and Samuel are bringing before
the public in the form of light passenger engines and carriages
comljined, in whicli they have so admirably united tlie minimum of
non-paying weight to the maximum of paying weight, contains
within it, so far as I am able to judge, tlie very salvation of di\ i-
dends, and the railway interest at large, together with the utmost
accommodation to tlie public. Besides the important results wliich
ai-e likely to attend the employment of the system of engiue just
alluded to, the influence they will have in converting our branch
lines from suckers into feeders, in the most substantial sense of
the term, is a subject that holds out the brightest hopes for the
profitable extension of the benefits of railway communication into
every corner of the land, and so diffusing happiness and wealtli
through tlie length and breadth of our beautiful country.

Patricro/t, near Manchester,
Jan. 9, 184.9.

James Nasmtth.

RSGIST£:a OP NE^V PATENTS.

GALVANIC BATTERIES AND MAGNETS.

William Ebwards Staite, of Lombard-street, City, gentleman,
for '■^ improi^ements in the construction of ynlvanic batteries, in tlie ftrr-
mation of magnets, and in the application of electricity and tnaynetism
for the purpose of liyhting and siynaliziny ; as also a mode or modes of
employiny the said yalvanic batteries, or some of them, for the purpose
of obtaining chemical products." (Partly a communication.) —
Granted July 12, 1848; Enrolled January 12, 18-19. [Reported in
the Patent Journal.']

The great leading feature of this invention being the batteries,
they obviously form the first part of the specification; the system
pursued throughout being what he terms the ''perfluent" system,
in contradistinction to the percolating batteries — the unequal re-
duction of the plates by these (as well as every other kind of
battery) besides the constant attention required, rendering them
all more or less troublesome and expensive in their action. Now,
by the proposed system, the consumption of the metal is equalised,
and the exciting fluids may be regulated so as to efli'ect the neces-
sary change to ensure the continued action of the battery, without
other attention than may be periodically determined, and which
may be extended to a considerable time. These batteries are, in
their general arrangements, very similar to the ordinary acid
battery ; each separate cell is furnished with two openings at bot-
tom, at opposite ends of the cell, which communicate with short
longitudinal channels under the battery, which connect one cell
with that next it on one side, while the opening or channel at the
other end of the cell communicates with the adjoining cell on tlie
other side; and in this order the whole series are in communica-
tion. The under channels, leading to the end cells of the battery,
have a hose attached thereto, which are carried up to the level at
which the liquid is to stand in the battery, and terminate in two
funnel-heads — the one having a spout to run off the excess of the
liquid into a suitable receiver, while the other is being continually
replenished from the supply-cistern ; the height of this funnel
being sufficient to cause the liquid to flow through the battery,
passing first to the cell next that end in wliich it circulates, then
to the next in succession by channels before mentioned, and so on
through the whole series. Modifications of this battery are re-
presented, in which only one opening is made in the bottom of each
cell, and all communicating with one channel. A hose-pipe is at-
tached to this, the funnel-head of which is raised and lowered at
intervals of about 20 minutes, for the purpose of running oflF or
replenishing the liquid, which is thus equalised throughout the
whole number of cells. Instead of the cells being connected at
alternate ends, as first described, syphons may be employed for
passing the fluid from one to the other. In another arrangement
of the perfluent system is shown, in connection with a double or
porous cell battery (the inner cell being a porous jar) supported in
the centre of the outer cell on a pipe passing through the bottom
of the battery, and furnished witli washers of india-rubber, to pre-
vent the liquid escaping from one cell to the other ; or at the bot-
tom this pipe forms a communication with an under supply-
channel, in which the proper feed is maintained in a hose and
funnel-head, at the proper level ; and supposing the exciting liquid
to be a solution of sulphate of lead, it becomes specifically lighter
while it remains in the jar, and becomes a clear solution of dilute
sulphuric acid. This is allowed to flow over the edge of the
porous jar into the outer cell, or zinc compartment of the battery;

54

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Febhuaby,

here it escapes l)y an aperture in the hottimi to a channel CDnimon
to all these cells, and from thence carrieil away by it at a heijflit
suitahle for maintainliii; tlie proper level in the cells.

The second part of the invention alludes to an apparatus for
rejrulatinir the supply of the excitiuf< fluids to galvanic batteries.
The liquid is coutaiued in a cask or other suitable cistern, enclosed
at top to prevent the pressure of the atmosphere actinu; on
the surface of tlie liquid, which is drawn ofl' at an opening at the
bottom, and received into a small open cistern, the level of the
liquid in which, when above the openiui; in the cask, prevents any
further escape ; from this small cistern tlie liquid is drawn by
means of a syphon; the end pendant thereon is a flexilile hose:
while the other; or lona; end, is a metal tube, which delivers the
liquid into a glass tul)e or vessel, from which it escapes by a small
aperture at the bottom, which is regulated to pass about the neces-
sary quantity ; when the liquid rises to a higher level in the glass
tube, and consequently covering the long end of the syphon, which
passes down to the bottom, the flow will be diminished, at the same
time the higher level attained will indicate a greater outflow at the
bottom ; the outer side of the glass being graduated accordingly.
The syphon is suspended by a cord, by wliich the relative propor-
tion of the legs may be varied by elevating or depressing the level
thereof, the long end always remaining the same, while the flexiljle
material of the other adapts itself to the required height at which
the ap]iaratus may be suspended.

Thirdly, this invention relates to combination of lead as the
positive element with nitric or acetic acids, instead of zinc, and
having any suitable negative element ; the plates for whicli pur-
pose may advantageously consist of surfaces of platinum.

Fourthly, to the employment of an amalgam of zinc, inclosed in
a bag, as a substitute for the amalgamated zinc plates or rods used
in galvanic batteries. For this purpose he employs a bag of linen,
hair, cloth, or any finely reticulated fabric not metallic, in whicli
the amalgam (in a liquid state) is placed, in which state it is used
in lieu of the plates before mentioned.

Fifthly, to improvements in the formation of magnets, which
consist— first, in the hardening such articles by heating them in a
bath of hot metal, instead of subjecting the magnet to the heat
of a furnace, and afterwards plunging them in water — lead being
emjiloyed as the heating medium.

The' metal he uses in the formation of magnets for electrical
purposes he prepares as follows : — he takes the best Swedish iron,
and, instead of converting the whole into steel, as usual, he only
partially converts it to the thickness of the scale on the outside ;
this scale is removed, and afterwards fused and the ingot obtained,
and then rolled out into thick sheets, from which the magnets are
cut.

The sixth part relates to an improved galvanometer ; in the
galvanometers liitherto employed, they have been useless when the
electrical apparatus has been in action, as they cannot be used
during that time, while the present improved galvanometer is in-
cluded in the circuit, and shows at all times the intensity of elec-
tricity passing. It consists of a thick wire coiled round a hollow
wood centre, in which a glass tube is fixed, in the centre of which
is placed a rod of soft iron, so as to slide freely up and down in
the centre. This is surmounted by a small stem of brass ; tlie
passage of the current through the coil tends to draw the soft iron
rod upwards, the height to which it is elevated depending on the
intensity of the current; the glass tube is graduated to show
in units the number of grains of pure zinc consumed, which may
be effected by the actual experiment, or it may be graduated ac-
cording to one of Petrie's galvanometers.

The seventh part relates to an amalgam consisting of zinc .and
mercury, in the propiu-ti(m of five parts of the former to one of
the latter, when employed as plates or rods in galvanic batteries.

The eighth part of this invention has reference to improve-
ments in eft'ecting the motion of the electrodes in electric lamps,
employed for tlie purpose of producing a continuous light for
illuminating purposes, or for the jn-oduction of a regular inter-
mittent light, aiiplicable to lightluuises. The improvements in
this p,irticular consist of an apparatus for elevating the electrode
as it is consumed or transferred to the o|)posing electrode by the
passage of tlie electricity, and is an improvement on a former
patent, dated July .'{, 1817, and described in the Joiirnn/, Vol. XL,
p. iO, In tliis case, the supporting stem of the lower electrode
terminates at the lower end in a rack, which gears into a pinion,
on the axis of wliicli is jilaced an escapement-wheel, worked by
means of a double pall, one of which drives the wheel in one direc-
tion, wliile the other pnqiels it in the opposite direction.

This double ])m11 is ])ivoted in the centre (the opposite ends being
the parts that fall into tlie teeth) to a lever, one end of which has

a slow oscillatory motion communicated to it from a crank, ac-
tuaterl by a train of wheel-work, the motion of which is main-
tained by springs, or smne suitable maintaining power, and the
direction of motion given to the wheel will depend upon the ]iall
in gear; this is determined by what he terms a regulator-coil; tliis
regulator-coil is placed in the circuit producing the light. A rod
of soft iron is placed in a vertical position in the coil, the upper
part of which terminates in a wooden top attaclied to a long lever,
which is elevated or depressed by the vertical rod, according to
the intensity of the current of electricity. The long le\er has
near its fulcrum a small stirrup, embracing one of the palls, so
that when it is elevated, it withdraws that pall from the wheel,
and throws the other into gear; this will take effect when the
lower electrode has been elevated too far, or brought into too close
contact with the opposing electrode, and will, consequently, re-
verse the direction of motion of the wheels, and lower the elec-
trode; and, again, when it sinlvs too low, the palls will be reversed,
and thereby raising the electrode to a position more compatible
with the production of light. When the electrodes are in a posi-
tion the best suited for the production of light, a small catch on
the regulator-rod lever comes in contact with the crank-movement,
and prevents the further action thereof; but so soon as this lever
is elevated or depressed by the regulator-coil, so will an upward
or downward motion be imparted to the electrode. Suitable
counter-balances are attached to the several parts, to ensure their
proper action. By this means, a continuous and uniform light is
obtained, applicable for general purposes of illumination. The
upper electrode is secured in a tripod, one of the legs of which
forms the conducting-link, and is immediately connected with the
regulator-coil before-mentioned, and forming the eduction for the
electric current, the induction being eff'ected through the rack to
the lower electrode.

In the production of an intermittent light, the supporting stem
of the electrode is furnished with a rack, gearing into a pinion, in
connection with a train of %vheel-work and a suitable flyer, to
regulate the motion; this pinion is so fitted as to have about one-
tenth of an inch of back-lash, and is free to receive an impulse
from the rack. The lower end of the stem terminates in a rod of
soft iron, surrounded by a helix-coil contained in the electric cir-
cuit. This is influenced by the current so as to draw down tlie
electrode, the wheel-work before-mentioned giving way thereto,
and allowing it to be slowly withdrawn, so that when the electrodes
are at too great a distance apart, the light becomes extinguished,
and the influence of the coil ceases. A weight hung over a pulley
is suspended by a cord from the rack or support-bar of the elec-
trode, which — so soon as the influence of the coil ceases — begins
to elevate the lower electrode, until it comes in contact with the
upper electrode, and thereby establishing the electric circuit ; and
the influence of the coil being again brought into action, the rack-
bar is slowly drawn downwards, as before explained, till the light
becomes extinct — the flyer in gear with the rack limiting the speed
of either movement, producing thereby a regularly intermittent
light, the duration of the light and the succeeding intervals of
darkness depending upon the apparatus employed. A chain is at-
tached to the raising weight, one end of which rests on the pedes-
tal of the apparatus ; and as the electrode is reduced, a greater
portion thereof is deposited on the resting place, and so keeps the
whole in a proper state of equilibrium. Other arrangements are
represented for producing an intermittent light, in which the rack
and wheel-work is omitted, thereby allowing the flashes of light to
be produced in rapid succession; but this may be readily arranged
to limit the duration of light or darkness, as may be required. In
one of the lamps shown the upper electrode consists of a rotating
disc, having an angular periphery, the apex of which forms, as it
were, the point of the electrode. This is connected with suitable
wheel-work, which causes it to rotate slowly, or about one re\ olu-
tion an hour. A scraper is placed in contact with the periphery of
this disc, which removes at each revolution the particles of matter
transferred from the lower electrode, and by this means maintain-
ing a permanent point to the electrode.

The eighth part has reference to the making of electrodes of
electric lamps of iridium, the hardest of all known metals ; or of
alloys thereof. For this [uirpose he fuses the oxide iridium by en-
closing it in a cupel of bone-ash under the influence of the voltaic
arc, which produces the most intense heat known. The resulting
ingot is afterwards subjected to heat for a considerable time, and
hammered for the purpose of annealing it and forming as near the
shape as possible, when it is completed in tlie manner of cutting
precious stones by the lapidary's wheel. These electrodes are
shown in a shape assimilated to that of a horse-shoe, and mounted
on two glass supports from the base of the lamp, with which the

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

current wires are in suitable connection ; the whole is under a
^lass shade, the light being produced by the passage of the electric
fluid through tlie iridium. Combinations of these electrodes are
represented under the same shade for the production of a more
intense light.

The ninth part refers to the encasing of electrodes in supporting
tubes, by which the electrode is protected from fracture, and also
admitting of the electrodes being made of several pieces, and
joined end to end. This supporting tube rises nearly to the top of
the electrode, and is suj-mounted by a number of erect springs,
which surround the electrode, and hold it firmly after it passes out
of the tube end ; these springs are fitted to the top of the tube
by a sort of a bayonet-joint. The electrode — or pieces forming
the electrode — are joined by insertion the one into the other, and
secured by a suitable cement, the to|> of the under one forming a
cup for the reception of a pin formed on the lower end of the
upper portion.

The tenth part relates to the introduction of an intensity-coil
in the electric circuit of galvanic batteries, for the purpose of in-
creasing the intensity of the fluid. This consists of a copper-wire
ribbon, wound and retained in a suitable coiled form, through
which the current is passed when applied to the purposes of light-
ing, or for motive purposes. This copper ribbon should be a cross
section of an area of one-tenth of an inch for every forty yards in
length.

The last part of this invention relates to the production of
chemical products from galvanic batteries, either used for the pro-
duction of light or heat, for motive power, or for the production
of such chemical products only. For this purpose, one or other of
the perfluent systems of battery should be employed, from the
facilities aft'orded for drawing off the products. In the case of
zinc being used as the positive element, the sul|)hate of zinc will
be the result ; but as the sulphate of zinc is of little or no com-
mercial value, he further prepares it by adding thereto a solution
of the sesqui-carbonate of ammonia, which will precipitate the
oxide of zinc, and the acid, being thus freed from the zinc, may
be used again in the batteries, while the oxide of zinc may be em-
ployed in place of the carbonate of lead, so extensively used as a
pigment. Various other results may be obtained, according to the
metals and acids employed in the batteries, several of which are
given in 'illustration, but which it will be unnecessary to enter into.

First — the construction of galvanic batteries on the perfluent
principle, before explained ; vvhether the perfluence of the liquid
is efl'ected by inter-communicating channels at the bottom of the
trough, or by syphons at the top, or by any other equivalent means.

Secondly — the employment in galvanic batteries of flexible hose,
with funnels attached thereto, for the purpose of charging and dis-
charging the cells.

Thirdly — the construction of the double fluid battery, before
described, so as to cause the perfluence of two separate and dis-
tinct exciting fluids.

Fourthly — the graduated meter attached to the supply-tub or
cistern, in order to regulate the quantity of the exciting fluid
which may be required to pass through the battery.

Fifthly — the equilibriated hydrostatic supply-cistern, as adapted
to galvanic batteries.

Sixthly — the combination of lead (instead of zinc), as the posi-
tive element, with any suitable negative element having nitric acid
as the exciting fluid, in galvanic batteries.

Seventhly — the mode described of enclosing a liquid mercurial
amalgam of zinc in a bag of linen, horse-hair, cloth, or other
finely reticulated fabrics, and to be used instead of the amalga-
mated zinc-plates, or rods of galvanic batteries.

Eighthly — the employment of an amalgam of zinc and mercury,
in the proportion of five of zinc to one of mercury, in galvanic
batteries.

Ninthly — the several improvements described in the formation
of magnets.

Tentbly — the improved regulator for electric lamps, as described.

Eleventhly — the improved galvanometer and graduated scale,
before described.

Twelfthlj' — the several improved modes of actuating the elec-
trodes in electric lamps, before described.

Thirteenthly — the method described of making the electrodes
of iridium, or alloys of iridium, and used for the purpose of pro-
ducing electric light.

Fourteenthly — the encasing the electrodes of electric lamps in
tubes, for their support, and the making them in pieces, as before
explained.

Fifteenthly — the insulation of the said electrode tubes from the
metal stand which supports the lamp, so as to allow of two or mure

separate lights being worked w ith separate currents of electricity,
independently of each other ; but sufficiently near to be worked
under one glass shade.

Sixteenthly — the revolving circular electrode, with conical edges,
in combination with a scraper, for removing the particles of matter
transferred from the one electrode to the other.

Seventeenthly — the employment in electric lamps of glass, or
some similar imperfect conductor of heat, to envelope the metallic
appai'atus for holding the electrode.

Eighteenthly— the combination of an intensity-coil with a gal-
vanic battery, as before described.

Nineteenthly — the several arrangements for producing the regu-
larly intermittent light from electricity, for the purposes of illu-
mination in lighthouses, together with the various modifications
by which the same may be adapted to tlie production of a perma-
nent light, as described.

Twentieth, and lastly — the formation of galvanic batteries,
for the purpose of obtaining chemical products from the several
combinations of galvanic elements and exciting liquids, herein
mentioned.

PAPIER-MACHE ARTICLES.

WiLLi.\M Brindley, of Twickenham, Middlesex, manufacturer,

for '•^ improvements in the manufueture of articles of papier machi."
— Granted June (J ; Enrolled December 6, 18-t8.

The improvements relate — First, to a mode of producing orna-
mental and other surfaces in relief, on trays and other articles of
papier mache'. Secondly, to a mode of manufacturing hollow arti-
cles of papier mache, such as basins for holding water, so as to
produce wash-hand basins, suitable for camp furniture, and such
like purposes. And thirdly, to making hats of papier mache.

The first part of the invention consists in employing moulds
with sunk or hollow parts according to design, so as to obtain ar-
ticles of papier maciie from slieets, made with designs in relief.
For this purpose, metal moulds are used; but in place of their
being plain, and producing plain surfaces, they are made with en-
graved or other suuk surfaces, so that when the sheet of pulp is
compressed between moulds, one or other, or both of which having
recesses in pattern, those will produce the article of papier mache
with surfaces in relief; and as it would be expensi\e to make a
number of moulds of the same pattern, if of metal, papier mache
is employed in making numerous patterns from one pattern; and
this is done by placing a succession of sheets between the moulds,
and then to dress up such moulded articles as if they were to be
japanned; but in place thereof they are only saturated with oil,
and stoved; and then they are used in obtaining a series of moulds
for making trays and otlier articles of papier mache, according as
the moulds are made suitable for one article or another; and in
order to give them strength, the ordinary moulds of sheet metal
are used; or in place of making the papier mache moulds from
sheets, as above described, papier mache articles may be moulded
and dried between the ordinary moulds; the parts where surfaces
in relief are to be obtained to tbe articles of papier mache can be
cut out with a sharp knife. The second part of the invention
consists of making basins of papier mache, so that they may be
used to contain water; and tliis is done by causing sheets of pulp
made by sieves from pulp, as above explained, to be pressed be-
tween two moulds. The third part of the invention consists of
applying a like means of operation in the manufacture of hats.

MOULDING BRICKS.

Joseph Skertchly, of Anstey, Leicester, gentleman, for " im-
provements in bricks and in- the nninufactare of tubacco pipes and other
like articles." — Granted June 30; Enrolled December 30, 1818.

The improvements are — Firstly, for making bricks used for
building, and when required to be covered on either or both of
their faces with plaster, cement, stucco, or other like coating,
such coating shall be so dovetailed into the subjacent bricks as to
be afterwards detachable therefrom only with great difficulty.
With this view, each brick is moulded on the face or faces to be
plastered or coated, with an under-cut groove, tl;e form of which
may be varied at pleasure, so long as it is made broader at the
base, or internally, than at the top. — Secondly, the invention re-
lates to making tobacco pipes and other like articles from clay or
other suitable substance.

56

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Fkhruabv,

STOVES AND FURNACES.

^^■ILLIAM Edward Newton', of Chancery-lane, Middlesex, for
•' improvements in the construction of xtoven, griilet:^ furimcex, orfire-
plncex, for various useful purposes." (A communication.) — Granted
.luly 6th, 1818; Enrolled January 6th, 181.9.

The improvements relate to the construction of stoves and
other closed furnaces, for the more perfect development of the
heat produced by the combustion of fuel, and the prevention of
smoke. The fire-place containina^ the fuel is either completely
surrounded by an outer case, forminfj a chamber within which the
atmos])heric air is heated, or only partially closed, leaving the
front of the fire exposed. In either case means are provided for
replenisliing the fire. The atmospheric air passes through holes
in the sides, and is regulated by registers over the holes. The
outer case which incloses the fire-place is not the shell of the stove,
l)ut there is another, partially inclosing both the fire-place and the
case immediately surrounding it : this ease may be ornamented in
any tasteful manner. Above the stove just described there is
another chamber, into which the products of the combustion in
the fire-place, and the heated atmospheric air from the chamber
surrounding the fire-place, are conveyed, by means of a conical-
shaped pipe, called a throat ; the area of which where it is con-
nected to the fire-place, is larger than the upper end, where there
is a i>late which divides the lower portion of the stove from the
upper chamber ; the products of combustion in the fire-place, pass
through this throat from the fire to the upper heating chamber, at
the same time the heated air in the chamber, sun-ounding the fire-
place, is also passed into the throat at its lowest part, and conse-
quently ensures an admixture of the heated atmospheric air with
the inflammable products from the fire-place. The heated products
pass and circulate round the interior of the upper chamber, and
then pass downward through a vertical pipe, into the outer chamber
of the lower part of the stove, by which the external case of it is
heated ; thence by a pipe to the chimney. The heated air from
the chamber immediately surrounding the fire-place, in passing
into the throat, intimately mixes with the inflammable products
from the fire-place, and is thereby consumed.

The improvements are also applicable to furnaces for puddling
and making iron. The atmospheric air may be admitted to the
throat direct from without, in its natural state of temperature,
instead of passing it to the chamber, and thereby heating it.
Steam, as well as the atmospheric air, may be admitted to the
throat; the mode also of applying the atmospheric air to the
throat may be varied, as it may be admitted at the sides, by several
openings, or by one opening, or in the middle of the throat ; the
object being to intimately mix the atmospheric air and the inflam-
mable matters from the "fire-place together ; the throat may also
be increased in size between the upper and lower apertures, for
tlie purpose of giving longer time for the air and products to mix,
previous to passing into the heating chamber.

EXTRACTION OF METALS.

William Hunt, of Dodder-hill, Worcester, chemist, for " I'm-
prorement.s- in obtaining certain metals from certain compounds con-
tainimj those metals ; and in obtaining other products by the use of
certain compound^! containing metal." — Granted June 21; Enrolled
December 22, 1 818.

The improvements relate to the extraction of certain metals
from compounds containing them, and also to the manufacture of
sulphate of soda and carbonate of soda from common salt. The
first improvement, relating to the extraction of metals, consists in
obtaining in a metallic state, from iron slag of iron furnaces, the
iron contained therein ; and obtaining in a metallic state the cop-
])er and tin from the slags containing those metals. The iron is
extracted from the slag in the following manner : — First, the iron
slag from puddling and refining furnaces is (instead of being al-
lowed to run from the furnace, and cooled in masses) granulated
by running it from the furnace into a vessel of water ; or, if more
convenient, the slag may be crushed by proper machinery ; the
object being to reduce the slag into very small pieces. The gra-
nulated or i:rushed slag is then mixed with small coal, in the pro-
portion of about ;jth of the slag. This mixture is then placed in a
reverberatory furnace, and covered with a thin layer of small coal,
and exposed to a full red heat for about 24 hours, at the end of
wliich time the iron will be produced fnuu tlie slag. It shouhl be
tlieu taken from the furnace, and cooled i[uickly in water. The
metallic iron tlius obtained may be used for the production of pig-

iron (by mixing it with the ordinary burden of the blast furnace)
or for bar-iron, in which case it is charged into the puddling or
refining furnaces with the ordinary metal. — For extracting the
copper contained in the slags of copper, the slag is granulated or
crushed, as in the case of iron slags, and mixed with raw sulphur-
ous ores and small coal, in the proportion of 30 lb. of sulpluir con-
tained in the raw ores, 10 lb. of lime, and 20 lb. of small coal, to
one ton of the granulated slag. These are mixed together with
water, to form a paste, and submitted to operation in a reverbera-
tory furnace, as in the former case, the resulting products being a
regulus of copper and a slag. In the ordinary copper slags the
quantity of copper contained therein is about one-half jier cent.,
and the regulus contains about 35 per cent, of copper, in conse-
quence of the process of calcination of the ore being only carried
a certain height ; but the patentee proposes to carry it so far that
the regulus shall contain about (iO per cent, of copper, and the slag
about one per cent.

The second improvement is for obtaining sulphate of soda from
common salt ; and also in obtaining from the sulphate of soda thus
produced, carbonate of soda. In the process, for the purpose of
decomposing the salt, artificial sulphuret of iron or artificial sulph-
uret of manganese is used. The quantity of sulphur and of iron
contained in the artificial sulphuret is first ascertained, and should
the proportion of iron to the sulphur therein not be equal to about
three of iron to one of sulphur, then about that proportion is to
be made up by the addition of a proper quantity of oxide of iron,
in a powdered state. It is then mixed with common salt, in the
proportion of about two parts of salt to one of sulphur contained
in the compound. AVhen mixed, it is to be placed in a furnace,
and subjected to a transmitted heat ; atmospheric air being at the
same time admitted into the furnace, by which chlorine gas and a
small quantity of hydrochloric acid are evolved. If it is not de-
sirable to cidiect the chlorine gas for any subsequent purpose, then
steam is passed into the furnace, which has the effect of facilitating
the operation, but converts nearly all the chlorine gas into hydro-
chloric acid. The chlorine gas being now present only in small
quantity, the products from this operation are sulphate of soda and
oxide of ieon, which may be separated in any ordinary manner.

The annexed engniving is a section of the furnace. A, is a
chamber for iron jiyrites, the gaseous products from wliicli pass
through an opening near the top, and through the vertical cham-
ber B, and then through the horizontal passage C ; tlie vertical
chamber B being charged with a quantity of the compo\uul of the
artificial sulphuret of iron and common salt, through wliich the
products from the pyrites in their passage pass. When exposed in
this chamber a suflicient length of time, it is raked and sjiread
over the bottom of the chamber D, where being exposed to an
increased temperature, the process is completed ; the resultants
being, as before stated, sulphate of soda and oxide of iron. E, the
fire-grate of the furnace; the products of combustion passing from
thence through the flues in the direction indicated by the arrows,
and finally through the flue F, to the chimney. The olitaining
carbonate of soda from the sulphate of soda thus produced, is
elfected by fidlowing nearly the same process as that described
with respect to the production of sulphate of soda.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

57

TUBULAR BRIDGES.

Description of the Tabular Beam Bridge on the Carmvnnock Boad,
over the Polloc and Goran Railway. Erected by Andrew Thomp-
son, Esq., Eiiffineer, of Glasgow, in ISIO. — (Paper read by T. L.
Donaldson, Esq., at the Royal Institute of British Architects,
January 22nd.)

The Carmunnock Road, near Glasgow, passes over the Polloc
and Govan Railway, askew, by means of a beam bridge. The
width from outside to outside of parapet is 25 ft. 6 in. ; the total
length from one extreme to the other of the abutment-walls about
93 feet. The aperture for the railroad is 30 feet in the clear, taken
at right-angles to the axis of the railroad ; but taken on the face
of the bridge is 31 ft. 6 in. The walls which support the iron gir-
ders are 3 ft. 6 in. thick, constructed of stonework, faced with fair
ashlar of hammer-dressed course-work, ^th of the facework being
headers. The ends of these walls are strengthened by the wing
retaining-walls ; and there are four intermediate abutments or
counterforts, 2 feet wide, and projecting 3 ft. 3 in. One coming
under each girder, these walls rise to a height of 19 feet ; and im-
mediately under the beams is a course of ashlar 3 feet broad in the
bed, and 1 foot thick. There is a wrought-iron plate bolted down
to the course of ashlar just mentioned, to receive the feet of the
tubular beams, which are six in number, being 5 ft. 1^ in. apart
from centre to centre, and 35 ft. 3 in. long. They ai;e constructed
of the best boiler-plate, f inch thick, and measure 3j inches wide
in the clear at top, and 6 inches in the clear at bottom, and are 18
inches deep (as shown in the annexed engraving, drawn to a scale
of I inch to a foot). The upper and lower plates are 6 inches
wider than the beam, the 3-inch projection on each side being for
the purpose of receiving the angle-irons of f plate, with a bearing
width of 3 inches against the side and upper and lower plates, to
which they are attached by rivets ^ inch in diameter, square-headed
on one side and rivetted over on the other, spreading to 1 inch in
diameter. They are Ig inch apart from centre to centre. The
beams are filled in solid with concrete to render them unyielding
and rigid, and are tied together by § cross-bars of Low-Moor iron,
3 inches wide, attached by bolts to x -irons, which are rivetted to
the sides of the tubes.

Fig. 1. — Shotting two of the Girders and Brick Arch between.

o

o
0

o

0

51 r

o

O 0

0

o

o

a> t

0
o

0 O

o

- a

°

If < -' J./>.

0

o c

t o

o

S ^

_l —

""*-^-l-

'^.

^

Fig. 2.— Plan of Girders andTye.

The beams being thus framed together, the spaces between them
were filled in with two 9-inch courses of arched brickwork, having
a rise of 1^ inch at the centre in a space of 3 ft. 2 in. The crown
of the arches was paid over with hot tar, upon which was a layer
of well-wrought clay puddle, well rammed down. Over the clay
there was a coating of Whinstone metal, to form the road, covered
with a binding course of engine-ashes, 2 inches thick. The hori-
zontal rusticated arch-faces are of cast-iron plates, f thick, bolted
to the outside beams, and cast in three lengths. The parapets are
of hammer-dressed stonework, each alternate course going through
the whole thickness. There is a foot pavement on each side of
the bridge, 4 feet wide, with gutters laid between it and the road-
way.

This bridge was constructed for AVilliam Dixon, Esq., the emi-
nent iron-master of Glasgow, to whom the raiLoad belonged.
That gentleman has the most important foundry called the Govan
Ironworks, at Glasgow. The communication between the furnaces
is by means of platforms resting on tubular beams, slightly differ-
ing from those just described. The bearing between the furnaces
is 33 feet. The beam is composed of f plate, the depth 19 inches
in the dear ; the width, which is the same at top as at bottom, is
7 inches in the clear. The bottom plate is secured to the side
plates by inner angle-irons with ^ inch rivetted bolts, 25 inches
apart from centre to centre. The side plates rise 2^ inches above
the top plate, for the purpose of receiving the outside angle-irons,
which secure the top plate to the sides, and to which it is rivetted
in the same manner as the bottom. Each side of the angle-irons
is 2i inches wide. Two or three of these beams form the supports
for the platform, which connects the summit of one furnace with
the other.

There have been recently brought before the notice of the pro-
fession so many schemes for the construction of beams for support-
ing floors, in order to avoid the various casualties to which cast-
iron is liable, and at the same time to produce less depth in the
flooring and greater lightness in the weight, that the considera-
tion of' the construction of the above-described bridge, which
was erected nine years since, is at once instructive and interest-

FREE-ACTION PUMP FOR COFFERDAMS.

We copy the following description of a pump from the Railway
Chronicle. It has been tried lately in one of the cofferdams at the
bridge over the Trent, now in the course of construction upon the
Great Grimsby and Sheffield Junction. The principal features in
the invention are — that the action of the pump i: independent of
the contact of any two solid rubbing substances: — that it is not
subject to the derangement to which other pumps are liable,
in which water-tight joints of one kind or another are required,
and upon the perfection of which, universally, their effectual
working, and in many cases, their actual working depends: — that
it can he used in engineering works where ordinary pumps would
be choked: — and that it can be constructed wholly of wood, in a
short time and at a trifling cost. The accompanying sketch shows
a section of the one that was tried, and
which discharged as much water (working
at fourteen strokes per minute) as a 12-
inch circular suction-pump. The working
part was below the surface of the water
on starting the pump, although when once
at work it would continue to draw water
until the surface fell below the bottom of
the main. The bucket, which was a square
wooden tube, closed by a common flap-
valve at the top, was suspended by a
wooden rod connected with the rocker
above, and worked within another wooden
tube 10 inches square inside, open at the
top and constituting a main 26 feet long.
The bucket worked clear of this main,
about l-16th of an inch on every side,
and was 3 feet long. About 8 inches or
10 inches from the bottom of the main,
another valve was inserted, which, toge-
ther with that in the bucket, opened up-
wards. The stroke of the pump was 4 feet.

The mode of action is clear. As the bucket rose, the water
rushed in at the lower valve, and by this means every up- stroke
raised the surface within the main, a certain amount — the motion
of the bucket and the supply through the lower valve being too
rapid to admit of the escape of any significant quantity of water
between the bucket and the main. The experiment was exceed-
ingly satisfactory. The pump lifted sand and gravel in considera-
ble quantities, and though scored by the same in the immediate
neighbourhood of the bucket, its action was not in the least im-
paired.

58

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

f February,

SUPPLY OF WATER TO LONDON.

Another scheme is hniug-ht forward for supplyin;; tlie metropolis
with water. It is proposed to talvC the sujjply from tlie river
Thames, near Henley, at an elevation of 106 feet above low-water
mark at London-bridge, and convey it in a canal, 1!) miles in
length, until it reaches the Grand Junction Canal at AV'est Dray-
ton, wlience it will be conveyed a distance of 15 miles to Pad-
dington, in the bed of that and the Paddington Canal, or in a
separate channel alongside of those navigations. A reservoir is to
be formed at Paddington, 103 feet above low-water mark of the
Thames ; and another high-service reservoir is to be formed on
Primrose Hill, 190 feet above low-water, or 172 feet above high-
water mark, which the promoters state will be supplied hy a
very niin/ik hydraulic power obtained from the fall of the water tii the
lower parts of London.

Tlie (piantity of water intended to be sui)plied is 100 million
gallons daily.

The cost 'of the undertaking is estimated at 750,000/.; but if
a separate cliannel should be made for the water for the vrhole dis-
tance, 250,000/. is to be added to the expense — making in all a
million.

This is an outline of the promoters' scheme, which appears to
us has not received that mature consideration it deserves lieftire it
is lirouglit into Parliament : in consequence, it will, we fear, break
down in conuuittee. Tliere cannot be a doubt that tlie source of
the sui)])ly is good, and that an ample quantity of water tor the
wants of 'London may be procured, and that there would not
be any very great objection to bringing the supply by a navi-
gable'canal from Henley as far as Drayton, as the navigation
through this distance of' 19 miles would 'not be more objection-
able than taking the supply from the Thames at Staines, a place
about the same distance below Henley as West Drayton. But
we have a strong objection to the course of the Grand Junction
and Paddington Canals, as they are fed by large reservoirs of stag-
nant water collected during the winter months, and let down for
the lockage through the summer months. These reservoirs receive
the land drainage of a vast tract of country : one is at the head of
the river Brent, near Edgware-road ; another at Elstree; another
at Ruislip ; and one or two others between the latter place and
Tring; and, besides, those canals coming witliin the range of the
metropolis, are lial)le to be polluted by a variety of objectionable
matters. The size of the canal, with' an inch fall only per mile,
requisite to carry 100 million gallons daily, is a much larger work
than we anticipate the estimates will cover — when is included the
settling, filtering, and delivering reservoirs: for enormous as the
quantity is, it will not do to allow the water to pass into tlie
mains without undergoing the process of tiltration, as in rainy
seasons the river Thames is in a very turbid state.

If the companies' mains and jiipes are to remain the same as they
now are, it will be requisite to lift 10 to 15 million gallons of the
water for the supply of London to the upper reservoir at Primrose
hill, or tlie water will not pass through the mains with a sufficient
velocity to supply the eastern parts of London, from five to seven
miles distance. How this quantity is to be lifted "by a very
simple hydraulic power," the promoters do not tell us

Unless, indeed, half of the 100 million gallons be allowed to run
to waste, to raise the 10 or 15 million gallons to the upper reser-
voir, by an o\ershot-wheel of 30 feet diameter, by such an arrange-
ment one-half of the water would be discharged at an elevation
of only 55 feet above high-water mark, an elevation that cannot be
of much service in flashing the sewers ; as for the latter i)urpose,
the main quantity of water should be discharged at the head of the
sewers throughout London. The waste water might very advanta-
geously be used for supplying the Serpentine — much needed, and
which is about 10 feet above high-water mark, and also the orna-
mental water in the (ireen Park and St. James's Park ; but it
would bo discharged too low for Regent's Park, as the lake there
is on about the same level as the intended Paddington reservoir,
unless it be raised by an additional water-wheel kept for that pur-
pose.

After all, the main consideration is, can so large a ([uantity as
100 million gallons daily be diverted from the river Thames in the
summer time without being detrimental to the river between Hen-
ley and Brentford } And can that quantity be brought to London
with a fall of only an inch per mile ? If this really can be done,
or even 50 million galliuis, then it will unquestionably he of great
value to the metropolis, provided the water be properly distri-
buted ; for this purpose it will be indispensably necessary to have
another reservoir at Hampstead, with a large main for supplying
it, in addition to the reservoirs belonging to the present water com-

panies, so as to ensure a constant supply at all times to the top of
the highest house within the district to be supplied ! In such case,
can all this be done within the capital of one million sterling.^
W^e think not ; nor for lialf as much more, particularly if the
water-course of the Grand Junction and Paddington Canals be
abandoned.

It is very evident, as we said at first, the scheme has been hastily
brought forward, and assertions made that will be difhcult to sup-
jiort. Instead of 100 million gallons, let the promoters be content
with 10 million gallons daily : that sup|dy will be ample when we
take into consideration the present supply of the New River; —
and instead of trusting to "a simple hydraulic power," let them
calculate for steam power to lift the water up to Hampstead, which
would be a mure central and elevated spot to distribute it through-
out the metropolis.

PORTER'S PATENT CORRUGATED IRON BEAMS.

Mr. Porter, of the Iron-roofing Works, at the Grove, South-
wark, has recently taken out a patent for the employment of cor-
rugated iron in the construction of beams; and for the purpose of
testing the strength some experiments were made, of which the
following is an account. Two beams made on this plan were sub-
mitted to the test; the extreme length of each 22 feet, and sjian
between supports 20ft. (iin.; deptii of beam, 18 in.; weight of
beam, Hii^wt.; tiie top and bottom frames were of -1 inches x
4 inches T-iron, and the base j inch thick; the plates of corru-
gated iron forming the beam being of No. Iti gauge, and the bands
I5 inches x 5 inch thick. The two beams were placed 9 feet apart,
and across these were laid two large oak blocks, weighing 1 ton
3cwt., and supporting the further load. These blocks, or bearers
(the one 19 inches and the other 24 inches wide), were 4ft. Sin.
apart from centre to centre, and equidistant from their centres to
the centre of the beam, 25.i inches; upon these were laid cast-iron
blocks, weighing ti tons 17cwt. This weight was put on on Satur-
day and remained till Tuesday, without causing any deflecti(m.
On Tuesday, in the course of an hour-and-a-half, an additional
load was apjilied of 121 bundles of plate-iron, weighing 7 tons 3 cwt.

0 qr. lulb., producing a deflection of -f'j.ths inch. This load was
allowed to remain from 1 ji.m. oil Tuesday until 10 a.m. on AVed-
nesday, in course of which time the deflection had increased Vsth
inch. Fifty-one bundles ot plate-iron, weighing 3 tons 9 cwt.

1 qr. 2 lb., were now added, which caused a total deflection of

1 inch bare; rested a quarter of an hour, when 32 bundles of plate-
iron, weighing 1 ton IS cwt. 0 qr. 12 lb. were added, which in-
creased the deflection to Igincli and 1 y'j inch respectively; the
difference being evidently occasioned by the settling down of the
piers, giving a greater load to one beam. A further load, weighing

2 tons 8 cwt. 3 qrs., brought the deflections to li? inch and l:,'incli.
This loading was proceeded with gradually during tliree iiours,
when the load was left for an liour. In the meantime a sliglit
noise called attention to a partial dividing of tlie bottom flange of
T-iron, in the beam which hitlierto appeared the least strained:
upon examination, it was found to liave originated in a flaw near a
'•shut" in the T-iron, distant 6 ft. 3 in. from tlie point of support;
this caused a fuither deflection of V,y inch, but the fracture did
not appear to increase during half-an-hour. The deflection of the
beams increased to 2 inches and Ij inch with an additional load
of 2 tons (i cwt. 2 qrs. 22 lb. load, applied gradually during three
quarters of an hour. After a further lapse of 10 minutes, a
further load of 7 cwt. caused a rapid deflection in the already-
weakened beam, the corrugated iron giviug way at the same time
to tlie strain of the rivets lougituiUnally. The beams were now
blocked up to prevent any accident from the sudden falling of the
load. The corrugated iron of tlie other beam was also found to
have yielded in several jilaces to the longitudinal strain of the
rivets, principally in tlie lower part of the beam.

The breaking weight is, therefore, considered to be about
25 tons, exclusive of the weight of the beams.

The inventor considers that his beams will not weigh more than
one-half, or five-eighths, of the weight of cast-iron beams to carry
the same load, and that they may be made for 21/. per ton.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

ON THE DRAINAGE OF LAND.

[We give the following interesting account of Land Drainage,
from an "Essay on Land Drainage, &c.," by Mr. Williams,
acting engineer to tlie Severn Commission.]

The great advantages resulting from the application of drainacre water to
millpower, is no matter of mere theory. They have heen practiially illus-
iraieil, iii the most conclusive manner, upon the estate of Lord Ilathertnn,
at Terideslev, Staffordshire, and the illustration there afforded is so forcible,
that a treatise on the suhject of drainace would he incomplete without a
description of the highly effective mode in whicli the greatest enemy upon
his lordship's estate has heen converted into one of the most effective 'agents
in its improvement.

Having frequently heard of the great simplicity and practical utility of
the system adopted upon Lord Halhcrton's farm, I'visited Teddeslev for'the
purpose of inspecting tlie whole of the arrangements, and arquiring such
information upon all the details as would enahle me to give a concise de-
scription of them. Upon my visit, I found that thev had heen inspected hy
many scientific agriculturists, and amongst others, hv Mr. French Burke,
who had noticed them in a pamphlet upon Land Drainage and Irrigation,'
pulilished in 1841 ; but as they have been considerably extended and im-
proved since that time, and as they are of greater importance to the illus-
tration of the object to which this chapter is devoted, than to an essay
confined to the subject of draining and irrigation, I offer no apuloey for
going into a detailed account of the results now attained, and which are
both novel and highly instructive.

A large proportion of Teddesley Hay, wbich is a manor extending over
2,586 acres of land, was originally part of the forest or chase of Cannoek,
and covers the height, seen to the eastward of the Penkridge Station of the
London and North-Western Railway. From these heights the lands slope
gradually, with slight undulations, to the river Penk, a distance of about
three miles. The domain was originally of much smaller dimensions than
at present, and comprised two anciently enclosed parks, one containing 589,
the nthei- 200 acres. The larger park, "previous to Lord Hatherton's coming
to the estate, was in the lowest state of cultivation, and much of the
smaller was little more than a swamp. The circumjacent common lands
were also covered with heath or rushes. On his lordship's entering upon the
estate in 1820, his attention was at once directed to its improvement, and
he has since that time heen constantly engaged in extending and bringing
it into its present high state of cultivation." The old park fences have been
thrown down, large plantations made, and the home park laid out in a
manner suited to the nei-hhourhood of a nobleman's residence; an extensive
farm has been huilt, and the lands subjected to a new arrangement. The
extent of land which did nut require draining was comparatively small; and
the whole, which consisted generally of a light soil, rather inclined to peat,
the subsoil being chiefly clay, has since been subjected to a regular course
of thorough draining, and the water collected into two main channels, by
which it is first conveyed to an extensive reservoir, which has heen con-
structed for its reception, and from which the water flows underground for a
distance of nearly half-a-mile, in a culvert fifteen inches in diameter, to the
farm buildings, where it is discharged upon an overshot "heel, and thus
furnishes mill-power for the various purposes connected with the estate.

The wheel originally used was constructed of timber, and was thirtv feet
in diameter; from the want of sufficient natural fall in the surface of the
land, between the reservoir and the farm, no little ingenuity and contrivance
were required in the arrangement of the details for using the water in the
most efficient manner, and for afterwards getting rid of it. Much talent has
been displayed in overcoming these difliculties, which lias been done in a
way wbich proves how completely this system of converting the water ob-
tained from the drainage of the land to the imrpose of motive power, is
applicable to the great majority of estates of any maenilude in the kiniidom.

The original timber mill-wheel has recently been replaced by one hnilt of
wrought-iron, of tliirty-eight feet in diameter, which is a model of li^ht-
ness, comliined with strength. This wheel is let into a chase cut into'the
red sandstone rock, which here underlies the surface to the di-pth of its
entire height of thirty-eight feet, by which means the ufiper part of the
wheel is brought below the level of the bottom of the reservoir, and a suf-
ficient fall to the watir in its course to the n.ill is secured. Having per-
formed its work, the tail water is discharged from the bottom of the wheel
hy a bead-way, wbich is driven through the rock, for a distance of some
500 yards, where it is discharged into a lower level of the estate, and made
availalile for the purposes of irrigation to a large extent of upland water
meadows. In the recent alterations, iron has been substituted for wood
throughout the whole machinery. The extension of the radius of the
wheel would alone have enabled the mill to do more work with the same
supply of water; but additional water has also been obtained, and the power
of the water-wheel is now equal to twelve horses. A comparatively small
portion of the water wbich is now derived from the drains is required for the
purposes of the mill, but, being soft, it is all used for the purpose of irriga-
tion.

The mode by which the additional supply has been obtained is worthy of
notice. A piece of hog of thirty acres, covered with rushes and deep moss,
in the centre of a larcp plantation, had heen left unplanted. It was formerly
a part of the extensive heath now enclosed, and had heen considered irre-
claimable. The surface soil was very poor, and overlaid a bed of cl.ivey

gravel of three feet thick, the under stratum being a bed of strong clay of
twelve feet thick, resting upon a bed of strong gravel ; the whole formed
part of an inclined [ilane, which terminated in a deep quaking hog, partially
covered and surrounded with alder; below this spot were farm lands,
recently enclosed, imperfectly drained, the bottom being cold, notwithstand-
ing the surface bad been dried. The mode adopted in draining these thirty
acres, was bringing levels up from the main drains, which fed the mill pool,
and wbich, on reaching the lower part of the land, were twelve feet deep.
Drains of the same depth were then cut through the clay, on each side and
up the centre of the thirty acres. The bottoms of these drains were bored
at distances of five or six yards apart, the boring-rods passing through the
clay to the bed of gravel beneath, from which the water in the stratum of
gravel gushed in abundance into the drains: by these means the bog in the
wood below has been effectually dried, and the cold bottom of the farm
lands, still lower down, has been greatly improved. The surface of the
thirty acres was afterwards close drained, at distances of twenty feet apart,
and three feet deep. The whole suiiace, which was originally impassable by
man or beast, is now sound and bard, and is valued at 30s. per acre. From
the additiooal supply of water thus obtained, the mill can work night and
day during the winter months, and for sixteen hours per day in the driest
season. Thus at a comparatively trifling cost, by the application of ordinary
skill and judgment, has a noxious waste been converted into valuable land,
and furnished water power, which well warrants the saying of Lord Hather-
ton's agent (Mr. Brigbtl, that " that bog was the best bit of land upon his
lordship's estate." A similar application of the same principle would be
equally valualile upon every estate where equal facilities exist.

The whole of the work connected with the drainage of the land and tbe
mill, both in its conception and execution, does infinite credit to all con-
cerned, and Lord llatberton has been lortunate in having, in Mr. Bright, the
assistance of a most intelligent land-agent, to whose contrivance tie is mainly
indebted for the acquisition of this great power, and under whose superin-
tendence the whole was executed.

The water-wheel works a thrashing machine, cuts hay and straw, and
kibbles oats and barley for a stock consisting of about 250 horses and cattle,
grinds wheat and malt, and drives circular saws, hy which the sawing of all
the smaller scantlings for the use of tbe estate is executed. At my request,
Mr. Bright has kindly fuioished me with the following tables, showing the
cost of the whole of these works, and an estimate of the saving effected tiy
them, and which will at once prove the value of the principle which they
have so successfully established.

The following is a statement of tbe number of acres of land under-drained,
tbe amount expended thereon, and the increase in the annual value pro-
duced by the process : —

Value of the lands

Amount expended

Va

ue of the lands

Quantities.

in their

in

in their

original state.

under draining.

present state. 1

ii

Annual value.

Annnal value.

^<

k—

A. R.

P.

8.

£ s. d.

£ s. d.

s.

£ s. d.

78 1

36

10

39 4 9

2li2 15 0

27

Ul5 18 9

19 1

2

10

9 14 6

74 9 8

33

;(4 u 9

38 0

3

16

38 8 3

52 14 2

40

76 0 9

82 2

2

I.'j

61 17 8

34li 15 4

30

123 15 4

30 3

24

lu

15 9 0

121 5 8

35

54 1 6

81 1

34

8

32 11 8

1,^3 16 4

22

89 12 2

36 3

18

10

18 8 6

142 8 0

30

5-> 3 6

33 0

0

8

13 4 0

80 5 2

26

42 18 0

In 2
10 0

33

8

::;:::::}

90 8 0 {

50
21

26 !•> 3
10 II 0

!) 0

<|

12

5 8 0

76 9 8

30

l.< hi 0

15 0

a

16

12 1 0

41 9 4

33

24 17 3

21 2

10

15

16 3 .S

66 0 0

30

32 6 10

1.') 3

13

15

11 17 5

40 2 7

.10

2.! 14 11

m 0

2

14

27 6 0

176 9 4

27

32 13 2

321 3

24

293 14 3

1,724 9 3

766 1 2

1

Total Expenditure.

£ s. d.

Under-draininff as per stiitement 1,724 9 3

For erecting Water-Wheel and Machinery 1,350 0 0

Irrigation 224 4 10

Total outlay 4£3,298 14 1

Increased Revenue.

£ s. d.

Prespnt annual value of lands under-drained 7()*> 1 2

Original value of the same land 29.J 14 3 £9. d.

473 6 11

Estimated annual saving by the Mill SriU 0 0

Increased annual value of Water Meadows 178 0 0

Total increased revenue £\.'>m 6 U

Resulting from the drainage of 521 acres, and the employment of drain,
water over etglity-nineacresof land, and the saving etfecttfd by the employ-
ment of mill pnwer, together affording a clear annual interest ou the
outlay of upwards of thirty-six per cent.

The tenants upun Lord Hatherton's eatate are, as may be expected, quite

9*

CO

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

[Fkbruary,

alive to the great value nf mill. power for apriouKural purposes, and his
lordship has erected a water-mill, similar in most of its leading features to
that which has been described, upon one of his farms in the neighbourhood.
In this case, the drainage water of the farm is collected into a reservoir,
sufficiently above the farm buildings to obviate the necessity of sinking the
wheel so deeply below the surface of tlie ground as was necessary in the
former instance; the water is brought from the reservoir in cast-iron pipes,
laid underground until they approach the mill-wheel, when they rise in a
crane-ne(k, and discharge the water upon its upper surface; the tail water
is got rid of by a culvert discharging into a lower level, as in the former
instance. I found, on going over the estate that other of his lordship's
tenants were desirous of making arrangements with the agent for similar
erections, being evidently anxious to secure to themselves the same advan-
tages as were enjoyed by their neighbours, and quite willing to pay an addi-
tional rent, equivalent to the advantages conferred.

The spirit of improvement exhibited on the estate is very gratifying, and
presents great inducements to the capitalists and landowners of this king-
dom to turn their attention to like improvements. In point of remunera-
tion, the profits to be thus realised throw all other investments with which
I am acquainted far into the shade, and the encouragement they atTord is
most important in a national point of view.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
Jan. 8. — Sydney Smirke, Esq., V.H., in ihe Chair.
A paper was read " On the various Qualifies of Caen Stone," by Mr.
C. H. Smith — It explained various analyses of the stone, and experi-
ments on different beds as to resistance and compression, and also on the
absorbent character of each variety of the stone.

The Chairman stated that in one building erected under his direction
the use of Caen stone instead of Poriland saved near 14,0002.

Jan. 22.— T. BrLLAMY, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

A paper " On the Girder- Bridge over the Polloc and Govan Railway,"
was read by Mr. Donaldson. It is given in another part of the Journal
(p. 57.)

Mr. Jennings described a new water-closet invented by him, which
consists of the ordinary basin. The trap is formed of a tube of vul-
canised india-rubber, compressed by two clips close together when not in
use, and forms an air tight joint.

SOCIETY OF ARTS, LONDON.

Jan. 24. — T. Winkwortii, Esq., in the Chair.

The Secretary read a paper, by Professor B. Woodcroft, " On Steam
Naviyation.^^

Steam in its present practical state owes its origin and progress to the
improvements recently made in the steam-engine in this country. The em-
ployment of animal power in the propulsiim of vessels by means of
paddle-wheels is of very ancient dale ; aud the substitution of steam for
the same purpose was suggested as sojn as the steam-engine was rendered
effective in pumping water from mines, long before it was found capable,
from its then imperfect stale, of propelling a vessel advantageously.

In 1472, Poberl Vallurius gave a view of two galleys, moved by
wheels. — In 1545, HIasco de Garay, a Spanish .sea-captain, is said to have
exhibited an engine by which vessels and ships of large size could he pro-
pelled.— In 1705, John Bramah, the inventor of the hydraulic press, of a
lock, &c., obtained a patent under the following title: — "His new in-
vented Hydrostatical Machine and a Boiler, on a more peculiar priuciple
than any yet made known to the public ;" and one of the inventions de-
scribed in his specification is a " mode of propelling vessels by the im-
proved rotatory-engine therein described and claimed (which will act as a
pump), by means of a paddle wheel or what may be called a screw-
propeller."— On January 5, 1769, James Watt obtained a patent for im-
provements in the steam-engine, one of which was for causing the steam
to act above the piston as well as below, and this was called the "double-
impulse" or double-acting engine. This was the first step towards the
practical application of the steam engine to propelling steamboats. — In
1785, a patent was granted to William Symington for " his new inveuied
steam-engine on principlea entirely new;" and in 1787, Patrick Miller pub-
lished a pamphlet on the subject of propelling boats by paddle-wheels
moved by men. The vessels to whit h Ihey were applied were called Ti-iple
Vessels, the deck being constructed so as to cover three small vessels, aud
the two paddle-wheels being fixed in the space between the vessels.

The first boat which the steam-engine was used for the purpose of pro-
pelling was constructed by Mr. Symington, at the suggestion of Mr.
Taylor, a person to whom Mr. Miller had made known his views as to the
possil)ility of propelling vessels by means of paddle-wheels. From ttie
experience which Mr. Symington gained in the construction of Mr.
Miller's boat, aud the circumstance that in 1780, the crank had been dis-

covered by Pickard, and at this time the double-acting cylinder and crank
were being used for stationary engines, he abandoned his own old engine,
and obtained a patent for applying a double acting reciprocating engine to
a boat, aud for placing his crauk on the axis of the paddle-wheel. This
was a very important discovery.

The name o( the vessel in which Symington combined the double-acting
engine of Watt, the crank and fly-wheel of Pickard, and the improved
wheel of Miller, was the Charlotte Dundas. This combination of ma-
chinery constituted the system of sleam navigation now used, and this vessel
was the parent steamboat of its race. Mr. Fulton, the American engineer,
and Mr. Bell, the Scotch engineer, were on board the Charlotte Dundas, and
acquired a knowledge of the machinery used by Symington. Mr. Fulton
suhsequently introduced this system of propelling in America, and he was
the first person to establish steamlioats for practical purposes. — Mr. Bell
was the first person iu Europe who established practical steamboats.

From the establishment of practical steam uavigation, in 1807, to the
year 1837, the paddle-wheel was the only instrument used to react against
the water; but in the latter year, an instrument, now generally termed the
screw-propeller, was practically introduced by Captain Ericsson. Al-
though almost innumerable modes of propelling vessels have from time to
time been suggested and patented, the only instruments that have hitherto
been found of practical benefit are the paddle-wheel and screw-propeller,
^each under various modifications: — The varieties of paddle-wheels as im-
proved by Miller; the Morgan paddle-wheel, invented by Mr. E. Gallo-
way, and the split paddle-H heel, invented by Mr. Field. The varieties of
the propeller, are portions of an uniform pitch-screw, patented by Captain
Ericsson; or the increasing pitch-screw, patented by Mr. Woodcroft.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

Jan. 9. — J. Field, Esq , President in the Chair.

The paper read was " A Description of the improved Forms of Water
Wheels." By Mr. W. Fairbairn, M. Inat. C.E.

After noticing the opportunity for improvement afforded by the substitu-
tion of cast and wrought iron tor timber, in the construction of hydraulic
machines, the author pointed out the disadvantages and loss of power at-
tending the principle and the form of the old water-wheels. He quoted
Dr. Rubison's "Mechanical Philosophy," for the numerous disadvantages
of the old form of bucket, and the difficulties arising from the attempts of
the old millwrights to design a shape which should retain the water for a
greater length of time in it, and thus give out more power. The chief
ditficulty was the opposition of the air to the entrance of the water; and
numerous contrivances, such as boring holes in the starts, making the spout
much narrower than the face of the bucket, &c., were tried ; but still the
difficulties existed, and induced Mr. Fairbairn to adopt the construction de-
scribed in the paper, and which he termed "the Ventilating Water- Wheel."
The general object of these modifications was to prevent the condensation of
the air, and to permit its escape during the filling of the bucket with water,
as also its re admission during the discharge of the water into the lower
mill-race.

The paper then described minutely the principles and construction of
the large wheels erected for the (jatrine and Deanston Works ; for Mr.
Brown, of Linwood, near Paisley ; for Mr. Duckworth, of Handforth ; for
Mr. Ainsworth, of Cleator ; and tor others; and showed that in all cases
the system had proved eminently successful. These wheels were all on the
suspension principle, with wrougbt-iron arms, radiating from cast-iron
centres to the periphery, and so placed that the whole structure was in
tension, the motion being communicated from internal toothed-wheels,
fixed to the shrouding. The various modifications of the forms best
adapted for different heights of fall were described ; but it will suffice to
give that for breast- wheels for high falls, as it appeared the most complete.
These wheels weie described to possess many advantages beyond the over-
shot, the undershot, or the common breast-wheels, and were best adapted
for falls not exceeding 18 feet or 20 feet, and where at times there was a
considerable depth of back water; and such was the improvement caused
by this system, that the wheel at Mr. Ainsworth's mill was frequently
plunged from 5 feet to 6 feet in the back water, without its uniform speed
being impeded. The wheel had a close sole; the tail end of the buckets
were turned up at a distance of two inches from the back of the sole-plate,
and running parallel with it, terminated within about two inches of the
bend of the bucket, immediately above it. The water, in entering the
bucket, drove the air out by the aperture into the space behind, and thence
into the bucket above, and so on in succession. The converse occurred
when the buckets were emptied, as the air waa enabled to flow in as fast as
the wheel arrived at such a position as to permit the water to escape. It
appeared to he allowed that this system had been very generally successful,
and that the results obtained had approached, very nearly, to the stated
duty of the Turbine, whose powers bad, however, been much exaggerated,
and had been allowed recently by M. Fourneyron not to have obtained more
than about 72 per cent, as a mean duty.

Jan. 16. — The annual meeting was held this evening.

The following gentlemen were elected to form the Council for the en-
suing year: — President: J. Field. Vice-Presidents : W. Cubitt, J. M.
Reudel, J. Simpson, and 1{. Stephenson, M.P. Council: J. F, Bateman,

1849.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

61

G. P. Biflder, I. K. Brunei, J. Cubilt. J. Fowler, C. H. Gregory, J.
Locke, MP., J. R. M'Clean, C. May, and J. Miller, members; and W.
Harding and T. Piper, associates.

The report of the Council was next read. Satisfactory reHSons were
given for the unusual delay in the publication of the minutes of proceed-
ings, and a plan was detailed for pnying ofi' the debt incurred for the al-
terations of the house of the Institution.

Telford medals were presented to the right hon. the Earl of Lovelace,
Messrs. Harrisoti, Mitchell, and Hansome,

Council premium of bo(»ks. to Messrs. Harrison and Jackson.

Telford prt miiim of books, to Messrs. Redman, Green, and Rankine.

Memoirs were read of the deceased members : — Messrs. B. Cubitt, T.
Hopkins, S, Fowles, members ; LieutCol. Brandreih, P. L. Campbell, F.
Carlton, and T. E. Steele, associates; and J. Pope, graduate. Votes of
thanks were passed unanimouslv to the President, Vice-Presidents, Mem-
bers, and Associates of the Council, and to the Secretary ; and the Presi-
dent, in returning thanks, gave a memoir of the late George Stephenson,
and his conneclion with the combination of the Bre-'ubes and the blast
pipe in the loconioliv - which constituted it the life of the present railway
system.

ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS.
Dec. 11,1848.— John Cay, Esq., F.R.S.E., President, in the Chair.
The following communications were made : —

1. '^Description of Harbour Screw Cramps, designed /or temporary use
in bindin(f together the Stones in the construction of Harbour and other
Marine Works." By Thomas Stevenson, Esq., F.R.S.E., civil engineer.

This paper states that the great majority of instances of damage to
harbours from gales occur during construction, or from neglect in repair-
ing, and shows the almost total dependence of a whole pier on the stability
of each stone in the structure. Many insonces are adduced of harbours
suffering great damage during construction, wh;clt, after being '^ closed in"
and completed, have withstood the assaults of after storms. The principle
on which these screw cramps have been designed is that of coupling stones
together in such a manner that the outermost cannot he removed without
dragging the adjoining stones along with it. The firs-t of these implements
is adapted for a vertical wall, and consists of a cross-rod of iron iucserted
diagonally between two of the stones of the works, and on either end of
this rod chains are slipped (one set being at the front of the wall, and the
other at the back). These pass through openings in an abutment-plate
placed diagonally across the last stone, and are tightened up by means of
capstan-headed screws. The second of these implements is designed more
particulaily for a tains, or sloping wall, and consists of a kneed abutment-
plate (placed upon the last or outermost stone of the unfinished work),
connected by chains to a ring-bolt, fixed in any stnne at a sufficient distance
from the open end of the work, or even to a crow-bar driven down between
any open joint in the masonry. These chains are tightened up by means of
a draw-screw. This apparatus, in the event of a storm coming on suddenly,
could be applied in the course of a few minutes.

2. " Description of a Fire-Engine on a new principle.'" By Mr. John
White, engineer.

This fire-engine is patented for England, hut not for Scotland. It was
stated that it differs in principle from all others hitherto made, and that the
following are some of the advantages obtained : — First, from the cumber
of pumps employed, and their great power, each producing a pressure of
601b. upon the square inch of water, which is as much as twenty men on
the average can exert in the common fire-engines by their united power.
Secondly, the men at the common engine may either help or hinder, at
their pleasure, without the possibility of detection. This, however, is im-
possible in this new engine, for as each man has his own pump, he must
either do his duty or stand still. Besides, as each pump is a perfect fire-
engine of itself, the machine can be worked from one man up to its full
complement, while the common engines cannot be worked at all until a suf-
ficient number of bands be put on. That it is evident that the pumps of
the common engines must pass their centres at the same moment, which,
but for the air-vessel, would render them of little use as fire-engines, and
even with its aid the column of water rises and falls at every stroke of tiie
pumps, as may be seen, occasioning a great waste of power to recover it
at every alternate movement of the levers. This evil was stated to be almost
entirely overcome by the twelve or more pumps Mr. White employs, one
half of which being in full power while the others are receiving their
water, a uniform pressure is maintained upon the jet, which renders the air-
vessel less needful, hut with it, nearly as steady as the jet from a fountain.

The third thing Mr. White noticed was bis method of preventing the air
from mixing with the water and escaping with a crackling noise as it issues
from the jet, breaking the column, and consequently preventing it from
reaching the altitude it would otherwise attain. This is accomplished by an
improvement in the top of the air-vessel, which has a vulcanised india-
rubber cap, supported by a pierced metal shield or diaphragm, through the
holes of which the water acts upon the elastic substances, over which is an
air-tight dome, and the space between is charged with the compressed air to
about 30 lb. upon the square inch, which is further compressed when the

pumps or engine is at work ; thus producing an uniform elastic spring that
equalises the flow of the water from the jet, — which leaving no air beyond
what is naturally in the water, rises unbroken to a much higher elevation
than is reached by the common engine.

Mr. White read certificates from Salford, Manchester, and Glasgow, as to
the superiority of his engine to those of the common construction. At
Manchester, where a comparative trial was made, Mr. White's engine, with
twelve men, sent more water, and to a greater altitude, than the Gauges
engine, belonging to the Town Council, worked by twenty-four men ; and at
Salford, Mr. White's engine, with twelve men, threw the water several feet
above the top of a chimney 129 feet high, while the Deluge engine of the
old construction, worked by the same number of m»n, could not throw the
water more than half the height; and when the number was afterwards
increased to thirty-eight men, they were not able to make the water reach
to the top of the chimney.

3. " Description of a Cross-Cut Sawing Machine for satving Fire-wood,
Sfc." By Mr. William Douglas, carpenter.

This machine consists of a two-handed saw, freely slung in a frame, and
moved by a crank at the end of a long bar, having a fly-wheel to turn the
centres. Trees, logs, &c., being fixed and adjusted to suit, this simple con-
trivance cross-cuts them ; and it is stated that a man can by its means cut
double the quantity he could do by hand, and that the machine can be made
complete for 5/.

INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.

The annual meeting of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers took
place on VVeduesday, the 24th of January, at the Queen's Hotel, Bir-
mingham.

In the absence of the President, Mr. R. M'Conneil was called to the
Chair, and read the report of the Council,which congratulated the members
on the successful progress of the Institution, which now numbered 189
members, of whom sixteen are honorary members. The council deeply
regielted the death of the late President, Robert Stephenson, Esq., who
was the first president of the Institution. The rules of the society had
been revised, and would be submitted to the meeting. The council con-
gratulated the meeting on the readiness with which Robert Stephenson,
Esq., had consented to take the Chair vacated by the death of his father,
and which he had been filling pro tern. The financial report showed a
balance in hand of \i7l. 9s. Id. The report was unanimously adopted,
li. Stephenson, Esq., was then formally constituted president, and a vote
of thanks was passed to Alderman Geach, for his services as treasurer,
and that gentleman was re-appointed to the office. Mr. E. Marshall was
elected secretary for the ensuing year. The rules, as amended, were also
put and carried; after which, the officers and council for the ensuing year,
elected by ballot, were announced. A vote of thanks was then passed to
the council, for their services during the year.

A paper on the subject of a collision-apparatus, with a supplementary
one on a station-buffer, for eflfecting an improved break for stations, writ-
ten by Mr. C. de Bergue, of London, was read by the Secretary, and illus-
traiedwith plans and a model.

Mr. John Richmond, of Middlesex, exhibited an improved locomotive-
engine counter, for registering the strokes of railway-engines at a high
velocity. It was remarkable for the simplicity of its movement, and
elicited a favourable expression, although the principle of its construction
was not new.

A paper on a patent disengagingapparatus for disconnecting steam-
engines, and diminishing the shock of the disconnection, written by Mr.
Hick, of Bolton, was read by the Secretary. The apparatus was intended
to prevent frightful accidents, and might be worked with safety by any
oue.

Tue model of an improved patent railway-chair and switch, manufac-
tured by Mr. Baines, of Norwich, was explained by the Secretary. It
was highly approved, but as the inventor was absent the discussion upon
it was postponed to the next meetiug, to give him an opportunity of ex-
plainiug its merits aud stating the cost.

SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
WITH FRANCE.

Some interesting experiments were made on Wednesday the 10th ult., at
Folkstone, as to the practicability of carrying electric lines of communica-
tion over great widths of sea channel. The experiments were conducted
under the direction of Mr. Walker, superintendent of the telegraphic system
of the Suuth-Eastern Company. They were undertaken to test the possi-
bility of establishing an electro-telegraphic communication with France, by
a wire carried over the depths of the Straits of Dover; and it was intended
to have taken the wire two miles out to sea, on board the Princess Clemen-
tine steamer (one of the company's ships), uncoiling and dropping it in the
water as she proceeded. The night previous, however, had given token of
breezy weather, and on the morning uf Wednesday the wind was high ; and
the waters of the channel being agitated by a considerable swell, it was

62

THE CIVIL EiSGIXEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

LFebhuary,

feared tlie vessel would roll and loss to such an extent, as to prevent the
proper maiiaKement of the instruments, or keep the needles in their necessary
vertical position. It was, therefore, decided on to pay out 3,000 ft. of
insulated wire along the mouth of the harhour and the side of Ihe pier —
one end heinp connected with the telegraphic arrangements at the Folk-
stone station, thus being in direct comrnunicaiion with London, and the
other attached to an instrument on hoard the Clementine, at anchor in the
harbour. All the arrangements having heen completed hy half-past
12 o'clock, a message was sent to London, to apprise that all was in readi-
ness, after which a continuous correspondence was kept up between the
Clementine and the stations of London, Ashford, Tonliriilge, and Folkstone.
At four o'clock the submerged wire was drawn in and coiled up, and was
found not to have sustained the slightest injury. The experiments were, it
is stated, in every respect highly successful; the length of wire in the sea
forming apparently not the slightest impediment to the perfect and free
transit of the galvanic current.

The wire employed was not made expressly for the occasion, hut had heen
constructed for the Merstham Tunnel, where it was found that not only
the damp on the wires affected the galvanic current, hut was still further
interrupted hy the steam from the engines, impregnated with acid and
earthy matters. Its size is No. 16 copper wire, covered to a thickness of
about J inch diameter with gutta-percha, under a patent hy Mr. Foster, of
the gutta-percha manufactory, Streatham, and similar wires will in future
he employed in all the tunnels on the lines, which places have heen found to
cause the only obstructions which present themselves to the free working of
the system.

The telegraphic instrument employed was one constructed hy Mr.
Walker, on a plrin to avoid any action from atmospheric electricity. The
galvanic coils are mounted on wheels, and the needle is brought to a perpen-
dicular with the greatest facility hy turning a stud, which causes the coil
to pass in a direction opposite to tliat to which the needles had heen de-
flected. The conductor for the atmospheric electricity consists of a vertical
wire, furnished with radiating points, and a bobbin of wire of a much finer
teiture than any other in the instrimient. This is surrounded by a small
brass cylinder, connected with the earth, and any overcharge of electricity
hums the fine wire and escapes. This occurred in one instance at Tun-
bridge Wells, during a thunderstorm, a short time since.

FORCE OF SCREW-DRIVERS.

Sir — Will you oblige me by answering the following questions in your
next number.' We will suppose, for instance, a screw of a certain size is to
be driven ; with a short driver you are obliged to use great force to accom-
plish it — but with a long screw-driver there is less force required. You
will perhaps, therefore, explain why millwrights and engineers use a short
shaft, or endeavour to get the power to act upon the resistance as close as
possible. It appears that these cases are exactly opposite. I hope this is
sutBcieutly plain for you to uuderstanJ what 1 want.

A CoN'ST.'iNT Reader.
London, Jan. 6th, 1849.

[The force required to turn a screw does not depend on the length of the
screw. driver. In supposing that a screw may be driven more easily by a
lone screw-driver than hy a short one, the very common error is involved hy
which a setisalion of exertion is mistaken for force. Let the actual force
required to drive screws of the same size and kind into a certain piece of
uniformly compact wood be measured — not roughly, hy the fatigue of the
arm — hut accurately in pounds and ounces — by means of a dynamometer,
and it will be found that, allowing for slight irregularities which are una-
voidable in such experiments, the force required is the same whether the
screw. driver be six inches or eighteen inches in length. The reason why the
longer driver requires less exeition in turning large screws is, that it can he
more firmly grasped, and allovps the workman to bring his muscles more
easily into play than is practicable with the shorter instrument. The inves-
tigation of the power required in turning screws resembles the mechanical
principles of the wheel and axle, where a weight suspended from a rope
coiled round the wheel in one direction resists the rotative power of a
weight attached to a rope coiled round the axle in the opposite direction.
When the wheel is just on the point of turning, the weight applied to it is
to the other weight as the radius of the axle to that of the wheel. In the
same way, when the screw is just on the point of turning, the tangential
force resisting its rotation is to the external turning force applied tangen-
tially to a round handle as the radius of the handle to the radius of the
screw.

The reason why engineers make driving-shafts as short as possible, is be-
cause short shafts are cwCecM^jan'iws less likely to be twisted by torsional
strains than long shafts. — Editor.]

NOTES OF THE ItdONTE.

Ammonia Destructive to Leather. — Ammnniacal emanations from manure
in stables are most pernicious to leather, it being rendered quite brittle and
useless in a very short period ; consequently, harness ought never he allowed
to hang up in stables.

The appearance of Old Oak may he obtained hy exposing any article of
new oak to the vapours of aininonia. Every variety of tint may be olitained
according to the duration and temperature of the volatile compounds. A
nf w oak carved arm-chair exposed to the vapours of amnionia, will in about
twelve hours have all the appearance of its being made 200 years since; and
any other wood similarly exposed, will obtain the appearance of oak.

Cast Iron Pipen Enamelled v,n»\A be a valuable acquisition in obtaining
pure water. A corresponrlent inquires whether pijies have heen so prepared :
an answer from any of our readers will he acceptable.

Earlhenvare Pipim/. — .\lr. Murray, in the Mining Journal, in answer to
a correspondent, considers an internal glaze for the earthenware pipes
altogether unnecessary. Earthenware pipes for the conveyance of water
should be so deeply laid in tlie earth as to he unaffected hy the agency of
frost, lest the water absorbed by the porous earthenware in the act of ex-
pansion by freezing should rend the pipe. The application of gas tar to
the pipes, when imbedded, as an external coating, would act as an insulator
in reference to external temperature, and operate as a defence against the
influence of frost.

Zinc Paint, — Some experiments were recently made at the Veille
iMoulagne Zinc Company's Olfices, on zinc and white-leaf! paint, by sub-
mitting them to a stream of sulphuretled-h)drogen gas, wheo the white-
zinc paint remained unchanged anil the white lead paint was turned quite
hlrick. Some specimens of external painting were also shown of both zinc
and lead, which had been painted fiir some months; the zinc paint still
reiained its whiteness, whilst (bat of the lead had very much changed.

Wrought Iron Cofferdam. — Last month the experiments undertaken by
Mr. Brunei, at the instance of the Admiralty, for carrying the railway bridge
across at Saltash, for the Cornwall Railway, were tirought to a sticcess-
ful close. For the purpose two old gun-brigs, purchased of the eovernraent,
were moored over the spot, and a wrought-iron cylinder, ot | inch boiler
plates, strongly rivetted together, 85 feet high, and 6 feet diameter, and of
28 tons weight, was sunk in pro/undis. The necessary apparatus for pump-
ing out the water was then applied, and the experimenters, who alterwards
descended to the bottom of the cylinder, had the satisfaction of finding that
at 11 or 12 feet below the mud, there was a foundation of solid rock for the
piers. The bridge will be of large dimensions, the Admiralty requiring that
it shall have a clear width of 300 feet between the [licrs, and a clear height
of 180 feet above high-water mark. Over it will pass the entire passenger
traffic from Plymouth to the Land's End.

Dover Harbour of Refuge. — We have again, says the Dorer Chronicle,
much pleasure in recording tlie successful prosecution of this gieat maiitinie
undertaking of the present age. On visiting the woiks the other day we
were quite astonished at the remarkable extent of progress made since we
last noticed them. The works are certainly conducti-d with an extraordi-
nary spirit of industry. This is evidenced by the fact that the timber
framework of this great sea harrier has been carried out upwards of 2t)()
feet from the point of shore at the Old Cheeseman's Head; and hy the aiii of
several diving-hells, helmets, &c., and a most tiiaslerly arrangement of
travelling cranes, the ponderous stonewoik has been securely bedded in
the chalk rock to a similar distance, and brought up almost to the level nf
high-water, within eight months. This compact body of beautiful masonry
contains, we believe, no less than 150,000 cubic feet of stone of large di-
mensions, and of the finest quality that this country can produi-e, and ^ives
good evidence of the ultimate stability of a structure, the beneficial effects
of which are already very apparent, inasmuch as the frequent heavy sea
caused by the prevailing south-west winds is materially checked at the har-
bour mouth, and the entrance of vessels into this desirable haven during a
gale is now rendered almost a matter of ease and certainty. In addition to
the extraordinary appliances already referred to, there is a fine steam-engine
at work, driving several sets of mortar and cement mills, and a remarkable
crane for unloading vessels. This engine is worked with all the docility of
a child, and has within these few months discharged about 15.000 tons of
stone, and all too with the most careful and steady results. Altogether, the
works present the ajipearance of a more successful contending against the
destructive action of the sea at this much exposed portion of the coast,
than has ever been before attempted here. The operations have been
inspected by engineers, royal, civil, and practical, all of whom have
expressed their entire confidence in the speedy and satisfactory com.
pletion of a work so gigantic and so eminently calculated to save hun-
dieds of lives, and thousands of pounds' worth of property. Several very
high gales, with tremendous seas from the Atlantic, have lately waged their
fury upon it, but no damage has been sustained further than occasional in-
terruption to the working of the machinery upon which so many of the
operations depend. The successful results here shown are no doubt to he at-
tributed to the high standing of the engineers, and the spirited en-
terprise of Messrs. Lee, the contractors, who always avail themselves of the
most valued expedients that science and practice can provide, and which are
so hig'ily calculated to bring this great monument of human skill and ol a
nation's resources to a satisfaclorv condusiou.

184.9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

63

Oil Chemical Processes for the Boring of Rocks, Sfc, to be Blasted. —
M. Courhebaisse having stated that calcareous rucks only C(iuld lie acted
upon hy hydrochloric acid for hlastini: purposes, and that the silicious rocks,
quartz, jjranite, &e., required the eninlnyment of another agent — most pro-
halily hydrofluoric acid, which it would lie necessaiy to make on , the spot ;
and haviuit also stated that he had not heen aide to undertake any experi-
ments oil the subject, with a view to save miners and engineers from useless
and expensi I e experiments, a civil engineer of Nantes, M. Emeril, deteindned
to experimentise on the subject, and he therefore directed a large quantity of
hydrofluoric acid to be used both in a liquid and gaseous state. The result
of these experimenis proved the impracticability of the process for mining
purposes, for the gelatinous layer formed by the action of the acid on the
rock effectually prevented the application of another portion of acid. Not-
withstanding all endeavours, most carefully and assiduously made, there was
not obtained the slightest benefit from the application of this process. Be-
sides, the tediuusness of the operation would prevent its practical adoption.

Peat Charcoal, prepared on the principle patented by Mr. Jasper
Rogers, is a complete disinfectant when applied to offensive matter, the
rnxious effluvia being entirely destroyed by it. A manufactory for it has been
erected in the forest of Dartmoor. It is cut out in cubes of 8 to 10 inches
diameter, and immediately carried to a powerful press, where it is reduced
about two-thirds in bulk, and nearly deprived of its water. It is then
loaded in the trucks, and is cinveyeii to the works, wh"re it is boiled in a
mixture of coal-tar, pitch, peat naphtha, and other liydrooarbons. After
saturation and drainage, the peat is fit for charging the retorts, composed of
fire-clay, 9 feet long, and 5 feet in diameter, holding two tons of saturated
peat each, and capable, when in full operation, of working 8 tons each in
24 hours. The gaseous products from these retorts jiass much after the
mode adopted in ordinary coal-gas works, along a hydraulic main, and
through a long set of condensers, whence, after being deprived of all its
condensable adjuncts, the purified gas is brought, by means of pipes, be-
neath the retorts, where it serves as a very powerful fuel. The condensed
matter from the peat contains an immense proportion of stearine or vegeta-
ble tallow, oil, and naphtha. When the retorts are discharged, the charge
requires to be drawn into a close iron chest on wheels, with a tightly fitting
lid, which must be immersed in water, as the charcoal retains its heat for a
very long lime; and if quenched with water, as is the case with gas-coke,
it imbibes so much of that fluid as very materially to deteriorate its quality.
The extraordinay effects it has had upon smiths' work in particular, chiefly
from tlie total absence of sulphur — has been such, that it has acquired the
cnpcurient testimony of several intelligent smiths. The absence of clinker
at the nozzle of the bellows, the perfect freedom from scale on the iron, so
that an iron horse-shoe lonks like one of steel, and that delicate instrument,
the weaver's pick, when broken, is welded together with ease.

Valuable Products of Peat. — At a recent meeting of the Royal Sociely,
for the promotion and impiovenieut of the growth of flax in Ireland (the
Marquis of Downshire in the Chair), ftlr. C^wen, of London, referred to
a discovery which his friend Dr. Hodges would say, was worlhy of the
deepest consideration of every one present. Having heard, some time
fiuce, that from peat there could be produced ammonia, naphtha, soda
ash, oil, spermaceti, and some other substances, he left London for Paris,
and called on an eminent chemist there. He had been previously speaking
on the subject with a Mr. Ueere,also an eminent chemist, who tolil himtliai
for the expense of '601., be could produce from 100 lb. of peat, chemical re-
sults to the value of 148/. it was IMr. lieece who referred him to the Paris
chemist, and when lie (Mr. Owen) produced to the Pans chemist the
statement of Mr. Iteece, as to what he could do with the peat, the former
assured biin (Mr. Owen) that lie could really do all that he had stated in
the document. He then rang a bell, and ordered the results of his experi-
nieuts to be brought up from his own luboialory, and then he (Mr. Owen)
saw with Lis own eyes the sperm caudles made, the ammonia, the oil. and
the soda ash produced from peat ; and that chemist thought this
was the greatest discovery of the age, and one vt'hich would eventually
convert the greatest obstacle to improvement mto the greatest blessings,
and double the fertility of the soil, to an extent that none could estimate.
Well, he (Mr. Owen) being a man of business, declined to take any of
these statements for granted, and consequently be had got a great number
of experiments made by Dr. Hodges and his friend Mr. Keece, which
were enliiely coufirmatory of all the statements made by his friend iMr.
lieece. But still, not to deceive himself or others, he was determined to
have an experiment made on a large scale, aud had employed the largest
appaiatus in use for that purpose; and be rejoiced to tell this meeting
thai his great experiments had commenced, and the results were beyond
all expectations for everything had succeeded to his utmost wislies. Mr.
Owen here handed to the Chairniun a sample of the spermaceti so pre-
|iared by him, which was minutely examiued by his lordship, and a great
number of other gentlemen in the room. He came there as a friend of
Irelaud, and he would return to England in a few days binlily gratified
with the result of this meeting, and with his love and admiraliou of
Ireland greatly increased. It was expected that, according to Mr. Recce's
system, llicy might be able to work 100 tons of peat per day : this would,
in a short time, clear the land of the peat, and thus produce oue of the
greatest possible blessings to Irelaud, in clearing the laud, and making it
tit for agncultuial purposes. — The Chairman said that peat was of con-
siderable value in the uoitU of Ireland, but in the south it was going to
waste.

Splitting a Bank-Note. — The governor and directors of the Bank of
England, having been informed of the extraordinary ii^enuity of Mr. Bald-
win, and that he was able to split not only a newspaper, hut a bank-note,
sent for him in order to test his skill. That his task might be as diflicult as
possible, they picked him out one of the old \l. notes, which are printed on
paper much thinner than the notes of the present day, and told him to split
it if he could. Mr. Baldwin took the note home with him, and returned
it the next day, in the state he had promised. The paper was not in the
slightest degree torn, and seemed as though it had just come from the
manufactory, so little was its appearance affected by the operation. The
directors remunerated Mr. Baldwin for his troulile, but could not elicit from
him the means he employed. The discovery is considered of much im-
portance ill connection with the paper currency of the country.

Conway Tabular Bridge. — The deflection which lately took place, at the
testing of the second lube over the river Conway, by Captain Sjmonds,
the government inspector, was very slight, and the result is staled to be
highly sati-.fKCtory. Before any of the testing weights were drawn into
the tunnel, it was ascertained that the deflection then existing was I'Sli
inch. T'he testing ballast amounting to 23i> tons 14 cwt. 2 qrs., caused an
additional deflection ot l'5G inch only, thereby showing that, with the
whole of the above superimposed weight, the departure fiuiii a straight
line was only to the extent of 342 inch. The load having been wiilidratm,
in less than 10 minutes the whole structure regained its former dellectiou.
The variation in the adjoining tube, which has now bfen in use fur so
many mouths, does not, it is leporled, exteud even to the -j';; part of an
inch.

Ornamental Cast-Iron JVindows. — The Messrs. M'Adam, of Soho Foun-
dry, Beliast, have ri-cenlly completed a number of ornamental windows for
the new palace of the Pacha of Egypt : they are of cast-iron, and uf very
large dimensions, being 20 feet high and 8 wide — each window weighing
five tons. They are to be bronzed and gilt after being erected. 'Ihe same
firm have also erected on the banks of the Nile, for the Egyptian govern-
ment, a number of very large steam pumping-engines, to raise the water o£
the river for the purpose of irrigation.

Gold Mines in Wales. — The Mining Journal gives an account of tw*o
mines which have been opened in the Cwiu-heisian Valley, called the East
and West Cwm-heisian Mines respectively. The West Cwm-heisian iline
is pitched upon a group of five lodes, one only of which has heen explored
to the depth of 40 yards. Two rich courses of lead ore have been found
therein, aud continue in depth. The lead ores are accompanied by blende
and sulphur ores, which, as well as the lead ores, contain a sufllcient quan-
tity of gold to pay the cost of extraction. About 900 yards north-east of
the West Cwm-heisian is the East Cwm-heisian Mine, situate on a group of
14 large aud powerful lodes, or veins, having many different bearings — the
prevading one being north-west and south-east, which intersect each other
within a distance of about 200 yards. As might be expected, under such
favourable circumstances, very rich results have been obtained; the veins
contain highly argentiferous lead ores, potter's lead, blende, iron, and arse-
nical pyrites, all of which are mixed vviih gold. Tiie mine was originally
opened as a lead mine, but a small quantity of very rich auriferous ore being
found within a few feet of the surlace, yielding from 7 to 16 ozs. ot gold per
ton of ore, induced an inquiry whether the present intention of working for
/ea(/ should not be afandoiied. At first the discovery of gold was considered
to be more curious than valuable ; hut, on further examination, large quan-
tities of the tinstone, and ores taken fiom the veins at distant points, gave
valuable results in gold. The owner then determined to have the mine
opened to an extent which should set the question at rest, as to whether it
were really to be considered a gold or a lead mine. To this end, a shaft was
sunk to the depth of 30 yards, many fathoms of levels were driven, and
several hundred tons of ore raised from the workings. For a distance of 200
yards which lias been explored, t/ie masses of mineral, Jormed by the falling
together of so many veins, is upwarUs of iO feet in width, and isjound to be
of equal dimensions in depth. Beyond the intersection, both east and west,
the veins radiate, and are from 3 to 20 feet in width, extending from three-
quarters to one mile in !enj;th, within the limits uf the setts. The result of
the foregoing operations has been, to prove that wherever the veins have
been opened, they are found to contain gold, both in depth and length, and
that every kind of mineral contained in theiu is mixed with gold. The whole
mass of the veins must be wrought for gold as the primary object, and the
lead and silver-lead ores will lie obtained at the same time, without extra
cost. The gold is remarkably pure, and free from alloy, and will average iu
value iU per.oz., or 2d. per grain, in order to prove the value of the ore
raised, an experiment was tried on 300 tons of it, fairiy broken from all
parts of the mines. The whole quantity was concentrated into lOj tons of
washed ore, containing 84,487 grains of gold, or 176 ozs. troy, giving an
average of 16 ozs. and a fraction per ton of washed nre, or 281 grains uf
gold per ton of raw ore; and by carefully picking out the waste and slate
from the raw ore, before it was pulverised, it was found that the average
might be raised to more than 3J0 grains per ton. The mines being situate
in the bottom of a deep valley, where there is an abundant supply of water,,
it is estimated that the cost of raising the auriferous ore, aud extracting the
gold from it, will not exceed, on an average, 72 grains of gold, or r2s. per
tju of rough ore; and it is very probable that the amount of the cost will
be reduced, when the work-people employed become more experienced ia.
the manipulation of the ore.

64

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

Suspension Bridge at Pesth,—T\iQ Pesth Suspension Bridge, which is

erected over the Danube at Pesth, was commenced in iH40, acconlint? to the designs and
underthe direction of William Tierney Clark, civil engineer, and haa just been compIet;d
at a coetof £650.000. This bridge, which for magnitude of design and beauty ot propor-
tions stands first among suspension bridges, has a clear waterway of l.'.'MI feet, the
centre span or opening being 670 feet The height of the suspension towers from the
foundation is 2m feet, being founded in 50 feet of water. The sectional area of the sus-
pendirg chains is 5'JO square inches of wrought iron, and the total weight of the sa^ie,
1.300 tOHS. This is the first permanent bridge since the time of the Romans which has
been erected over the Danube below Vienna, it having been considered impossible to fix
the foundations In so rapid a river subject to such extensive floods, and exposed to the
enormous force of the ice in the winter season. It now. however, stands aa another
monument of the skill and perseverance of our countrymen. The bridge was opened
for the first time, not to an ordinary public, but tn a retreating army, on the .ith ot
January, 1K4'*. by which the stability of the structure was put to the most severe test,
which cannot be better described than by referring to the lettei of a correspondent, who
writes-" First came the Hungarians In full retreat and in the greatest disorder, hotly
pursued by the victorious Imperialists ; squadrons of cavalry and artillery In full gallop,
bucked by thousands of infantry-ln fact, the whole pbtform was one mass of moving
soldiers : and during the first two days, 60,000 Imperial trooiis, with 2/0 pieces of cannon
passed over the bridge." This fact cannot but be of importance to the scientihc world,
since it proves that suspension bridges, when properly constructed and trussed according
to the design of Mr. Clark, may be erected in the most exposed places, while their coat
iu comparison with stone bridges is insignificant.

New Railways Opened in the Year 1848.— The ageregate length of new
railways opened in England during the year IS^H was 750 miles, consisting of branches
and portions of main lines belonging to the following railways :— Bristol and Exeter,
5 miles ; Blackburn, Bolton, and West Yorkshire. 9 ; Chester and Holyhead, HO ; East
Anglian, 21 ; East Lancashire. 20 ; East Lincolnshire, 48 ; East and West Yorkshire, 16;
Kastern Counties, .^0 ; Eastern Union,3; Great Northern, 69; Great Western. 31;
Lancashire and Yorkshire. 84^ ; Leeds and Thirsk, I't , Leeds and Dewsbury. 20 ; Liver-
pool, Crosby, and Southport, 14. London and Brighton. 10: London and South-
Western. 24^: London end North-Western. " ; Newmarket, 18; North-Western, 6 ;
Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire. 57; Midland 57; North Staffordshire, 29;
Shrewsbury and Chester. 28; South Devon, 27; York. Newcastle, and Berwick,"; York
and North Midland, 24^ miles.— The aggregate length of new railways opened in Scot-
land during the same period was 299 miles, belonging to the following railways :— Aber-
rteen, 17^; Caledonian, 84; Dumfries and Carlisle, 24; Edinburgh and Glasgow, 9^;
Edinburgh and Northern, 40 : Glasgow and Ayr, ;ifii ; Gla-igow. Barrbead. and Neilston,
8i; North British. 16; Scottish Central, 46 ; and the Scottish Midland, 3;i.— In Ireland
the aggregate length of new railways opened in 1^48 was 158 miles, belonging to the fol-
lowing railways :— Belfast and Ballymena, .'^; Belfast and County Down. 4^ ; Great
Southern and Western, 44; Irish South- Eastern, lOJ; Midland Great Western, 14;
Ulster, 11 I Waterford and Kilkenny, 11 ; and Waterford and Limerick, 25.-It would
appear, therefore, that the aggregate length of new lines opened for iraiBc in the United
Kingdom during the past year was 1,207 miles.

Lime- Ash Floors.— T\\\^ description of floor has heen in use formany
years in several parts of England, and is very durable; we hove seen floors of it in Dor-
setshire and Devonshire that have been made for upwards of forty or tiftv years, and
were then in a good state. They are made in the following manner :— The ground is
first levelled, and o\\ which is laid a mixture of lime ashes, with twice the quantity of fine
grit sand, free from large stones or earthy matter. The lime and sand are well incorpo-
rated, and then allowed to remain In a heap from Id to 12 days. The mixture is evenly
spread over the surface of the ground about 2 to 2i inches deep, and the surface
trowelled over in the same way as trowelled stucco is done, and then allowed gradually to
dry. Care must be taken that the surface is not damaged before it is perfectly dry. and
it would be preferable if the sand were washed. The coat is about l^d. per foot super-
ficial.

LIST OP WEM^ PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM DECEMBER 21, 1848» TO JANUARY 25, 1849,

Six Months allowed for Enrolment^ unless otherwise expressed.

William Baker, of Edgbaston, near Birmingham, civil engineer, and John Ramsbottom,
of LongslRlit, near Manchester, engineer, for improvements in the construction of rail-
way turn-tables, which latter improvements are applicable to certain shafts or axles
driven by steam or other motive power. — Sealed Dec. 21, IH4H.

William Riddle, of White Friar-streel. London, gentleman, for improvments in the
construction of ever-pointed pencils, writing and drawing instruments, and in Inkstands
or inkholders. — Dec. 21

Charies Low, of Roseberry-place, Dalston, Middlesex, gentleman, for improvements in
smelting copper ore. — Dec. 28.

George Fergusson Wilson, of Belmont, Vauxhall, Surrey, gentleman, and Charles
Humfrey, of Manor-street, Old Kent-road, Surrey, merchant, for improvements in the
production of light by burning oleic acid in lamps, and in the construction of lamps, and
the manufacture or preparation of oleic acid for that purpose. — Dec. 28.

William Dingle Chowne, of Connaughi-place West, doctor of medicine, for improve-
ments in ventilating rooms and apartments. — Dec. 28

Moses Poole, of the Patent Office, London, gentleman, for Improvements in the ma-
nufacture of heels for boots and shoes, ot swivels, of bag fastenings, of revolving; furni-
ture, and of the connection of pipes for gas and other fluids. (A communication.) —
Dec. 28.

John Mitchell, chemist. Henry Alderson, civil engineer, and Thomas Warriner Farmer,
of Lyons-wharf, Upper Fore-street, Lambeth, for improvements in smelting copper. —
Dec. 28.

Robert Jobson, of HoUy-hall works, near Dudley, Staffordshire, engineer, for improve-
ments in the manufacture of stoves. — Dec. 28.

Israel Kinsman, of Ludgate-hill. merchant, for Improvements in the construction of
rotary engines to be worked by steam, air. or other elastic fluid.— Dec. 28.

William Edward Newton, of Chaiicery-lane, civil engineer, for certain improvements in
Btfam. engines. (A communication.) — Dec. 28.

William Gilmour Wilson, of Port Dundas, Glasgow, engineer, for Improvements In the
formation of moulds, and cores ot moulds, for casting iron and other substances. —
Dfc. .'iO.

William Knapton, of the city of York, iron founder, for certain Improvements in the
mode of manufacturing gasometers or gas-holdfrs. — Jhu. ^. 1849.

William Thomas, of Cbeapslde, London, merchant, lor improvements in the maufac-
ture of window blinds. (A communication.)— Jan. 4.

David Yoolow Stewart, of Montrose, Scotland, iron-founder, for improvements in the
ninnufacture of moulds and cores for casting iron and other substances. — Jan. 4

Henry Francis, of Chelsea, engineer, for Improvements In sawing and cutting wood. —
Jan. 4.

Kobert Munn, of Starch-Head Mill, near Rochdale, Lancaster, cotton. spinner, for cer-
tain improvements in looms, and apparatus connected with looms, for weaving various
descriptions of textile fabrics.— Jan. 4.

William Crofton Moat, of Upper Berkeley-street. Middlesex, surgeon, for Improve-
ments In engines to be work«d by steam, air, or gas.- Jan. 4.

John Coope Haddan, of Bloomsbury-aquare, civil engineer, for an Improvement or Im-
provments in railway wheels.— Jan. 5.

Miles Wrigley, of Ashton-under-Lyne, architect, for certain improvements in the ma-
nufacture of yeast or barm.— Jan. 11.

William Edward Newtnn, of Chancery-Une, civil engineer, for a certain improvement
or Improvements in the construction of wheels. (A communication.)— Jan. II.

James Castley, of Harpenden. Hertfordshire, manufacturing chrmlat, for improvements
in the manufacture of varnishes from resinous substances.— Jan. 1 1 .

Robert Urwin, of Ashford, Kent, engineer, for certain improvements in steam-engines,
which may. In whole or in part, be applicable to pumps and other machines not worked
by steam power. — Jan. 11.

Obed Blake, of the Thames Plate Glass Company, residing at 13. Southampton-street,
Strand, gentleman, fur certain improvements la vtintilating ; or ventilators, for ships,
vehicles, houses, or other buildintis. — Jan. 11.

Francis Hobler, of Bucklersbury, ciiy of London, gentleman, for Improvements in the
construction of tue cylinders or barrels of capstans and windlasses. — Jan. Jl.

Michael Loam, of Treskerley, Cirnwalt, engineer, for improvements in the manufac-
ture of fusees. — .Fan. II.

Christopher Nickels, of the Albiiny-road, Surrey, gentleman, for improvements in pre-
paring and manufacturing india-rubber (caoutchouc). — Jan. 11.

William Rowe. of New-wharf, Whitefriars, city of London, carpenter and joiner, for
certain improvements in the mode ol uniting or combining jiipes, or lengths of pipes,
tubes, or channels formed of glass, earthenware, cr other similar material.— Jan. U

William Walker, of Manchester, agent, for certain improvements in machinery or ap-
paratus for cleaninii roads or ways, which improvements are also applicable to other
similar purposes. — Jan. U.

Illchard Liming, of Clichy la Garonne, near Paris. France, chrmist, for improvements
in the modes of obtaining or manutacturing sulphur ar.d sulphuric acid. — Jan. 13. N.B.
—This patent being opposed by caveat, lodged at the Gre.it Seal Patent OffiL-e. wa** not
sealed till Jan. l.'ith, 1849; but bears date Sept. 4th. 184-^. the day it would Inive been
sealed and dated had no opposition been entered, (By order of th:; Lord Chancellor.)

William Bctts, cf Smithtield Bars, London, distiller, for a nert' maiK.latlure of capsules,
and of a material to be employed therein, arid for other purposes. - Jan, 13.

George Williams, of Tipton, Staflfjrd, forge manager, for a certain improvement, or
certain improvements in preparing puddling furnaces, used in the manufacuire of iron.—
Jan. 13.

Conrad Haverkam Greenhowe, of the city of London, civil engineer, forter.ain improve-
ments in atmosplieric railways.— Jan. li.

Richard Dugda'e, of Brompton, Middlesex, engineer, for iniprovemenis In hardening
anicles composed of iron. — -lan. 13.

Anthony Barberis, of Leicester squara, engineer, for improvements in spinning silk,
and in the construction ot swifts, and in the arrangeraent of upparHtua for winding silk
and other titbrous subtances.— Jan 13.

Jean Baptiste Francois Miizeline Aine, of Havre. France, engineer, for improvements in
8te;tm-engine8, and in the machinery for propelling vessels. — Jan. 16.

Wi.liam Martin, of St. Pierre les Calais, France, machinist, for ceitain improvements in
machinery for tiguring textile fabrics, parts of which improvements ire applicable to phiy-
ing certain musical instruments, and aiso to printing, and other like purpo^es— Jan. Ifi.

Peter Augustine Gorlefroy. late of Shepton Mallett, Somersetshire, now of 31, Wilsan-
street, Fiiisbury, chemical colour nianufaclurer, tor certain improvements in drtfsslug and
finishing woven fabrics.— Jan. \6.

Edward Buchler. of the city of London, merchant, for improvements in the manufac-
ture of boots and shoes ; also applicable toother fabtics.—Jan. 16.

Carey McClellan, of March Mount, Londonderry, Ireland, for an improved corn-mi I.
Jan. 16.

James Hamilton, of London, civil engineer, for certain improvements in cutting wood.—
Jan. 18

John Francis B >ttom, of Nottingham Park, lace dresser, and John Dearman Dunni-
clitr. of Hysnn Green. Nottingham, lace manufacturer, tor improvements in dressing or
geiting up fabrics of cotton or silk, and of cotton and silk combined.— Jan. IS.

Francis Al on Calvert, of Manchrster, machinist, for certain improvements in machinery
for cleani.ig and preparng cotton, wool, and other fibrous substances.— Jan. 18.

Thomas Newcomb, of Bemiondsey, machinist, fjr certain improvements in furnaces.—
Jan. 18.

William Boggett, of St. Mar. in's lane, Middlesex, manufacturer, for improvements in
methods and machinery for obtaining and applying motive power. -Jan. 2U.

Henry Bernoulli Bariow, of Manchester. consultinK engineer, for improvements In the
manulaciure of cut pil.d fabrics, and iu machinery or apparatus applicable thereto. (A
communication.) — Jan. 20.

Samuel Brown, the younger, of Lambeth. Surrey, engineer, for 'mproved apparatus for
measuring and registering the flow of liquids, and of substances in a running slate, whivh
a|,paratu8 «re in part also applicable to nioiive purposes. — Jan. 2fi.

Henry Needham, of Vine-street, Piccadilly, Westminster, gunmaker, for certain im-
provements in fire-arms.— Jan. 2U.

Thomas Robinson, of Leeds. Hax-dresser, for Improvements in mcrhincry .'or breaking,
scutching, cutting, heckling, dressing, combing, carding, drawing, lovinic. Rnd spinniiiif
flex, hemp, tow, wool, silk, and other fibrous substances, aid iu unitiug ubrous substan-
ces.— Jan. 23.

Chiries de Bergue. of Arthur-street west, in the city of London, engineer, for improve-
ments in steam-engines, in pumps, and In springs lor railway and other purposes.—
Jan. '2\K

Kdward Slaughter, of the Avonslde Iron Works, Bristol, engineer, for Improvements in
marine steam-engines. —Jan. 23.

Refs Reece, of London, chemist, for improvements in treating peat, and obtaining pro-
ducts theretrom.— J.in, 23.

Charles Henri Paris, of P;iris, for improvements in preventing the oxidating of iron.
{A communication.)- Jan. 23.

William Henry Marluw, ot Derby, civil engineer, for Improvements in the construction
of permanent ways tor railways.- Jan. 23.

Kichmd Johnson, of Biackbuin, Lancaster, gentleman, for certain improvements in
the manufacture of mel'ed grain, and in vinous termentation ; also improvements io
brewing, and In the machinery or apparatus connected with the above or similar pro-
cesses.— Jan. 23.

Wakefield Piin, of Kingston upon Hull, engine and boiler maker, for certain improve-
ments in propelling ships and vessels — Jan 25.

Robert Shaw, of Portlaw, Waterford, cotton spinner, and Samael Fletcher Cottam, of
Manchester, mJchinist, for certain improvements in machinery for preparing, spinnioy,
and doubling cotton, wool, flux, .silk, and similar fibrous materials — Jan. 25.

John Talbot Tyler, of the firm of Ashmead an i Tyler. Mount street, Grosvenor-square,
hatters, for cerLaiu improvements \u bats, caps, and bat cases. — Jan. 25.

1919."!

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

65

PULPIT OF SIENNA.
fWith an Engraving, Plate IV.^

In the olden times it was asserted that the master-hand of the
artist was to govern not merely the building but all its details ,
and we believe no mediiBval cathedral was ever designed without
the architect settling at the same time the fashion and the work-
manship of all its fittings, so that a moveable belonging to
the altar furniture is now as good a type of the mediieval
styles as any of their architectural members. How times are
changed ! In these days, the moment an architect has finished
the shell of a building he is turned out, and it is consigned to the
house-painter and the upholsterer, who rule unfettered ; and the
architect may have the comfort of seeing a Greek building fitted
with Elizabethan furniture — with Louis Quatorze, Louis Quinze,
or anything but what is tasteful and appropriate. Mr. Pugin
having laboured for what he calls a Christian building, laments to
find it paganised, and his whole artistic aspirations frustrated and
betrayed. AVhatever may be done for the outside, however strictly
it may be Doric or Ionic, Vitruvian or Palladian, however closely
the authorities, legitimate or illegitimate, may have been followed,
the Goths and Vandals are sure to reign inside. We will not take
upon us to say that the architects, although so badly used, are
altogether blameless. \V'e believe they have given up more tlmn
the upholsterer, the paper-hanger, the house-painter, the iron-
monger, the silversmith, and the carpet-weaver have usurped ;
and in particular, that having excluded colour from their own
works, they have left those articles of furniture requiring the ap-
plication of colour entirely in the hands of the artisans.

A better spirit is, it is true, now abroad ; but the architect has
to re-conquer his domain,— and we believe it wilLbe well worth Iiis
while, for the superintendence of the minor works will give a con-
siderable addition to his emoluments. We have often remon-
strated against barn-door architecture for churches ; but there has
been great improvement for the better since we begun our com-
plaints, though the clergy too often step into the place of tlie
architect. Still it is something to see better designed pulpits,
stalls, fonts, reading-desks, glass, tombs, and tiles. We do not,
however, wish these improvements to be limited to works in the
medieval styles; for we fear it may lead to barren coi)ying, while
it hinders the progress of the other styles.

Whatever dispute there may be as to the responsibility of de-
signing other articles of church furniture, there ouglit to be none
as to tlie pulpit, for it is peculiarly a structural object ; and in the
great works of the middle ages it 'is treated as an independent de-
sign. It rises within the nave often to a greater heiglit than many
out-door monuments, so that on the plea of size the architect can-
not say that it is beneath liim. There is a staircase to the floor on
which the preacher stands, and above all rises a high canopy.
This may evidently be treated as a columnar or astvlar compo-
sition, with a Greek peristyle, or Gothic pinnacles, while it allows
ot all the varied resources of art being applied for its adornment.

While there are particular objections to the adornment of the
altar in the churches of the Establishment and of the dissenters,
there cannot be so much objection to the decoration of the pulpit'
as it is not supposed that any worship will be paid to it. If there
should be any objection to statuary or painting, the decoration may
be purely architectural; but there are many figures and emblems
whicli have been allowed without objections in church decoration.
Tlie triangle, dove, I.H.S., angels' heads, cross, and even the
figures of the four evangelists pass muster with very strict people.
A well ornamented pulpit might, therefore be ventured upon as an
architectural decoration of the interior, which would add pleasingly
to its effect ; and being the centre to which the eyes of the con-
gregation are turned during much of the service, would not be
censurable on the ground of unfitness or want of purpose.

'I'hose of our readers who have been no further from home than
Belgium, need scarcely be reminded of the wooden pulpits at Brus-
sels, Antwerp, and elsewhere, and which present some of the finest
specimens of wood-carving to be found. Those who have travelled
further, know that Italy presents many beautiful e.xamples in va-
rious styles. The one of which we now give an engraving, we
thought wortliy of the attention of our readers, though we do not
present it as a type of a class so various, or as the greatest work
of the kind._ It is the pulpit, in white marble, in the cathedral of
Sienna, in Tuscany.

This pulpit is a work of the thirteenth or fourteenth century,
and is the production of Nicholas of Pisa, as tlie records of the
cathedral show. They state, likewise, the amount of his remune-
ration, which was eight sols a-day, six shillings in silver of the

No. 138.— Vol. XII.— .March, 1819.

present standard ; equivalent, perhaps, to thirty or forty shillings
in modern value. He was further paid four sols for his son John,
and six for his pupils. Tlie time employed was less than two vears.
By some accident the original staircase was destroyed, and that
now shown was executed three centuries later, by Balthazar
Peruzzi.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK,
FASCICULUS XCl.

'* I must have liberty
Withal, as Urge a charter a>- the winds.
To blow on whom I please."

I. One extraordinary merit of the medieval architects has
either been quite overlooked, or else purposely and very ungrate-
fully kept out of sight even by their most mouthy admirers.
That they planned and designed their buildings excellently, keep-
ing the immediate purpose for which tliey were erected strictly in
view, thereby securing for them appropriate character and natural
emphasis of expression, is not only admitted, but dwelt upon with
more of wonder than is called for; since more wonderful would it
have been if, employing a vernacular style — the only medium of
their architectural ideas — they expressed themselves naturally,
unaffectedly, and I may say, heartily. Their style of building
was almost as matter of course, racy and idiomatic, it being a
living one, therefore capable of freely admitting new modes of
treatment in order to meet circumstances not previously contemp-
lated and provided for. In their success so far, there is then
nothing very astonishing; but that they should have hit upon ideas
so exactly suited also to our purposes at the present day, that archi-
tects have now only to copy them as literally as may be, is nothing
less than marvellous, — equally marvellous whether it was through
sheer accident, or through foresight, coupled with the good-natured
intention of sparing us the trouble of thinking for ourselves. The
same remark applies to the originators and elaborators of other
styles, as well as to the arciiitects of the so-called medieval
period. Sansoviiui, for instance, provided out of his own brains,
designs for Pall-.Mall clubhouses, as well as for buildings by hiin-
self at Venice. Lucky fellow! to be able to "kill two birds with
one stone," after that fashion ! Whether the same will have to be
said of the servuin jwctis — I beg their pardon, tlie correct and or-
thodox intitati/rs o{ the present day — admits of question; a question
that may be left to the consideration of tliat priggish gentleman.
Count D'Orsay, to whom we are indebted for a second infliction of
Sansovino in Pall-Mail.

II. What has just been said leads naturally enough to another
question — a somewhat delicate and ticklish one — viz., whethei
those who merely adopt a ready-made design from Sanso\ ino, or
San somebody-else, obtain the same remuneration, alias per-
centage, as is paid in the case of original or what passes foi
original design. If tliey do not, and remuneration is abated in
proptjrtion — for let us attend to "proportions," — something ni.iy
be said for the copying system on the score of economy. If, hoii-
ever, they liave the face to claim, and actually do obtain, just as
much for what is merely a leaf out of a book, as for a bond fide
design, we must conclude that design is not supposed to be paid
for at all, but something thrown in gratuitously by an architect
to his customers. In many articles of manufacture, fashion is
paid for as well as material and labour, since it has required some
talent, and taken time and study to produce such pattern or
fashion; but although architecture claims to be considered
something infinitely more dignified than manufacture, no account
is taken of quality of design, — be it bad or good, be it the produce
of the artihitect's own thought and study, or an arrant plagiarism,
— a tasteful artistic composition or a balaam medley of odds and
ends, it makes no difference; bad and good being paid for exactly
idike, and according to one invariable scale of remuneration.
Which being the case, we ought perhaps to wonder that talent has
not been altogether extinguished under the stupifying chloroform
influence of such a Laputun system of encouragement.

III. What is called the Perpendicular might as well, or with
still greater propriety, be termed the Fanel/ed style of Gothic, it
deriving its peculiar character most decidedly from a system of
panelling. It is the division of surfaces into sunk moulded com-
partments, which is by far the more obvious and striking charac-
teristic of that mode of Gothic. The name of Perpendicular, on
the contrary, applies not so much to the general physiognomy as

10

66

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

I Mabch,

to tlie lineation or prevalence of upright lines in the tracery of
the windows. In fact, horizoiitnlity expresses itself quite as much
or even still more strongly than perpendicularity, owing to the
openings, arches, as well as doors and windows, being framed into
square-headed compartments forming panels upon a larger scale.
As frequently as not, the windows themselves are actually square-
headed; and whether so or not, their "lights" form a congeries of
square-headed panels, differing from others only in being per-
forated and glazed. Horizontality, again, manifests itself plainly
enough in the transoming of the windows; so that together with
sqnare-hendiness and panelling, it characterises the style far more
distinctly than perpendicularity does. Still, as "Perpendicular"
is the designation which has now generally obtained in this
country, it may as well be allowed to remain undisturbed, it being
highly inconvenient to be always altering terms which, whether
correct or not, answer the purpose of mere names. What is here
said is chiefly intended to show how many other indicial and
strongly-marked traits of style had been overlooked by those who
brought up the term in question.

IV. With regard, too, to the Gothic style generally, many of its
influential elements have been overlooked — at least, are not taken
into account by those who pretend to trace its origin and develop-
ment. It is usual to consider the Pointed Arch as the germ of
the whole style in all its varieties, as the punctum saliens, out of
which all the rest grew naturally. Now, in the first place, the
Pointed Arch is in itself, and considered merely as a form, anything
but beautiful; it being ofl^ensively harsh, ilither a square or
semicircular-headed opening, on the contrary, although it be left
quite bare, and may so far be unsatisfactory, is not positively dis-
pleasing; but a pointed-arch one, forming a mere aperture in a
wall, has a villainously barbarous look. Nevertheless, houses with
such-shaped holes in the walls for doors and windows have ere
now been erected, and have passed for "Gothic," — at any rate, for
neat Modern-Gothic. That there was a good deal of fancy exer-
cised on such occasions is not to be denied, since it required a
more than ordinary share of it to fancy that things of the kind
had anything at all in common with the style which we call Gothic.
People had got it into their heads, and some of them have it there
still, that the Pointed Arch taken abstractedly and per se was the
very essence, or rather quintessence of the Gothic style. Even
granting it to be such, that essence was so diluted and wishy-
washed as to bear the same resemblance to the original style as
the nasty and nauseous rinsings of wine-bottles do to the generous
beverage they once contained. The truth however is, that so far
•from constituting the essence of the style in question, the Pointed
Arch is only one of its rudiments, — certainly the most obvious,
and an exceedingly influential one. Still, the same form of arch
might have been — in fact, has been employed without leading to
the same style or anything like it. One highly important charac-
teristic in it, is diagonalism or the employment of oblique planes
and surfaces — for instance, in splays and the sloping "offsets" on
the faces of walls or of buttresses. Another is, that with the ex-
ception of what are termed "weather-mouldings," the mouldings
to apertures are recessed within the general plane or surface of
the wall, instead of projecting out from it. Besides receding
planes or surfaces connected by splays sloping upwards, one pe-
culiarity of the style is, that it admits of what is precisely the
reverse — namely, projecting surfaces or members supported upon
corbelling, which alone constitutes a marked distinction of the
style. The Pointed Arch is therefore only one element of it, and
one which might have been adopted without the others resulting
from it as of course. Supposing a person otherwise well-skilled
in architecture, but ignorant of the existence of Gothic, to have
the figure of a Pointed Arch shown him, we may safely say that
it would be utterly impossible for him to form any idea from such
sample of it what the style itself really was. In all probability,
he would conclude it to be exceedingly dry and bald — exceedingly
limited in expression, and exhibiting itself only in the forms of
arches and openings in the wall.

V. In fact, the form of the arch goes but a very little way to-
wards the system of the Gothic style, which derives its most cha-
racteristic motives of embellishment from windows, and the neces-
sity for glazing them. In the earlier stages of mediaeval architec-
ture, and while windows were merely single apertures, they were
small — at least narrow, insignificant, and more mean than beau-
tiful features. Fortunately, they could not be greatly enlarged —
certainly not to anything like the magnitude they afterwards fre-
quently attained, except by combining two or more apertures
framed together into one general composition, or what amounts to
the same thing, by subdividing the entire general aperture into
several lesser ones, in order that the glass and its leadding might be

securely supported. Could intervening shafts or mullions have
been dispensed with, or had they been so, instead of the admirable
designs for windows we now see, we should have had merely large
arches tilled in with glazing. To the employment of mullions or
intervening supports — a happy idea in itself — we are indebted for
what may be called the efflorescence of decoration peculiar to the
style — viz., Traceby. Mullions being introduced, it became ne-
cessary to fill up the head of the arch by ribs in continuation of
tliem, which being variously combined, become that peculiar species
of decoration known by tlie name of Traceky — a main and very
fertile source of decoration, nothing corresponding to which exists
in classical architecture or the styles copied from it. Yet, in esti-
mating Gothic, its above-mentioned characteristics have been ge-
nerally, if not entirely overlooked — certainly slighted, and treated
as very secondary matters ; while more than enough has been said
on the subject of the Pointed Arch, and many absurdities uttered
in the idle attempt to account for its origin. And if it could be
accounted for conclusively, upon the very strongest evidence, all
that would be gained would be the knowledge of an historic fact,
without any further insight into or power over the style itself.
We already know that it was evolved — whether partly through ac-
cident or not makes no difference — out of a few simple elements
and circumstances. Yet what are we at all the better for knowing
as n.uch, when it does not enable us to work out by degrees a
style for ourselves at the present day, by doing now what the
mediaeval arcliitects did, in and for their own time. On the con-
trary, the knowledge of what has been done is now made a posi-
tive hindrance to anything further being done.

VI. However learned some of them may be, and thoroughly fa-
miliar with all that has been done before, not only in one, but in
every style of the art, the architects of the present day seem to
be visited by the curse — if curse it be — of impotence and sterility :
they appear to have utterly lost all generative power, and to be in-
capable of producing new ideas. Can a single really new and
fructifying idea — one that opens fresh ground, be pointed out in
any work of the present century .'' Improvement there has been ;
but instead of being such as results from fresh artistic vigour and
energy, it is of a kind which may be ascribed more to the extended
employment and more numerous opportunities afforded to archi-
tects— in a word, to comparatively favourable matter-of-fact cir-
cumstances, than to any particular talent of their own displayed
by the profession themselves. Be it ever so unbecoming or il-
liberal to say so, they do seem greatly at a loss for ideas ; and ac-
cordingly contented to take up with and abide by those of other
minds, who worked out theirs when architects were allowed the
privilege of all other artists, and availed themselves of it by
daring to think for themselves, and impress original mind upon
their creations. Nor is it any wonder that by the utter disuse of
it, the inventive faculty, which was wont in former times to be
displayed, should now be paralysed. In fact, so far from their
being encouraged, germinating ideas are repressed and stifled,
as if absolutely noxious and dangerous.

VII. The toleration of every crude whim and sickly caprice is
most assuredly to be deprecated. When we speak of new ideas
being adopted, it is, of course, only worthy and meritorious ones
that are meant — such as are the result of invention guided by
study and reflection. And presumed it may be, that those who
have really studied the style or styles they profess to follow, and
have accordingly familiarised themselves with them, and imbibed
their taste, do not require constant prompting from actual ex-
amples for every particular, but are so capable of entering into the
general spirit of the original models, as to be able to modify them
pertinently, and be faithful to their genius, although deviating
from the exact letter of tliem. Hamlet's instructions to the
players not to utter more than was actually set down for them, do
not apply to architects. The observance of the mere letter of a
style by no means ensures the spirit of it ; the latter being some-
thing of so fine and volatile a nature, that it is apt to evaporate
altogether while we are fumbling at rules, and poking after pre-
cedents.

VIII. Neither are my remarks to be understood too literally :
by no means do I intend to say that the mere deviation from ordi-
nary rules and practice will ensure some fresh and previously un-
tried assthetic beauty. It is not every idea which may chance to
present itself that deserves to be adopted, or can be made any-
thing of. Many may be dismissed forthwith ; and even really good
ideas require to be carefully considered, studied, and worked out.
If it be asked what is to be understood by a really good idea, the
answer is, one its author himself perceives the value of, and feels
confident of being able to turn to useful account on more occa-
sions than one. That those who have no ideas of their own, or

1949.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

67

f lower of invention, should protest against all attempt at origina-
itv, is not at all surprising ; but that those who have, and who,
were they to give their minds to it freely, might achieve origina-
lity more or less happy, should be deterred from doing so by the
dread of being called innovators, and suffer mere rules and prece-
dents to stand in the way of all further advance, is, if not parti-
cularly strange, particularly lamentable. Rash and fool-hardy in-
novation is, of course, to be discountenanced ; and such unlucky
and prodigiously queer originality as we have got in the new Coal
Exchange, and in the new hopeful mansion in Piccadilly, is to be
deprecated most earnestly ; still such egregious monstrosities, in
which it is difficult to decide whether dulness or fantasticality
predominates, afford no more argument against freshness of design
than the countless reams of printed prose in rhyme do against
poetry.

IX. Were architects to attend more to Effect than they now do,
they might produce equal results in point of finish and embellish-
ment as at present, or perhaps even greater, with far less labour
and cost. In his quality of artist the architect should work like
the scene-painter, who calculates and makes proper allowance for
the distance from which his tableau will be viewed, and finishes up
no more than is sufficient to produce the appearance of finish.
Architects, on the contrary, notwithstanding all the twaddling
about proportions, seem to have no idea of proportioning the
finish bestowed on detail and embellishment to their situation in
the building itself, and also to the actual situation and aspect of
the latter. Although it does not appear to be known, or if known
is not attended to, it is an excellent maxim to work up carefully
all the parts nearest the eye, and what may be called the '■'■fore-
ground' of an elevation, which being done, the appearance of
equally careful execution will be secured for the rest ; and no
more than such appearance is wanted, because all that is more
is entirely thrown away. It is by no means uncommon to find
that details which show in drawings, in which the eye can take
cognizance of the smallest minutiae, all but entirely disappear in
the executed structure, or as far as they produce effect at all, pro-
duce only a confused and niggling one. what, for instance, can
possibly be made out of the figures on the frieze of the Athenaeum
Clubhouse, or of those on the attic over the centre arch in the
screen-entrance to Hyde Park ? A few bold, random touches of
the mason's chisel might have been made to tell just as well, or
perhaps better, — certainly would have had to the full as much
meaning in them ; for as to meaning, that sculpture may be all
very classical and comme-il-faut, but has just the same degree of
relationship to Hyde Park as I have to Sir Hyde Parker. Absur-
dity is increased when, while ornament is bestowed where it can
be but imperfectly seen, it is withheld from parts that are exposed
to the closest inspection. It is by no means uncommon, for in-
stance, to find a chimney-piece of quite plain design in a room
with a highly-wrought cornice. Besides the mere inconsistence
itself, occasioned by the mixture of plainness and ornateness, the
former is thrust prominently into view, while the latter is compa-
ratively concealed. It is true, in such cases there may be a sort
of a reason — a pounds, shillings, and pence one — for the sin against
artistic effect and taste, inasmuch as the cornice being mere stucco,
its richness is attended with comparatively trifling cost ; whereas
the chimney-piece being marble, carved mouldings and other
workmanship becomes very expensive in such material. Still, that
does not alter the principle of propriety and taste, which is to be-
stow ornament where it will display itself, and to finish up most
carefully those parts which are nearest the eye. The contrary
practice resembles that of a painter who should finish up his dis-
tances very elaborately and neglect his foregrounds.

X. If, as some seem to think, our architects have but a ques-
tionable claim to the title of artists, and certainly are not such
generally, in the degree which they ought to be, it is not so much
cause for surprise as for regret, since no provision seems to be
made for an artistic education of them. Indispensable as it is in
itself, "office"-education is a nullity in that respect; in regard to
which, the most that it does for them is, that it initiates them into
the means of artistic study, which, if they are to pursue it at all,
they must pursue for themselves, should the proper stuff be in
them; if not — why, they must Pecksniffise all their lives, consol-
ing themselves with the reflection that — most unhappily for the
public — there are Pecksniffs in high places as well as low, some of
whom die rich, leaving their professional memories to be damned.
A great deal of what passes for zealous study pursued out of sheer
love of art, is very little better than busy idleness, and is utterly
fruitless as regards any advancement in the practice of art. A man
may be able to talk very learnedly, and to refer to almost every
building of any note, — may be very conversant with nearly all the

ideas that have from time to time been put forth in architecture
by others, and yet have no ideas of his own to serve him on occa-
sion, nor the talent for turning to account those with which he
has encumbered, hoping thereby to enrich, himself. The study
that is bestowed in loading the memory with ponderous trifles and
other heavy lumber is naught; accordingly should be left by the ar-
chitect to archaeologists and similar heavy-h d gentry. For him,

one of the best of studies is to exercise his thinking faculties, his
judgment, and his taste, with his pencil in hand; another is to
scrutinise the buildings he sees, and then question himself rigo-
rously to account for their beauties and defects, or what strike him
as such. The habit of considerate and thoughtful examination
so acquired, will stand him in good service in his own productions.
Again, self-imposed tasks for working out any idea that may have
struck the mind, are useful — indirectly, if not immediately. Ihe
idea itself is put to the proof as it were; for if capable of being
made anything of, it will draw other ideas after it, and so become
the nucleus of a growing mass of them. If not secured at the
moment — secured at least by turning it over in the mind, a
thought that might have been fixed, and afterwards returned to
and matured, may pass away irrecoverably. After having become
acquainted with routine and routine-design, let the student endea-
vour to guard himself against the enervating influence of the
latter, by breaking away from it in his hours of relaxation — re-
laxation, consisting not in idleness, but in the free indulgence of
his own fancies ; — and though they may be mere crude fancies at
first, something may possibly be made of some of them, and come
of them in time. At any rate, so long as they are kept private
studies, they are secure ftom reproach; and if occasion should
present itself for adopting any of them, there will have been time
for their ripening in their author's mind. Few, it is to be appre-
hended, take up the kind of study here hinted at, since we perceive
very little evidence of it; on the contrary, see a great many
things, both buildings and designs, which, as far as they do not
consist of what is usual and hackneyed, rarely show more than
some hasty first ideas, — good, perhaps, as hints and tendencies,
and as capable of being worked-up satisfactorily, rather than
satisfactory in themselves, or shown to sufficient advantage.

XI. Those who do not exercise their ideas, except when there is
immediate occasion for so doing, are not likely to find them very
prcmipt and active when wanted. Habitual inertness, or else ha-
bitual indolence of mind, can hardly be shaken off in an instant,
or roused to much purpose, merely because an occasion presents
itself; more especially if only a short notice be given, because then
one's faculties are more likely to be bewildered than properly awa-
kened. Did hurry always give a sufficient fillip to architects'
powers and imagination, competition committees would deserve
praise for their very "short-notice" policy, the time allowed by
them to architects being barely sufficient to prepare drawings, —
therefore wholly inadequate for careful study, or any study at all
of the subject. In fact, they seem to have no idea that any pre-
vious study of the subject is required, but that there is merely to
put it upon paper. That such is the case is almost certain, because
they seldom pretend to pay for study, the premiums offered by
them being, in many instances, not even more than would be
paid by an architect to his clerks for the same amount of mere
drawing.

XII. Were those who publish examples of architectural ornament
and detail to accompany them with some critical remarks, specify-
ing their particular merits, and also pointing out defects that de-
tract from what may nevertheless be praiseworthy upon the whole,
service would be rendered both to Art and to those who study it.
Intelligent comment would, on the one hand, fix attention upon
the more delicate beauties of such productions, and on the other,
would warn against blemishes. It is an error to suppose that both
beauties and blemishes must be sufficiently obvious at first sight
to every one. Books of patterns are one thing, and books of ar-
tistic studies are another, although the latter are almost invariably
treated as if tliey were nothing more than the former. Moreover,
examples of such exceedingly opposite quality are so frequently in-
troduced into the same publication, that it is impossible to under-
stand upon what principle the " selection" or " collection" has been
formed. The plates are left to speak for themselves — poor dumb
devils! — and why.'' merely because those who ought to act as their
interpreteis are unable to speak for them.

10*

68

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

GEORGE STEPHENSON.

fContinued from page 364, Vol, XI.^

[This sketch of the life of Georp-e Stc]ilienson has heen so long
put off from a want of the needful hooks in tlie British Museum,
;in(l therefore we have had to apply elsewhere. We owe much to the
kindness of several ffentlemen, aniontr wliom we nre hound to name
Joseph Sandars, Esq., Father of the Liverpool and Manchester
Kaihvay; Henry IJootli, Esq., Treasurer of tlie railway; Charles
iManhy, Esq., Secretary of the Institution of Civil Eng-ineers ;
W. W. Collins, Esq., of Buckinftham-strcet; and J. '\V^. Brooke,
Esq. Among the hooks we have are the following: —

1821. Observations on a gpnernl Iron Rnihvny ; shmoinfj its great mippri-
ority over all the Present methods of Conveyauee, and claiming the particu-
lar attention of Merchantft, Mann/ncturers, Farmers, and indeed every class
of Society. Second Edition. London: ISaldwin, 1821. — [Anonymous —
written by Thomas Cray.]

1822. Copy of Specification of Patent grarUed to Benjamin Thompson.
Newcnstle.

1822. Extracts from the 'Newcastle Magazine:' Controversy Ictween
Benjamin Thompson and Nicholas Wood.

1822 & 1824. Specification of John Birkenshaw's Patent. Newcastle.

1823. Notes, by Mr. Stevenson, in reference to the Essays on Hallways
presented to the Highland Society.

1824. A Letter on the subject of the projected Railroad bettreen Liverpool
and Manchester. By Joseph Sandars. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Editions.
Liverpool, 1824-25.

1824. Observations, &(c., on the Communication betweeti Nevcastle and
Carlisle. By Wm. Chapman. Newcastle, 1824.

1824. j4 Report on the same. Second Edition. By Wm. Chapman, C.E.
Newr.istle, 1824.

1825. Report on Railroads and Locomotive Engines. By Charles Syl-
vester, C.E. Liverpool, 1825.

1826. The Finger- Post ; or Direct Road from John O^Groat's to the
Land's End : being a Discussion of the Railway Question. By ? } } Lon-
don : Cole. — [Anonymous — no date ]

1825. A Statement of the Claim of the Stibscriiers to the Birmingham
and Liverpool Railroad to an Act of Parliament ; in Reply to the Opposition
of the Canal Proprietors. London : Baldwin, 1825. — [Anonyninns.J

1825. The National Wagon-post, to Travel at the rate of Tirenty Miles
per Hour, carryir.g One Thousand Tons weight, all over the Kingdom of
England, with Passengers, Goods, and Stock ; also a Letter from the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer. Paris : Didot, 1825. — [Written liy C. M. George.]

1825. Considerations on the Expedience of sinking Capital in Railways,
Uy John Vallance. London: Wightman, 1825.

Tacked to this is a reprint of another pamphlet hy ilr. Vallance, called,
' On Facility of Intercourse.'

1825. Observations on the General Comparative Merits of Inland Com-
mwiication by Navigations or Railroads, with particular rejereuce to those
prcjected or existing between Bath, Bristol, and London. London: Hatch-
ard, 1825. — [Anonymous.]

1825. A Letter resjiectmg the Projected Railways. By********. Sold
liy J. Nicholson, Rochdale. — [An attack on the Liverpoc i and Manchester
Railway.]

1825. Railways compared with Canals and common Roads, and their Uses
and Advantages explained. Edinburgh: Constable, 1823. — [\^ ritten by
Charles Maclaren, and reprinted from the Scotsman.']

1826. Sketches of our Information as to Railroads, By the Rev. James
Adamson, Cupar Fife. Newcastle, 1826.

1824, &c. Prospectuses and Half- Yearly Reports of the Liverpool and
Manchester Railway.

1830. yln Accouitt of the Liverpool and Manchester Railvny. By Henry
Booth, Treasurer to the Cnnipany. Liverpool : M'ales and liaines.

Of these, the "Finger-post" only is to be found in the Library of
the British Museum.

Besides these, we have made use of the following: —

1822, The Steam-Evgine. By Charles F. Partington. London.

1823. Description of a Railway upon a New Princij'le. By Henry' R.
Palmer, M. Inst. C.E. London : Taylor, High Holborn, 1823 and 1824.

1825, &c. Nicholas Wood on Railroads.
1825. Thomas Tredgold on Railroads.

1822, &c. The Newcastle Magazine.

1823, &c. The Mechanics' Magazine,
1817, &c. Tlie Repertory of Arts.

1829. Stuart's Anecdotes if the Steam Engine.

1831. Historical Account of Rivers, Canals, and Railways. By Joseph
Priestley. London, 1831.

We have likewise referred to the later works of Mr. Whishaw,
Mr. Ritchie, the Monthly liailway Record, &c.

We shall therefore take advantage of these several works, to give
a fuller account than we sh«uild otherwise have done of the Growth
of the Railway System, of the Mania of 1825, of the History of

the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and of the Locomotive
Contest, H hich are now little known.]

X. BKGINNING OF RAILWAYS.

The beginning of railw.-iys has been laid down as owing to seve-
ral causes, and it may be that the use of slays or sledges in Staf-
fordshire' led to it, for the two sides of the slay would readily run
on two lines of wooden planks or logs. If, however, railways had
their beginning in the north, what so likely as that the thought
took its rise from the shipwright's yard. Indeed, the ways on
which a ship is built, and from which she is launched, are the oldest
and earliest railways : from these she slips down into the sea, and
very little strength is wanted to set her going. As, too, the coal-
pits lie in the higher grounds, and the coals are brought down to
the water to the ship's side, it would strike any workman that the
way in which it could be done, and in which the least power would
he called for, would he that hy which the great weight of a ship
was moved by a few men. First, such a way would be made for a
short length, and then for greater lengths. It seems the more
likely that this is the truth, for the first wagonways were, like
shipyard-ways, of timber ; otherwise we might have looked to their
being made of stone at an earlier time. In shape, too, the ship-
ways are something like wagonways, for they are raised above the
road, whereas stone tracks are on a level with it. The stone track
has been u.sed from the time of the Romans downwards, and there
is no ground for thinking that it led to the wooden wagonway.

A High Dutch writer has said that a railway was made in the
mining country of the Hartz, and that the plan was taken to Eng-
land, in the year 1676, by some miners." Now, it is very unlikely
that such miners would go to the Northumbrian coal-pits, where
the railway at that time was in use;-' while the suggestion we have
here made is much more in keeping with what we know. Abroad,
tlie railway was first known as the English roadway.

One of the earliest drawings of a railway known is that spoken
of in the Mecliunics' Magassine,'' and is a representation of a train
on a wooden railway at Prior Park, near Bath, a mile long, and
which in 1741 was used for carrying stone. AV'ooden railways were
in use until 1811.

When wooden railways came to be better known and more
worked, it was to be looked for that they should be strengthened
with iron plates on the top.'' This would be and was the first
step.*" In 1738, rails wholly of iron were tried at Whitehaven, but
not being found to work w ell, were given up, the wagons being too
heavy for the cast-iron, and breaking it.

In 1 768, cast-iron rails were used at Coalbrookdale, for the books
of the company show that on the 13th November, 1767, between
fi^•e and six tons of rails were cast as an experiment.'

Mr. John Curr, author of the "Coal Viewer's Practical Compa-
nion" (London, 1797), says in his preface that he had laid down
cast-iron rails underground, in the coal-pits of the Duke of Nor-
folk, near Sheffield, about 1776." What was the form of the early
irim rails is not known, but it is thought to have been the plate or
broad rails.

In 1799, William Jessop laid down the first railway for a public
company, at Loughborough. Here he used the edge-rail, flanges
being put on the wagon-wheels.

About ten years afterwards, Mr. William Outram laid down the
railway at Little Eaton, in Derbyshire, with plate-rails, having a
flange cast on the rail and not on the wheel. Hence such rails
were named Outram- rails, or, for shortness, tram-rails." This was
the favourite plan for some time.

^Ve may here stop to say a few more words on the Railw;!y Dic-
tionary. First, as to the name "Railway" and "Railroad." Both
were used for some time, and railrond was the favourite; but of
late years the other has been taken up in its stead, so that it is now
the acknowledged word. What had the most weight in bringing
this about was the wish of the writers upon railways to have the
word which is smoother, and to get rid of the other, which is al-
literative.— Another grammatical note is as to the word "Waggon."
The old way of spelling it is with two ^s, but the new railway plan
is with one, as uagon. The French and High Dutch, who have
taken up the word, have brought this about. — "Tender" is a new
word. Tills is said to be the shortening of "Attender," the car-
riage attending on an engine;'" but it must be remembered that
at sea, a small ship waiting on another is named a tender. — The

2 Ritchie on Riiilvvays, p. ti.
* Vol. IV., p. Ul.

■ Dr. Plot's • Staffordshire.'

3 martin's Circle of the Mechanical Arts.

6 Martin's Circle of the Alechiiiilcal Arts.

6 Stvvenson, Notes on Esaitys on RHilways, p 2. ' Stevenson, Notes, p. 2

fi Ritchie on R.lilways, p. l.s. Stevenson, Notes, p. 2.

0 Obfiervattonson the General Comp-iriitive Merits of Novi ations and Railroads, p. il.

1 tj Railways compared with Canals and Common Roads, Maclaren, p. 60,

I8J.9.7

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

69

driver of a locomotive engine was at first railed an "Engineer,"
but railway writers, to prevent confusion and keep up the dignity
of the professional men, call the civil engineer tlie engineer, and
the other the ev gin e-d river. — The word "Gage" is not yet settled.
It was once written giiage, and hy some gage, as tlie word is spoken;
but a very common way is'to write it, in the teetli of the lexico-
graphical authorities, gauge, vhich would he spoken "gawge."
"Gage" seems, therefore, to be the better way.

Many of the words used in railway engineering were brought
from the north by the engine-drivers, who, on the opening of pas-
senger railways in the south, after 1833, were scattered all over
England. It is not settled whether "Switch" or "Points" should
be tlie word, but pointsman is a name commonly given to the at-
tendant on them.

The New Englanders, it may be said, have a railway dictionary
of their own. To grade a rail'wag is one of their sayings. A car-
riage is called a car, and to them belongs the naming of the negro-
car.

The French and Belgians have taken many words from us, as
railway and vagon, and have turned others into French. The
Northumbrian engine-drivers spread their vocabulary abroad, as
the enginemen of the steamers have given a vocabulary to steam-
ers througliout the world, and "Stop her," "Easy," will be heard
from tlie mouths of those who know no other word of English.

The growth of railways has led to the introduction of many new
words and compound words, the greater use of many words, and
the use of many old words in other meanings, as, besides those
named, chair, sleeper, siding or turn-out, turn-table, train, cross-
ing, buffer, coupling-link, time-table, skew-bridge, &c.

Some railway words have already been lost, as wagonways, plate-
ways, trolley-ways, and prop and pedestal, instead of chair.

XI. GROWTH OF RAILWAYS.

Railways in the beginning were used for the carriage of coals to
the seaside; and when the canal system spread in the end of the
last century, the railway was found very useful to bring down
coals, stone, and lime to the wharves. It was for this latter end,
that most of the early acts of parliament for railways were passed.

Perhaps the first railway to work free of a canal, for any length
right out, was the Surrey Iron Railway, for which an act of parlia-
ment was passed in 1801, and another in 1803; so that the whole
length was 21 miles, reaching from the quarries at Merstham, Ilei-
gate, and Godstone, to Croydon and the Tliames at AVandswoith.
Those who put this forward strongly hoped that it would lead to
very great ends; but it was so carried out that it was of no good,
for wagons could travel more cheaply on the old turnpike road.
Had it not been for the ill-luck which befel this tramway, the rail-
way system would have very much spread in the beginning of this
century; but it seemed as if rash mismanagement was to be its
besetting sin. The Surrey Railway did not pay, and Trevithick's
locomotive, brought out soon after, was in no happier hands.

Although many useful things were done in the meanwhile, it was
not until the share-madness of 1824-25, that the railway system
was again brought forward; but by that time, many tilings had
been brought to bear fi'r its furtherance, and it came to sucli a
head, that no one could help seeing it could not be much longer
kept back, and that its time was near. Everjthing was therefore
done to push it on.

The true turning point in the liistory of railways, the true date
at which it was settled they !^hould become the higli-roads of Eng-
land, was in 1825, and not at a hiter time as is commonly believed.
The history of the railway mania of 1825, as it is not within the
common ken, has not been written ; but it is no less worthy of
being written, as belonging to the history of railways, and as be-
longing to that of joint-stock undertakings, — and without it the
true position of George Stephenson cannot he understood. If,
therefore, we seem to forget George Stephenson for the while, we
do not in truth. We have undertaken to show how he was led on,
what share his own doings had in bringing him to that great height
which he reached, and what share the deeds of others had on his
lot. To do this rightly, to let the reader see clearly how he stood,
we must here show the beginning and growth of railways, — of
those undertakings with which his name has become grafted, and
on which it flourished.

The several Mays which led to the one great end of the railway
system seem to he these : — What was done to make the rails and
chairs better; the working of the locomotive; the planning of
longer and greater railways; the trials which were made with the
locomotive on the common roads; the suggestion of the use of the
locomotive on canals; the researches of men of learning; the
writing of books and papers on railways ; the eagerness of capital-

ists to go into new undertakings ; and the favourable opinions of
statesmen.

Upon the first head we do not think it needful (as it is by far the
best understood) to go into the several plans of William Jessop,
William Outrani, .losiah ^Voodbouse, Mr. Wyatt, and Mr. Le
Caan for rails and cliairs. As already said, the patent of Stephen-
son and Losh. of Se]it. 30, 1816, was not only for the locomotive, hut
for new rails and cliairs. It may be worth while to take a few
words from the specification," as giving Stephenson's thought at
that time on tlie railway question. The specification, indeed, so
far from being dry, is argumentative, and it gives a full description
of the then way of laying tram and rolley-ways. It will seem
strange just now that one ground given by the patentees for get-
ting a more level road, is to put a stop to "a great waste of coal
from the shaking of the wagons."

"When locomotive steam-engines are employed as the moving
or propelling power, we have,' say the patentees, or rather Ste-
phenson, "from niucli practice found it of the utmost importance
that tliey should move steadily and as free as possible from shocks
or vibration, whicli have the effect of deranging the working jiarts
of the machinery and lessening their power. It is therefore to
produce that steadiness of motion, and to prevent the engines from
receiving shocks, and to preserve their equilibrium, that we employ
the floating pistons." Alter showing the good that will follow from
the new way of making rails and chairs, and the tyres of the
wheels, the s'pecification goes on: "It is perhaps impossible to crift
the bars or jilatcs of metal of which railways and plate-ways are
composed perfectly straight, and correctly even and smooth <;!!
their surfaces; and equally difficult to fit the joints with mathe-
matical accuracv : tlie wheels of the engines and wagons will
always have some inequalities to encounter." Stephenson was
little able to foresee Ijow much he would himself do to carry out
that which he here said was impossible, and which he has shown,
and we now know, not to be so.

"We have no liesitation in saying (for we speak from the expe-
riments we have already made) that on a railway constructed on
our plan, and with a locomotive engine and carriage-wheels on our
principle, the expedition with which goods can be conveyed with
safety will be increased to nearly double the rate with which they
are at present usually taken along railways, and with less interrup-
tion from the breakage of wheels, rails, &c. than at present occurs,
ard with much less injury to the working parts of the engine."
These are bold words, but they were borne out.'^

Stephenson, in truth, did as much as any man, if not more, to.
make the working of tlie railway smooth for the locomotive. This
is perhaps why he so readily took up Birkinshaw's rails. The loco-
motive was his fondling, and he spared no pains for its further-
ance. This is one of Stejihenson's best deeds. He cannot be
looked upon as having in the character of an inventor gone much
beyond Trevithick ; rather we should say he did not do as much,
for it was a greater thing to build the first locomotive and to set it
going than to make a better one than that which worked at Wy-
lam: it was greater to make the first locomotive with one cylinder,
than to build a new one and put in two cylinders. Trevithick,
however, left the locomotive to get on as it could : it was the
steady care of George Stephenson which fostered it.

The next great step was Mr. John Birkinshaw's patent for
wrought-iron edge-rails, which was taken out in December, 1820.'^
Birkinshaw's rail was not much unlike that now in use. He was
first led to use wrought instead of cast iron rails by reading the
Report of Mr. Stevenson on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Rail-
way;"* and lie planned a new shape for wrought-iron rails, instead
of that then followed. One great good in the wrought-iron rail
was, that it could be used in greater lengths, and therefore there
were fewer breaks or joints. It was likewise cheaper, and lasted
longer. Birkinsliaw suggests" that the joints could be welded
together, so as to make one continuous rail : this has not been
found to answer. t)ne ground on which many objected to the
wrought-iron "as on the belief that it was more likely to rust,
and even so late as 1829, "William Chapman in his Report on the
Newcastle and Carlisle Railway, held to this belief. The peculii.r
way in which rails in work keep bright was not commonly known,
and therefore not commonly believed.

The next thing is as to the locomotives. Upon them we have
spoken in the third chapter, which shows that Trevithick and Ste-

» I Heperiury of Arts, Vol. XXX., p. 325.

12 It may be noted here, that in this si>ecification the name is spelled ** SteveiiFon,'*
instead ol " Slephenson ,'' and so iigain in the Repertory, Vol. XXXIl., p. 2yy. In sn
extruct frrm the Durham Advertiser aOout the aulety-laiiip, llie in&iription on the ian-
kard is given as ■' Georf^e Stevenson." He is thus tailed even in Priesiley's * History.'

13 Specitication, &c. Newcastle, lo2*'. ^* .Specification, p. 7.
13 Specification, p. in.

10

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

plienson li.i(l fully broufjlit tlie locomotive into a working shape.

We may here give a t:ile of ^Villiam Chapman's, as to the begin-
ning' of locomotives in the north. In his Report on the Newcastle
and Carlisle Railway,'" he says, that "when horses, hay, and corn
are dear, locomotives .ire certainly useful, although in point of
economy not preferable, but even inferior to horses for short dis-
tances.' In a note he says : "The dearness of hay and corn was
the cause of their introduction." Whether he means this was the
cause with Mr. Blackett of Wylam, Mr. Blenkinsop, and George
Stephenson, is not shown. He perhaps alludes to Mr. Blenkinsop.
Chapman further says, they had not been universally persevered
in, for Mr. Williams, when lessee of Coxlodge Colliery, laid out a
great sum in engines, besides relaying the wagonway; but after a
long trial gave them up, and went back to horses.

Blenkinsop, of Leeds, was best known as the worker of loco-
motives, for Leeds was more easily got at than Newcastle, and he
was the favourite down to 1830. He worked on a rack-rail, and
this rack-rail long bothered the heads of railway critics, for
all Blenkinsop's friends stood out stoutly for the rack-rail.

His railway began at Middleton Colliery, and ended in a coal-
yard at Leeds. It was about three miles in length, the general
bieadth of the road thirty feet, with double fence; part is level,
part a gradient of from one-eighth of an inch to three-eighths of
an inch in the yard; part inclined pl.ine, so as to require ma-
chinery. The part nearest to Leeds was laid double, likewise the
inclined planes. The rails were edge-rails of cast-iron, in three
feet lengths, with six cogs on each length, on one side of the road;
the gauge was 4 ft. 2 in. Horses and locomotives were both
used. The locomotives were six-horse power, with cogs on the
wheel. It consumed one bushel of coal per hour, and drew
twenty-four wagons on the level about three miles per hour; and
on the inclined plane and gradient between three and four miles
per hour. Each wagon weighed 25 cwt., and would carry 4,5 cwt.
of coal."

Blenkinsop himself said, in 1818,'* that his locomotive had two
8-inch cylinders, weighing 5 tons, consumed | cwt. of coal, and
SO gallons of water per hour; and would, when lightly loaded, go
10 miles an hour. Its cost was 400/.

Chapman, in 1824, says roundly,'" that the first useful introduc-
tion of locomotive-engines was by Mr. John Blenkinsop; and in
1831, Mr. Priestly says the same.^" In the report already named,
Chapman holds forth that without a continuous line of teeth on a
railway, as used at Middleton Colliery, the locomotive could not
be depended upon.^'

In 1825, there were two locomotives on this line.'''

In 1829, .Mr. Walker and Mr. Rastrick, in their locomotive in-
quiry, thought it needful to go and see Mr. Blenkinsop, which
they did on the 16th of January. They saw the engine make a
journey with 38 wagons, each holding 45 cwt. of coals,^^ making a
gross weight of nearly 140 tons.

The number of locomotives in work in 1822, could not have
been much more than half-a-score — namely, five at Killingworth,
one or two at Middleton, and perhaps others at Wylam and
Coxlodge.

Of the five locomotives at Killingworth, four were kept in
work over wagon-ways of some distance from the three pits
to a self-acting inclined plane. Besides the engines, six horses
with their drivers were used. A part of the line had then been
laid with heavier rails.^'' The engines were, Mr. Wood says, of
9 j-horse-power. ^ *

On the whole, the locomotive engine had been brought into
work so far as to show that it was quite able to do all that was
wanted, though it was still unsettled whether it was cheaper than
horses or the stationary engine. The latter, under the name of
the Reciprocating system, was in the hands of Mr. B. Thompson,
of Ayton, and until 1830 a powerful rival.

Skilful men could easily see that the locomotive was but in its
beginning, that it had in it the seed from which great deeds were
to spring, and they already held forth that the iron horse would
beat him of flesh and blood.

The third head we have before us was not without its weight.
Not only had many railways been in working for a number of

l« Second Edition, 1824, p. 12.

1 7 ObBervationi on the General Comparative Merits of Navigations and Railroads,

P- U. Repository of Arts, 181«, p. l;i.?l, Maclaren on Railways, p. 36.

lain reply to Sir John Sinclair,— Maclaren on Railways, p. 35.

1 B Ohservatlons on the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway, p. 5.

2 0 History of Inland Navigation, &c.

i> Report on the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway. 2nd Edition, p. II.

az The Finger-Post, p. 37. 23 Report, p. 2, 19, 20, 45, 54, 72.

»« Mr. B. Thompson, in Newcastle Magazine, May, 1822.

ss Newcaatle Magazine, June, 1U22.

years, but two greater undertakings were in hand. We mean the
Stratford and Moreton Railway, and the Stockton and Darlington.

The railways then at work, and their lengths, seem to be
these": —

Aberdare

Ashby de la Zouch and Meashain 15 miles.

Bollo Pill, or Dean Forest 8 „

Hrecon and Hay 24 ,,

Brampton and Carlisle

Cardiff and Merthyr 2C| „

Carmarthenshire 15 „

„ Branch 9 „

Cheltenham and Glo'ster 9 „

Dartmoor

Dean Forest 6 „

Dewsbury and Birstall 3 ,,

Hftton 7 „

Killingworth 5 „

Middleton 3 „

Peak Forest 6 „

Penclawdd

Purbeck 3 „

Sirhowey 28 „

Somersetshire or Radstnck 8 „

Surrey or Wandsworth 26 „

Swansea 7^ .,

Oyster Mouth 74 „

Wibsey Low Moor

Wylam

The whole length to be made out from the above list is 250
miles, to which may be added for those left out 150 miles; making
four hundred miles of railway.

The Stratford and Moreton Railway, although not longer than
some of the above, being only 16i miles long, had some greater
works than were common on railways. It had a tunnel near
Shipston, and crossed the rivers Avon and Stour by viaducts; that
over the Stour being looked upon as costly. We have, in our
seventh chapter said^' that William Henry James laid down the
Stratford and Moreton Railway, but he carried it no further than
the beginning, and he left it to the late Thomas Baylis, C.E.^'

The Stockton and Darlington Railway was longer than the
Stratford and Moreton Railway, and had some considerable works
upon it, as we have already shown.

We may observe, that the rate of charge first thought of on the
Stratford and Moreton Railway, for goods, was 3^d. per ton per
mile.

These two works, however small they may be in the eyes of the
engineers of these days, were great for that time, and were looked
upon with attention and anxiety, as much as the Liverpool and
Manchester afterwards was.^'

The fourth head is the weiglit the common road locomotive had
in bringing about railways. This has been looked on as a rival to
railways , but perhaps it helped their growth as much as anything
else. When a greater speed was wished for on common roads, it
was at once seen, that if a power was to be found in the locomotive
over the horse, so could a power be found in a better road over the

26 statement of the Claim of the Birmingham and Liverpool Railroad, p. 47.

2 7 On the authority of Ritchie on Railways, p. 37.

2 8 [We have received a tetter from B. Baylis, Esq., C.E., In which he thus remarks on
our former statement : —

•• I have read witli ranch interest the Memoir of that eminent engineer, George Ste-
phenson, which appeared in the recent numbers of the JoiiruHl. It is generally admitted,
that the first railway of any length ciinstructad for general purposes— na«ieiy, for the car-
riage of passengers, merchandise, and minerals, was the Stratford and Moreton Railway ;
but you erroneously attribute the merit of that undertokliig to William James, whereas It
was designed and carried out by the late Thomas Kayiis, C.E. The survey of the railway,
as appears from a diary kept by Thomas Baylis, was commenced In September, 1819; la
May, 1820, the proposed line was inspected by Rlr. Telford , and in 1821, the bill was
passed, and received the royal assent. 1 may be allowed to remark that the survey of the
line attaclied to tiie act of parliament, which I have now before me, bears the signature
or Thomas Baylis as engineer; and many parties now living who formed the company,
can bear testimony to the correctness of my statements. The merit of the work in ques-
tion is also attributed (by Rickmau) to Telford (see his Life, p. 22 of preface), but he was
called in merely to suppoit the bill through parliament. William James at the time was
engaged as land agent, &c. to several of the neighbouring gentry, and he certainly has
left us no works that testify that he possessed a knowledge of practical engineering. In
1829, Thomas Baylis published a Map of Railways (engraved by Gardner), showing the
most desirable routes to be taken for the main lines, and also showing the relative advan.
tages railways possessed over canals and common roads. The principal portion of these
lines have been carried out, and his predictions, contra-distingulsed from those of Messrs.
Walker and Rastrick In their memorable Report on the Liverpool and Manchester Rail-
way, have been fully verified. — B. BAYLIS."

We will only remark on the above, that It Is uot inconsistent with the line having been
planned, and the preliminary survey made, by William Henry James, as was the rase
in the Liverpool and Manchester. If Mr. Baylis would clear up this dou>>t it would be
useful.— We may add in support of Mr. B. Baylls's letter, if indeed it needs support, that
Joseph Priestley in the account of the Stratford and Moreton Railway, in his " History
of Inland Navigation, &c.," expressly states that it was executed i)y Thomas Baylis.]

29 « Observations on the General Comparative Merits of Navigations and Railroads,"
p. 15.

1849.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

71

common road. Several ways were put forward for making the
common road, as by Macdam, with road metal; by Walker, in
laying down the Commercial-road to the Docks ; and by Mr. Ste-
venson, under the name of stone railways, as had long been done at
Nottingham.^" Whatever might be done with the common road,
stiU the railroad was better ; and therefore, whatever speed could
be got with the locomotive on the common road, a higher speed
would be got on the railroad. This must ever be so ; and there-
fore it is useless to hold forth that the common road locomotive
can ever beat the railway ; not, however, that the former has not a
field open to it ; and we believe the time is at hand when, after so
long waiting, it will be set going. It matters not that some forty
years have gone by since it first ran and was set aside, for a like
lot has befallen the railway more than once. Thus iron rails were
held to have failed, and so was the locomotive. Where the com-
mon road locomotive has the better, is where a railway is too costly,
and where it can set down travellers nigh their own homes.

To go back again, we say the common road locomotives showed
the good of railways, and this in many ways ; for among others,
a railway would let the common road locomotive work in a straight
track, and free from the horses and wagons which beset the com-
mon road. It must be remembered, that the railway locomotive
was not at first looked upon only as a towing engine, but it was
thought passengers could be carried with it, as they were on the
railway coaches drawn by horses. It is worth remembering, like-
wise, that we are now getting back to whence we started, for Mr.
Samuel and Mr. Adams are about to put the steam-carriage on
the railway.

Trevithick's first locomotive was run in the streets of London,
although he likewise built locomotives for railways. Oliver Evans
tried to bring out a steam-wagon for the road. Mr. Griffiths tried
the road locomotive in 1821;=' and in 1824, Mr. David Gordon.^^
Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney, and others, were likewise busy about
it. In 1825, Timothy Burstall and John Hill tried a steam-car-
riage. In the summer of 1827, this was run in the Westminster-
road, but the boiler burst.^^

The locomotive was very unlucky. Trevithick's first locomotive,
on the Merthyr Tydvil Railway, blew up ; so did Burstall's, in
1827 ; and so did Goldsworthy Gurney's, in 1835, which sealed the
lot of his steam-carriage Company, and stopped the running of his
carriages on the road between Glasgow and Paisley. = ''

What was most looked to, both for common roads and railways,
was Samuel Brown's Gas Vacuum Engine. For this engine he
took out a patent in December, 1823,== and in 1824 a company was
got together for working the patent. The capital was 200,000/.,
in shares of 10/. each ; and Brown was not to receive anything
until he had run a locomotive from London to York at the speed
of 10 mUes an hour ; and he held forth that he should get 20
miles. = ' In May, 1826, a gas vacuum locomotive was tried on
the high road at Shooter's-hill ; and in January, 1827, a small
boat, thirty-four feet long, with a screw propeller, worked by the
gas vacuum engine, was tried on the Thames. The result was not
held to be profitable, and the company was broken up.= '

Never, perhaps, was an undertaking brought forward with
greater hopes ; and as it drew its slow length along, these were not
speedily given up. Therefore, in most of the writings of the time
we are now speaking of. Brown's gas-engine is always named as
the wonder-worker that was to be.=^

We shall yet hear more of the gas vacuum engine ; for it is not
one of those things which dies though it may sleep.

It will be seen that the public mind was opened to the belief
that a speed above that of horses would be reached ; and there-
fore there was greater readiness to listen to what was said of the
steam-horse.

The ne.vt head we come to had less to do with the movement ;
but it must not be lost sight of. In his " Observations on a General
Iron Railway," Thomas Gray hints at the possibility of applying
the railway to canal towing-paths. He says of the railway (p. 10) :
" By laying an iron railway on the line of one of the most flourish-
ing of our canals, its superiority would be easily demonstrated ;
no further proof would be necessary to convince the public of the

no Notes, by Mr. SteveDsoD, p. 15. 3i Ritchie on Railways, p. 22^,

S2 Ritchie on Railways.

sa Mechanics' Magaiine, Vol. V., p. 391, 436 ; Vol. Vlll., p. 42. Repertory of Pa-
tent Inventions. Edinburgh Philosophical Journal.

3 4 Ritchie on Railroads, p. 230.

3 a Stuart's Anecdotes of the Steam-Engine. MechaaicB* Magazine, Vol. II., p. 385.

36 Mechanics' Magazine, Vols. II. and III.

3 J Mechanics' Magazine, Vol. VII., p. 84.

3 a William Chapman, C.E. in his Report on the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway, p. 15

Dr. Fyfe, of the School of Arts at Edinburgh, in Maclaren's Railways, p. 41.

Vallauce, Considerations on the Expedience of Sinking Capital in Railways, p. 71.

infinite advantage of this new mode." Again, at p. 12 : " Tlie
canal boats miglit be towed by steam-engines running on a railway
along the canal, which would ultimately be found less expensive,
and far more expeditious than the present method." The writer
of " The Finger Post," in 1825, recommended the use of locomo-
tives on the banks of canals. He says (p. 41) : " The canal com-
panies might lay down two narrow railroads on their towing-paths
at a comparatively trifling expense, whereon the locomotive en-
gines could travel, and the boats on the canal would follow or
precede them as methodically as the wagons on the road." He
thinks the resistance of the water to the boat, and the injury of
the water to the banks of the canal, are objections. This sugges-
tion was lost sight of ; and in 1835 and 1836 Mr. Egerton Smith
of Liverpool, and Mr. Hyde Clarke, had a contest as to which was
the originator of the system of towing canal-boats by the locomo-
tive.^" The former made out his claim to priority ; but only to
be beaten, as it seems, by Thomas Gray. Mr. Clarke attempted
to interest Mr. Crawshayand other ironmasters in this plan, but
fruitlessly ; and likewise proposed it for the navigations to Lan-
caster and Ulverstone, crossing the intended embankment over
Morecombe Bay, which was also adopted by Mr. Rastrick in 1837 ;
but no such system has been carried out. It seems suitable for the
towing-paths of ship-canals ; and although there are many diffi-
culties in the way of using the locomotive on common canals, yet
there are situations here, and in Belgium and France, where it
might be brought to bear.

The sixth head brings us to the hooks which were written on
railways. Fulton had said something about them in his work on
canals in 1796, which was answered by Chapman in 1797, in his
" Observations on Canals." Fulton's estimate for a single line of
railway with sidings was 1,600/. per mile. Dr. Anderson, in his
" Recreations," gives 1,000/. as the estimate for a double line. In
1797, Mr. John Curr printed tlie " Coal Viewer's Practical Manual,"
already named. These seem to be the earliest railway works.

After them came many pamphlets and papers read before the
Society of Arts, the Newcastle Philosophical Society, and the
Highland Society. Tlie encyclopaedias gave very little attention
to railways.

The first book on railways only was that of Nicholas Wood,
printed in 1825 ; and close upon which was that of Thomas Tred-
gold. Before these books the great authority was Mr. Stevenson,
in his Notes on the Papers before the Highland Society. An ac-
count of railways, by Mr. Cummings, we have not seen. It is
named " Origin and Progress of Railways," and was often quoted
in 1825. Mr. H. Palmers book was put forward for the sake of
his system of railways ; otherwise it would be of much good, for it
showed great research, and he had made many experiments. Mr.
Overton, C.E., wrote on railways in a book on the " Mineral Basins
of South Wales."

The works of Nicholas AVood and Tredgold had the greater
weight, because they gave authentic fifjures and experiments, and
developed the scientific laws on which railway operations are
based. Palmer, as we have said, had done something in the way
of experiment, and was followed in the field of scientific investi-
gation by Mr. C. Maclaren, of the Scotsman, Mr. Sylvester, Pro-
fessor Leslie, and Mr. Roberts, of Manchester. The papers in the
Scotsman were copied into every newspaper throughout the land,
and were widely read. The scientific knowledge of the writer
was brought to bear to show the capabilities of the locomotive
system, and the powers which lay undeveloped within it. How-
ever we may differ with him in some of the laws he put forward,
yet it cannot be gainsayed that he took a bolder grasp of the
question than any man of the day ; and there is little of what he
foretold which has not since been borne out to the fuU.

Mr. Sylvester's " Report on Railroads and Locomotive Engines"
was a timely service rendered to the Liverpool and Manchester Rail-
way Company, for it was brought forward at a time when the loco-
motive system was losing ground in Liverpool, and when the hands
of few men of knowledge were held up to help it. This little
book and the papers, of J\Ir. Maclaren, were brought out before
those of the two writers we have put at the head, and therefore
are the more worthy of honour, as they are those of leaders in a
new field of inquiry.

The subscribers to the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, in 1825,
engaged Professor Leslie, Mr. Jardine, and Mr. Buchanan, to make
experiments for them on the several questions involved in railway
construction and locomotion.'"'

Mr. Roberts, of Manchester, undertook a series of experiments

3 9 Railway Magazine, 2nd Series.-

4 0 C. Maclaren, Railways, p. 54.

-Liverpool Mercury,

72

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

LMabch,

on friction on railways, which were published iu tlie Manchester
(riiardian of Feb. 12, 1825. ■*'

In the full heitfht of the railway madness, newspaper, mag^azine,
and review articles on railways were brouffht forth in plenty, and
supplementary articles on railways added to the encyclopaedias.

All this gave the public mind a more hoi)eful and trustful feeling
as to railways, though there was no want of foes, who treated
railways and locomotives as new, idle, and worthless dreams.

In any history of this time it would not be right to leave out
Thomas Gray's book. We have shown in our seventh chapter,
and still more here, that Gray's was neither tlie first nor the only
book on railways ; and that it did not do all the work for railways,
as was so lately said by some of his friends. Yet, on the other
hand, it must be acknowledged that it did great good ; and this
we can tell, not only from the several editions through which the
book went, each time coming out greater in bulk, but likewise by
the way in which it is named by other writers of the time. In
these latter days, Gray had been forgotten, and all those who wrote
with him — 1825 was forgotten ; but when Gray was again brought
forward, his friends had their share of forgetfulness, for they for-
got the works of others.

The copy we have before us is the second edition, printed in
1821, and sold by Baldwin and Cradock. Tlie numlier of pages is
only sixty, and the work shows much carelessness, being made into
two chapters, between which are some notes or extracts.

In his preface he not only throws out the hint of a common
chain of railways, but he speaks plainly of a railway between Li-
verpool and Manchester: — " Here I would suggest the propriety
of making tlie first essay between ALmchester and Liverpool,
which would employ many thousands of tlie distressed population
of that county."

He proposed the use of steam locomotives, or coaches, to carry
passengers and goods ; and proposed likewise to carry tlie mails,
fish, and agricultural produce.

One great object Gray had in bringing forward liis Iiook was to
set forth the means of relieving the then distress, by employing
the people on great works ; and nothing could have been better
chosen than railways. In this he showed more judgment than
those law-makers who, in 1847 and 18t8, after one of the greatest
dearths we have known in these times, did all they could to hinder
the working-men from being employed on railways, by stopping
railway works altogether, so far as in them lay. He sliowed great
judgment, too, in looking to the dividends on tlie raihvays first
made, as a great spur to setting others going. Here, again, the
law-makers have done what they can to cut down dividends.

Gray was quite right as to the fish trade on railways — that it
would lead to a greater trade inland, and to a greater employment
of fishermen. Already, the fish carried is above +0,000 tons yearly ;
and Birmingham, which in 1829 consumed 400 tons, in 1847 con-
sumed 5,000 tons. "2

Again, he says, " Farmers sixty miles from London would be
able to procure manure for their land at much less trouble and
expense than those now distant ten miles." This is now well
known.

The second chapter of Gray's book upliolds the system of useful
and reproductive employment.

From the power of the press we may go on to that of money ;
but as we shall afterwards see how sharelndders went into railway
undertakings, it is not needful to say nnn-e here, than that they
were fully alive to the worth of the railway system, and cpiite wil-
ling, if they were not hindered, to carry it out to the greatest
length which their means would enable tliem to di>.

As the last proof of how high railways stood in [mblic feel-
ing, we may give Canning's words in 1825, to the gentlemen of
Bristol, showing how far-seeing was that great statesman, and how
much beyond the dwarfs of this time: — •" It would appear that the
whole machine of society has received an accelerating impulse,
and that this country is beginning a course of prosperity whioli
will exceed all that has gone before, as much as the present ex-
ceeds all past expectations."'^

Thus it seems that everything was ready in 1825 to launch the
railway system for a prosperous voyage ; and it will be for us to
see what was further done, and why this end was so long delayed.

4 I C. Macliireo, HuilvvayB, p. 6.').

42 ContrlbuLions to Railway StatiBtics, by Hyde Clark— Art.
perty, by S. Smiles, p. 22.

43 The Finger-Pobt, p. 43.

(To be continued J

Fish." lvailvV4iy Pro-

REVIE'WS.

Ohnermitions on the Siinitiiri/ Condition of Maidstone, with a view
to the i/ifnidiirtion of the Art /or Promitiug tlie. Piibtic Health. By
Jou.v WiiicHcouu, Jun., F.S..V., .\I. last. B..V. Loudon: Long-
mans, 1849.

This is a brief review of the various sanitary measures with the
specific object mentioned in the title. It seems very well drawn
up, and well calculated to influence the autliurities and public of
Maidstone.

Railway Taxation. By S. Lai.vg, Esq. London : Vacher, 1849.

Mr. Laing, the new Chairman of the Brighton Railway, and lata
Secretary of the Railway Oeiiartment of tlie Board of Trade, has
in this pamphlet stroiily urged the gross injustice committed on
the railway companies by the system of taxation to which they are
subjected. These observations are well worthy of the considera-
tion of all interested in this question, now of so much importance
to shareholders in railway undertakings and other public works.

Mr. Laing says, —

In the case of the London and North-Western Railway, it appeared, by a
return made to parliament, that the land occupied hy the railway in the six
counties of Middlesex, Hertford, Bu<;ks, Northampton, Warwick, and Wor-
cester, was previously assessed at an annual value of 2,445/., and contributed
the X7i7^^^ P*^**^ ^^ ^'^<^ total rates of the parishes in which it was situated.
The same laud appropriated to the purposes of the railway was assessed at
128,007/., and paid one-third of the total rates of the parishes.

The Brighton Kailway passes thiougli sixteen agricultural parishes between
London and Brighton, tlie united acreage of which is 86,508 acres. Of this
the railway occupies 601 acres, in respect of which occupation it pays about
10,000/. a-year, or li/. per acre per annum, heing one-third of the total rates
of these parishes. In one extreme case, that of the parisli of Coulsiion, the
Brighton and South-Kastern Railway Companies occupy together 58 acres of
poor agricultural land, out of 4,200 acres in the parish, and pay rather moie
than 75 per cent., or three-fourths of the whole rates.

The inhahitants of tlie parish, who make the rate in the first instance at
their vestry meeting, are parties to the nuitt and every man present has a
direct pecuniary interest in making the rate on the railway as high as possi-
ble. I know an instance of two aJjoining parishes in Hertfordshire, in both
of which the rates were formerly !)». iu the £. One of them has been for-
tunate enough to have a Utile angle of its Ian I intersecteil iiy the London
and Birmingham Railway; while the other is tantalised by the si^iit oi the
line running for some distance within 100 yards of its boundary, without
actually touching it. The consequence is, that iu the lucky parish of North-
church they have got their rates down, at the expense of the railway, to
ls.6d. in the £; while their less fortunate neighbours in Wiggiugtou are
still rated at 7a. I

If railway companies are to pay one-third o"r one-half of the rates of the
parishes traversed by their lines, they ought to have some proportionate re-
presentation at vestry and other parochial meetings. As the law stands at
present, the largest ratepayer in the parish has only six voles, — an enactment
which, however well it may work in ordinary cases, when all the ratepayers
have a common interest, and where any inequalities of assessment can b: at
once perceived, is ohviously inapplicahle to such cases as have been cited,
when a large proportion of the rates are paid by a railway company.

One thing is perfectly clear, that iu atteiupting to apply the oruinary law
of rating to the case of railways, the Court of Queen's Bench have practi-
cally arrived at a result by which profits of trade are made the suhjecl of
assessment.

In other respects the principle of the Court of Queen's Bench leads to
results contradictory to common-sense. 1 rathe, which when it went by
coaches along the road was never rated, becomes lateahle when it is propel-
led by locomotive engines along a railway. The sod of the railway no more
earns the profit of conveying passengers over it than did the soil of the
turnpike-road. That soil is first rendered v.iluable by the outlay of an im-
mense capital in erecting improved machinery for locomotion upon it. If
the Liverpool and .Manchester Railway had been worked, as was originally
proposed, by horse-power, there would have been no profit, and consequently
no rate. The profit is entirely due to the invention of the locomotive ; and
the capital invested in railways is in reality capita! invested in carrying out
the fruit of George Stephenson's invention. It enjoys none of the privi-
leges of capital invested in land, e.\cept that of paying taxes ; it is sub-
ject, as experience has shown, to the fluctuations attending commercial
enterprise ; it pays legacy duty like other personal estates ; it confers no
vote. The same Courts of Law which for purposes of rating hold railways
to be land, refuse to recognise them as landed secuiity for Che purpose of
investment.

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

73

THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE AND ART.

rContinued from page 49J

Our review of Mr. Fergusson's work* has now brought us to a
part which will be held of immediate interest to many of our
readers — that wherein he begins a History of Architecture and the
Arts. To this he has prefixed a note, in which he explains that he
has, as far as may be, brought all the drawings to a common scale
— at least, one scale for plans, and one scale for elevations : a care
much needed in a critical work on art, but which is very seldom
shown.

Egypt, as might be looked for, comes first before us, and Mr.
Fergusson having given much time to it, it makes a leading fea-
ture in the book, though we hardly know whether all will be alike
pleased with the way in which he has treated it. It is the writer's
endeavour, not to give a technical description of the buildings as
his great and only end, but to draw from monuments a true theory
of art : h)oking on monuments not as limbs of a skeleton, or as
boulders broken from a rock ; not as a pile of stones without
meaning, — but as the bodily expression of the mind and thought
of the day in which they were made ; deail, it is true, dead now,
but having formerly breathed, and in which tlie workings of the
breath of life are to be followed out. To understand this, how-
ever, to give new life to the relics of olden art, a man must forget
or blot from his mind the views which he has taken of modern art,
and even of that which he has looked upon as classic art. He
must put away the trammels of all schools, and be willing to look
for beauty, — to see it and acknowledge it wherever it may be, and
in whatever shape it may come before him.

These are the passwords which Mr. Fergusson gives out; and he
does this fairly, for without them his work would seem empty, and
without any right bearing, as in his writings he has not followed
the beaten track, but struck out a new one— or rather a way very
much unlike the common one; and unless the reader knows where
he is and whither he goes, he must needs be bewildered : and he
will hold the writer to blame, instead of himself, who thought he
was going one way and finds he is going another. We neither
uphold Mr. Fergusson for striving to do something new, nor do we
say that he is always in the right; but we warn the reader that he
is reading a book written not according to his views, but those of
the writer, and which must be borne in mind tliroughout. The
reader must, indeed, think for himself; he must not be led away
by Mr. Fergusson, nor must he be led against him : and we think
it no mean tiling that Mr. Fergusson has brought out a book
which, whether right or wrong, is not to be scrambled through, but
must be well thought about ; for most strongly do we feel that as
Art is the brightest offspring of the mind, so is it well worthy of
all the thought and all the work that can be bestowed upon it. It
is not the toy of idlers, the pastime of wealth, or the calling of
brainbound twaddlers, but a link in the great chain of knowledge,
not one link of which can be severed without a common hurt —
not one link of which can be left to rust, without weakness to the
whole chain. Therefore we say again, we welcome any endeavour
in the field of art; and the more sd, that tliis is the sere and yellow
time in which the harvest droops for want of the husbandman.

If we have said we do not give our belief to Mr. Fergusson, we
have withlield it that we might the more straightly lay down the
groundwork on which he has a right to the good feeling of our
readers, whatever their schooling may be. The Greekist, the Pu-
ginist, the Italianist, are bound, it seems to us, to give ear to any
man who takes the trouble to think before he writes, and who
thinks so well of art as to hold it worth thinking about. AVe,
however, go a great way with him, for, as we have already said, we
have upheld in this Journal the same teachings that he has done in
his book, as to the need of a truthful study of art in its widest
bearings, and the still greater need of freeing art from the bonds
of schoolmen and of schools, from the blind following of blind
leaders, and the swinish worship of the great and the little, — by
which the many have been misled, and the best meaning have been
thwarted in their endeavours. As we do not hold any one school
as the only lawful one, so we can the more freely blame the wan-
derings of all.

Mr. Fergusson says that the groundwork of all true knowledge
of olden art rests on the fact, that before the sixteenth century,
architecture and all the arts were followed with only one end — that
of bringing forth the best building or work of art that could be
made with the best means the artists had, and without ever looking

* "An Historlial Inquiry into the True Principles of Beauty in Art, more especially with
reference to Archl ectuie." By JAMES FERGUSSON, Ksq., Arctiitect , author of •' An
Es.-*iy on Ihe Ancient Topoer.iphy of Jerusalem," " Picturesque Illustrations of Ancient
Architecture in Hodostun," Part the First. London; Longmans, 184y.

back on foregone works, unless to learn how to make up for their
wants and to go beyond their beauties. It was, he says, an earnest
struggle forwards towards perfection. He holds, however, that
since that time, the law has been to give the best possible imitation
of some foregone style in building, without looking to the end for
which the model was made, or the climate or manners that gave
rise to its peculiarities. In this saying there is unhappily too
much truth.

When monuments come to be looked upon as the expression of
the times in which they were raised, they have a higher meanintr,
and give to architecture and architectural antitpiities a higlier
place in the scale of knowledge. Mr. Fergusson is right in saying,
that with the same ease a geologist reads the history of creation in
a fossil print or in a bone, does the archEeologist tell from a few
broken stones the age of a building, the names of the people by
whom it was raised, whence they came and what their kindred with
others, and even what bearing other people who had gone before
them, or who then lived, had on them ami on their civilization.
We go with him fully when lie dwells on the great worth of art in
all ethnological investigations. Language is, it is true, of much
weight, and is a clue which has been most followed; but it is never-
theless right that there is more true history built into the walls ot
the temples of Egypt and Greece, and into the Gothic cathedrals,
than is to be fountl in all the chronicles or year-books that were
ever written. Neither is it less ably said, that if those do not go
beyond the written book in fulness, they do in brightness and
truthfulness of painting; and that the books were often written
by strangers or those who understood little of what they were
writing about, wlio may have garbled what they knew, or whose
tales may have been since corrupted. Of the great eastern writers
and of Homer, we have not only no security that their words are
as they spoke them, but we ha\'e the full knowledge that they were
tampered with by otliers, and we cannot say how far. The temples
and tombs of Egypt are, however, free from such doubts. Such
buildings and works of art are brought forth by a people of them-
selves, to tell their own tale, and "neither are nor can be falsified
by time or the errors of copyists ; but stand as left by those that
made them, with the undying impress of their aspirations or their
shortcomings, stamped by themselves in characters of adamant."

Mr. Fergusson carries out these principles in his investigation of
the monuments of Egyjtt, though much time is given to the deter-
mination of points in chronology ; but which it is fair to say are
brought to bear on the history of other lands, to throw light on
them, and to settle the system of ancient chronology, as bearing on
art.

The writer sees a great likeness between Egypt and China, and
draws it as it seems to him; but we think he would have been
more in the right as to an unlikeness between the two. Even in
what he says as to hieroglyphics and Chinese characters, we cannot
go along with him. On his own showing, the Egyptians had
little book-learning — the Chinese have thousands of books, writings
of history and of fancy; and he has well said, that the monuments
of the Egyptians were their books, speaking in a way more lasting
than the words of the poet or the numbers of the historian. In-
deed, he says that the history is written on the walls of the tem-
ple : there we find the scenes of tlie war, the numbers of the slain,
the names of tlie nations, the taxes that they paid, their sum, their
kind ; and the tale is tlie fuller, inasmuch as there was no book in
which the pen could set down what the chisel and the brush were
made to record. Nothing, too, can be more unlike than the love
of shipping shown by the Chinese, their travels abroad in olden
times and in these, and the spread of their settlements in every
island of Australasia; — nothing can be more unlike than this to
the stay-at-home Egyptian. How unlike, too, are the wars of
both.

The first thing which Mr. Fergusson sets down as marking the
Egyptians is the very great length of their civilization, which
lasted for not less tlian four thousand years, — but little wrought
upon by the rise or fall of the nations around them, and as un-
shaken by time as the monuments which now bear witness to these
truths.

It will be seen that Mr. Fergusson is one of those who give a
long time to the earlier dynasties of the Egyptians; and so far as
we yet know, there is no good ground against it, though it cannot
be looked upon as settled either way.

In the table which he has given of the dynasties, he has used
the era which he calls the Decimal Era, by others called the His-
toric Era: Decimal Era is, however, a better name for it. He
adds to the European or Christian Era, 10,00a years, so that the
dates before and after the birth of Jesus Christ can be more rea-
dily reckoned. Thus his date of Alexander the Great is 966S, and

11

74

THE CIVJL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

LMarch,

which may be taken from 11849, tlie present year, from 9175, the
time of the Persian Inroad, or any other given date. The common
way of puttinf; the date of Alexander is 332 B.C., and of the Per-
sian Inroad 525 B.C., which gives rise to confusion, as the common
way with otlier dates is to reckon forward. By the use of the
Decimal Era, a standard is gained for ancient and modern chrono-
logy. Otliers who have used it add 100,000 years, instead of 10,000
years, .so as to represent the sequence of geological events, the fic-
titious chronology of the Hindoos and Chinese, and the fictitious
astronomy of the latter. It would have been very useful if Mr.
Fergusson had used the Decimal Era throughout his work, instead
of bringing it forward on one page only.

The second thing which Mr. Fergusson saya of the civilization
of the Egyptians is that they kept it to themselves ; that they
neither borrowed from those around them, nor spread their know-
ledge abroad, as did the Indo-European, the Syrian, and other
later races. We may here say, that for the settlement of the eth-
nological question as to the race to which the Egyptians belonged,
Mr. Fergusson has done nothing; and he has perhaps been most
wise in leaving it as he has done, for it does not seem that we
know enough to come to any right settlement. For five hundred
years the Shejiherd Kings swayed Egypt, but no marks have been
left of their influence on the people ; for five hundred years the
Egyptians swayed AVestern Asia, but no monuments of their great-
ness are known. One reason for this does seem to have struck
Mr. Fergusson, which is that the greatest monuments of the Egyp-
tian kings, their sepulchral monuments, to which their wealth and
might were given, would not be raised abroad, as they were not ;
and indeed the wealth of Asia would be spent on making the mo-
numents of Egypt greater. We cannot, therefore, look foi' a
pyramid, a Ilhamession, or a Mammeisi in Syria or Asia Minor, —
though we may hope in time to get monuments, if of less bulk, no
less trustworthy; but then, again, it is to be looked for that the
Egyptian monuments in Western Asia would share the same lot
as those of the Shepherd Kings did in Egypt.

The third peculiarity named by Mr. Fergusson is "the fact of
Egypt having only one permanent form of phonetic utterance."
He alludes to the hieroglyphics. We think he is as unhappy in some
things he says about these, as he is happy in others. We do not
think it follows that the Egyptians "could not possess a national
literature, nor cultivate the higher modes of phonetic art, such as
epic poetry or the drama." The common understanding of men of
learning is that long epics can be handed down without writing;
and whatever may be said as to the present shape of the Iliad, all
believe, that even if written by Homer, it was handed down for a
long time, until settled by Pisistratus in the shape we now have it.
The Eddaic songs were likewise so kept for a long time, as also the
Niebelungen Lied. Neither is writing needful for the drama, as
is shown by the wagon plays of Thespis, the Ossian rhymes, the
Arlequinados of Italy and France, or the plays of the Malay tribes.
Some of the Chinese plays are unwritten. In the beginning, we
always find that plays, so far from being written, are made at once
by the players, as is done in a drawing-room charade. It is very
likely that the Egyptians had plays, if not epics; and it can hardly
be that they did not have songs, as they had music. Moreover, we
cannot see on what ground Mr. Fergusson can say they had no
common myths, for it is not enough to say that there are no heroes
painted on the tombs and temples. Our writer acknowledges that
they had a strong national feeling — but how was it upheld.'' His
friends the Chinese will hardly give him any helj) in the theory he
has laid down, for they bear witness against it. We do not believe
there is or ever was any people in a forward state who had not
common myths. We take the word in its meaning of the stock of
tales, mahrchen, myths, or fables of gods, heroes, ghosts, fairies,
and im.ps.

Mr. Fergusson rightly dwells on the ingenuity the Egyptians
showed in mi.xing together the arts of building, carving, and
painting, so as really to make them one art, quite indivisable; and
"to make this compound at once e.xpress their whole history and
literature, as far as the three could do, and that with a distinct-
ness which is startling, and after a la]ise of three thousand years
repeats more clearly the feelings and the motives of those who
executed the works, than almost any written book could do."

The writer divides the monuments of Egypt into four classes: —

First, that of Lower Egypt, or the Pyramids, or before the
Shepherd Inroad. There are no other works than pyramids and
rock-cut tombs.

Second, that of Thebes, or the great eighteenth dynasty, in
which are no pyramids, but palaces and temples. The rock tombs
had a new shape, and colossi and obelisks were brought in.

Third, that of the same time in Nubia, where there are no
tombs, and where the temples are rock-cut.

Fourth, that of the Greeks and Romans in Egypt, in which
there are no palaces, pyramids, great tombs, obelisks, or colossi.

Mr. Fergusson thinks that the former three classes are the
works of three several races living in the valley of the Nile, and
that tliey lived together, one in the lower valley, one in the mid-
dle, and one in the upper. Blumenbach held the same belief from
what he had seen of the skulls of the mummies. We do not think
it worth while to look into what has been said by Blumenbach,
Bunsen, Gliddon, and others on this head; but wait, as Mr. Fer-
gusson has done, till something better is known.

In speaking of the pyramids, Mr. Fergusson holds that they
were the tombs of the kings of the first ten dynasties of Manetho,
and that the Great Pyramid is of the year 6800 of the Decimal
Era, or five thousand years old.

All the pyramids but the great one of Saccara look true north,
notwithstanding the unevenness of the land, and therefore there
must have been some ground for this, though what it was is not
known. This uniformity is found, also, in all the tombs and build-
ings of the same time, but it seems to have been given up after
tlie inroad of the Shepherd Kings, as it is no longer seen in the
buildings of any of the Kings. At Thebes, there are no two
buildings that look the same way, and Mr. Fergusson thinks there
must have been as much forethought in this, for even the later
tombs were run in any way; and in Nubia, the pyramids look
every way, but hardly two of them the same way.

The way into the pyramids is moreover on the north side, but
the dip of it is unlike in all. This angle in each of the twenty
pyramids has been measured, and is found to be between 22^ 35'
and 34° 5', and in no two is it alike.

The angles the face makes with the horizon have a much greater
likeness, for in twelve of the gi-eatest and best-kept pyramids this
angle is between 51° 10' and 52° 32'.

Mr. Fergusson has tried every way of reckoning to bring these
figures under some rule, but without feeling that he is right. He
thinks, however, the Egyptians divided the circle into twenty-
eight lunar measures of 12'857 — that is to say, that their division
was on the plan of the moon's month, of four weeks of seven days
each. The cubit was divided like this, being of seven palms, each
of four digits. For the inner measurements of the pyramids, Mr.
Perring's unit of 40 cubits is taken. The height of the Great
Pyramid is 7 times 40 cubits, the length of the base 7 times 64
cubits. Each of these can be divided by 4, 7, or 28.

Of the pyramids, I\Ir. Fergusson says that the builders knew the
way of quarrying the greatest bloclcs of granite. The roofing
blocks of the Great Pyramid are 20 feet at least in length, and of
great width and depth ; they are well squared and smoothed ; are
rightly set, and have been brought from Syene to Memphis. There
is great skill in the way the roofs are made and the portcullises
fitted. As the pyramid was planned, says he, so was it built — as
built so it stands ; there is neither settlement, nor crack, nor flaw
to be anywhere seen, and this is very much when the great weight
is taken into consideration. He thinks all this can only be the
end of hundreds of years of knowledge and of skill ; and this is
more wonderful to think of tlian even the pyramids themselves.

As to the time when the ]>yramids were built, we do not of our-
selves like to lay down any law, but we think it quite as fair to
give them the older as the later date. As we come to know more
this will be settled, but meanwhile there is notliing against the
earlier date, for they were as likely to be made then as at any
time thereafter.

The hieroglyphics and paintings on the pyramids have been lost,
but it is not so with those on the rock-cut tombs around, which
are of the same time. Our writer says that these paintings show
they had then got to their gi-eatest height : that the paintings of
beasts, of trades, and of games are the same as those painted at
Thebes two tliousand years afterwards, and done in the same way.
They are stiiier, it is tiue — that is, they are not so well and freely
drawn as they were thereafter, but otherwise they are in the same
way.

We are little able to judge of a time of two thousand years spent
in the same beaten track, but when we come to know well the
antiquities of the Chinese, we shall have a good measure; but as it
is, such steadiness in one stereotyped way is so unlike our wea-
thercock fashions, that it is quite beyond our understanding.
In building, carving, or painting, hardly a hundred years have
gone by in Europe, without some great change for better or
worse.

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

75

The works of the twelfth dynasty are remarkahle, as showing
the earliest example of columnar architecture in the world, — and
of architecture so like the Doric, that it has been named Proto-
Doi-ic. This seems to be fifteen hundred years older than the
Greek Doric. J\Ir. Fergusson asserts that these rock-cut columns
are copies of buildings, the parts which were of wood and of stone
being carefully copied in the rock cutting. Therefore, he does not
believe that rock-cut works are the oldest, but that they are copies
of earlier buildings; and he thinks the cuttings in Egypt, Petra,
Lycia, and India show this to be true.

Another peculiarity of the works of the twelfth dynasty is that
the roofs are slightly coved, almost as if the use of the arch was
then known. Our writer thinks, however, that the arch was not
then known, hut the coving was made as being ornamental, or per-
haps to give lightness to the roofing-stones without lessening their
strength, — as indeed was afterwards done at Abydos under the
eighteenth dynasty.

From the twelfth, Jlr. Fergusson passes to the eighteenth dy-
nasty, and he gives the architectural history of the several kings.

The Hypostyle Hall, at Karnac, is the most splendid building of
any age of Egyptian art. It is smaller than the Amphitheatre of
Titus, or St. Peter's, but covers as much ground as the Temple of
Jupiter Olympius at Athens, the Temple of Peace, or Basilica of
Maxentius, and the cathedrals of Amiens, Chartres, and Cologne.
It covers thrice as much ground as the Parthenon. Though not
one of the greatest halls, it is therefore great enough for artistic
effect. It IS a double square of 340 feet by 170, with a narrow
nave running between the two squares and lighted by clerestory
windows. On each side of the nave the roof is upheld by columns,
thickly clustered.

The columns of the nave are 64 feet in height, and 30 feet round?
and do not stand in the same lines as those of the two sides, which
Mr. Fergusson thinks was done for artistic effect, as thereby tlie
extent of the building was better hidden. This effect is helped by
the nave, as we here term it, being put as a transept. In truth,
the hall at Karnac has the nave where the transept would be in a
Norman cathedral ; and on each side of the aforesaid transept-
nave, the building is filled up with columns. It is to be said fur-
ther, that this hall was only part of a great whole, the passage
through it being from the Nile to the Propylon beyond the palace
of Thothmes.

On this building our writer says, the proportion of the points of
support to open ground is as 1 to 4 or 5j, so that it is not in that
way a work of high constructive skill. In mechanics, by multi-
plying power by time, or the contrary, we can, by the loss of
whichever element is of least worth, get a like quantity of the
other. A.like law, says Mr. Fergusson, is to be found in architec-
ture, where we can always get immense seeming bulk when we can
afford to give up real space; and, on the otiier hand, space can only
be got at the cost of seeming bulk. Thus, if every other column
at Karnac were taken away, many more people might stand in it;
but its seeming bulk would be lessened at least one-third or one-
half, its roof \vould be awkwardly low, and its wliole proportion
un)iieasing and bud. On the other hand, were the number of co-
lumns in Cologne Cathedral doubled, all its dimensions of height,
width, and length would be seemingly greater; but at the same
time, its proportions would be bad, — the height at least painfully
so, and it would be unfit fu<- a Christian church, or for showing the
ceremonies carried on vvithin it. He thinks that a further proof is
given by St. Peter's, where, with unparalleled linear dimensions,
the builders, from not following the true laws of di-awing, have
brought forth only a comparatively small-looking building. On
the other hand, Karnac has the greatest effect of any building of
like dimensions, and it could not be bettered.

The whole of Mr. Fergusson's remarks on this building may be
read with much pleasure, for he applies his laws of criticism with
great freedom and fairness. He considers it with regard to fitness
and standing, and shows that it complies with all their requisitions.
It is, in truth, not the least merit of the Hypostyle Hall that it
is lasting, while the cathedral, without the hand of man, would
crumble away. Two thousand years have nearly gone by since
Karnac has been left in loneliness; and unless active powers of
destruction are used, two thousand years will find it nearly as we
see it now.

We have already said how the Hypostyle Hall was lighted, and
the smaller buildings were lighted in the same way by a clerestory.
Our writer strongly thinks that the Greeks borrowed this from the
Egyptians, as they did so many other things, and that they fitted it
to their sloping roofs and more rainy climate in a way which he
shows when speaking of the Parthenon. Another thing the Greeks

took was the peristylar temple, which the Mammeisi at Elephan-
tine shows to be one thousand years older than the time of the
Greeks. One of these small peristylar temples is near each of
the greater temples, and Champollion found out that they were
dedicated to the mysterious accouchements of the mothers of the'
gods.

One section of the book is given to the carving and painting of
the Theban time, and it seems to us worth while to follow Mr. Fer-
gusson in some remarks he has here made, for he does not think
Egyptian art has been rightly judged or felt; and he says, our
judgment must not be by likening it to the art of the Greeks or of
any others, but by looking to the ends which were sought after,
and the skill brought to bear in doing this.

Carving was in Egypt only a part of building, as it was in the
middle ages; in Greece and with us it is an art by itself. In
Egypt, statues always were — or at least always were meant to be —
in pairs, and never to be seen unless together with the buildings
and other works around them. In the palaces and temples we are
told the dromos of sphinxes, the obelisks, the colossi, the propyls
and its paintings, were all as essentially parts of one design, as the
base, shaft, capital, and entablature of a Greek column. To put
between the obelisks and propyla an attitudinizing statue, like
those of the Greeks, however good in itself, would have been, as
here said, a false concord.

In Egypt, the architectural shapes of the colossi group well with
the neighbouring buildings, and give a oneness and wholeness of
design which, if at the cost of the art of the carver, add to the
greatness of the architectural effect. Colossi, too, were needed,
for a statue the bigness of life would have been utterly lost amid
buildings of such bulk as theirs. Mr. Fergusson dislikes Greek
colossi, which are only men made bigger, unless put on some
height, where they are made smaller to the eye. He says they
look like the giants, jotuns, and giant-killers of the children s
story-books, whereas the architectural shape of Egyptian statues
does away with this e\il. They are stiff and formal, but they are
likewise bulky and steady; no limb in work, no part standing free;
and the thrones on which they sit, and the pillar at the back,
add still further to the solidity of the mass. They seem built up
to last for ever.

Notwithstanding this stiffness, the great end for which they were
made is never lost sight of nor given up, for they are all likenesses,
and so far as we can tell, striking likenesses; and they have a look
of stately stifl'ness which gives them a high bearing, far beyond
what the Greeks or Romans reached in such works. The great
Egyptian heads at the British Museum will show this when looked
at from afar. There is one raised over the doorway leading into
the Egyptian Hall, which seems like a half colossus, for the great
doorway makes as it were a body to the head; and when the head
is seen from the far end of the Hall, it has in its still look the
seeming and bearing of a god.

AV'hat is here said does not bear on the statues of the gods,
where the carvers met with other obstacles. Mr. Fergusson gives
the reason of the symbolism which prevailed, without, to our mind,
helping tlie sculptor. The Egyptians for each attribute of the god-
head made a symbol, which was a new god, and as other attributes
were given to these, new symbols were made ; so that at length the
symbols almost superseded the oi-iginal form of the god. It may
be, that the likenesses of their gods were not meant to bi-eathe
devotion by their beauty or sublimity, but were tlieological tenets
shown in symbolical hieroglyphics, — understood by the initiated,
and looked on with awe and worship by the less taught believer.

Painting, like carving, was in the hands of the Egyptians one
with the buildings on which it was brought to bear. What are
called paintings in Egypt were car\'ed in outline by the chisel, and
only heightened and eked out by the brush. Though sometimes in
tombs they are painted on the flat, in all the kingly works and
temples the outline is cut in or countersunk. This way was the
fitter for the Egyptians, as it was more lasting, as it never inter-
fered with the straight, bold lines of their buildings, the faces being
practically flat, and as it gave a sharp and good outline to the
figures.

Our writer thinks there is the most likeness between the Egj'p-
tian painting and Gothic glass-painting. The Egyptians covered
their walls with historical paintings : our forefathers covered their
walls and windows with biblical paintings. One was a catoptric,
the other a dioptric way of doing the same thing. The Gotliic way
was the brighter and more shining, but the other \vas far better, as
more lasting and as giving the workman the wide spread of a great
unbroken wall. In three hundred years most of the glass-painting
has been broken; in three thousand years the Egyptian works are

11*

76

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Mabch,

ae bright and fresh as when Rhameses or Sesostris stood by to see
them done.

Painting with us is an art standing and working alone, — not
under tlie law of the builder, as with the Egyptians : but then our
]iainting is only an illustrative art, always wanting the written
book for its inspiration and exi>lanation. In Egypt there was no
book to look to, and the painter had to show all that the book and
canvas now do together.

Mr. Fergusson takes a war-painting as more nearly like those of
the Egyptians, and he says if the names of all the paintings of
Napoleon's battles at Versailles were changed, no historical confu-
sion would arise, unless a trifling incorrectness as to the dresses or
flags of the enemy; but when these things are forgotten, any one
])ainting, witli the dress and likeness of Napoleon, will do for any
light of the same time. They all, as he says, consist of a brilliant
staff in the foreground, in which we know from history who is the
leader, — but without the history any one would do as well. Be-
yond that there are certain bodies of men and guns, some going
forward, some falling back, but all in confusion and smoke; who
are the winners and which side is losing, is scarce ever told : for
the tale we are sent back to the book,— and when we are told
this is the fight of Jena or M'agram, and we know all its fea-
tures from history, we find some of them in the paintings ; but
they do not even explain the text, — they are only idle illustrations,
depending for their worth on that of the artist who painted them.
It was otherwise with the Egyptian. He was to do what the
book of the writer, the plan of the engineer, and the brush of the
painter now do. The Egyptian painter was to give the whole tale
of the war. At Thebes,"we have first the muster, then the march,
getting ready for the fight, and the fight itself. There we see the
might of theking, who, as in the Iliad, bears the brunt of the fray,
and borne in his chariot far beyond his fellows, deals death arcjund
from his unerring liow. The fear of the enemy; the dying and the
dead; the wounded men and horses, writhing in pain; the bootless
stand; the woe of the old men and women, who line the walls of
the town and watch the fight, — all the thousand incidents of the
war are, says our writer, painted on the walls; and of 1500 or 2000
men drawn in these great paintings, each has his share in the fight,
and adds to the effect of the whole.

The fight is followed by the punishment of the prisoners; the
sharing of the spoil; the return home; the triumph and the offer-
ing to the gods; and the after employment of the hero, who has
come back from his conquests to enjoy rest and improve his father-
land.

So, too, in their other paintings there is the same clearness and
fulness of detail.

The Egj'ptian painter, who had this task before him, had no
knowledge of perspective or of light and shade. The colours were
laid on quite flat, and likewise unmixed. It was perhaps owing to
these wants that the face is always shown in profile, and there nei-
ther was nor could be artistic grouping. It was therefore needful
to resor-t to conventionalities, which are so distasteful to tlie mo-
dern critic. The king is always drawn bigger than those by whom
he is followed, and as much greater than his enemies, whom he
treads under his feet. The several parts of the fight are shown
in lines, one above the other ; and tlie men vary in bulk — not
according to their distance, but tlieir importance. Witli all tliis
there is no confusion, and the tale goes on distinctly, which is the
great end the painter kept in sight. The Egyptian workman or
husbandman would fully understand the whole of this ; the more
learned w(uild have the further help of the hieroglyphics.

The copies of Egyjitian paintings at the British Aluseum are, we
are sure, much better understood than most of tlie works there,
and it is much to be wished that there were more of them. In-
deed, the Upper Egyptian Room is always full of working-men,
their wives and children, who seem to have a greater liking for it
than for the Elgin Room.

The hieroglyphics filled up what in our paintings would be sky
or background. Had alphabetic writing been put in, the effect
would be bad ; though where, as on an Etruscan or (ireek work,
a name only is written over tlie head, there is no harm, — but were
the whole BO filled up, it would be out of keeping. The liiero-
glyphics were themselves painted shapes of beasts and things;
and though not the same as those in the paintings, still they were
like tliem, and are in good keejiing — indeed, they give a sparkling
effect to the whole design.

Copies ill our books cannot teach us what these works are, while
the copies in the British Museum are only bits of a great wbcde,
and till they are seen on their own walls tliey cannot be felt. There
we see paintings hundreds of feet in length, and from forty to sixty
feet high. In Thebes alone, they cover several thousand square

yards, giving the whole history of one of the greatest dynasties of
the earth.

The fifth section brings us to Egypt under the Greeks and
Romans. After the eighteenth dynasty Egypt seems to have been
greatly weakened, though wherefore is not known, and she sank
under the yoke of Ethiopians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans.
Under the two latter, Egypt w as wealthier, but the life of the arts
had fled with freedom, and we no longer acknowledge the great
mind of the kings of old.

Of the later time we have, however, many great buildings, as
the temjiles at Edfou, Dendera, Kalabshe, and Pliila',- — but in lower
taste. The painting and carving are worse than those of the olden
time, though more carefully finished : these are the works of
slaves, the old ones those of freemen. What is most missed are
the great historical paintings, which are so striking a feature of
the Theban time. The Egy])tians had indeed no history to hand
down, and they cared little for the deeds of the brave days of old.
AVhat paintings we have are mere records of the piety of kings,
and their free gifts to priests. Mr. Fergusson thinks that alpha-
betic writing had some share in bringing about this falling off, for
the learned now looked to the book of the writer to chronicle pass-
ing events, rather than to the chisel of the carver. They had
learned to believe, as he says, that the shelves of the Alexandrian
library were a more fitting depository than the walls of the tem-
ples.

The Second Chapter brings us to Western Asia. This gives the
most interesting field for speculation, but unluckily we have very
scanty materials. Of the races who were in M'estern Asia, several
are known to us. First, we have the gi-eat Semitic or Syrian race,
which seems to have settled on the banks of the Euphrates as early
as the Egyptians on the Nile. Of this race the Arabs and Jews
are the living representatives. Next, we have the Indo-European
race, which may here be called the Japhetic, and to which we
belong. This seems to have come in later than the Semitic race,
and to have overcome it. It made itself master of the valley of
the Ganges, of Mesopotamia under the Persians, and it spread
through ^Vestern Asia into Europe.

Besides these two, between them, and perhaps before them, Mr.
Fergusson holds that tliere was one other distinct and powerful
race. This suggestion has a very important bearing on early his-
tory. I\Ir. Fergusson identifies with it the Pelasgians and the
Etruscans, and Mr. Hyde Clarke (in the "Popular Atlas") the
Iberians. As no connected view has yet been shown of tliis theory
of the Ibero-Pelasgic race, it may be interesting to our readers to
go into it more fully than Mr. Fergusson has done ; and the more
so, as he has not extended it further into Western Eurcqie than to
the Etruscans. It is one of the most important archieological sub-
jects open for inquiry, as it is the newest.

This race is thought to be the same as, or akin to, the great
races now found in Northern Asia and North-Western Europe.
Mr. Fergusson has hinted his belief of this (p. 261); and latterly
it is stated that the Euskardian language has been identified with
that of the Fins.

In this race are included the Pelasgians, the Etruscans, and the
Iberians or Euskaldunes, all of whom, for want of knowing where
to put them, or on the gnuiiid of their being mixed with the Indo-
European race, have been hitherto put down as Indo-Europeans ;
and, indeed, as one subdivision of that race has been called the
Indo-Germanic, so the other has been called the Celto-Pelasgic.
This must now be called the Celto-Hellenic. The removal of the
tliree families just named will get rid of a great cause of obscurity
in the pal^o-ethnology, philology, history, and archa>ology of the
Indo-Europeans.

Neibuhr and William Van Humboldt did much for determining
the relations of the Iberian or Euskaldune family, and Mr. Fer-
gusson has rendered great service by separating the Pelasgians
and Etruscans from the Indo-Europeans; but by connecting the
tliree families on the other theory, we obtain the very important
element of a living language and living people — most valuable in
such inipiirios, and likely to be of more use than the application
of the Co])tic in Egyptian arcbajology. If these views 'as to the
connection between tlie Euskaldunes and the Fins be borne out,
they will very much modify the aboriginal history of the Euro-
pean countries.

Mr. Fergusson thinks the Phenicians were probably a branch of
this great race ; and he distinctly states, that either under the
name of Phenicians, or in their own name, this race had settle-
ments in France, Spain, and very likely even in Britain. The
Iberians comply with these conditions; and Mr. Clarke suggests
that the Phenicians never traded to Britain at all, or if they did,
only followed the Iberians.

1849."|

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

This Ibero-Pelasgic race is undoubtedly earlier in Western Asia
and Europe than the Indo-European — earlier, therefore, than the
Celtic or Slavonian families of the latter. Mr. Fergusson con-
siders that their monuments are dispersed over the greater part of
Asia and Europe. Mr. Clarke, too, sug-gests that the so-called
Druidic monuments. Round Towers, and Nurhags likewise belong
to them. Mr. Fergusson calls them a tumulus-raising people ; for
wherever they were they raised round barrows over the bodies of
their dead, whether in the steppes of Scythia, in these islands, or
outside the walls of the towns in Italy or Greece.

Mr. Fergusson doubts whether the history of this race will ever
be grasped with the same clearness and distinctness as that of
Egypt ; but we see no grounds for this, and in truth, it has already
made great way. We must not look in a great race such as this,
any more than in the Indo-European, to find all tlie families in
the same degree of advancement; we must look out for the proto-
types of the Englishman and the Celt ; we may find them in the
Etruscans and Scrito-Fenni.

Our writer says truly, that the study of the antiquities of
Western Asia — he might have said of this race — is more need-
ful to enable us to understand the ancient history of Greece
and Rome than that of Egypt can be ; for thougli Egypt may be
called the teacher of Greece, she was nut her only teacher: hers
was, indeed, the great storehouse to which olden Europe traded
for knowledge, but Asia was the motber from whom her people
sprang — in whose lap they were nursed ; and it was ever after the
home towards which her redundant population returned when
pressed for room in their new land ; and though much of her
learning and of her manners were no doubt brought from Egypt,
all her affections were centred in the East.

Mr. Fergusson suggests that the Pelasgians left Asia Minor in
consequence of the retirement of the Egyptians and advance of
the Indo-Europeans ; and that this was about the year 8700 of the
Decimal Era, or 1,300 years before Christ, nearly at the same time
that the Jews, under Moses, left Egypt. This led to a great influx
of Pelasgians into Greece, whence they were again driven by the
Hellenic Indo-Europeans. Our writer thinks that the Pelasgians
prevailed in Greece from the settlement of Argos, in the year
7200, D. E., until the return of the Heraclidi*. in 8900 n. E.

The details of these speculations we shall review under the
several sections in which they are treated. We shall now go on
where Mr. Fergusson has left off, and that is as to the Iberians. It
has been established by Humboldt that they held the greater part of
Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica ; and this gives a reason why a
new settlement should be made from Lydia, and accounts for the
Lydians going so far. Most branches of this race nere fond of ship-
ping,— an ethnological peculiarity deserving of notice.

The Iberians kept their ground longest in Spain and the South
of Gaul ; and here we have their offspring in the Euskaldunes,
Basques, or Biscayans, who speak the Euskardian, a living Iberian
language.

The names of rivers throughout Europe and Western Asia show
a common origin, and tliis in Europe has been shown to be often
Celtic — and therefore it is assumed that all the names are Celtic ;
but Humboldt has identified some as Euskardian ; and Mr.
Clarke suggests that this will be found the case more extensively
if a further examination is made

As to Britain, it has always appeared unaccountable that the
Phenicians should find out the tin there, and that a direct trade
with the East should spring up ; but if Britain had been long set-
tled by the Iberians, a seafaring, enterprising, and more cultivated
people than the Celts, it was natural that tin should be found out,
carried to Spain, and thence, by Iberian traders, to Carthage — per-
haps to Lydia or Phenicia.

Mr. Clarke's theory is, that the Iberians came into Britain and
Ireland from the south, and the Fins from the north, and that
these two branches of the same race were overcome by the Celts,
as they were in North Gaul and South Spain. In the time of
Tacitus, the Silures in South Wales were still to he recognised as
Iberians, in name and look, if not in speech ; and the traditions of
the Welsh and Irish point to Spanish immigrations, which on every

f round we may believe to be Iberian, and not Celtic. It is this
beriau element which will account for many of the peculiarities
of the population of the south of Ireland. It seems likely that
the Iberians of the North-West lingered last in Armorica, Corn-
wall, South Wales, and South and West Ireland, from which there
was good access by sea to Spain and Gascony.

(To be continued.J

BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE.

Sir — Mr. Alan Stevenson having printed and circulated a letter
addressed by himself to me, dated the 26th of December last, com-
plaining of a paragraph in my work upon the "Breakwater in
Plymouth Sound," wherein I claim the merit of the design and
construction of the Bell Rock Lighthouse foi the late Mr. Rennie,
and asserting that the Bell Rock Lighthouse was not designed and
built by the late Mr. Rennie, but by his (Mr. Stevenson's) father;
in justice, therefore, to the late Mr. Rennie, I feel bound to adhere
to the statement above ccmjilained of, — which is confirmed by the
following facts, taken from Mr. Robert Stevenson's work on the
Bell Rock Lighthouse (1824), and other documents in my posses-
sion. I shall, therefore, feel nnich obliged by your inserting this
letter in your valuable Journal.

On January 7, 1793 (see Mr. Stevenson's book, p. 85), the late
Sir Alexander Cochrane, then commander-in-chief on the Leith
station, wrote a letter to the Commissioners of Northern Light-
houses, proposing that a lighthouse should be erected on the Cape
or Bell Rock, situated on the east coast of Scotland, about eleven
miles from the shore, opposite to Arbroath, and which had been
the cause of numerous disastrous shipwrecks, whereby many valu-
able lives and much property had been sacrificed. In 1794 (p. 90),
Mr. Stevenson says that he began to consider the subject.

Nothing further, however, was done towards this desirable pro-
ject until the year 1799, wlien another severe storm arose, which
lasted three days, and was tlie cause of many melancholy ship-
wrecks in this quarter. The subject was then taken up by Captain
Joseph Brodie, of the navy, and Mr. Joseph Couper, iron-founder,
of Leith, who together made two designs for a cast-iron lighthouse,
one supported upon four columns, and another upon a diflerent
plan, wliich they proposed to erect at their own expense on the
Bell Rock, and to reimburse themselves by a toU on shipping.
They also at different times erected three beacons (the last in
1803) on the Bell Rock, which were successively carried away.
Mr. Robert Stevenson says that he also made a design for a cast-
iron lighthouse on columns, in 1799. In the summer of 1800, he
says (p. 91) that he landed on the Bell Rock for the first time, in
company with Mr. James Haldane, an architect, and on the 23rd of
December, 1800 (p. 440), wrote a Report to the Commissioners of
Northern Lighthouses, wherein, after describing the locality and
characteristics of the rock, he proposed two designs for a light-
house, one of cast-iron on pillars and another of stone: the former
he estimated at 15,000/., the latter 42,636/. Of these designs he
remarks as follows: —

" In the stone design I have retained nearly the same elevation as that of
the Edriystone lighthouse, which presents less resistance, and preserves a
greater hase than perhaps any other figure that cuuld have been thought of.
In this design I have also followed Mr. Smeaton in the use of oak trenails,
to keep the stones in their places while the work is in progress; hut have
differed in the mode of diminishing the interior walls as the building rises in
height. Instead, also, of Mr. Smeaton's plan of dovetailing the stones and
connecting the floors, various other modes are resorted to for effecting this
purpose perpendicularly, as well as laterally, with the view of introducing
larger materials, and keeping the stones in a more entire state. One of
these is by an iron bat, which is inserted into the joints of the lower courses,
while the void or upper courses are to be indented or let perpendicularly into
one another."

He says that Mr. Rennie at his request examined the models,
and preferred the stone design.

In 1803, the Northern Lighthouse Commissioners applied to
parliament for an Act to enable them to borrow 30,000/. for the
purpose of making a lighthouse on the Bell Rock. The bill passed
the House of Commons, but was thrown out in the Lords by the
opposition of the city of London (p. 94).

Mr. Telford was applied to for his opinion (p, 92), but after the
bill was thrown out he was not consulted again; neither does it
appear that he made any design or Report, although no doubt he
gave much valuable advice. Considerable doubts still existed in
the minds of many (p. 95), as to the practicability of the under-
taking. The late Mr. Rennie was applied to by the Commission-
ers in the year 1884, and visited the rock on August 15th of the
same year, in company with Mr. Robert Stevenson and Mr. Hamil-
ton, one of the Commissioners, and on the 30th December follow-
ing made a long Report to the Commissioners (p. 447), embracing
the whole subject, and after commenting at length upon the vari-
ous designs submitted to him, decided upon recommending a stone
lighthouse, and observes, that as to the practicability of erecting
such a work on the Bell Rock, "I think no doubt can be enter-
tained, with such examples before us as the Tours de Cordouanami
the Eddystone, before mentioned."

78

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

I Mascb,

In alluding' to jMr. Stevenson's design, IMr. Rennie proceeds in
his Report as follows: —

"He has made a model for a stone lighthouse nearly resembling that of
the Eddj-stone, in which he has proposed various ingenious methods of con-
structing the work by %vay of facilitating the operations. I own, however,
after considering tliese in the fullest manner I have been able, and comparing
them with the construction of Mr. Smeaton's — I mean in the building — and
also that there are undoubted proofs of the stability of the Eddystone, I am
inclined to give it the preference. No doubt, some methods ditferent from
the Eddystone will require to be put in practice for the foundation j but its
general construction, in my opinion, renders it as strong as can well be con-
ceived."

He (Mr. Rennie) therefore goes on to lecommend that the total
Iieight should not be less than 80 to 85 feet from tlie basement on
the rock to the balcony, and the height to the top of the cupola
above 100 feet ; the solid part of the lighthouse to be 50 feet high.
He then recommends that reflectoi-s should be used for the light-
house, and the question as to whether they should revolve or not
should be left open for further consideration. He says, great care
will be necessary in clioosing the lime, and recommends Dundee
granite stone for the exterior; and estimates the cost at 42,000/.

Fortified by, and in a great measure depending upon, Mr. Ren-
nie's opinion, in April 180(), the Northern Lighthouse Commission-
ers applied to parliament for an Act to enable them to borrow
25,000/., in order to erect a lighthouse upon the Bell Rock. Mr.
Stevenson and Mr. Rennie were examined before the committee of
jiarliament, as to the cost and general practicability of the work,
but no design was decided upon. The bill received the royal
assent on the lOth July following (1806).

On the 3rd of December of the same year, a meeting was held
by the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses in Edinburgh, at
which Mr. Rennie attended (but it does not appear that Mr. Ste-
venson was there), when the following resolution was passed: —

Northern Lights.
Extract from a Minute of a Meeting of the Commissioners of the Northern

LighOiouses held at Edinburgh, ird December, 1806.
Present —

The Lord Provost of Edinburgh ;
Thomas Henderson, Esq., 1st Bailie of Edinburgh ;
William Rae, Esq., Sheriff-Deputy of Orkney ;
Kobert Hamilton, Esq., Sheriff Deputy of Lanark ;
D. Moneypenny, Esq., SheritF-Deputy of Fife;
James Clark, Esq., Sheriff-Deputy of Edinburgh.
John Rennie, Esq., Civil Engineer.
" This meeting having been called for the special purpose of taking the
preliminary steps for carrying into effect the power vested in the Commis-
sioners by act of parliament, for erecting a lighthouse on the Cape or Bell
Rock ; and different Reports on the subject, and particularly on the kind of
building to be adopted, having been duly considered, and Mr. Rennie having
verbally delivered his opinion on the subject —

" Resolved unanimously, ' That the budding to be erected for the purpose of
a lighthouse on the Bell or Cape Rock shall be of stone, and that the same
ehall be erected under t/ie directions of John Rennie, Esq., civil engineer,
whom they hereby appoint chief engineer for conducting the work.'

"Mr. Rennie having stated to the meeting in general terms his opinion as to
the form of the building, and the particular sort of materials to be used, &c.,
he was requested to furnish the Commissioners with plans, and as to the kind
of stone. As he was about to proceed to Perth, he was requested to visit
the Dundee quarry, and also to inspect the Aberdeen granite, and report
upon the subject. Mr. Stevenson was authorised to proceed along with Mr.
Rennie, and endeavour to procure a yard, and the necessary accommodation,
at Arbroath." Extracted by C, Cuningliam, Esq.

By the above resolution, Mr. Rennie was reciuestcd to prepare a
design for a stone lighthouse, and was appointed cliicf engineer to
carry it into effect, and to examine the Dundee and Aberdeen quar-
ries, and report his opinion. Mr. Stevenson was authorised to ac-
company Mr. Rennie, and endeavour to procure a yard at Arbroath
for the works. On the 2Gth December following, Mr. Rennie re-
turned, and attended another meeting of the Board at Edinburgh,
and presented a Report signed by himself and Mr. Stevenson (see
p. 458), describing the different kinds of stone, and the various
machinery, tools, and implements, and other preliminary operations
which were necessary previous to commencing the work. At the
meeting, Mr. Rennie proposed that Mr. Stevenson should be ap-
pointed assistant-engineer, to execute the work under his superin-
tendence, and the following resolution was passed: —

Northern Lights.
Extract from a Minute of a Meeting of tlie Commissioners of the Northern

Lighthouses lield at Edinburgh, 26t/i December, 1806.
Present —

The Lord Provost of Edinburgh;

Thomas Henderson, Esq., 1st Bailie of Edinburgh ;

Robert Hamilton, Esq., Sheriff- Deputy of Lanark;
Edward McCormick, Esq., Sheriff-Deputy of Ayr;
James Clark, Esq., Sheriff-Deputy of Edinburgh,
John Kennie, Esq., Civil Engineer,

" Messrs. Rennie and Stevenson having in the terms of the last minute
proceeded to Dundee and Aberdeen, and examined the different quarries,
they presented a joint Report in the following terms : —

[Here follows the Report and the various orders made thereon.]

"Mr. Kennie proposed to the meeting that Mr. Stevenson should be ap-
pointed assist ant -engineer, to execute ttte ^cork under his superintendence,
and mentioiied to the Commissioners that the mode of recompensing him
for his trouble and the risk attending the business, which was customary ia
similar undertakings, and what he knew would be most agreeable to the
Board of Treasury, would be to allow him a certain per centage upon a
limited sum of expenditure, with such a sum at the conclusion of the work
as they may choose to fix ; and the Commissioners agree as to the appoint-
ment of Mr. Stevenson to be assistant-engineer under Mr, Rennie, but they
delay taking into consideration the recompense to be made to him, both as
to the amount and the manner of doing it, until next meeting."

Extracted by C. Cuntngham, Esq,

From the above it will be seen that the Commissioners agreed to
the appointment of Mr. Stevenson to be assistant-engineer under
Mr. Rennie ; and Mr. Stevenson made a Report previous to this
— viz. the 15th November, 1806, pointing out what he considered
necessary for commencing the work.

From what has been stated above, it appears that ever since the
15th August, 1805, Mr. Rennie was, in fact, the chief professional
authority upon which the Commissioners confided for the erection
of the Bell Rock Lighthouse; and as soon as the Act passed, they
appointed him chiej' engineer, leaving the whole subject in his
hands. It does not ajjpear from Mr. Stevenson's book that hence
forward he (Mr. Stevenson) made separate Reports to the Com-
missioners during the construction of the lighthouse; but Mr.
Rennie inspected the works, and reported his opinion upon every
detail to the Commissioners. On the 29th October, 1807, jMr.
Rennie made a Report describing his visit to the works of the
lighthouse (p. 463), the progress of the works on the rock, the
proper mode of constructing the workshops, the state of the quar-
ries, the arrivals of stone, the means to be taken for ensuring a
better supply, the vessels required for the accommodation of the
works, that the cofferdam (recommended by Mr. Stevenson) was
not necessary, the cement, the tools — in fact, concerning all the
details required. With regard to the liglithouse he says —

" I submitted a plan for your consideration in February last : according to
this ptan the wortcs are proceeding ; plans of eactt course of stone have been
made; the whole is dovetailed, but somewhat different from the mode pur-
sued at the Eddystone, — they are less in length on the outside, but deeper in
the direction of the radius of the lighthouse, which will render the struc-
tuie on the whole stronger than the Eddystone plan. The extension of the
base of the building is also much greater, and the base is considerably dif-
ferent: by this means, not only will the impulse of the waves be less, but
their action on the part of the rock adjoining the foundation will be much
easier. The rock is softer than that on which the Eddystone is built, but it
is harder than I imagined when last there. On the whole, I feel confident
that the work will be brought to a successful termination within a reason-
able period."

On the 12th December, 1808, Mr. Rennie made another Report
of his having again visited the rock, in which he describes the pro-
gress made, together with remarks upon everytliing connected with
it, and points out what is necessary for the future.

On the 2iid October, 1809, after having again visited the work,
Mr. Rennie made another Report, in a similarly detailed manner
to the former ones, and in alluding to the construction of the solid
part of the tower, thus proceeds, —

"The manner of dovetailing the solid part of the tower is nearly the same
as that of the Eddystone, and this plan will be followed to the top of the
staircase. I have, however, to recommend a mode somewhat different for
the hollow part of the surrounding walls, which should be dovetailed in a
manner 1 have already drawn out. The stone floors in the Eddystone were
formed by an arch in the form of a dome springing from the surrounding
walls, to strengthen which chain-bars were laid into the wall. 1 propose
that these should be done with large stones radiated from a circular blocli
in the middle, to which the interior ends are to be dovetailed as well as the
radiated joints, and then connected to the surrounding walls by means of a
circular dowell : by this means the lateral pressure from the walls will be
removed, and the whole will be connected as one mass, and no chain-bars
will be wanted except under the cornice ; — thus the whole will be like a
solid block of stone excavated for the residence of the light-keepers."

Mr. Rennie continued to give his directions, make reports, and
carried on various correspondence upon the subject with the Com-
missioners, Mr. Stevenson, and others connected with the work,
until the final completion of the lighthouse, 17th October, 1810

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

79

and afterwards until the breaking up of the working establishment
and sale of the stores at Arbroath. (See Mr. Stevenson's letter of
8th July, 1811, and Mr. Rennie's answer on the I5th following.)

From the above statement of facts the following conclusions
may, I think, be fairly drawn: — First, that Sir Ale.xander Coch-
rane was the first who suggested the idea of erecting a lighthouse
upon the Bell Rock. Secondly, that Captain Brodie and Mr.
Couper, were tlie first who took up the subject prnctically^ by
erecting a beacon and preparing a model for a cast-iron light-
house. Thirdly, that Mr. Robert Stevenson commenced his inves-
tigation in 1791, and in 1800 made two models, one for a cast-
iron, and another for a stone lighthouse, upon the principle of the
Eddystone. Fourthly, in 1803, when the Commissioners of the
Northern Liglithouses took this subject up seriously, and went to
parliament for a bill to enable them to borrow money for the pur-
pose, they feeling tlie weight of the responsibility and trust rejiosed
in them, naturally determined to consult an older and more expe-
rienced engineer than Mr. Stevenson then was. Mr. Telford was
accordiugly consulted, but it does not appear that he either made
a design or Report on the subject, although no doubt he gave much
valuable advice. After, however, the rejection of the bill in
1803, Mr. Telford was not again consulted. Fifthly, in 1805,
when the Commissioners determined again to apply to parliament
for an Act to make a lighthouse on tlie Bell Rock, they consulted
the late Mr. Rennie, and submitted Mr. Stevenson's designs, as
well as the various other documents which had been prepared for
that object. Mr. Rennie accordingly personally inspected the
Bell Rock, and made a detailed and elaborate Report upon the
whole subject, wherein, amongst other matters, he did not appro\e
of Mr. Stevenson's designs, as stated in the foregoing part
of this letter. Mr. Rennie then continued in the employment of
the Commissioners, and attended and gave evidence upon the hill
in its progress through parliament in 1806; and as soon as prac-
ticable after the passing of the bill, a meeting %vas held by the
Commissioners on the 3rd of December, 1806, at which he at-
tended, and was appointed chief engineer to carry it into eifect;
and on the 26th of the same month, another meeting was held,
when Mr. Rennie recommended that Air. Robert Stevenson should
be appointed assistant engineer, to act under his (Mr. Rennie's)
directions ; and Mr. Robert Stevenson v>ns appointed assistant en-
gineer under Mr. Rennie accordingly. That subsequently to that
period, until the completion of^ the lighthouse and the final
winding-up of the establishment, Mr. Rennie continued to have
the entire responsibility, superintendence, management, and di-
rection of the whole worlvs: he furnished a design and worked out
the details, which were completed under him — in fact, nothing was
done without previously being submitted to, and receiving his ap-
proval; that he repeatedly visited the woi-ks and made his Reports
to the Commissioners during the progress until the final comple-
tion, as will be seen in the Appendix to Mr. Stevenson's book,
together with the other documents in my possession. The design
which has actually been carried into effect underwent certain al-
terations, differing somewhat from that furnished by Mr. Rennie,
and which generally happened during the progress of the work;
these were chiefly confined to raising the tower a little higher, and
altering the mouldings round the top of the tower and lantern.
These alterations, however, were done under his direction. The
lighthouse as erected, it wiU be observed, differs materially from that
proposed by ]Mr. Stevenson, which was not approved of by Mr.
Rennie : the base is much wider and different in form, in order to
diminish the action of the waves upon it, and to prevent them
from undermining the base; the tower is also much higher; the
courses, narrower on the outside, are larger towards the centre of
the building than that of the Eddystone, by which they are ren-
dered stronger; and the floois are different, the pressure being
rendered vertical instead of lateral, as explained in the above
extract from Mr Rennie's Report; — in fact, in the above particu-
lars the Bell Rock Lighthouse differs from the Eddystone, but
Mr. Rennie used always to say that he followed the track of
Smeaton in his fine example of "the Eddystone, making only such
alterations as the different circumstances required, to adapt it for
its situation. Mr. Alan Stevenson claims for his father the
merit of the improvement in the floors of the Bell Rock Light-
house, and making the pressure vertical instead of lateral, as in
the Eddystone: tliis, I cannot admit, — for in the paragraph above
extracted from Mr. Robert Stevenson's Report of the year 1800
(p. 445), the words there used do not convey the idea that the
lateral pressure of the floors was intended to be done away with ;
and it cannot be supposed for a moment that the late Mr. Rennie,
who disapproved of his plan, could have adopted it himself after-
wards, and have claimed the merit of it. The whole tenor of Mr.

Rennie's conduct througliout his long career, was totally at variance
with such a proceeding, and it was always his greatest pleasure to
recognise and liring forward merit in every case, and to give the
inventor the full benefit of his inventions. I trust, therefore,
that I have clearly established my proposition — that Air. Rennie
designed and built tlie Bell Rock Lighthouse. In saying this
much, I should be extremely sorry to detract in the smallest de-
gree from the highly-meritorious exertions of Mr. Stevenson, for
the important part he took in forwarding the undertaking, from the
year 1794 to 1805, and for the subsequent part which he performed
as assistant-engineer in carrying the work into effect under the
late Mr. Rennie; and I am quite ready to admit that very great
credit is due to Mr. Stevenson for the energy, skill, and inde-
fatigable perseverance he displayed in the above capacity, and
which contributed materially to the success of this great work.
The labours of those valuable sub-officers, Mr. Peter and David
Logan and Francis Watts, were of the greatest service; and Mr.
DavidLogan subsequently distinguished himself as resident engineer
!it Dundee, Donhagadee, Port Patrick, Whitehaven, Port Rush, &c.,
and finally closed his valuable career as engineer to the Trustees
of the River Clyde; and I cannot close this letter without adding,
that the greatest credit is due to the Commissioners of 'the
Northern Lighthouses, and their secretary, Mr. Cuningham, for
the public spirit, energy, and ability with which they brought for-
ward, and carried out to a successful conclusion, this important
maritime %vork, which has conferred such invaluable benefits upon
the shipping interest and commercial world.

I am,

Your humble servant,

London, February Sth, 1849. John Rennie.

P.S. Mr. Alan Stevenson complains, in a postscript to his printed
letter, of my want of courtesy in not replying to him. — The fact
is, I was absent on the continent, and did not receive his letter
until I returned some time after. 1 then immediately wrote to
him, apologising that absence had unavoidably prevented me from
replying to his letter before.

HSGISTEK OF M£^V FATSNTS.

COMPASSES, BAROMETERS, &c.

David Napier and James jMurdoch Napiee, of York-road,
Lambeth, engineers, for '■'■improvements in mariners' compasses; also
in barometers, and in certain other measuring instruments." — Granted
July 20, 1848; Enrolled January 20, 1819. [Reported in the
3fechanics' Magasine.l

The improvements sought to be secured under this patent,
relate — 1st, to mariners' compasses; 2nd, to barometers; 3rd, to
tachometers, or instruments for ascertaining the speed of \'essels
through water, or the velocity of currents of water; and 4th, to
weigh-bridges or platform weighing-machines.

1. The compass-box is gimballed, as usual, and contains the com-
pass card, which is bound by a brass hoop, to which grip-pieces are
soldered. Above, and resting upon the needles, is a thin disc of
"talc-brass," to which is fastened a disc of cotton or velvet, or
other soft substance. A printed or ruled piece of paper, contain-
ing twenty-four concentric circles, and a number of radiating lines
corresponding with the points or parts of points in a compass-
card, is temporarily held in the grips above the talc-brass and soft
substance. Underneath the compass-card there are three branches
fixed to a loose collar on the spindle of the point, so that they
may be slid up and down to serve as abutments or supports to the
card. A lever is connected at one extremity with a vibrating
frame, and cari'ies at the other a vertical pricker, which is made
to travel over the surface of the paper from the inner concentric
circle to the outer one, and in a line parallel with the keel of the
vessel, once in twenty-four hours. The lever is made to rise and
fall, and consequently the pricker to puncture the paper at certain
regular intervals of time, and the branches to rise up and support
the card each time the puncture is effected. By this arrangement,
the direction of the ship's course will be indicated by the punc-
tures on tlie radiating lines, and the time by those upon the con-
centric circles. The lever, together with its pricker, and the
branches, are actuated by ordinary clock-work machinery, which
is carried in the bottom of the compass-box, by means of a pecu-
liar combination of toothed gear and levers. The printed paper
is, of course, changed every twenty-four hours.

80

THE CIVIL ENGIXEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

2. The. imprniied hnrnmeter \s constructedvvitli a vertical spindle
which carries a card, having on its surface a number of concentric
circles which represent portions of time, and radiating lines which
represent fractions of inches. Above tlie card is a lever carrying
a vertical pricker, which is made to rise and fall at certain regular
intervals of time, and to travel from the inner concentric circle to
the outer one once in twenty-four hours. On the vertical spindle,
and underneath the card, is fastened a grooved wheel, round which
is passed a cord. A counter-balance weight is attached to one end
of the cord, while the other one is made fast to a float resting upon
a column of mercury in a tiibe. The card has a fixed point repre-
senting 29'5 inches, which, at commencement, is placed underneath
the pricker. As the column of mercury falls or rises the printed
card will travel to the right or to the left accordingly, and its
variations of height be indicated by the distance of the punctured
lines from the starting point, on either side.

3. The improved tachometer, o\- apparatus for measuring the speed
of vessels through the water, and the velocity of a current of
water, consists of a horizontal spindle moving freely on pivots at-
tached to the side of the vessel beneatli the water-line, and in-
closed in a case open at both ends. The spindle is fitted with
vanes, the pitch of which is regulated so that ten revolutions of
the vane-spindle shall equal one fathom. The vane-spindle
carries a tangent-screw, which gears into a toothed wheel keyed
on the end of a shaft which passes into the interior of the vessel,
whereby the number of nautical miles is marked in units, &c. up
to 10,000, on ordinary indicating dials through the medium of
trains, such as are used in gas-meters, with tlie addition of four
spring barrels, whose especial office it is to work the indicating
dials and trains, and diminish the friction of the diiferent parts so
as to relieve the vane-spindle from this duty, wliereby the speed
of the vessel, or velocity of the current, will be more correctly in-
dicated and registered. The spring barrels have no effect of
themselves upon the dials and gearing, but appear to facilitate the
action of the vane-spindle thereon. We say "appear," for we ob-
serve with regret that the relative connection of these barrels
witli the rest of the apparatus are anything but clearly and dis-
tinctly described, although they constitute the novelty of this
portion of the invention, and form the subject of a separate claim.

i. The platform of the improved weigh-bridge is supported upon
a horizontal cross- bar attached to the lower end of a vertical-bar,
which is made fast at top to the end of a horizontal lever, whereby
the platform is supported on a centre. The weight to balance the
platform, with the goods thereon, is hung upon this horizontal
lever, which carries a short upriglit, attached to a shorter horizon-
tal lever, which is placed above and parallel to the first. The
other end of the short lever is pivoted loosely to a standard of
the frame, and has above it a coiled spring. From the top end of
the short upright is a chain, which passes over a pulley, suspended
between friction-rollers, and terminating in a weight that balances
the connecting pieces. This pulley is keyed on a rod, to the end
of which is a pointer, whereby the weiglit of goods on the platform
is indicated on a dial; while, at tlie same time, a paper is made to
travel underneath a pencil, so that the weight is also at the same
time registered.

Claims. — 1. The combination of suitable apparatus with a main-
taining power, so as to produce a self-acting means of registering
the direction of the head of the vessel, as indicated by the mag-
netic needle.

2. The method of registering upon a circular disc by a travelling
point or pencil, as applied to barometers, and described.

3. The combination of a su])plementary or auxiliary [lOwer,
with apparatus for indicating and registering the speed of a vessel
through the Wiiter, and the velocity of currents of water.

+. The measuring and registering of weiglit by a weigh-bridge
or platform machine, having attached thereto apparatus such as
.described.

THE ELECTRIC LIGHT.

Chevalier Alexandre Edouard Le Molt, of Conduit-street,
Regent-street, Middlesex, for " improrements in apimratiia for
lighting by elect rii-it ij ; partu of which may he made n.te of in other ap-
plications of electricity."— Gr-dnteH July 20, 184.8; Enrolled January
20, 1849. [Reporteil in Newton's London ,Tournal.~\

The first part of tliis invention relates to certain improvements
in the manufacture of |)iles or batteries, for evolving electric cur-
I'ents, to hi applied to the production of light and other uses.

One of sucli improvements consists in the application of the

carbon which is found in the retorts used in the manufacture of
coal-gas as one of the elements of an electric jiile. The carbon,
as it comes from the retorts, simply requires to be cut to the re-
quired shape: the patentee prefers to use it in rectangular plates
or blocks; but it may be cut into other forms, n, (fig. 1), is ^
plate or block of carbon, connected with a cylinder of amalga-
mated zinc 6, by means of a strip of metal c, whicli is soldered or
rivetted at one end to the cylinder 6, and at the other end is sol-
dered to the upper extremity of the carbon: the upper end of the
carbon is coated with copper or other metal, for this purpose, by
the electrotype process; and this constitutes anotlier of the im-
provements. A further improvement consists in coating the
cylinder of amalgamated zinc on one side (the outer side in the
present arrangement) with a varnish or other suitable matter,
which will jirevent the liquid used from acting on the zinc on the
protected side: such side having no relative influence whatever
with the carbon element would otherwise be uselessly exposed to
the destructive action of the acid. The patentee prefers to use
copal varnish as the protecting material; and he gives a body to
the same, by grinding finely-powdered retort carbon therewith.
The connecting strip of metal, and the electrotyped end of the
carbon element, are also to be coated with the varnish. A battery,
constructed according to this invention, is shown in fig. 2, where
rf, rf, are two stoneware jars, each containing a porous jar e, which
receives the carbon element «, of the pile, and is surrounded by
the cylinder of amalgamated zinc b; into the jars «, nitric acid is
introduced; and in the jars rf, a solution of sulpliuric acid, com-
posed of one part of acid to seven parts of water, is used. W'hen
the apparatus is intended to lie carried about, tlie patentee prefers
to make the jars d, with a flange or rim at the top, as shown in
figs. 3, and +, to prevent the liquid from splashing.

Fig. 2.

Another improvement, described under this head of the inven-
tion, cimsists in making carbon elements for electric piles by
causing the carbon to be moulded and then subjected to great
pressure, by means of hydraulic or other suitable presses, in order
to obtain the carbon as dense and compact as possible. The
patentee prefers to use one part of powdered coal, coke, or char-
coal, three parts of carbon from gas-retorts, and one part of tar;
these materials are to be well mixed, moulded, and subjected to
pressure; then dried, by exposure to the action of the atmosphere,
in the shade, for a few days; aud, when dry, the mixture is to be
subjected to heat in a nearly-dosed retort for thirty-six hours, —
the heat being applied gradually till it arrives at a bright red heat,
and then to be allowed to cool down gradually: the carbon is then
ready for use.

The second part of this invention relates to the apparatus for
producing light by electricity; and it consists in using discs of
carbon as electrodes, in such manner that, by revolving near eacli
other in the same plane or in planes at an angle to each other,
they shall constantly present fresh surfaces, and, when they have

isig.l

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

81

made a revolution, they shall be caused to approach each other, so
as to maintain a constant and proper relation to each other for the
production of a continuous light.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 is an elevation of the apparatus employed in carrying out
tliis part of the invention, a, a, are two electrodes of gas-retort
carbon, which are first cut into the form of discs, and then purified
by immersion in a solution of nitric and muriatic acid for twelve
hours, and afterwards in a solution of fluoric acid for twelve hours.
A slow uniform motion may be communicated to the discs by any
suitable mechanism; but the patentee prefers to employ that
shown in fig. 5, wherein the motion is derived from suitable clock-
work, the axis 6, of which only is shown. The two discs turn on
pivots or axes at the upper ends of the arms c, c; these arms are
mounted, at their lower ends, upon an axis d, so as to move freely
thereon; and the upper ends of the arms are continually drawn
towards each other by a spring e, but are prevented from approach-
ing too closely by the pieces./^ /, which bear against the periphery
of the eccentric or step-wheel g. The two discs are caused to
rotate by means of two endless chains or bands, passing around
the pulleys A, A, on the axes of the discs, and around a pulley ;,
fixed to a toothed-wheel k, which gears into another toothed-wheel
j, on the axis 6. Rotary motion is also given to the eccentric or
step-wheel g, by means of the train of wheels /, k, /, m, n; so that,
when the discs have made a complete revolution, the wheel g, may
jiresent a deeper step or depression to each of the pieces y^/^ and
thus permit the arms c, c, to approach nearer to each other, in
order to compensate for the wear of the two electrodes. o,p, are
the wires connected with the battery. The part marked with a*
is made of some non-conducting material; and the other parts are
made of metal. It is not essential that the two electrodes should
rotate in the same plane, as they may rotate in planes at right
angles to each other. The patentee states that he does not con-
fine himself to the use of Uvo discs, as a single disc may be em-
ployed with another form of electrode.

The patentee claims — Firstly, the application of that description
or quality of caibon obtained by the destructive distillation of
coal and other matters, such as are used in the manufacture of
gas, as one of the elements of an electric pile; also the employ-
ment of carbon moulded and subjected to pressure and manufac-
tured as above described; also the electrotyping the ends of
carbon used as elements in electric-piles; also the connecting of
carbon elements of an electric pile with other elements used, by
soldering, or by other permanent fixture. Secondly, the so apply-
ing two discs of carbon as electrodes that they shall (when they
have completed a revolution) be caused by the mechanism to ap-
proach to each other, and thus obtain a continuous light by elec-
tricity.

BRICK AND TILE KILN.

AViLLiAM SwAiNE, of Pcmbridge, Hereford, brick-maker, for
" improvements in kilns for burning bricks, tiles, and other earthen
substances." — Granted July 18, 1848; Enrolled January 18, 1849.

The improvement relates to the construction of a kiln, as shown
in the annexed engraving, which is a transverse section, a, is the
kiln; b, the feeding-places, kept closed excepting when fuel is in-
troduced; c, furnace-doors, formed with an opening for the intro-
duction of a rake, to rake the fire without opening the doors, the
opening is closed at other times by a small door d; e, air-pipes; /,
ash-pit doors; g, fire-boxes, built of fire-bricks, with holes between
tlie bricks, similar to those heretofore used in some kilns; h, brick
ledges, for throwing olf the coals as they pass through the feeding-
pipes; and /, chimneys, of which there are nine. The doors must
be made to fit closely, in order that the passage of air into the fire-
places and kiln may be partially or entirely stopped, so that the
fires may be regulated with great nicety, and, when necessary, may
prevent combustion, by stopping the supply of air.

SHIPS AND PADDLE-WHEELS.

James Taylor, of Furnival's-inn, gentleman, for "improve-
ments in propelling ships and other ve^'sels." — Granted December 2,
]848; Enrolled January 27, 1849. [Reported in the Patent
Journal.^

The specification describes, in addition to a mode of propelling
vessels, a form of construction of vessels generally ; the first part
of the specification describing the mode of forming the mould or
model of the vessel ; the second, the construction of a paddle or
propelling wheel; and the third, the constructing the parts of the
vessel for the reception of this paddle-wheel. The patentee gives
rather a vague rule for the moulds or models of ships and vessels.
He proposes to form the 'midship section of the vessel of an ellipse,
the longest diameter being the horizontal one, and the shortest the
vertical. As the cross sections approach the stem and stern posts,
the horizontal diameters become gradually less, while the vertical
diameter remains the same until a certain point between the 'mid-
ship section and the stem or stern, where the horizontal diameter
becomes equal to the vertical ; or, in other words, the cross section
of the vessel is a circle ; from this ]>oint to the stem or stern posts,
the order of the ellipses forming the cross sections are reversed —
that is, the vertical diameter remains precisely the same as before,
but is now the longest, and the horizontal diameter the shorter,
and gradually becoming less as it approaches the stem and stern
posts, to whose shape it at last resolves itself; thus, the patentee
states that either obtuse or acute forms of vessels may be con-
structed, the degrees of acuteness depending upon the proportion
the longest diameter of the ellipse at the 'midship section bears to
the extreme length of the vessel ; the vessel thus constructed, is
provided with a keel, the sides of which are concave, so as to agree
in contour with tlie convex form of the hull of tlie vessel, and is
to give the necessary strength as well as to prevent lee-way. The
patentee proposes, in the case of sea-going sliips and vessels ex-

12

82

THE CIVJL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

LMarch,

posed to tempestuous wenther, to continue the elliptir form of the
vessel ahove the water-line, and entirely over the deck ; hut fur
vessels intended only for the navigation of rivers and smooth
waters, tlicn the ujiper parts of the vessel may he of any shape,
but strictly followiiifj tlie rules laid down hy him with respect to
the hull below the water-line.

The second part consists of a paddle-wheel ; this wheel is formed
of a larg'e sheet-iron cylinder, upon the sides of which are secured
two extending flanges of larger diameter than the cylinder. Be-
tween these flanges and the periphery of the cylinder are secured
the flats, which are of a curved sha])e ; the depth of the curve
being equal to the draught of water of the boat.

The last part of the specification merely describes the means
which tlie patentee proposes to adopt for applying the paddle-
wheels to vessels. lie proposes in river-going boats to place a
single wheel in the middle, an aperture or case being there made
for the reception of the same ; and from it a trough or way to the
stern of the vessel is formed. In sea-going vessels, he proposes to
apply two wheels, one placed on each side of the keel,^ also in a
case or aperture. He also proposes to cover this case or aperture
with a cap or covering, which is to be secured air and water tight ;
but it is to be provided with a valve, so situated that when the
wash of the sea shall rise in the wheel-case, and expel part of the
air therefrom, ui)on its receding the air shall enter through the
valves from the outside. The patentee gives severe! rules or pro-
portions for making the wheel-case and trough.

He claims generally : First, the mode of forming ships and ves-
sels of the elliptical cross-sections, as described.

Secondly, the construction of the paddle-wheel, as described.

Thirdly, the manner of arranging and applying the paddle-wheel
to ships and vessels, as before described.

MANUFACTURE OF IRON.

Samuel Lees, of the firm of Hannah Lees and Sons, of Park-
road, Lancaster, iron manufacturers, for ^'' certain iyti/irorerneutt in
the manufacture of malleable iron." — Granted August 8, 1848 ; En-
rolled February 8, 184.9. [Reported in the Patent Journal.']

The improvements described in this specification relate to the
manufacture of malleable iron — first, as to the mode of arranging
and forming the piles and faggots, and second, the construction of
the machinery to be employed in rolling and manufacturing such
piles or faggots into bars, rods, &c.

The first of the improvements consists in placing the plates or
bars of iron of wliich the pile is to be formed, in sudi manner that
the grain of the iion of tlie several pieces sliall be in different rela-
tive positions to each other. In the ordinary mode of forming tlie
piles, the flat bars of iron which compose them are merely placed
in regular order one upon the other until the required thickness is
obtained ; the width of the bars being equal to the widtli of the
pile. This mode of piling, when rolled out into bars, rails, &c,,
presents an exterior surface, up'on which the junctions of the bars
appear, and thus render them very liable to laminate; as also the
strength of the article manufactured is irregular in consequence of
the lamilar direction of the grain. This is particularly the case in
railway bars, where, by the action of the heavy weights rolling over
them, the ui)per surface is laminated ; as also tlie middle vertical
web of tlie rail is comparatively weak from the cross direction of
the grain of the iron. The patentee piles his faggots in the follow-
ing manner — a cross section of one being shown in the annexed
cut. The sides of tlie pile are formed of ])lates, or flat bars, A, A,
dovetailed at the edges, in the manner shown; or if found more
convenient, tliey may have their edges merely overlajijiing each
other. These plates, when placed together, form the exterior of
the shell of the pile, and it will be seen that they present exteriorly
their sides; thus the grain of the iron is in a better position. The
middle portion is to be filled up by other ]ilates or flat bars, either in
the manner shown, or by dovetailing the edges, but in both cases
so arranging them that their sides, and consequently the grain of
the metal, are in different positions.

The patentee also forms piles in which the exterior shell oi case
is formed in the manner described, but the interior is filled with
plates or flat bars piled or placed in the (udinary manner. He
likewise descrilies and illustrates in the drawings accomjianying
the specification, a mode of forming the jiile from whiili hollow
shafts are to be made. This is formed in nearly the same manner
as the preceding, differing only in the employment of two peculiar
shaped bars, for the centre of tlie pile, which when placed together
ftjrm the hollow or cavity required. For the manufacture of

grooved or fluted rollers, such as is used in several of the processes
in the cotton manufacture, the jiatentee describes a mode of pro-
ceeding. The shell or case of the pile is to be made of the four
[dates or bars, as before described, and tlie interior to he filled up
with the best strap iron, and then manufactured up in the usual
manner. The patentee states the kinds of iron he proposes to
manufacture from piles thus formed and arranged, — as angle-iron,
tee-iron, bar-iron, railway-bars, fluted or grooved rollers, shafts
piston and pump rods, &c.

—

=^

^- --

--

_-

1

1 . .

1
i'. ' J'

—

1

i

1

".I

■. 1

1

The second of the improvements described is that relating to
the machinery to be employed for the manufacturing and rolling
the piles, formed as above described. Tliis part of the specification
is subdivided in two parts. First, the construction of the rollers
to be used in rolling the plates or flat bars into the shape desired
to form the piles ; as also the application to the rollers of a bar or
mould, for the purpose of preserving the form of the groove or re-
cess pi-eviously formed while passing between the rollers upon its
edge. This bar or mould is fixed to the framing of the rollers,
and thus allows the grooved bar to slide over it whilst being drawn
between the rollers ; the bars being successively passed between
them until of the proper size.

Thirdly, another of the improvements named in the specification
is the employment of two distinct sets of rollers, for rolling the
bars, &c., placed side by side, and which are to be driven in oppo-
site diiections; so that the bars, after passing through between one
set of them, is returned through between the rollers of the other
set to its original place before the first set of rollers are ready to
be again passed between them, — thus obviating the necessity of
returning the bar over the upper roller to its former place in front
of them, as is usually the case, thus saving time and facilitating
the operation.

The fourth improvement is the mode of supporting the bars of
iron as they are passed between the rollers by a carriage over head,
and to which a traversing movement is given, for the purpose of
bringing the bar of iron before the grooves in the rollers in their
proper order ; there is also communicated to the carriage a tra-
versing motion for the purjiose of bringing it back.

The fifth part describes a mode of straightening bars of iron after
having been rtdled. This the patentee proposes to do sinijdy by
means of their contraction during cooling. The bar to be straight-
ened is taken, while still hot, and placed upon a flat iron plate or
bed, to which, by clamps or other convenient means, the ends of
the bar are firmly secured ; the contraction upon cooling being
suflicient to straighten the bar.

The patentee claims : First, the mode of forming the outside of
a pile, or faggot of iron, by placing plates or flat bars of iron to
gether at right angles to each otlier, tlie edges or corners of them
being dovetailed or overlapjied, the interior being filled either with
scrap iron or with iron plates, whether arranged one upon another
or at right angles to each other.

Second, the use and employment of the bar, or mould, attached
to rolling mills, for preserving the form and shajie of the groove or
indentation u]ion the bar under operation, whilst it is being passed
between the rollers upon its edges.

Tliird, the method described of driving the rollers in opposite
directions.

Fourth, the mode described of actuating, and also reversing the
movements of the carriage for holding the bars.

Lastly, the mode described of straightening bars of iron, by con-
fining and holding them at their extremities while in a heated
state, and by their contraction in cooling assuming a straight line.

1819.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

83

MACHINE FOR BENDING IRON PLATES.

Thomas Bubdett Turton, of Sheffield, steel manufacturer, for
'■^hnprnvenients in machinery for bending and fitting plates or bars of
stf'e/, iron, and other materials, to be nsed for Inenmotive engine and
carriage springs, and other purposes." — Granted June 1 ; Enrolled
December 1, 1848.

The first part of this patent relates to a machine for bending
plates or bars of metal by means of three rollers placed vertically,
to be driven by steam or other power, and is for the purpose of
supersediufjf in a ^reat measure the manual labour now employed
for bending or fitting carriage springs.

The second part of the invention relates to another machine for
the same piirpose; of which fig. 1 is a front elevation, fig. 2 a
transverse section, and fig. 3 a plan view, partly in section, of
such a machine.

Fig. 1.

Fig. a.

Fig. 3.

In this machine the process of bending and fitting is performed
by suitably shaped blocks, the lower one a, remains stationary
when the machine is l)eing used, and tlie upper one b, is lifted up
to allow tlie bar which has been bent to be removed, and an un-
bent bar to be put in its place; tlie upper block is attached to a
plate c, to which is secured the guide-rod d. Near tlie upper ex-
tremity of the rod d, is the antifriction-roller e, against which the
cam h works when the top block is being pressed down upon the
plate or bar to be bent. The cam h is fi.\ed on a shaft i, and is
provided with a segmental slot, through which and through a fork
made at the top of the guide-iod d, a pin or bolt m is passed; to
the strap i is also fixed a long lever A-, by means of which the ma-
chine is worked. AVhen the attendant elevates this lever, the
ujiper block is raised by means of the bolt or pin m, above de-
scribed, and when the bent plate has been removed, and another
plate substituted between the blocks, the attendant, by pressing
down the lever A-, causes the cam h to bear upon the antifriction-
roller e; and by this means the top block is depressed, so as to
give the proper curve to the plate or bar between the blocks. If
it should be found more convenient to work this machine by steam
or other power, instead of by the lever Ic, and its adjuncts, a
wheel 7, represented by a dotted line in fig. 1, should be keyed on
the shaft i. This wheel would be driven by the pinion n, fixed on
the same shaft as a pair of fast and loose pulleyso, the cam h would
have to be replaced by a crank, to which the upper end of the con-
necting-rod ^ would be attached, and the lower end of the con-
necting-rod would be attached to the guide-rod d. It will be
evident that by cliauging the blocks «, and 6, any variety of curve
may be given to the plates or bars under operation. It is neces-

sary to remark that the block a is provided with a groove to
admit the nibs of the s])ring-plates, as seen in figs. 1, and 2.

The construction of the framing for supporting and guiding the
various parts of this machine does not require to be particularly
referred to, being well understood by any competent workman.

HYDRANT OR FIRE-COCK.

An imprrwed Hgdrant or Slide-Valve, for Water-Pipe^, Fire-Hose,
S^c. Registered for Messrs. George Forrester and C'o., of Vaux-
hall Foundry, Liverpool, Dec. 29th, 184,8.

Fig. I. Pig. 2.

Fig. 1 is a longitudinal section, and fig. 2 a transverse section of
the hydrant. Tlie improvement is in making the branch c project
so far through the body of the valve b, as to form its own face for
the valve a to shut against. The projecting end of the branch c,
is truly faced in the lathe. In the engraving, the branch is shown
with a bend, but it may be made of any suitable form. The valve
is opened by a handle on the screw, e.

CAST AND WROUGHT IRON BRIDGES.

Sir — Having read in the January number of your Journal the
remarks taken from a paper read at the Royal Scottish Society of
Arts, by its President, George Buchanan, Esq., F.R.S.E., on the
" Strength of Materials as applicaltle to Cast and Wrought Iron
Bridges," I beg leave to send you the following communication,
which being confirmatory of some of the views brought forward
therein, will, 1 trust, be deemed worthy of insertion.

The formation of beams of a compound nature, so as to insure a
proper combination of the distinct qualities of cast and wrought
iron, by subjecting the one to compressive strains only, and the
other to those only of tension, is a subject worthy of much prac-
tical investigation; and in which economy of construction, safety,
and durability, are particularly involved.

The principle which governs the construction of the beams
alluded to by Mr. Buchanan is indeed a modification of the old
and simple principle of the roof, where two rafters meet and abut
at the top, and are tied together at the feet by a longitudinal
beam ; but it also exhibits a modification of the common king and
queen post truss — a combination that cannot fail, if rightly carried
out, to ensure great rigidity; for taking a pair of the main-braces,
with their adjacent counter-brace, and the vertical tie, we have a
complete king-post truss ; and if all the braces be removed for
a couple of spaces, we then have a queen-post, with the top cord
acting as a straining-beam for this distance, and resisting, unaided,
the compression to which it is subjected by a passing load. As
proof of this fact, I have frequently had adjacent main and

12*

84

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

counter-hraces removed for the purpose of repairs during tlio re-
gular transitu of trains.

Tlie term Lattice is therefore incorrectly applied to these
bridges ; and in America, where the two are quite distinct struc-
tures, the lattice has fallen into disrepute amonj; railway en-
gineers, having generally failed, and exhibited a want of rigidity —
a natural result where the parts are not abutted but placed side by
side, and fastened with pins p.issing through the very heart of the
material itself, on which, as so many pivot points, there is a con-
stant working of the whole structure, which splits the material,
and produces fracture and sinking, unless, as in the extensive
lattice bridges now in use in America, the whole fal)ric be timely
supported by heavy queen-post trusses inside, and bolted to tlie
lattice beams, or by timber arches, which really do the whole duty.
But the strain on a lattice bridge is felt as in all other common
rectangular beams ; and it fails, tlierefore, in the centre of the
span invariably, there being no strut or brace, with properly abut-
ting surfaces, to relieve the weak part, and carry back the strain
to the legitimate points of support — viz., the abutments.

Now, in truss beams of the former construction the strain com-
municated by a load is at once taken up and distributed by the
forces which act only in the direction of the grain of the material
employed, — the weight felt by the vertical ties in a tensile
strain acting on the braces in compression, these communicating
it in tension to the bottom chord, and in compression to the top
chord ; thus getting rid of all direct transverse strain, and afford-
ing one of the greatest elements of strength, which is materially
assisted by the fact that the heavy weight of all surplus material
is dispensed with.

Having for some years given this subject a good deal of time
and consideration, and had the benefit of experience in the erec-
tion of many of these structures, I have observed — 1st, that a
tensile strain is not confined to the bottom chord, but that the
top chords immediately over the points of support on the abut-
ments are subjected to a considerable degree of tension. 2ndly,
that in case of any tendency to failure of the bottom chords, ver-
tical ties, or braces, such invariably takes ])lace at about ^ of the
span from the abutments ; and that it is therefore advisable to
increase the sectional areas of all these parts for some distance
from each abutment. Indeed, in spans of any great length, the
sectional areas should be as large as possible at the points of sup-
port, and gradually decrease towards the centre of the bridge ;
and 3dly, that a due proportioned height of truss on the abut-
ments is requisite to ensure the stability of the structure.

There are two chief points only to be determined by the en-
gineer before erecting a bridge of this kind, which, if correctly
obtained, will enable him to carry it to any extent known — viz.,
the sectional areas of the parts, and the height of truss due to
the required span which must control the proportions adopted.

After explaining the principle of certain timber bridges in North
America, Mr. Buchanan suggests the adaptation of this principle
to iron, for the purpose of forming extremely simple and strong
beams, by making the bottom chords of malleable iron and the
braces and counter-braces of cast-iron in the form of hollow square
tubes.

The perishable character of timber, and the difficulty which has
been always experienced by its inability to withstand the great
tensile strain to which the bottom chords are necessarily sub-
jected, engaged the attention of the subscriber some years ago, as
affording an opportunity for the adaptation of the principle to iron
exclusively ; and it is gratifying to him to find tliat the views
which have controlled his efforts in the work, so closely correspond
with the opinions of such high authorities as Professor Forbes and
Mr. Buchanan.

In the year 184i, after sundry experiments for the purpose of
ascertaining tlie iiroportions of the various parts, and for adajiting
those jiarts to iron, tlie suliscriber built the first iron bridge on this
principle fur railway travel in the United States of America, and
in 1H45 introduced it into this country; since which he has con-
structed al)(iut a dozen iron bridges, varying in span from 30 to 90
feet, in the latter of wbich, it is not a little curious, Mr. Bucha-
nan's suggestion of hollow, square, cast-iron braces has been actu-
ally anticipated, by which strength and lightness of material is
certainly affected.

The advantages derived by this adaptation are —

1st, Economy combined with rigidity.

Sndly, Simplicity and facility of construction and erection.

3rdly, The great ease with which any camber can be given, and
a certainty of its being permanently retained.

On the first of these points, it will suffice to give a brief state-
ment of the cost of two of the bridges just alluded to. They

have been in use for upwards of two years, and were built under
the disadvantages of having inexperienced workmen, and without
the aid of any machinery whatever.

Length of beam 98 feet.

£ t. A.

Cast iron, 56 tons, at 12/. 672 0 0

A\r()ught-iron, 37 tons 1 cwt. 3 qr. 3 lb. at U/. 519 4 10

M'orkmauship and erecting 270 10 6

Total £1461 15 4

equal to almost 15/. per running foot of bridge, which is higher
than any of the others, being unnecessarily heavy, particularly in
the item of cast-iron, although it has the hollow traces suggested.
It is on a skew of 24|°.

The next statement exhibits the cost of a beam 71 feet long,
across an opening of 50 ft. 10 in. in the clear.

£ t. d.

Cast-iron, 16 tons, at 12/. per ton 192 0 0

Wrought-iron, 13 tons, at 14/. per ton ... 182 0 0
Workmanship and erecting 103 10 o

Total £477 10 0

equal to about 6/. 15*. per lineal foot of bridge, which will give a
better idea of economy.

About a year ago, one of these bridges was severely tested by
the breaking down of a ballast-train on it ; and though several of
the axles were broken, and five of tho wagons were heaped in per-
fect wreck upon the structure, tearing up the floor, breaking out
four of the adjacent braces of one of the outer beams, and frac-
turing others, it was found after the wreck was removed, that the
bridge had not yielded in the least, either vertically or laterally, —
and was subsequently repaired, at a cost of 36/.

Simplicity of construction, which naturally produces economy,
as the second point, presents itself for consideration.

The braces on being furnished from the foundry, are put under
the plane or vertical chisel, to bring them to an exact uniform
length by taking off a mere shaving and leaving the abutting ends
square : the remainder of the cast-iron requires only a careful
cleaning. Thus, with very little workmanship, near two-thirds of
the material is ready for use.

In ordinary spans, the chords may be composed of plates of
"Welsh iron, welded into one continuous piece (where careful
smiths can be procured); or they may be left in convenient lengths,
and fastened at the joints by suitable scarfs and bands or rivets.
The chords are then clamped together, placed on edge, and the re-
cesses for the blocks cut out in the rough, and afterwards dressed
up with the file ; the blocks are then fitted, and they are ready for
erection. In addition to the w rought-iron plates which compose
the top chord, there is usually a cast-iron cap which covers it,
formed with flanges on tlie under surface, which fill up the spaces
between the wrought-iron (dates. The whole being clamped to-
gether, forms a beam more or less solid in proportion to the com-
pression it is calculated tii resist ; while the wrought-iron in the
top chord resists any tensile strain to which it may be subjected
over the points of support, as before referred to. These cast-iron
caps are made in convenient lengths, and require no workmanship
but fitting on during the erection of the bridge.

The vertical tie-rods are of cable iron if the span is large, and
are made without a weld, liaving the lieads and nuts uniform.

All the respective )iarts of these structures are unifcu-m, and any
previous fitting together is unnecessary; indeed, they may be made
in different establisliments, brought to the abutments, and put
together at once for the first time.

From the position of the abutting surfaces, the beam, on screw-
ing up the vertical ties, adjusts itself in line and camber, and no
force will prevent its assuming the required form with truth. The
sectional areas are left whole and available, there being not a pin
or bolt through any of the parts.

Tlie portions of the structure liable to injury from accidents can
be repaired without deranging the whole, or rendering it unfit for
constant use.

The third point is the facility of cambering, which is peculiar to
this structure. In ordinary horizontal beams, about four inches in
the 100 feet has been adojrted ; but less can with a great degree of
nicety be given, and if carried to even a semicircle involves j(o ad-
ditional expense wliatex-er in framing or general construction, — the
unifiu-mity of the parts being preserved as in the ordinary straight
beam. It would appear that so small a camber as four inches, in a
structure comjiosed of a number of parts, would soon exhibit irre-
gularities in its curve ; but under the heaviest traffic this camber is

1849.

THE CIVTL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

85

truly retained, and indeed must remain while the ties are able to
keep the abutting surfaces of the parts in close contact.

The is one point in the remarks contained in your Journal on
this subject, which my experience in these structures would seem
to indicate as somewhat erroneous; for while aware of the loss of
material in rectangular beams generally at the extremities, so far
as they depart from the arch, — particularly in cast-iron beams,
where the transverse strain acts on the centre, and a depth of
material and large sectional area is indispensable. There being no
transverse action on these beams, and the centre not being therefore
so liable to give way as those parts nearer the abutments, owing to
the increased levei'age acting on those parts, I conceive (although
admitting the correctness of arching the top chord if practicable)
that the height of truss at and near the abutments is requisite to
the stability of the beam, and in the case of a very long span, that
rigidity would be gained by making the bottom chord in the form
of an arch, even if obliged to keep the top chord horizontal; thus
decreasing the height of truss at the centre of the span, say one-
half, and consequently its own weight, and gradually increasing in
weight and proportions towards the extremities, — which is the
natural form of a lever supported at one end and left to sustain
itself.

It is evident to my mind, from models and some experiments
(although open to conviction), that a structure of the kind de-
scribed, suitably proportioned, might be built for a considerable
distance from each face of a supporting pier, without the aid of
temporary scaffolding ; and I would be willing to undertake to
build a bridge involving this principle, on tidal waters or rivers, to
swing upon a centre pier as a pivot, and allow a water-way on each
side of 70 or 80 feet, the extremities of which should only be sup-
ported when brought in line with the two abutments, to accommo-
date the passage of trains.

There is another bridge which may be termed a modification of
the foregoing general principle, several of which have been also
erected in this country, and are worthy of notice. My remarks
have, however, alreadj' gone much beyond my intention, — and ask-
ing for them a place in the next number of your valuable Journal,

I am, Sir,

Yours obediently,

Perry-square, Limericlc. Richard B. Osborne, CE.

Feh. Slst, 1849.

GOVERNMENT SHIP BUILDING.

When, in his brilliantly-written " Organization du Travail" M.
Louis Blanc propounded his scheme for making government the
comptroller-general of national industry, he little thought that the
Destiny of Empires would shortly thrust into his hands the means
of realising his political theories. Suddenly, however, national
work-shojis and all their external machinery was created at his
command, and one thing alone was wanted for perfect success— a
supply of national workers. For the inhabitants of his palaces of
make-believe industry no more deserved the name than do state
pensioners generally.

There is a propensity common to our nature, which, though not
formally stated in ethical works, is universal among mankind ;
that we all work best hi/ the piece. When a man's industry is
rewarded in direct proportion to its results, and not according to a
fixed rate, pre-arranged as a probable equivalent for his labours,
his exertions receive a stimulus which the most exalted sense of
duty and honour cannot afford. Had M. Louis Blanc's pensioners
been what he supposed them to be, all brothers, even then his
splendid scheme of universal fraternity could have been only
partially realised. The will to work for the general maintenance
might have existed, but the requisite power and energy would still
have been lacking. Poor human nature requires constant encou-
ragement and stimulus to animate its exertion; and this is true
of all men — prince, philosopher, and peasant, — that no man ever
worked long and vorhed hard for the .sake of an abstract idea.

This is the fatal and irremediable error of all government
manufactories; and in England, the public dockyards are the
most gigantic exhibitions of its results. From the first Lords of
the Admiralty to the meanest ship-carpenter, not one of the whole
corps of national ship-builders has a direct interest in producing
the best possible ship at the cheapest possible rate. The conse-
quences are worse — no, not worse, but just as bad as might be ex-
pected. Of all maritime nations, England possesses the worst
ships, produced at the dearest rate. The excuse for this result is,

that the excessive difficulty of ascertaining the proper form and
dimensions of a ship, and of predicting its sailing qualities, are so
great, that occasional errors in the calculation are unavoidable.
We wish to show that this position is untenable, — that the errors
do not arise from the complexity of the problem, but from the
manner in which it is worked out. Our purpose is to demonstrate
that the error is not confined to ship-building, but unavoidably
attaches to all government manufacturing. We believe, for exam-
ple, that if pins were a government monopoly, their market price
would be a shilling a dozen : nor have we the least doubt that if
under such circumstances a parliamentary enquiry were instituted,
the result would be a respectable blue-book dennuisti'ating by irre-
fragible reasoning and the highest official testimony that it would
be as impossible to alter the laws of nature as to produce pins at a
cheaper rate.

The sailing qualities of a ship are of two distinct kinds — those
relating to her motion, and those relating to her stability. Tlie
former constitute a difficult mechanical problem, the latter a very
simple and easy one. The former refer to the unknown resistance
of fluids, the force of wind, the hydro-dynamical question of the
pressure of waves, and the results of the combined effect of these
on a curvilinear body. But the latter is simply a hydrostatic
problem, which may be solved with perfect certainty and readiness.
Were science no more advanced tlian it was in the days of Archi-
medes, we might still predict with absolute precision whether a
vessel of given dimensions were capable of sustaining the weight of
her guns witliout suffering too great an immersion. And in like
manner the transverse and longitudinal section of the ship, and
the weight of its several parts, would supply sufficient data for
ascertaining whether she possessed sufficient stability to prevent
her from rolling and pitching excessively.

Now it is in the easier jiroblem that our government ship-
builders so eminently fail. The liistory of a new vessel is com-
monly this. First her guns are found too heavy for her weak
powers, or if she be a steamer, she reels and groans beneath the
burden of her too ponderous engines : this evil partially remedied,
either by diminishing her load or enlarging her dimensions, she is
at last, perhaps, fortunate enough to reach her destined element,
the open sea. But the trials which began at her birth, and unceas-
ingly attended her cradle, pursue her in the career of adult exist-
ence,— lier calamities are now severer than ever. She behaveth
not with the steadiness and dignity befitting her character, and
the ponderous respectability of the lords and gentlemen who called
lier into being. On the contrary, she rollicks and reels like any
harridan : she, the scion of aristocracy, disgraces her noble origin !
and some vulgar craft, built by plain Mr. Jones, passes her in all
the dignity and ease of superior virtue.

To correct the faults of her light behaviour, she is again returned
to dock, becomes the subject of much official correspondence, then
is cut in two, and lightened or razeed, curtailed here, and pieced
out there, until her oldest friends can no longer recognise her.
She will sail now, perhaps — not so well as one of the old French
ships taken in the last war, — but still she keeps above water.
There remains nothing but the bill to pay.

When mishaps like these occur, not once nor twice, but systema-
tically, when the slightest knowledge of mechanics convinces us
that they might be avoided, with as much certainty and far more
ease than errors in the Bank accounts, — when the expense of these
renewed failures is estimated not by thousands but by millions,
when the whole country is impoverished and almost overwhelmed
by its excessive taxation, — when the national defences are im-
perilled by the insufficiency of the navy, — when we find our private
merchantmen and foreign men-of-war regularly equipped for sea
without these disasters, the investigation of their causes begins to
possess some interest.

How are the Lords of the Admiralty, the Surveyors of the Navy,
the Port Admirals, et hoc genus omne, selected ? "Doubtless,"' says
the intelligent foreigner, " for their familiarity with naval affairs,
their long experience of the practical requirements of a ship, their
profound research in the science of ship-building." Simple man !
the First Lord of the Admiralty was never out of sight of land in
his life; but then he is of the highest respectability in his county,
and his family have always been most consistent politicians. Tlie
Port Admiral's uncle regularly divides with the Ministers ; the
Surveyor of the Navy is neai-ly related to a bishop ; and the com-
mander of the experimental squadron was always making such
troublesome motions and inquiries in the House, that government
sent him to sea in pure self-defence.

There appear but two ways of remedying this state of things,
and both — so are we trammelled and involved in an artificial sys-
tem— but partially practicable. If tlie government ceased to

86

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

I Mabch,

m^inufarturc on thoir own account altosether, — if they would jiur-
cli ise their slii))s like other commodities at tlie market value, the
whole coil would he remedied at once. There are many opulent
firms in this country who would readily enter into competition to
supply irovernment with war vessels capahle of hattle with the
war of elements and the fury of human conflict. A system of con-
tract and competition, properly rejjulated, would spare the country
all the evils of enormcuis expenditure and worthless ships. Indeed,
it has been already carried out in an important part of naval ser-
vice— the supply of engines by private contract for the government
steamers.

It is easy to suggest such apian: the discovery of its advan-
tages does' not reipiire much study. H»t tliere is this fatal objec-
tion—that it would destroy an enormous amount of government
patronage. Were it objected that the works required one of such
magnitude that they coiild not be safely entrusted to any private
contractor, and tliat there are no private dockyards where the
works could lie adequately carried on, the difficulty might he re-
moved by dividing the work into distinct contracts ; one for build-
ing the hull, another for the engines, another for the tackle, &c., ;
and by assigning the dockyards, basins, and shops for the con-
tractor's use.

But imagine the weeping and wailing at Portsmouth and Ply-
mouth conseiiuent on such an arrangement ! The vested interests
disregarded, the .sons of noblemen thrown on their own resources,
the votes lost to the government !

Yet when John Bull sees that the system of private contract
works well, and greatly spares his pocket, he will insist that if it
become not universal, 'it shall at least be extended. Once every
ten years he becomes poor, and gets eager for retrenchment ; and
while the tit is u])on him, is tolerably severe in his demands for
economy. If the government would resist that demand, they must
adojit ti'ie alternative plan, and have a better — that is a less grossly
ignorant— class of dockyard officers. At the risk of appearing
scientific enthusiasts, we will venture to recommend that these
gentlemen should acquire a smattering of the science of hydro-
statics. It may he that they care nothing for theory — but nature
does. If they disregard the' laws of floating bodies because they
are generally expressed by the aid of mathematical symbols, the
winds and waves will not sympathise with their ignorance. There-
fore, O surveyors of the navy, when you lay down a ship's lines,
bestow one thought upon her metacentre.

Mctaccntre — what is that ? A long Greek word, unknown and
unheard of in our dockyards. Its meaning was, however, all in
all to the men of profound science who designed the old French
vessels, now imitated by us with stupid Chinese fidelity.

INDIAN RAILWAYS AND STEAM NAVIGATION.

( With an Engraving, Plate V.J

1. Report on the East Indian Railway. By R. Macdonald Ste-

PHKNSOX.

2. Railways in Bombay, and the Cotton Question. By John Chap-
man.

3. Account of some Recent Improvements in the System of Navigating
the Ganges, By Albert Robinso.n, C.E. London : Weale.

When any objection is made to the mode in which we have seized
hold of Iliiidostan, the common answer is, that we have done a
great deal of good for the country, and the people were never so
well oH". If this were true, it would not he a bad answer, as times
go; but unhappily there is very little truth in it; and were we
turned out of tlie country to-morrow no one would care, and there
would he nothing to show that we had ever been there. Our
readers may take a technical view of the question, but here it is a
very fair one. They naturally ask what public works have the
Indian government carried out, how many steamboats are there,
and how many miles of railway.'' and the answer is one which may
be very satisfactory to East India directors, but very unsatisfactory
to the Englisli public.

Of late years, many new settlements have been founded, and
many of our readers have gone out to them as surveyors-general,
and surveyors, and proceeded in the discharge of their duties.
One of the first of these duties is to provide proper accommoda-
tion for communicating between the several parts of the settle-
ment; and if this is a great duty in a newly-settled country, and
one punctually discharged, of course we expect it should be
attended to in an old and cultivated country like India, We

may say that it is not — so little has been done for the roads and for
steam navigation.

In our last number, in a notice of Mr. Albert Robinson's book, we
said something as to the rise of steam navigation on the Ganges;
but we really cannot, in the present state of the question, dis-
miss it so summarily. Year by year the grievance becomes greater,
and we see no effort on the part of the government to give the
social and commercial interests of India tlie necessary facilities of
communication. The policy as to railways is more disgraceful and
narrow-minded than that of the home legislature; and that is
saying a great deal.

The besetting sin of the Indian government is the exercise of a
red-tape system of administration, which leaves nothing to local or
individual action, while the general administration does not ex-
hibit the paternal care it professes. The railway question has
been badgered from office to office, till any one but the managers
of the companies which still keep the field would have been dis-
heartened, and given up the attempt to carry out their under-
takings. We hope they will have the revvurd of their perse-
verance.

In 1845 and 1846, companies asked the permission only to lay
out their money in railways in India; the undertakings were well re-
ceived by the public, and the shares at a premium. Had the ne-
cessary powers been given by the Indian government, neither
guarantee nor contribution would have been required, and a consi-
derable extent of railway would now have been opened, notwith-
standing the disastrous panic which affected the East India mer-
chants. The Indian government had one of the finest opportuni-
ties that could be wished or invented to advance the prosperity of
India. Capital, which India wants, was offered, and the attention
of the public having been drawn to the failure of the American
cotton crops, there never was a better occasion for giving a
great impulse to tlie cultivation of cotton in India. Had the go-
vernment been wise and liberal, offered every facility in their
power, and given a temporary guarantee, the success of the railway
system in India would liave been decided, and the trade of India
would have b»en greatly promoted.

The Indian government were too great in their notions to be
ruled by such considerations: they tfiought they were giving a
favour instead of receiving it, and acted accordingly. Instead
of granting charters of incorporation to those who asked for them,
they appointed an inspector-general to e.xamine India, and report
upon the plans. Meanwhile, the face of the money-market
altered; several of the companies, wearied out and hopeless,
wound up their affairs, and the others were languishing. After
much delay, the government came forward to otter terms to the
companies, and did otter terms which would have been satisfactory
enough in 1845, but were quite out of place in 1848. Nothing has
therefore been done, and the Indian government stands accused
before the legislature and the citizens of England, of having stood
in the way and impeded the welfare of India. This is the issue
now, and though the Indian government are haggling with the
companies, they are really making a bid on the question of the
future government of India. When the charter of the East India
Company comes to be renewed, it will be asserted that they have
done nothing for the good of India; and in particular, they will
be charged with the two heads we have JKst named — ^of wilful
injury to the progress of India, and, so far as the growth of
cotton is concerned, of wilful neglect of the interests of England.
Had they acted as they ought to have done, it would have been a
good plea to point to tlie busy rivers of India, the miles of rail-
way, tlie increase of production, the establishment of a staple
trade in cotton. These would be results wliicli everybody could
understand and nobody could gainsay, and would far outweigh
any Ellenborough peccadillo. Such, however, has not been the
case.

If we reflect upon one great object of having improved commu-
nications in India — namely, the increased production of cotton,
we are of necessity led to the consideration of the United States,
now the great cotton-producing country, and equally under the
government of an English people. That country is supplied with
rivers like Hindustan — it has its Mississippi and its smaller rivers;
the latter, its Ganges and its Indus. The rivers of America have
long courses, and are embarrassed with sand-bars and other ob-
structions; but the steamboat isto be found everywhere. Though
the country is thinly peopled, the railway system is very extensive,
and has now been for years in operation. In the beginning, the
capital was got from England. The electric telegraph wires are
now laid throughout the length and breadth of the land.

Thus the United States have all that Hindostan wants, though
there is no apparent reason for this great ditt'erence in the condi-

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

87

tion of the two countries. It may be added, that the taxation of
the United States for public works is not greater than Hindostan.
The reason for the different state of affairs must be sought for in
the policy and legislation of the two countries, for India has
rivers, has cotton, has an English government, a settled state of
society, good credit, and access to English capital. It is to the
mode in which these resources are managed that we must look.

What has been done with regard to railways in Hindostan we
have seen; but it has been far otherwise in the United States.
There every encouragement has been given to joint-stock compa-
nies, and every facility for the raising of capital. The greatest
freedom is shown in granting powers to new companies, and the
e.xpense and delay are trifling. The Indian railway companies
have not yet been able to obtain charters of incorporation, and they
have been thwarted in getting acts of parliament; and we are not
aware that the Ganges Steam Navigation Company, or the other
steam navigation companies, have been better protected.

How miserable has been the policy and proceedings of the
Indian government. They have caused difficulties to the railway
companies by requiring a preliminary deposit; whereas in the
States, an act of incorporation and full powers would be granted
without any money being paid up. The Indian government have
been obliged successively to reduce the amount of this deposit, or
expose themselves to the accusation of strangling the companies:
but as it is, they have much crippled them.

The United States believe that people would not ask for railway
powers, without meaning and striving to carry them out; and while
they take the application for evidence enough of the intention,
they recognise the difficulty of raising the money for new under-
takings ; and if they cannot encourage this oi)eration, never place
any restrictions in its way. Although there are many imaginary
obstacles to the free grant of powers for executing public works,
there are no real objections, and no difficulties have arisen where
the system of making such free grants has prevailed. The saving
of time by authorising an undertaking on its projection is very
great, and the projectors come into the market with a full assu-
rance that when the money is raised, no delay will take place in its
profitable application. The powers of such an act of incorpora-
tion, of course, only become operative in proportion to the capa-
bilities of the subscribers to carry them out.

The New Englanders do not send out railway inspectors-general
to settle how works shall be made years before they are executed,
whether the white ants will eat up the sleepers, or the railways will
pay a good profit. These are left to the shareholders and their
officers, for it is the money of tlie shareholders that is laid out, and
not that of the government. The appointment of Mr. Simms we
regarded at the time as calculated seriously to prejudice and delay
the execution of the works; and so it lias proved. Instead of
having a number of miles of railway after four years of agitation,
we have only a number of blue-books, which, however well written,
are not calculated to satisfy any one, for practice and experience
alone can determine what are the best materials to be employed,
and how the works can best be executed. Had Mr. Simms spent
his time in India as engineer to a railway, his abilities would have
been more honourably bestowed, his reputation would have been
extended, and some lasting good would have followed. As it is,
positive injury is the absolute result.

The Indian railway question is no longer a res integra; the go-
vernment have damaged, and instead of being able to start afresh,
they have to repair the injuries committed. VV^e consider it neces-
sary that liberal guarantees should forthwith be given to the two
companies — the East Indian Railway Company, and the Great
Indian Peninsular Railway Company — with full powers to raise
money, with free grants of land, and if needful with loans of
money on debenture. The lost ground must be made up, and the
only way is by encouraging a start, for capitalists are disgusted
and disheartened by the difficulties which have been thrown in
their way.

This should be accompanied by a general railway act for India,
which should authorise the several governors, without reference to
the home government, to grant charters of incorporation for rail-
way companies. Such charters should ensure the non-liability of
the shareholders beyond the amount of their payments, eJcemptUm
from being sued for culls, unlimited powers of borrowing money at any
rate of interest, and the liberty of paying interest on calls, divi-
dends, and bonuses, and the issue of new shares. There should be
full power of taking land — the compensation, in cases of dispute,
to be settled by the local courts. The shareholders should liave
the right of making bye-laws for their own government. There
should be no limit to the amount of dividend, nor to the amnunt of
fare to be charged, nor any restrictions as to the running of trains.

A similar law should be passed for steamboat and electric tele-
graph companies, and to include such joint-stock undertakings aa
the several governors might think fit.

The al)Ove recommendations are widely different from the usual
course of railway legislation, and will appear extravagant to those
who have not watched carefully the workings of the joint-stock
system ; but they are supported by the theory of political economy,
and by the most extensive jiractice.

Unless there is a limited liability, a man of large capital will not
for the sake of a small profit make an investment, as his whole
property is at stake; and the millionaire will not jeopardise his
thousand of thousands for one thousand.

Freedom from being sued for calls is the most essential power to
enable the shares to pass current, and capital to be raised. The
power of forfeiting shares for non-payment of calls is quite a suffi-
cient penalty on the defaulter, and inducement enough to make
him strain every nerve to raise the money for the calls; if not, lie
can always sell "them to some one else, who will venture another
call. As the other provision enables the man of large capital safely
to become a subscriber, so this enables the man of small capital
safely to become a subscriber. The objection which is commonly
made, that directors could not carry out contracts with creditors
of tlie company, does not apply, for tlie creditors would have t!ie
property of the company to fall back upon, and they would con-
tract with a full knowledge of the conditions on which they gave
credit. If a man is willing to give credit to a corporation, let
him do so: he can better protect himself than any government
can.

The same reason applies to lenders of money on debenture ; let
them take any rate of interest tliey can get ; and let them, as in
case of lending money on any other security, ascertain for them-
selves the nature of the property on which they lend. They are
willing to do so, if the law-makers will not insist on protecting
them. It is indeed strange, when capitalists are so ready to lend
money to Spain, Peru, and Columbia, without any protection by
act of parliament, that law-makers sliould persevere in protecting
them, as they call it, in lending money to railway companies.
Rothschild arid Baring must surely be better able to protect them-
selves than tlie collective wisdom can be to do it for them ; and as
to the poor, at present no protection is wanted for them, as the
companies do not like to take money in sums less than 1,000/.

Tlie shareholders are best able to'determine how many directors
they shall have when they shall meet, and how the business shall
be conducted, and let them make the arrangements ; whereas now,
a company that wants six directors, is obliged to have twelve ; and
one that wants eighteen is limited to the smaller number of twelve.

AVe do not propose a limit to the amount of dividend, because
the higher the dividends that are declared the more capital will be
brought to bear on railway construction.

We consider it equally needless to place any limit on fares; for
with the full opportunity for starting opposition lines, and the full
knowledge of this on the part of the companies, there will be
every disposition to suit the public convenience. Nothing can be
more mischievous than inculcating the belief in a monopoly of
public works and public accommodation, as it acts for the injury
and disappointment of all parties. We believe that an old com-
pany, fairly conducted, has such superiority in raising capital and
giving accommodation, tliat no opposition company could be started
against it. ^^'e mean, that an old comparry could always maintain
a higher rate of dividend than that which any new opposition
company would dare to offer as an inducement to subscribers.

In conclusion, we earnestly advocate that the government should
remove every obstacle on its own part to steam navigation ; that
it should not allow its own boats to compete ; and that it should
gi\e every encouragement to steam navigation on the Ganges,
Indus, Burhampooter, and other rivers.

If enterprise be left unfettered, we believe the result will be,
first to extend steam navigation on the rivers ; and then to estab-
lish railways as an auxiliary, or in those places where there is no
railway accommodation. Nothing is better calculated than steam
navigation to develope the traffic in India, because it is impos-
sible at once to lay down a complete railway system; and there
will be a natui-al tendency to work the two together, so that the
river shall feed the railway, and the railway bring traffic from
those districts in which there is no water communication.

As a further measure for the benefit of iuland communication
we advocate the adoption of the plans of Mr. Albert Robinson,
the engineer of the Ganges Steam Navigation Company, for im-
proving the course of the Indian rivers, as mentioned in our last.
This can be done at a small expense. Whatever increases the

88

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

fMARCH,

traffic on the Indian rivers diminishes freifiht, and makes out a case
for the railways.

Attaclied to this article is an enfcraving (Plate V.), showing the
class of vessels Mr. Albert Robinson has introduced on the Ganges,
and wliich are well calculated to promote traffic, and ensure the
comfort of the passengers. It will be seen that ample space is left
below, and the engines kept down, which allows of the upper deck
being built upon and appropriated to passengers, without making
the vessel topheavy. It is this combination of a large space for
luggage with spacious saloons that will make steam-vessels pay.
The boats built by Mr. Robinson draw very little water, and can
pass the shallows with facility.

REMARKS ON PATENT INVENTIONS.

[A very able article on the Progress of Mechanical Invention is
given in the last number of the Edinbaryh lieview. It is a valuable
exposition of the mania that has begotten many persons for taking
out patents for the most puerile inventions, founded upon gross
ignorance of the common ))rinciples of mechanics. VVe are in-
duced to transfer to our columns a lengthened abridgement of the
paper, in the hope that it will in some measure arrest the folly of
inventors, and prevent many artful scheming parties palming upon
the public pretended inventions, for the purpose of getting up a
company and duping the subscribers out of thousands, for a patent
that is not worth a straw.]

The Reviewer very properly observes that —

"The simple perusal of tlicir uwa specilicatioiis, aided by a very
moderate degree of scientific knowledge, will siiflice to prove that, uiiie
limes out of ten, all the labour and expense that have been lavished upon
the production of tliese cunningly devised engines could result in nothing
but total failure. Nor do the inventors appear to profit by example. In
spite (if the abundant warnings held out to them in the fate of their pre-
decessors, they persist in adopting the same inelficient menus, the same
defective coustruclion ; or in hopeless attempts to extort from some
natural agent the performance of tasks for which it is manifestly unfitted.
Nay, tlie identical mechanism, that has broken down a dozen times in
other hands, is once more made the subject of new patents, by men who
are not only ignorant of the simple scientific principles wliich would have
taught them their folly, but who do not know the fact that the selfsame
ideas have long since been worked out, and abandoned as impracticable.
Wuhout skill to shape their own course, they cannot perceive the scattei-ed
debris that might warn them of impending shipwreck. Is it credible that
ingenious men, who have seen or heard of the suspension tunnel, and the
electric telegraph, should still waste years in search for the perpetual
motion? Vet such is the fact; and one such machine, at least, may even
now be seen in London, by those who have more faith than knowledge,
pursuing its eternal revolutions.

In the majority of instances, we apprehend that these inventors are hut
little acquainted with the practical details of the branches of art or manu-
facture whereon they exercise their ingenuity. They attempt to do better
than other men, things which they do not know how to do at all. And if,
perchance, some remark be hazarded as to their want of experience, they
consider it sufficient to reply, that Arkwright was a barber, and Cartwright
a clergyman ; that Sir William Herschel taught music before he became the
celebrated astronomer; and Sir Michael Furadiiy passed the earlier years of
life in practising the handicraft art of bookbinding.

Considering that the state of the law renders the privilege of a patent
both expensive and difficult of attainment, and that the whole cost, in ad-
dition to that required for completing the invention, must he incurred before
any beneiit can possibly be derived ; — It becomes an inquiry of some interest
to trace the motives that lead men, many of whom are sufficiently needy and
busy already, to ernt>ark upon enterprises so hopeless. One chief cause may,
perhaps, be detected in that propensity to gamlding which is unfortunately
so prevalent in every stage of civilization. In literature, as in manufactures
— among members of the learned, the military, and even the clerical pro-
fessions, as among mechanical Inventors and meichant adventurers, — the re-
wards of Industry are divided into great prizes, and blanks. Success admits
the aspirant within the dazzling circles of wealth and fame ; failure con-
demns liliu to oblivion, and too often to penury. Whatever may be the
effect upun Individuals — and to him who has aimed high, even failure Is not
without lis consolations — there can be little djiibt, that In a national point
of view the results are advantageous. The general siandard of excellence
is raised. When more men " dare greatly," more will achieve greatly. A
larger amount of talent Is allured to engage in active careers, and to endure
in patience their inevitable fatigues and dlsappoliitnicuts; while from time
to time, discoveries and works of magnificent novelty and utility are contri-
buted as additions to the stores of national wealth.

Abstract science, until within a comparatively recent period, was the
almost exclusive occupation of all men claiming to rank among the " sect
of the philosophers." With the brilliant personal exception of Watt, they
appear to have considered it beneath their dignity to carry out their learned

theories into any practical or profitable employment. Great mechanical
ingenuity they no doubt displayed ; but it was devoted to the construction
of Instruments adapted to scientific research, some of which, it is true, have
since been found of utility to the general public. A few Investigation!
were diligently prosecuted which promised to be of national benefit, such as
those relating to the longitude, chronometers, and the lunar theory; but
they were entertained rather as favourite scientific puzzles, Inherited from
from past generations, than as problems whose solution would prove a vast
commercial good. Davy's safety lamp was almost an exception, at the time
it appeared : and people wondered to hear that Herschel had made anything
in the vulgar way of money by his telescopes, or WoUaston by his platinum.
The " curiosities of the Patent Rolls" would furnish materials for a
copious chapter in some work devoted to an exhibition of the eccentricities
of intellect. Even the titles affixed as labels to a multitude of inventions
suggest very curious reflections. In the list of patents registered during a
part of 1846-47, we find, along with a family of contrivances for personal
and household uses, one for an "anti-emergent rat-trap;" others for "im-
provements in bedsteads," — in pianofortes, saddles, and 4)en-holders; for
"a new fastening for shutters;" or securing corks in bottles; and for
" certain improvements in the manufacture of spoons." Articles of dress
supply their quota. We have improvements in " sewing and stitching ;"
" a new mode of applying springs to braces ;" improvements in " hats and
bonnets ;" an " improved apparatus to be attached to boots and shoes in
order to protect the wearer from splashes of mud in walking ;" and a long
list of inventions connected with the application of gutta percha.

It is a theory rather in favour with inventors, that many of the most bril-
liant discoveries have been made by accident ; and indeed the examples are
sufficiently well-known, of apparently fortuitous occurrences giving birth to
very wonderful realities. But If we could inquire more accurately, we
should probably learn that the lucky accident had but set in motion a cer-
tain train of thought in an already prepared mind ; while by far the ma-
jority of cases exhibit to us the new discovery elaborated by reiterated trials
anil improvements from its rude original. A word dropped In casual con-
versation suggested an idea to the mind of a clergyman (Cartwright) of
practical and benevolent tendencies; which, under the influence of contra-
diction, became hot and strong enough to absorb all his energies for the
production of a powerdoom. On the other hand, we hear of a practical
manufacturer (Radclitfe) becoming convinced that it was possible and de-
sirable to effect a certain operation by machinery instead of manual labour;
and shutting himself up with workmen and tools for many months, until he
emerged from his seclusion with a warp-dresslog machine, to testify to the
success of their prolonged exertions.

Even the simplest-looking contrivances require knowledge, especially ma-
thematical knowledge, of no ordinary degree at every step. The mere cal-
culation, for example, of the best form to be given to the teeth of wheels,
which are Intended to transmit motion reciprocally, requires a process of
analysis beyond the competence of ninety-nine in the hundred even of
educated men. In more primitive stages of the mechanical arts great nicety
was not required. The cogs were then rudely notched In the peripheries of
the wooden wheels by the saw or chisel. Uut now that more perfect work-
manship Is necessary, the mechanist must form the surfaces of the teeth
Into such a curve, that they shall roll Instead of rubbing on one another, as
they successively come in contact, and the friction and wear of material he
thus reduced to a minimum. It is true that many of these calculations are
already prepared and published In tabulated forms, and therefore the Inven-
tor Is not called upon to calculate them for himself. Hut few can hope to
become successful Improvers, who are not at least competent to understand
their nature, and able to determine the particular points of every new con-
trivance where such considerations become important.

Were It not that no exerclbc of tyranny would be more fiercely resented
than any attempt to Interfere with the true-born Englishman's privilege to
throw away his time and money at his own pleasure, we could suggest the
appoliitiiieiit of certain hoards of examiners, whose approval should be first
seemed before any invention, purporting to he novel, could be admitted to
the expensive honours of a patent.

A more popular suggestion has been made, that every patentee should be
required to deposit In some pulhllc museum an accurate model or specimen
of Ills Invention ; which would thus prove highly useful as an oljject of
Interest and Instruction to others, as well as by rendering more easy of de-
termination any litigated question of priority. We should anticipate this
further advantage from, — the attempt to construct his model would often
leave the Inventor self-convicted of the inutility of his scheme and save blm
much disappointment. Even the preparation of an accurate drawing often
has a salutary eti'ect. Mr. Babhage relates that in the construction of his
calculating machine, not one single portion ot the works, although these
were of extraordinary complication, required any alteration after It was once
made, owing to the admiraule care which had been bestowed upon the
drawings.

The limitary principles (by which term we purpose to specify everything,
whether quality or accident, which tends to limit our progress towards per-
fection) may be divided Into two great categories, — Including, first, ttiose
derived from the natural properties of matter; aud secondly, those arising
from the construction or arrangement of the mechanism necessarily em-
pluyed. The higher importance of the former class Is at once manifest.
Diliiculties which arise from construction may be overcome or eluded ; but
the task la very ditficull where we fl.id that Nature herself talaes the hat-

L<'n a I til i/i/i ,1 / , \rr/w

Cross Se<'fu>7i at Lvtuiders

JWlowrvSc

88

tra
for

cla
am
con
bel
bel
the

Th^
pas

[
givi
exp
out

igi'
due
pap
iiiv.
the
con
tha
1

mod
liin(
the
but

S|>it<

elect

defe

natt

Naj

othe

are

taug

idea

Wit

debi

irige

elec

moti

DOW

pu r^
Ir
littk
facti
tban
pere
cons
a cle
celel
lifei
C<
biith
ditio
any
to tr
busy
peril
so p
— ai
feasi
wan
the \
deno
etfet
Witt ■
of \
is ra
larg.
in p
to ti
bute
A
almi
of t
app(

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

89

rier in our path. Man has succeeded in rendering almost every quality of
every various form of material substance available for some purpose of
utility. On certain occasions only, and for certain purposes, some one or
other of those qualities will be found to stand in the way of his success.

Chemistry has gone far towards establishing the hypothesis that all
natural bodies are susceptible of assumirig three forms — the solid, fluid,
and gaseous. — according to the degree of beat by which they are atfected.
At all events, it is certain that heat exercises, in various proportions, such an
influence on the constituent atoms as to destroy or diminish their mutual
attraction ; and even when the mass does not subside into fluidity, it loses
its strength and cohesive properties, and becomes disintegrated. The uses
to which this property of matter have been applied are infinite. Let us see
how it may become a limitary principle.

It is supposed that the possible heat of a burning atom (in which of
course we shall find the theoretical limit) is very far above the highest
known temperature attained in our furnaces; and it would consequently
follow that we might more nearly approach that limit by varying the ar-
rangement of the fuel and tlie supply of air for combustion. This has been
accordingly done, until we have found our progress stopped by the impossi-
bility of discovering any substance whereof to build our furnaces, which
will bear the heat. Porcelain, fire-brick, and plumbago, in various combi-
tions are adopted : but they either crumble or sink down into a pasty mass,
as the fire is urged. The qualities of matter itself here act as a complete
estoppel: and if we would experimentalize further upon the phenomena of
caloric, we can operate only upon a minute scale by means of the gas blow-
pipe, or the heated arch evolved from charcoal points interposed in a gal-
vanic circuit. But for this limit, many useful purposes might be accom-
plished, by the mutual actions or changed forms of material bodies when
subjected to the intense action of heat. For instance, in the case of plati-
num,— we might then separate it from its ores by the ordinary methods of
smelting and fusion; in place of being compelled to adopt the laborious and
costly process of solution in acids. The steam-engine offers an example
nearly parallel. The power of a steam-engine depends primarily upon the
area of surface exposed to the action of the fire, and the intensity of the
fire itself. In marine and locomotive engines, where space must be econo-
mised, the practical limit is fixed only by the degree of heat; and this, of
course, must be kept below the utmost limit which the material of the
boiler furnace will endure. As yet, there has not been discovered any
niateiial better fitted for this purpose than iron ; and we have made our
fires as fierce as the melting point of iron will permit : even now, the fire-
bars are destroyed socnetimes upon the first journey.

Farther than this we obviously cannot go, so long as we use water for the
power-producing agent. Attempts have however been made, to conquer
the difficulty by taking advantage of some other properties of matter in its
relation to beat; based upon the fact that the "evaporating point" — that is,
the degree of heat at which fluids expand into vapour — is found to differ
considerably in different liquids, just as does the melting point of solid
bodies. It would therefore appear probable that, by filling the boiler with
alcohol, which boils at 173", or with ether boibng at 96° Fahrenheit, the
tension of the vapour and consequent power of the engine, could he in-
creased without increasing the heat of the furnace. As both of the above-
named fluids are expensive, it was first requisite so to contrive the machine
that no loss should be experienced, but the whole vapour be recondensed
and returned to the boiler. For this purpose a variety of ingenious con-
trivances have been suggested, the earliest of which, and one perhaps as
efl'eitual as any other, was patented by Dr. Cartwright, in 1797 ; while new
forms of mechanism, with the same object in view, are even still appearing
on the patent rolls from time to time. Whatever the ingenuity of man
could do, has probably therefore been done : but the practical utility of all
these contrivances was destroyed by the influence of other properties of
matter altogether overlooked, although of necessity involved in the question.

These regard the relative bulk of the vapour produced from correspond-
ing quautilies of dili'erent fluids, and the proportion of heat absorbed or
rendered latent in each during the process of vaporisation. The calcula-
tion is sufficiently simple; and the result eft'ectually annihilates all hope of
advantage, either potential or economical, from the etiierial or alcoholic
engines. Thus, to convert a given weight of water inlo steam, 997° of
heat are required as wliat is called *' caloric of vaporization.'' The same
quantity of alcohol will become vapour with 442°, and sulphuric ether
with only 302°. Kut to set aRaiust this appareut gain, we find thai tlie
specific gravity of steam (air being = 1) is -0235 ; vapour of alcohol
rtiOS ; ether 2'5Sfi ; and the result may be thus tabulated.

Caloric of Spec. Grav. Useful effects

Vaporization. of Vapour. of Caloric.

Water 997° -6235 10,000

Alcohol 442° l-eoS 8,776

Sulph. Ether 302° 2-5b6 7,900

The disadvantage ol the latter fluids will be farther enhanced by the
circumstance that, being lighter than water, a larger boiler will be re-
quired to hold the same weight of vaporific fluid :— i.e., a pound of water,
when evaporated, will form about 21 cubic feet of steam; while a pound
of ether will require a larger boiler to hold it, and will only form 5 cubir
feet.

Weight is one of the properties of matter which in practice we encoun-
ter chiefly as an obstacle or inconvenience, tending to increase friction, to
resist motion, and generally to crush and destroy. Meanwhile, the limits of

its range are comparatively narrow — that is to say on one side. We can,
indeed, rarefy a gas until its weight disappears in infinite tenuity ; but we
very soon find ourselves at the extreme verge of any possible increase of
specific gravity. The most ponderous substance known is not quite twenty-
two times heavier than water. And yet there are many purposes for which
bodies of greater weight might he made useful. If, for example, closer or
deeper search amid the stores of the mineral kingdom should lead to the
discovery of some substance bearing the same proportionate gravity to
platinum, that platinum does to cork, how many possibilities of improve-
ment would he placed wiihin our power ! A thin sheet of such a substance,
interposed among the keel timbers of a ship, would give stability and other
sailing qualities at present unattainable. Blocks of it would afford sure
foundations for piers, bridges, and all marine works. It might then be
found no longer impossible to establish a lighthouse on the Goodwins. As a
regulator, or reservoir of power — for counterpoises, pendulums, and fly-
wheels; for all purposes where percussive force is required; and in steam-
hammers, pile-drivers, and shot of long range, the utility of such a sub-
stance would be enormous. In each and all of these objects, we are limited
by ihe limits of specific gravity in our materials.

The " Strength of Materials" is an element that enters inlo almost every
calculation of the mechanist ; and it is found to coustitiite not only an ab-
solute limit to all possibility of advance iu certain directions, but also a
relative limit universally, when we attempt to reduce beyond certain pro-
portions, the size, weight, and cost of our mechanical erections. Its
variations also are extensive bolh in degree and in condition. Some bodies
offer strong r'esislance only to certaiu modes of attack. Impervious ou
one surface, they will yield and splinter into laminae under a slight blow
upon another. Some will bear pressure to an euornious extent, but are
easily torn asunder; others resist the divellent forces, but crumble under a
light weight. A very extensive variety of substances possess a fibrous
texture, and are endowed with vast strength to resist a strain iu the direc-
tion of their lenglh, but are much weaker agaiust a lateral or transverse
foi'ce. This dilierence is found to vary to an intioite extent ; from that of
certain metals where the advantage is only four or five per cent, in favour
of the direct resistance, to the vegetable and aminHl fibres, such as flax or
silk, which possesses enormous tenacity, combined with most complete
flexibility.

The variations in the natural properties of bodies have given infinite
scope for the exercise of human ingenuity. In Ihe erection of eiigiueering
works, and in a still higher degree iu the contrivance aud construction of
moving machinery, the combination of theory and practice is perpetually
exhibited in surprising perfection. By nice calculation of the opposing
forces, together with great practical skill in the mechanical details of con-
struction, we can now attain a result in which abundant strength is united
with the utmost possible economy of space aud material. There is no
waste ; no addition of useless and cumbrous weight: all irregular strains
are skilfully couuterbalanced, and the greatest pressure distributed over
the points of greatest resistance. Experience has entitled us to place im-
plicit confidence in the scientific precision of our engineers. Every day
we trust our lives and fortunes, wiibout misgiving, into situations where a
slight error in the calculations, or a slight defect iu the workmauship,
would inevitably lead to some terrible calastrophe. How little do tlie
crowds who throng the deck of a Thames or Cljde steamboat, or who
allow themselves to be hurried along at fifty miles an hour iu a I'ailway
carriage, reflect upon the delicate condilions which must have been fulfilled
— the complicated rnechanrcal problems which must have been solved, la
order that they might accomplish their journey in secur-ity. A multitude
will gather upon a suspension bridge without fear or danger, although the
rods by which the massive roadway and its living freight are sustained ap-
pear as mere threads in comparison with the mass they have to support :
while, if any one reflects at all upon the matter-, it is to assure hrmself that
every possible amount of pressure has been theoretically provided for ; and
that, praciically, every separate bar and joint has been severely tested, so
that no single Haw in the material, or defect iu the workmanship can have
passed without detection. Krrbourg, before the civil war of the Sonder-
bund had given it a political notoriety, was celebrated chiefly for its wire
bridge, hung at an altitude of uearly 100 feet between two summits. " It
looks," says a recent li-aveller, " like a spider's web flung acr'oss a chasm,
its delicate tracery showing clear and distinct agaiust the sky." Dili-
gences and heavy wagons loomed dangerously as llrey passed along the
gossamer fabric.

The force that enables a suspension bridge to sustain itself is, what we
have called the cohesive force, and is due, we must suppose, to some variety
of the attractive principle among the corpuscular atoms, which causes
them to resist a separating or divellent strain. In ordinary bridges and
among the usual erectrons of architects, on the other hand, the pressure to
be considered is that which crushes the parts together. To resist this, the
piers of the bridge must have strength sufficient losupport the loaded arch ;
and the pillars of the cathedral to sustain the fretted vault that rests upon
them. In this case we tiud that the strength which arises from the co-
hesion of the atoms between themselves is increased by that due to another
quality of matter — namely, its rncompressibiluy. When any solid body
yields to a crushing weight, the consequent efl'ect must be, either that its
particles are actually pressed into a smaller space ; or that, being made to
exert a wedge-like action upon one another, llie exterior layers are forced
out laterally. The addition of a band or hoop will then bring the incom-
pressihility of the atoms more fully into play : and bodies that are eu-

13

90

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

LMarch,

Howed with slight powers of cohesion may thos be rendered enormously
tlrong. Indeed we find IhHt fluids, in which the cohesive force is prac-
tically at z^ro, cannot be crushed by any pressure we can exert, proviited
the hoop or tube that surrounds them can be secured. Now the interior
atoms of every substance under pressure are more or less thus hooped-in
and strengthened by the exterior. To the strength from cohesion is ailded
that from incompressibiiity ; and this elTect is produced in a rapiiily in-
creasing ratio as the sectional area of the body is enlarged. A culie of
lead suspended from iis upper surface and held together only by coliesion,
will break down if larger than 180 feet to a side. If standing upon one
side as a base, it might be made of infinite size without danger of fracture
from its own weight.

M'e may conclude, therefor^, that the total force of resistance is amply
sufficient to answer any call we are likely to make upon it. It is certain,
at all events, that we have not, as yet, built up to the strength of our
actual materials. Our marble and granite columns will sustain ten times
the weight of any edifice the present generation can wish to erect Or
if not, they will use iron. The theoretical limit to the span of our bridges
is that only at which the voissours of stone or iron would crumble under
the intensity of pressure. The cost and inutility of even approaching to
such a limit, will always assign them much narrower dimensions : though
large enough, nevertheless, to admit of the accomplishment of that mag-
uiliceut project — of which the first design is due to the genius of Telford
— for spanning the Thames at Westminster by a siugle arch. Such a
work would be worthy alike of the age and the site ; and we see no
reason why it should not be undertaken, and completed at least as soon us
(supposing promises to be kept in future only as heretofore,) the last stone
is laid upon the Victoria Tower. The tubular bridges now in course of
erection by Mr. Stephenson, upon the Chester and Holyhead line of rail-
way, will probably remain for many years unsurpassed, as specimens of
science and engineering skill.

The hjpothesis that the lorce of cohesion is proportional to the area of
section, leads us to the ordinary rule of practice — that as the magnitude
is increased, the strength increases as ttie square, and the strain as the
cube of the dimensions. The proportions consequently which oiler
abundant strength in a model, must be materially ahered when the design
is executed at full size. M hen any of the parts are intended for motion
a new element is introduced, from the inertia of the moving masses; and
thus both the size and the velocity of our machinery aie confined wiihin
definite limits. To extend these limits, it is often necessary to solve the
most complicated problems of dynamics, and to follow the irain of motion
through an intricate series of action and reaction. We must simplify and
reduce the number of moving parts, and so adjust the momentum of the
inertia, that the resulting strain shall be neutralised, or reduced to a
niinimum : and where it is necessary that the direction of motion should be
reversed, we must accomplish this object with no such sudden or violent
shock as would dislocate the machinery. The difficulty of this attempt
iu many instances is proved by the heavy motions and hideous noises tl at
accompany the woi king of almost all newly-invented mechanism, and of
tiie simplest machines found among nations less skilled than we are in the
arts of construction.

It is equally unscientific, and almost equally dangerous, to give too
much stienglh to our constructions as too little. No machine chu be
elrunger than its weakest part; and therefore to encumber it with the
weight of a superfluous mass, is not only to occasion a costly waste of
material, but seriously to diminish the strength of the whole fabric, by the
unnecessary strain thus produced upon the parts least able to bear it.
This fault is one which is most frequently discoverable in new machinery ;
anil which when once adopted in practice, retains its hold « ith the greaest
inveteracy. It requires no common powers of calculation, and not a little
faith, for men to trust to the safety of structures which have apparently
been deprived of half their former strength.

There can be no belter proof of the difficulties which oppose the adop-
tion in practice of any new principle of constiuction or configuration, than
that exhibited iu the history of shipbuilding. In no creation of human
labour was it more necessary to secure the greatest possible strength from
the minimum of material; as none were required to possess such vast
bulk in proportion to their mass of resistance, or were exposed to more
violent varieties of strain and shock, in the natural course of their service.
The men who superintended the public itockyards were often well
versed in mathematical science; and were certainly acquainted theoretically
with the common axiom, that among right-lined figures, the triangle alone
will preserve its form invarinble by the rigidity of the sides, without de-
pending upon the stiftnees of the joints. Yet none until a rei ent period,
worked out the axiom into its very obvious practical development. For
centuries were our ships constructed on principles which caused the whole
frame-work to be divided into a succession of parallelograms. Every
series of the timbers, as they were built up from the keel to Ihe decks,
formed right-angles with their predecessors and w ilh their successors ; so
that the whole tabric would have been as pliable as a parallel ruler, but
for the adventitious firmness given by the mortices, bolts, and knee pieces.
At least three-quarters of the available strength of Ihe materials was
possibly allogelter thrown away. The safely of the whole was made to
depend upon its weakest parts; and when decay commenced through pro-
cess of time or the action of the elements, every successive stage iii its
advance made the progress more rapid, since the wear and friction in-
creased iu double proportion as the fastenings became weak and luose.

Among the properties of matter are some that we may term subsidiary or
incidental : qualities which we may be said to discover rather than to com-
prehend; and whose agencies are of a secret, and as it were stealthy
character, so that we cannot always predict their recurrence or calculate
their force.

The fluid and gaseous bodies present many instances of these per-
plexing phenomena. While investigating the conditions under which solid
substances enter into solution ; the rise of liquids through (apillary cavi-
ties ; the motions of camphor and other bodies when placed on the still
surface of water ; the phenomena of crystallisation : the condensation of
gases in charcoal; or the inflammation of hydrogen when in contact with
minutely divided platiiiuju — iu ttiese and similar cases, we encounter on
every side a series of anomalies which as yet baffle all our efforts to group
the iucoherenl facts into a consistent theory. Kor Ihe present, therefore,
we content ourselves with the functions of empirics and registrars. We
must observe and collect the facts which may hereafter furnish a clue to
the labyrinth ; confident that when that clue is once seized, every step will
not only bring us to some result of practical utility, but will reveal yet
another example of the divine symmetry of nature.

The limits that are set to improvement by diffioulties of construction, or
the arrangement of mechanism, require a very different species of analvsis
from that which has for its olject the properties of natural substances : and
the terminal problems are susceptible, in general, of merely relative solu-
tioiiS. Seldom may we be able to say absolutely — ' So far can we go, but no
farther.' But we are often able to decide among the great objects for which
machines are intended — economy, rapidity, and safety — how far the necessi
ties of each can be accommodated, so as to produce the re»ult of most ad-
vantage. Yet even here our verdict can seMoiii be considered as final.
The introduction of a new material, or the suggestion of a new combination
of parts, may at once render easy the improvements that have bafBi^d the
ingenuity of man for generations. The history of invention is full of sucli
examples. It would be a curious inquiry to trace how many contrivances
have been delayed for years from the mere want of knowledge or skill to
execute the works ; and obliged as it were to lie fallow until the cunning of
the workman could sulBciently correspond with the ingenuity of the inven-
tor. When Hadley first constructed the quadrant, still known by his name,
for a long period it was perfectly useless in the determination of the longi-
tude, as the indications could not be depended upon to a greater accural y
than 50 leagues. But after Ramsden had invented his " dividing-engine,',
the graduation was so vastly improved, that even in the commonest instru-
ments, an error of five leagues was seldom to be feared. The minute
measurements of angular distances by the micrometer were long subject to
similar difficulties. The instrument waited, as it were, for Wollaston's dis-
covery of the means to procure platinum wire so fine that 30,000 might he
stretched side by side within the breadth of an inch. The limit which was
reached by this discovery was followed by another pause. Then came a new
advance, owing to the beautiful invention of an eye-glass composed of
double refracting spar, so mounted as to revolve in a plane parallel to the
axis of refraction, and give, by the gradual separation of the two rays, a
measurement susceptible of almost infinite delicacy.

So in the history of the steam-engine. Boulton and Watt had been long
partners, and the theory of his great machine was almost perfect, when Mr.
Watt still found that his pistons fitted the cylinders so ill as to occasion con-
siderable loss from leakage. In 1774, Mr. Wilkinson, a large iron-master,
introduced a new process of casting and turning cylinders of iron. Watt
at once availed himself of them, and in a lew months the inaccuracy of the
piston " did not anywhere exceed the thickness of a shilling." The won-
derful perfection since attained may be seen in a rotary steam-engine
patented within the last few months. The steam-chamber presents a sec-
tional plan, somewhat resembling five pointed Gothic arches set round a
circle ; the outbne being formed by ten segments of circles, all referring to
different centres. The piston has to tiaveise round this singularly formed
chaniber, preserving a steam-tight contact at both edges ; and such-is the
accuracy of the workmanship, that the leakage is barely perceptible.

Steam, as applied to locomotion by sea or land, is the great wonder-
worker of the age. For many years we have been staitled by sucli a suc-
cession of apparent miracles ; we have so often seen results which surpassed
and falsified all the deductions of sober calculation, — and so brief an in-
terval has elapsed between the day when certain performances were classed
by men of science among impossibilities, and that wherein those same pi r-
formunces had almost ceased to be remarkable, from their frequency — that
we might be almost excused if we regarded the cloud-cumpelling demon
with somewhat of the reverence which the savage pays to his superior,
when he worships as omnipotent every power whose limits he cannot him-
self perceive. It is not surprising that inventions, designed to improve the
forms and and applications of steam-power, should constitute a large per
centage of the specifications which are enrolled at the Patent Office. Even
in France, we learn that within a period of four years, the following number
of patents, connected only with railway construction, had been obtained : —
In 1843,19; 1844,22; 1845,88; 1846,131; total 260. Of these we
are told that not above three or four have been cariied out so as to realise
advantage to the inventors, and all of those were of EngllKh origin.

The number of English patents is, of course, considerably greater ; but
we doubt whether the proportion of successful ones has been at all higher.
Ingenious men have never expended their energies upcn a subject where the
splendour of past or possible successes Las so effectually dazzled tliLir

1849.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

Dl

imagination, and rendered them unable to perceive the great difference be-
tween the relative and the absolute limits of possibility. Because science
iiad failed to predetermine the point at which higher performances became
impossilile, they too often began to consider it superfluous to invoke her aid
at all — forgetting that the problems are quite different ones — to decide be-
tween the relative merits of two modifications of mechanism, and to define
the ultimate capabilities of either. There is no more striking example of
this tendency than is exhibited in the controversy between the two great
systems of railway traction — the locomotive and the atmospheric. This
controversy has already cost the public incredible suras ; and has, moreover,
been so dexterously managed, that even now, if the money markets were to
return to a very possible state of plethora, a plausible prospectus and a new
patentee w-ould tind it no difficult task to organise another company, aud to
get subscribed fresh hundreds of thousands towards carrying out an experi-
ment which ought never to have required more than a few months' trial and
a short lentitb of working line for its final settlement, — for the principles
according to which the experiment must succeed or fail, had been determined
long since ; and it is a fact equally sad and strange, that among the very
numerous patents relating to the atmospheric railway, there is not one that
touches upon the real turning point of the question. What was called the
" longitudinal valve" or opening, through which was estaMished the con-
nection between the piston travelling within the exhausted tube and the
train of carriages, formed the piece de resistance for the inventors ; and very
many and clever are the contrivances we find specified for improving or dis-
pensing with this valve. And yet the valve itself entered but as a subordi-
nate function into the equation by which success or failure was to be deter-
mined. Granting that its construction was theoretically perfect, and all
friction and leakage annihilated, the main principle, which depended upon
the laws that govern the motions of elastic fluids, was left wholly untouched.
The history of science, nevertheless, contained records which should have
prevented this mist.ike. One hundred and sixty years ago, M. Papin, one of
the earliest inventors of steam machinery, invented a motive apparatus in-
volving this identical principle, and "hich, when tried, was found wanting.
The machine alluded to was described by the inventor as *' an engine for
pumping the water out of mines by the power of a moderately distant
river." His plan was to erect upon the stream or waterfall a series of
force-pumps by which air was to he condensed into a reservoir. From this
reservoir a close tube, some miles in length, was to be carried over hill and
valley from the brink of the river. It was supposed that the condensed air
Would travel along this tube, and could be applied at the mine, through
appropriate mechanism, to keep the pumps going. M. Papin is said to have
tried his invention upon a large scale at Westphalia; aud it is certain that a
similar engine was erected in connection with one of our own Welsh mines;
and in both cases with equally ill success. The machines at the useful end
could never be got into motion. The condensers on their side worked
powerfully, but the blast of air at the distant extremity would hardly blow
out a candle ; and although it had been calculated that the condensation
would he transmitted along the tube in less than a minute, it was found
upon trial that tlie slight impulses which arrived at last had been three
hiiurs on the road. As a last attempt, the motion of the air-pumps was
reversed, and the efTett tried of employing an exhausted tube. But this
mode proved as inefficacious as the other ; and the experiments were finally
abandoned.

In the process of weaving by the power-loom we find an analogous exam-
ple of velocity limited by the broken or alternating motion of the acling
forces. The rapidity with which the shuttle can be thrown from side to side
between the threads of the warp, is limited by the strength of the woof-
thread it carries across. When the strain is so great as to cause more than
a certain average number of breakings, the net product of the machine will
be increased by working at a lower velocity. By a recent improvement, the
shuttle is made at every vibration or ' shot' to commence its motion slowly
and increase in velocity as it proceeds ; thus diminishing the strain upon the
thread and economising time, even in the four or six feet that constitute the
average extent of each 'shot' And by this means the looms are sometimes
woiked at a rate of 180 threads per minute, or 3 in every second. This will
constitute the absolute limit of speed under the existing form of construc-
tion. To extend it we must introduce a new principle, and discover some
method of weaving the tissue in a cylindrical web ; when the oscillation of
the shuttle might be transformed into a continuous revolution, and the strain
upon the woof, arising from the perpetual stoppage and change of motion,
he annihilated.

RIGHT OF ARBITRATORS TO COPY PLANS EN-
TRUSTED TO THEM.

ROYAL ITALIAN OPEBA-HOUSE, COVENT GARDEN.

[We have been requested to give insertion to the following let-
ter, and to give our opinion as to the practice. We must decline
saying one word as to the award ; but with regard to the right of
the umpire to copy any plans or drawings that are laid before him
we must deny, and consider that it is a breach of duty.]

Sir — Under a deep sense of the duty I owe to the profession at large, as

well as to myself, I feel bound, however reluctantly, to expose the following
facts, which, if tacitly sanctioned, I consider would be derogatory to my
professional character, and highly prejudicial to the ends of justice ; and I
hope to meet at your hands the candour and support that my case deserves,
and which it is well known you never withhold.

The lessees of the Royal Italian Opera-house chose, about a year after its
completion, to contest two-thirds of my bill of 2,3U0^. for superintending
the erection of it, &c., obliging me to institute legal proceedings to recover
the balance of it, when, alter payiiig into court 825/. more than they had
offered me just before going to the jury, they begged a reference (w hich I
bad originally offered and they refused.) i'o this I acceded, and iMr. T. L.
Donaldson and Mr. T. Bellamy were appointed referees, and by them
Mr. S:imuel Angell was named as umpire, and, as the referees could not
agree, Mr. S, Angell became the sole arbitrator, and the deptisitory
of all my original designs and ducuuieuts uecessar^ to substantiate my
claim.

On Mr. Angell's award being delivered (of which, as you hav»t perhaps
properly, refused to admit any comments on it, 1 must say nothing, what-
ever I may think), 1 applied at his office for my papers, and found to my
astonishment that the most complete of my designs, working drawings,
and papers, were missing from the portfolios and tin boxes, and that many
had beeu copied iu Mr. Angell's office by two of his assistants, one of
whom being found by me iu the act was obliged to admit that it was by
Mr. Angell's order that be had done so. Such proceedings seemed to de-
mand an explanation, and I wrote to him, that after the solemn assurance
he had given to me iu the presence of Mr. Donaldson, Mr. Smith, aud
others, as to the safety of my papers when delivered into his hands, 1 could
not but regard bis conduct as wholly unjustifiable, inasmuch as he was
acting as umpire in the performance of a professional and judicial duty, and
I requested him to deliver to me the other documents in his possession, and
to render to me the most explicit explanation on the subject. Mr. Angell's
reply was, that the documents I claimed of him remained in his strong
closet during his absence from town ; but he admitted that my drawin^js
and extracts of my papers had been copied in his office by his authority;
and that he considered he had a perfect right to have any copies or extracts
made from any documents or drawings put in by me as evidence in support
of my claim, in order that his memoranda might be complete, should iheie
be hereafter any occasion to refer to it; and he went on to assure me that
I need be under no apprehension whatever, and that he was quite prepared
at any time to show tlie tracing made from my drawings to Mr. Donaldson,
or to Mr. W. Cotteiill (my solicitor), iu expectation ot satisfying them as to
his mode of acting.

These explanations cannot be regarded as offering anything like satisfac-
tion ; and as to his giving explanations to Mr. Cotterill, or Mr. Donaldson,
1 have only to refer to lUese gentlemen's letters, in which Mr. Donaldson
says, that " the award has caused great surprise and disappointment to him,
particularly as regards Julian's salary; and that after much thought he could
not understand why copies ot my drawings were taken by Mr. Angell, they
not being necessary to suiistantiate any point in the award, and tliat in so
doing he had erred in judgment in this case altogether;" while Mr. Cotterill,
the other gentleman referred to, wrote to me that " he had read over my
correspondence with Mr. Angell, but did not see any use in examining the
copies he bad taken from my drawings. Certainly," Mr. Cotterill says, " I
cannot see any possible use in Mr. Angell's copying any of them for any
purpose of the arbitration."

To these opinions of the gentlemen to whom he appealed, and of a great
many more professional men to whom 1 have mentioned the citcumstances,
it is necessary to add, that one of the copies made from my designs, and on
which his assistant was discovered, is marked No. 52, the title of which runs
thus — " Longitudinal section ot the new theatre, saloons, stage, &c., from
the foundaiioiis to the roofs, complete as executed." On this copy Mr.
Angell's assistant has written as follows ; —

" Copies of this and some other drawings of Mr, Alhano's works of Co-
vent Garden, by Mr. Angell's order, were taken by me and Mr. Wood, and
are in Mr. Angell's possession.

(Signed) G. Judge, jun."

" September 27, 1818,"

The law affording me no redress at this stage, I am obliged to state now
what otherwise 1 would under no other circumstances bring forward. 1 have
been a member of the profession of civil engineers for a quarter of a cen-
tury in this my adopted country, and have been engaged upon various works,
which 1 presume have sufficiently established my claim to some auinty ; if
not 1 would willingly allow my reputation to be estimated by what 1 have
done at Covent-garden Theatre, the manner in which it has been accom-
plished, the very short period in which it has been effected, and the small-
ness of the expenses attending it, considering that it required fifty-four
original and elaborate designs, and above a hundred working drawings, spe-
cifications, &c., &c. (all put in evidence), besides daily and nightly attend-
ance to the extent of from sixteen to twenty hours a-day, directing and
superintending from the very foundations the construction and decoration of
tlie new theatre, her Majesty's apartments, and the improvement of the
whole establishment; converting at the same time the whole of the old ma-
terials, on whiih were daily engaged from 1,000 to 1,600 workmen of all
trades, as well as the attendance ul six of my assistants and a dek of inc

13*

92

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

works, all their expenses and salary being defrayed by me during above six
months up to the opening of the theatre, and for about eight months after-
ward the expenses of mvself and two assistants. I can confidently appeal
to Mr. Ilosking, who, in his official capacity as official referee, inspected
most minutely all my designs, and in his evidence declared that he saw the
whole of the works and foundations, and that, to the best of his judgment,
they were executed in an admirable manner, and displayed great ability
without extravagance, and that he should not have allowed the theatre to
have been opened unless it had been properly done. I could also appeal to
the evidence of Mr. Allison, Mr. Braithwaite, Mr. Godwin, Mr. C. H.
Gregory, Mr. W. Laxton, and Sir John Rennie, who had often visited the
works during their progress, and unanimously declared it to he a very cre-
ditable work ; and considering its great intricacy and the short time allowed,
it was executed in a scientific, workmanlike, and economical manner, ai.d
as a work of art carried on with great skill and success ; and they all spoke
verv particularlv as to mv indefati^ability and the fairness of the amount of
my' charges for a work unequalled for the great sacrifice and exertion it
demanded, and which had been admired by all impartial judges, to whom,
as well as for the favourable unanimous opinion expressed by the public
press, I owe a deep debt of gratitude.

I consider myself in duty called upon, on public as well as on private
grounds, to appeal to the judgment of my profession, either as engineers or
architects, to the members of which I look with confidence, satisfied that
their high character and honourable feelings will induce them to form a right
estimate of these proceedings, and will not allow my professional rights to
be trampled on with impunity. I contend that Mr. Augell had neither right
nor pretext whatever to take copies of ray designs; his duty in the office to
which he was appointed was to determine on the remuneration, which, in
equity, I was entitled to upon my claim, without having any further duty to
perform ; and certainly nothing which could render it necessary or proper
for him to retain copies of my drawings ; and I leave it to the profession
and to the public to form their opinion, both as to his conduct and the
motive which may have influenced him on this occasion to copy my papeis,
which he still retains in his possession — conduct which I contend is wholly
unprofessional and indefensible ; and I refer it to the profession and to the
public, on whose well-known love of impartial justice and hatred of oppres-
sion I can confidently rely. I am. Sir, &c.,

B. Albano.

Office, 22, King William-street, Strand, Feb. 1849.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

Feb. 5. — A. PoYNTER, Esq., in the Chair,

Mr. ScoLES read a paper " On the Topography and Antiquities of the
City of Jerusalem.''

In the course of it, the writer alluded to Mr. Fergusson's published theory
as to the Mosque of Omar and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and that
gentleman being present, an interesting discussion ensued. .Mr. David
Huberts, R.\. (some of whose capital sketches were amongst the illustra-
tions of the paper), joined in questioning Mr. Fergusson, who stood
gallantly and good-naturedly a cross fire of objections.

Mr. Fergusson's views, as we gathered, may be briefly stated thus :
namely, that the liuilding known as the Mosque of Omar is, in truth, the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and that what is called the Church of the
Holy Sepulchre, and was. burnt in 1808, was a building not earlier than the
J 2th century. His principal reasons for the first part of this belief the
that the so-called Mosque of Omar is unquestionably a circular Christian
building of the time of Constantine, and is built over a rock standing up
15 feet from the floor, with a cave in it; further, that it could not have
been a mosque, its shape and arrangements being contrary to the require-
ments of the religion. In reply to the question, at what period was the
truth lost sight of and the title of Church of the Holy Sepulchre given to
the edifice which now bears it, Mr. Fergusson said about 150 years before
the Crusades. Mr. Scoles did not believe that the (so-called) Mosque of
Omar was of the age of Constantine ; the main arches were sliglitly pointed.
He had never seen a pointed arch as old as Constantine. He considered
that the columns used were from a more ancient building, but the structure
itself was of a comparatively recent period. Mr. Fergusson contended tliat
the arches being pointed, in no way weakened his opinion ; he had else-
where shown that the pointed arch, from 800 years B.C., had been the arch
of that country — that is, the horizontal arch bracketted inward to a point.

Mr. Henry Garling, Fellow, presented a valuable donation, of 20 folio vo-
lumes, consisting of an early edition of Palladio (1570); Ilauiillon's Vases;
Original Designs, by Lewis ; Chambers' Civil Architecture, 3rd edition, with
autograph of the author; W. Adams's designs (of Edinburgh); Gibb's
works ; an d Rondelet's Traite' The'urique et Pratique de I'Art de Bdlir.

SOCIETY OF ARTS, LONDON.
Jan. 17.— W. TooKE, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

The first part of a paper " On Improvements in Electric Telegraphs, and
newplans for Printing by Electricity," was read by E. Highton, Esq., C.E.

Perfect as telegraphs at first sight appeared (observed the author) when
Professor Wheatstone applied the discovery of Oirsted to telegraphic pur-
poses, and used the attractive power of soft iron (discuvered by Arago), for
releasing or guiding the mechanical operations requisite for the purpose of
either pointing to or printing letters, still imperfections were found to exist,
and those to a very serious extent — so much so indeed, as to render in prac-
tice many of the proposed plans useless.

Previous to pointing out tlie imperfections alluded to, Mr. Highton made
a few remarks relative to the action of electricity and magnetism generally.

He then proceeded with the object of the paper, and considered the sub-
ject under the following heads: — 1st, the Instruments; 2nd, the Batteries;
3rd, the Conducting Wires; and 4th, the action of Atmospheric Electricity,
Lightning, the Aurora Borealis, and Electrical Fogs.

The first Instrument Mr. Highton noticed was the Bell. The ringing of a
hell at a distant point, under the latest improvement of Messrs. Wheatstone
and Cooke, is etfected by means of the attractive power developed in masses
of soft iron. The improvement consists in removing a detent from the
wheels of a piece of clockwork, by the momentum obtained from a falling
weight, the weiglit falling by the force of gravity on the catch of the wheel-
work of the bell when the detent is withdrawn, by the attractive power of
magnetism developed in an electro-magnet of soft iron.

The method employed liy the .Messrs. Highton ditt'ers from the foregoing,
as regards the mechanism, in the same manner that a watch differs from a
clock — a watch being capable of continuing its action in any position. The
plan consists in making a spring act by a connecting-rod on the circumfer-
ence of a wheel; atta'ihed to this wheel is the catch detained by the electro-
magnet armature.

The removal of the armature detent is effected by electro-magnetism, de-
veloped in the metal nickel. The alarum may also be rung by magneto,
electricity, by merely removing the armature from a magnet. — Messrs. High-
ton propose using the metal nickel as an electro-magnet in all step-by-stcp
motions, owing to this metal producing little or no residual magnetism.

Having thus alluded to the bell, the author next described the first and
most simple form of telegraphs; and as an instance of the class, described
the needle instrument of Messrs. Wheatstone and Cooke. The signals with
this instrument are given by the deflection of one or more magnetic needles.
In the arrangement of the coil and needle of Wheatstone and Cooke, the
wire of the coil passes in every convolution twice over the middle or dead
part of the magnet. In Messrs. Highton's plan, a horse-shoe magnet is used
instead of a needle, and the wire is placed near the poles only. By this ar-
rangement, the resistance oifered to the current of electricity in having to
pass over the dead part of the magnet is entirely got rid of, and the centre
of oscillation and percussion brought much nearer to the centres of gravity
and motion ; hence less electric power is required, and the oscillation of the
needle at the same time removed.

The next class of instruments alluded to was that in which a step-by-step
motion is employed. The coil attendant on the use of these forms of tele-
graph is, that when one error is made in the transmission of a sentence, sub-
sequent errors are entailed throughout the message, until by preconcerted
signals the instruments are re-set by all the operators in the circuit. Messrs.
Highton's improvements consist in tlie application of an additional electro-
magnet, by means of which the step-by-step movement may at any instant
be thrown out of gear, and the hand, pointer, or disc progress at one bound
to zero or starting point.

This arrangement doubles the speed of transmitting information, and also
enables any number of words or sentences to be ad<led to the end of the
alphabet without increasing the time lequisite for sending a message by let-
ters only ; and at the same time i,ivej absolute security to the working of
this class of instruments, and prevents any error in the transmission entading
subsequent errors in the message.

The third class of telegraphs alluded to were those which instantly expose
to view any desired letter when a corresponding key is touched. Previous
plans require twenty-six wires to etl'ect this : in Messrs. Highton's plan three
wires only are requisite. The letters are shown by the single or combined
motion of tifiee screens*, no weights or wheels, or similar description of me-
chanism, is employed, but each screen can, by motion to right or left, be
made to assume any one of three positions : and thus, by the combination
of three screens, any one of twenty-seven positions can be produced.

Mr. Highton then proceeded to describe the application of this property
to printing telegraphs, and showed how, with three wires only, any one of
twenty-six letters could be printed instantly at distant stations, and that as
rapidly as the corresponding keys could be played on. The arrangement of
the mechanism in these printing telegraphs is such, that no error or inaction
of any of the parts of the instruments can entail subsequent errors in the
message. — Mr. Highton described six ditferent kinds of printing telegraph«,
suited respectively to one, two, or three line wires, and combining several of
the above improvements.

Feb. 7. — Mr. E. Highton read the second portion of his paper on the
above suliject. After a brief recapitulation of the various instruments du-

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

93

scribed at the previous meeting, the author proceeded with his investigations
of the remaining part of the suhject.

The action of the Galvanic Battery was first treated of, and the peouhari-
ties attending this mode of producing electrical power were investigated.
Two specimens of common green glass cells were exhibited, and the peculiar
effects produced by arranging a series of galvanic batteries in various order
were noticed ; and an arrangement of galvanic batteries, producing what the
author called the Electrical Paradox, was exhibited. In this arrangement it
was shown how that the power from a galvanic battery, however large the
area of the plates of that battery were, might be entirely stopped, or the
current even reversed, by another battery so small that it would pass through
the eye of a needle. The application of this principle, and the effects that
would thereby be produced on certain arrangements of electric telegraphs,
were briefly stated. The author then alluded to the rapid oxidation of the
iron railings in the squares of London, and showed how that the effect was
due to a galvanization arising from the use of lead for connecting the iron
with the stone walls.

The author then exhibited the Gold Leaf Telegraph, and remarked on the
very small amount of resistance offered to the electric current by this ar-
rangement. This telegraph was then exhibited at work by electricity de-
veloped from a burning taper. It was observed that the Gold Leaf Tele-
graph was selected by the commissioners appointed by the government of
Baden to report on the kind of telegraph best suited for the use of that go-
vernment, and that its practical use in Germany during the last year-and-a-
half had given every satisfaction.

The next subject treated of was the Conducting JVires, Here the author
remarked on the laws of the transmission of the electrical power over the
wires, and showed how the peculiarities attendant on the use of electricity
in connection with line wires for telegraphic purposes might he most advan-
tageously employed. — Various modes of insulation in use were also noticed.

The author then alluded to the action of natural displays of the electrical
power in the form of Lighlning and the Aurora Borealis. Specimens of
parts of telegraphic instruments, burnt and melted by the action of light-
ning, were exhibited. A description was also given of the effects observed
on the telegraph wires in the Kilsby Tunnel, on the London and North-
Western Railway, during a violent thunderstorm in 1848. Various modes of
counteracting the effects of lightning on electric telegraphs were investi-
gated, and new plans for preventing damage or danger therefrom were sug-
gested. The author then described a very remarkable eflfect produced on
the telegraphic instrument on the London and North-Western Railway, on
the 24th September, 1847, and said the cause of such effects was as yet en-
veloped in mystery. The manner in which the electric telegraphs were af-
fected during the beautiful auroreal display of the 17th of November, 1848,
weie minutely described, and the action upon the wires where the greater
portion of their length was in the inside of a tunnel, was noticed.

Various experiments were made by the author during the evening; the
paper was illustrated by numerous diagrams ; and a series of new electric
telegraphs were exhibited at work.

Jan. 31.— W. TooKE, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

Robert Hunt, Esq., read a paper " On the Photographometer,for mea-
suring the intensity of the Chemical Action of the rays of Light on all Pho-
tographic preparations, and for affording a means of comparing the Sensi-
tiveness of the same" By A. Claudet, Esq.

The art of photography, observes the author, is founded on the property
with which light is endowed — namely, of producing a photographic effect
when it strikes upon certain clieiuical coujpounds. The effect being in pro-
portion to the intensity of the light during a given space of time, it is
necessary, for the success of the operation, to be able to ascertain the exact
power of the light at any particular moment, and the only means of so doing
hitherto possessed by the photographer, is the effect it produces on the eye.
A few only of the rays which emanate from the sun are capable of producing
on the chemically-prepared surface, an effect which is the cause of the pho-
tographic picture; and if it were possible to admit into a room only the rays
which are endowed with the power of affecting the photogenic preparation,
the objects in the room would not be visible to the eye, as the room would
appear to be plunged in darkness, while the objects in it would reflect some
invisible rays which are capable of producing the photographic image. — This
fact the author illustrated by a series of specimens, in which the effects of
rays of light were reflected from the various colours used on porcelain.

The property of absorption possessed by red, orange, yellow, and green
glass being known to photographers, and the power of admitting thmugh
blue glass nearly all the photogenic rays which are not luminous, combined
with the improvements which have taken place since the discovery of the
art by Daugerre, enable the photographist of the present time to employ a
very soft light, and to place the sitter in the shade.

The action of the blue and yellow rays was shown by covering a large
print, one half with dark blue, and the other half with yellow glass. That
portion of the print which was visible to the eye through yellow glass, was
rendered invisible by the action of the ray on the photographic plate ; while
the ray reflected from the blue glass, which entirely obscured the picture,
was rendered perfectly clear and distinct. — Several specimens, intended to
show that theluminous and photogenic rays are not the same, were also ex-
hibited.

Several philosophers are of opinion that the photogenic rays are as inde-
pendent of the light as heat is, although they are sent forth from the same

source, and travel together at the same velocity, and are subject to the same
laws of reflection, refraction, and polarization. The actinic or photogenic
rays are situated at the most refrangible part of the prismatic spectrum, and
are thus refracted to the same degree as the blue, indigo, or violet rays. A
series of experiments on various colours obtained by artificial means were
next exhibited, the whole tending to prove that the atmosphere of London
with its smoke and fog, is too often for the photographer like the ray from
the yellow glass.

As the result of the photographic operation depends on the intensity of
the actinic rays, and also upon the degree of the sentiveness of the chernical
preparation, M. Claudet has constructed an apparatus which is not only
capable of measuring the photogenic light, but of testing the sensitiveness of
the chemical preparation of the Daugerreotype plate. This instrument is
constructed so that a plate being placed upon an inclined plane, will always
fall with the same rapidity. For each operation, the plate has seven vertical
slits or openings cut in if ; these are placed parallel to each other, the first
being 1 mdlimetre wide ; the second, 2; the third, 4; the fourth, 8; the fifth,
16; the sixth, 32; and the seventh, 04 millimetres. The photographic sur-
face is placed at nearly the bottom of the iticlined plane, under a metallic
plate, pierced with seven circular holes, corresponding with the openings of
the moveable plate containing the proportionate apertures. When the move-
able plate passes before the photogenic surface covered with the seven circu-
lar holes, the light strikes upon the spaces left open by the circular holes, in
various intensities. The space lighted by the opening of 64 millimetres will
be aftected by an intensity double that which is lighted by 32 millimetres ;
quadruple that of the next under the opening of 16 millimetres ; and so on,
until the last opening, which being only 1 millimetre, will have received 04
times less light than the first ; so that after the operation seven round figures,
or less, according to the intensity of the light, are represented upon the pho-
tographic plate. The photographer is thus enabled to ascertain how long it
will be necessary to submit the plate to the action of the light on the camera
by the length of time required to dcvelope the seven round figures. Let us
suppose that he waits ten seconds, and he finds only six instead of seven of
the round figures, it would prove that the light is one-half less intense than
he required, so that he must wait 20 seconds instead of 10 ; if only five,
40 seconds; if four, 80 seconds; if three, 160 seconds ;if two, 320 seconds ;
if one, 640 secouds. This is quite sufficient for general purposes of photo-
graphy ; but for scientific investigations, M. Claudet has continued the geo-
njctrical progression, and instead of from 1 to 6, he has continued the pro-
gression from 1 to 8192. This is pfl'ected by having two plates and four
series of holes in each plate, and shutting one series after every fall of the
moveable plate. By repeating the falls, the intensity is doubled, trebled,
quadrupled, and so on ; and after the operation each plate represents four
series of round figures, showing the various eft'ects of all the intensities, from
1 to 8192.

M. Claudet's Photographometer enables the operator to compare the sen-
sitiveness of two difterent preparations, so that the photographer can con-
stantly bji experiments improve the sensitiveness of the surface.

Mr. T. B. Jordan gave a short account of Mr. Cochran's machine for saw-
ing timbers with curved and bevelled faces, and a working model was exhi-
bited to the meeting.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

Feb. 6. — J. Field, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The paper read was a " Description of the Ablattoirs of Paris.' By
Mr. 11 B. Grantham, IVI. Inst. CE.

The subject treated of was chiefly in connection with the sanitary ques-
tion, at present occupying so much attention ; the author being of opinion
that much public benefit would be derived from the introduction of similar
establishments into the city of Lotdon. The paper commenced by point-
ing out the advantages resulting from the method iu which the butchers'
trade was carried ou in Paris. It was stated that this trade was regu-
lated by a number of restrictive enactments, and conducted under the
control of a syndicate or guild, who advised with the government upon all
questions relating to the abbattoirsand markets.

It appeared from the account that, previous to the opening of the abat-
toirs, in 1818, slaughter-houses existed in the crowded and populous dis-
tricts of the city ; and that (as at present in Loudon), the passage of the
cattle through the streets, and the consequent nuisauces, were found to be
intolerable. The five abbattoirs were designed with great care, to cbviiile
these evils, and were generally allowed to have fully accomplished the
purposes for which they had been constructed ; they had been of great
public service, in rendering Paris free from those nuisances whiih were
still permitted to exist as such blots on the general cleanliness of the city
of Loiidon. The abbattoirs were erected within the Barriers, opposite
Montnuirtre, Menil-Moutaut, Greuelle, Du Roule, and Ville Juif, at an
average distance of a mile and three quarters from the centre of the city.

The paper, which was accompauied by detailed plans of each abbattoir,
and a general drawing of their arrangement, described minutely their con-
struction, as well as the mode of slaughtering the cattle, the melting the
tallow, and other details connected with the trade carried ou therein. All
the buildings were stated to be abundantly supplied with water, will
ventilated, and kept in the highest stale of cleanllne^s.

94

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND AUCHITECTS JOURNAL.

UMaech,

Tdljlos were giveo of Ihe number of catlle, sheep, and pins killed, and
the amount of lallow melted during the last four years ; and a slatemenl
was appended, from which it appeared that the revenue (derived from
tolls, charged upon all the meat killed at per kilogramni'-), amounled
during one year to 47,608/. 16«.. that the total expenses were 4,958/. 12» ,
leHving a prolil to the city of Paris of 42,051)/. 4»., or about CJ per cent,
upon 030, OHO/., the original cost of all these establishm nls. The paper
argued that if this revenue was obtained from the tolls, &c.. for slaui;liler-
ing meat for a population not exceeding one million souls, wno did not
consuine anything like the amount of animal food that Ijii^lisliinen habi-
tnally indulge in, how much greater would he the pioiit of such eslablish-
mciits fur London, where there was a population iifaily apinMiching Ihree
millions of souls, in whose behalf sudi slri-nuoiis exeilions were now
making for the increase of sanitary regulations and more ample supplies
of waler, and everything tending towards a higher slale of cleanliness
and health.

Remarks. — In Ihe discussion which ensued, and in which Mr. E. Chad-
wiik, I'rofessor Owen, Messrs. Leslie, May, Allen, Raiisoine. Elliott,
Arinslroiig. and others, took part, very iuteiesling statistical facts were
given in connection with the present state of the Sinilhfield Market, and
llie evils attendant upon the animals being driven through the streets, and
then killed in a state of fever, when the blood was in a condition to in-
duce rapid decomposition of the meat, and render it unfit for food. In
proof of this, it was staled thai, in the summer, quantities of fine meat
were frequently oblined to be thrown by the butchers upon the oHal heap,
within thirty hours from Ihe time of the animals being slaughtered — pu-
trescence being so rapidly induced by the deleterious atmosphere of the
slaughterhouse pervading the place where the meat was kept.

Among the numerous advantagesof a new and spacious establishment,
like that of Islington Market, to which public slaughter-houses are tube
attached, would be the direct contact of the caitle sellers with the but-
chers; and by thus avoiding the intermediate profit of the middle men,
the latter would be enabled to sell their meat in better condition, aud at a
more reasonable rate, to the public.

The present objectionable state of Smithfield appeared to be upheld
merely as a question of revenue to the city, for which ihe public not only
paid heavily, but suffered severely by common annoyance and by Ihe dele-
terious effect on public health.

Modifications of the Paris system wre shown to be perfectly adapted
even to the actual state of the butchers' trade in London ; that ihe internal
arrangements of the slaughterhouses would not in any way interfere
with the employment of the servants of the butchers, nor could any
inconvenience arise from their congregating at such places — nor any loss
from theft. All these preventive arangements had been fully explained
by Mr. Grantham, in bis recent Treatise on Public Slaughter-houses,
(reviewed ante p. 51.)

The opinion of the meeting appeared lo be pointedly in favour of so
desirable a measure as the establishment of Islingioo Market; and hopes
were expressed strongly, that, by showing to the trade that their interest
was so intimately connected with the measure, their cooperalion would be
obtained, to their ultimate profit, as well as for the public good.

ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS.
Jan. 8.— John Clay, Esq , F.K.S.E., President, in the Chair.
" The Aneroid Barometer" was exhibited and described, by Alex-
ander liHVsoN, Esq. — Mr. Bryson stated that on trial he had found Ihe
bai'oiueler to correspond with the coniiiion baronieier, within the ordinary
limits, say from 28 to 31 inches, to within a tenth of an inch, so that for
all ordinary purposes it might be trusted to. It has Ihe advantage over
the common barometer, in being easily transported, having no liquid in its
interior. It is of a circular shape, like a watch, and is about five inches
in diameter, having an index hand which points to the weight of the co-
lunin of air.

Jan 28. — The following communications were maile : —
" Description of an Improved ll'indowsash, allowing the outside of the
Window to be cleanedor glazed without danger." Uy Mr. Chauli s UbaNi.
— This safety window ell'eclually prevents all chances of accident, as ilie
gla-s of both upper and lower divisions may be cleaned with perfect ease
and safety by a person standing on the floor inside of the window. The
principle i.s applicable to every form of modern window, and coiisi.'.ls in
th.' panes of glass being contained in a sep!>rate frame, which is to be ex-
anly adjusted to and fitted in the sash, to which it is lo be atlaclied on one
bide by hinges, Ihe oilier side remaining free, anil opening inwardly like
a iloor. In appearance it can scarcely be dislinguislied Ironi the present
window, and the expense is not materially dilfereiit.

•■' Description of the Wax Candle Safely Mining Lamp" By Mr. John
Crane, Lee Crescent, Edgbaslon, near Birininghaiii. — Tins lamp was
slaled to be ol simple but safe construction. Coal pits being subject lo
the presence of an explosive gas called fire-damp, which, upon conlact
will) OHiiie, is exploded, ihe necessity ot ligliiing coal-pits wiih non-
exploding or safety lamps becomes evident. Coal-pit ex|ilt'sions are all
Ihe result ol negligence, and therefore, by means of proper care, are avoid-
able. That to work coal-pits uafely it is uut only aecessaiy lo u.e safe

lamps, but also to take care to use such lamps properly Many terrible
expliisions have occurred during the use of safety lamps, because the men
(wiih a view of obtaining more light) have interfered with their lamps
and rendered them unsafe. If the common safety lamps afforded a better
light than a naked candle, there would then be no iuduceiueol to tamper
with Ihem, and ihe prime cause of many explosions w.iuld be removed;
and if they were constructed so that they could not be tampered with by
any thoughtless miners, then (supposing t.tat no naked lights were used in
pits, but in every case safety lamps of proper construction) coal-pit explo-
sions would be no more heard of. The author's wish was lo accomplish
so desirable an end by designing lamps possessing such advanlnges, and
by recommending the adoption of a more careful mode of wnking pits.
He thinks in few cases it will be advisable to entrust the mineio wilh the
care of the lamps; but Ihat in most cases fii persons be appointed to keep
and manage the lamps, who must be held responsible for any neglect of
care on their part. The Wax Candle Safety Lamp is staled to alford a
good light, aud it is fitted with a padlock and staple, so that it may be se-
curely fastened up. It is put into the hands of the collier ready lighted
and locked, and will need no interference till the caudle is consumed,
when he must apply to the lamp-keeper for a fresh one. Wax cauilles
(such as are used in many carriage lamps) are burnt in this lamp. The
front is made of thick glass, the sides aud lop of >^ ire gauze, aud the body
of ihe lamp of tin plate. The candle is inclosed in a tin tube secured at
bottom by a stopper, which is screwed and unscrewed with a key. Afler
the candle is lighted Ihe top is shut down and locked, and both keys kept
by the superintendent of lamps. The same keys will unlock any number
of lamps, if they be made similar. A helical wire spring inside the tube
keeps the candle always at the same height. Over the two wire sides are
hinged two tin covers which effectually protect the flame from the evil in-
fluence of wind. This lamp can be made of various sizes to suit dif-
ferent candles ; those which the author has had made are four inches
square, and about eleven and a half inches high. A large ring is fixed lo
ihe top of the lid, by wliicli the lamp Is suspended when in use. The
wire gauze inside the lid must be cleaned v^'ith a brush when necessary.
The lamp is strong, and is not likely to be put out of order. The author's
wish and desire are to &ee an end put to explosions, and thereby to render
llie occupation of the collier — arduous and unpleasant as it always will
be — less dangerous by ridding it of its greatest terror.

Feb. 12.— David Rhind, Esq., F.R.S.E., V.P., in the Chair.
The following communications were made:—

1. " Description of a method of Preoenting Accidents at Coal Pits." By
Mr. William Alexander, mining engineer. — fhe breaking of the winding-
rope, or continuous movement of the machinery beyond its proper place, are
two circumstances rife with accident and loss of life in mineral workings.
Mr. Alexander avoids the first by an improved catch in connection with tne
cage; and the second, in consequence of winding by friction, vvbich becomes
self-acting, in preventing the rise of the cage past a given point.

2. " Description of an Hydraulic Bramah Press, with Improved Safety
Valve." By Mr. Hay Uall, biass-louniler. — i'his inipioveiuent in tlie
Bianiah press consists in doing away with the heavy weight formerly hung
on the safety or disengaging valves, and thus producing greater certainty
of action, aud a saving of expense, by preveuting the liability to wear and
break up, to which the present constructiou is expo:>ed.

3. " Description of a Macliine far Dressing Straw Bonnets, or other
matters where hot or cold pressure is required." By Mr. Glokge D.
Howell — it is intended to reduce the labour aud many inconvenieuces in
the old mode of blocking slravv bounds, which, from the pressure required
on the breast, often produced coinplaiuts lu the chest, aud couauuipiions.
The machine has been in use for some lime, and found lo answer every
purpose required in the art. The pressure which, in the old mode, was
given by the breast and arm, is by this machine given by ihe lever worked
by the foot, and counterpoised by the back weight, which inslanily lilts
the blocking iron wheu the pressure of the foot is withdrawn.

4. The Secretary read an abstract of the first part of a paper on improve-
ments in Electric Telegraphs, and new pUns for Priming by Electricity,
which was read to the Society of Arts, London, by £. Highton, Esq., civil
engineer, on the 17th January.

NOTES OF THE MONTH.

The New Kremlin at Moscow. — The Moscow Gazette says: — The new
Kremlin will shortly be finished. The gilded cupola sparkles already in the
sun, and recalls to mind the palaces with their golden summits of the an-
cient Grand Dukes of Russia. In the St. Geuige's-hall, that saint is to be
seen on horseback, fighting the winged dragon. Eighteen statues, repre-
senting the subiiiissiun ot as many provinces now belonging to Russia, are
scathed in complete armour with shields, which bear the date of the period.
The Andrew's-hall, or the throne room, is ornamented with niagiiificeiit
golden relief ; the Alexander-hall is of red marble, and astonishes the be-
holder by its beautiful architectural ornaineiits. It is difficult to describe,
so as to give a correct idea, the extraordinary grandeur of these halls, and
the exquisite style of the workmanship.

1849.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

JiS

The Oriental and Peninsular Steam Navy. — The Oriental and Peninsular
Steam Company have added another first-class steam. vessel to their already
powerful navy, which will shortly be equal to that of any of the continental
governments, when we take into consideration the effective state the whole
of the vessels are constantly kept in. The Bombay vessel which has just
been finished was built by Mr. Pitcher, and is 1,200 tons burthen. The en-
gines were constructed by Messrs. Miller, Ravenhill, and Co., and are collec-
tively of 450-horse power; the cylinders are oscillatory. At the experi-
mental trip niade last month, they wdrked with great precision, owing to the
beautiful woikmanship and the accuracy of their finish. The performance
of these engines clearly substantiates the opinion that was expressed in this
Journal eight years since, when only oscillatory engines of 20 and 30 horse
power were constructed, that with good woikmanship oscillating engines of
any power might be made.

Pierce's Pyro- Pneumatic Stmre. — Mr. Pierce, the well-known stove manu-
facturer, has patented a pedestal stove, with an open fire and hot air cham-
bers, formed of lire clay. The air is admitted at the bottom hy a tnhe,
brought from the exterior of the building and carried through the chambers,
which are heated from the back and sides of the stoves, and also by the flue
that passes out at the liack. The air by this stove is not burnt, as is gene-
rally the case with hot-air stoves constructed of iion j and hy having an open
fire the room is ventilated, and the foul air carried ofi by the draught of the
fire.

Dia Magtietism. — The investigations now proceeding in the hands of
Qilrsted, Pliickcr, Faraday, Weber, and other no lei^s able experimentalists,
into the phenomena of dia-magnetism are gradually developing facts that
bear in a remarkable manner on all those less evident powers which are
usually classed under the general term of molecular forces. We may hope
within a short time to gain a more satisfactory knowledge of crystallisatinn,
and the laws which determine the forms of crystallised bodies, into which
the recent researches of Faraday and Piiicker are conducting us. The curious
observations of Plueker, which show that in the vegetable kingdom both the
magnetic and dia-raagnetic forces are, under varying conditions, in great
activity, will in all probability direct us toward a solution of the curious
problem of the influences of the solar rays on vegetable growth. That dia-
magnetism is not another manifestation of ordinary magnetism is now proved
by the single fact, that whilst a magnetic body is attracted throughout its
mass hy each of the two poles of a magnet, a dia-magnetic body is repelled
by each pole throughout its mass. — Athenaeum.

To prevent Metals corroding. — Dip the articles first into very dilute nitric
acid, afterwards immerse them in linseed oil, and then allow the excels of
oil to drain ofl'.

Improvements in the Make of Iron. — The astonishing increase in the pro-
duce of the furnaces in the bituminous districts takes its origin from the ap-
plication of steam and engine power to the production of a continuous
stream or pillar of blast, in place of the pufling of the old-fashioned wind
bellows; and, further, to a discovery of my highly-valued friend, Anthony
Hill, Esq., of the Plymouth Works, Slerthyr-Tydvil. It is to the science,
energy, and research of this gentleman, that the iron-trade is indelited for
the practical discovery that the cinders produced in the various stages of
converting, in our forges, crude or cast-iron into wrought or malleable iron,
were capable of being resmelted and reconverted in the blast-furnace, and
the iron they contained (amounting to 50, 60, and 70 per cent.) profitably
extracted from them. These cinders were formerly thrown away as refuse,
or used only for the repair of out roads and thoroughfares — they are now
eagerly sought after, and purchased at values as high as some of our richest
iron ores. To Mr. Hill a debt of public gratitude, and something more, is
due, which I should rejoice to see properly acknowledged and paid. Mr.
Yates, of Rotherham, Yorkshire, has, at his works at Wingerworth, near
Chesterfield, erected blast furnaces of an entirely different construction from
those in use in this district, and the plan of which he has patented. They
are about 20 feet in height, of a peculiar shape, and are blown with a soft
fan-blast. When I visited them, a few months ago, they were working ad-
mirably, and producing excellent pig-iron, at the rate of 120 tons and up-
wards in a week, at each furnace. These furnaces, and their blowing appa-
ratus and appendages, appeared to me so simple and inexpensive of construc-
tion, in comparison with the huge piles of masonry and ponderous ma-
chinery of our blastfurnaces and engines in Wales, that I imagined they
would create a perfect revolution in the iron trade. In the anthracite dis-
tricts of our mineral basin, the improvements effected by the late Mr. Crane,
and the application by him of hot blast to the smelting of iron with anthra-
cite coal, were acknowledged, certainly not more gratefully than they de.
served to be, by those who are interested in the mineral productions of the
anthracite districts, wherein the deposit of ironstone or ore is enormous,
but its reduction with its accompanying fuel almost new. The recent
improvements of Mr. J. Palmer Budd, adopted at his extensive works at
Ystalyfera, near Neath, and patented by him, are worthy of the greatest at-
tention, Mr. Budd, who read an admirable paper, explanatory of bis
improvements, to the chemical section of the meeting at which my address
was delivered, and with the kindest liberality, invited the members of the
association to visit and inspect his works, has succeeded in economising the
use and consumption of an expensive and valuable fuel, and in preserving
from positive waste, and applying to profitable use, volumes of beat evolved
in the process of smelting, heretofore allowed to escape.

Mineral Resources of Epypt. — More Gold. — A recent number of the
Bombay Telegraph contains an account, from a correspondent at Cairo, of
an expedition of Colonel Kaveloveski, engineer of mines in Russia, who was
sent to Egypt, at the desire of Mebemet Ali, to investigate the mineral
resources of that country, which sppears to have resulted at the discovery of
a somewhat productive gold di^trict. The expedition (it is stated) which
left Cairo under Colonel Kaveloveski, arrived at Cassen on the 16th of
March. The next day he commenced his researches, with his Siberian
assistants, on the eastern side of the river Somat. The Egyptian soldiers
dug wells to the depth of 200 feet, when water appeared ; the sand or ma-
terial was then submitted to the process of washing. In an hour's juuruey
from the river the colonel came to a place encompassed by small hillocks,
not higlier than 40 or 50 feet. He immediately decided that veins of gold
would be found there, and directed that they should be dug into about half
their height, ordering the excavated materials to be afterwards carefully
examined. He continued these operations for six or seven days, the Siberian
workmen washing the sands upon a drum. On the eighth day he concluded
from the results that these sands were richer than those in many paHs of
Siberia ; for 100 poods of sand in Siberia produced but 25 habhas, whilst
100 puods were yielding at Cassen from 50 to 32 habbas. On the ninth
day the colonel directed his Russian workmen to prepare the machines for
washing, whilst be departed to make new researches with about 1,000
Egygtian soldiers, using them oceasionally for the works, and sometin.es for
personal safety. He made several experiments on the banks of the rivers
Kamia, Dys, Gucka, and Benischangol, and afterwards at Sorgonti and
Gamamil ; this last river is about eight hours' journey south of Cassen.
Here he found the sands considerably richer than those of Cassen. In his
travels, the colonel found quantities of argillaceous iron, rock crystal, and
zinc, but no other metals, nor any vestige or appearance of coal. On taking
his departure from Cassen he left the works under the direction of two
Arab engineers or mineralogists, who studied in Germany and Siberia.
Colonel Kaveloveski pronounces his final and decided opinion that the
richest sands are to be found on the easteru bank of the Somat; and be
does not believe that auy other place which he has searched will produce
results so favourable.

Artificial Light. — Professor Brande delivered a lecture at the Royal In-
stitution, " On the Theory and Practice of the Production of Light." Mr.
Brande commenced by referring to the mould candles and single-wicked oil-
lamps used in bouses and streets at the beginning of the present century ;
and remaiked that the vast improvement made in artificial illumination
might be taken as a striking instance of the great influence of applied
science on the comforts of life. He then proceeded to give a statement of
the scientific causes of this improvement. In common flames the evolution
of light results from two independent causes — ignition and combustion.
Ignition is probably a mere transient physical state of matter, producing no
ciiange in the ignited substance. Combustion is essentially a chemical phe-
nomenon,— the heat and light produced are the effect of successive chemi-
cal actions, and the substance is permanently changed. Comius/ion, then,
may be regarded as the origin of the heat — ignitionoi the light afforded by
flame. Mr. Brande demonstrated by many experiments that the luminosity
of flame is due to solid matter existing in the combustible gas ; and be
noticed the expansive effect of heat in throwing down charcoal in the com-
bustion of olefiant gas. The conditions of the fitness of bodies for purposes
of common illumination were stated to he, that the matter fr<tm which the
luminosity is to be obtained should be combustible ; and that the product of
its combustion should be gaseous inodorous, and harmleis. Thf products of
the combustion of oil; wax, tallow' and gas were contiasted with those of
phosphorous, arsenic, &c. — which, but for the corrosive and poisonous mat-
ters resulting from their combustion, might be used as sources of light.
It was also noticed, that though carbonic acid gas (which is one of the
products of the combustion of coal gas, &c.), he in itself noxious, it be-
comes harmless when difl'used through the atmosphere. The importance of
an accurate adjustment of the solid matter of the combustible to the
oxygen required for its combustion was next dwelt upon. It was shown by
experiments with Leslie's burners that when too much air is admitted to a
flame light is lost, and that in an insufficient supply of air the flame emits
smoke, owing to the imperfect combustion of its caibun. The light uf
flame must be as nearly white as possible. This was proved by the oblitera-
tion of colour when viewed by a monochromatic flame. That artificial ligl't
may imitate that of the sun in purity was shown by the obtaining a Talbu-
type iu less tbnn a minute by the light of phosphorus burnt in oxygen. A
brilliant light was exhibited, produced by a kind of petroleum. From K^O
to 150 gallons uf this substance are daily collected at Kidding, Derbyshire,
By distillation it yields 5 per cent, of naptha, 5 per cent, of paraffine
(mineral tallow), and 80 per cent, of mineral oil. This oil is woitb above
is. a gallon ; and when burnt in a common argand lamp gives the light of
seven candles at the cost of three-eighths of a penny per hour. In conclu-
sion, Mr. Brande noticed the electric light. He mentioned that the notion
of electricity, as a source of illumination, had been suggested by Da\y
nearly half a century ago, with whom it was a favourite idea. Mr. Branile
stated that a mode of procuring cheap electricity must precede the econo-
mical use of such illumination; and that were this obtained, water might
be decomposed, and its hydrogen napthalised and then burnt, so as
to produce a vivid, bright, and steady flame iu its other element— oxy-
gen.

96

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

IMab

LoHS of Lives in Minf^.t. — A correspondent suggests, with rpcarrl to tlie
rociMit lamentiible colliery iictidents, a mode whereby similar ciisiiiiUiea may be .naterially
prevented. From ex|)erimeiils just made with fe'iilta pcrcha tubing;, he finds that its
power of conducting Bound is so extraordinary, that a conversation may be distinctly
carried on at the distance of even three-quarters of a mfh>. If, therefore, this tubing be
carried down the shaft to the various workhigsof the mine, and the extremities furnished
with a month-piece and whistle, an instant communication, in case of danger, may be
made between evary part of the mine and the men at the mouth of the shaft.

Launch of tho Vulcan Sfeam-Frif/ate. — This vessel, huilt of iron, hy Mr.
ivr«re, of Oifiiard Wharf. Bliickivall, was launched on the 27th of January last. The
following are the dimensions: —

ft. in.

Length between perpeudlculars '2'1\) t)

Length of keel for tonnage 19''> 43

Breiidth for tonnage 41 (■'

Depth In bold 26 0

Burden in tons, 1,747 1.V94.
The Vulcan was constructed lo (arry engines of "Oil-horse power, by Messrs. George and
Sir J. Rennie, and to carry the foll'>wing armament :— On the m:^i^ declc, eight 32-
pounder guns of o(j cwt each, '.i ft. G in. long, and two fiS Dounder guns 112 cwt. each,
10 ft. 10 in. long. On the upper derk. two iS.inch guns G5 c»vt. eacli, H ft. din. long,
and two .S2-pounfie)-H of 2> cwt. each, fJ feet lon^. She has sir.ce been reduced to have
only engines of 350. horse pt wer, and converted int J a troop-ship, capable of carrying at
least 1,000 troops with every convenience for them. She has excellent room bptwixt
decks, and when fitted vith her screw-propeller, which will occupy about two months in
completion, will add a splendid troop-ship to the navy. Mr. Bellamy, master attendant
al Woolwich Dockyard, was on board during the launch, and the Vulcan was navigated
round under his directions, towed by the Monkey, to the Kast India docks, where her
engines will be put on boird. Her draught wns II feet on launching, but when her
.Htores are on board and complete tor service she will draw about Id feet.

Thames Steamboats. — Several experimental trips have been made with
the new iron steamboat, the Emmet, of the Janus or double-headed build, and intended
for the hallpenny passenger trade, in company with the Ant and the Bee. The engines
are made by Messrs. W. Joyce and Co., of the Greenwich Iron- works, and are nominally
of 20-horse power each ; but their actual power, as given by the indicator card, is H8
horses. The whole of the engines, as well as the framework, is of wrought-iron. With
regard to the performance on Fridiiy, the VJl\\ ult., the Emmet started, with tide, from
Blackwall at ten minutes to one o'clock, and arrived off the Town Pier, Gr-ivesend, at
two o'clock, thus accompliBliiug the entire distance in one hour and ten minutes, or at
the rate of 17 miles an hour. On her reiurn, she ran a race with the Brunswick, and
from Erith tu Blackwall ran with her. the p:iddle-boxes not one foot asunder the whole
of the distance. At another experiment, she ran against the tiile about 14 miles an hour.

Steamboats for America. — Twu new vessels, which will surpass all the
others in s'ze and splendour, are about being laid down by the British and North Ameri-
can Company, to replace the Acadia and Britannia, which have been sold.

War Steamers for Gerinany. — The steam-ships Acadia and Britannia,
so celebrated in the British and North American Company's mail service between Liver-
pool and the United states, have recently been purchased from that company by one of
the German governments. They are now in the Coburg Dock, Liverpnol, undergoing
the neces*ary alterations to their being converted into efficient war-steamers. The pas-
sengers' saloon, on the main deck, has been cleared off, so that they will be flush tore
and aft. Their armament will be of the heaviest description.

The Tides in the German Ocean. — A striking example occurs to us of the
happy connection of theory witli observation, iu the prediction that there must exist a
BiJOt in the German Ocean — the central point of an area of rotation, pioduced by the
meeting and mutual action of two opposite tides — where no rise or fall of tide whatever
could occur: a prediction actually veritied by Captain Hewitt in 1839, without any prior
knowledge that such a point had been supposed to exist. This is one among the many
triumphs of like kind achieved by modern science.

To Split Paper. — Procure two rollers or cylinders of glass or amber,
resin, or metallic amalgum ; slrongly excite them by the well-known means, so as to pro-
duce the attraction of cohesion, and then with pressure pass the paper between the
rollers. One half will adhere to the under roller, and the other to the upper roller, and
the split will be perfect. Cease the excitution and remove each part.

Mineral Oil. — In a cnal-pit, near Alfreton, belongins: to Mr. Oakes of
Reddinga, a valuable spring of a mineral oil, as naphtha, has ra;ide its appearance. The
quantity varies accordinv to the fall of the roof of coal from I.^pO lo .30 gallons daily.
The pit !n which the spring occurs is said to be the deepest in that part of the country.
Some years since a large spring of salt water, or nearly saturated brine, appeared in this
])it, and has continued to flow uninterruptedly ; latterly, the mineral oil has accompanied
the salt spring. The oil as it issues is of a dark tarry colour; l)ut, by distillation, yi«lds
Ural a very volatile llijuid, which is found to be a good substitute for chloroform as an
agent for acting on the nerves ol sensation ; and, secondly, a nearly colourless oil, which
possesses very high illuminating powers, and possessing the advantage that it will not
linrn without a wick, thus rendering it free from the objection which lias been found to
attach itself to the use ot camphine. As a final product of the distillation, abundance
of solid paraffin is obtained ; this substance being described by Heiciienbach as invalu-
able for machinery, from its anti-frlctional properties, and its unchanging charact r
when expose^l to air. It is understood that n house in Manchester has contracted lor
this mineral oil. with a viaw of introducing it for the purpose of house illumination. A
similar spring is recorded to have occurred about a century since, near Birmingham.
They are common in Persia and in Italy, fllilan is illuminated with the product of a
Similar spiing. U e luive been infurmeil rhnt a chemical examination of the varioii-' oils
of wliich the IJerbj-shire spring consists is being made in the laboratory of the Museum
of Practicul Geology.

LIST OF NCW PATBNTS,

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM JANUARY 26, TO FEBRUARY 22, 1349.

Six Months allowed for Enrolmenty unless othertoise expressed,

Pierre Frederick Gougy, of Paris, in the Uepublic of France, genfeman, for improve-
ments in apparatus an I machinery for lilting and moving heavy bodies, aud for raiaing or
tiiaplaciiig fluids, — Scaled Jan, 27-

Richard Archibald Brooinan, of Fleet-street, City of London, for certain improvements
ill the mamilactnre o( artilicial liml)s. (A communication J— Jon .27.

James Green Gibson, of Ardwick, near Rlanchester, machinist, for certain Improve-
ments in machines used for preparing to he S|,uii and spinning cotton, and other rtbrous
substances, and for preparing to be woven and weaving such substances when suun —
.iaa. 27.

Kwaid Riepe, of Ftnsbury-square, Middlesex, merchant, for improvements in the ma-

n-jfacture of soup. — Jau, 30.

Alexander Wilkins, brewer, and William Stacey, engineer, of Bradford, Wilts, for a
certain Imjjrovenient or improvements applicable to the lieating and boiling of liijulds of
any kind or description. — Jan. 30.

Samuel Wellman Wright, of Chalford, Gloucester, civil engineer, for certain improve-
ments in preparing various tibrous substances, for spinning, and In machinery or appara-
tus connected therewith. — Jan. i^},

William Kenworthy, of Blackburn, Lancashire, cotton-spinner, for certain improve-
ments in power-looms for weaving. — Jan ',i\.

Henry Bessemer, of Baxter-house, Old St. Pancras-road, ftliddlesex, engineer, for cer-
t;iin improvements in the manufacture of gla^s, aud in apparatus connected therewith. —
Jnn. 31.

Jean Adolphe Carti^ron, of Paris, In the Republic of France, now of the Haymarket,
Middlesex, chemist, for certain improvements in dyeing. — Feb. b.

John Brown, late of Bond-street, now of Great Portland-streit. Middlesex, gentleman,
for improvements iu constructing and rigging vessels : and improvemeats iu atmospheric
and other railways. — Feb. G.

Edmund George Pinchbeck, of Fleet-street, in the city of London, for improvements in
certain parts of steam-engines. — Feb. t5.

Tho I. as Snowdon, of Noel-street, Middlesex, engineer, f »r improvements in machineiy
for monldmg and pressing artilicial fuel and bricks. — Feb. 6 .

Joseph Harrison, machine maker, William Harrison, cotton manufacturer, and John
Oddie, assi^t^nt manager, all of Blackburn, Lancashire, for certain improvements in and
applicable to looms for weaving. — Feb. 6.

Henry Fisher, of UphoUand, Lancashire, gentleman, for improvements in cok« ovens,
and in machinery and apparatus for working the same, or cunnected therewith; and a
mode or modes of applying certain portions of coke, or the residual products of coke, lo
heating and lighting. — Feb. S.

Lawrence Hill, junior, of Motherwell Iron Works, near Hamilton, Lanarkshire, civil
engineer, for iuiprovemeuts in the manufacture of iron, aud in the machinery for produ-
cing the same. — Feb. 8.

Henry Headley Parish, of Eaton-place, Middlesex, gentleman, for improvements in
safety and other lamps, and in gas-burners. — Feb. 8.

Richard Pannell Forlong, of Bristol, button manufacturer, for improvements in castors
for furniture — Feb. 8.

William Wilcocks Sleigh, of Stamford Brook House. Chiswick, Middlesex, doctor of
medicine, for a means of preventing injuries to persons aud property, from the sudden
stoppage of railivay carriages. — Feb. 8.

James Webster, of Basford, Nottingham, engineer, for certain improvements in appa-
ratus tor manutacturing gas. — Feb. 8

John Taylor, of Parliament-street, Westminster, architect, for an improved mode of
constructing and fencing walls.— Feb, 8.

Joseph Barnes, of Church Lancaster, for an improved apparatus for bleaching, dyeing,
cleaning, and steaming iiuimul, vegetable, or flt)rous substances, either in a raw or manu-
factured state.— Feb. 8.

Robert Brown, of Sadler's-wells, Middlesex, engineer, for improvements in machinery
for perforating, sewing, stitching, pegging, and riveting. —Feb. 8.

William Tooth, of Broad-street, Lambeth, engineer, for improvements in water-closets
and in chimney-pieces, in machinery for the preiiaraiion of clays, and iu the manufacture
of earthenware articles. — Feb. 8.

Thomas Charles Clarkson, of Bennett-street, Southwark, manufacturer, for certain im-
provements in the manufacture and application of leather, and certain vegetable sub-
stances to be used in combination with leather, india-rubber, canvas, silk, cotton, wool, or
other fibrous substances, in the manufacture ot certain waterproof articles.— Feb. 8.

John Giblett, of Trowbridge, Wilts, gentleman, for improvements in the manufacture
of woollen cloth. — Feb. 10.

George Edmnnd Donistborpe, of Leeds, manufacturer, and James Milnes, of Bradford,
Yorkshire, tor improvements in the apparatus used for stopping steam engines and other
first movers. — Feb. HI.

Jnrvis Palmer, of Camberwell Surrey, merchant, for improvements in matches, lighters,
and similar articles for igniting combustible bodies ; in the mode or modes of manutac-
turing the same, and in machinery applicable thereto; also in match or other boxes, and
in machinery for manufacturing the same. — Feb. IL'.

William Harris, of Battersea, Surrey, shoemaker, for a new or improved mode of pre-
paring leather. — Feb. \2.

William Brewer, of Malcolm. place, Clapham, Surrey, and John Smith, of Southville,
South Lambeth, Surrey, manufacturers, for certain improvements in the manufacture of
paper and card-bourd; and in producing water- marks thereon ; aud also In apparatus aud
machinery to be used for such purposes. — Feb. 12.

Christopher Nickels, of York-road, Lambeth, Surrey, for improvements in the manu-
facture of woollen and other fabrics. — Feb" 12.

Edivurd Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for improvements m engines and ap-
paratus principally designed for pumping water. — Feb. 12.

Matthew Townsend, and David Moulden, both of Leicester, framework-knitters, for
improvements in machinery fur the manufacture of 1 oped labrics.— Feb. 13.

Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil en^^ineer, for improvements in machinery for
hulling and polishing rice and other grain or seeds. (A communication.) — Feb. 13,

Edward Lord, of Todmorden, Lancaster, machinist, for certain improvements in ma-
chinery or apparatus applicable to the preparation of cotton and other Ubroua substances.
—Feb. 13.

Achille Chaudois, of Faubourg du Temps, Paris, manufacturing chemist, for improve-
ments in extracting and preparing tiie colouring matters tor orchil. — Feb' 1-1.

William Chambers Day, of Birmingham, Warwick, iron-founder, for improvements in
machinery for weighing. — Fee. 1-4.

Hnpli Lee Pattinson, of Washington-house, Gateshead, Unrham, chemical manufac-
turer, fjr improvements in manutacturing a ctr-rlain compound or compounds <if lead, aud
the application of a certain compound or coini)ouuds ot lead lo various uselul purposes.
— Feb. 14.

Richard Ford Sturges, of Birmingbnm, M'arwick, britannia-ware manufacturer, for im-
provements in the manufacture of catulleslicks and l.mip pillars. — Feb. 14.

John Erwood, of Hoxtoo. fliiddlesex, paper-hanging manutacturer, for improvements
in the manufacture of paper hangings. — Feb. l.""*.

Charles Thomas Pearce, of Park-road, Regent's-park, gentleman, for improvements in
apparatus for obtaining light by electric agency. — Feb. iU.

Charles Frederick Whltworth, of Hull, t'entloman, for improvements in preventing ac-
cidents on railways.- Feb. 17.

John Bottomley, of Bradford, Yorkshire, manufacturer, for improvements in machinery
for weaving. — Feb. 22.

07

ism IS
;ed by
ertain
which
leurly
uality
, that
nega-
d va-
dinij;s
icause
ed at
iner-

part
:kney
)ught
itical
, and
their
rum-
h has
grand
; but
is so
mpli-
lould

have
, you
nired
nple-
iance
, the
lews-
is"a
fined
ch of
IS of
)e of

of a

No. 139,— Vol. XII.— Apiul, 1SJ9.

'zabethanism, or Louis^uatorzism, or any other in the in

iture
leof
hing
laps,
lugh
vili,
been

sign,
one-
eing
e to
3uch
the
one
n if
nain
)pen
and
*^ith
ings

the
d it
rent
lers,

they

p in

jeen

the

pted

jrMe-

<r Eli-

lermiii-

(OEMTMAL RAIILWAY g f All'! OH, HEWC AgfLl ®H TYlls Jf®MM ®i®lg®iJ li@? AEemiTIECir

181.9.1

THK CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

07

CENTRAL RAILAVAY STATION, NEWCASTLE-
UPON-TYNE.
John Dobson, Esq., Architect.
CWith an Enr/i-aving, Plate VI. J

Having described tliis liuilding in our number fur last December,
in which a grmiiid-phm of it was given, we need now accompany
tlie view of it with no more tlian simie observations upon its ar-
chitectural merits. — In the separate features wliich go to make up
the design, there is nothing at all remarkable, they being such as
have long become common property; and, moreover, one compart-
ment of tlie elevation serves nearly as a specimen of the wliole of
it. Nevertheless it is anything than comnion-j>lace in expression,
or tiresomely monotonous in effect. Tlie style is Romanu-Italian,
with a Doric order u])(m a sufficiently dignified scale, but so ap-
plied that those rigorists and formalists wlio deem it tlie essence
of architectural philosopliy to admit of only one invariable metliod
for every purpose and occasion, may object to it two serious
solecisms — viz., that of coupled columns, and again, that of broken
entablatures. To allege that the Greeks never employed coupled
columns, is slieer frivolousness of argument; because there was
nothing wliatever in their temples that required or at all motived
such disposition of tliem. Where, indeed, strict conformity with
antique precedent and jihysiognomy is affected, as in a pediniented
prostyle jiortico, coupled c(dumns may fairly be condemned as im-
proprieties; but a case like tlie present is altogether different. The
C(Hipling them here was almost matter of necessity; for had tlie
piers been proportioned to only a single column, while the columni-
atioii would have appeared straggling and meagre, the general
uir of solidity which now marks the ensemble would have been de-
stroyed. Another defect which is now avoided is, that over single
columns the breaks in the entablature would have been too much
like mere bits; whereas, coming over two cidunins, they rather help
than at all interfere with breadth of manner, while they tell pic-
turesquely as touches in the general composition. AVith regard to
this last, it is stamped by cliaracter in a more than usual degree,
the building bespeaking its purpose very plainly: the composition
is further pervaded by a quality which is too frequently lost sight
of in design, as well as kept quite out of sight in an outline en-
graving. As will be concluded, perhaps, from this last remark,
we allude to vigour of architectural cliiiiro-sciiro, and effective
touches of light and shade; to which must be added, the very un-
usual depth of the portico or arcade — not less than 71) feet in the
central division of it — presents a strong contrast to tliat air of
insipid flatness and want of relief which, whatever may be their
merits in other respects, stam]is so many of our Imildings; and
also to that shallowness which is the chief characteristic of most
of our porticoes. In fact, design as it shows itself in geometrical
elevation seems alone to be considered by our architects, while
composition in its wider sense, which includes both chiaro-i-ciiro
and perspective, is comparatively disregarded.

Let us not, however, lose sight of the particular building under
notice, but proceed by calling attention to some of those points
whicli, in our opinion, have been judiciously considered, and hap-
jiily treated. It will, we think, be admitted to be expressive of
purpose, and to present a well-combined en.iemhle, in which oppo-
site qualities are reconciled to and made to set off each other—
namely, unity and variety, picturesque play of plan and outline,
and regard to the more prosaic demands of ])urpose and con-
venience. Although the order is continued uniformly through-
out, it is so with some difference, the central portion being dis-
tinguished by having insulated columns, while the two lateral
divisions of the fa.ade have only engaged ones. Moreover,
although each division consists of seven intercolumns or compart-
ments, it is also with a difference, the extreme one at either end
of the fa ade being closed up; which circumstance, independently
of its contributing to variety, produces a most valualile expression
of solidity and repose. Tlie ornamental masses of attic are in-
troduced with artistic feeling akin to that of \'anbrugh, and serve
to produce that movement and play of outline in which he not
only deliglited but showed himself to be a master. All that we
will say further is: let it be understood that we speak entirely after
the drawing. Even should the architect's intentions have been
deviated from in execution — the design have been tampered with,
and have suffered accordingly, our remarks will nevertheless hold
good, and apply to the design, if not, unfortunately, to the struc-
ture itself.

No. 139.— Vol. XII.— .-Vpiul, 13j9.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK,
FASCICULUS XCII.

•' 1 must have liberty
M'illial, as Urge a charter a the wiuds,
To blow on whom I please."

I. A great deal of what has passed for architectural criticism is
mere cant, or else dogmatic, arbitrary assertion, unsup])orted by
either evidence or argument, and relying chiefiy u|ion certain
talismanic words and phrases. Among terms of the kind which
h,ive been bandied about, and uttered by rote till they have nearly
lost all meaning, is "Simplicity," than which hardly any quality
seems to be less understood. Indeed, as it is usually applieil, that
word would seem to be expressi\'e of tlie mere absence and nega-
tion of all artistic quality, or synonymous with poverty and va-
cuity of ideas, and meanness of manner. IIou- many buildings
there are for which Simplicity has been arrogated, merely because
there is nothing worth calling design in them. People used at
one time to cry up as Simplicity, the poor, meagre, vapid, manner-
isms of James Wyatt, whose designs were for the most part
stamped very legilily with what may be called either cockney
elassicality or classical cockneyism. In fact, terms that ought
to convey something like an accurate and conscientious critical
meaning, are so liandied about by the vulgar of all classes, and
by vulgar and tinscrupulous writers, as to have nearly lost their
meaning altogether, and have become no more than tawdry brum-
magem epithets. There is in this metropolis a building wliich has
been spoken of as being ^^sirnjile without meanness, and grand
without exaggeration," — a prettily-turned jdirase, no doubt; but
no mortal would ever guess the piece of architecture which is so
remarkable for the rare combination which it presents of Simpli-
city and Grandeur, since "littleness" and "gingerbread" would
have been far more appropriate expressions. Reader, if you have
been struck by the tirandeur of that architectural phoenix, you
deserve to have been knocked down also; and if you have admired
its Simplicity, you may set yourself down for a confirmed simple-
ton. Truly, there is Grandeur and Simplicity with a vengeance
in the front of the "Society of Arts," in the Adelphi. Nay, the
Adelphi-terrace itself has been characterised — not in a mere news-
paper puff, hut in a grave and authoritative encydopajdia — as "a
most magnificent mass of building"! Pity that the most refined
Simplicity was not claimed for it also, since it has just as much ot
the latter quality as of the other. Really after such specimens of
it, one is actually ashamed of penning anything in the shape of
architectural criticism, — for it seems to require only the brass of a
bawd, and the steel of a pickpocket.

II. If not sickened of Grecian, or Anglo-Grecian, architecture
before, we have got a comjilete sickener of it now, in the facade of
the British Museum. Sir Robert Smirke has given the finishing
stroke to that style by giving it its quietus. Tiiere may, jierhaps,
be some merit even in doing that, — so he that his jiraise; although
we had much rather the experiment had been made in corpore vili,
instead of being made on an edifice which ought to have been
rendered a noble and worthy production of architectural design,
— yet is no more than what any draning-board tyro or any stone-
mason could have produced, the dimensions of the columns lieing
given. With many blunders for which a tyro would deserve to
be rapped on the knuckles, there is not one single artistic touch
in the whole design, — not one that, as the French say, accuses the
artist, although very much that accuses Sir Robert of being one
of the most prosaic gentlemen in the whole profession. Even if
we do not consider the wings as at all belonging to the main
building, but merely as two ranges of street houses that happen
to be so placed with regard to it, they manifest a most dull and
chilling coldness of manner, that contrasts very strikingly with
the ornateness now affected even in second-rate public buildings
and in street architecture generally, at the present day.

III. If, as supposed, it be a fact that the Greeks borrowed the
idea of their Doric style from the Egyptians, and founded it
upon that of Egypt, they most assuredly pursued a very different
course from that of the literal copyists, architectural transcribers,
and plagiarists of the present day. What they adopted they
made their own by educating it — so to say — and training it up in
their own habits of taste. Greek architecture may have been
kindled by Egyptian light, but it was very much more than the
retiection of it; whereas, we now content ourselves with reflected
light alone, and are fain to plume ourselves ujion reflecting Me-
diievalisni, or Revivalism, or Sansovinism, or Palladianism, or Eli-
zabethauism, or Louis-Quatoruism, or any other in the iiitermin-

93

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCIlITECrs JOURNAL.

[Aphii,,

nlile list of isms, — the most fatal one of all amonp; wliicli i;5
CoPYisM.— Assuming tlie Doric to be the offspring of the Egyptian
stvle, tlie differences between it and its parent are far more obvi-
ous tlian are tlie resenibhinces, wliich extend to very little more
than the general system of construction with massive architraves
lesting upon round columns, closely spaced, and of few diameters
in height. Yet, without ])ioceeding further, we find here at once
a marked dissimilarity both as to form and taste; because, although
in each style the C(dumns are round, in tlie Egyptian tlieir shafts
are almost invariably cylindrical, vvliile in the Greek-Doric they
taper very visibly, — more es])ecially in the earlier examples, which,
if the derivation of the latter style from the otliei be not a mistake,
would, it may be sup]iosed, have retained what is so strong a charac-
teristic of their prototyjie. M'itli respect to general proi)ortions,
indeed, and to qxaiitity independent of form, a decided analogy exhi-
bits itself; but no more than that. The comparison of the two styles
might be pursued, and they might be confronted with each other in
all their several points of resemblance and disparity; but to do so
would require many pages, whereas the object of the present note
is chiefly to remark that pursuing a course very different from the
practice of tlie present day, the Greeks made what they borrowed,
or borrowed the hint of, altogetlier their own by infusing into it,
upon artistic principles, a new and quickening spirit.

IV. We, on the contrary, have made of Grecian architecture
nothing better than a sort of motley manufacture, compounded of
Greek columns and entablatures literally transcribed from one or
two hackneyed exam|des, and stuck upon buildings which have
nothing whatever in common with those from which such examples
are derived: so far from it that they are altogether at variance
with Greek physiognomy and Greek taste. People seem to judge
of ardiitecture by their eai's rather than their eyes, columns
"after the Parthenon" — or whatever else it may be — having ere now
ensured admiration for some of the most tasteless architectural
Ijotchings that can well be conceived. As one instance, thougli
not the worst, of the preposterous mania for soi-disant Gi'eek
porticoes, the front of Bethlehem Hospital may be referred
to. As to inaiiHi itself, it is tliere-^no doubt in a very proper
place for it, and it shows itself very strongly; au reste, it was the
height of preposterousness to think of "a noble portico," and at-
tempt thereby to give a sort of palatial air to an hospital of that
description, or indeed to any hospital at all. That absurdity, bow-
ever, gross as it is, is not the only one, absurdity being heaped
upon absurdity even to ridiculousness. To drag it in for the
nonce, in defiance of pro]iriety, of character, and of decent con-
gruitv of design (what nothing short of extreme necessity could
liave excused in the particular case), was absurd in the extreme.
While classical taste was meant to be displayed, the very reverse of
it is betrayed; for in proportion as any one has intelligence of and
relish for Greek architecture, must be feel it to be degraded and
disgraced liy such application of it. Even taken by itself, without
reference to the rest of the structure, the portico is but a very
humdrum thing of the kind, whose bigness stands in lieu of artis-
tic gi'eatness and gusto. The most that can be urged in favour of
it is, that although it added to the expense of the building, it was
a very great saving in another respect — inasmuch as it saved the
architect, good easy man, all study, the portico being the alpha
and omega of his automaton design.

V. 1 do not, I find, stand quite alone, for there are some who
begin to be pretty much of tlie same opinions as myself, and to
give utterance to them rather freely. One reviewer has lately
spoken of "heavy pedantry, verbal prosing, and hectoring dog-
matism," as constituting "the literary etiquette of nearly all archi-
tectural writing." \\'henever they take up the pen, even architects
themselves let it be seen that they have just as confined and con-
fused notions of their art as the rest of the world. Rarely do they
show themselves to be eitlier artists, or competent critics of art :
in fact, they eschew criticism — critical comment and explanation —
nearly altogether ; contenting themselves with merely asserting
what has been before asserted over and over again. Never do they
attempt to set received oijinions in a fresh light, in order to see
how they will bear examination when so viewed. On the contrary,
they touch them so tenderly, not to say superficially, that they a])-
pear to consider them of a very cobvvebby nature. They do
scarcely anything to recommend and facilitate the study of archi-
tecture, by endeavouring to render it more generally attractive
and interesting; and yet they are apt to comiilain that the public
do not sufficiently appreciate and sympathise with their art.

\T. By way of setting one matter in a new light, myself, I will
remark that extravagantly as tlie Greeks have been extolled for
their skilful combination of sculpture with architectuie, it is in
some respects open to olijectiun. It has been said of the Parthe-

non, that the structure itself seems to have been treated as se-
condary to the sculpture, and made the frame-wmk for the latter.
Certain, however, it is that the sculpture was made to adapt itself
to the architectural forms, and forced into sclicmes of composition
too cramping and confined to be particularly favourable to it. If
we put prejudice, authority, and association aside, it must, I think,
be admitted that the triangle or pediment is of all shapes the one
least suited for framing in a composition consisting entirely of
figures. Considered with regard to situation, and as far as general
effect is concerned, a pediment no doubt affords a surface that very
properly admits of sculptural decoration, because as decoration it
there displays itself very conspicuously and effectively; but the
subject considered as a composition of figures, suffers more or
less, if only because the same general arrangement must in every
case be adojited alike, and must comply with the general form pro-
scribed by the outline of the end of the roof. A gable, especially
a semiciicular one (answering in its shape to a lunette), would be
a much better field for sculpture than the low Greek, or compara-
tively low Roman, pediment. This is of course very heretical,
and will perhaps be set down by some as calling in question, with
cijual ignorance and impudence, the acknowledged supremacy of
Greek sculpture. Do I forget the Parthenon? (I have heard its
name till I sicken at it) — oi have 1 never seen the Elgin niiirbles.''
Yet, so far from depreciating sculpture, my remarks rather go to
vindicate it, and to claim for it as sculpture some more honourable
post than that of mere architectural embellishment and fiUing-uj);
which might be su|iplied equally well and far less expensively than
by ambitious figure compositions. Such apidication of sculpture
externally is at all events not suitable for our climate, because our
climate is so unfavourable, that he its merit what it may as a dis-
tinct work of art, a fyure composition, very soon becomes more or
less defaced, if not effaced, so that it is only with some pains that
the subject can be made out,— which is, however, perhaps in most
cases an advantage, because the more indistinguishable it is, the
better; and the best that can be said is, that an expression of
richness is given to the architecture — as might be done equally
effectively at infinitely less cost, because in many instances a few
random scratches of the chisel would show just as well as positive
design. I have touched upon this matter just before in paragraph
IX. of my last Fasciculus; still, the present remarks are not
therefore quite superfluous, the matter itself not having been, as
far as I am aware, touched u))on by any one else. As to statues
introduced in external situations as adjuncts to architecture, they
are now seldom applied by us at all, and seldomer with anything
like the effect they might be, they being put where they do not
tell only as pinnacles. The usual secundum urtem practice — for I
cannot call it principle — is to hoist up statues as far above the eye
and as much out of sight as possible, so that they must be looked
out for before they can be loooked at; w hereas, placed in the lower
part of a building, statues would become important objects, and
lead to effects in architectural composition that are now never
aimed at or even thought of. Either single statues or groups placed
on the pedestals enclosing the steps of such porticoes as those of
St. George's, Bloomsbury, the London Universitj', and the Royal
Exchange, would show as admirably as they would distinctly.
Were 1 ashamed of anything, I might be ashamed of quoting sucli
authority as the Colosseum in tlie Regent's Park, for placing
statues with equal propriety and effect. Though merely cheap
ornamental figures or casts, those which are there placed on each
side of the building so as to extend the ground-line of the gener; 1
composition, serve as valuable artistically put-in accessories. Still
those who bother both themselves and other people about the
imaginary curved lines of the Parthenon, are by far too dignified
to take a hint from such example.

THE ARCHITECTURAL EXHIBITION.

Again and again have we urged the policy of establishing a se-
parate annual exhibition of architectural designs, drawings, and
models, so that such subjects might have fair play, and fair chance
for attention, which they certainly have not at the Royal Academj',
where they form the fag-end of an over-crowded exhibition of
pictures; and where space is so limited that not above a third of
what architectural productions are received and hung up, can be
at all properly seen. At length, our wish is partly fulfilled: a
beginning has been made — but it is not, we very much fear, an
auspicious one. It is rather to be apprehended that auspices are
entirely against it. t)riginating as it does with a junior body of
the profession (the Architectural Association), totally unaided by
the slighteat show of pati-onage from any quarter, the scheme is

181.9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND AUCHITECrs JOURNAL.

S9

in a ninnnor pre-dnomerl. To say that it is all tlie more merito-
rious on the part of the " Association," to have entered upon it
unencouraged as well as unaided, avails noufrht as to actual suc-
cess. In this country, people are apt to look as much to the
movers of anv scheme as to the merits of the scheme itself,
unless indeed it happens to he one that holds out to them strong
pecuniary advantages. The Association — he it said without the
slightest disres])ect towards them — are assuredly not in a position
to command public attention. AV'ith the Institute the case had
been widely different: they would have been considered authorised
to make an attempt like the present one; whereas, originating
where it does, it is likely to he set down by many as mere pre-
sumption. The Institute possess ampler means and resources, but
unfortunately they totally lack the requisite spirit; wbile the As-
sociation show that they possess the spirit, or pluck, as a contem-
porary calls it, but lack the requisite resources, stutiis in public
opinion or pul)lic prejudice, included. There are, besides, some
extraneous circumstances that are anything hut propitious. One
of them is, that the Exhibition is ill-timed — that is, it is too early
in the year, and will be closed before the general season for exhi-
bitions, and when the town is at the fullest, begins. So far, the
Association have launched out at ebb-tide. Besides this, liberal
and spirited as it is on their part, the making their exhibition a
perfectly free one for five days in the week, is exceedingly ques-
tionable policy. As it is the first instance of the kind on the part
of any society of artists, it looks very much like a confession that
an architectural exhil)ition is not worth paying for, and is likely to
be so interpreted by people in general. Undoubtedly, such an
exhibition has no attraction for the many. M'herefore we think
they will not have a single visitor the more in consequence of there
being no charge for admission, — that is, not a single visitor the
more who might not just as well have stayed away. A few idlers
may perhaps be induced just to "look in," since there is nothing
to pay; but that class who have any taste for, or intelligence of
architecture, and to whom it must look for patronage, would have
gone just tlie same, or perhaps even more readily, had there been
the usual charge of a shilling. It is true, they may pay their
shillings now, on Saturdays, if so disposed; but then, people don't
care to pay for seeing what others are admitted to behold gratui-
tously. With the Westminster Hall exhibitions, the ease was
altogether different; for there was on the free days such a squeeze
of the "unwashed," that their absence was cheaply purcliased by a
Saturday shilling. In Pall-Mali, on the contrary, the pay-day
brings with it no greater convenience than the free ones. So far
then, it appears to us, a serious error in judgment has been com-
mitted. In other respects, too, sufficient consideration does not
seem to have been given to an undertaking whose issue may nega-
tive, for a very long while to come, any similar experiment. The
Association should have announced their intention very much
earlier than they did; and they should have carefully mustered
their own forces before going into the field. Of their having
done so, however, there is no sign. In fact, one of their leaders —
the very individual whom we expected to put himself foremost, has
left them in the lurch. Not so much as a single contribution to
the exhibition — neither drawing nor sketch of any kind, is there
by the Association's late President, Mr. " Fine-Art-Arcliitecture"
Kerr; although others as well as ourselves would, no doubt, like
to behold a specimen of that gentleman's talent in design. AMie-
ther he at all promoted the Exhibition project by his eloquence
we are unable to say; but that he should have sliruuk from par-
ticipating in it actively, is passing strange. Still, whatever the
exhibition may have lost by his absence, his example might with
great propriety have been followed by several of the others.
When people cannot show any furte, the next best thing they can
do is not to display their want of it. Coming forward as they
have done, and challenging public notice, we certainly looked for
greater evidence of talent on the part of the Association. Youth-
ful extravagances and e.xcesses of v/anton fancy we could gladly
have made allowance for, and excused; but the dreary duluess —
tlie utter want of either spirit or taste, and of anything like fer-
mentation of ideas, which marks so many of the things here hung
up, is the reverse of promising. There are several tilings whicli,
as designs, do not rise at all above those usually exhibited at the
windows of estate-agents and auctioneers. It is true, we are not
compolled to look at them — but where is the use of showing them?
or rather, how contrary to all sound policy, or even ordinai-y dis-
cretion, it is to do so; more particularly in what is a first and
specimen exliibition, and likely therefore to affect the credit of the
whole scheme.

As regards the^resent exhibition itself, one of the most favour-
able and satisfactory circumstances is, thai the room is an excellent

one for the purpose, and all the drawings so hung as to he well
seen, they being confined to two rows nearly upon "the line," —
none of tliem below the eye, nor any too much above it, except
perhaps in one or two instances, where a drawing in the second
row would have been better placed in the first one. As to number,
too, there are quite enow, — as many subjects as can be inspected
without fatigue; and provided they all contained something to
detain attention, one hundred and seventy architectural drawings
are more than can be examined in one or even two visits. First
appearances on entering the room are certainly prepossessing, and
contrast most agreeably with the squeeze and helter-skelter array
of drawings and oil-pictures in the Architectural Room at the
Academy. There is another judicious departure from Academical
and the usual exhibition regulations, frames not being made a
ihie-r/ua-non for admission. Vet, although the exhibiting rames
as well as drawings was properly enough left optional, theie is a
sine-(jiia-ium, or what should have been considered such, that sliould
have been pretty strictly enforced — namely, jiositive interest or
merit of desiyn itself. There are, unfortunately, too many things
which are not at all up to exhibition-mark as arcliitectural produc-
tions, although some of them may be unexceptionable fur their
manual execution as mere drawings. Proofs of poverty of ideas
and vacuity of mind are by far too frequent; therefore, it is in
one respect a disadvantage liere that there are no obscure holes and
corners into which things tliat will not bear inspection and consi-
deration miglit have been thrust.

Although the Association have been aided by very few contribu-
tors in the ranks of the profession, their exhibition is greatly in-
debted to those few; since, were it not for the able productions of
Allom, Collmann, Lamb, and one or two others, the show would have
been very much ])Oorer than it is. The members themselves, there-
fore, play only secondary parts; and there is, m.oreover, one draw-
back attending a large proportion of the drawings and subjects
sent in by others — namely, their having been before exhibited, and
some of them very recently. We admit that thei'e are among them
several (especially those by the parties above-named) with which we
are not displeased to have the opportunity of renewing acquaint-
ance; still, as far as the undertaking generally is concerned, it is a
disadvantage that some of the most brilliant and redeeming points
in this exhibition have previously shone upon us elsewhere. Be
such the case or not, at all events our labour is abridged, since we
need not here specify and repeat our praises of drawings and
designs which we have spoken of at the time with deserved com-
mendation in our notices of "Architecture at the Royal Academy."
We may remark, that Mr. Collmann's "Hall and Staircase at the
British Museum" (No, 2-1) operates as an extinguisher upon all
the other interiors. Of that class of subjects there are several,
but all of them decidedly poor, and one or two in the most flagi-
tiously vulgar and tawdry taste. Attending one of them (No, 7+)
there is a curious and even comical circumstance, for it was in the
Academy last year, and then described as "An Entrance Saloon
adapted to the English climate," but is now called ".\ Design for a
Library"\ — adapted also, we presume, to the English climate, by
its being without book-shelves or book-cases. Mr. Collmann's
"Design for a Sideboard" (No. 137) causes us to marvel much how
the i-ival subject by Mr. T. Seddon, jun. (No. 91) could jjossibly
have obtained "the First Prize of 20/. and Silver Medal" from the
Society of Arts, it being not only greatly inferior, but positively
bad, — a coarse assemblage of the arrant frippery dignified l)y the
name of the Louis Quatorze style. If such be the taste of the
Society of Arts, let them stick to the useful and mechanical arts,
for the less they interfere with Fine Art the better. Among the
more remarkable designs, and a truly remarkable one it is, is
No. 56 : "Entrance front of a Villa designed for Mr. Alderman
Moon," by Owen Jones, Its pretensions to design and style con-
sist only in flowering over the surface of the walls with a sort of
Alhambra pattern^a species of decoration more akin to paper-
hanging tlian architecture: however, we do not suppose that it
will ever be realised. Mr, Leeds has supplied five subjects, which,
although they do not leconimend themselves by conieliness of ap-
pearance or any chai-m of execution— three of them, in fact, are
little more than sketches, or else only in a state of progress, as
their being sent in upon drawing-panels seems to indicate — will,
on being looked into, be found to contain some good and fresh
artistic stuff. The least novel of them is No. 109, which being au
"Idea for Improving the Farade of the National Gallery," is of
course only a rifuccinmvnto of Wilkins's building, and therefore
ohlkjato in style and composition. Although the idea of attempt-
ing to correct or improve tliat facade has been scouted by many,
this "Idea" shows that even partial alteration might do very much
for it. At present, the whole is too much broken up into separate

14*

100

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

[Ai.j;ir,,

little bits, sn as tii lip mnvkcd liy a very strapglin^ appearance.
This defect it is liere pmposed to remedy, and also to produce
])ositivp irrnndi'ur and riclmess of C(jnipositioM, by merely biiildint;
out from tlie present front, iidvancini; all but (piite up to the front
of the portico, as mucli as would nearly correspond in extent with
the terrace and inclosed area of Trafalfjar-square, — so as to obtain
architectural focus, and pmduce an important mass that would
display itself decidedly, and seem properly adapted to its particu-
lar situation in connection with the "Sciuare." As a separate fea-
ture the portico would, jierliaps, lose somethinfr, because it would
not, as at present, project out from the rest. It would no longer
be a ili]irnstijh\ but it would he greatly extended by the addition of
a hexastyle hi (iiilix on each side of, and in immediate connection
with, the ])resent octastyle, — forminj; altogether a continuous range
of c(d(uniade, terminated and iiuilosed by two pavilions brought
forward from tliose portions of the building in which are the tho-
roughfare passages througli it. An effective and well-projjortioned
ccniposition would thus lie olitaijied, — one which being more com-
jiact would gain in loftiness, more especially as a deeper cornice is
substituted for the present too feeble and diminutive one. ^V'ith
greater continuity of c(donnade, there would also be greater va-
riety of it, the additiiuuil colonnades being — as is shown by the
jdan, although not ajiparent in a geometrical elevation — double
ones, that is, consisting of two open rows of columns, between
which would he covered-in flights of steps leading up to the por-
tico. The perspective effect attending those second or inner rows
of columns would be eipially striking and novel. The least satis-
factory part of the design is the dome, — an improvement upon the
jiresent one, hut still requiring re-consideration. For bestowing
what may be thought disproportionate notice on this particular
subject our excuse nnist be its particular interest, since it shows
what may he done to reform a structure which is more universally
than perhaps altogether justly condemned; and for which altera-
tion has been repeatedly talked of, if never seriously intended.
At any rate, here is a step beyond mere talking — a fairly embodied
idea; and if a belter one, not pirated from it, can be produced — by
all means let us behold it. — "While that sHl))ect can at all events claim
to be considered a jiroduction of de.sii/n, there are too many others
which are mere ])ortraits of either buildings or parts of buildings,
without particular novelty or other interest to recommend them
as such, and without that positive pictorial merit which would
make amends for the want of the other kind of attraction. One
excejition there is — viz. No. 14., a view of A\'ollaton Hall, in which
Air. Arthur Allom shows that he inherits his father's artistic./i/r/e
and hriiriira of pencil. A few more such pictures would have in-
gratiated the exhibition with the public; whereas Nos. (it and 76, a
l>air of elevations of the Ban(pietting House, ^yhitehall, might
very well ha\e been spared. Even one of them would have been
rather da trap, but two of them are overwhelming.

The show of Models — for exhibiting which class of subjects the
room affords convenient space — is very poor A\'ith one exception,
they are all upon so diminutive a scale as to have a very toy-like
look, as is the case witii that of the "North-west corner of the Bank
of England," whose size tits it better for an ornament upon a
chimney-piece, than for an architectural exhibition. The one just
alluded to as an exception — and it is a model u))on a rather unusual
scale — is called in the catalogue merely a "Study for a Facade,"
although it is actually that of Mr. l''rip[i's design Utr the Army and
Navy Clubhouse. As so intended, we certainly did not consider
it very germane to the purpose; but taking it in itself, and as it
is now named, we see in it considerable merit and artistic feeling:
not hut that it might be improved not a little by only a little more
study. Yet the subject itself hardly reipiired a model; for except
the open entrance loggia an<l ascent up to it, there is nothing that
might not just as well be expressed in a mere elevation. No. 109,
on the contrary, stands very much in need of the assiiitance of a
model, and to bo shown in actual relief.

PUBLIC ENTERPRISE, NATIONAL LAW, AND
NATIONAL PROGRESS.

In nil rightly-constituted communities, the subsistence, and
therefcu'e the emi)li>ynient, of the population must be held the
first duty of the governing body. This is a trite saying to begin
with, and England is a country in a liigh state of civilization; l)ut
so far as the governing body is concerned, the discharge of the
primary duty we have named is not carried out. Provision, it is
true, is made, tliat iie<iple shall imt die of stavvation, but since
the time of yuecn Elizabeth, tlie duty of superintending the em-

ployment of the population may be said to have been abandoned
by the goverimient. The economists may perhaps have con-
tributed to this result while reclaiming the freedom of enterprise,
but they ought not to be held blameworthy for the retention or
institution of any shackles on emphiyment.

It may seem a monstrous assertion that the em|iloyment and
provision of the population are not duly looked after in England
in the nineteenth century; but it is one, the truth of which,
though it may not meet ready accejitance, cannot unha])pily be
gainsaid. At this stage we shall content ourselves by referring' to
our waste laruls and our fisheries, to show that something is left
undone, and the fault of which lies with our law-makers only;
and we say, moreover, that it matters not bow far they niav have
gone, if they have allowed other nations to get ahead of us in the
competition for employment. The exjierience of late years has
too fully proved to us that Germany, France, the United States,
and Belgium, have in many branches of trade so gone beyond us,
and lessened the earnings of our mainifacturers and workmen.
Therefore, we say it is well worthy of incpiiry, what is the state of
industry, not only in this country, but abroad; and what are the
causes of our advancement or our backwardness, wherever such
may have taken place. This is of national interest; but our
readers have a special interest in such iiuiuiries, because their
bread depends upon the national prosperity, and on the healthy
condition of national industry.

If we say that legislation has its influence upon industry, we do
not put aside, nor put away altogether the influejice of other
causes. We are very well aware that laws abnie cannot make a
trade and cannot make a people, and that a people may shape their
course for good or evil to a great degree, in despite of law. How-
ever perfect a system of laws may be, though they may influence
they cannot absolutely determine the every proceeding of each in-
dividual; for it is impossible that the ceremonial law of a Moses
or a Confucius, however minute in its dictates, slnnild embrace
every action of life. Imleed, if laws alone were sufficient for the
promotion of industry, then the special legislation of the French
being so much better than ours, so should tliey be in a higher de-
gree of industi'ial advancement than ourselves, which they are
not,

It is the want of discrimination as to the true value of each
cause in operation, which leads to the want of correct views on
the legislation afl'ecting industry in this country; but it is most
important that a greater degree of attention should be bestowed
on these investigations, the more particularly since the altered
political condition of Wester!! Fjuro])e promises to give a greater
development to individual character. If we take the laws as
affecti!ig partnerships, patents, a!id co!n!iiei-cial trai!sactions, those
of the English are bad, and of the F'rei!cli are good: if we take
the me!!, the Englishmai! is enterprising, but the Frei!chman is
wa!iti!!gin enterprise, i!i i!!depe!ide!!ce, a!id in self-reliai!ce. Much
of this resolves itself ii!to iiifliiences of legislatioi!; but thei! it is
not legislation as affectii!g indi!stry, but legislation directed to
political orga!iizatio!i. The police system of France has perhaps
more to do tha!i anything else with the commeixial habits of the
population, a!!d the wa!it of freedom of locomotion, and the per-
petual reference to the will of others in many of the operatio!is of
life, destroy the self-reliance of the individual, impair his e!!ergy of
character and industry, aiid most surely li!nit his e!!terprise. ^Ve
say nothi!ig as to the political hierarchy, the corruption of patron-
age,ai!d the pcrvadi!!g centralization, because tlieir ii!rtue!ice is more
ambiguous, a!id the!-e are set-offs agai!!st tliem here a!!d in other
cou!itries; but we refer coi!tide!itly to the police a!id passport
svstem as counteractii!g most efficiently in Fra!ice and (;er!na!!y
tlie good tendency of industrial legislation. \Ve shall advert to
this again at a further stage; meanwhile, we bring it forward here
to i-eniind tlie reader that we cannot be limited to consider the
nari-ow operation of patent laws, i-egistration acts, companies'
clauses consolidaticui laws, or partnership suits in chancery. The
diseased cmistitution cannot be fully demonstrated from the dis-
section of individual limbs.

The dereliction of duty on the part of the English government
has been imitated by others, and it has pei-ha]is as much as any-
thing contributed to the peculiar character of the present revcdu-
tionary movement, the beginning only of which we now see. The
agitation is no longer directed by piditical dogmas only; nay, it
has not so much an agr;iriiii! charactei', but its sects of socialists
and of coinniunists attest its connection with the absorbing ques-
tion of the present day — the employment of the people. It is
because governments have neglected their duty in providing for
the employment of the people that a re-organizatitui of society is
so readily sought after; not one which shall pull down the rich

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

101

only, lint which shall pve comforts to the many. There are more
socialists and more social agitators than the Owenites or Fourrier-
ites; the effects of many c<intrihute to the movement — Louis
NaiHileon, Lord Ashley, and Lord John Manners, as much as
Proudhon and Cahet; the Tinip.i as much as the Nathmat: and
unless the work he taken up thoroufihly by existina^ jjovernments,
it is impossihle hut that it ivill he carried out in a much rougher
fashion by the strona; hands of the suffering masses. Emigration,
again, is only another e.\em]>lification, anothei' symptom of the
paramount disease. As the Tinicn said the other day, all classes
feel a want of room; it is not perhaps that there is a greater
competition tlian tliere was in the fifteenth or the tenth century;
it is n(jt perhaps tliat the ]>o])ulntion are really in a worse condi-
tion, but because they are better ac(|uainted with the evils of their
condition, and have a surer knowledge how far they are remedi-
able. If ignorance be bliss, they have lost it; but they have like-
wise lost ho|)e.

In these islands arc six or seven millions of men able to work;
but of those, not less than two millions, more likely three millions,
and perhaps more, are for the greater part of the year without
work. We do not say they are not fed, but they do not do the
work which they are able to do, whidi most of them are willing to
do, and which under a good system they would do. The power of
work of two millions of men is greater than that which raised the
pyramids of Egyjit, laid out the Chinese canal and wall, covered
the Roman empire with roads and aipieducts, and saved Holland
from the sea. It is greater than that which has been bestowed
upon the public works of which we are so proud. So enormous a
waste of power, in a country which so much reciuires its applica-
tion, is the strongest condemnation of our system of government.
Politicians may soothe their consciences by saying that they keej)
the ]ieople from starvation; but while such vast means exist of
adding to the comforts of the people, no excuse can be admitted.
AVith the means we have, the "hole country could be drained as a
garden, the waste lands reclaimed, houses, schools, libraries and
churches be built. Fuel might be supplied to every household,
lime and agricultural manures be spread on every acre, oiir shores
be lined with harbours and jiiers, and the fisheries yield an abund-
ance of food. These are ([uite within the limit of the vast re-
sources available. Indeed, the power to be had is as great as that
now emjiloyed in growing food in the island of Britain.

If we wanted to show how the material resources are wasted, we
need not go to Ireland, and follow Sir Richard Kane through his
enumeration; we need only jioint to the millions of acres of im-
provable land, now left untitled. Nay, in this great city, manure
enough to grow corn for a million of people is yearly wasted.

All this shows that there is something wrong, and we have no
hesitation in putting it down to the laws affecting industry.
AVhether the economists did any great good by the abolition of
aiiprenticeships and of corporate restrictions, is open to question;
but they certainly left the main things undone, and if there he
any good in free trade, still tliat is but little. Freedom to trade
without may be good, but we want freedom within; and the more,
as we have to compete with nations abroad, who are now wiser
than ourselves.

Two prominent evils in the legislation affecting industry are the
laws relating to patents and those relating to jiartnershijis; and
the two cannot be dissevered in any considei-ation of the question
in its bearing on those classes with which our readers are con-
nected. If we were discussing this simply as a political question,
we could show that the evils are not so limited; but as we want to
show its bearing on a class, its practical operation, and how much
it operates to the injury of every man, working either with his
head or his hand, we are contented so to limit it. A\'e have taken
the two subjects togetlier, moreover, as they are most intimately
connected, and work as efficiently for the injury of every indus-
trious man in the country, as if they were planned with that ex-
press and specific object, and not, as laws are generally supposed
to he, for the good of the commonwealth.

We give a prominence to the patent laws, becaiise an agitation
is now going on for their amendment, and a commission of inquiry
into the fees of the government offices has been appointed, before
which evidence has been given. In Newton's Lomlmi Jouriiul for
February and March, will be found able articles on Patent Law
Reform, showing the interest which is excited among those en-
gaged in the promotion of useful inventions. In these articles
our readers will find many practical exemplifications of the ill-
working of the patent laws, as coming within the ken of the profes-
sional men engaged in their administration.

None of our readers will, we believe, gainsay that the patent
laws and laws affecting joint-stock companies do not work well;

and with this assumption we shall start, wishing to show the
national importance of the subject before we consider its details.
It has been sometimes said that the welfare of England depends
upon her keeping twenty years ahead of other nations in the
practice of mechanical aits; and in this there is very much trutli.
The Quarter/;/ Ifi'view (December) says there is no question that a
fearful proportion of our fellow-citizens hold their ]irosperity upon
no other tenure. Let us therefore see how this works.

It is to the mechanical classes we naturally look for the best oji-
portunities of promoting the practice of mechanical arts. In
these classes we find great masters with great wealth, small
masters with small wealth, professional men well to do in the
world, and younger ones with their living to get; but above all,
thousands of working-men. The number of rich men is very
small, the number of poor men is \ery great; but their share of
skill has nothing to do with their share of wealth. A prinri it
must be looked upon as incontestable that the mechanical classes
cannot pay a heavy tax for leave to exercise their genius, and that
a heavy tax would'have the effect of preventing a great many men
from a])plying their inventive skill.

M'e now trace a poor working-man in England. He lias what
seems to him, and what is, a valuable invention, and with great
difficulty from his scanty means makes a working-model, the re-
sults of which offer every inducement to go on with his undertak-
ing. One of liis first wishes is very natural — that he sh(uild reap
the reward of his ingenuity; and it might be supposed that in any
civilised country he has the property in his own labours. The
writer has so in his bo<iks, the painter in his paintings, and no one
may steal his work: the mechanic himself has a priqierty in his
trade-mark, or the name of his firm, but he has none in his me-
chanical discoveries or inventions. No one may take his name in
vain, or use his stamp; but they may freely use his invention^,
unless he can pay the heavy price of a patent. They may c(qiy the
whole tool or machine, except the words, " Fairbairn, Manchester, '
or " Joseph Rodgei-s, Sheffield." The law is very tender as to this.

Tliere is no reason <i priori why he should take out a patent.
The patent itself is no adequate protection. It may be said, th;;t
without a patent, other parties may claim the invention. They do
now; and they have to prove before a court of law, as they woulil
then, that they have a better title than the inventor: that it was
invented before, or known before. Other questions of copyrigl t
do not involve a jireliminary patent; neither should copyright of
mechanical inventions. Give a man the property in his oun
works, and grant him the same protection as he v\ould have for
other property.

If a man cultivates a piece of waste land, or if he finds out a
mine, he acijuires in most countries the property, without expense
of patent, on the ground that he has done great good to the com-
monwealth. Some governments exempt such lands from taxation;
there are few that reipiire a heavy tax to he paid before waste
land is cultivated or a mine is worked; the utmost exaction is
commonly a royalty from the earnings. In England, a man is not
allowed to have the protection of the law for the property in his
mechanical inventions, until lie has paid a heavy sum, before he
has earned ime single jienuy, and witliout the certainty of earning
one single penny; wliile, if lie earns anything, he must pay in ad-
dition the ordinary taxes for tlie preservation of property.

The author can assign his copyright to as many people as lie
pleases, can dispose of it for a time, can pass it by will. Tlie
author of a mechanical invention cannot assign his copyright as
he pleases, and if it can be worked only by a great company or
partnership, he must (ditain an act of parliament to enable him to
assign it. A flaw in the assignment of the copyright of a book
does not destroy the copyright; a flaw in the patent of copyright
of a mechanical invention does destroy the copyright.

Prince Albert, or any other man, may have an injunction to
prevent any one man from publishing his writings and engravings,
which are unregistered and untaxed, but a mechanic has no jiro-
tection against the publication of his invention, unless registered
and taxed.

The author of a book can reap the profits of his invention at
once; the author of a mechanical invention must wait six or nine
months for specification, during which he is liable to fraud, piracy,
and extortion, on the part of unprincipled adventurers, who
may avail themselves of the delay to specify part of his inven-
tion as their own. The London Journal well shows this.

The author of a book, painting, or piece of music, the inventor
of the name of a firm or of a trade-mark, the cultivator of waste
land, or the worker of a mine, pays no special tax to give him his
pro]ierty. The author or worker of a mechanical invention does
pay a very heavy special tax for which hs gets no benefit.

102

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

f ApKir,,

Tlie men who are authors of valuable inventions, in the great
nvijonty of cases, from the poor bein^ in tlie fjreater number, do
n')t necessarily possess 200/. or 300/., and cannot rendily fjet it.
One man is a barber, anotlier a postilion, and a third an eiifjine-
tenter, and so on; the l)etter taufflit may be a poor scliidar or
parson, 'i'lu-se men are called u])on to i)ay the tax, and they liave
it not. Tlioy Iiave several courses open to them. To work the
invention without fee or reward; if practical>le to work it secretly
for profit; to get some one to advance the money and to take part
of the profits; to register the invention ijistead of patenting it;
to keep the invention secret in the liopes that tlie means may
come for taking out a patent. The great majority of inventors
tliere can be no question are reduced to one of these several
courses; of the patents taken out, the majority are on similar
conditions.

If a working-man is very lucky, he may get some one to ad-
vance the money to take out a patent for him; but in most cases
he cannot, and the in\ention slumbers for many years, or is per-
haps lost. This, it is evident^ is to the very serious injury of the
people at large.

^V'e will not take a remote case, nor an obscure one; but we have
one which has been pointed out by a writer in Ihis. Jounui/ — that of
George Stejjlienson. In 181 1, little more than thirty years ago,
George Stephenson was a working-man, and invented a locomotive
engine and a safety-lamp; for neither was he able to take out a
])atent, being too poor, and was forced to publish them without
any protection. For tlje safety-lamp he got no direct return, but
was fortunate enough to get a public subscription: we say fortu-
nate, for Dr. Clanny only got a small subscription a few years
ago, and Mr. Robert A^^illiam Brandling, the inventor of another
safct.v-lamp, died last year without having received any reward.
For the locomotive, Stephenson got no return; and it was perhaps
fortunate for him tliat he had no patent, for he would have been
300/. out of pocket, as the only engine constructed suggested im-
provements, which led to its being superseded. Had the engine
been perfect, Stephenson would have had no protection, and the
great manufacturers would have got the profits from such a valu-
able invention.

In the next year, Stephenson fell in with that great schemer,
AVilliam Henry James, and he introduced him to another great
schemer, Ralph Dodd; which latter found the money for taking
out a patent, receiving a considerable share in the patent, and
M'illiam Henry James receiving a sliare for bringing the parties
togetlier. Ral])h Dodd had not the recpiisite capital for working
tlie patent, so tliat the sliare given up was for obtaining the patent
or title to the jiroperty, and nothing else. This is the usual case
witli patents; and tliere are very few in which the inventor has not
given up a share for obtaining the patent.

^Vc may here stop for a while, and examine a little at our leisure
the case before us. The author of Paradise Lost was not obliged
to take out a patent before he could offer his inunortal Paradise
Lost to a bookseller for five pounds. Tlie late Sir Walter Scott did
not have to pay out of his large earnings 300/. per work, or
above 10,000/. for patents. ^Ve know of many men who have paid
tlumsands for patents. At the time we are speaking of, Stephen-
son was maintaining his aged parents out of his earnings, was
mending clocks and watches in what he called his spare time, to
provide the means for educating his son, and was jeopardising his
life in the fire-damp in experiments on tlie safety-lamp, as wit-
nesses now living have stated. Yet, before this poor man could
be in the position to reap any reward from one of his inventions,
he liad to assign away a great share.

Our readers will not feel astonished if we take them one step
further. So far from an ade<|uate return being got from the
I'atent with Dodd, in the next year Stephenson had to take out
another ]iatent for the locomotive, into which he crammed sundry
other inventions for rails and chairs. For getting this patent anil
working it, the means were found by Mr. Losh, a manufacturer of
Newcastle, who of course had a share in the jiatent. It is not
wonderful that Stejihenson had contemplated leaving a country so
very unpropitious to poor inventors, and emigrating to the United
States. If he died a rich man, no thanks to the patent laws.

AVc do not think it necessary to accumulate examples, for one
practical example is liettcr than a hundred theories as to how tlie
patent laws might work, and the case of George Stephenson never
ought to have occurred in a country claiming to be civilised. In-
stead of taking other cases, we shall make some further remarks
suggested by the case of Stephenson.

In looking at the history of the locomotive, it seems very clear
that the patent laws were the great obstacle to the practicaf intro-
duction of the locomotive fifty years before it took place. In

17S8 or 1759, Dr. Robison conceived the jilan of a locomotive
engine, but did not think it wortli his while to take out a patent.
In 178t, it was named by \\'att, in a patent, so that tlie idea of a
locomotive carriage was then made public. About that time, Wil-
liam .Murdoch, then at Redrutli, made a working nmrlel of a steam-
carriage, but could not take out a patent. iMurdoch was likewise
one of the inventors of gas lighting, in which he had the same
hindrance. In 1802, Trevithick, hel|)ed by Captain Andrew
^'ivian, took out a patent for a locomotive; but it never paid the
patent fees. Oliver Evans wanted to take out a jiatent for a
steam-wagon, but could not. Before 1818, at least 1,000/. were paid
for patent fees for locomotive*, without one penny of )irofit lieing
earned; and the said patents proving utterly worthless and un-
profitable, except in prejiaring tlie way for others. The history of
the steamboat, as lately published by Mr. Bennet Woodcroft, is
only another tale of the same kind.

In the course of his life, Stephenson must have paid 2,000/. or
3,000/. for patent fees. Of course Watt, Trevithick, Sir Mark
Brunei, and other great inventors have paid similar sums. Many
men have paid such sums, who have not earned anything, and have
died in a state of beggary. A special tax of this enormity upon
men of genius, it is left to the English government to levy. Other
governments, as unprincipled, but not so extortionate, give time
for the patentee to earn the money, or levy their tax upon his
earnings. 'They too, at least, put the fees into their own coffers;
but of the yearly tax of 100,000/. levied <m the mechanical genius
of England, very little goes into the Consolidated Fund, but is in-
tercepted by the Attoi-nies and Solicitors-General of England and
Ireland, the Lord Advocate of Scotland, and a number of ofiicers
appointed for the sole purpose of getting incomes out of inven-
tors. A more gratuitous system of wickedness and 0|ipression is
seldom found out of England: eastern tyrants get paid for their
villanies.

If tlie mischief limited itself to levying a ta.x of thousands
upon Watt, Trevithick, and Stephenson, and of hundreds upon
smaller men, it would not be so bad; but it is a prohibitive tax,
by which the mechanical skill of the country is kept down. There
is no profession so heavily or injudiciously taxed as that of the
patentee; no ti'ade pays such heavy license dues for its exercise.
The attorney pays a heavy stamp duty for a special monopoly, but
he can only be once articled; the banker pays only thirty pounds
a-year for coining paper money. The attorney and the banker
have especial immunities; the mechanical inventor has none, and
yet we question whether for utility the priest or the physician can
claim a superiority over the inventor, who finds bread for thou-
sands, perhaps for hundreds of thousands.

We are not now about to complain that honours and rewards are
not given to patentees, in order to stimulate them, though we have
a right to do so; for if the honours and rewards of literature and
science are small, yet the professors of either of these get more
baronetcies and knighthoods, and figure in greater numbers on the
pension list, than patentees do. The list of patentee-pensioners on
the civil-list must be very small; and Sir Alark Brunei, Sir Samuel
Brown, and Sir Joseph Iluddart, form the meagre list of patentees
who have received tlie title of knighthood, and even these rather
as civil engineers than as patentees. So little is tlie merit of the
patentee valued in this country, that he has no claim to be put on
the civil-list pensions, and there is no public subscription to relieve
him, his widow, or his orphans. Other workers with tlie brain
have their Literary Fund, or their Artists' Fund; even the player
receives liberal contributions from the public: Init there is nothing
for the patentee, though a Scientific Fund, as it might tie called,
is well worthy of public support, and would relieve many deserv-
ing persons, who, after spending thousands in the public service,
are left penniless.

The true picture we have painted shows that the position of
the patentee is more beset with difficulties than the proverbially
poor one of the poet and the painter; but we have not yet done
with the career of the working-man who has the good hap to get
a patent by the sacrifice of a large part of his property, for a
copyright which others get for nothing. He has got this pa-
tent to work.

There are very few inventions, liowcver inconsiderable the object
to be efi'ected, which do not require costly machinery; nay, they
may entail the outlay of many thousands to produce an article,
the sale price of which may be a fartliing, or even less. In many
cases the invention can only be cai-ried out by the association of a
great number of persons. In very few cases can a patent be
worked by licenses granted by the inventor, involving no outlay of
capital on his part.

\l^e have heard it stated by some persons experienced in such

181.9.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

103

transactions, that it is a fair division to give one-third of the
patent to the inventor, one-third to the party finding the money
to talie out the patent, and one-third to tlie party finding the
money for worliing it; but we believe there are few cases where
an inventor, whether having found tlie funds for the patent or not,
gets one-tliird of the patent for liis sliare, independently of the
share for talung out the patent; therefore it may be considered as
a general rule, that tlie cost of the patent to the inventor is not
the money cost for the patent fees, but the share of profit which
he loses, and this may be taken at a third; and there are persons
who have thus beeii mulcted on profitalile patents, of ]0,0U0/.
'20,000/., 30,000/., or even more. It would be thei-efore more mer-
ciful, if the government wants money, to levy it from the yearly
earnings, as is done elsewhere, and not force the patentee to sell
part of his property at an enormous sacrifice.

Under all circumstances, the cost of the patent is a deduction
from the capital available for commencing the undertaking and
making the trial machine. In the case already cited of Stephen-
son and Dodd, the sum paid for the patent was probably nearly as
much as that for constructing tlie only engine made under the
patent, and may have been raised by Dodd at interest ; and being
a total loss, contributed to tliose embarrassments, the pressure of I
which led him to commit suicide. It is very well known that those 1
who advance money for patents often borrow it themselves, so
that the money cost for patents becomes more than the fees.
Considered in the point of view now before us, a fund of more
than 100,000/. yearly, contributed by the private enterprise of the
country for the encouragement of useful inventions is fraudulently
diverted from it by the government, who are trustees of the public
interests, and is wasted in the maintenance of useless placemen—
the chaft'wax, the sealer, the train-bearer, the clerks of the signet,
the receivers of signet fees, and a swarm of sinecurists, deputies,
and assistants.

We may therefore very fairly assume that the first two hundred
or three hundred pounds which the inventor might obtain towards
beginning business, is directly taken from him by the government:
as if, when a pains-taking writer has finished a book, the govern-
ment should take from liim the sum which he could obtain for
printing it. In many cases, and more particularly of the less pro-
fitable inventions, the cost of the patent would be sufficient for
working the invention; and it may cease to be profitable if bur-
thened with double the amount.

It will be seen that the patent-tax must act as a direct prohi-
bition on the prosecution of many inventions. Taking the esti-
mate already given as to the distribution of the shares of a patent,
and supposing that it is necessary to go to a cost of 300/.; then the
party making such advance must look to a probable return of
twice that sum to reimburse him, and that, multiplied by three,
will give very nearly 2,000/. as the profits which must be realised on
an invention to justify a patent being taken out tor it. Thus the
inventor and the manufacturer are to be deprived of the oppor-
tunity of making a profit of 500/. or 600/. a-piece, that the
government may waste 300/., and the miserable chafi'wax may get
his fees. If 200/. profit only can be made, instead of 2000/., the
patent is quite out of the question.

It must not he forgotten that, however good his invention may
be, there is a limit on the inventor, besides that imposed by the
government tax. If the capital required to be laid out in manu-
facturing is too great in proportion to the profit to be got, then
the invention is financially impiacticable. At all events, it is
quite clear that the patent-tax is as much an oppression on the
capitalist and manufacturer, as it is on the inventor; and being an
oppression on these, so is it on the working classes, who are de-
prived of employment. It is not to be assumed that because a
patent is taken out it is therefore worked, for many a patentee
e.xhausts himself in taking out a patent, and therefore it falls to
the ground. It often happens that terms cannot be come to with
a capitalist, as the share he requires will not leave enough for the
inventor and the party who has advanced funds for taking out the
patent. The legal status of this latter creates, too, an additional
impediment in the way of the inventor.

We may here recall the reader to the very important results of
the prohibitory patent-tax, the delay of inventions. The patent
law makes it imperative that an invention must be kept secret
until a patent is obtained; and therefore there are few cases in
which less than three years elapse between the beginning of an
invention and its being brought into practical working. If we
reckon the extra time required in finding a capitalist to work the
patent, in consequence of the unnecessary outlay for a patent, the
time must be rated as three years before the public can get any
benefit; and this without any reference to what we may call the

natural difficulties to be overcome. The time lost where a patent
is obtained and worked, is however seldom so short as three
years, and may extend over very many years: we know of cases
of valuable inventions delayed twenty years from want of means
to take out patents. In many cases the invention is never di-
vulged; aiul the inventor sinks into the grave without giving a
hint, leaving it to some other person, perhaps a long series of
men of science, to go through the same course of experiment and
research .

We have instanced in the locomotive engine and the steam-
boat, the practical result of the prohibitory system and tlie
serious national evils which result from it; but the history of
every branch of invention yields the same lesson, and nothing
could be more humiliating to our national pride than an analysis
of such history, showing these facts in detail. These, however,
are not matters of the past, recorded only in the pages of the
historian, known only as having been remedied, as in progress of
extinction, or as already extinct; they are going on daily, their
evils increasing, and no attempt made to allay them,— nay, the
match of intellect only aggravates their enormity. While general
prices have fallen since the war, the cost of patents remains the
same, and is therefore heavier. As the progress of improvement is
more rife, so does the number of inventions increase, and a tax is
imposed upon them, which, at war prices, would directly and indi-
rectly represent a vast burthen upon the inventive skill and in-
dustry of the nation. This evil is going on, and any branch of
invention will show it: the railway system is sufl'ering from it, the
electric telegi-aph, the manufacture of gutta percha — thousands of
busy minds are kept back by a tax beyond their means of payment,
which damps their energies, and blights their exertions.

In the peculiar circumstances of this country, nothing can be
more injurious than a system so wicked as the patent laws, whicii
check employment in the earliest stage, and the spirit of whic.'i,
propagated in the laws regulating partnership transactions, is con-
tinued throughout. With the development of the practical work-
ing of the patent laws, we must now leave oft', entreating our
readers to give their earnest attention to remedy an evil, so
serious in its operation on the industry and well-being of the
country.

C Tu be cotilintu'dj

LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON.

fCaiithiued from paje 72.J

XII. THE SHARE MANIA OP 1825.

We have already shown that everything was ready to enable the
railway system to start, and tiiat it awaited only the fitting time.
This was given by the mania of 1825.

This mania has been the most spoken of, because it was the
greatest known to the generation which had sprung up since the
peace, and it may be almost called the first. There had been times
of share speculation during the war, in which the first railway-,
the docks and bridges of London, and some canals had been
begun; but the war sucked up most of the wealth of England.

To make way for 1825, there were good harvests, taxes seemingly
lighter, a high "price of stocks, and therefore low income to stock-
holders; a held was therefore wanted for the overflowing wealth
of the middle classes. A great spur had been given to trade
abroad, by the starting of the new comm-jnwealths of America; and
there were strong hopes from the fresh opening of the gold and
silver mines, to which the steam-engine in the hands of Trevithick
had given new life.

Had there been right knowledge on the side of the law-makers
and the people, the wealth of the higher classes would not have
been wasted as it was; for the only way in which it could be right-
fully brought to bear would have been better understood. A\'liat,
indeed, was this wealth whicli they had to lay out? It was not
wholly in the shape of gold, for gold does not grow, and there
could'be only more gold than was wanted by its having come in
from abroad. It was not in the shape of corn, for there was little
more corn than was needed for feeding the people. What then
was it? It was the means of commanding the labour of the people
at home, by having a hold on their food. This wealth, however
great at home, could not be taken abroad, and could only be made
fruitful at home.

Had this been understood, time should have been taken by the
forelock, and undertakings should have been brought forwai'd by
which works would have been made at home, which would have
been gainful to the shareholders, and a mine of wealth in all time

104

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Apbh,,

to come. This, liowevcr, was little tlioii;;ht of. Most of the bills
for mines, jrasworks. waterworks, hiuI docks were thrown out, — and
it may I'e said all tlie railway hills.

Uiidertakiiiifs abroad were not hindered by iiets of parliament.
Tlie Pasco-l'eruvian .Mining Company, or the Coliiml>ian Pearl
Fishery C'lmipaiiy, could be started witliout acts of jiarliament;
while the Liverjiool and Manchester Railway could only go on by
an act of parliament, to get whicli needed a great outlay of
money and time, and a .struggle against all tliat landowners, inn-
keepers, and (^anal-holders could do with their friends in the Lords
and in tlie lower house. It was no wonder therefore if American
mines and loans were most souglit after.

■What was the stock of wealth utterly lo.st in these undertak-
ings cannot be reckoned u]); for we have no good measure for it.
It Mas made up in several ways. There was what was spent at
liuiiio among ))eople here, and tliat must be taken otf from the
wliide loss. Then goods were sent abroad, which, so far as tlie
raw material was not of lionie make, would be a loss; hut would
not, so far as the work goes, nor so far as the raw material wliich
was of home growtli. Thus on cotton goods sent out, the utter
loss could only arise on the cotton which was of home growtli, hut
on English woollens there would not be an utter loss of the capital
of the country. There must, however, have been a great deal of
g(dd sent out, and therefore lost, and there was a loss of the gains
of the traders of former years.

The loss in capital was therefore a small one, and did not weaken
us, as indeed the end shows; but the loss when rightly measured
will be found to be a very great one; but then in another way
altogether from what it is commonly said to be. Our loss was not
by sending capital abroad and getting nothing back; by lendini^-
money to the Peruvians and Buenos Ayreans, and not being paid;
not by working silver mines in Mexico, gold mines in the Brazil,
and laying out ten pounds to get one pound's worth of gold: hut
our loss was of a kind which never can he made up, as the time
for doing so will never come over again.

Our loss is this. It is a loss of all the railways, docks, havens,
bridges, canals, gasworks, and waterworks which might have been
made; which would have set us ten years a-head of all the nations
in the old world and the new, and would have given to our fathers
and ourselves some of the fruits now our children only will see.
By giving a help to the building of steam-ships it would have
spread our trade abroad, and we should have made those settle-
ments which we are now only beginning. Then, too, how much
hanus on this, how much the healthy gi'owth of mechanical skill is
hindered from want of a field for its exercise. George Stephenson
was as ready for the locomotive race in 1823 as in 1829; the screw-
projieller might as well have been tried then as some years later;
and the steam-shij) driven its way across the broad Atlantic.

Shareholders were as willing to go into undertakings here as
abroad; indeed, the greater number of undertakings were meant
to he worked at home, but then they were knocked on the head by
the House of Commons. ISIore useful undertakings were ship-
wrecked tliere than useless (uies were shipwrecked on the American
shore; but then if a man wished to do .something he was driven
into some undertaking abroad, from there being no chance for him
at home, 'i'herefore, the blame lies wliolly on our law-makers,
who lost the best time for making u]i forthwith the losses the com-
monwealth had undergone during the war; and by hindering the
bealtliy growth of trade, threw the greatest hindrance in the way
of the sutfering people of England.

The people rushed into the share undertakings of 1824 and
1S2J with all the more madness, as the the thing was new to them.
Since the canal works of fifty years ago, never had there been so
many new undertakings brought forward. For twenty years,
A\'illiam Pitt and his followers had yearly come forward with some
new loan or lottery, in which all the savings of the thrifty were
huallowed up, while most were so squeezed with taxes that they
iDuhl not in any way save. James and Dodd might weave their
webs fruitlessly in the war time, for M'illiam Pitt held out to those
who had UKuiey six or seven in the hundred forthwith, under tlie
name of omnium, scrij), consols, navy fives, long annuities, shiu't
annuities, lottery tickets, and so forth. Therefore, the Ixddest
g('tters-u|i of new undertakings had the ground cut from under
tlieni. There were, it is true, new undertakings, as we have said,
brought forward from time to time; but in the whole they vvere small,
'I'he canals were done and at work, and few shares came into the
market. There were, however, as already said, docks, harbours,
gas and waterworks, and bridges, and these were still going on.
The copper and tin mines of Cornwall had been wrouglit throughout
the war, but then they were not advertised in the newspapers, and
tlieir shares had a nuirket of their own. It is therefore fair to

say, that so many share undertakings as were thenceforth set up
was something new for the peo]>le.

The gambling houses set up by the government under the shape
of lottery-offices were about to be closed; one pound notes were
under the ban, and gold had conie hack again after being lost sight
of for twenty years. The Stock Exchange drew therefore every
one to it.

Neither must it be lost sight of that the people had no longer
the war to beset their thoughts. They had not to think when
jieace would come, to wait for the news of the next fight, to grieve
over the last friend slain, or to grumble about the newest tax
threatened. The time of the government was no longer taken up
with such cares. Tiie thoughts of all were on peace, and wliat
jieace brought before tliem, of the means of ujiholding peace.
Tiiey were now as earnest to keep up the peace as before to keep
up the war. Hence, too, a greater freedom of mind, a greater
wish for learning, a greater readiness to welcome the works of
the great masters of knowledge. What was the steam-carriage of
Trevithick when Napoleon thundered at the gates of kings, and
warned the lords of earth to hide their heads and flee.^ — what was
the safety-lamp of Davy whilst ^Vellington and Napoleon fouglit
for the lordship of the world.'' Brunei miglit he listened to when
offering a new block machinery. Sir Samuel Brown for his chain
cables, or Sir Josepii Iluddart for his rope patent; but then these
were helpmates of the war, and their more peaceful works met
with less welcome. Tlie minds of men of learning and skill had
been much given to inventions useful iu war time, and now they
were free from sucli calls.

^Vhat ought to have been done, as already shown, was to set the
people at work at home; but this was lost sight of, and besides the
loss before reckoned up, further harm was done. In the war time,
there was, it is true, a great outlay for poor-rates, hut that was
mostly spent on women and children. An idle man had a hard
time of it; for he was laid hold of in one way or another, and sent
off to he a soldier or a sailor. Thus all were doing some kind of
work, or what was called work; but after the war, the thousands
iijion thousands of soldiers and sailors were no longer wanted, and
they were therefore left idle, and many able-bodied men came
upon the poor-rates, — a thing most hurtful to them, by giving tiiein
pauperised habits. On the other hand, nothing has done more for
stopping this evil than tlie great railway woiks which have of late
years been carried on; and we may hope in time that paujierism
will be utterly rooted out, and every man be set to some useful
work.

This may seem to have very little to do with George Stephen-
son, hut it has very much; for the great good there is iu looking
at the life of such a man is to think thoroughly over the circum-
stances wliich thus come before us. By so doing, we are enabled
to see what errors have happened, and how far the deeds of any
one man are able to cure them or soften them. It was certainly
one end of Stephenson's labours, that he did very much mitigate
the evils that have been here shown, while he was very much kept
back by them. How much more indeed might be not have done,
if at an earlier time he could have begun liis full career, while he
had all his health and strength? — and how much, too, is it to be
wished that other men should not be kept hack by the like
stumbling-blocks !

It is mere speculation as to whether Stephenson was moved in
his labours by any earnest wish to give employnient to the working
classes, but there is nothing more likely tiiaii that he had that
feeling, for it was that which stirred him to the finding out of his
safety-lamp; and James and Gray most strongly dwelt in their
writings on the good which would How from railways, as a means
of setting the people to work. Gray indeed brings forward the
want of employment as one of the greatest reasons for adopting
his plan of a general iron-way.'

The madness which set in for share undertakings reached its
height in 1825; and to show in what way it worked itself out, the
following from the Juhn Bull- newspaper may be of use.

Canals ilD.UUll.UOO

Ducks lU.jUU.UUU

AsKUranL'oC'iiiiiiaiiirs 4J,UUU,(iU0

WalL-rwuilis a.JOU.UL'U

Bruiges 2,UU0,0UU

Gas cuiupanics .... 11,OUU,(I;jO

Kuads 5lll),OU0

Kailways 21,J01I,UUU

Mines.' ia,UOU,000

Miscellaneous .... 4U,0(IU,(JI)0

This makes altogether ItilifiOOfiOOl., and does not take in the

I •• ObseivuLiuiis," p. J, 7, an:: 41'. =* rcb. l^i, Id2o.

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

105

foreii?n loans. The 166,000,000/. is, however, only the sum named
in the prospectuses, and does not therefore show the real capital
which would be wanted to carry out the undertakings. This the
writer makes out to be about 55,000,000/.; but as very few of these
undertakings went any furthei than the beginning, the outlay was
very small. Therefore, so far as to its lasting eifects, the mania
of 1825 was of much less importance.

Of the canals set forth above very few were made; but there
were some few docks, gasworks, waterworks, and bridges made.
The railways carried out were likewise few. Many of the as-
surance companies went forward, but there was no outlay upon
them.

On the mines a great sum was spent, though much less than is
commonly believed.

Most of tlie undertakings of 1825 turned out worthless because
they were not rightly taken up. Tlie British iron-works, the
Tliames Tunnel, the foreign and Irish mines are well-known cases
of large capitals whicli met with a small return, nor did tlie smaller
undertakings come better off. The Steam Wasliing Company and
tlie Alderuey Dairy Company both i-an their race, and came to an
untimely end. Tlie best undertakings were stopped in the House
of Commons, those only getting through which no one thought
w(u-th opposing.

If the excitem.ent in 1825 was very great, it did not go the
lengths of the canal mania of 1790, when speculators forced their
way through the windows of inns and offices to reach tlie sub-
scription lists for canals, breathless with anxiety to enroll their
names.^ Such, too, was the eagerness, that a number of farmers
were drawn together at midnight to a lonely inn on a common,
being told that the concoctors of a new canal or navigation were
about to allot the shares among themselves: the victims of the
hoax becoming of course the prey of the landlord of the inn in
which they were compelled to liarbour.

More real loss must have happened from the mania of 1825,
because more real property was hopelessly sunk.

XIII. THE FIRST RAILWAY MANIA.

1835 is commonly named as the First Railway Mania, but the
true one was, as may be seen from what has been just said, ten
years before. Thus there have been three of these episodes in
railway history.

The railway mania of 1825 brought forward undertakings for
which a capital of abo^■e twenty millions was wanted, and by
whicli lines many hundred miles in length were to be made.

^Villiam Henry James seems to have begun with a gieat railway
for the south of England, on which he wrote a pamphlet, with a
map. It was to start from London and to go to Rochester and
Shoreham, to be worked by locomotives.*

M'hether however James first brought forward this or the Liver-
pool and Manchester Railway, we are not able to say.

By 1821, the Liverpool and Birmingham had been surveyed,
and others all over England; and by 1825, they had spread to
Ireland.

The following will show some of the lines brought forward, with
the capital proposed, though it must be remembered that more
than one company was sometimes proposed for the same line, and
that therefore the number of railway companies of 1825 will be
greater than that of lines : —

*I.iverpool and Manchester railway, £400,000

*Lond()n, Rochester, and Slioreham railway, £500,000^

*l!irmin(;liam and Liverpool rail wav, afterwards Grand Junction, £600,000"

♦Bristol and [Jaih railway, £100,000'

*Lijndon and Birminghara railway, £1,500,000

*Lonrton and Bristol railway, afterwards Great Western, £1,500,000^

*Lnndon and Northern railway, £2,000,000

*Londnn, Portsmouth, and Southampton railway, afterwards Soutti-Western,

♦Manchester and Leeds railway, £500,000 ' [£1,000,000

♦Manchester and Bolton railway, £150,000

Limerick and Waterford railway, £300,0009
♦Newcastle and Carlisle railway'"
♦Garnkirk and Glasgow railway

3 Finger-Post, p. 28.

4 Report on the Engine Railroad, by William James, 1823. (In the Library of the
Institution of Civil Engineers.)

5 Report on the Engine Railroad.

6 Cumming on Railways. London : Baldwin, 1824. p. 42. Statement of the

Claim of the Subscribers to the Birmingham and Liverpool Rjilroad to an Act of Parlia.
ment. London : Baltiivin, 18?5.

7 John Bull newspaper.

8 Observations on the General Comparalive Merits of Navigations and Railroads.

3 Repoit by Alexander Nimmo, C.E., M. Inst.C.K., on the LiiMerick and Waterford
Railway. Dublin ; 1825. (In the Library if the Institution of Civil Engineers.)
10 Reports of Wm. Chapman on the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway.

♦Edinburgh and Glasgow railway' '

♦London and Brighton railway, or Surrey, Sussex, and Hants, £750,000'^

Grand Junction railway, £2,000,000' »
*Taunton railway, £200,000

•Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex railway, since Eastern Counties, £1,000,000
•Leeds, Selby, and Hull railway, £500,000 "*

London and South Wales railway, £1,000,000
•Birmingham and Bristol railway, £80,000

Kentish railway, £1,000,000

Grand Western railway, £3,000,000

East London railway, £100,000
*Canterl)ury and Whitstahie railway, £25,000

Severn and Wye railway, £131,670

Stroud and Severn railway, £50,000'^

Hihernian railway, £1,000,000

Colchester and Halstead railway, £40,000

Ipswich, Diss, and Eye railway, £200,000

Exeter and Exmouth railway, £35,000
♦Cromford and High Pfak railway, £150,000
•Duffryn Llynvi and Portli Cawl railway, £30,000
"London and Edinburgh railway
''London and Newcastle railway
•Maidstone and Tunhridge railway
•Manchester and Oldham railway
•Bolton and Leigh railway
•Rhymney railway

Berwick and Kelso railway

East Lothian railway
•Edinliurgh and Dalkeith railway '°

West Lothian railway

Glasgow and Roseliank railway

Kelso, Melrose, and Dalkeith railway

Dundee and Strathmore railway
•Monkland and Kirkintilloch railway

Galligate railway

Tees and Weardale railway

Kennet and Avon and Old Sarum
•Dublin and Kingston railway
•Dublin and Belfast railway
•Brighton and Shoreham railway

Wormsley railway

Flintshire railway

Portland railway

Festiniog railway
•Hnddersfield and Wakefield railway

Redworth railway

The above gives a list of about sixty railways, to which others
were afterwards added.

The capital of those companies which had published the amount
they would require was above 20,000,000/. ; and as much may be
taken for the other thirty companies, which would give a capital
proposed of 40.000,000/. Tlie writer in the John Bull reckoned
that 11,500,000/. would be enough to make a complete railway sys-
tem. It was to be thus laid out --^

Grand Junction .. ..£2,000.000

London and Birmingham .. 1,500,000

Liverpool and Manchester . . 400,000

Manchester and Leeds . . 500,000

Manchester and Bolton .. 150,000

London and Bristol .. .. 1,500,000

Bristol and Bath .. .. 100,000

London and Portsmouth .. 1,000,000

London and Northern .. 2,500,000

Miscellaneous .. .. 1,850,000

The actual cost of these lines has been nearly as follows . —

Estimated as above. Cost.

London and North-Western.. £3,900,000 .. £10,000,000

MEnchester and Leeds . . 500,000

Manchester and Bolton .. 150,000
London and Bristol .. ..1 600,000

London and South-Western . . 1,000,000
London and Northern . . 2,500,000

2,500,000

620,000

4,000,000

2,000,000

10,000,000

9,650,000 29,120,000

What is called the Grand Junction in the above estimate, most
likely includes the lines as far as Carlisle. If so, more must be
added to the cost.

Nothing will show more strongly than the above how little was
understood of the railway system, and how little way it has made.

11 Vallance's Pamphlet, p. 23. 12 Vallance's Psmphlet, p. yu, 32.

13 Vallance's Pamphlet, p. 111*. 14 Hill's Pamphlet on Leeds and Selby Railway.

13 Stroud and Sevs-rn Railroad, a Fallacy; quoted by Vallance, p. 24.

19 Whishaw on Railways.

15

lOG

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Ai-Rir,,

Tlie cost for looomotivcs and plant is nearly as mnrli as tlie whole
pstimate in 1S25: the cost for stations must come near it. The
London and North ^^'estern workshops liave cost more than it
was thoii^dit would make a long line.

Of the sixty railways named, all those thus marked (*) have
lieen made, hesides others which cannot he identified. There are
very few indeed which have not heen made.

These lines were not however made in 1825, and some of them
not for twenty years after. The historian will ask why is this?
and the answer is, not that there was any want of means to make
the railways, hut hecause the House of (Commons chose to throw
the bills out to please the land-owners and shareholders in canals;
thereby hindering the labouring classes from employment, which
in ten years cannot he reckoned at less than twenty millions, or
two millions yearly. How much more forward should we be had
the great lines heen finished, as they might have been, in 1830,
instead of 1840, and if the other lines likewise had been so far
lie'"ore-hand. It would have done more for the trade of England
than all the measures of Iluskisson, Peel, and Russell.

As several of these lines will not again come before us, it may
he as well to look at some of the remarks made by the writers of
pamplets and reports in 1824 and 1825.

In the Report on the Engine Railroad, James gives some account
of his employment as a land surveyor (p. 7). He advocates the
use of the locomotive, and points out the great good which would
lie done by a railway from the southern counties to London (p. 20).
Tliis is one of the first pamphlets describing a line of railway, and
had its beginning in the intercourse between James and Ste-
I)henson.

The "Statement of the Claim of the Subscribers of the Birming-
liam and Liverpool Railroad to an Act of Parliament," was written
in December 1824, in answer to the opposition of the canal com-
jianies, and is a very elaborate pamphlet, in which the subject is
investigated by the help of political economy and statistics.

The pam])hlet in opposition to the railways started between
London and Bristol is by some one on behalf of the Kennet and
Avon Canal Company, and is %vritten with some care, knowledge,
and skill. The writer acknowledges there is great good in rail-
ways, but thinks that canals can, under most circumstances, work
better and cheaper. He holds that in frosty weather in winter,
and in dry weather in summer, the locomotives will not stir, be-
cause they have no bite on the rails. One of his speculations is,
"What is to become of the engine-driver in a trip all the way on
one of the supjiosed long railways. Is a wagon to be fitted-up as
a moveable house, or is he to lodge at inns on the road, or only to
go a given stage." The writer thought the engine-driver was to be
held answerable for the goods carried.

In his report on the Limerick and Waterford Railway, Alexan-
der Nimmo did not rely upon the locomotive. He thought that
si.v or seven miles an hour was speed enough for a locomotive.

Chapman's reports are curious; for in them he discusses the
whide railway question as he understood it in 1824. The fastest
locomotive, he thought, could go at 4.i to 5 miles per hour;" but
without a continuous line of teeth on a railway, a locomotive can-
not in every description of weather he calculated to move against
the retarding stress upon it.^'^ He is not fully satisfied that loco-
motives are better, unless when horse-keep is dear. Chapman
liked the stationary-engine system better, though he was not
without hopes that a light locomotive might he found useful. i"
He wished that country carts should travel on the raihvay, as
thereby it would be more useful. Chapman likewise preferred
cast-iron rails. ^°

^'allance's pamphlet is a general onslaught on locomotives, on
behalf of his own atmospheric system. It contains some wild as-
sertions, but some curious facts. He gives many reasons to prove
that locomotives cannot safely he driven beyond si.\ miles an hour,
nor could a locomotive be run from London to Brighton in six
hours. He gives a list of railways proposed,^' which has been
made use of here.

Before leaving the railway mania of 1825, it should be said that
it was not felt here only, but spread abroad. Mr. Sanders says^^
that the Americans were ah'eady alive to it, and that the subject
of railways was undergoing discussion at the seat of government.
Letters received from Washington were full of inquiries about
railways in England. He says, likewise, that the Em])eror of
Russia had got a model of a locomotive, and had then a profes-
sional agent investigating the railways of the north of England.
It is on these grounds that lie urges on the House of Commons to
lose no time in carrying out the railway system, a recommenda-

> 7 liepui't, p. II.
ao Uepurl, II. 20.

1 8 Kejioil, |i. V2.
21 Pugeua.

19 Kei)Ort,p. 10.
2 2 raBtlM.

tion the wisdom of which has now heen fully established. Mr.
Maclaren says^' that t)ie French were em|doyed in the same way,
and that he had before him a work by M. Cordier, a French en-
gineer, on railways. It was merely an abstract of various tracts
published on railways in England. The French do not, however,
seem to have made much way, and it was not till 1828 that any-
thing was done.^*

XIII. BEGINNING OF THE I.IVEKPOOL AND MANCHESTEB RAILWAY.

Thomas Gray seems to have been the first who thought of a
railway between Liverpool and Manchester, for as early as 1821 he
set it forth in his "Observations on a General Iron Railway." He
says (p. 5): "In times like the present, it behoves every one to
assist as much as possible in the alleviation of |iublic distress.
When this can be done by a work of national utility it is still
more desirable, and no time is so favourable for such an undertak-
ing as one of general peace. It has frequently occurred to me of
late, that an iron railway from London to Edinburgh (passing
near to all the commercial towns of Leicester, Nottingham, Shef-
field, Wakefield, Leeds, &c., with branch railways to Birmingham,
Bristol, jManchester, Liverpool, &c.), would be productive of
incalculable advantage to the country at large; and here 1 would
suggest the propriety of making the first essay between Manches-
ter and Liverpool, which would employ many thousands of the
distressed population of the country."

Again, Gray says further on (p. 15): "The plan might be com-
menced between the towns of Manchester and Liverpool, where a
trial could soon be made, as the distance is not very great, and
the commercial part of England would thereby be better able to
appreciate its many excellent properties, and prove its efficacy: in
consequence of the number of cotton factories in Lancashire, the
present severe times are as much felt there as in any part of the
kingdom; therefore, the project before us would, by the abundance
of labour it may yield, greatly assist in relieving that distress too
prevalent in all manufacturing towns; and provided that success
attend my plan, which nothing but impracticability will prevent,
all the great trading towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire would
eagerly embrace the opportunity to insure so commodious and
easy a conveyance, and cause branch railways to he laid in every
possible direction."

This is a distinct announcement of a locomotive railway between
the two towns, and could hardly fail to he known to James. In
1822, James went to Liverpool, taking a letter of introduction to
Mr. Joseph Sandars,^' an eminent corn merchant there, and a
man ardently fond of science and of art, and a great encourager
of their deserving professors. James could hardly have applied
to a better man.

James was introduced to Mr. Sandars upon the Exchange, at
Liverpool, and the latter gentleman agreed to grant him an iiiter-
A'iew in the evening, when James showed his drawings and ex-
plained the working of the locomotive on his friend Stephenson's
plan. Mr. Sandars, who was most earnest to find some better way
for carrying goods between the two towns, asked James for how
much he would make a preliminary, or as it was called ocular
survey, for a railway between Liverpool and Manchester. James
said ten pounds a mile; and taking the length at thirty miles, this
made three hundred pounds. Mr. Sandars, with great liberality,
said that he would at once agree to pay this sum; and not only
that, but would enter into a written agreement to that eft'ect.
Thus Mr. Sandars became the father of the Liverpool and Man-
chester Railway.

The survey was begun,^° hut not without great del.ay on the
part of James, and the outlay of more money than he had first
wanted; indeed Mr. Sandars had some trouble in getting him to
go through the work. This line of road laid down by James was
not that afterwards made, hut it Mas the beginning of the under-
taking, and (Ui which Mr. Sandars went forward with it.-'

What made IMr. Sandars the more earnest in the undertaking
was the grinding monopoly of the canal companies, by which tlie
trade of Liverpool was shackled. The freight of goods was made
so high it was unbearable, and there was the greatest need that it
should be forthwith lowered. In the "Letter on the subject of
the Proposed Railroad between Liverpool and Manchester," which
Mr. Sandars afterwards wrote, he unmasked this fearful monopoly,
and thereby helped to break it down, no less than by bringing

1!3 Railways, p. 47.

24 In 1S28, a menioire was published on the Andrezieux and Roanne Railway, which
is in Ihe Library of tlie Instiliition of t'ivil Engineers, an'l in lti:W one on the Ilaatine
and St.-Etienne Railway, - both of which have been carried out. In the former memoire
are quoted three worlds on railways, publisiicd in Paris in 18J8, by M. fllallet.

25 Booth's Account of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, p. 3.

26 Weale'B Knsaniples of RttiUiays. 2T Booth, p. 4.

184.9.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

107

forward the railway. He showed that the canal owners had raised
the freight of corn' from 6.?. 84. per ton to 124-. 6d., and cotton from
6.?. 8rf, to 15.?.; indeed they had done all tliey could to strangle the
growing cotton-trade. The freight in 1S22 was thrice what it was
in 1795. In April 1822, the corn-dealers of Liverpool had sent
to the Duke of Bridgewater's trustees, hegging the freights on
corn might be lowered; but this was flatly refused. Tlius the
traders of Li\'erpool were quite ready to welcome the proposal of
a railway, which moreover made the length between tlie two towns
33 miles, instead of .50 by water, which saved water risks and
wrecks, and gave greater speed.

('To he continued.)

NOTES ON ENGINEERING.— No. XIII.
By HOMERSHAM C'ox, B.A.

THE VIBRATORY STRAINS OF SUSPENSION BRIDGES.

In the tenth of these Notes of Engineering (p. 258, Vol. XL), an
investigation was given of the dynamical strains of girders arising
from tiie rapid passage of loads over them. In the present paper
it is proposed to continue the subject of the effect of moving
loads upon structures, by investigating the strains to which sus-
pension bridges are most usually subject when in a state of vibra-
tion.

The greatest uncertainty has hitherto pre^'ailed respecting the
effect of vibration in straining the chains of suspension bridges.
The almost entire absence of all theoretical or experimental
knowledge of this part of engineering has left the engineer with-
out the means of forming even a wide conjecture respecting it. It
is generally assumed in practice that a suspension bridge ought to
have four or five times the strength theoretically required for the
greatest load that can rest upon it; and the excess of strength is a
provision partly against the effects of vibration, and partly against
accidental flaws and imperfections in the metal. But it is clear,
that upon a rule so vague, and so entirely empirical, little depend-
ence is to be placed — it may in some cases direct an enormous and
unnecessary expenditure of metal, and in other cases provide an
insufficient degree of strength.

Before proceeding to the direct consideration of the subject, we
shall briefly and partially notice its history. The advantages
arising from a historical view of scientific questions are unfor-
tunately underrated in England. Continental writers almost uni-
versally preface their memoirs by some notice of the efforts of
predecessors; and this custom has the threefold advantage of en-
listing the confidence of the reader in the labours of one who
exhibits a knowledge of the state of the scientific question dis-
cussed; of rendering merited homage to earlier essays; and lastly of
putting the subject itself in a clear light, by indicating its real
difficulties and the errors most naturally incidental to it.

The laws of vibration of flexible chains have from a very early
period attracted attention. Galileo detected the isoehronism of
the oscillations of chains hanging from the roof of the Cathedral
of Pisa and sustaining lamps, by comparing the time of the swing-
ing of the chain with the lieating of his own pulse. In the year
1732-3, Daniel Bernouilli published in the sixth volume of the
St. Petersburg Transactions, a memoir entitled Theoremata de Os-
cillatinnibu.'i Corporum Filo fle.vili conne.rorum et Calfince verticaliter
su.ipenste, in which he gives, without proof, the length of the tanto-
chronous simple pendulum, corresponding to cases where two or
more bodies are attached to a fine thread suspended at one extre-
mity : throughout this paper the extent of the oscill.ations is sup-
posed to be indefinitely small, and experiments in confirmation of
the results are instanced. It is also shown that, generally, osdlla-
tiones contmriai, or oscillations where all the bodies vibrate in con-
trary ways, are much quicker than oscillationes conspirante.i, or those
in which the bodies move all to the right or all to the left at the
same time.

The theory of the oscillation of flexible chains has been inti-
mately connected with a principle laid down by Huyghens in his
Horologium Oscillatorium, which asserts that the centre of gravity
of any oscillating system acquires a descending velocity sufficient
to raise it to a similar altitude. In the Phoronomia of Hermann,
published in 1716, the principle is laid down that in the bodies
forming a compound pendulum the impressed forces of gravity are
in equilibrium with the effective forces applied in the opposite

direction. This principle was generalised by Euler, and em])loyed
by him to determine the oscillations of flexible bodies, in a memoir
printed in 174.0 in the seventh volume of the St. Petersburg Trans-
actions.

Numerous analogous researches by the Bernouillis, Clairaut, and
Euler are scattered over the earlier volumes of the Transactions
of St. Petersburg, Berlin, and Paris, the works of John Ber-
nouilli, and the Opuacula of Euler. The problems proposed are,
to determine the movements of heavy bodies attached to cords
or rods, and moving by mutual constraint or that of fixed curves,
&c.

Lagrange, in the Mechanique Anahjtiqne, 2de partie, sect, vi., has
given a general investigation of the small oscillations of any linear
system, by the method known as the Variation of Arl)itrary Con-
stants. He includes the celebrated problem of the vibrations of a
stretched elastic cord ; but it is not necessary to notice the other
investigators of that problem, as it is almost entirely different from
the problem of the vibrations of an inelastic chain or cord. With
respect to the latter, Lagrange confines himself to the case of very
small oscillations. The small oscillations of a cord suspended at
one fixed point and charged with any number of equal weights
placed at equal distances, he shows to be susceptible of determina-
tion; but when the cord is fixed at both extremities, the solution
involves a certain general expression which, he says, cannot be de-
termined by any known methods.

It will be seen, then, that the investigations above noticed afford
very little assistance in solving the problem here proposed. AVe
cannot safely assume, with respect to a suspension bridge, that the
oscillations are "very small," in the sense in which that phnise is
employed by mathematicians. A single foot passenger passing
over the Hungerford Suspension Bridge, will produce sensible
vibrations throughout the structure; that is, the passage of a
weight of 10 or 12 stones produces considerable motion in a mass
of 1,000 tons, or 16,000 times as great. What, then, must be the
effect of the marching of a troop of soldiers, the action of a storm
of wind, or the transit of a railway train.'' But, although we can
not avail ourselves of the simplifications which arise where the
oscillations are considered small, we have, on the other hand, this
immense advantage — that, in order to find the tension of the
chains, there is no necessity to integrate the equations of mo-
tion.

The cases of vibration to be examined in the following investi-
gations are those where all the parts of the chain reach the ex-
treme extent of their motion simultaneously, and simultaneously
begin to return. At the instant of retrogression, the velocity of
every part of the chain is zero, and the whole is in a state of
instantaneou.^ rest.

Periodic vibrations, in which the chain at recurring intervals
reaches a position of instantaneous rest, are perhaps those most
frequently observed. The present investigation will apply, whether
the centre of the chain moves vvith vertical or with horizontal mo-
tion, or both, and whether the two points of suspension Be, or be not,
of the same altitude. The motion is supposed to take place wholly
in the vertical plane, and the tension is made to depend on an
assigned form assumed by the chain in the position of instantane-
ous rest.

Funicular Polygon.

In the first instance, we will consider the problem of n bodies of
equal mass, connected by n-j-l fine inextensible strings of equal
length, of which the first and last are fixed at their extremities, —
the whole forming a funicular polygon of n-(-l equal sides.

Taking one end of the polygon as the origin of co-ordinates, let

{^iPi), {■^'ij/j), {■^3^^) '••• {■^„,!/n) ^^ tl^e co-ordinates of the

bodies at the time t ; js being measured vertically downwards, and
y horizontally. Also, let a be the length of each side of the poly-
gon, and (i, e) the co-ordinates of its further extremity. Then
the CO- ordiuates are connected by the following system of rela-
tions : —

•»^i' + yl = a-

{■^^—■^.y + iii.—y,)- = a-

&c. &c.

(* - •^,,)' + (c-2/„)' = a-

Now, when t becomes t-\-dt, the same relations will hold among
the new co-ordinates of the several bodies. Consequently, the dif-
ferentials of the above equations with respect to ( express true
relations. Hence, differentiating the equations twice with respect
to t, and in the resulting equations of second differentials putting

15*

108

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[ApilIL,

-— ,- , -^ &c. = 0, since by our hypothesis the velocities are
zero, we have :

+ y

df'

= 0

(1)

(*-^n)5> + (C-.V„)5^ =0 (u + 1)

Now, the second differentials express the accellerations of the
several bodies parallel to the axes of .v and y. Also the forces
acting on each body vertically downwards are the difference of the
resolved vertical parts of the two tensions acting on it, and the
force of gravity. The horizontal force on each body is the differ-
ence of the resolved horizontal parts of such tensions.

Let T,, T,, T, T„+, be the tensions of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd

(» + l)th side of the polygon respectively.

The resolved vertical parts of these tensions are

T,^

~ 1 'T' "^ "^

T„+i — — respectively.

a - a

The resolved horizontal parts of these tensions are
T, yi — Vi -p Pa—y

T„+i- — — respectively.
a

a - a

The equations of vertical motion are (m being the mass of each
body, and g the force of gravity)

d-jc„

.,-T.^

mg—T^

dt-

-fT

df-
&c.

■^2 I "T" *^ i "^3

&c.

dt- a a

and the equations of horizontal motion are

Jjli rj, y^-Vi

dt- —

^- a

X

d-y^

dt' -

„ ^3-2/2

^3 a

- T

d'2/3

dt- —

- T

&c.

&c.

dt'

= T,+

c— J/„

- T,

y^—yi

■■ a

ys—yi

3/n — y—i

(3)'

(1)"

(2)"
(3)"

We have then, in all, {3n-\-\) equations, involving 3re+l un-

d-x
known quantities — namely, the n differentials -—,, the Ji differen-

df-'

d-y

tials— ■/, and the n+1 tensions T. Our object is now to eliminate

the differentials, and so obtain n-\-l equations involving no other
unknown quantities than the T's.

If »,, H.;, e., e„+i be the angles at which the 71+1 sides of the

polygon are respectively inclined to the vertical, it is easy to see

&c,

b—x,

cos fl.+i, — — = sin 8„+i. Substituting these values
a a

in the 3 n-\-\ equations, we shall obtain, after some trigonometri-
cal operations which are here omitted for the sake of brevity, the
following symmetrical results: —

mg cos e^ — Tj-fTj cos {,8.,— 6^) = 0'

Ti cos (^2— fJ,)— 2TJ+T3 cos (e^—eS = o
'i\ COS (^3— e^)— 2T,4-Tj, cos {e^—eS = o

T, cos (d,-e3)-2T.,+T, cos (e^-ej = 0 ^- («)
&c.

T„_,cos(5„-e„_,)-2T„-i-T„+,cos(^„+,-ft,) = 0

T, cos(0„+i— 5„)— T„+i— iH^cos (9„+i = 0

The first and last of these equations might have been obtained
independently, by applying with respect to the first and the last of
the moveable bodies the consideration tfiat wlien a body begins to
move, the sum of the forces resolved at right angles to the initial
direction of motion must be zero.

It is theoretically possible to effect these solutions of (n+1)
equations of the first degree, involving (k+1) unknown quanti-
ties. The law which the values of the unknown (piautities of a
general system of equations of the first degree follow, was first
observed by Ci-amer, and subse<|uently expressed in a somewhat
more convenient form by Bezout in his Tlnorie Generate des Equa-
tions. The first rigorous demonstration of the rules was given by
La])lace in the Memoirs of the Academie des Sciences for 1772 (2rfe
pnrtie, p. 294). A very elegant demonstration is also given by
M. Gergonne in his Annates, vol. iv. p. 148; and a subsequent paper
by him on the same subject is to be found in vol. xii. p. 281, of the
same periodical. These investigations do not, however, present
the required values in the form of general expressions, but merely
furnish rules for constructing such an expression by writing down
in a system of («-|-l) equations, the 1.2. 3...?j-(- 1 permutations of
()i-f 1) quantities.

It is, therefore, necessary to adopt an independent method in
the present instance, in order to determine the unknown quanti-
ties in the series (a) of equations just given. The solution re-
quires considerable care in order to avoid an excessive complexity
of the results.

Let icos(9j-e,) = «oi Jcos(e3-fl2) = M,; ^ cos (9,-83) = Uj; &=•
^ cos(fl„+i — 6„) = M„_i (A)

Then omitting for the present the first and last of the equations
(a) just given, the remainder may be put in the following form : —

1 M„

1 „ M, _ 1 — ap «„

T. = T3 T^-i- = T^ i-T,— 2-

T, = T^ T.— = T„ ! — ^-T,-^ ^

T = T --T "^ = T l-"?-"g-«g + "?"g_T.«o(l-«i-»D

<= =«^ ■*«< "" 2 «i"2«3«4 »l"2"a«4

&C.

T„^,= T„-i-_T„_,"r: = T, ^ T.«„ ^

The second values of T^, T^, and T^, above given, are ob-
tained by substitution of the previously-ascertained values of T3,
T|, and T,,, respectively. Our object is now to ascertain the law
of the co-efficients of T^ and Tj on the right-hand side of tlie
above equations — that is, to find general expressions for a and b-

Let «? be written = 1'; m5=2'; M|=3'; &c. «^^=j»'. Then
we sliall find, by continuing the process of substitution, that
for T„ a = l-(l'-f2'-t-3'-1-4)-|-l'(3'-f4')+2'4.'
forT,, a=l-(l'+2'4-..5')-(-l'(3'-t-...S')-f2(4'-f5') + 3'5-l'3'5'

for T„ a = l-(l'+2'-|-...6')-t-l'(3'-l-...6')-(-2'(4'-h-6')+3'(5'+ti')
-I- 4'6'— 1'3'(5'-|-6')— 2'4'6'.

The law observed by the above successive values of a is tolerably
obvious; and from the manner in which they are derived, is evi-
dently continuous.

In order to indicate the law by a general expression.

Let r4-2'-|-3'-t-...m' — S(m) the sian of the quantities I', 2", 3', &c.

Let r(3'-l-4'4-...m')-t-2'(4'+5'-|-...w')-|-3'(5'-|-...m')-f

-\- {in—'-Z)'m' = S (?»— 2, m) the sum of the products of every two of
them omitting those products in uhich any one of the quantities is mul-
tiplied by tlie next in numeral order.

Let l'|3'(&' + (i' + 7' m') + 4'(f>' + 7' + . ...m') + 5'C7'+ »i') + +(m-2/m'}

+ 2'{4'(6'+7'+8' mO + S't7' + t' + m'J + 6'(8'+ m'j + +{m-2///i'}

+ 3'{5\7'+8'+9'.. ..>«'; + 8\»' + a' + m') + 7'vS(' + m', + +(ni-2/m'}

+ &e. + ',m-4)' (m-2)' m'

= S(m — 4 , m - 2, m) Me sum of the products of every three with like omission.
Similarly, let the series of which the last term is

(m— 6)'(m— 4)'()"— 2)W = S(m— 6, m— 4, m— 2, m)
and that of which the last term is
(»j — 8)'('"— 6)'(m — i)'{m—2)'nt = S(m— 8,m— 6,m— 4,ni— 2,m).

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

109

Then, for the general value of a in the equation for T„+], where
m=n— 2, it will be found that
a = 1 — (Sn)— 2 + S(n— 4., «— 2) — S(n— 6,7»— I, n-2) +

7!-2

( — ) "' «2?(4?/g «„_o when n is evenl

( — ) 2 tij^ii^v^ u„_2 when )( is odd \

In the same way b may te determined ; and it will be found
that the expression for b is identical with that for a, except in
that the quantity 1', and all terms multiplied by 1', are to be omit-
ted.

If we suppose the quantities 1', 2", 3', &c. to follow a general law;
that is, if the inclination of the sides of the polygon be expressed
by a general formula dependent on the order of tlieir succession,
the series for a and b involve Finite Diiferences, and if the ope-
rations be not too complicated may be summed by the calculus of
Finite Differences.

We will take the most simple case — that where the polygon is
inscribed in the arc of a circle. Here by the geometry, 8^—6^ =
e^g— flj = 6.1 — 63 &c., or r, 2', 3', &c. are all equal (=»-, suppose).

In this case, by the meaning assigned to S(m) u--\-u--\-u-

(m times) = S(m)^M-»i,

^ ^ (m-2)(m-l)
S (»i— 2, »i) becomes (m — 2 + m — 3 + m — 4 + .... 1)m* = u"

Or reversing the order of the terms, we have series of the re-
spective forms
S(»J-2,»i) = «''(l + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ..m-2) = u=2(m-l),

S(»i-4,m-2,»i) = u6{l + Cl + 2) + (l + 2 + 3) + .. +(l + 2 + 3 + ..i»-4;}
= u«2^(m-3),

S(m-6,»)-4,m-2,m) = us{(l + 1 + 2) + (1 + 1 + 2+ 1 + 2 + 3) +

+ (1 + 1 + 2 + 1 + 2 + 3 m)} = «92»(m-5),

&c.
where 2 is the symbol of integration in the Calculus of Finite
Differences. The numbers expressed by these series are technic-
ally known as the figurate numbers.

Now by the principles of the Calculus

(«-l).m (m-2){m-l)m_ Jm~Z){m-2){m-V}m
Sm- ^ ,2 m- 2^ ■*'» 27f.4 *''■

2.0.4

Substituting these values in the series for g^, and putting
ra ^ « — 2, we have

^ J ^ 2 2.3

(n-20)(n-9)(«-8)(n-7)
"^ 2.3.4 ~^''-

In the same way the value of b may be determined.

a ^ b

The equation T„+i = Tj

- Ti«o:

bined with the first and last of the series (a) of equations, suffices
to determine the tensions in terms of the known quantities.

Vibrating Catenary.

We have hitherto considered the chain as a funicular polygon
with the weights arranged at finite distances. When the chain
assumes the form of a continuous curve with the weight uniformlv
distributed along its whole length, the method of Finite Differ-
ences is replaced by the Differential Metliod, which, as is usually
the case in investigations of this kind, simplifies the results in a
most remarkable manner.

It has been shown in the preceding investigation, that where
iT, y and x\ t/' are two adjacent points of the polygon, the geome-
trical connection of the system furnishes the relation
(^'-A(d'v' <Fx\ (y^-y\(d-y' d^y\ _
V a /\df dfJ^y a l\dt^~dfl ~
Now, when the two points in question are indefinitely near each
other, a—ds, where ds is an element of curve assumed at the time

t, and x^—x and y' — y are replaced by the corresponding differen-
tials dx and dy respectively. So that

••^'-■J _ /dx\ . y'-y _ /dy\
a \ds / ' a \ds'

The p.irentheses indicate that the differential co-efficients are par-

d-x
tial, the time t not being supposed to vary. Also, if ^7 be a func-

tion of s, -j^ is the same function of s-\-ds. Or expanding by

Taylor's theorem, and, in the limit, neglecting all the terms of
the expansion subsequent to the second

d'x' d-x / d\ d'-x, d\v

\ds/ ' dt- ^ ~ did? ■

d'y,,,, _ d\y

df df-

dsdt^

Similarly, ^t -^^^ ^ (^) . 'l!^Jy =

•" d<2 df- W/ df-

So that the above geometrical relation becomes

/dx\d^,ldy\d^ _

Us/dsdt'' \dii/dsd(' ^^•

To proceed now to the mechanical equations of the problem, let
T be the tangential tension at the point x, y. The vertically and
horizontally resolved parts of this tension are respectively

since 1^-1 and ( " J are the cosine and sine respectively of the

inclination of T to the vertical. Now, tI-t) andTU^j depend

for their values on the place in the curve where they act — that is,
are functions of s, the distance from the origin measured along
the curve; consequently, at the adjacent point s-{-ds,

T (j-J and T(-t j become, expanding by Taylor's Theorem,

and the differences between these and the former values are, in
the limit,

Let lurf.v be the mass of the element ds. Then the acceleration
of that element vertically is the weight -\- the difference of the
vertical tensions, and the horizontal acceleration is the difference
of the horizontal tensions. \Vhence the following mechanical
equations : —

or performing the differentiation of the quantity in the brackets,
and omitting the common factor ds,

Differentiating these equations with respect to s, we have

''dsdt^ VrfsV"'" \ds/\ds-/ '^ \ds-/ ' \d~s/

d^y_ ^ ^, / dj;y\ ,^(dT\. d^y\ ydrT \ ( dy\
dsdt- \ds'y \dsy\ds-/ ^ \ds-/ \ds/'

Multiplying these equations by \-r) ^°"l(^ -■^, respectively, and
adding the results, we have from (A) (rememberingthat — ^ j.- „= 1

ds'^ds"

and that the differential of this equation, or - „• _(-— f ^ = (

- ds^dir ds

"),

d=T

j^ 1 (d^ dx j^ ^y dy\ _ Q
^di" ds flff" ds/

The co-efficient of T in the bracket is equal to -., where )• is tlie

r-

radius of curvature. Hence the expression assumes the following
very simple form : —

no

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Apiiii,,

11 = T-

d«2 >~

(C)

Which eqiinfinn r/ires the tension at any point of the chain in terms of
its curvature and length.

Before prnceedinsr to show the application of this result to as-
certain the tension of a suspension hrid^e, deflected from its posi-
tion of equilibrium, it may he remarked tliat the equation applies
in all cases where the velocity is zero at every point. The case of
actual equililirium ought, therefore, to be included by the equa-
tion. And this will be found to be the case: for the curve of
equilibrium being the common catenary, we have from the known
formulpD for the catenary, m and c being constants —

rf-T _ mc?
T = m{c^-+sf. :. --, - (^,^^,)j

Also, — =

r' {c'+s^y

and T - —

(C2-1-.S')3

So that the equation (C) is satisfied.

The integration of the equation (C) will involve two constants,
which are to bo determined by the conditions that as the two ex-
tremities of the catenary do not move, the accelerations at those
points are zero. To ascertain the tensions at the extreme points,
we must recur to the equations (B). Multiplying the first of these

dy

rf,r

equations by . , and the second by ^, putting the accelerations

di

equal to zero, and subtracting, we find that at the extremities of
the chain,

jd-y dx d-x dy\ __ _dy

V

0=.,g; or,T=..,2

(D)

\ds'-ds ds^ds' ""ds'
Whence the following simple rule : —

When a uniform chain fixed at its extremities is in n position of
instantaneous rest, the tension at either extremity is to the weiyht of
the chain as the lenrjth of the radius of curvature at that point, multi-
plied by the cosine of the angle of horizontal depression of the curve at
the same point to the length of the chain.

For example, if the whole chain weigh 500 tons, and the radius
of curvature 1)e three times the length of the chain, and tlie angle
of horizontal depression at the point of contact = 15°, of which
angle -96592 is the cosine, the tension will be 500 tons X 3 X
•96592 = 1448-98 tons.

We will now proceed to determine the value of the chain when
the curve of instantaneous rest is a circle, and r therefore a con-
stant in equation (C). In this case the complete integral of that

equation is

_« «

T = ce ^ -\- c'i^ ('^)

where c, c are the two constants of integration.

When « = 0 let T' be the tension. When s = S the total length
of the chain, let T" he the value of the tension. T' and T" may
be at once determined by the rule given above. Substituting suc-
cessively these values of T in the last equation, we have two equa-
tions for determining the two constants ; and substituting their
values so determined in the equation for T, the value of the ten-
sion at any point will be completely determined.

If the tvvo extremities of the chain be in the same horizontal
line, the values of T' and T" become equal. It may be easily
shown that in that case the tension at the lowest point is a maxi-
mum or mininn>m. Also at the same point, «=gS. Substituting
in equation (E), we have the tension at the lowest point

= 2T'(e27 + r-v)~ =2T'(e"+« )

Where a is angle between radii of curvature meeting respectively
the centre and extremity of the arc S. And substituting this
value in equation (E), it will be found that

T = T'(e9-i-j-e)(£a-|-£-o)-i,

whei-e 6 is the angle between the radii meeting the extremity of *
and the centre of S respectively. From this equation the tension
of the chain at every point may be immediately determined.

To illustrate these results by a numerical ex.amplc, let us sup-
pose that they are applied to a suspension bridge of which the
semi-s])an is 338-25 feet, and the deflection 50 feet, which are the

dimensions of Hungerford Bridge. By the geometrical properties
of a circle,

{semi-chordy + {versed sine)" (333-25)= + 50=

radius -

= llG9feet.

2 . versed sine 2 x 60

The tension at the highest point is determined by ecjuation (D).
The cosine of the angle of horizontal depression of the curve at
that point is equal to (radius — versed sine)-^ radius = ;; .'.g
= -95808 = cos 16° 39' nearly. Therefore the value of T in (D)
is 1119^3, or the tension .at the highest point is to the total weight
of the chain as 1119 feet to the total length of the chain, a =:
16° 39' = -290597. Hence by the tables, e" lies between 1-33 and
1-34, and e'"" lies between 1-78 and 1-79. It follows that the ten-
sion at the lowest point of the chain lies between ^f|T' and ir^T'.
When the radius of curvature is variable, the equation (C) must
in general be integrated by a series from which the tension at every
point may be ascertained with any required degree of accuracy.
The tension at the fixed points will be immediately and exactly
ascertained from equation (D).

THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE AND ART.*

(Continued from page 7 7 -J

There is too little known of Assyria and Babylon to justify us
in discussing Mr. Fergusson's remarks, and more particularly as
they have been written in anticipation of the publication of Mr.
Layard. The subject of Mr. Fergusson's theory of the site of the
Temple of Solomon has been very lately before the Institute of
British Architects, so that we are exempt likewise from that. We
cannot, however, dismiss Phenicia without expressing our surprise
tliat Mr. Fei-gusson should assert that the Pheniciaii alphabet is of
Pelasgic invention, when the characters and their names are sig-
nificant in Hebrew, and some of them have been traced to the
Egyptian, as the Eye [o^»i], and the ^V^ater [mew]. The beth, too,
is the Egyptian plan of the House. It seems much more reason-
able to suppose that some one Phenician or Hebrew, perhaps Mo-
ses, availed himself of the Egyptian phonetic system to construct
a new alphabet. Perhaps this alphabet had more than one phone-
tic for the same sound; and perhaps in writing the pentateuch,
pictorial emblems were used for woi-ds, where easily understood.
The waving m for Water [^niem'}, the Ox's head for a \_alephl, the
Camel for g [gimel^, the House for b [icM], the Hook for v [i'ai']^
the Hand for v [i/ori], the Eye for o [^'lyinl, are all common objects,
easily remembered and alliterative in Hebrew, and aiford a curious
confirmation of the legend of the Cadmean introduction from Phe-
nicia, for the Greeks took the name and the form without under-
standing the allusions. Alpha, beta, &c. have no significancy in
Greek. The practice of writing from the top to the bottom would
very naturally be applied to a mixture of phonetics and hiero-
glyphics. The ^ovaTporp-nSoi', or bull-plonghing up-and-down line is
only an attempt to get continuity evolved from the other practice
of writing in single columns — namely, having gone down one co-
lumn, to join on and go up the next. BouffTpo^ijSoK was doubtless
written horizontally as well as vertically, and would be more con-
venient to read than when written vertically. From horizontal
/3ouiTTpu<pi?5oy, the next step would be to writing in horizontal lines,
either from the right hand or the left.

Mr. Fergusson's remarks on the Lycian and Halicarnassian mo-
numents include a very ingenious, and as it seems to us very jus-
tifiable restoration of the celebrated Mausoleum at Ilalicarnassus,
in which he has availed himself of his Indian experience.

The Third Chapter of the First Part brings us to Greece, a sub-
ject of particular interest to our readers.

The writer takes a very candid view of the influence of Pugin-
ism on Greek art. The Pugiiiists have taught the public to ad-
mire styles produced in our hitherto proscribed climate by our
English race, which we agree with him has done good. Mr. Fer-
gusson does not, howevei-, think that the absurd copying of medie-
val examples can hold its ground any more than the copying of
Greek examples, and in the end the field will he left clear. In the
meanwhile, Greek art is left to its own merits and demerits ; not
believed in as the sole faith in art, and as the sole vehicle of beauty,
but candidly acknowledged in its beauties as in its deficiencies.
Thus we shall reach a fair and right standard of criticism for all
styles of art.

* "An Historical Inquiry inlo the True Principles of Beauty in Art, more especially wiiii
ref.Tence to Archllecture." By JAMKS FEBGUSSON, Ksq.. Architect, author ol "An
Essay on the Ancient Topogrnphy of Jerusalem." " l-.^■lure^que lUustratious of Ancient
Architecture in Himlustuu," i'urt the Fust. London; Longuiaus, lS4y.

184.9."!

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

in

Mr. Ferg:usson's theory is that there r.re in Greece two distinct
and separate civilizations, one of which succeeded, and to a great
extent superseded, the otlier. The first he calls Pelaspc— that is,
Ibero-Pelaspic, which hegan with the foundation of Arpos, about
the year 8200 of the Decimal Era, and continued down to the
return of the Heraclida?, eighty years after the fall of Troy, or
about the year 8900.

After a long- night of four centuries, the second Hellenic, Indo-
European civilization begins todawnon us, and continued to grow
towards perfection till the time of Alexander ; and after languish-
ing for about two centuries longer, at last sank beneath the star of
Roman influence.

This is quite consonant with what happened elsewhere in Eu-
rope, in Italy, in Spain, and perhaps, as IMr. Fergusson suggests, in
Western Asia.

Mr. Fergusson, as already stated, holds that those he has here
called Pelasgic were a race closely allied to the Etruscans, speak-
ing a similar language and practising the same arts; and that
therefore they were a people who came, like the latter, from Asia
Minor, and spoke a tongue having no likeness with the Indo-
Germanic tongue we now know as Greek.

In the case of Greece, Mr. Fergusson does not think that the
Ibero-Pelasgi constituted the bulk of the population, but were
only settlers. We do not see any reason for this limitation, as an
Ibero-Pelasgic occupation in mass would not be inconsistent with
the historical results in Greece, any more than in Etruria.

The writer takes the opportunity to draw attention to a dis-
tinction very seldom observed between the settlement of a whole
country and the subjection of a ruder people by a more civilised
race. When, as he says, in the latter days of the Roman empire,
whole bands moved into thinly-peo])led countries, bringing with
them their wives and households, they brought likewise their
speech, laws, and customs ; and where they were the more nume-
rous and more powerful body, they obliterated those of the pre-
vious inhabitants. But when the immigrants are only a few ad-
venturers, or a band of soldiers, they adopt wi\'es from among the
conquered races, and their children learn to speak literally their
mother tongue, and soon lose their own. To this may be added,
that this likewise takes place where the dominant caste is spread
over a wide district, and not concentrated in separate districts,
however small. Of the first case there is an example in Britain,
by the settlement of the English tribes — the English, Warings,
Saxons, Jutes, Frisians, Danes, Bructuars, Vandals, &c. Of the
latter cases there are examples in the settlement of the Franks in
France, Burgundians in Burgundy, Goths in Spain, Longbeards in
Lombardy ; Warings, Russians, and English in Russia ; Normans
in Britain, Normandy, and Sicily, — where although, except in the
case of the Goths and Noringens in Spain, the invading tribe was
strong enough to impose its own name upon the conquered coun-
try, it gave up in the end its language, laws, and manners for those
of the conquered. The settlement of the English in Ireland, and
of the Magyars in Hungary, is that of the partial occupation of
the country by a conquering tribe, the imposition of laws, and the
plantation of the language, though not its general adoption. The
settlement of the Flemings in Govver; of the English in Pembroke-
shire and in Wexfordshire, at Forth and Bargy ; and of the High
Dutch in the Sete Communi in Lombardy, are examples of the
preservation of a separate language by a small community.

Mr. Fergusson's theory, however, reduces itself to this form —
that Greece, before the time of the Inachids in the year 8200, was
peopled by a race of Indo-European or Celto-Hellenic savages, the
forefathers of the Hellens, who were civilised and made to live in
towns, and taught the arts of peace by a few Ibero-Pelasgic immi-
grants, who had long practised those arts in Asia and Egypt ; and
who were, in consequence, so far in advance of their subjects as to
remain the dominant tribe for centuries, though too few in num-
ber to introduce their language — on the contrary, they were forced
to speak that of the subject races. Our writer allows that his
Pelasgi, when living by themselves, did speak a barbarous lan-
guage, wholly unlike the Greek, and continued to do so down to
the time of Herodotus.

We think it much more consistent with historic likelihood to
suppose that the Ibero-Pelasgians were the dominant race, and
were slowly superseded, and as it were worn out, by the Celto-
Hellens, — as took place in Italy, Spain, Gaul, and Siluria ; a pro-
cess similar to that now going on on the the borders of Wales, the
Highlands, and in Ireland, by the advance of the English. Such
a process is favoured in a double form — by the immigration of the
predominant race among the inferior race, and by the emigration
of the inferior race towards the metropolis of the predominant
race. This took place in Etruria as regarded Rome : it does now

in the Celtic lands as regards the English metropolitan towns;
and would among the Greek Pelasgi and the Hellens.

Our writer does not think that the Inachid immigrants from
Egypt into Greece were Egyptians — but Pelasgi, perhai)S fugitive
Hy'ksos. This gets over the difficulty of the incompatibility, with
Egyptian habits, of such emigrations and maritime expeditions.
He, however, believes that Cecrops was a native of Sais in the
Delta, but leaves it unsettled whether he were a born Copt, or the
offspring of the stranger tribes.

'We agree fully in the influence which the Pheniciau traders
must have had in' Greece. This is shown even in the Homeric
poems. He considers the Phenician traders introduced the alpha-
bet. We do not : we think it was the Pelasgians.

Upon the theory he has laid down the writer says, with great
truth, that there is no difficulty in understanding why the arts of
early Greece and of Etruria should be so similar, as they really
are ; nor why the intercourse between Greece and Asia Minor
should have been so frequent as it was in those days. Mr. Fergus-
son holds that the Argonauts and the heroes of Troy were Pelas-
gians. Upon this latter hypothesis we do not feel fully satisfied.
Applying his principles to architecture, ISIr. Fergusson says he
thinks he can trace most distinctly the existence of these two
races " architecturally," both in Greece and Italy. He looks upon
it as nearly certain, that all the polygonal masonry and walls were
the work of the Indo-Germanic aborigines, whether Hellens or
Dorians; Oscans, Sabellians, or Umbrians. On the other hand,
the Pelasgians, Tyrrhenians, or Etruscans, always show masom-y
in flat courses, more or less perfect. This distinction seems to
harmonise the classification of what are called Cyclopean works;
but we see no reason therefrom to assert that the Indo-Germanic
works as the ruder are therefore the older. In Britain, the ^Velsh
and old English undoubtedly executed rude works with the Roman
models before them. This appears to us more confirmed from
what Mr. Fergusson himself says, that the Dorian races used this
polygonal masonry long after 'the return of the Heraclida?, and
mi.xed with the more perfect forms which, from their position,
must have been used synchronously, as in the Temple of Themis
at Rhamnus, or in the Bridge at Xero-Campo, or in Italy in the
walls of Cosa and Pompeii. In a wall in the Peloponnesus, the
polygonal masonry is actually raised on the top of the horizontal
masonry, which is to us strong proof of our position.

To the polygonal masonry, Mr. Fei'gusson proposes to restrict
the term Cyclopean. Of the Pelasgic remains, Mr. Fergusson
has spoken at some length; and the so-called Treasury of Atreus
at Mycen^, he very ingeniously distinguishes as a tomb.

In 'coming to the later works of the Hellens, our writer prepares
his way by asserting that the lonians were Pelasgised Hellens,
and the Dorians ruder Indo-Germans. Hence he distinguishes
between the rough Dorians of Sparta and the milder lonians of
Athens and Asia Minor; but we do not think his theory carries
conviction. He allows, however, that in the four centuries of
slumber, the Hellenic tribes nursed and prepared themsehes for
their subsequent career.

Mr. Fergusson's sections on Homer, and on the climate and race
of Greece, are original and ingenious, and tempt us to make some
observations on tliem; but we are forced to pass them by.

Of Dorian architecture the temples are the only remains we
have, but fortiinately in suflicient number to enable us to judge of
their condition when perfect. Their forms are always very simple;
and our writer asserts that this was because the buildings were the
mere framework for the display of the several arts ; and that any
novelty or complexity of design might, by attracting attention,
have interfered with the pre-eminence they wished to assign to the
more important arts. We do not think this a very happy explana-
tion.

The peristylar temple, it is here suggested, was borrowed by the
Greeks from'the Egyptians; and it is certainly in favour of this
supposition, that such buildings were used on the banks of the
Nile before even the walls of Tyrinthus were built, and nearly a
thousand years before the erection of the oldest example of a
colonnade found in Greece. The reasons for the adaptation the
writer conceives to be two-fold : first, to get a beautiful external
framing to their temples, and to give the greatest possible value
to the dimensions of the building, for a peristylar temple arranged
as the Greeks arranged theirs, would appear nearly twice as large
as one of like dimensions with only plain unbroken walls. The
next motive was to shelter from the weather the paintings with
which their walls were covered, and to do this in such a way that
the framing of the pillars should add to the effect of the paintings;
and what is of no less importance, that the painting should at the
same time relieve and give effect to the columnar ordonnance.

112

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

I Apbil,

'I'liis seems to us to be perfectly in harmony "itli the character of
tlie Doric order as carried out by the Greeks, though not as carried
out by tlie moderns.

One of our paintinffs, it is observed, would be utterly destroyed
by such an arranffement ; so also would one of the fireat battle-
pieces of the Eiryptians, which required an uninterrupted length
of wall. But the reader is referred to Pausanias's description of
the jjaintiugs in the Lesche at Delphi, to uiulerstand how the
jrrouping of various and incongruous ol)jects would lose in effect
by being seen at once ; whereas, to a spectator from the outside,
the columns performed the office of our picture-frames, and sepa-
rated tlie groups, so as to allow of each being contemplated
hinffly.

Tlie Doric column, Mr. Fergusson likewise considers to be of
Egyptian origin, and he goes into the question of the origin of tlie
(U'der from wood or stone; and at great length advocates the latter
tlieory, and brings forward simie very strong arguments in its sup-
port. We cannot, however, enter ujion this interesting discussion
here, but refer our readers to what has been lately said on the
subject in one of ^V'eale's Rudimentary works, by one of the
greatest critics and most learned writers on architecture, Mr.
AVilliam Henry Leeds.

Mr. Fergusson considers that the roofs of the Greeks are copies
from wooden structures, and he points it out as singular that the
Dorians should liave rendered tlie ends of tlie rafters so important
in their triglyphs, but omitted the purlins altogether, though they
must have used them — a circumstance which he thinks is owing to
the purlins only appearing on the slope of the oetoi, and not either
at tlie sides or in the horizontal cornice at the ends. Tlie loiiians,
on the contrary, omit altogether to notice the rafters, but repeat
the purlins all round in tlie form of dentils. These views are su[>-
jported by references to the cave-temples and modern buildings of
India, — and, like every part of tlie work, deserve the attention of
the reader.

M^ith the closest research, Mr. Fergusson has not been able to
discover the smallest indication of a triangular-framed truss for a
roof in ancient Ea^ypt, India, or Asia, while the Greeks used it
very early. He looks upon it as a feature in architecture most
important and influential, to which only the introduction of the
arch can be compared. This truss he attributes to tlie Dorians.

()f the Ionian temples, ;\Ir. Fergusson says that tliere is more
variety in the plan, and instances tlie temple of Minerva Polias at
Athens. The Ionic order he attributes to an Asiatic origin — per-
liaps Persepolitan.

The Corinthian order he considers to be the most original of
those used by the Greeks, and the one to the invention of wliich
they have the most distinct claim; and thinks that it was invented
at a time when, owing to the decline of pui-e art, they were no
longer capable of executing the Doric order with its integral
sculpture and painting, and when they were tired of the Ionic. In-
cidentally here our vvriter expresses his dislike of the Ionic volute.
He asserts that they are as clumsy an invention for the capital of a
column as ever was hit u]>i>n. The Corinthian capital, however, he
admires as rich and tasteful ; but considers that no Corinthian
portico ever erected was equal to the whole eftect of the portico of
the Parthenon, as finished in the days of Pericles.

The section on the Hypa^thron, and the mode in which Greek
temples were liglited, is that part of the book which has perlia|)S
excited the most attenti(ui among architects and critics. This has
always been a knotty point, for the roofs were supported by wooden
beams which have long since rotted and fallen in, and left no indi-
cation of their original arrangement. There is likewise only one
passage in ancient authors which has a direct bearing, that in the
first section of the first book of Vitruvius — manifestly corrupt.
This passage our writer considers refers only to the Temple of
Jupiter Olympius, at Athens, and to decastyle temples.

The common way of restoring the bypa'thron is by removing
the roof otf the cell, and exposing it to the weather as an open
court. Some commentators have denied the existence of the hy-
piethron altogether.

Our writer strongly disputes that the cella of a Greek tem))le
was lighted by dim oil-lamps, for it seems inijiossible that an art-
istic people like the Greeks should have been contented with such
gloom. Their whole art was cheerful and sunny : we cannot there-
fore sujipose they would shut out the bright light of day from tlieir
beautiful temples, or from such works of art as the Minerva Par-
theniui or the Ju])iter Olympius of Phidias.

M'ritten authorities throw no light on the subject, for it was
apparently a thing everybody knew and understood; as when a
modern tcuirist having said that such a building is ornamented
with a portico of si.\ or eight Grecian Doric or Corinthian co-

lumns,— he passes on, and does not stop to define and describe
what a Doric or Corinthian column is, as everybody is already
acquainted with it.

Mr. Fergusson begins with the small and simple temple of
Apollo Epicurius, at Phigalia. The first thing which is familiar
to us is the existence of the sculptured frieze, now in the British
Museum, and which ran round the cell inside at the height of the
external frieze of the Doric order of the temple. If the cell were
roofed in any way, the sculpture so placed could not have been
])roperly lighted by artificial means such as the Greeks possessed.
In Stuart's "Athens," and in M. Blouet's "Expedition Scieii-
tifique," the temple is restored by omitting the roof altogether, —
which is here repudiated, as making merely an open couit, a sham
temple, a peristyle and dead wall surrounding notliing; what
might be done by architects now-a-days, but what was never
e.xecuted anywhere except by them.

Mr. Fergusson therefore directs attention to the plan of the
temple. The distance from the external frieze to the internal one
is very nearly the same as that of the two internal friezes from each
other ; so that if the temple had three roofs, they would be as
nearly as possible of equal widths. A striking peculiarity is, that
the internal pillars fall exactly between the external ones, and in a
manner which could not be accidental, and the internal pillars
could never be seen in conjunction with the external ones. Tliis
is therefore conceived to be with the design that tlie principal
drainage of the roof should fall between the external columns, not
against them so as to corrode them, as otherwise it would do.

A plan is therefore given showing a roof in three bearings, but
in one pitch, having the bypa'thron or attic under the centre, and
lighted by openings left in tlie roof; the drainage of which would
be carried otf by a gutter laid on the top of the entablature of the
inner columns. The openings could likewise be protected by cur-
tains or shutters, to which there would be access from below.

This is in effect an elevated clerestory, than which artistically
speaking, our author says, no mode of lighting has been discovered
more pleasing. The use of internal lighting in Greek buildings
has often been advocated by "Candidus" in our pages, and its
aiiplication in the examples already quoted confirms the justice of
his views.

Externally, this mode of lighting neither breaks the ridge of the
roof nor its lower termination, nor the outline of the temple ; but
it does break the monotony of the great flat expanse of the sides
of the roof.

The same is then applied by the writer to other temples, and
with equal appearance of success ; and in the great temple at
Piestum the stairs are demonstrated by which the attendants had
access to the curtains or shutters by which the liypaethron was
closed. This, as he says, is the only plausible use for such stairs
as yet suggested.

For the great temple of Jupiter, at Agrigentum, the system of
Mr. Cockerell for lighting the aisles is adopted, and the new system
for lighting the nave. For the temple of Eleusis the new sys-
tem is the happier, as it explains how the temple could be lighted
and darkened at pleasure, and scenic machinery used in the galle-
ries.

If we have seen strong views expressed on some points, on none
more so than on polychromy, the essentiality of which in a Doric
building is insisted on. t)ur modern architects admit that decora-
tion improves the inside walls of a room, church, or public build-
ing : they may find cmt that what improves one side of a wall im-
proves tlie other. The force of this we are bound to admit; there
is no artistic reason against it, and an unfounded conventionality
alone stands in the way.

The Greeks, it is observed, used their colour in a manner so
ephemeral, that the water-cidour has, in almost every case, washed
away, or the plaster has peeled ofl'. They did not countersink their
patterns, as did the Egyptians ; nor did they inlay them nor use
variegated materials, the good effect of which Mr. Fergusson has
witnessed on the banks of the Ganges. He conceives the colours
to have been used first in painting the mouldings with honey-
suckles, scrolls, and all those ornaments which we rind afterwards
carved in the richer Ionic orders; then relieving the sculpture by
a blue or neutral-ground tint background, and tinting it so as to
correspond and be in tone with the rest ; but the mass of colour
and art must have been applied to the walls of the cell, which he
looks ujKui as the great picture-fr;uiies of the temple. To the
height of six or height feet, at least, he conceives them to have
been covered by a rich dark dado ; and above that, in one, two, or
three rows, pictures of processions, scenes from the life of the god,
and such myths or sagas as the Greeks were so fond of repeating.
The Panathenaic frieze represents such a frieze as our writer con-

1819.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

113

ceives would have been painted in any temple less rich, but was in
the Parthendu carved as a crowning ornament to the great picture
below.

The invisible curve, as to the form of which Mr. Penrose and
Mr. Jopling are in controversy, Mr. Fergusson altogetlier repu-
diates, and ends by saying, that "We have long copied what we do
not understand. It seems carrying the system to its acme of ab-
surdity to attempt also to copy what we cannot see." There is too
much truth in this to be willingly acknowledged.

Another doctrine, but of older date, which is here controverted
is as to the commonly assumed symmetrical regularity of Greek
architecture. This, too, is repudiated, as a property which exists
only in the imagination of the moderns. Their temples, it is true,
are all perfectly so : and so are the Gothic churches and cathe-
drals designed; a line drawn through the centre divides the build-
ing into two equal and like halves, unless some local necessity pre-
vented. In contradistinction to the law of symmetrical regularity,
it is asserted that the true law of architecture throughout the
world is picturesque effect. As an example of its adoption by the
Greeks, an appeal is made to the little triple temple in the Acro-
polis. In this building not one part ranges, and even two different
orders are introduced ; so that it might be understood to be three
things joined together, as the steeple or chapter-house is joined to
a Gothic cathedral, — contributing to the general effect, but pre-
serving a distinctness of character. In the Propylasa, at Athens, is
another example. The centre part, as one apartment, was of
course symmetrical; but the wings were studiously separated from
the main design, and one wing made unlike the other, (^n one
side was placed, in front, the little temple of Nike Aptei'os, at an
incongruous angle; at the other a pedestal, the axis of which was
different fi-om that of every other part. On the sides of the main
building were placed other smaller ones, and the writer infers that
])ains were purposely taken lest any one line of one should run
into any line of any other ; and the whole group was placed so as
to be as unsymmetrical as possible with the Parthenon, or with any
other building. The same effect is exemplified at Eleusis and at
Rhammis.

Symmetrical regularity is asserted to be an invention of the
Italians.

Having pointed out as a remarkable characteristic of Greek
architecture, that it made little progress, and became immutable
in its types, our writer contrasts with it the contem])orary art of
sculpture, and says, that instead of the stationary unprogressive
character of the former art, we find the latter striding forward
with a speed unequalled e\'en by the progress of Gothic art in the
thirteenth, or Italian painting in the fifteenth century. The spe-
cial cause of this was, first, tlie form of their mythology, — repre-
senting gods, bearing the forms of men and women, without any
other attribute than was possessed by human beings, and yet
greater and more beautiful than mortals. It is inferred that ar-
chitecture was by the Greeks in their best age looked upon as the
subordinate art, and sculpture as the principal art, — wliich is the
canon applied in judging of their temples and architecture. Mr.
Fergusson asserts roundly that though architecture has high aims,
they are neither so high nor so difficult of attainment as those of
the sister art : the proof of this lies in the facts, that barbarians
have surpassed Greeks in the one, but no nation ever equalled
them in the other.

An ingenious theory is given to account for the length of time
during which Greek art maintained its vitality, — the Laocoon, the
Tauro Farnese, the Dying Gladiator, the Gladiator of Agesias, and
others, being executed after the age of Alexander — some extend-
ing late into the Roman period. A work in marble requires great
labour, time, and thought — far more sober mechanical contrivances
and labour than a painting, and the vehicle in sculpture must
always be a correct and literal imitation of the human or some
animal form — not even of plants. Expression and ideiis may be
added to any extent : but the form is given, and must always re-
main the same. In painting, on the other hand, harmonious co-
louring, chiaro-oscuro, aerial perspective, fore-shortening, and many
less attributes, may be magnified into importance, and lead the
painter astray from the true path ; — but the sculptor can wander
neither to the right or the left ; he must stand still, or go on.

From this explanatiim the writer exempts the conventional ab-
surdities of winged men and beasts, chimeras, gorgons, satyrs,
hydras, harpies, minotaurs, and centaurs.

Another point brought forward is as to the monochromy of
Greek sculpture. This is attacked, as the monochromy of archi-
tecture. All antiquity is so loud in praise of the chryselephantine
statues of Phidias, the Olympian Jupiter, the Pallas Athene, that
while we cannot refuse to allow that they were the greatest works

of the best age of the arts, we must modify our views as to the
monochromatic form being the canonic form of sculpture. Still,
the transition from monochromatic to polychromatic sculpture is
so great, that we may well be said to jump at once from the so-
called purely Greek art of sculpture, to the native one of wax-
work.

The Greeks, Mr. Fergusson thinks, had both ; but they must
have found out that perfection did not lie in the cold monumental
purity of the one, nor in the more correct imitation of the person
or thing represented, which is the aim of the other. Now, Mr.
Fergusson thinks the practice of the Greeks was diametrically
opposed to ours : that they generally, if not always, coloured their
statues, but rarely coloured their pictures — that is, they used one
or two colours only on a ground, as on the vases.

Mr. Fergusson, therefore, urges most strongly the re-introduc-
tion of coloured sculpture, and" as strongly deprecates the white
inanity of sculptural works of the present day. The common ob-
jections to coloured sculpture, Mr. Fergusson shows to be without
any relevancy ; and we cannot but think it is well worthy of the
attention of sculptors to attempt something in this way. Gibson
broke the ground in his statue of the Queen ; and although some
conventionalists objected to his decoration of the robe, the least
prejudiced were pleased ; and the effect was such as at any rate to
authorise him to continue and carry the application further.

The popular taste for Greek vases, coloured glass, painted por-
celain, coloured clay models, and waxwork is in keeping with a
love of the beautiful engendered by the progress of painting : and
unless the sculptor keeps pace with the growth of public taste, he
will be overcome by the better artistic feeling of Madame Tussaud
and the modellers of Spanish matadores, Mexican Indians, Maltese
water-carriers, and Hindoo coolies. There must be an imitative
plastic art, as well as an imitative art of design.

(To be concluded in our next.)

BEGISTSR OP NE'W PATENTS.

TAPER TUBES.

Robert Walter Wi.vfield, of Birmingham, manufacturer, and
John Ward, of Birmingham, for ^'improvements in the maiinfac-
tnre of tubes, and in tlie manufacture of certain, articles made in part
of tubes."— Granted September U, 1848; Enrolled March U, 18t9.
[Reported in the Patent Journal.']

This invention relates: First — to improvements in the making
of taper tubes, which is effected by drawing them through dies or
plates, as in the drawing of straight tubes.

Secondly — to an improved mode of manufacturing brass tubes,
employed for conveying gas, which has for its object the better
prevention of any escape of the gas.

In the manufacture of taper tubes, this invention is not confined
to the making of that description whose sides are in straight lines,
as at A, but may also be employed in the manufacture of such as
are of a curved form, as represented at B, and C', and also in the
tubes having flutes in a longitudinal direction, as at D; or spirally,
as represented at E. In the manufacture of such taper tubes, the

16

114

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

[AruiL,

patentees empldy a mandril or trililet of the intended form for the
tul)e, on which a piece of sheet-metal is placed, w)iich lias heen
roiifjhly turned up somewhat near the form, which is then to be
drawn tlirough the die or draw-|)late, of a shape corresponding'
with tlie mandril or trililet; but tliis draw-plate, unlil<e the ordi-
nary draw-plates, is made of a soft yielding material, w liich gra-
dually expands as the tube is drawn through it, the opening
thereby becoming gradually larger; whereas, in the ordinary
draw-plates, the opening through which tubes are drawn is jierma-
nent, and finishes the tube of an exactly similar diameter to tliat
which it commenced. Fig. 1 represents an end view of one of
these improved draw-plates or collars; and fig. 2, a longitudinal
section; this is constructed to draw a taper tube, riuted through-
out its length, and is made of tin, which they find answers the

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

purpose extremely well. It is made of a sufficient thickness to
witlistand the pressure necessary to the drawing the tube of the
required form, which will in a great measure depend on the thick-
ness of the metal to be drawn. The rough tube having been
placed on the mandril, is drawn through this metal collar, which
is placed in a holding-plate in the drawing-bench. This appa-
ratus, being of the ordinary kind, it is not necessary to give any
description thereof. The small end of the tube is held by the
drawing nippers, and as it is drawn through the metal collar,' it is
gradually drawn into form as it passes through it, and when issuing
from the other side, is compressed to, and assumes the shape of
the mandril, and tliis being of a hard and rigid material, the
collar is expanded according to such shape; thus delivering the
tube tapered and fluted in as perfect a condition as if it were a
parallel tube. It will be readily understood from this how the
other forms shown are produced, with the exception of E, which
involves another arrangement. This tube, it will he seen, differs
from the foi-egoing, inasmuch as the Hutes, instead of running in
the direction of its length, are carried spirally round the tiibe.
This form is produced either by causing the drawn collar to turn,
or else suffering the mandril to turn as it passes through the
collar. For this purpose, they prefer the latter mode, which is
effected by placing the mandril or triblet, on a spindle, the head of
which takes on the back end of the mandril, while the point pro-
jects through at the other end, and is laid hold of by the drawing-
nippers, instead of the tag-end of the brass, as usual. In this
mannei', the mandril and tube is drawn through the collar, while
at the same time it is carried round by the spiral flutes in the
mandril, the soft metal collar effecting the same purpose as in the
last case — deli\ering the tube completely formed on its mandril,
which is then withdrawn, being readily efl'ected by turning the
tube sliglitly on the mandril. In this way may various other forms
of taper tubes be produced, the small end, of course, being always
drawn through the collar first, the collar in all cases adapting itself
to the mandril, where there is no conti'action of tlie mandril at
any point to a size smaller than that which it has previously
passed.

The second part of this invention has reference to the manufac-
ture of brass tubes, for the passage of gas, which consists in
simply drawing one tube within another, for the purpose of giving
greater security to tlie joint, which, in tlie one, is diametrically
opposite to tliat of the other; thus, if any leakage occurs in the
inner one, it will be effectually sealed by the outer tube. The
mode of drawing these double tubes is by simply drawing the
inner tube of the proper size, then placing the e.xternal tube on
it, which is large enough to slide on easily. The compound tube
is now drawn tlirough another jilate, which contracts tlie outer
one on the inner, and may virtually be said to be one tube. This
may eitlier lie efl'ected with or without the internal mandril or
triblet usually employed, and well known in the drawing of brass
and other tubes.

Having described the nature of their invention they would have

it understood that they do not confine themselves to the precise
detail, as such may be varied without departing from their inven-
tion; liut what they claim is: First — the manufacture of taper
tubes, by pressing a roughly-formed tube into contact with a
mandril in its interior, the said pressure being exerted by a ring
or mould, made of a material which will yield or expand as the
tube is drawn through it, but exerts sufficient pressure to force
the jiartially-formed tube into contact with the mandril, whether
the said expanding ring or mould be of the form, and used in the
manner described, or have a different form, or to be differently
used, and whether the said taper tubes have any of the forms de-
scribed and represented in the annexed engravings, or have any
other form.

Secondly — the manufacture of gas fittings of double tubes, as
herein described.

IRON BARS.

Richard Shaw, of Gold's-green, West Bromwich, Staffordshire,
railway-bar finisher, for '■^improvements in the niiniujhcture of iron
into tyre-bars, romid bars, square bars, and flat bars; tee-iron, angle-
iron, and trough-iron." — Granted August 21, 18+8; Enrolled Feb-
ruary 21, 184.9. [Reported in the Patent Journal.']

This specification, wliich relates to the manufacture of iron,
consists of various modes of forming and arranging the bars con-
stituting the piles for rolling into— first, tyre-bars for tyres of
railway-wheels; secondly, round bars, square bars, and flat bars;
thirdly, tee-iron; and fourthly, angle-iron and trough-iron, in
place of arranging tlie bars forming the pile, so that the edges of
them shall appear when rolled or manufactured; thus preventing
the joints of the bars impairing the strength of the article made,
and liable to be much laminated from use. The patentee forms
the piles of bars bent and arranged in such manner that only tlie
sides of the bars shall be presented at the exterior of the article
made, preventing thereby to a considerable extent the lamination
taking place, and increasing the strength.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 4.

Tlie annexed cuts show the modes of piling described by the
])atentee for forming the above-named articles: Fig. ], being the
section of a pile arranged for making tyre-bars, and a section of
the tyre rolled from it. Fig. 2 is a section of a pile for making
square, round, or flat bai-s. Fig. 3 is a section of a pile for making
tee-iron, and a section of the tee-iron made from it. Fig'. 4,
sections of a pile for making trough or angle iron, and of the

1849.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

115

trougli-iron made. The interior of the pile may be filled, in any-
convenient manner.

Tlie patentee does not claim for forming the piles from which
railway-bars are rolled, as it has been in practice; but lie claims
for forming the piles for making tyre-bars, square bars, round
bars, and flat bars; tee-iron, angle-iron, and trough-iron, with bent
bars, as described.

MANUFACTURE OF WHITE LEAD.

Thomas Richardson, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, chemist, for "im-
pi'ovements in the condensation of metallic fumes, and in the manufac-
ture of white lead." — Granted August 21, 1848; Enrolled February
21, 1849.

The improvements relate, first, to the manufacture of white
lead, in the following manner. Tea lead is to be submitted in a
melted state to a slow current of heated air, in an ordinary red-
lead furnace, or in the iron pan employed for calcining hard lead,
by which means the tin contained therein will be caused to sepa-
rate from it and float upon the surface, together with a variable
quantity of the oxide of lead, which is to be removed with an iron
rake The completion of this part of the process is known by the
lead becoming so soft that it may be scratched with the fingei',
M'hen the remaining materials are to be taken away also. The
lead is then to be reduced into crystals by the desilverizing process
of Mr. Pattinson, or employed in a granular state. The prepared
lead is to be moistened by the application of certain proportions
of nitric or acetic acid of commerce, or nitrate or acetate of lead,
diluted with water until of equivalent strength, and the moistened
mass turned over from time to time, and, when sufficiently treated
in this manner, about 20 or 30 cwt. of the same is to be placed in
chambers, lined with lead, slate, or stone, the latter being preferred,
fitted into a suitable frame, provided with doors, and having spaces
between each of such chambers, into which spaces heated air is to
be admitted (by means of a pipe furnished with a stop-cock), in
order to keep the chambers at a proper temperature. Carbonic
acid gas, is to be introduced into the chambers with the prepared
lead, by means of pipes with stop-cocks ; the heat is to be kept up,
and steam admitted occasionally. At the expiration of from 10 to
14 days, the materials will l)e properly treated, wlien they are to
be removed from the apparatus, ground between a pair of stones,
and washed in a dolly-tub, which separates the metallic lead from
the white lead, the former being returned with a fresh supply to
the chamber.

Secondly, the improvement relates to the condensation of me-
tallic fumes, which consist in introducing steam into the main pipe
connecting the furnaces, by means of a small iron pipe situate at
a distance of 2 feet or 3 feet beyond the furnace, and in building
near the chimney a tower, not less than 20 feet high, divided in-
ternally by a partition wall, which reaches nearly to the top
thereof; iron bars are placed across, upon which a layer of coke
or pieces of broken brick is placed. The fumes ascend up the one
compartment, but are intercepted in their passage down the other
by the layer of coke or broken brick, upon which water flows in
from the top. If the draught be not sufficient to draw through
the coke, it is to be increased by means of steam jets.

VENEER CUTTING MACHINE.

Pierre Armanh Le Comte de Fontainbmobeau, of 4, Soutli-
street, Finsbury, Middlesex, for ^''certain improvements in the ma-
chinery for cutting wood, and in laying and uniting veneers." (A
communication.) — Granted May 25, 1847.

The improvements relate, firstly, to macliinery for cutting wood
into thin and continuous sheets of any desired width ; secondly, to
apparatus for pasting and doubling those said sheets, and their
application to useful purposes, such as for hangings of apartments,
&c. For the better comprehension of the invention, before enter-
ing into a detailed description of the manner of carrying it into
effect, it will be well to premise by an expose of the present state
of the manufacture.

The mode of cutting wood in a cylindrical manner by means of
a knife tangent to the circumference has been already devised, but
up to the present time the mechanical means employed have proved
insufficient to produce practical results, and manufacturers have
not been able to operate but on small widths. It has never suc-

ceeded completely ; and it may be added, that here endeavours
have entirely failed, notwithstanding the numerous experiments
which were essayed upon it — not because the system of cutting
wood in that manner was unattainable, but because neither the
mode of operating, nor the proper and rational mechanical disposi-
tions which such an operation required, were found out. But it
must be admitted that this operation is very delicate, and presents
very great mechanical difficulties. It is therefore only after many
experiments, attended with considerable trouble and perseverance,
that satisfactory results have been obtained by the invention here-
after described.

From \vliat proceeds, it will be easily understood that the first
part of the invention is not the mere endeavour or idea of cutting
wood tangentially to the cylinder in a spiral form, but consists
really in the mechanical means or dispositions liereinafter described
for ol)taining such desirable results.

The machine whicli forms the subject of this patent, by cutting
wood of large widths in a continuous manner, fulfils all the re-
quired conditions — namely, producing it with a great economy of
time and manual labour. Thus a piece of wood — a log of maho-
gany for instance, whatever be its size, set in tliis apparatus, is cut
in a continuous manner, without any interruption and with a velo-
city truly surprising ; which is the more remarkable as it is ob-
tained without sawing, but merely by cutting the substance on all
its surface simultaneously and cylindricaUy, so as to form a spiral
developed from the circumference to the centre.

We shall in the present number confine our extracts from the
patent to the first part — viz. to machinery for cutting wood into
veneers. Tlie patentee proceeds as follows : —

My means, which as it will be easily seen are entirely new, com-
prise : —

Firstly, — The application of a sharp-edged and very thin blade,
held fast between two knives or straight rulers ending in basil,
which, while they keep tight the blade over all its length and near
its cutting edge, prevent it on one side from going too deep into
the wood, and on the other side force it to penetrate far enough
into it, and to the required degree, according to the thickness de-
signed for the sheets. That application, or rather addition of a
thin blade working between two knives, is of the greatest import-
ance for the success of the operation, and forms — I venture to say,
a mechanical principle quite new, not only in the apparatus herein-
after described, but also in all other machines for wood-cutting,
either from prisms, blocks, or logs.

Secondly, — The disposition of a strong leader set immediately
above the knives, and resting constantly on the wood as fast as it
is cut. That pressing leader, which is of a quite new application,
is also of great importance in the operation, as it serves to keep
the wood fast over all its length, and close to the part which is to
be cut by the blade; so tliat, notwithstanding the knots, brambles,
and defects which the knife meets with, it is always perfectly sup-
ported, and cannot be the cause of any defect or accident. If
even the wood by its nature were very defective, uneven, and pre-
sented very little homogenousness in its different parts, it would
nevertlieless be well cut, and with all tlie precision and nicety that
could be wished for.

Thirdly, — -The mechanism adapted for working the blade, and
at the same time the pressing leader in a continuous manner, is
proportioned to the velocity given to the piece of wood to be cut;
and it produces sheets of a surface constantly even, and of an
equal thickness upon all their width, from the beginning to the end
ot the spiral. The quicker the block turns the more the progres-
sion of the blade and leader is rapid, and so reciprocally, whatever
be the thickness previously regulated.

Fourthly, — The addition to the machine of a moveable drum, or
cross-bar, provided with several arms, permitting to receive simul-
taneously a certain number of pieces of wood, and to cut them
into thin and rectangular sheets, instead of continuous sheets,
which in many cases enables me to make valuable applications of
my invention to bramble woods and others.

Witliout the particular means which I have hereinbefore men-
tioned, and which constitute the whole of my invention, that is to
say, all the principal or working parts of the macliine, it is quite
impossible to obtain the practical results which I produce, espe-
cially when it is required to operate on pieces of wood of large
dimensions, as, for instance, upon logs of two or tliree yards, or
even more in vvidth, and upon any diameter and size wliatever. It
will be seen, as I before said, that it can be applied at will to cut-
ting wood from a single piece into continuous and very large
slieets, as to cut wood from several narrow pieces into rectangular
sheets, proportioned to the size of the same pieces.

16*

116

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Apuil,

Description of the Eugravinijs.

Fijr. 1 shows a longitudinal elevation of the
machine entii'ely set up, and ready to cut up a
large piece of wood. Fig. 2 is a longitudinal
section taken tlirough the axis, according to the
lines 1, 2, of the plan. Fig. 3 is a transverse
section taken perpendicularly to the preceding,
according to the line 3, t. Fig. ■!• is a general
plan of the madiine.

By examining the several views and details of
the apparatus, it will be seen that the log or
piece of wood. A, to be cut, is not set on mere
conical points, as on a lathe, but on two square
points of the iron axis IJB', between which it is
held sufficiently fast to avoid its having any play,
but so that it may fall in steadily with the simul-
taneous rotary motion of these two axes. At its
ends are adjusted the iron cross-bars C, which
serve to maintain it on their points in a steady
manner, and to keep it always perfectly in the
centre from the beginning to the end of the ope-
ration. The forms of these cross-bars are simi-
lar to those shown in figs. 5 and 6 ; the largest
of these are applied to the largest logs of wood,
and the smallest replace the former when the
logs are reduced to a small diameter. These
cross-bars being at their centre pierced with
square holes, having the exact form of the points,
it is easily understood that when these points are
inserted in the lioles, the piece of wood is con-
nected with the axis B, and B', in a continuous
and solid manner, and must necessarily turn with
them when they are put in motion.

As the logs of wood are not always of the same
length, it is absolutely necessary to be able to
cause the points, and consequently the axes, to
advance and recede when requisite. F'or that
purpose I have adapted to the end of one of
these axes (that marked B) a screw D, fig. 4 and
fig. 2, which can be turned by the hand, without
giving to the axis the same rotai-y motion. That
screw D, passing through a permanent nut E, is
obliged to move when turning, and consequently
causes the axis to advance or recede; and as that
axis is held by two strong supporters FF', be-
tween which are placed the cog-wheel G, and the
pulley H, set on the said axis, those two pieces
G and H cannot move with it, as they are kept
between two supports. Thus the screw D, and
its axis B, only move and change their position.

The second axis B', is by itself a screw ; it is
wormed over all its length, and is provided, as
the first axis B, with a cog-wheel G', having ex-
actly the same diameter as the first-mentioned
wheel G, and which also must rest in the same
place, whatever may be the position given to the
axis. For that purpose, this wheel G is kept on
one side by the large supporter F", by means of
a nut o, which presses against it, and on the
other side by a nut o, which rests on the nave of
the wheel G'. When that axis B is to be made
to advance or recede, tliose nuts are loosened,
and then, by means of the screw U, placed above,
the moveable bearer I, is made to proceed. That
bearer I, serves at its lower extremities as a sup-
porter to the wormed axis B'.

That second screw 1)', produces exactly the
same efi'ect as the former one D; its nut E being
also permanent, is oliliged to move according to
its length, when it is nuide to turn lengthwise on
tlie right or left side.

When the position of the two axes BB', has
been so regulated, that their square points are
inserted, and kejit into the ctoss-bars which are
adjusted to the extremities of the log of wood,
as shown by figs. 2 and 4; the i)Osition of the
blade-bearer carriage must be adjusted so that
the more forward knife should advance, and rest
on the exteriuil surface of the log.

Fig. 1.

■ — —Xi- o'

fe ,./

F.g. ;j.

V ■;- 'Z''

181.9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

117

That blade-bearer carriage is composed of a cast-iron frame J,
which, at its two opposite extremities, is provided with the two
cast-iron chairs R, intended to receive on one side the cast-iron
guide, or pressing leader L. That last guide rests constantly on
all the length of the wood, immediately above the sharp edge of
the blades, in order to prevent them from causing the wood to
split, or from taking off a greater quantity of it than they ought
really to do. The application of that leader L to the machine is,
as has been herein-before described, of the utmost importance, as
it permits to obtain results which could not possibly be attained
without its use. It has been disposed in such manner that its po-
sition may be regulated as exactly as it can be required. For tliat
purpose the cast-iron chairs K, which are to support the extremi-
ties of the above-mentioned leader, are crossed by bolt screws h,
which allow it to be lowered, raised, or moved on the right or left
side, to be inclined in one way or another, so as to comply with all
the required necessities, according to the nature of the wood, the
tliickness of the sheets which are to be cut, &c. In order to make
well understood the construction of that guide or leader, it is re-
presented minutely in fig. 7, which is a transverse section. From
this it is easy to understand that, by its nerves and its strong thick-
ness, it presents a great resistance. As it must bear with a cer-
tain strength during the working on all the length of the log, it is
e.tpedieut to make it solid and without chance of being flexible.

The two knives, MM', between which is kept tight tlie addi-
tional blade /, by which the wood is cut, are placed underneath the
forward face of the guide L, and in a tangential direction to the
external circumference of the log, as shown by fig. 7. Those
knives are both fixed by a cast-iron ruler N, going over all their
length, and are kept in an immovable position by means of the
iron holdfasts O, on the extremities of which they are screwed.
Their fastenings are placed at equal distance, and in a sufficient
quantity, over the breadth of blade-bearer carriage. In order that
the latter may give to the knives the exact position which is ne-
cessary relatively to the pieces to be cut, it has been necessary to
adjust on one side upon the ends of the chairs K, some projecting
screws d, upon the heads of which the ruler N rests at its extre-
mities, so as to cause it to occupy a more or less elevated position ;
and on the other side some bolt-screws e, have been placed on the
forks which end the iron holdfast O ; the screw e holds the hold-
fasts O upon the blade-bearer carriage, and permits at the same
time, to incline them more or less, or cause them to advance or
recede relatively to the surface of the log. It results from that
contrivance that, whatever may be the size of the block, the direc-
tion of the knives and of the blade can always be regulated so as
to have the sharp edge of this last in the most convenient part ;
that is to say, in order that on one side it should not tend too
much to penetrate into the wood, for which purpose the forward
knife M, resting on the surface of the cylinder, guides and main-
tains that blade, and in order that the other side should not hold
back. That is prevented by the blade held by the second knife
M', which rises very near the sharp edges, and forces in the mean
time the sheet, as soon as it is cut, to pass between it and the
pressing leader.

It is therefore evident by that contrivance, that the cutting-
blade is neither too eager nor too slow in working.

When the machine has been regulated for a requii-ed thickness,
it is certain always to be obtained all through the operation.

That disposition is the more remarkalde, and the more advan-
tageous, as it permits to change the blade and the knives, to put
them on or take them off with greater facility, without discon-
necting the other logs which may be fastened to them, as it suffices
to loosen the screws which fasten them to the iron holders.

When the blade and the knives which hold it fast, as well as the
pressing leaders, are exactly regulated, the machine can then be
put in motion. To that effect it is to be observed, the movements
have been so disposed that the two axes BB', at the extremity of
which the log is supported, may both at the same time be acted
upon with the same velocity, in order to prevent any attempt to
twisting, and to have the block moving regularly all along its
length. Thus it has already been seen, that the two similar
wheels GG', are set upon those axes to which they are fastened,
each of them by a pin, adjusted in a groove contained in their
length, in order to allow them to remain in the same place. When
the axes are caused to advance or recede, those wheels catch with
the pinions P and P'. Figs. 1 and 4, which are set on the inter-
mediate shafts Q and Q', which are themselves commanded by the
eight wheels R, R', adjoining the preceding, and catching with the
pinions s.s. These two last pinions, of small diameter, are set on
the same shaft T', which is the moving shaft of the machine, and
which, for that purpose, is provided with the pulley U, having

several diameters, in order to receive, in case of need, different
speeds, more or less rapid, according to the dimensions or size of
the logs to be cut.

It will be easily understood, that the motion can be given to
those pulleys by any moving power whatever, by means of which
a convenient velocity may be obtained.

\Miilst the rotative motion is so given by means of those trans-
missions of movement to the piece of wood set between the two
points, the blade-bearer carriage is caused to advance very slowly,
and of a quantity corresponding to the thickness of the sheets to
be obtained.

That forward motion is effected by the machine itself, without
any trouble, and in the following manner: —

Under the carriage is set a nut /, through which passes an hori-
zontal screw V, inserted in a collar contrived in the centre of the
cast-iron cross-bar X, bolted on the sides of the main frame Y,
which serves as a basis to the carriage. On the head of that
screw is set a pulley g, facing another smaller pulley (;', set in ;i
small intermediate axis represented in fig. 4, and provided with a
small bevel wheel It. This last wheel receives its motion from a
similar wheel A', fastened to a second axis similar to the first, but
perpendicular to the precedent, and bearing a pulley H' whicli has
been already represented as placed on the axis B. Thus the
movement of the screw V, having a very small h orm, is always
proportional to the velocity of the rotative motion of the log of
wood. The more quickly the block turns, the more rapidly also
the blade-bearer carriage advances. But if the thickness of the
sheets is to be changed it is necessary to modify the ratio of velo-
city, which is effected very easily, as it suffices to replace one of
the pulleys g or g, by another larger or smaller one. By tliis con-
trivance, sheets extremely thin, or of any required thickness, can
be cut all over the length of the log of wood.

It is understood that, as the log turns in a continuous manner,
and as the blade-bearer carriage is always advancing progressively
at the same time, and of a similar quantity; the sharp edge is
always made to rest tangentially on the external surface of the
log. By such means it is perfectly easy to cut sheets of a per-
fectly equal thickness, the development of which can reach several
hundred yards without interruption.

This mechanism, by which the knife-leader and the blade-
bearer receive a motion in a continuous manner, and proportioned
to the rotative movement of the block, is therefore equally very
essential.

From the apparatus before described, not only very long slices
or sheets can be cut from a log, but also from any piece of wood,
whatever may lie its shape, the dimensions of the sheets being,
however, proportioned to the sizes of the pieces of wood. To ob-
tain that effect, it is sufficient to set, in lieu of the two axes B and
B', which support the blocks, a drum, which is composed of an
iron shaft and of several cast-iron discs or cross-bars, on the plain
parts of which are bolted two set-up flat bands, intended to re-
ceive some wooden frames. The pieces or blocks of wood to be
cut, are fastened upon those frames in the same manner as they are
set upon the ordinary frame of the sawing machines for veneering.
It is easily understood that, by causing that drum to turn on itself,
as it would be done in causing the block which it replaces to turn,
each of those pieces of wood is successively presented to the
action of the blade-end of the knives, and will be cut into thin
sheets, which, as a matter of course, will be separated from each
other.

That disposition is also a most important addition to the improved
apparatus, and increases as much the value of that system which
thus unites all the required advantages for practical and manu-
facturing working; and by the celerity with which the operations
are carried into effect, by the great saving of w ood which it effects,
as well as on account of all the profit obtained from the machine
and the excellent work it produces, that system aftords very great
advantages. Another very simple addition is equally applied to
that machine, and has for effect to cut the wood, not only in
sheets, but also immediately after into matches of different lengths
and sizes. That addition consists merely in the application of a
cylinder set on the leader itself and provided with circular blades.
These blades rest on the wood and cut it transversely — tliat is to
say, perpendicularly to its own axis, whilst some grooves contrived
over all the surface of the cylinder impress on the wood, a kind of
denting, more or less deep, while at the moment that the lower
cutting blade arrives to perform its operation, causes the sheets of
wood already cut in the direction of the axis to be separated in
small breadths, and at the same time as the saws divide the wood
lengthwise.

This additional cylinder is composed of an iron axis, in which is

118

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

Ai'nii,,

adjusted a set of blades or circular knives, supported at the re-
quired distance, according to the lenprth of tlie matches, hy means
of steel rinjrs or washers, which are fluted on all their circumfer-
ence, that they may at the same time serve as rowels. This axis
is supported at its two extremities on two moveable bearers, pro-
])erly set u\Hm the upper part of the leader; they are able to ap-
]>roach more or less, according to circumstances, the log of wood
to be cut, either by means of screws purposely adajjted or by any
other suitable contrivance; consequently, if that cylinder, prepared
as l)efore described, be sufficiently advanced against tlie wood, so
as to cause the circular blades to penetrate into it to a certain
dejitli at the same time that the rowels or washers y bear firmly
upon it, so as to impress deeply their projecting spokes, and the
surface of the wood being afterwards cut in the manner before
described, by means of the lower longitudinal blade, the matches
may be entirely separated one from the otlier, or allowed to remain
sliglitly adherent, which would facilitate their packing up and
carriage.

COUPLING JOINTS FOR PIPES.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, Middlesex, civil
engineer, for '■•an invention of an improvement or inijtrovements in
making coupling-joints /or pipes, nozzles, st'ip-cocks, still and cylinder
heads, and other apparatus." (A communication.) — Granted March
22; Enrolled September 20, 1849.

This patent relates to an improved means of connecting pipes,
and to i'astening on the ends of steam or other cylinders or vessels,
still-heads, connecting shafts, and various kinds of apparatus that
require to be connected by bolts or screws passed through flanges.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 3.

1 1 1 1 llll

I'l

'1

lll 1,1

^<

1

w

J-

1' , ^"ill

Fig. 2.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 1 is an external view ;
fig. 2, a plan ; and fig. 3 a sec-
tion of the improved clasp coup-
lings, as applied to cou])ling of
pipes. A similar joint may also
lie applied to the securing of a
cap-jilate (ui to a quadrangular
vessel. Fig. t is a section of
another modification of the in-
vention as applied to the coup-
ling of small pipes.

The invention consists in
forcing together the two bodies

to be coupled, by means of a F.g. 6.

grooved segmental, or other clamp, according to the form of the
jiarts of the vessel or article to be coupled. The groove of the
coupling embraces the flanges or their equivalents, which project

from, or are connected with, the bodies to be coupled ; so that
when the said grooved segments are drawn together by screw-bolts,
keys, conical wedge-rings, or any equivalent means, the groove
therein shall act on the said flanges, or their equivalents, so as to
force them together, and thus make a tight joint, with or without
interposed packing.

In figs. 1, 2, and 3, a, a, represent two sections of a pipe, each
provided with a turned or upset flange h. with packing c; but, if
desired, the packing can be dispensed with, by facing the flanges,
or making what is termed a ground joint. At the junction of the
pipes, an inner pipe d, is introduced within the pi])e to serve as a
guide, in joining the flanges together, but it may be dispensed
with if desired. Over the two sections of the pipe, and extending
over the flanges, are two rings, one for each section, tlie inner
faces of which correspond or nearly so with the faces of the two
flanges, and are curved or bevelled on their outer faces. These
rings should be made to fit somewhat closely on to the sections of
the pijie, or may be shrunk on if desired. When the two flanges
and rings are put together, face to face, they are embraced by a
segmental clamp/, /, made in two parts, the inner periphery of
wliich is grooved to embrace the rings e, e, and to act on the outer
curved or bevelled faces thereof; so that when the segments are
drawn together by means of screw-bolts g, g, that pass through
ears h, projecting from their ends, the sides of the grooves are
made to act in a wedge-like manner on the outer curved or bevelled
faces of the rings e, to force them and the flanges of the sections
of the pipe together, and there hold them firmly. In this way it
will be seen that the flanges are forced and held together around
the entire circumference simply by the use of two bolts; thus
eft'ecting a better joint, vvhich can be connected and disconnected
in less time, and held with more strength, than by the means
heretofore employed.

Instead of forcing together the segments of the clamp by means
of screw-bolts, as above described, this can be done by means of a
ring i, as represented at figs. 4, and 5, the inner periphery of
which is made conical, so that it may be driven on to the segmental
clamp, the outer periphery being also made of a corresponding
conical form. In these figures the parts corresponding with those
represented in the figures above described are indicated by similar
letters. The rings e, e, that extend over the flanges may be dis-
pensed with, and the grooved segmental or other clamp may be
made to act directly on the flanges; but it is better to use the
rings, as they can be more readily adapted to the groove of the
segmental clamp, and at the same time ghe strength and support
to the flanges, which, in general, are formed by turning over and
upsetting the metal of the pipe. If desired, packing of any kind
may be interposed between the flanges and the rings; but this in
general will not be found necessary.

INSULATING WIRE OF ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS.

John Lewis Ricardo, of Lowndes-square, Middlesex, Esq.,
M.P., for " improvements in electric telegraphs, and in ajiparatus con-
nected therewith." — Granted September 4, 1848 ; Enrolled March 4,
1849.

The improvement relates — first, to the insulation of the wires of
electric telegraphs bv combining two or more wires between two
fillets of gutta percha or its compounds, whereby they are insulated
from each other, and from surrounding
materials ; secondly, to an apparatus for
suspending wires used in electric tele-
graphs, whereby such points of suspension
are rendered inaccessible to wet or damp,
and consequently less liable to any imper-
fection in the insulation. The annexed
engraving exhibits a section of the ajipa-
ratus, which consists of an earthenware
sup])ort a, having the eye or hook b sus-
pended to the centre by a nut c, in the
recess at the top, which is afterwards
filled up with cement d. The cylindrical
])rojecting part e, has a groove or throat
_/; cut round it, by which any water coming
in contact with the outer surface is inter-
cepted, preventing its getting access to
the point of suspension ; and it is this throat or groove /, that
constitutes the novel feature in this, the second part of his inven-
tion.

[1849.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

U9

SMELTING AND REFINING LEAD ORES.

William Young, plumber, and Henry Burgess Young, en-
gineer, of Barnstaple, Devonshire, for ^^improvements in smelting
and refining lead ores." — Granted August 28, 1848; Enrolled Feb-
ruary 28, 1849.

These improvements relate to the condensation of the vapours
which escape from the furnaces employed in the manufacture of
lead from ore, for the purpose of obtaining the litharge and other
oxides, which are carried oif mixed with the products of c<im-
bustion. For tliis purpose, the flue from the furnace is made
to pass through a steam-boiler flue, so that the waste heat may be
used in generating steam; the flue then opens into a fan, by which
the vapours are projected down the surface of a large closed tank
of water. A great portion of the metallic compound is then mixed
with the water. The vapours next pass from the top of this tank
into another flue, into which there is projected a strong jet of high-
pressure steam from the boiler above-mentioned. The combined
steam and vapours are then made to pass successively through a
series of chambers, the opening from the one to the other being
through finely-perforated plates of metal. The gra\ity of the

particles of oxide is increased by the steam, and they collect upon
the floors of the chambers. Connected with the large tank of
water there is a smaller cistern placed outside, by which the height
of the water inside the chamber is regulated, and, consequently,
the distance of the surface of the water in the tank from the mouth
of the descending flue can be readily ascertained, and the pressure
be regulated accordingly.

The patentees claim — 1st, the employment of a water lute, which
may be regulated by raising or lowering the water in the cistern,
whereby the draught will be regulated, and an economy of fuel
effected. — 2ndly, The causing the metallic particles which escape
from the furnace along with the smoke, to pass through water, and
then through finely-perforated plates into vaults filled with steam;
and the condensation and collection of the metallic particles. —
3rdly, Applying these processes in the smelting of lead, for col-
lecting white and blue oxide of lead in a paste. — tthly. Causing
the metallic particles, if any, which may remain with the smoke
after the second process, to pass through the body of the furnace,
and again to undergo that process; and a complete collection of
the metallic particles.

DOUBLY TRAPPED WATERCLOSETS.

Combined Patent Self-Acting Pan-and- Valve Doubly-Trapped Waterclosets, suited to every description of Dwelling Houses, Public
Buildings, Hotels, Railway Stations, Hospitals, Asylums, ^c.^ Patented by Messrs. Joseph Bunnett and Co., of Lombard-Street, City,

and Deptford, Kent, engineers.

Some time since, we gave our readers the specification of a patent granted to Mr. Bunnett,
for improvements in waterclosets, (see Journal Vol. X., p. 144); — we have much pleasure in
again bringing this subject forward, on account of its great value in the progi-ess of sanitary
reform.

By adopting the principle of his Patent Efiluvia Traps, Mr. Bunnett has succeeded in
producing a Self-acting AVatercloset, which requires no attention from the person using it.
The supply and force of the water is always eflicient and uniform, and cannot be wasted; no
soil can be left in the basin after use, and an ample supply of water is ahvays secured in the
basin, to form a water lute between that and the syphon trap, thereby eft'ectually preventing
the least smell from rising. All other self-acting waterclosets being only trii]>ped by the
syphon or D traps, a portion of the fouled water is always left exposed in them, liable at
all times to smell, particularly after standing for a day or two.

The improved trap is formed so as to allow a perfectly free passage for the soil, &c., with
an opening at the top of it, the cover of which may be removed and replaced, should any
necessity arise for the same, from anything being either accidentally or wilfully dropped
down the closet.

This improved watercloset appears to us to be veiy simple and durable in its construction,
and cannot get out of order. It is not necessary that the cistern should be placed directly
over the closet, but may be placed at a convenient distance; and any number of closets can
be supplied from the same cistern.

References to Engraving.

In the annexed engraving, A is the sup-
ply-box, which may be fixed either within
the cistern, or in any other convenient
situation. B and C are the inlet and
outlet valves. When the closet is not
in use, the valve B is closed. By the
pressure on the seat the valve B is
opened, and the valve C is closed, and
the supply-box is thereby charged; as
soon as the pressure is removed from
the seat, the valve B is again closed,
and the valve C is opened, and the
whole of the water confined in the sup-
ply-box is discharged into the basin.
D is a moveable pan or trap, suspend-
ed on a centre and balanced by E, a
rolling weight, which, on the rush of
water into the basin, instantly rolls to-
wards the centre and allows the pan
to fall to its fullest extent, as indi-
cated by the dotted lines.

There are several modifications of this
impro\ed watercloset which for want of
space, we are unable to lay before our
readers, but specimens of each may be
seen in action at the office of the paten-
tees, Lombard-street, City.

120

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Aprii.,

REVIEWS.

Companion to the Improved Log- Book for Steam-Vessels. By
Peter Bobbie, Engineer, &c. London, 1849.

Mr. Borrie's ohject in publishinfj tliis work is to induce owners
of steam-vessels to adopt .1 uniform method of Iveepinsr a correct
account of tlie liourly performance of the enjrines of their vessels,
and of tlie expenditure of fuel, tallow, &c. The log proposed by
liim appears to he well adapted for the purpose he has in view, hut
we think its utility might be extended if every sea-going steam-
vessel were furnished with an "Indicator" and "Counter;" and
that it be the duty of the principal engineer to attach daily an in-
dicator-card to tlie log; and the reading of the counter be given
hourly, instead of tlie number of strokes per minute, in the log.
If the counter be kept under lock-and-key, it could not be tam-
pered with, and the commander of the vessel might at any time
check the engineer's log. The columns in Mr. Borrie's log of the
dimensions of the pro]ieller or paddle-wheels may be omitted, as
thiise dimensions are of course constant, and known to the owners
as well as any other part of the engines or vessel. The book con-
*uins likewise instructions to engineers on the duties they have to
attend to in ins])ectiug and managing the several parts of a steam-
engine, the lioilers, and propellers, all of which will be found to be
extremely useful.

Digest of Evidence taken before a Committee of the House of Com-
mons appointed to inquire into the Agricultural Customs of England
and Wales in respect of Tenant Right. By Willi a Ji Shaw and
Heney Cobbett. London: Joseph Rogerson, 18t9.

Engineering in connection with Farming is daily becoming a
most important branch of the profession : not only does the drain-
age of the land form an essential department of the engineer's
duty, but also the adaptation of machinery to the wants of the
farmei ; the formation of roads, the construction of suitable build-
ings, and many other departments of the farm. It is therefore
necessary that the engineer should be well acquainted with what is
tenant-right, in order that he may advise both the landlord and
tenant how far they will be justified in going to the expense of
im])rovements and alterations of farming pro])erty.

The tenant farmer is greatly indelited to ]Mr. Shaw for the very
al)le manner in which he has at all times most perseveringly advo-
(^ated his rights, and we hope by continued exertions the important
question will be finally adjusted during the present session of par-
liament.

Mr. Shaw and his coadjutor Iiave favoured us in the digest of
evidence before us with a very good insight into tlie mode of farm-
ing in different parts of Pingland, — and which is of the more value,
as it is the evidence of many of the leading farmers, land-owners,
and valuers of England and Scotland.

Reference Rook to the Incorporated Railway Companies of the
United Kingdom. By Henry Glynn. London: Weale, 1849.

Our indefatigable correspondent, Mr. Henry Glynn, has here
produced a work of great labour, showing in a brief form all the
l)articulars of each railway — whether of interest to engineers or
sharelndders. It contains some information not to be found else-
where.

Plan of the Parish of Clapliam in the County of Surrey, 1849. By
Messrs. A. & R. Bland, Surveyors.

This survey appears to have been very accurately made, and laid
down with great care. A few more publications like this will show
to government that the civil surveyors are quite equal to under-
t.ike tlie survey of the metropolis, without calling in the aid of
the military, as was lately done by the Commissioners of Sewers,
—a proceeding which, we contend, was must unconstitutional.

The Patent Gutta-Percha Company's Pattern-Book of Ornaments.
Here we have another material brought to the aid of the archi-
tect, and which, from the specimens before us, apjiears to be ad-
iiiirably adapted for ornamental work of ceilings, cornices, picture-
frames, and other purposes to which plaster and papier-mache have
hitherto been applied. The gutta-percha ornaments appear to be
got up sharper than those of paper. The designs set forth in the

pattern-book before us are well selected, and possess considerable
freedom in the outline; and we lio])e the company will not be
induced to follow the too prevailing taste of the day, in adopting
French ornaments.

Remarks on the Improvement of Tidal Rirrrs, illustrated by Refer-
ence to works ejcecuted on the Tuy, Ribhle, Forth, Lune, and other
rivers. By David Stevenson, C.E. Second Edition. London :
AVeale, 1819.

Mr. Stevenson has in this book entered upon a subject of great
professional interest, and we mean therefore to call the attention
of our readers to it in a future number.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

Feb. 19. — Sydney Smirke, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

A paper was read by Mr. C. Barry, jiin., descriptive of "a nwde of Con-
struclinrj Malleable Iron Fire-Proof Flooriny^'' recently patented by Mr.
Beardiuore.

Mr. Babry described the experiments made by Mr. Beardraore, the result
of which was the form of construction patented by him. This consists of a
mere beam of sheet-iron of a reversed T form having top and bottom
flanges ; the latter being connected with plates of the same material, on
which is laid concrete or other incompressible material, which keeps the
beams iu their vertical position, and thereby brings into action their full
power to resist compression. The advantages of the materials employed are
their perfect fire-proof character, their non-liability to disintegration on ex-
posure to fierce flame, and the fact of their cohesion not being destroyed by
sudden coaling; while the mode of construction is less expensive than the
usual combination of brick arches and cast-iron girders, and occupies much
less space between the ceiling and the floor line.

Some remarks were made by Mr. T. H. Wyatt "on the Church of
St. Andrew, at Greensted, Essex," lately restored by biiuiell' and Mr. Brai-
don.

The interest attached to this little church arises from the material em-
ployed in its construction, from its undoubted antiquity, and from the strong
evidence that exists of its having been originally built for the reception of
the corpse of St. Edmund on its return from London to Bury St. Edmunds
in the year 1013. The inclosing walls of the nave are formed of rough half
oak trees, averaging about 12 inches by 6 inches, and about 0 feet high, in-
cluding the sills and plates : from all appearances this is the original struc-
ture. The east end timbers were donhtless removed to make way for the red
brick chancel erected about the beginning of Henry the Eighth's reign; and
thus there remains no evidence as to whether the original form of the church
was a parallelogram — or if an apse was at the eastern termination, as was so
prevalent in the early churches. At the western end is a tower, also of tim-
her, erected at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and in which is a
hell bearing the following inscription: "William Sand made mee, 1G18."
Mr. Wyatt described fully the construction of the roof and other parts; and
in conclusion stated, in regard to the restoration, that those portions which
from their completely decayed state had necessarily been removed had been
replaced timber for timber.

March 5. — T. Bellamy, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

A paper was read " On the probable Form and Design of the Temple of
Solomon at Jerusalem." By E. I'Anson, Jun.

Mr. I'Anson alluded to the numerous and unsatisfactory conclusions of the
various authors who have written on this subject or attempteil to make de-
signs for the restoration of the building in question ; and also to the circum-
stance of its still occupying the attention of the curious, — -as no less than
eighteen works on the subject have been recently advertised in a German
catalogue. He describes its restoration as partaking more of a Tyro-Egyp-
tian style of architecture than of that of Greece, — as has been suggested
hy the late Mr. Wilkins, in his Preface to "The Antiquities of Magna
Giiecia."

In the discussion which ensued it was suggested that the discoveries at
Nineveh might eventually throw much light on the subject, and assist in
explaining the description of the temple given in Kings and Chronicles. In
sn|iport of an opinion expressed that the architecture of the Egyptians was
known in Syria, it was mentioned that the monument cut in the rock of the
Narh El Kelb, on the coast beyond Tyre, was of the best style of Egyptian
art and of a period anterior to the time of Solomon ; and tlui hitherto
there had not been discovered in Syria any monument of Greek art of that
period to support the theory of the Grecian Doric temple having formed the
model for that at Jerusalem.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAI

121

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

F(b. 13. — J. Field, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Tlie p.iper reafl was " On the Coal Field of South Wales," by Mr.
JOSUUA ItlClIARDSON, M. Inst. C.E.

Mr. Richardson commenced hy enforcing the necessity for an unbounded
supply of fuel for the export trade, the manufactures, and the domestic uses
of Great Britain, and enumerating various sources from whence that supply
was at present, and might he in future obtained j giving, at the same time,
the various and discordant opinions of eminent authorities as to the pre-
sumed duration of that supply from the several mineral districts of vfhich
the extent was now ascertained. This was variously stated hy different au-
thorities at between 200 years and 1700 years; but Mr. Richardson ven-
tured to assert that, in spite of the increasing demand for home consumption,
and an augmenting export trade— amounting, at present, to upwards of six
millions of tons annually — when the coal field of South Wales should be
brought into full work, the duration of the supply was beyond calculation.
The area of this coal field alone he estimated, from actual survey, to be
1,055 square miles, embracing all qualities, from extremely bituminous coal
to pure anthracite. The various veins, and their several thickness, were
fully described, with examples of their quality, and analyses of them chemi-
cally, with their practical evaporating powers — showing that there existed
64 seams or veins of coal, having an aggregate thickness of 190 feet.
These veins were described to be so situated as to be easily worked by adits
or levels, and by pits of slight depth ; and thus the cost at the mouth of
the levels varied from 2^. 2d, to Zs. 'od. per ton — giving a mean of about
2s. 10(?. per ton. The means of transport to the ports of CarditF, Newport,
and Swansea, although at present inefficient, were daily improving, and en-
abled the coal to be shipped at about the same rates as the coal in the Tyne
and the Wear. The actual annual consumption was shown to be —

In the ironworks of South Wales 1,500,000 tons

The copper- works .'i(lO,0(iO ,,

Tlie tin-plate and other works 200,000 „

In agricultural and domestic uses l,0(in,noo „

Exports I,.'i00,0(l0 „

Total 4,000,000 tons

The useful and evaporative qualities of the various veins were carefully
investigated, and it was shown, in a table of relative evaporative values, that

1 lb. of Welsh coal will evaporate Olb. of water

1 lb. of Newcastle and Yorkshire coal 7^ >,

1 lb. of Lancashire coal 7 ,,

1 lb. of Scotch coal a „

And it followed, ihat if

s. d.

Wel^h coal was worth 20 0 per ton

Newcastle and Yorkshire was worth Ifi 8 ,,

LaTict shire 15 (>i „

Scotch 13 4 „

The coals of Staffordshire and Derbyshire were not taken into considera-
tion, because they were used chiefly for the consumption by home manufac-
turers.— From these, and other statements, and from extracts from Sir
Henry de la Beche and Dr. Lyon Playfair's able Report on Steam Cnal for
the Navy (see Journal, Vol. XI., 1848, p. 273), it was shown, that the Welsh
coal excelled all others for steam purposes, and for almost all uses to which
it was applied ; and tha', when all other sources of supply had diminished,
or had failed, the prosperity of the manufactures and the commerce of
Great Britain might be maintained forages by the coal field of South Wales.

A very animated discussion ensued, in which several eminent engineers
and chemists reasoned upon the statements in the paper, and the contested
questions of the evaporative powers of different fuels.

Feb. 20. — The paper read was " On the Explosion of Fire-damp which
occurred in the Ear/lesbush or Eskyn Colliery, Neath, South JVales, on the
20th of March, 1848,'' by Mr. Joshua. Richardson, M. Inst. C.E.

This paper first detailed the frequency of these occurrences in some parts
of South Wales, and more particularly in this colliery, where the tender and
friable nature of the coal peculiarly induced in the working, or excavation,
the formation of fire-damp and explosive gas. This had been shown ex-
perimentally by Sir Humphrey Davy, when, on breaking up large coal under
water, he collected a quantity of fire-damp at the surface.

It then gave a description of the colliery workings; the state of the mine
before the explosion occurred; the condition in which it was found at the
time of the inspection, a fortnight after the accident ; the probable causes
of the catastrophe, and the best known means of preventing a recurrence of
such events. The seam of coal was described as being about 4 feet in
thickness, of a highly bituminous and friable nature, and worked by an in-
clined adit or entrance, with a main gallery, whence the stalls were woiked
on either side — horses being employed to draw out the coal in trams, which
were conveyed direct to the vessels in which it was shipped for exportation,
to the extent of 30,000 tons annually. The ventilation was effected by a
down-cast and an up-cast shaft, between which an air-course was arranged,
so as to extend throughout the active workings, with a chimney at the exit,
through which the air should have been expedited by a furnace, which,
however, had been rarely lighted ; and the air-course, which was 1 mile and
5 furlongs in length, was in places of unequal and inadequate areas, so that,
in certain states of the external atmosphere, the air in the mine became

very sluggish, and even at times oscillated to and fro, instead of regularly
travelling onwards in an uninterrupted current. This was so much the
case, that the colliers employed fans to drive the gas from them into the
proper channels. Great negligence appeared to have existed, both in the
general system of v\orking, and in the use of the Davy lamps, which were
frequently used without the wire-gauze guards. The usual state of the
mine could not be judged of by an inspection after the accident, as all the
falls and incumbrances had been removed, the destroyetl doors and stoppings
had been well replaced, and general precautions had been adopted, which
evidently had not previously existed ; but there still remained evidences of
want of precautionary measures. Candles and open lamps had been con-
stantly used, although the general fiery character of the mine was notorious;
and, after the explosion, two Davy lamps were found, without their wire-
gauze guards.

The temperaturein various parts of the mine was so near that of the exter-
nal atmosphere, Ihat it was evident spontaneous ventilation could not have
proceeded regularly ; and it was shown, that the slightest change of the
density of the air, even from the sun breaking out, would have sulli ed to
remler stagnant the whole system of ventilation; especially as the furnace,
which should have accelerated the current by exhaustion, had been allowed
to fall into a ruinous condition, and had seldom been used, and the velocity
of the current had rarely exceeded 5 feet per second, which was totallv in-
adequate to supply the requisite quantity of air for such an extent of work-
ings. The cause of the accident was, therefore, very apparent, and might
be attributed to a want of a general good system of ventildtion, permitting
accumulations of gas and fire-damp, and the careless use of open lights, or
unserviceable Davy lamps; and the consequence of this was the sudden
death of 20 men, and several horses, with great injury to the mine. The
means of prevention were, evidently, a complete revision of the system of
ventilation — the enlarging of the air-course to uniform and adequate di-
mensions— the proper division of the air into several columns — the con-
struction of proper doors and stoppings in convenient positions— strict
regulations for the use of Davy lamps, or other means of lighting, and
better general superintendence, by educated men, who would enforce pre-
cautionary measures. Due credit was given to the proprietors for their
anxiety to afford every means of inspection, and for adopting all suggestions
calculated to prevent the recurrence of such an event ; and it was stated
that they had since erected one of Mr. Price Struve's ventilating apparatus,
of the working of which an account was promised in a future communication.
In the discussion which ensued, the various systems of working and of ven-
tilation, in all parts of England, were noticed and it was shown that, in
general, every means was adopted to prevent accidents ; but that, up to the
present time, the mines in the west were not as well managed as those in
the north, or the midland district. Every day, however, introduced better
measures and better men, of education, for carrying into effect the most ap-
proved systems, and that, as the mines became more extensively worked, so
these accidents would, and did, become less frequent.

Feb. 27, & March 6. — The paper read was " On Fire Proof BuilJiiic/s," bv
Mr. James Biiaidwood, Assoc. Inst. C.E.

After alluding to the paper by Mr. Fairbairn, on the construction of
buildings of this description, (see Journal, Vol. X., 1847, p. 160), the
author proceeded to analyse the evidence as to the capability exhibited
i)y cast and wrought iron ueams for sustaining weights, where they were ex-
posed to any extreme changes of temperature. He then demonstrated, by a
collection of specimens of metal from buildings that had b'en destroyed by
fire, that occasionally the temperature in the conflagration of large buildings
rose almost to the melting point of cast-iron, and that, even in a small fire,
beams and columns of cast iron would be so affected by the heat and jets of
water upon them, that they would probably be destroyed, and sometimes
cause a fearful loss of life; as in many of the so-called fire-proof ware-
houses of the city, a number of persons employed on the premises slept in
the upper floors, and, if the lower beams gave way, the whole would be
dragged down suddenly ; whereas timber beams resisted fire some time, and
allowed time for the inmates to escape. The firemen, also, were liable to
more danger from the same circumstance as the only chance of extinguish-
ing fires was to send them into the buildings with the branches and water-
hose ; but where there was such evident danger, the men were forbidden to
enter, and limited their efforts to restraining the spreading of the fire.

Another point which the author considered had not been sufficiently
insisted on, was the derangement of the brickwork by the expansion of the
iron beams at high temperatures, and its sudden contraction on the applica-
tion of cold water; and, also, from the mortar becoming completely pul-
verised by the excessive heat — instances of which have been known to
occur.

The following were the principles on which Mr. Fairbairn proposed to
construct (ire-proof buildings: —

1. The whole of the buildings to be composed of incombustible materials,
such as iron, stune, or brick.

2. That every opening or crevice communicating with the external atmo-
sphire be kept closed.

3. An isolated stone or iron staircase to be attached to every story, and
to be furnished with a line of water-pipes comuiuidcating with ihe mains in
the street.

4. The different warehouses to be divided hy strong partition walls, and
no more openings to be made than are absolutely necessary.

17

122

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

I Apbil,

5. That the iron columns, beams, and t)rick arches he of a strenctli suffi-
cient not only to support a continuous dead prt-s&uie, but aUo to resist the
force of impact to which they are subject.

Lastly. That in order to prevent the columns from being melted, a current
of coldair be introduced into the hollow of the columns from an arched
tunnel under the floors.

Mr. Uraidwood argued that there could be no doubt, if the second princi-
ple could be enforced, a fire would go out of itself; but it was very doubtful
if the object was not defeated hy carelessness in leaving a door or window
open just at the time when a fire occurred. The fifth principle showed that
Mr. Fairbairn had not laid sufficient stress on the loss of strength to the iron
consequent on an increase of temperature j and the last principle, it was
thought, would not be likely to answer the purpose, as a specimen of IJ
inch cast-iron pipe, on being heated in the centre, with both ends open, and
a current of air passing through it, gave w-ay, on one end being held in a
vice and the other pulled with slight force by the hand, after an exposure of
only four minutes in the fire.

For these reasons and others, the author submitted that large buildings,
containing considcraMe quantities of combustible goods, and constructed on
the usual system, v\ere not practically fire-proof; and that the only con-
struclion which would render such buildings safe, would be groined brick
arches, supported by pillars of the same material laid in cement. The author
was also of opinion, that the loss by fire would be much reduced if ware-
houses were built of a more moderate size, and completely separated from
each other by strong party-walls, instead of being constructed in immense
ranges, into which, when fire once penetrated, it set at defiance all efiforts to
extinguish it.

In the discussion which ensued, the accuracy of Mr. Braidwood's general
statements was fully accorded ; and it was generally acknowledged, that the
principles upon which many buildings, particularly dwellings, were con-
structed, were very erroneous. It was argued, that even with the ordinary
materials, if attention was paid to filling in the partitions and ceilings, as
practised in France, and mentioned in Professor Hosking's book on the con-
struction of buildings, using slate or stone for the stairs, as from its present
cheapness might be done, taking care to support the steps properly, a fire
would spread very slouly, and would allow ample time for the escape of the
inhabitants. Beardmore's, Fox and Barrett's, and Nasmyth's new systems
of flooring, were all alluded to ; as was Mr. P. Fairbairn's fire-proof dwelling,
house at Leeds. Chuhb's, Marr's, and other fire-proof safes were advan-
tageously mentioned, and were shown to have eftectually preserved the
deeds within them in the most intense conflagrations.

March 13. — The paper read was "A description of the Camden Station
of the London and North- H'estcm Railway." By Mr. R. B. Dockrav,
M. Inst. C.E.

In the first design of the railway, in 1833, this station was intended for
the sole terminus of the line, and, after much discussion, thirty acres of
ground were purchased, although that quantity was considered pre|iosterousty
large. A very short time demonstrated the necessity for the establishment
of the Euston Station solely for passengers; and fourteen acres were there
secured, and ultimately covered with buildings. The whole station at
Camden was then devoted to goods and cattle ; and, although in the original
design great care was taken to anticipate the wants of the traffic, yet such
has been the rapid development of the railway system, that in the space of
ten years it has proved necessary to sweep away almost every vestige of the
original constructions, and entirely to remodel the station. These changes
have been partly produced by the increase in the goods' traffic, which was
first undertaken by the great carriers, who built large warehouses on the
company's land. The whole system has, however, been reformed, and the
company do all that business, and are responsible to the public for the due
performance.

As the increase of the traffic progressed, the trains in the sidings fre-
quently became of such length as to cause danger to the passenger trains ;
it, therefore, became necessary to alter the whole disposition; which has
been so done, as now to give a length of double line of 2,500 feet, for the
goods' wagons only, entirely clear of the main line.

Another reason for the alterations was the demand by the public for a
more rapid rate of tr.avclling : this demanded heavier and larger engines,
and neccsiitated wider buildings and larger turn-tables ; in fact, everything
required to be remodelled ; — and the results of all these changes were
shown in detail in the paper and the illustrating drawings.

The circular engine-house, 100 feet diameter, to contain twenty-four
engines and tender, with a central turn-table, 41 feet in diameter, and an
iron roof, was excellently described ; as were also the other engine-houses,
stores, warehouses, sheds, &c., with their appurtenances; and among the
external works, the new wrought-iron bridge, at Chalk-farm, on Mr. K.
Stephenson's box-girder principle, and the wooden lattice-bridge over the
Regent's canal.

The supply of water for the locomotive engines was then treated of at
some length, and exhibited some curious anomalies. The only water that
could originally he used was taken from wells at Tring and at Watford ; an
attempt was, however, made to obtain a supjjly at Camden Station, first
from the Regent's canal, and then by sinking a well down 145 feet into the
chalk, or to a total depth of 300 feet below Trinity high-water mark. The
water from the sand stratum was excluiled, and aiihuugh onlv that from the
chalk was pumped up, which ought to have xjossessed the same qualities as

the water at Tring and \A'atford, derived also from the chalk, yet it was
found to cause the locomotive to " prime," or flush water through the
cylinders, with the steam, to such an extent as to seriously impede the pro-
gress of the trains. This was shown, by analysis, to arise from the excess
of carbonate of soda contained in this well water, which there was an entire
absence of in the waters of the wells at Tring and at Watford.

The well, therefore, became useless for the engines, but the water was so
excellent for household and other purposes, that it has been employed for
the general uses of the Station, and for the hotels and houses belonging to
the company.

Some idea of the extent of the Station was given by the statement, that
the length of single line of railway, exclusive of the main lines, exceeded
twelve miles. There were 112 sets of points, 196 turn-plates, and 110 cranes,
varying in power from l\ tons to 20 tons. The area of goods' sheds was
upwards of 135,000 superficial feet, and that of the platforms was 30,000
feet.

The annual consumption of gas exceeded 6,000,000 cubic feet.

The discussion that ensued turned chiefly on the causes of the excess of
alkalinity in the water at that spot, and it was suggested that it might be
owing to the rapid filtration of surface water through a crevice in the chalk
upon which that well had been sunk ; and as a cure for the " priming," it
was suggested to try a minute quantity of sulpliuric acid to neutralise the
alkali. There appeared, however, to be a question whether the water from
the green sand was really completely excluded.

ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS.

Feb. 26.— John Cay, Esq., F.R.S.E., President, in the Chair.

The following communications were made: —

" On a Method of Making Flint Glass for Optical purposes." By Mr.
William Cooper, glass manufacturer, Aberdeen.

Mr. Cooper, in his communication, states as a known fact, that " crown
glass," a manufacture peculiar to this country, answers very well for optical
purposes ; but hitherto there has been great difficulty in obtaining suitable
flmt glass of a uniform density, and free from striae, wreathes, &c. ; and this
may be attributed to the excise restrictions formerly altogether preventing,
by heavy penalties, the necessary trials being made to produce a suitable
glass, and hence we were driven to France and Switzerland for a supply,
where no obstacles exist in the way of making it. The mixture given by
Mr. Cooper was stated to produce a glass suitable for optical purposes ; and
the excise restrictions being removed, and being possessed of materials and
every other facility for making it equally good, it is expected that the
manufacture of optical glass will be perfected in this country.

The following recipes are given by Mr. Cooper for making good optical
flint glass : —

Sand, well wflshod, dried, and sifted .. 601b.

Oxide ot lead (!ll

Purified catbouale of potash 15

Saltpetre :^*5

Cullet 15 to 20

The specific gravity of this glass is 3'568, and of ordinary density. A
heavier glass is obtained by altering the proportions thus ; —

Sand BOlh.

Oxide of lead 63

Purilied carbon^ite of potastl 14

Saltpetre 3'25

Cullet 20

The specific gravity of this glass is 3'628. In both cases the cullet must
be of the same kind of glass.

Before disposing of this communication, the Secretary was instructed to
write to Mr. Cooper to send specimens of optical glass made after these
recipes, or to communicate the names of opticians who bad used the same
and found it good.

" Statements regarding the American Sam- Gin, for separating the seed
from tJie Cotton Fibres ; and as to the practicability of applying Steam-
Power to the Roller- Gin : (nid Description and Drawings of a Steam-Potcer
Roller-Gin." By Roebht Burn, Esq., Edinburgh.

After describing Whitney's Saw. Gin, and assigning the alteration of cli-
mate as the cause of the failure to introduce it into the East and West
Indies, Mr. Burn, in explanation of the above-mentioned model, pointed out
that the application of steam-power to this, the only kind of gin adapted
for the cotton of those countries, was mainly wanting to reduce the price of
their produce to that of America, and, by an increased supply, to place the
cotton trade in safer foundation, and more secure agaiust the growing com-
petition of the United States.

In support of this hypothesis, Mr. Burn adduced the past history of the
cotton trade, and the transfer of it from the East Ind.es to Britain by me-
chanical science and skill, in the application of steam-power to the spinning-
wheel and power-loom, which at first was slow, but sure in its progress. In
the United States, this mechanical skill is now carried to as high a pitch,
and hy the invention of the Siiw-Gin they are in advance of us, as no
similar machine has yet been adapted to the colton of any of the British
colonies.

1819.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

123

" Description and Drawing of a New Hydraulic Locomotive and Raihcay."
By Mr. Daniel Erskine, plumber and gas-fitter, Clerk Street, Edinburgh.

This locomotive is constructed on a principle altogether different from
any other hitherto invented. It resembles the present locomotive only as to
the frame-work, while the top resembles a stage coach. The propelling
power is water, turning an overshot-wheel, fitted in an air-tight case in the
centre of the carriage; the water is supplied by a syphon, fixed to the loco-
motive, and dipping into the trough of water after-mentioned. Mr. Erskine
showed experimentally that the syphon will do its work, although moving
through the water at the rate of 60 miles an hour, and even at greater
speed. The syphon is supplied with water from a trough of cast-iron sup-
ported over the railway, and having a longitudinal division from end to end
open at the top, capable of being heated to prevent t!ie water from freezing
in winter. It is to l)e supplied with locks to answer the gradients of the
railway. Tne locomotive opens and shuts the locks in travelling along the
line, and the surplus water is conduL-ted into a narro^v trough between the
two lines of rails, and is allowed to run waste, or used for purposes of irri-
gation.

BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE.

Sir — In answer to your obliging communication as to the time for receiv-
ing papers, I beg leave to say that my reply to Sir John Uennie's statement
on the subject of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, will occupy a considerable
space; and, as I wish to illustrate the subject by some diagrams or drawings,
1 cannot be in time for the next number of your excellent Journal. I have
been from home, and did not see Sir John Rennie's statement till my return.
May I request the favour of your inserting this note in next number?

I remain, Sir,

Your most obedient servant,

Edinburgh, March 14, 1849. Alan Stevenson.

DEEP DRAINING.

[The subject of draining connected with agricultural purposes
has now become an important branch of the duties of the civil
engineer, which induces us to give at length the following valuable
paper from the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng-
land.']

On the Failure of Deep Draining on certain strong Clay Subsoils,
ii-ith a few Remarks on the Injurious Effect of sinking the Water too
far below the Roots of Plants in. very Porous, Alluvial, and Peaty
Soils. By William Bullock Webster.

As I iind the system of very deep draining (4 and .5 feet) on
strong clay-subsoils is looked upon by many of our members as a
practice altogether new, and one likely to lead to very advanta-
geous results, 1 think it of importance to call their attention to
facts which have come under my ovvn notice or which I have col-
lected from others, .and which will be found strongly in opposition
to sucli views. Before I do so, however, as I find that the ])art I
have taken in discussions on this question has led to erroneous
impressions respecting my opinions on the subject of draining
generally, and as I not unfrequently see myself classed among the
"shallow drainers," I wish to set myself right with the agricultural
public, and to have it distinctly understood that I am not a parti-
zan of either faction — am not a deep, a shallow, or a medium
drainer; but consider each of the several practices exclusively ad-
vocated by various zealous experimentalists proper to be applied
in individual cases. It would greatly simplify medical art, could
we find one mode of cure adapted to evey constitution and every
disease; but though we hear such vaunted, I have no faith in
anything professing so much. For deep draining I am strongly an
advocate on soils injured by under-water; and on spongy, and
some porous soils; but am opposed to the practice of going to a
greater depth than 3 feet upon the very strong clay-subsoils, where
the injury is not from under-water, but from raiii. To guide me
in forming that judgment I have had extensive opportunities of
observation, which have led me to the strong conviction that tliis
practice is not advisable — first, because (after a time) the water
will not find its way to the drains at all; secondly, because if it
does so its percolation is usually so slow as not to free the ground
from moisture with sufficient readiness to insure the full benefit
for agricultural i)urposes; and thirdly, because even when the per-
colation is more rapid an effective drainage cannot be accomplislied
with the drains placed at intervals so wide as to compensate for
the extra expense of sinking them to the increased depth. In
cases which have come under my notice where the experiments

have been tried, I have seen that the land between deep drains at
wide intervals was not in so perfect a state for cultivation as that
between drains of more moderate depth placed at less distances.
The cost of cutting an additional foot deep is very considerable ;
in many cases it would double the outlay upon digging. I must
observe here that, even among those soils which we class together
as strong clays, the conditions arising from local positions and
their chemical components are so various, that they cannot all be
placed in one category as to the facility or resistance they offer to
the percolation of water. Again, in the case of fine rich grass-
land on the alluvial, and therefore more pervious soils, I condemn
the practice of sinking drains to depths of 4 and 5 feet, as render-
ing the ground too dry for the roots of grasses — and exposing
them to sufl'er severely in seasons of continued drought. The
same objection is applicable, and perhaps in a still stronger de-
gree, to moss or peat lands, excepting where they are thickly
covered or mixed with some heavier material, such as clay or
marl, that has a tendency to retain the moisture. The system of
draining deeply in all these instances has not the novelty claimed
for it by its modern advocates, but has been tried years since in
many parts of England and abandoned because it was found sig-
nally to fail.

Since Elkington, indeed, first drew attention to the full im-
portance of draining, a vast number of experiments have been
tried upon all the geological formations of this island; and could
we but have before us a fair statement of the entire results, we
should be furnished, I believe, with sufficient data for our future
guidance.

Almost every system that has in turn been introduced has been
attended in some cases with success, and thus has found advo-
cates, and had a fictitious importance for a time attached to it:
each one has, on the other hand, in some cases failed; nor is it
reasonable to expect like results where conditions are totally dif-
ferent.

The prevailing custom until lately was, no doubt, to put in
drains much too shallow. I am perfectly aware of the importance
of permitting the water to filtrate through a sufficient depth of
soil, to leave its valuable properties behind; I know that, under
the old system, shallow draining in some cases did harm by carry-
ing away too rapidly the soluble parts of the manure. But whilst
it is well to avoid the errors of our predecessors it is advisable to
exercise caution lest we fall into mistakes of an opposite kind.
A system of drainage can only be tested by its results in quantity
and quality of produce, and its permanent efficiency only by the
observation of these results through a series of years; for in some
cases deep draining has appeared to answer, in the first and second
years after laying down the tiles, but has subsequently proverl
wholly inefficient. Tlie drains upon examination have been dis-
covered to be unimpeded, but the water has ceased to find its way
down to tliem.

We have scarcely had time yet since the re-introduction of
deep draining upon those soils to which my objections apply, to
be able to determine the permanent value even of experiments
which are apparently attended with success. Conclusions are
drawn much too hastily; and in this, as in other matters, persons
of sanguine minds generalise upon very inconclusive data. If
water is found to run from pipes laid 4 or 5 feet deep the triumph
of deep draining is considered complete; the true test, however,
is not in the water thrown off, but in the condition in which the
soil is left for agricultural purposes. The real object in draining
sliould be to put the land in such a condition that all the rain
which falls should do good, or at least do no harm; and this first
requisite held primarily in view the problem ne.xt in importance
is to effect this with the nicest adjustment of present and future
economy.

Error in new systems is quickly propagated. The person who
has reduced theory to practice with real or imaginary success, is
proud of bis sagacity and ready to proclaim it: he, on the con-
trary, wlio has failed, is by no means anxious to call the attention
of the world to his mistakes. In our medical journals may be
seen weekly accounts of remarkable cures just completed: the
members of the tlierapeutic art do not bring forward with equal
eagerness their cases of remarkable homicide. Perhaps, there-
fore, while so many successf il experiments in deep drainage are
being pressed up^ui tlie public witli entliusiasm, 1 shall not be
doing ill service in turning to the other side of the account, and
showing that "profit and loss" in tlie drainage-ledger should have
entries as well in the debtor as creditor side. I have for some
time devoted much attention to the subject, with a mind open to
convicti(m and an anxious desire to arrive at truth. I have
visited and coiulucted draining operations on almost every geo-

17*

121

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Ar

logical fornuition of this country; I have also heen in communi-
cation with many of the first agriculturists, who have heen drain-
ing for years soils of every description, hoth deep and shallow.
On my own farm (of ahout 200 acres) I have tried various ex-
]ierimcnts. In one field I took equal quantities of land to test
the dee]) against the shallow jjlan; the soil, a strong hrick earth.
On j)art 1 sunk the drains 4 to 5 feet deeji, and i>laced them at
intervals of 40 feet; u]ion the other portion tlie drains were
21 feet ajiart, and only 2 feet dee)). This depth of 2 feet is less than
I should have adopted for the regular drainage of the field, hut I
wished to try extremes against each other. On the deep drains 1
returned the clay, as the advocates for the deep system state that
all water enters from helow. These operations were effected last
year and during the past winter. The water has heen constantly
standing betv/een the deep drains, as it is at this time, 29th April;
whilst the shallow-drained ))ortion has been in a comparatively
dry and healthy state. To this experiment, indeed, I can attach
no great importance, as it has been made only lately, and the
results may in some measure be different in another year; yet
ni)on other ]iortions of my land I liave drains not exceeding
.SO inches, which have acted perfectly for years. In another field
I put some deep drains, and returned the clay on the tiles, and
found in the s]iring, when 1 wanted to roll the wheat with
Crosskill's dod-cruslier, that on that portion of the field the land
was not nearly so dry, and the soil stuck to the roller. I may
mention here that a railway cutting through my farm 18 feet
deep, drains no more land on each side of it than a drain 3 feet
deep.

A neighbour of mine, the Rev. E. Tunson, of ^Voodlands, had
several deep drains put on his farm many years ago. These drains
continued open, but ceased to act, and the land above them be-
came so wet that it had to be re-drained. The same may be seen
on the estate of H. Ilolloway, Esq., at Marchwood; and also the
I'ark at Norris Castle, Isle of ^^'ight, where, though thousands
have been expended in deep di-ains for s]n-ings, the soil being re-
tentive, surface-draining is more wanted. This would not have
been the case had the soil been of a porous nature: it arose from
the fact that the water could not percolate through the clay-bed
to the required depth. I found numerous other deep drains quite
unobstructed, yet the land about them so wet that we did not.
knovv it had been drained; for instance, at TluuMihill, near South-
ampton. And 1 remember Lord Portman telling me of a similar
instance on an estate of his near BlaniU'ord.

I wish to point to cases of tlie failure of deep drains, under
those circumstances in which I have expressed myself opposed to
their use, in many parts of England, and on various geological
formations; and 1 may as well, therefore, arrange them in some-
thing of geographical order. From Hampshire, tlien, we will
turn eastward and pass into Kent. We have heard much on the
deep-draining on the weald-day; — like most other clays it varies
greatly in its nature; in some places it is of a very tenacious
character on the surface, but as you dig into it. instead of becom-
ing stronger it becomes milder. In this case ymir drain may have
a freer fiow of water at 4 feet than at 2 or 3 ; because the water
having, by however slow a process, percolated through the super-
incumbent mass, does not meet with a more retentive bed of clay
at 2 or 3 feet, as on other soils; but in other parts of the weald
tjie arrangement will be found which is common with the days of
tlie Londcni Basin — the oolite and lias. The section of the ground
will then present soils in tlie following order: —

Surface.

Tlie ploughed soil.

A soil pai'iakiiit; of tlie cliaiactcr of the superincumbent cultivated
earth and of the strong clay benealh, and which will admit of percolation.

A bed of leiiac-ioiis clay, not full of wiitcr, but almost iiiipen iiiiis, being
llie cause of the wetness of ihe land, rain-water not j;oing into it.

In this case the water will be found just above the tenacious
clay, and it is a great error in draining to go deeper into this
than to bury your tile or pijie with safety, unless this mass of
retentive clay is within a foot or two of the surface; then place
your drain 31) inches or 3 feet, filling that portion in the retentive
clay with some porous material, such as a grass sod or soil, for
the purpose of at any future time deepening your soil by subsoil
jdoughing, trenching, &c. In proof tiiat deep draining will not
in all cases answer upon the weald clay, I quote the following
letter: —

Slaj/lehurs/, January 30, 1847.

Df.ar Sir,— In reply to your favour of the arjih iini., I lit-y to say that
the laud iu my occuiiation is fur the most part very slilf, wet, and llal,

consequently subjected frequently to serious injury from wet seasons, lo
obviate which 1 have been draining ahout 200 acres on Ihe farm upon
which I reside, besides small quantities of otiier farms, perhaps altiigether
rather more than 300 acres, nearly the whole of which has been dune oa
the clay soils of Ihe Weald of Kent. I commenced by going 2\ feet deep,
and found it answer my expectations fully. Subsequent to this an opinion
began lo be enlerlained that deeper drains would be much more bene-
ficial for our clays; many advocated it and adopted it, some of whicii is
said lo have been successful, although I must confess I have never mjself
been an eye-witness to a single case in which dpep draining has been suc-
cessful upon wet stiff clays. Although my employnient as a land agent
and vainer gives me tlic greates tpossible opportunity ftir observation, Ihe
geneial prevalence of the opinion induced me to go a litlle deeper than
before, and in one field of between 0 and 7 acres, at Ihe earnest request
of my deep. draining friends, I put in the drains near 4 feet deep and
33 feet apart four years ago (this was in 1843): in consequence of Ihe
stiffness of the soil, being nearly all strong clay, it proved an entire failure;
and I have Ihis winter drained it a^'.ain about 30 inches deep, and am fully
persuaded that depth in land like mine is much the best, being wet from
the rain that falls upon it, and not subject lo springs. 1 have no doubt
the water would after a lime pass down lo the deeper drain ; but it would
do great injury before doing so. I should recommend deep drains upon
porous soils and land subject to springs, but on those soils on which there
are no springs, whicli are W'et from rain that falls on Ihem only, and are
not porous, it is next lo madness, in my opinion, to drain them deep — say

4 or 5 feel, as some contend for. Yours, &c., William Bahnes.
W. B. Webster, Esq , 6cc., &c.

Turning northward, we will pause at Norfolk to record the
o]iinion, upon the subject of draining deep upon strong clay, of
one of the best farmers in that county. C^harles Etheredge, Esq.,
of Sturston, Harleston. He writes thus: —

You know all round my heavy land here 1 have ditches from 3J lo

5 feet deep, and sudi dilclies are general throughout Ihe same laiiu iu
Norfolk and Suffolk, on farms well cultivated, and Ihey are generally kept
clean with a free access for the water. Still we find it necessary \a h- n
our drains are parallel lo these diiches, to make them not exceeeiling
22^ feet apart from them. I do not mean to say that if drains 3J to 4 feet
deep were put 40 feel apart on these soils, ihe centre between Ihe Uvo
would not be improved by Ihem. I think it would, but certainly in a
Uiuch less degree than if they were 22 feet apart and 30 inches deep; and
there would be another great objection on clay interspersed with flint and
chalk boulders iu the digging. 1 find Ibal after 2J feet of soil has been
removed, the next 14 to 10 inches have cost Orf. lo 8d. per rod of ,5j yards.
It is not at all nncommon to see a clay-pit stand with water, within 2 feet
of the surface, within from 3 to G yards of a 4 feet ditcli : where 1 have
been draining 4 feet deep, the subsoil is interspersed with sand pockets,
and a much greater width between the drains may be allowed ; bul iheie
can be no rule. Finally, my great object iu draining is not only lo do
it effectually, but rapidly. You must in no instance be sati?fied lo have
your soil saturaled with water till your sluggish drains draw il off; it
must go off as quickly as it (alls, or your drainage will be neither effec-
tual nor permanent. Yours, &c., C. Etheredge.

W. B. Webster, Esq., &c., &c.

Mr. Nesbitt (the well-known agricultural chemist), in the dis-
cussion which took place at the London Farmer Club on the
9th of March, in tlie present year, in stating his opinion that u]ion
some soils deep-drainage was most effective, whilst upon others a
shallower drainage ought to be adopted, referred to Mr. Thomp-
son in this county (I think he said), as having tried deep draining
on his farm, and having been compelled, after a fair trial, to
abandon it, not finding it successful on that soil. To quote in-
stances of the success of an opposite system is no proof that deep
draining migiit not likewise produce advantages; yet where ex-
perience has proved the value of the one, it is hardly wise to
engage in large operations on an experimental plan that can
hardly produce fairer results, and may lie attended witli disap-
pointment and waste of expenditure. It has been by draining
at depths of 30 and 3() inches, and at distances of 18 to 24 feet,
that the farms of Mr. Harvey, Mr. (iidiioy, and many others on
the clay lands round Harleston, in the south-eastern part of this
county, ha\ e heen brought into their present admirable condition.
In Lincolnshire I have gone over thousands of acres of the fens;
and I found the fact testified to by most of the best farmers, that
if the water in the ditches or dikes is taken off to a level below
3 feet, the grass-land in dry summers is decidedly injured. The
f<illo\ving letter from a farmer of this county will show that deep
draining is not so novel a practice as some of its modern advocates
assert: —

Sifanton^ near Folkingham, February 17, 1847.

Sir — I will answer yuur postscript first. 3My opinion is deciiledly
agaiiisi deep draining on strong clay land. The parish where I reside is
composed of |iart field and part fen ; a great portion of ihe field land is
slroiig clay. Several years ago when we first conimeuted draining wiih
lilcs, Ihey were put in deep, 3 feet C inches, aud the lauds being wide

1849.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITKCT'S JOURN VL.

125

■with high ridges were thrown down so as to make the surface level ; after
a short time the land became so solid, that surface water could not get
down to the drains, and it remained on the laud in a stagnant state, to tlie
manifest injury of the growing crop, and the land had to be lop-gripped
in the same manner as it it had not been underdrained, or nearly so. We
have now altered our plan, and now rarely driiin deeper tlian 18 to
24 inches ; the tihs we invariably cover with a small portion of stubble,
and then with the soil dug out, but never ram the earth on the drains.
Thi're is an inclination to drain deep in porous soils, where the fall will
allow it. Yours, &c., W. Moore.

W. B. Webster, Ksq., &c., &c.

In Yorkshire the greater portion of the soil being the new red
sandstone is naturally rather porous, and of a character fitted for
deep drainage; and on the coal measures near Rotherham there
is in places found much underwater, which, as it generally comes
from a higlier level, and constantly forcing its way to the surface,
re(|uires to be removed, or seriously damages the crops. Very
different, howe^•er, are the coal formations of Durham and North-
umberland. I remember going for eight miles underground (in a
coal-pit), in the neighbourhood of Nevvcastle-on-Tyne, where the
soil above was of a strong nature, such as to require draining
at about 30 inches deep, yet where hut little of the surface water
percolated to the mine; yet the percolation of v\ater is often a
source of the greatest annoyance in mines of great depth, where
the superposed strata consist of mild clays and porous rocks.
The following is a letter of the well-known Mr. Stephenson, of
Throckley, near Newcastle-on-7'yne: —

Throckhy House, March I, 1847.

Dear Sir — I received your letter. Not having sufficient experience, I
cannot answer it respeciing 40 feet apart. I should doubt the result being
satisfactory. In 1845, I drained a field of 30 acres, 10 yards apart and
3 feet deep, strong clay, which has given me every satisfaction. I had a
splendid crop of wheat upon it last jear, and the whole field appears per-
fectly dry and fit for every purpose.

I have drained 60 acres since October, 20 feet apart, 30 inches deep,
and am perfectly satisfied it is the best distance aud also dt pth for siroog
clays. The effects are astonishing. Yours, &c , M'. Stephenson.

W. B. Webster, Esq., &c., &c.

From such opportunities as 1 have bad of examining the soils
of Scotland, I have found reason to believe in that part of the
island the clays are generally of a less retentive nature than what
are common in the south; and evidence of this is seen in the fact
that the tread of the horses in |iloughing double is not, as on
many of our English clays, injurious to the land. This milder
prevailing character of the aluminous soils of North Britain may
result from so large a portion of the land lying upon the primitive
rocks, the materials supplied from the disintegration of which are
not of a very cohesive kind, in comparison to some others. It is
stated, nevertheless, in the Encyclopedia of Agriculture, "that"
(in Scotland) "it was formerly the j)ractice to go 4 feet deep, but
that it is now found that a shallower depth and closer drains do
much more good.

AV^hat said the late S. D. Sterling, of Glenbervie, near Falkirk?
who, after trying all kinds of draining for years most extensively,
writes to ine in 1846, and says — "I do not believe on such land"
(the strong clays) "that any increased depth will compensate for
a greater distance between the drains."

Extracts from a Meeting of the Highland Society.

Mr. Dixon, of Saughton Mains, at a discussion held at the Museum of
the Highland Agricultural Society, Edinburgh, on Wednesday the 15th of
March, 1848, qnile agrees with me on the impossibility of fixing on any
depth or distance for drains, and although he knew the importance of deep
draining on some soils, yet he mentions its failure on others, and says —
•* After going 3 feet the soil changed to gravel and sand, much water was
found, and deep draining answered perfectly at wide intervals; yet in the
same county an experiment of the same kind was tried with the opposite
result, the subsoil being a very retentive clay; here one-half afield was
drained at the depth of 4 feet, and 30 feet apart, and the other half at the
depth of 2-2- feet, and 18 feet apart, aud the result was most decidedly in
favour of t!ie shallow drains, with an interval of 18 feet between them;
the other portion of the field appears only to be half draiued." Where in-
stances are quoted of deep drains in clay at wide intervals being successful,
wc must remember they are only of recent dale. I have never been able to
find a single instance of a field drained 4 feet deep and 40 feet apart, thai
had been done for ten years, successful on the strong clay subsoils.

M'hat says Mr. Scott, of Craiglock ? — " We are told that on all soils,
whether muirland, till, stiff clay or dry clay, sand, gravel, or moss, a
minimum depth of 4 feet is stipulated for, aud a minimum distance of
36 feet apart." Upon hard impervious clays I have not been able to
thoroughly dry the land with drains at 30 or even 30 feet apart. I have
seen the attempt made with drains 4 feet deep, 30, 32, and 30 feet apart;
but in all these cases the result was unsatisfactory, lu all these instances

a great quantity of water was carried off by the drains, and the land was
much benefitted ; but still the soil was not brought into that stale in which
the greatest fertility could be called into operation.

What says Mr. Tiunie, of Swanston ? — " Where the subsoil is uniformly
retentive I make my drains 18 feet apart and 3 feel deep, aud were 1 to
drain the same ground over again I should follow the same course."

Smith of Deanston also instances two failures, one on the property of
Sir Kalph Anstruther in Fifesliire, and another on an estate at Coltness,
made three years ago, in Lanarkshire : and also sajs — " I have never seen
an instance of thorough draining by deep aud distant drains, whilst all
over the country you may see land perfectly ilried with drains 30 iuches
deep aud 18 to 20 feet apart." Also an experiment had been made by
Mr. Hope, of Teuliu Barnes, in East Lothian, which went to show that
betler crops had been raised over the shallower ihan deep drains. At the
same time Lord William Douglas slated that the turnips on the shallow
drained land at Baicaskie neighed about uue-third heavier than on the
other.

I am quite aware that at this meeting instances were brought
forward of deep drains being successful, but 1 am now showing
the failure of such drains on retentive clay-subsoils, and not going
into the question why they have succeeded on certain spots. Tliis
1 shall be happy to do at some future time.

Returning southward by a western route we will let the moss
lands of Lancashire detain us for awhile. A\'hat I stated as the
opinion drawn from observation among the best farmers of tlie
Lincolnshire fens, is as true of those who cultivate the peaty soils
of this county. Thus respecting Raweliff, the property of Mr.
Wilson Ffrance, near Garstang, where upon 1,000 acres of what
a few years ago was a bog is now a most thriving tenantry, Mr.
Ffrance told me as one of the most familiarly known facts, that
deep draining upon that soil is extremely injurious — the land, as
moss land, is actually ruined by it. If the soil, indeed, be altered
in its texture by the application of clay or marl, it will then bear
deeper drainage; but even in that case drains beyond 3 feet are
not found advantageous. Testimony to this effect is borne by
William Alton in his valuable treatise on the Cultivation of Moss.
"Whenever a moss," he says, "is either by nature or art rendered
drier than such furrows or shallow drains would make it, instead
of being benefitted, it is thereby greatly injured. Proof of this
may be seen at every plough moss." And again, "At Paisley,
where a number of deej) furrows had been cut, they were found to
be hurtful — they were filled up." And in another place : "All the
moss improvers 1 have met with have owned to me that they had
injured their mosses by making them too dry ; but none ever could
say to me that they found any want of drains v\here no water
stood or stagnated on the surface."

The late William Roscoe, of Liverpool, stated in a letter
written to Mr. Alton, in 1807, that, having undertaken the im-
provement of a large portion of that moss, he began by cutting
drains 5 feet deep, but iifterwards changed his plan to drains
about 1 foot only, which he said answered as effectually as the
larger drains. His letter concluded thus: "My workmen even
insist upon it that the shallow drains carry oft more water; but
this may appear so from the water being confined. In sudden
rains they carry off a great quantity, so that the moss is sooner
freed from surplus water than any other land, and is now passable
in any direction, althougli it was lately not only difficult, but dan-
gerous to go ujiou it." Mr. Alton, as the result of liis extensive
experience, finislies his remarks by saying, "All future draining
(on moss land) beyond a moderate depth ought to be guarded
against as the sin of witchcraft." Rut to leave the moss land and
return to the strong clays, a proof of the obstinacy with which
they will retain wet near the surface, without such condition at a
greater depth in the earth as to prevent the escape of the water,
could it percolate through the clay, may be seen on the estate of
Sir O. Mordaunt, near Warwick. There draining is required,
although the subsoil, at a depth of little more than 4 feet, is a dry
sandstone.

Soil, 1.5 Indies.

Clay, 3 leel.

Diy sandstone.

This is also the case in many other parts of England — the clay
resting on dry chalk, sand, and stone. Now if water will freely
percolate through 4 feet of stiff' clay to reach a line of pipes
30 and 40 feet apart, how is it that it will not reach an absorbent
material tliat sjireads eager for more, like a thirsty sponge, be-
neath the whole of its lower surface.'' Simply because the clay is
not overcharged with water, and does not transmit it.

In Worcestershire deep draining has been tried upon the strong

12G

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

[APRII,,

rl.iys of the blue Hm* witli ill suceess many years ago, as Mr.
liayles, of Prospect House, near Evesham, in that county, has hail
to re-drain land on account of the inefficiency of deep drains.
The following is his leter: —

Prospecl House, near Eresham, Worcestershire, January 13, 1847.

Dear Sik — I have drained one field over a^ain, owint; to its beinj; loo
deep. Tlie draius are fniin 3 to 4 feet ; the land being strong stilf clay
iiiidered them useless for surface water; tlie new drains 1 have put in
ahout 2 feel, and filled them with broken stones or burnt clay. As to my
ijcindy or p<ir-ous soil, I prefer draining deep. Yours, &c.,

\V. B. Webster, Esq., &c., &c. G. Bayles.

I have seen similar instances of failure in other estates in the
same county, in the vale of Evesham.

T shall add a letter from Mr. Randall, likewise of that neigh-
liourhooJ (although it refers to no case of the failui'e of deep
drains), as it is founded upon experience.

Chadbury, near Evesham, February 16, 1847.

Df.hr Sir — I can give you my opinion of draining clays for surface
water in a very f»-w v\or'rls; it is that I would not put in pipes ai a
preater depth than 3 feet, nor less than 25 feet. This is lire result of some
experience. I fully consider 2j feet sulKcient, Yours, &c.

W . B. Webster, Esq., &c., &c. C Randall.

Now if the advantage of deep over shallow draining is so de-
cided in uU cases, how is it that those who have tried 3 feet do not
altogether abandon 2i and 30 inch drains.'' The advocates for
deep draining upon those strong clays upon which such a system
has not been in use, say that it only requires that we should try
the experiment in order to be convinced of its superiority: where
does the proof of superiority commence? If 4. feet is obviously
superior to 3 feet, might we not expect that 3 feet would be in an
increasing ratio superior to 2 feet.'' We find experienced drainers
continuing upon strong clays to vary their depth, being guided
therein by other local considerations; but if 5 feet draining is to
explode 3 feet draining, the latter ought, long ere this, to have
put an end to draining at still less depths.

I am able to quote a statement from a gentleman in the neigh-
bouring county of Herefordshire, whose experience has led him to
abandon the practice of laying deep drains in stif}' clays in favour
of those of more moderate depth. The practical basis on which
his opinion is founded gives it importance.

Tarington, near Ledbury, Herefordshire, January 28, 1817.

With reference to your request a^ to my opinion trf the deep drainrng on
our s/iff soils, I beg to say, that 1 have had much pi'actical experierrce in
drairiHtg such lands, Jormerly at 5 feet deep, very rarely less than 4 ;
but Ititteily 2^ and 3 feet. I am fully convinced VWe^i in dense clay lanris
30 lo 36 inches is fully as deep as it is pr'ofitable to dram, and that a
drain at a greater depth will nut answer the purpose iuteiidid. \\ here
Bprin^^s exist the case is of course dtllerent. 1 have drained with the best
p|>^siiJle elfect land at 30 inches deep, wher'e I had previously drained at
5 feet with only a partial ellect. Y'ouis, &c , C. A. Mason.

\l . H. Webster, Esq., &;c., &c.

I think tlie facts I have brought forward are sufficient to sliovv
that deep draining w ill not prove successful alike upon all soils
and under all conditions. Arguments and opinions unsui)ported
by specilic facts are of little comjiarative value; yet when it is
shown that what is called the new system of drainage is not new,
hut has been tried long ago, great importance must be allowed to
attach to its abandonment as evidence of its incfficacy. Elking-
ton testifies to the fact of deep drains having been tried as a
aieans of removing surface-water from strong clay soils in or
before his time. No one could be more an ad\dcate for going
deep for springs; but, with reference to trying the same plan for
draining clay, he says (see his work, by Johnson, p. 137), " In
soils that are so tenacious as to retain water on the surface, this
method of draining (deep) has been tried, and found entirely to
fail." Indeed, throughout, this work, and all others published up
to 1843, condemn going deep in strong clay-subsoils.

I have myself inspected many of the works executed by Elking-
ton, and taken up drains put in by him eighty years ago (he began
in net); and my observations, whether upon the state of the
lands drained by him where no subsequent system had been tried,
or on the condition of tlie drains, went quite to confirm his view.

I will only further cpiote from old Mr. Tebbet, who made the
Duke of Portland's water-meadows (no one will question his sa-
gacity and experience); and is the result of his experience to
show that the deeper tlie drains the more efficient their action.''
—No!

Mansfield, Nottingham, January 28, 1847.

Dkar .Sir — The underdraining 1 have directed upon strong i lay larnl I
have uuiie Id variuus vvajs; but ibe l/est way I have uilopicd la to put

the drains 14 feet apart anrl 2 feet deep. Some clays will draw 18 lo
24 feet apart, and 2 to 3 feet deep ; I have seeu a great deal of good dune
by critling deep drains for springs 8 and 10 feet deep, and there is much
laud lieic that cauuot be made dry unless the springs are removed.

Yours, &c. T. Tebbet.

I will not ocupy more space in quoting the opinions of persons
who, having had sufficient opportunities of witnessing the effects
of various tiepths of drainage, have formed unfavourable conclusions
respecting the use of deep drains on strong clay land at wide
intervals; though those of old Pearson, the spring -drainer in
Essex (see his evidence before the House of Lords); of Smith of
Deanston, who first forced upon the public the importance of
thorough draining, and did show what could be done in strong
land at moderate depths and distances; and of others are before
me — these are accessible to the public in other forms. What I
have said may, perhaps, be sufficient to excite attention, and set
people on their guard against plunging into the expense of a
system of drainage which has failed in many instances, and might
therefore cause disappointment in many more.

William Bullock Webster.
Hounsdnwn, near Southampton, April 29, 1848.
and 48, Charing Cross, London.

VOLTAIC IGNITION.

At the Royal Institution, Feb. 16, Mr. Grove delivered a lecture " On
Voltaic Ignition." — -Mr. Grove introduced his subject by asserting that the
only philosophical idea of heat was that which regards it as a repulsive
power — that, with the single exceplion of water and other bodies which as-
sumed a crystalline form when about to freeze (a condition which Mr. Grove
ascribed to a polar state which these substances then took), all matter ex-
panded by heat. Mr. Grove here referred to the experiments of Fresnel and
Saigy on discs in vacuo, and the still more recent researches of Prof. Baden
Powell on Newton's rings, as showing the repulsive effect of heat, measured
by tints of light. This expansion of matter, so caused, can be communi-
cated to neighbouring bodies. In the case of heat produced by intense
chemical action, the ellect was ascribed to the physical force of a species of
molecular friction on the particles acted on. This chemical force is capable
of transfer by the voltaic battery, and the calorific force moves with it. Jt
was proved by an experiment on a compound wire of silver and platinum,
that in proportion to the increase of conducting power, ignition was dimi-
nished. Mr. Grove here referred to recent researches of his own to prove
that this calorific action was affected by external causes. The same current
was sent through two coils of fine platinum wire, one of which was sur-
rounded by an atmosphere of air, the other by an atmosphere of hydrogen,
when it was found that the wire in air became white-hot, while that in hy-
drogen was not heated. This phenomenon Mr. Grove ascribed either to the
mobility of the particles of the hydrogen, or to the vibrations moving away
from the vibrating surface, or to the state of the surface itself, hydrogen
being, as to radiating power, to air what the colour black is to white. That
this cooling etfecl does not depend on rarefaction, is proved by the irrteuse
beat and light produced by the current in vacuo. Mr. Grove then proceeded
to show how the chemical force in the battery acted on masses of matter
interposed in the circuit. He exhibited, first, the attraction of gold-leaf
terminals, and then explained how liquid masses similarly attracted each
other, and noticed a remarkable experiment lately performed by him with
M. Gassiot's large battery of 500 cells (Glove's battery): of the two plati-
num pules, the positive was placed under water, the negative held over it,
when a cone of flame issued from the surface of the water towards the nega-
tive pole, on the extremity of which a small globule was formed, which fell
ofl' as soon as the current was suspendeil. These facts may serve to explain
mure clearly the phenonrena of the voltaic arc. Mr. Grove then exhibited
paper on which the strong disruptive etfect of the electric battery had dis-
persed metallic wires, and he showed that these explosions had always oc-
curred in a line transverse to that of the current, lie inferred that when
ignition commenced in the wire its molecules assumed a transverse polar
direction. He stated that when platinum is ignited by the current under
circumstances which admit of the effects being accurately noticed, it con-
tracts, swells, and breaks, and that a leail wire, similarly acted on, becomes
divided by a series of transverse facets. In conclusion, Mr. Grove adverted
to recent endeavours to obtain voltaic light for practical purposes. After
noticing tliat no greater power of proilucirrg light had been olitained since
the inveiilion of bis nilnc acid battery, nine years ago, Mr. Grove stated that
recent calculations led hirri to believe that for some purposes, such as the
illumination of lighthouses, especially where an intermittent light was
wanted, and of the inteiior of large buildings, it might possibly be adopted
at no very remote period. He mentioned that the light of 1,440 candles
might he oht.iined at about 4»'. per hour ; but this concentrated light was nut
applicable tor sreets. The whole subject, however, was beset by many me-
chanical difficulties.

1849.'|

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

127

FIRE ANNIHILATOR.

At the Royal Institution, Feb. 23, the Rev. J. Barlow delivered a lecture
" On Mr. Phillips's Fire Annihilator." The annual destruction of property
to the amount of more than two millions sterling, and the fearful loss of
human life, necessitate additional resources against fire. The destructive
agent of conflagration is flame. It is flame which occasions violent draught,
produces the most intense heat, and most rapidly generates those suffocating
vapours which render the burning apartment inaccessible. Mr. Barlow re-
marked that the origin and continuance of flame depended on two condi-
tions— firstly, that the combustible material should be raised to, and kept at,
a temperature high enough to afford a constant supply of inflammable gas ;
and, secondly, that it should be constantly fed with pure air. The usual
remedy against fire is water. But water is able to interfere with the first of
these conditions only. Unless the burning substance be so saturated with
water that it cannot give out combustible gas, within a very few minutes
after it has been set on fire, the heat of the flame first extends, and then
ignites other inflammable gases and vapours from various parts of the room;
the flames are thus dispersed about the apartments ; and by the time that
the engine arrives, the contents of the house are frequently consumed. Mr.
Phillips proposes to subdue flame by effectually disturbing the second condi-
tion of its continuance — access of pure air. The object of the Fire Annihi-
lator is to diffuse through the atmosphere (already vitiated by the combus-
tion) of an apartment on fire, a quantity of carbonic gas and steam, and thus
render the continuance of flame impossible. These gases and vapours are
generated in a portable apparatus, which, when intended for the protection
of private dwellings, weighs from twenty to thirty pounds; and the con-
struction is such that the aeriform fluids can be evolved in less than three
seconds on touching a spring. When saw-mills or docks and large maga-
zines are to be protected, Mr. Phillips recommends that larger machines
should be stationed at convenient situations. The effects of Mr. Phillips's
apparatus were exhibited in the lecture-room. A large volume of flame was
made to issue from models of a house, a room, and a ship and these flames
were extinguished as soon as the Fire Annihilator was brought to bear upon
thtm. Mr. Barlow remarked in conclusion that while the common fire-
engine was neceisarily tardy, required great power to work it, was liable to
be rendered ineffectual by accidental circumstances, and occasioned inevit-
able damage to furniture, &c., the fire annihilator was always at hand, always
ready for use, easily set in action, and that its coming into action when
required might be as surely relied on as the discharge of a percussion gun
when the trigger was pulled; that it occasioned no injury to turniture, and,
above all, that though it acted by producing fierce combustion, those who
used it need apprehend no injury from it.

NOTES OF THE SIONTH.

Sale of Ihe ' Great Britain' Steamer. — This ill-fated steamer has within
the last few days changed owners. It is rumoured that she has been pur-
chased by a company who intend to carry passengers between some point on
the western side of South America and San Francisco. The sum she realised
is said to be 25,000/. — What a sacrifice 1

Paris. — For many years a survey of the underground works of Paris has
been in progress, and which is now nearly completed. It is to form an
atlas of five sheets — corresponding to a superficies of 500 by 300 metres,
and will exhibit quarter by quarter all the labyrinthine sinuosities of the
ancient quarries and catacombs under the city of Paris, with the correspond-
ing edifices, squares, and streets above ground. The labours of the en-
gineers in the execution of this work, have been, says the Journal ties
Deltats, of the most tedious and delicate nature. This may be imagined
when it is understood that every subterranean point has its corresponding
exterior point, — and that a double calculation is necessary for the precise
marshalling of objects without, over the tortuous lines (empty or encum-
bered) within. The map has been co-ordinated on the supposition of two
axes ; one figuring a medirian passing by the Well of the Observatory — the
other a line perpendicular to the first.

Water Test. — If there be any organic matter in water, it may be easily
detected by a drop of the solution of nitrate of silver, which will cause a
precipitate of a brown colour.

New Saw-Filing and Setting Machine. — Messrs. Norton and Cottle, of
Holme's Hole, America, have recently patented in the United Stales a
machine for filing and setting saws, enabling the operator to whet and set
the teelhof saws in such a manner, that every trjotb will be equal in size
and length, the proportion being graduated by an index, and so adjusted as
to suit the teeth of saws of every description. Saws that have been used
and become useless in consequence of bad filing, con be re-cut, and made as
valuable as new. The set is attached to the machine in such a manner, that
when the filing is completed no alteration is required in the adjustment of
the saw to complete the setting. The inventors have found by experience
that the hardest saws can he set without breaking or injuring the teelh.
Saws considered in a measure useless having passed through this machine,
are said to work perfectly easy, and perform much faster than those filed in
the usual manner; and the teelh being all of an equal length, will not re-
quire filing so frequently.

South Devon Railway. — The permanent way from the Laira station to
Plymouth has been completed, and arranged to open for public tratlic on
the 2nd of April.

Ventilation of Coal Mines. — Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney's plan of ventilating
mines by a jet of high-pressure steam, as proposed by him as far back as
1825, has now been put into practice by Mr. Forstcr, in one of the collieries
at Newcastle, and it is stated with great success.

The Zinc Deposit of Galvanic Batteries. — It is suggested that the sulphate
of zinc might be turned to a valuable account by the following process : —
To a solution of sulphate of zinc add an equivalent of muriate of soda, also
in solution ; an exchange will take place, the muriatic acid combining with
the zinc, and the sulphuric with the soda. By evaporation, tl.e sulphate
of soda may be crystallised, the muriate of zinc remaining in solution. From
this solution the zinc may be precipitated in the form of oxide, by adding
an equivalent of lime, in the state of cream. The soda, if not saleable as a
julpbate, might be converted, by the usual process, into carbonate, and the
oxide of zinc might be reduced into a metal almost chemically pure.

The Electric Light. — Mr. Henry M. Payne, of Worcester, Massachusetts,
informs the Scientific American that he has discovered a means of generat-
ing light, by mechanical action, from water and lime. Mr. Payne says — " I
have continued the experiment at intervals, and 1 am now enabled to an-
nounce a successful result. I have produced a light equal in intensity to
that of 4,000 gas-burners of the largest bat's-wing pattern, with an apparatus
occupying 4 square feet of room, at a cost of 1 mill, per hour, the current
of electricity being evolved by the action of the machinery wound up with
a common lock key, and the only materials consumed are water and lime.
1 am now engaged in making an apparatus for public exhibition, which will
be completed this winter, and all its parts submitted to public inspection,
except the interior of the generator. This apparatus I will exhibit one
year, at the end of which I will make public the mechanism of the gene-
rator."

Artificial Light. — At the last meeting of the Ashmolean Society, Dr.
Daubeny exhibited an apparatus to show an easy method of producing a
light, capable of superseding oil, or even gas, simply by passing a stream
of atmospheric air through ioflarnmahle liquids of a volatile nature, such
as ether, or ihe liquor condensed in the preparation of oil gas.

Iron Ladders. — A correspondent in the Mining Journal suggests that all
ladders used in mines, and also for military scaling, should be made of
wrought-iron in the following manner ; — The rounds or steps to be formeil
of J inch rod-iron, the width between the two sides 9 inches, their distance
apart 6 inches, and the extreme length 10 feet. The sides to be made of
flat bar-iron, 2J inches wide, and \ an inch thick. Ihe rounds fastened in
with nuts and screws, so that the ladder can be taken to pieces easily, for
conveyance of transport, and also for repairs. If a round be daruaged, or-
worn out, it can soon be removed and a new one substituted. The method
of fixing the rounds in is as follows: — Square holes are to he punched in
the two flat sides, G inches apart; the holes in one side corresponding with
those in the other. Then a rod of | inch iron is to be cut up into 11-inch
lengths, and each end of these short rods forged into proper shape, which is
this : — that J inch from the extremity the rod is made square to fit the
square hole in the side-bar ; this square part is i inch deep, the thickness of
the side-bar, and the rod to be made round, J inch from the ends, and
screwed to take a nut ^ inch thick. If the rods were not thus squared,
they would soon wear loose and turn round when fixed in. A shoulder is
thus formed on either end of the stepping-rods, which enables the side-bars
to be screwed up tight against the steps, and so makes the ladder firm and
strong. Iron ladders may be constructed of various lengths and strengths,
to suit circumstances. Short lengths may easily be bolted together ; and in
this way a continuous ladder for the deepest mines can be made; or short
ladders can be placed one after the other on landings or stages, as usual.
The wrought-iron will, of course, rust; but will not wear out for a very
long time.

Improvements irx Condensers. — Mr. Siemens, C.E., of Birmingham, lins
invented a surface condenser for steam-engines, to supersede the injection
condenser. It is constructed on Ihe principle, that if two vessels of a gooil
conducting metal be made of similar shape, but of different thicknesses of
metal, one being — say Jjj of an iuch, and the other 1 inch^ — water will
boil with equal rapidity in each, proving that the transmission of heat
through them is more rapid than the absorption by the viater; aud in Us
construction about 20 square feet of cooling surface is provided per horse
power. It consists of a cast-iron bux of sufficitnt dimensions, an air-
pump, a hot well, a cold water chamber beneath, aud a cistern above, tlip
box. Within this box are placed a siifticient number of copper plates, i of
an inch thick, and long enough to fill the entire depth, and so arrauged
as to leave a space alternately between one end of each plate and the sides
of the box, thus forming a zigzag channel for a current of cold water.
Between each of the plates two pieces of flattened copper wire are plar-eU
to keep them sufficiently apart, aud the whole is couijiiessed by set screw s
on the outside, until the wires are indented iuto the plates, making the
channel vvaier-tight. The waste steam of the engine enters the box, and
is condensed by the projecting edges of the copper plates ; Ihe heal is ab-
sorbed by the cold water ; the condensed water collects at the bottom of
the box, and is continually discharged by the pump into the hoi well, and
is then I'eturned. fllr. Siemeus 1 as not patented his invention, but liberally
publishes a description for the use of the public.

128

THE CIVIL ENOIXEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

LA PR I L,

liZST OF NEMT PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM FrURUARV 22. TO MaRCH 20, 1849,

SiJT Months allcwed/or Enrolment^ unless otherwise expressed.

Clemence Augustus Kurtz, of Wandsu-nrth, Surrey, gentleman, for certain improve-
ments in luonia tor weaving.— Sealed Feb, 2.S.

Obed Hliil<e, of tlie Thames Plnte Glass Company, Ulackwnll, Middlesex, manager, for
(ertiiiii improvements In tlie process or processes of uiaiiufacturitig and liiiisliiiig plutes,
sl.tets, or panes of glass. — Feb. 'JH.

Joseph IJarker, of Eslier-street, Kennington, artist, for an impioved method of con-
structing umbrellas and jiarasols.— Feb. 2H.

John Hick, of BoUon-le moors, Lancaster, engineer, and William Hodgson Gratrix, of
Sdlfiird, Lancaster, engineer, for certain impruvenienta In steam-engines, which im-
piovementa are more particularly applicable to niuiine eiigiiies, and also improvements in
machinery or apparatus for propelling vessels.— Feb. '2H.

Benjamin Biram, of Wentworth, York, gentleman, for improvements in miners' lamps.
-Feb. 2ti.

Robert Pollard, of Topsham, Devon, rope-maker, for an improvement iu rope-making
nai-hinery.— Feb. '2ti.

Henry C'Tossley, of the firm of Henry Crossley, Son, and Galsworthy, of Emerson-
street, Surrey, engineers and coppersmiths, for certain improved modes or methods of,
and apparatu-i for, henling and liyhiing. for drying substiiiices, and for employing air in a
warm and cold state for manufactuiing purposes. — Feb. 2S.

Perceval Moses Parsons, of Lewlsham, Kent, civil engineer, for certain improvements
in railways, railway engines, and carriages, and certain of their appurtenances.—

New MusJcet BaU.— lVooUvich, March 19. and 22.— Some experiments

were made at the butt in the Koypl Arsenal, to test* he merits ot a musket ball submitted
to the select committee by Mr. Miuesinger, an American by birth, but of Dutdl origin.
*l'Iie ball is cast with a four-grooved tail attached to it, in lengili about three-fourths the
diameter of the spherical portion, the tail resembling the hrst screw-propellers intro-
duced with four leaves, but with a slight obliquity instead of the archimedian-screw
f'lni. Wr. Minesinger fired his balls, 'I'-A to the pound weight, from a long-barrelled gun,
the length being ."Jft. 7 in., and Colonel Pumlas, C.B., from u common musket, the
b-rrel of which was 'A ft. 3 In. long— both guns having percussion lock**. The liring com-
menced at ItH) yards, but after a few rounds by each the distance was extenderl to 2('0
yards, when wxcellent practice was mnde, the target being struck every time with two or
three except ons. The appendage to the ball gives it similar advantages to the balls pro-
jected fron rifles, and considernbly increases ttie range; and should it on further trial be
approved, every common musket by it* adoption would possess ihe projective power and
excellent direction at present only obtained with any degreeof certainty by grooved rifles.
It is intended to have a number of 31?-pounder solid shot and shells cast on the same
principle for trial in the marshes. Some further experiments were made with a range
exteiuied to ami yards. Previous to concluding the firing at 2U0 yards* range, Colonel
iJundas made a number of excellent sho:s, striking the target every time, with balls of
the sugar-liiiif pattern, sidjmilted by HIr. Lancaster, jnn. These balls were fired from a
benutifnl rifle, of French pattern ; and by a very simple appliance are made to fit quite
tight in the rifle without wadding. A small groove is cut round the sugar-ioaf-sliaped
ball near the base, and two or three worsted ihryads tied round nnd raised li^yond the
diameter of the base, to the extent required. The long-barrelled gun used by Mr.
fllinesinger contains a space for a chamber at the breach end of the barrel, and he loads
his chambers before he commences firing, and fires five rounds before he again charges
tlie five chambers he carries in his pocket. The gun, consequently, requires no ram-
rod; a small piece of wood and a ston^ from the ground being sufficient for driving
home the powder and balls in the chamber— which is only three inches in length.
Kach chamber has a projecting nipjile on which the percussion nipple is placed, and is
Iield securely to the stock by a sliding hinge, and is capable of liring 20 rounds per
minute.

The Fastneti RocJc Lighthouse.— Ihe. Fa^tnett Rock lies nearly six miles I
\A' by S. of Cape Clear, which is the nearest land. It rises ;J4 feet above the level of |
liigh-water — is steep atid precipitous — bare »nd rugged — terminating in sharp points and I
ledges of the hard sandstone of which it is composed. Being situated at the poiiit
where homeward botnid vessels generally make the Irish coast, and being (as it were) its
most southern outpost, it has been recommended by Captain Wolfe, R.N,, and the
officers carrying on the Hydrographic Survey, that the light should be removed from
Cape Clear to the rock in question, and in accordance with this suggestion the erection
of the new lighthouse commenced in May last. It will be remembered that in Novem-
ber, 1H47, the New York line-of-packet-ship, Stephen Whitney, was lost, with 97 of her
passengers and crevv, within three miles of the Cape Light, and it is supposed, from her
track leading so near the Fastnctt, that the ship would have been saved had there been
n light thereon ; the Cape liglit being obscured by tlie fog on that night, from its great
elevation of 459 feet. The summit of the rock barely affords space sufficient for the ne-
cessary sheds or shelter for the workmen ; the iron tower for the light, the foundation of
which has been completed and its base filled up with solid mason-work, and secured
with all possible cure, is U) feet in circumference, and it is intended to raise it to 7^ feet
to the summit of the lantern, fourteen of which have been already completed. The
sheds were very strontrly constructed, and secured to the solid rock by massive chains,
and seventeen persons took shelter therein during most of the summer; a large steam-
vessel acted as a tender, and conveyed stores and provisions thereto, but such is the ex-
posed situation of the rock that for several days no commui icalion could be kept up but
by a leather bag hauled through the surf. Several of the workmen, from tlie dangerous
nature of the employment, gave up their situations and returned to Dublin, it being the
opinion of tlie inhabitants at the Cape and Crookhaven that nothing could remain
thereon in a heavy winter's gale. The foreman and a few others remained at their post
until the pale ot the 2tJ[h of December, when they vvere compelled to quit their sheds
and seek shelter in the iron tower, which most fortunately had been roofed over for the
winter, as a last place of refuge. The eff'ect of the sea in that gale baffles all tiescription ;
all the sheds were filled with water, and one of them has been washed doivn — derricks
and cranes, with other materials, swept off" the rock, and a large anvil of 'i cwt. and up-
wards taken from off its summit as if it were a feather; and notwithstanding alt that has
been written about the height of a wive, the men affirm that the sea ran several feet
higher than the roof of the tower before it broke, and that the waves that passed the
r-ick out of breaking distance were far more than ten feet above their level, which was
nearly 1UI> feet above high-water mark. Water casks secured in the crevices of the rock,
bolted and lashed down, were swept away, and as the sea broke it would leave the men
in total darkness for several seconds, with a difficulty of respiration — and as the spray
descended on their roof with immensa weight and crash, the light and air both came
in together. Two days after the gale they \Vere taken Irom their perilous situation at
Considerable risk by means of life-preservers, and pulled through the surf by lines from
a boat outside the breakers. The foreman, a very intelligent man, is now at Crookhaven
l>reparing the stores for the spring or fine weatlier. He has no apiireliension as to the
stability of the lower, which is of cast-iron, iu large pieces, and screwed together— beau-
tifully cast, aud of amazing strength.

Amedee Francois Remond, of Birmingham, for improvt-mentB In machinery for folding
envelopes, and in the manutactuie of envelopes. — Ktb. 2^.

William Brindley, of 'l\\ickenham, pupier-mache manufacturer, for improvements ia
the manufacture of waterproof paper. — Feb. 2H.

Charles Jacob, o.' Nine-elms, Surrey, engineer, for improvementa iu the manufacture
of earthenware tulies or pipes. — Feb. 28.

Dion de Uuucicault, of the Quadraut, Uegi-nt-streei, gentleman, for certain tmprore-
ments iu the mode or modes to be used for tr.uisinittuig and disiribuling liquids and
fluiciB for agricultuial purposes, aud for apparatus coiuircltfd therewith.- Feb. 2S.

Thomas Ilowuuidson, of Liverpool, chemi>t, lor improvements in the tremnitnt of cer-
tain mineral waters, to obtain products iherefrum, arid in obtaining cuitain nietais from
certain compounds containing those metals, and in ubtaiuiug other products, by tbe une
oJ certain compounds containing metals. — Feb. 2':*.

Charles .Andie Felix Ilochax, of New-court. St. Switbin's lime, in the city of London,
merchant, for improvements in the manufacture of oxide of zinc, and in tbe making or
paints and cements where oxide at zinc is used.— Feb. 28.

Pierre Isidor David, of Paris, in the republic of France, for improvements in bleaching
cotton. — Feb. 28.

Job Cutler, of Sparkbrook, near Birmingham, civil engineer, for certain improvements
in the manufacture of metal pipes or tubes. — Feb. 28.

George Fergusson Wilson, of Belmont, Vauxhall, gentleman, for improvements in
separating the more liquid jiarts from the more solid parts ot tatty and oily mutters, and
in separating faltv and oily mutters from foreign matlers. — Feb. 28.

Edward Westhead, of Manchester, manufacturer, tor curtain improvements iu tl.u
manufacture of waddings. — fliarch 3.

Henry Constantine Jennings, of Abbey-street, Bermondsey, practical chemist, for im-
provements in the manulacture of vehicles for mixirig pigments, and also in the nianu-
facture of white- lead. — March .3.

Nathan Defries, of Grattou-street, Fitzroy-square, civil engineer, and George Brooks
Pettit, of Brook-street, New-road, Middlesex, giis-htter, for improvements in applying
gas to heat apparatus containing fluids, and in healing ana venli.aling buildings; aiso
improvements in gas-fittings, and in apparatus for controlling the passage of gas.—
March .'».

Samuel Banks, of West Leigh, Lancaster, miiler, for certain improvements In mills for
grinding wheat and other grain.— IMarch b.

\V'illiam Henry Gieen, of Baaingball street, in the city of London, gentleman, for im-
provements in the preparation of luel. — .\iurch -'i.

James Baird, ot Gaitsherrie, Old IMonkland, Lanark, Scotland, iron-master, and Alex-
ander Whiielaw, of the same place, m^iUager, for improvements in the metliod or piocc^a
of manufacturing iron. — March 7.

Andiew Shanks, of Robert-street, Adelphi, Middlesex, engineer, for an improved mode
of giving form to certain metals when in a fluid or molten state.— iSlarrii 14.

John Smith, of Hare Craig, Dundee, laclor to Lord Douglas, of Douglas, for improve-
ments in the manufacture ot flour, applicable to the m.^kaig ot bieuU, bismna, and
pastry.- March 14.

Robert Ross Rowan Moore, of the Temple, barrister-at-law, for improvements iu the
manufacture of letters an-i figures to be applied to shop-Ironti* and other suiIulcs.—
March 14.

George Fergusson Wilson, of Belmont, Vauxhall, gentleman, for improvements io the
manufatture i.f candles and night-lights. — Marcli 14.

James Williamson Brooke, ot Camden Town, gentleman, for improvements in lamps.
— March 14.

"Ihomas Clarke, of Hackney, Middlesex, engineer, aid Thomas Morley, of Bristol,
civil engineer, for certain iniprovemeuts in obtaining and apj lying uiolive power ; also
improvements in railroads and other roads, aud in aupportiug preskUie, lesi&tu g strain,
and protecting against tire. — March 14.

Robert PJummer, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, mauufficlurer, for certain improven:cnts in
machinery, instruments, and processes emplujed in the preparation and manuIaLtuie t.f
flax and other fibrous substances. — March 14.

William Payne, of New Kond-street, Middlesex, watch and pedometer maker, for cer-
tain improvements in clocks nnd watehes. — Marth 14.

Alexander bwann, of Kircaldy, File, manufactuier, for improvements in heating ap-
paralus ami in apjilying hot wnd warm air to manuiacturing and other puiposes, wheie
the same are required. — HIaith 14.

William Gratrix, of Sallord, Lnncasler, bleacher and dyer, for certain improvements \\\
the method or process ot drying and tinisiiing woven and other fabrics, and in tbe ma-
chinery or apparatus for perJorming the same, part of which improvement is applicable
to stretching uoven fabrics. — March 14.

Ignacio de Barros, oi Lisbon, Portugal, hut now of Paris, gentleman, for improvements
in machinery lor miiking lasts lor boots and shots, butts or stocks for fiie-arms, and oil er
irregular forms. — March 14.

Allen Biagg,of Queen's- row, Pentonville, baih- keeper, for improvements in propelling
by atmospheric pressure.- Riareh 14.

Francis Hay 'ihompson, doctor of medicine, of Hope-street, Glasgow, for an improve-
ment or improvements iu smelting copper or other ores. — March 14.

Pierre Augustin Chauttorier, of Regent's quadrant, mcichaiit, for certain improve-
ments in tbe manufacture of watches. — March 14.

Pierre Arniand Lecomte de Fontainemoieau, of Scuth-street, Finsbury, London, for
certain improvements in coating or covering melaUic and non metallic bodies. (A com-
munication.)—IMarch 14.

Alfred Vincent Newton, of Chancery-lane, mechanical draughtsman, for improvements
in tbe manufiicture ot piled fabrics. (A conununication.)- Maich IU.

Joseph Berangei, of tbe tiim of Beranger aud Company, of Ljons, France, civil
eugir.ecr, tor improvements in wifighing maihines. — March lit.

Ihomas Henry Ruhsell, ot U ennesbury, patent tube manufacturer, and John Stephi n
Woulrich, of Birmingham, chemist, lor improven.enls iu coutii g iron and certain other
metals and alloys of metalfl. — March 11).

Siimuel Hall, of King's-Arms-yard, Coleman-s'.reet, city of London, civil engineer, for
certain improvements in apparatus tor efletling the couibusliou ol (ucl ;uid consuming
smoke, and for preventing explosions of sleara-boilers and other acccidcnts to which tlu-y
are liable. — Blarch 1!L

George Knox, ot Moorgate-street, city of London, secretary to the Shrewsbury and
Birmingham llailwuy Company, lor improvements in railway carriages.- March 11*.

Alexander M'Dougall, ol Lougsight, Lancaster, chemist, lor impiovements in recover-
ing useiul products Irom the water used in washing, and in treainig wood, woollen, and
cotton fabrics, and other subataiices.— Rlarch 20,

William Harrison Piikering, ot Liverpool, merchant, for improvements in evaporating
brine and certain other fluids. — March 2U,

Charles William Sien.ens, of Birmingham, enginter, for certain improvements in
engines to be worked by steam and oti-ier fluids, and in evapoiating liquids.— Maicb U*.

William Parkinson, of Cottage-hine, City-road, in the county of Middlesex, gas meter
manufacturer, suceessor to the late Samuel Ciossiey, tor iuipnivemenls in gas and water
meters, and in instruments for regulating the flow ol fluids.- March 2D.

ERRATUM.— In the article "Georee Stephenson," in our present number, p. 104, line
21, lor "the cotton whith was ot home growth," read "the cotton, which was not of
home growth,"

29

me
iial
lod

est
the
'he
me
vel
vas

e),
cop
ide
t a
to
■re.
; is
ter
her
the
insr

rers
' at
lere
pon
lich
Mr.

^est
are
;on-
idia
and
:on-

1 to
and

a of
lare
I in
d in

part
the
,t to
the
an's
iQve
•up
the
the

ock
!ks;
icks
ilar
iflu-

tion

d in
tlie

?tt's
litly

>ea-

)use
gles
trds
•am.
isrs.
iver
:hey

lUlll

DOCK ENTRANCES-*- PORT OFtONDQN

184.9 ]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

129

DOCK ENTRANCES.

CWitIi an Engraving, Plate \U.)

Remarks on the Formation of Entrances to Wet and Dn/ Dorhs,
situated upon a Tidewag; illnstrated bg the principal examples in the
Port of London. By John Baldrv Redman, JM. Inst. C.E. — (Read
at the Institution of Civil Engineers.)

The importance of this subject is so E;reat, that lengthened pre-
fatory remarks would be superfluous; the instances which may be
observed on tlie Thames, show that there lias been consideralile
variation in the opinions and practice of engineers, or that the
subject has not been considered important; though, at the same
time, some allowance must be made for the peculiar circumstances
of the Port of London, and the value of ground upon its banks:
the question therefoi-e is — What should be the projier direction and
shape of a duck entrance in reference to the run of tide?

The practice in the Port of London is to dock a sliip upon the
flood, just before high water, and to undock her at about the same
period of tide; high water is also selected, for obvious reasons, as
the time for launching new vessels from the building slips. Tlie
angle these docks and entrances make with the line, or direction
of the run of tide, is a very important element for consideration;
much greater working facilities being atforded at some tlian at
others, where, from their particular direction, expensive additional
timber outworks have been rendered necessary, to afl^ord those
facilities which the entrances, when finished, did not afford.

It is only necessary to refer to the particular position of some of
the principal entrances, to exemplify this.

Fig. 1. — The entrance at Blackwall of the East India Docks is
considered by sbipwi-ights and pilots of the port to be well situated;
it points upwards, at an acute angle with the line of flood, and is
at the same time covered, to some extent, by a projecting pier on
the lower side; the efl^ect is, that on a vessel entering, her stern
being driven upwards by the action of the tide upon her starboard
quarter, she is drawn by warps without much difficulty into the
lock; this, however, is to an extent only, as, with the wind on
shore, a vessel is sometimes driven athwart the entrance, and
nipped between the lower pier and the projection of the Bruns-
wick Wharf, against which her larboard quarter is driven by the
flood and wind. This position is shown by the form of a vessel
within the entrance. In this state of affairs it becomes necessary
to wait for slack tide at high water, which sometimes, with a large
and heavily-laden ship, is a dangerous experiment; or else, to
heave her stern down against the tide from the starboard quarter.
This operation, with an entrance so placed, is by no means so labo-
rious as if it had been placed at right angles to the stream. To
the natural position of this entrance, however, much of its supe-
riority is attributed, tliere being plenty of room in the river in
front of it, nor does the tide set strongly across it; but with
easterly gales, large ships would formerly hang until the slack of
tide, whereas now, with the assistance of steam-tugs, vessels may
be docked as soon as there is sufficient depth of water.

This entrance was formed for the purpose of docking a limited
number of large vessels on any one tide. It has been stated, that
it was with this view tliat the outer lock-gate was projected so far
outwards towards the river; the circumstances and conditions of
the look are consequently similar to those of a graving dock, and
it is supposed that it was so formed with the view of waiting for
the slack of tide. Tliis would preclude docking more than one or
two vessels upon the same tide, which, however, would have sufficed
for the original requirements of the India trade.

The majority of the docks and slips at the respective establish-
ments of the Messrs. ^Vigram, and Messrs. Green, at Blackwall,
point more acutely to the flood tide. These docks are considered
by ship-builders to be well placed, — they aie, however, much ex-
posed, as the flood-tide sets right into them; this, however, is not
of such importance as for the entrance of a wet dock, because a
ship-builder, having only one, or at most two, vessels to take into
one dock, can afford to wait for the slack tide.

Fig. 2, shows tlie entrance at the Blackwall end of the AVest India
Docks and of the City Canal, now the AVest India South Dock.
This was influenced no doubt by the position, and the object of
the latter, which was to effect a thorough communication for the
navigation, and to cut off the reaches round the Isle of Dogs; hut
whicli failing as a canal, has long been used as a lie-by for ships
and timber. The entrance is nearly in an opposite direction to
that of the example first quoted, and forms rather an obtuse angle,
or at least a right angle with the flood.

It is stated by gentlemen who have been many years connected
with the port, that wlien tlie West India Docks were first com-

pleted, the danger to loaded ships was so great, that it became
necessary to lengthen the upper pier, by additional timber external
works. The entrance, in its present state, bears a very good
character.

This entrance was formed with a view to docking the largest
possible number of vessels upon one tide (having reference to the
arrival at that period of the West India ships in fleets). The
basin was formed as a tide receptacle for these vessels as they came
up the river, the water being drawn down to about half-tide level
in the basin, for that purpose; the great width of entrance was
no doubt not found practicable, it being necessary (as is now done),
to bring the vessels up with head to tide, and allow them to dro])
up from the buoys off the entrance, across ivhich the flood tide
runs up with strength; it was also found necessary to carry out a
timber jettv to low-water mark, off the South, or Upper Pier, to
prevent vessels from tailing round with the flood on to the shore.
The great width thus eventually obtained between the wings is
advantageous, as it allows a vessel to kant across, and to enter
without the assistance of a quarter-rope, or a steamboat; another
advantage is, that in undocking, sufficient space is allowed for the
outward-bound vessel to pass out, the inward-bound vessel being
at the same time within the entrance.

Mr. Pitcher's graving docks, to the westward of the canal en-
trance, are in nearly the same direction.

Fig. 3. — The Blackwall entrance of the South Dock answers
well as regards direction, although, like the last, it is nearly at
right angles to the stream, as from its being more in a bight, there
is a slack of tide across it; it, however, requires a dolphin upon
the upper side at low water, to counteract the tendency wliicli
vessels have, when docked upon the flood, to tail upon Mr.
Pitcher's ways.

Fiyx. i and o. — The AVestern, or upper entrances of the AVest
India Docks and City Canal, or South Dock, at Limehouse, are
favourably situated, as they point acutely up the stream, and con-
siderable facilities are att'orded to vessels entering by the West India
Dock entrance, on account of its direction; the admission and
exit of light vessels can thus be well and expeditiously con-
ducted.

The West India Dock entrance is considered well adapted to
the purposes of trade, as there is deep water on the north side, and
there is an easy run of tide across it towards high water.

At Woolwich Dockyard tliere is great variety in the direction of
tlie building slips and of the graving docks: some are nearly S(iuare
to the stream, in other instances they point slightly up, and in
others downwards — forming an acute angle with the liue of flood in
some instances, and an obtuse angle in others.

At Deptford Dockyard there is equal variety: at the lower part
of the yard they are nearly at right angles to the stream; the
entrance to the lower basin points slightly up the stream; that to
the Transport Dock is nearly square; a dock above it is in the
same direction; but the dock above, in what is called "Dudman's
Dockyard," points up acutely to the flood; a building slip above
this is in the same direction, and a dock entrance still higher up
points upwards at a less acute angle. The conditions of the
several properties appear to have had as much influence upon the
direction of these slips and docks as any other considerations.

Figs. 6 and 7. — The entrance lock to the East Country Dock
points slightly upwards, as also that to the Commercial Docks;
both are considered good working entrances. The Graving Docks
on either side of the Commercial Docks entrance point in a similar
manner, showing that the disposition of one property has influ-
enced the otlier, as regards directitm.

From the particular local set of tide, the angle of direction
upwards is very mucli reduced.

At each of these two entrance locks, two dolphins are placed in
a line with their upper sides; they are pro tanto elongations of tlie
upper wings.

On the opposite side of the river at Mill-Wall, Blackett's
Graving Dock is nearly square with the stream, pointing slightly
downwards.

The Graving Dock above this (jMitchell's), below Messrs. Sea-
ward's factory, points up very acutely with the line of flood.

The docks of Messrs. Fletcher, situate between the Limehouse
entrances of the West India Docks, are nearly at right angles
H ith the river in their immediate neighbourhood; but as regards
the general contour of the Reach, point slightly up the stream.
Very nearly the same remark will apply to tlie docks of Messrs.
Young, at Limehouse; the character these docks bear on tlie river
is very similar, except that as Fletcher's docks lie in a bight, they
are less exposed.

Limekiln or Limehouse Dock points up the stream; the small

Na. UO.-YoL. XII.— May, 1349.

IS

130

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Mav,

dock at Duke Shore l)elong:ina: to Messrs. Young, though standing
rel.itivelv very similar in position to their otlier docks, is stated hy
tlieni to he jieVhajis the most aivkward dock in tlie river, owing to
tlie flood tide from Limehouse Reach setting right into it; and they
consider that had its entrance heen mucli wider, or its direction
much more acute with the line of flood, much of this inconveni-
ence would have been avoided.

Fi(j, 8. — Messrs. Dowson's Gra^•ing Dock at Limehouse is nearly
square to the stream; but from the" particular set of tide in this
portion of the reach, the flood making over from Cuckold's Point,
this dock points at a very obtuse angle towards the flood, as shown
upon the diagram; great diSiculty is consequently experienced in
docking a heavy ship, a considerable purchase being necessary to
keep her in position until near high water, by heaving down her
stern against the tide. The evil at this dock, and the one at Duke
Shore, is increased by the strength with which the flood tide sets
directly into them. ,

There is a considerable length of outer tidal basin, or entrance
to this dock, between the gates and the river; but as the quays, or
wing walls which form the sides are parallel to one another, and
in a line with the sides of the dock, it is obvious that no advan-
tage is gained in reference to the particular direction which a
vessel assumes whilst entering. This lengtli of entrance appears
likewise to have been principally induced from the particular
local position of the dock, a public street crossing it, and the site
of the swing bridge consequently determining the commencement
of the dock^ This latter remark likewise applies to the next exam-
ple, which is shown in the same illustration, being close adjoining,
and nearly parallel, to Messrs. Dowson's Dock, but pointing slightly
down the'stream, and consequently forming a more obtuse angle
with the flood than even the last example, and is, therefore, as
regards direction, even more awkwardly situated; but the widening
out of the wing walls forming the entrance, slightly increases the
facilities for vessels, both departing and entering, but the tonnage
of such vessels is inconsiderable.

Fig. 9. — The Regent's Canal entrance lock, which leads into a
lai-ge basin, or wet "dock, admitting vessels of considerable burthen,
principally colliers and coasters, is nearly square to the stream;
but from the tide setting across, upon the flood, from the opposite
side, induced by the local formation of the river, tliough not in so
great a degree as in the last examples, this entrance forms in the
line of its direction an obtuse angle with the set of the flood. It
has a very bad character, on account of its direction and the small
distance between the wings at the entrance, which had no room
for expansion, from the gates being, as in graving docks, close to
the :-iver bank. The difficulty of docking a ship upon the flood,
must have been very great before the addition of the timber-
works, which, in effect, remo\'e the entrance gates further from the
run of tide, creating slack water in front of them, and, by giving
a greater width between the jaws of the entrance, allow somewhat
for the necessary obliquity in entering, and atiord more space for a
vessel's bow to be turned down whilst departing.

Puj. 10.— Lavender Graving Dock, Rotherhithe, bears an excel-
lent character for its convenience for docking; it is nearly at right
angles, pointing slightly up the stream. But its character, as
must be evident from former examples, is not dependent upon its
direction, as from the particular set of tide away from it, in conse-
quence of the tide setting from the point below on tlie same side
to the opposite shore, it is left in an eddj', and consequently in
slack water. It becomes for these reasons nearly similar in its
conditions to a dry dock from a harbour, wet dock, or other still
water; it therefore cannot be taken as an example in point, except
so ftir as showing that there are particular localities and biglits
upon a tidal river where the direction of the entrance becomes of
less importance. Even there, however, from the gates being
placed so near to the river, the platform is carried beyond the
wharf-line, and the necessity for the extension of piers to form a
chandler has been involved. The object in this case, and with
ship-builders generally, has been, no doubt, in placing their gates
so dose to the river, to gel as great a depth of water as possible
with the least amount of excavation, and to shorten the dock as much
as possible, with reference to the expense of construction and the
cost of land. In many situations on the Thames the existence of
a road, or street parallel to and not far distant from the stream,
has been the cause of an encroachment upon the river.

Fig. 11. — The Shadwell entrance of the London Docks points
so much down the river as to form a very obtuse angle with the
stream. The inconveniences that would otherwise result to vessels
entering arc, from various causes, obviated at this entrance, which,
in fact, bears a very good character. One of these causes is, that

the set of the flood tide is across the river, towards the opposite
shore from the bight below tlie entrance, which is left in ctmipara-
tively slack water, and is thus more at right angles with the flood
on account of this particular set. The great width between the
wings and the additional timber external works also afford great
facilities, both when docking and undocking vessels. In this
latter case the capabilities arise, like those at the IJlackwall en-
trances of the AVest India Docks, from the judicious construction
of the external works, which, however, have in both instances
been, to a great extent, of subsequent formation, to obviate evils
attendant upon the original form. It will at once be seen, by re-
ferring to the plan of this entrance as it now exists, that the con-
veniences for docking must have been much less before the exter-
nal works were added. Tiie timber ])ier added to the western or
upper wing and the doljdiin, form, with the northern ])ortion of
the wing wall, a line of direction pointing up the stream, which is
the desirable direction for docking a ship upon the flood as she
swings round, her larboard quarter coming in contact with the
dolphin, and her starboard bow with the timber pier; she is thus
pre\'ented from tailing upon the shore on the upper side, as she
would otherwise have done without these external works. The
timber ])ier and dolphin on the lower side, perform the same ofjice
towards a vessel leaving the dock just after high-water, or being
docked, when there is no run of tide, and the south-west wind
blowing her on to the shore below the entrance.

Much of the external wing wall on the lower, or eastern side,
might have been dispensed with, had the direction of its entrance
been more at right angles to the stream; it is, however, to be
observed, that this direction would not have suited so well as the
one adopted in the general plan of the docks. This entrance pos-
sesses an advantage pointed out in the instance of the Blackwall
West India Dock entrance, from the great width allowing two
vessels to pass.

Mr. Henry R. Palmer, the engineer emploj'ed to construct this
entrance, published in 182S, a paper entitled "Report on the Pro-
posed Eastern Entrance to the London Docks." In that paper
Mr. Palmer says: —

The taking of a ship into a harbour is required to be performed by the
persons on board, and therefore the line of direction of the entrance is made
as simple as her security from the wind and its consequences upon the water
will allow. If the same force can with safety be employeil to conduct a
vessel to stdl water which has taken her to the mouth of it, the entrance
will be performed with most ease.

On the sea coast, the wind, and its consequences upon the water, constitute
the principal forces to be contended with; the current of the water being
comparatively of little or no value. On a river, the current of the water
becomes an essential force, and that in proportion as the width of the river
is diminished.

It is obvious, that in both cases, it is preferable to make these forces sub-
servient to our purpose, when it is practicahle; and in the formation of an
entrance to a harbour, or a dock, its position, direction, and form, should he
such as to expose a vessel to as httle action as possible not available to this
object.

The communication between a river and a wet dock, being through the
medium of a lock whose limits but little exceed the dimensions of the ship
that passes through, it is important that the water about the entrance to
that lock should be, if possible, quiescent. If it have a running or turbu-
lent motion, considerable labour is indispensably necessary to conduct a
vessel within its narrow channel with safety ; we therefore find that many
of the public docks are provided with an external area, or basin, which is lu
fact a harbour, whose entrance is sufficiently wide to admit vessels during
most weathers, while at tlie same time it has the effect of producing still
water where tlut is required.

The adoption of this principle upon the Mersey and upon the
Humber, on account of the heavy sea, is referred to; also the
entrance to the Hull Docks, from the river Hull being formed in
a recess or fore-bay.

The entrance to the Bristol Docks is referred to by Mr.
Palmer, as a precedent for the case then under his consideration,
where the entrance locks point down the stream and fcu-m an
obtuse angle witli the line of flood, and where, as Mr. Palmer
says.

Vessels go up with the flood tide only, and sail most generally at once into
the entrance. When the wind is high and corresponds with tlie tide, a rope
is sent on shore op|insite the entr.ince, and being connected with the stern,
the ship is easily presented to the lock, and is conducted into still water
without risk.

It may be observed, that the extreme narrowness of the Avon
necessarily induced such an arrangement.

The particular position uf tlie entrances to the Runcorn Docks
is next reviewed; tliose through the locks, .Mr. Palmer describes

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

131

as "parallel with the cun-ent," in i-eference to which he subse-
quently says: —

Inasmuch as the vessels are not required to deviate from the direction of
the current (i.e. to lie across it), not only is their introduction not made dif-
ficult by the motion of the water, but actually accomplished by it without
risk.

Of the docks in the port of London, Mr. Palmer says : —

When we contemplate the immensity of the traffic on the Thames, and
the extent of accommodation afforded to the shipping, as compared with
other ports, it is surprising that the entrances to the numerous docks should
be less convenient than those on rivers whose navigation is more difficult.
The entrances are all narrower, so that when the head of a ship arrives
within its confined space, the stern is opposed to the action of the current.

Mr. Palmer then describes the entrances to the principal public
docks, and the laljour entailed at the graving docks on account of
their position; in reference to this he says: —

Now as the force of the water upon the ship is the same between the
same parallels, the strength required to resist it will be the same, whether
the head points up or down the stream. But it is argued, that if the
entrance coincide with the direction of the stream (i.e. points down), the
vessel may he forced against one of the side walls ; and if no exertion be
made to prevent such an effect, it undoubtedly would sometimes occur.
But the vessel must he controlled by ropes at the stern, connected with a
mooring, with less force in this position than when laid across the stream,
and proportionally so in all the intermediate angles.

Now if the entrance point up the stream, the vessel must be allowed to
pass first above the entrance, and then be drawn towards it with a force
greater than that required to resist her motion, as in the former case, because
the motion of the stream is added to that of the vessel. Although the
difference in the quantities of force and labour may not be great, the direc-
tion of the entrance, if narrow, sliould be guided by localities, such as the
position in the river, the position of moorings, &c.

After stating that the above reasoning applied to narrow en-
trances, with the gates close to the river, inapplicable for the
London Docks, and referring to the want of width at most of tlie
entrances, and the too close proximity of their gates to the stream,
Mr. Palmer describes his plan for the Shadwell entrance, in ac-
cordance with the principles above laid down, and which was sub-
sequently carried out under that engineer.

That entrance, however, by additional outworks, resolves itself
into a very different form.

Fiy. 12. — The entrance to the Grand Surrey Docks and Canal,
Rotherhithe, points slightly down the stream; but from tlie local
set of the tide from the opposite shore, its line of direction forms
a very obtuse angle with the set of the flood. The effect produced
by this is evinced in an external timber jetty and dolphin, oft' the
upper side, by which a vessel is brought up upon the flood, in the
right position in a line with the entrance, which is obviously insuf-
ficient as to width and length, when the set of the tide is consi-
dered, without these external works. The direction of this
entrance has probably been influenced by local circumstances con-
nected with neighbouring properties.

Fig. 13. — The AVapping, or central entrance of the London
Docks is situated at right angles to the stream. Its direction in
such a position must no doubt have been influenced by local cir-
cumstances. Its direction for the two purposes of docking and
undocking is tolerably eligible; but there is a deficiency of length
towards the ri\'er, and splaj'iug out of the wing walls; dolphins
have consequently been rendered necessary, but they are placed at
such a distance out as to act similarly to the moorings at other
entrances. There is a local eddy of the tide off this entrance,
which makes its direction of less consequence. It is principally
used for small vessels and barges.

The upper entrance of the London Docks, called the Hermitage
entrance, is nearly square to the stream, or inclining slightly
downwards. This entrance is not used; the principal trade is
thus carried on at the lower eastern entrance at Shadwell, where
large sums of money have been expended in the repairs and im-
proN'ement of the immediate outlet or entrance.

St. Saviour's Dock entrance, on the opposite side of the river,
points very much down the stream; but it is supposed by persons
connected with the port, that its original formation was out of
some natural inlet in the shore, outside the marsh wall, and, being
only a tide dock, the direction of the entrance was not considered
so much an object as in the neighbouring works. It would,
however, be supposed, that the direction of the entrance to such a
dock was a consideration of importance; but a comparison of this
example with that of Limekiln Dock on the opposite side, and
which has before been quoted as pointing acutely up the stream,
shows how various have been the modes of treating these tidal
constructions.

Fig. H. — The St. Katharine's Dock entrance points slightly
down the stream. There is at that spot a great depth of water,
and ships are frequently docked after the tide has fallen, according
to the judgment of the dock-master, whether it can be done safely.
Under these circumstances the direction up, or down, is not of the
same importance as in other examples. But an evil is entailed at
these docks, by the small amount of width between the wing walls
at the entrance; the particular locality must, however, have neces-
sarily involved this, and the wings were probabl)' projected and
splayed out as much as the nature of the site would allow. The
object here also was to dock ships quickly, and also upon a falling
tide. For this the lock has three pairs of gates, the outer pair
being placed as close to the river as possible. The fact of a public
street here running parallel to the river, and the entailment of a
swing bridge over the lock also prevented any great splaying out
of the wing walls.

In reference to the general question it may be observed, that
the foregoing examples resolve themselves into three classes —
viz., dry or graving docks, wet or floating docks, and building slips.

Ser

of

TUnd

Fig. 15.— Proposed Graving Dock.

Fig. 15. — 'With examples of the first class, viz., the dry or
graving docks, the great desideratum appears to be, to get them
placed at such an angle to the course of the tide, that ships may
be docked upon the flood with the greatest facility. There exists
but one opinion among persons acquainted with the practice of
docking ships upon the Thames as to what this direction should
he — viz., an acute angle to the flood, or in other words, pointing
upwards; some recommending (if the site will allow it) a direc-
tion nearly up and down the stream, others an angle of about +5°,
with a dolphin half the length of the ship, above the entrance, to
keep her from tailing on the ground if the wind should be on
sliore. It is obvious, that the greater the degree of obliquity, the
more the river frontage will be required for each entrance. Ships
are usually docked head fir.st, and turned out stern first, from dry
docks. If the line of direction of the dock points downwards,
and forms an obtuse angle with the direction of the flood coming
up, or is even square to it, considerable labour and difficulty are
involved in heaving down the stern of the vessel against the tide,
so that she may be in a line with the dock. This very force of the
tide is taken advantage of, and assists in placing the ship in a
proper position, when the dock points up the stream. This direc-
tion is equally advantageous in undocking vessels from dry docks,
as the almost invariable practice is to turn them out stern fore-
most; thus the vessel's quarter first meets the tide, is carried
upwards, and her bow is brought against the tide in the most con-
venient position for mooring her.

Fig. 16. — "W'ith wet or floating docks the case is altered as
regards undocking, and this has been met by the greater width at
the entrance, formed by the spreading wings on either side. The
circumstances attendant upon a ship entering are precisely the
same as when approaching a graving dock; hut in undocking a
loaded vessel from a wet dock, she is brought out head first. If
the entrance pointed up the stream, the vessel's bow would require
to be kanted up immediately she met the tide; this would cause
considerable inconvenience to an outward-bound vessel, which

IS*

132

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

Ma^

should swing with her bow downwards. Ships are frequently taken
out witli their sails set on a fair wind, and in such a case, a fault
in direction would be still more severely felt.

A direction nearly scjuare to the stream is recommended by
some authorities as tlie best for wet docks; others recommend an
acute aof^le of about ()0° with the flood, as shown in fi^. IG. The
amount of this aiifile, however, becomes of less importance if a
jjreat widtli is ol)tained at the entrance, by rounding out or splay-
iujx tlie wings. The upper win;;, or pier-head, should be formed to
a flat curve, or even a straifjht line, so as to present a favourable
angle to the tide for a ship entering. The lower pier-head, or
wings, should be rounded, or splayed off very much, I admit of
a vessel, whilst going out, turning with her head upon tide; it
should also project about 30 or 4-0 ifeet further out tlian the upper
pier, in order to cover the entrance and render it more accessible.

The great variations that exist in the examples on the Thames,
are attributed by persons interested in shipping, to the importance
of the subject never having been sufficiently considered, and also
to want of capital and available space on the banks of the river.
The positions of dry docks have, no doubt, in many cases been
regulated, irrespective of any other considerations, simply by the
particular arrangement of the ground in which tliey have been
constructed, the direction of the first dock regulating that of its
successors, which were built parallel to it.

The great desideratum with docks of each description appears
to be to obtain as great a width as possible at the immediate
entrance, and the larger this is, of less importance does the angle
become. The width is considered by many shipwrights as the
most important element of consideration; with a great width, a
small amount of heaving on one purchase or the other will correct
a great amount of error in direction. A ship, when being docked
at such an entrance, first touches the upper pier, and her stern
must then be drawn down, to bring her in a line with the entrance;
the greater the width therefore the better angle for leverage, or
purchase, will be obtained. It is also a great desideratum toafl'ord
plenty of room to pilots, whether they happen to be taking vessels
into or out of wet docks.

As regards building slips; their direction appears, like many
instances of graving docks, to have been influenced, on the banks
of the Thames, and perhaps also on other rivers, by internal local
circumstances connected with the tenure and di\ision of proper-
ties; the construction of one slip has also governed the direction
of those in the immediate vicinity, which are generally parallel to
the first. This direction, it will at once be seen, cainiot be so im-
portant as in the instance of graving docks; still, however, as
vessels are launched stern foremost, and usually about the same
period that admittance into graving docks takes place, the same
reasons that influence the direction of one would aft'ect also that of
the other: that is, a vessel being launched, and her stern carried
up, her head would be brought up against tide, which is the most
convenient position for mooring her — conseqiiently, a position
slightly inclining up the stream, appears desirable; practically, a
direction square to the stream, answers the purpose, and is the best,
having reference to the value of a river frontage.

The directions herein referred to as apparently the most desira-
ble, are — an angle of about 45° pointing u|> the stream, for Graving
Docks; an angle of ab(Uit <H)°, in a similar direction, for Wet
Docks; and a right angle for Building Slips.

No one knows better the importance of the subject than the
shipwrights and pilots, and with how much less risk vessels may be
docked at some establishments than at others. The operation of
docking a valuable ship, with perhaps but very few inches to
spare, is at all times a nervous process, and they who are in the
constant habit of conducting such operations can give the best
practical opinions on the subject.

The opinions of Mr. Dowson, Mr. Knight, Capt. Bond, Capt.
Evans, Mr. Kinipple, Mr. Green, Mr. Haslip, and Mr. Wigram are
given in letters to Mr. Redman, from whence the following extracts
are made: —

Mr. DowsON says: — " I have read with some attention your remarks on
the several wet and dry dock entrances on the river Thames, and also ex-
amined the sketch you sent me (fig. 16).

I feel a strong conviction that a great error has been committed in the
construction of most of them. My opinion is, that the entrance should
stand in a line, nearly up and down the stream; so that when a ship comes
alongside the jetty, for the purpose of docking, the bow would easily enter,
and much time and labour be saved in heaving the stern down against the
flood tide.

The entrance into my dock and Duke shore are both very bad, and tLe
evil is increased by the llaod tide running particularly strong.

I admit that, in wet docks, where the entrances, or jaws outside the dock
gates, are generally so wide, the evil is not so severely felt ; hut I remember
when the West India Docks, Ulackwall end, were first made, the danger for
loaded ships was so great, that it was found necessary to extend the upper
pier in the manner I prefer.

I attriliute the bad entrances to want of judgment, want of capital, and
perhaps of space on the shore of the Thames."

Fig. I*). — Proposed Wet Dock.

Scale to Figs. 15 and 16, 1 Inch to 100 Feet.

Mr. Knight says : — "With reference to the general question, F think it
may be presumed, that the entrances to the public dock establishments have
been constructed in a manner deemed most eligible (having reference to the
set of the tide), for the purpose of docking loaded ships, and that the con-
struction of the graving docks has been more particularly determined by in-
ternal considerations, as regards the ground on which the docks have been
formed, although the entrances to the public docks may, in some cases, have
also been influenced by similar considerations. As regards graving docks, it
is to be observed, that they are comparatively but seldom used, and that the
slack of tide is generally taken advantage of to dock the vessels.

The entrance to the East India Docks, pointing upwards to the stream of
tide, is probably the best direction which could be given to it, as the stream
of tide runs rather strongly across it, and until the introduction of steam-
tugs, large vessels would occasionally hang until the tide slacked; now
by means of a quarter rope, the stern can be hove down the stream, when
the head is ponited to the lock, and the vessel bri>ught into the line of
direction of the lock without the vessel being brought to a right angle with
the stream.

The following are the observations I have received from Captain Bond of
the East India Docks, and Captain Evans, of the West India Docks.

Captain Bond says: — ' I think the East India Dock entrance has an ad-
vantage over the other docks, in having plenty of room in the river, and the
tide never running hard, except when it blows with an easterly galej and
now we have the use of the tug to keep the ship's stern down, we can dock
immediately we have water; before we had tugs, if the wind blew hard, the
large ships would hang until the tide slacked.'

Captain Evans says : — ' 1 am decidedly of opinion that the Blackwall
entrance into the West India Dock is by far the best constructed in the port
of London, its bell mouth giving sufficient room to kant the l.irgest vessel
that ever was docked in the port, and that without the assistance of cither
a qnarter-rope or that of a steamboat; although it must he admitted that
the length of the lock is in some measure an impediment to the quick dis.
patch of business. Had the basin been carried aliout 70 feet further out, and
the bridge kept within the lock-gates, I should then consider it a perfect model

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

133

for an entrance; and I am of opinion, that all dock entrances should rather
incline upwards with the set of the tide, which would make them easier of
access upon tlie flood, as all vessels of any magnitude should be brought with
their head upon tide, to enter with safety where there is a strong current ;
but where an entrance is formed in an eddy or counter tide, which is to be
found in various parts of the Thames, I would recommend that the lock
should be placed at right angles with the flood, in the stream ; and when
there is a strong tide immediately across the entrance, it should incline up-
wards, with the lower pier-head carried about 25 feet or 30 feet further
into the stream, than the upper one, as that would cause a partial eddy,
and thereby make the entrance easier of access, as well as facilitate the
docking.'

The great width of the Blackwall entrance of the West India Docks is ad-
vantageous as regards the undocking, as it admits of the inward vessel being
within the entrance, and leaves suflicient room for the outward ship to pass
out. In tliis respect the Shadwell entrance of the London Dock may possess
tlie like advantage."

Mr. KiNippLE says : — "I have long paid attention to the diiTerent en-
trances into the various wet and dry docks on the banks of the river Thames,
and consider that an angle of 4.'j°, pointing up the stream to the set of the
tide, is ill every way the most eligible ; for instance, Limehouse Bridge
Dock, which I now superintend, from being nearly at right angles to the
stream, and from the set of the tide being so strong, particularly at the
height of the springs, when it is usual to dock large ships of heavy draft of
water, it is very difiicult to square the vessels and to place them in position,
without a large warp from their quarter, to heave on, with a great number
of men, assisted, within the last few years, by steam-power. This process
causes so much delay, that the vessel frequently cannot be hauled a-head
until nearly high-water, and then sometimes with only from three to six
inches water to spare. This, it will at once he seen, involves great risk —
indeed so much so, that I could name several ships that have grounded in
some dock entrances, and have overhung the sill of the gates from 20 feet
to 50 feet, owing entirely to the above causes. These difficulties would be
entirely obviated if the docks were excavated to the above-named angle,
because the pilot could keep the ship off in deep water, opposite the dock,
until fifteen or twenty minutes before high-water ; and when ordered to
bring her to (having every rope already prepared), he would he enabled to
make more certain of getting her safely in and secured than at present,
when so much labour and care are required.

With regard to wet docks, I consider nearly the same angle to be equally
advantageous for bringing to and docking a large number of homeward-
bound ships, in one tide ; but with this difference — for undocking, the lower
pier-head would require to be carried out nearly at ligtit angles, projecting
about 40 feet or 50 feet, and rounded off; which would so widen the
entrance, that ships when being undocked, when they always come out head
first, may, provided they want to go down the river, that is to say, being
outward-bound, make a warp fast to the said pier-head, and with another
taken off to a buoy, laid out for the purpose at some convenient distance,
be enabled to swing with the tide, and at once proceed on their destination."

Mr. Green says : — •' I have no hesitation in stating that the entrances of
dry and wet docks should point up, and not down the stream."

Mr. Haslip says : — " My opinion is, that dry docks pointing up the
stream on the river Thames, at an angle of 45°, may answer every purpose.

With respect to wet docks, I consider that they ought to be at right
angles, with a sufficient entrance.

Respecting building slips, the angle or run is always governed by the
river wherein a new ship is about to be built and launched."

Mr. WiGRAM says : — " I fear you will not arrive at any definite rule on
the subject; but it appears to me, that all dock entrances should point
upwards ; the degree will depend on whether the tide runs strong, or not, at
the point or part where the dock is to be constructed. You are of course
aware, that the set of the tide alters greatly in velocity at different parts of
the river; but, in my opinion, the stronger the set or run of the tide may
be across the dock entrance, so much more should it point up, for the con-
venience of using the dock."

Mr. Redman begged to acknowledge, and to offer his thanks for
the assistance afforded him by the proprietors of docks and the
officers of dock companies on the river, and he requested it might
be understood, that when he had designated a dock entrance as
"bad," or "indifferent," it was not meant invidiously, but that
from circumstances, or locality, it was not so favourably situated
as others which he had especially denominated as "good."

He then referred to the drawing of the Blackwall entrance of
the West India Docks (fig. 2), and stated, that there vessels could
not be brought in so readily as had been originally intended; but
they were brought up head upon tide, and were warped in; also to
the Shadwell, or lower entrance of the London Docks, (fig. U),
which although pointing down the river, and forming an obtuse
angle witli the line of direction of the flood, was yet, by the addi-
tional works at the entrance, resolved into a very advantageous
form; for the upper wing, with the timber jetty and dolphin,
formed a rather acute angle with the particular set of the flood,
and was therefore advantageous for docking vessels; the lower
works formed at the same time a good direction for vessels depart-

ing, and being brought up head upon tide. Viewing the particular
outline of the London Docks, it was obvious that a direction
pointing up the stream would have entailed so bad an angle of
communication with the docks, and so awkward a turn for the
vessels, as to render such a position next to impossible.

Fig. 14. was a plan of the St. Katharine Dock's entrance, where
the direction, as liad been before explained, was rendered of less
importance by the great depth of water, which allowed vessels to
be docked after high water. At such a site as tliis, a wide
entrance was almost unattainable, from the great value of the
land.

Figs. 15 and 16 were drawings of what appeared from evidence
to be good forms for entrances: the former for a graving dock, at
an angle of 45°, with a projecting pier on the lower side ; and the
latter for wet docks, at an angle of 60°, — the upper wing turning
at an angle of 45° upwards, and the lower at a similar angle down-
wards, together with a projecting pier. Such an entrance would
afford equal facilities for docking and also for undocking; a
double lock was also shown.

There was another question, which however had not been
touched upon in the paper — viz., the best angle for a wall along
which a vessel would pass to enter a lock : for instance, upon a
canal, what angle would give the least amount of resistance to a
boat entering a lock? This, however, was not of importance in
reference to the present in<[uiry; still it was an interesting ques-
tion, well deserving the attention of the Institution. To illus-
trate the notice as to docking vessels, he might remark, that iit
Messrs. Young's establishment at Limehouse, where a large go-
vernment steam frigate was now being fitted, it was found neces-
sary, in docking that vessel, to connect a warp from her starboard
quarter to a capstan at the West India Dock in order to keep her
in position, on account of her great length.

Remarks made at the Meeting after the Reading of the foregoing Paper.

Mr. AValker praised the talent and industry displayed by Mr.
Redman, in collecting the examples shown by the drawings; the
majority were matters of fact, and the compiled drawings (figs. 15
and 16) were theoretical examples, deduced from reasoning upon
the facts now laid before the meeting. It must be borne in mind,
that from the value of land in the vicinity of London, and more
particularly of river frontage upon the Thames, the direction of
the entrances must have been, to a great extent, legulated by local
circumstances. For instance, the Shadwell entrance to the London
Docks could not have been differently placed, because, from the
jiosition of the docks, any other than a direct entrance would have
created greater inconvenience tlian any facility of entering could
have compensated for. At the same time, from a local eddy, there
was slack water in front of the entrance.

The entrances to private docks were even more governed by
locality, and the influence that might be exercised upon the neigh-
bouring property; because in the case of an oblique entrance, the
vessels in entering or leaving the dock, would traverse and occupy
the frontage on either side of it. There was no doubt of the theo-
retical correctness of making the entrance to point obliquely up
the stream, if it was situated in the run of the tide, and the
locality permitted it; but where there was not any run of tide,
or an eddy existed, or where a deep fore-bay could be formed,
the entrance might he quite as advantageously placed at riglit
angles with the stream. It must, however, be considered, that in
entering, wlien a vessel came up with the tide, it made fast, and
then swung. In the case of the right-angle entrance, the tide
striking upon the broadside would have a tendency to drive it up-
wards; wliereas the tide striking a vessel obliquely, would have less
power upon it, and less force would be required to draw it across
the tide into the dock. When the mouth was widened, and was
shaped as in fig. 16, the current would assist a vessel, and with a
judicious arrangement of buoys, vessels would be docked very
rapidly; and in such cases, if the locality permitted, the angle
pointiiig upwards was advantageous; but where still water existed,
from a bend in the river, or the tide was sluggish, a rectangular
entrance would be found as useful, and in general would accom-
modate itself better to the property upon which the dock was
situated.

Mr. Rennie thought the author had taken very judicious views
of the subject; it was, however, evident that engineers must be
governed by local considerations, and the velocity of the tide.
The late Mr. Rennie had designed several entrances pointing up
the stream, and with the widened mouth like tig. 16; but in prac-
tice, it had been found necessary to adapt them to the locality, and
with reference to the adjoining properties. Mr. Rennie had ar-

134

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

rived, by calculation, at certain results, and had determined
that an angle of tS^ pointing upwards was tlie best for a dock
entrance.

Mr. Sidney Yoivg felt that it would be ungracious on his part
were he to withhold, on the part of those whose avocations, like
his own, would make them practically the recipients of the bene-
fits to be derived from such a discussion as the present, his best
acknowledgments to his friend Mr. Redman, for the careful in-
vestigation he liad undertaken, and to tlie meeting for the atten-
tion tliat had now been given to the subject.

To all tlie remarks and suggestions he had heard from Mr.
Redman, in reference to the most convenient "angle to the flow of
the tide" for placing dry docks, he gave his unqualified concur-
rence; nor did he think that any one who had op))(U-tunities of
forming a practical opinion on the subject, would for a moment
(piestion their correctnesss. No better evidence of the important
service now rendered could, he thouglit, be afforded than the great
variety of the angles formed by docks in the Thames, as so ably ex-
emplified in Mr. Redman's diagrams — proving, as it appeared to
him, tliat this question, important as it was, had hitherto engrossed
very little attention. The constructors of these entrances were,
in many instances, probably too much restricted by local circum-
stances to allow of their placing them at so acute an angle as
was now proposed; still, in the instance of dry docks, they might
in almost every instance at least have adopted the same direction,
with an angle so small as not perceptibly to affect the general dis-
tribution of the property. This would frequently increase the
facility of moving vessels into and out of dock, especially in those
wide situations which were exposed to a particularly strong set of
tide, to an extent that could scarcely be appreciated by those who
were not in the constant habit of superintending such operations.

With respect to the entrances of wet docks, the opinion of an
experienced pilot should be held of more value than any other;
but he was led to believe, from the remarks made by some gentle-
men present, that the subject had been too much regarded as
though vessels had only to be docked, and not just as often un-
docked whilst loaded. For the first purpose he was still of opinicui
that Mr. Redman's plan was equally applicable as to dry docks;
but as undocking had also to be considered, he thought practi-
cally a right angle might be found sufficient, with a lower wing
boldly splayed out, as in fig. 16, which frequently afforded the
pilot an opportunity of setting sail before meeting the tide.
»\'ithout such a provision the vessel's head would be carried up the
stream, and the necessity of swinging her round would be involved.
This would at all times be attended with great inconvenience, and,
in comparatively contracted navigation, with much risk. In all
cases, Mr. Redman's proposed dolphin on the upper side would
undoubtedly be most advantageous. In reference to H.M. steam-
frigate Termagant, now in their establishment, it was true that,
from her great length and the slight acuteness in the direction
of the dock, the action of the flood presented great impediments
to placing her in position, and afforded therefore a powerful illus-
tration of the advantages that might have been dei-ived from Mr.
Redman's ])roposed conditions for the directions of docks, and the
addition of the dol|)hin, which would have prevented her being
carried up "fore and aft."

Mr. T. R. Spence confirmed the statement relative to IMessrs.
Tebbutt's establishment, Limekiln Dock, and the general views of
the i)aper. In their yard, a dock pointed up in nearly the direc-
tion proposed by Mr. Redman for dry docks, and it was found that
ships were easily docked in it, with a moderate number of men;
certainly with more ease than if it were at right angles to the
stream. It was ])robable that the direction of this particular dock
had been more influenced by the conditions of the property, than
the fact that such a direction was the best for docking; and he
explained, as the reasons for the direction, that it had been for-
merly a building slip, and the position of another dock had induced
this ]iarticular direction to get greater length. Pilots had always
f(uind tliat when ships were launched from it, they had been easily
brmight head upon tide. Since it had been deepened and altered
into a dock, it had been found that ships entered easily, and in
going out canu> almost directly head upon tide. Where the form
and position of the yard would admit of it, a direction pointing
up the stream increased the facility of docking, and was there-
fore to be rocommcuded for a dry 'dock. The coiulitions of the
property would not, however, always admit of this; but the intro-
duction of steam-power had lessened the inconveniences attendant
upon docks at right angles to the stream, more so, however, in
some cases than in others.

As regarded wet docks, Mr. Spence stated, that a direction
pointing upwards likewise facilitated the introduction of loaded

vessels, but that he considered a pilot the best authority on this
suliject; that, for undocking, it was necessary that the lower pier
should point down, as was provided for in fig. lU; as, unlike ships
coming out of dry dock stern foremost, and therefore readily
swinging head upon tide, ships came out of all wet docks head
foremost; conseipiently, unless the lower wing pointed downwards,
the ship's head, in coming out on the flood, would have a tendency
to drift upwards, instead of coming round head upon tide.

The dock in their yard which had been referred to, was rather
embayed, as a reference to a map of the river would show; this
increased the facility; but still he was strongly of opinion, that
the convenience attached to it was chiefly due to its direction in
reference to the stream. One great object in forming the entrance
to a wet dock was to have it sufficiently wide, with diverging
piers, so that when the ship was sheered to, her midship part
might come against the u])per pier, wliilst her bow was at the
lower side; she would thus enter readily. For this reason the di-
rection of the lock did not appear to him so important as the form
of the outer entrance. The Shadwell entrance of the London
Docks, since the addition of the timber jetty on the upper side
(pointing upwards), had acted admirably. Viewing fig. IG, a prac-
tical difficulty might present itself — viz., of entering one ship
while another departed; but this was seldom, if ever, attempted.
The outward-bound vessels generally left as soon as there was
water for them, and homeward ships did not generally get up until
towards high water. If a loaded ship came up whilst another
was going out, she was obliged to keep out of the way of the
entrance until the outward-bound vessel was clear.

i\Ir. CuBiTT, V.P., said, the object was to get as many vessels as
possible in and out at high water, in order to take advantage of
the depth of water and the slack tide, which rendered less power
necessary. For the purpose of obtaining still water, a deep and
capacious fore-bay was sometimes made, as it was found materially
to facilitate the entrance of the vessels; and whenever the locality
permitted the formation, and means could be adopted for prevent-
ing it from silting up, it should be adopted. The examples which
had been brought forward by Mr. Redman were useful, showing
as they did, that although the trade of the ptu-t was carried on,
practically, with efficiency at all the docks, still from the par-
ticular direction and conformation of some entrances, ships
were docked and undocked much more readily at some than
at others.

Jlr. jMay drew attention to the entrance of the Ipswich Docks,
constructed from the design of the late Mr. H. R. Palmer, and
where he had free scope to do as he pleased ; yet he had designed
it at an angle pointing down the stream, like the Shadwell entrance
of the London Docks. This appeared contrary to the received
opinion, and yet the work was very successful and answered the
purpose perfectly. The entire width of the river, at high-water,
was about 1 50 feet, and the entrance was so placed, that a vessel
coming up with the tide went directly into the dock without
swinging.

Mr. AValker said, it must be evident there were practical diffi-
culties occasioned by a downward direction being given to an en-
trance; they were, however, in some degree compensated for, by
the formation of a deep recess or fore-bay, in which a vessel would
be out of the run of the tide. This gave great facility for dock-
ing a vessel, which under all circumstances was a somewhat
hazardous operation. In the case of Ipswich, it appeared that
there was a certain difficulty to contend with, and, like a skilful
engineer, Mr. Palmer had chosen the simplest method of overcom-
ing it. In so narrow a river, it would have been difficult for the
vessels to have swung, and therefore he preferred their entering
directly into the fore-bay, in doing which they would be aided by
the tide.

Mr. Murray said he had discussed this matter at some length
with Mr. AValker, when examining the plan for the proposed docks
at Sunderland, and being guided, in a great degree, by the opinion
of the shipowners aiul pilots, it was settled that the entrance
should be placed acutely up the stream, and that the exit should
be the reverse. It was a great object at Sunderland to enable as
many vessels as possible to enter and to leave the i)ort on the tide;
for which i)uri)ose a tidal basin of three acres in extent, with tide-
gates, was intended to be constructed, for the vessels to enter and
bring up in; from thence they entered through wide gates into the
main dock. The tidal basin became in fact a great lock. The
object was to get from three hours to three hours and a half for
docking vessels on each tide. In the Thames, from ten to fifteen
minutes were occupied by each vessel in passing a lock, so that
the amount of acconnnodatiou was in fact restricted; but in other
places, where the system he had described was followed, greater

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

135

facilities were afforded. For instance, at Hartlepool, he had
counted fifty-five vessels leavinfj in a tide, and he had heard of
seventy vessels leavinc: in the same time. The forms of widened
entrances, shown by Mr. Redman, approximated to the system JMr.
JVlurray liad recommended; lie would present to the Institution a
description and plans of the dock at Sunderland, as soon as the
workswere completed.

Mr. Redman remarked, that in the case of the Ipswich Docks,
the particular direction was obviously entailed by the peculiarities
of the site. The entrance was from an artificial cut, which was so
narrow as not to afford space for swinjj-ing; and the entrance was,
as Mr. M'alker liad e.xplained, away from the channel, in an arti-
ficial recess or fore-bay, which created dead or slack water, and
neutralised to some extent the effect entailed by an obtuse angle
with the line of flood.

Fig. 1". — Duke's Dock, Liverpool.

Mr. CuBiTT, V.P., quite agreed, that ho%vever desirable it might
be to place the entrance pointing upwards, as had been suggested,
and had been so frequently and successfully practised, still locality
must in general govern the engineer inlaying out his plans, and he
must exhibit his skill, not only in the construction of the work,
but, if possible, in the selection of a spot where an eddy of the
tide or slack water could be obtained, and which at the same time
possessed tiie other requisite qualities for a dock. Mr. Cubitt had
recently put in practice at the Duke's Dock at Liverpool (shown
in fig. 17), the system as proposed by Mr. iMurray for the
Sunderland Dock. A pair of gates had been adapted to the
entrance of the outer dock, which had thus been converted into a
tidal basin, whence the "trows" and other vessels could be passed
into the dock with great facility, thus materially adding to its ad-
vantages. He believed that principle was generally found to
answer, and he would advise its adoption wherever there was an
e.\tensive trade.

Mr. Murray exhibited a plan and enlarged diagram of the
docks in progress of construction at Sunderland, of which he pro-
mised to give a detailed account on their completion. The original
intention liad been to leave a portion of the old pier, in order to
form two entrances; but it was subsequently decided to remove all
the old work, in order to afford as large a space as possible for the
^■essels to bring up and swing by their anchors, or to be towed by
steamers into the tidal basin, whence thirty at a time would enter
the half-tide basin and thence into the dock. By these means a
very extensive trade could be accommodated, as was indeed neces-
sary, when as many as 150 to 100 vessels required to leave on a
tide.

At Hartlepool the lock was not used for passing the vessels; the

gates were left open for an hour and a half at the top of the tide,
and the vessels were towed by steamers directly into the dock.

Mr. Rendel, V.P., agreed with the commendations bestowed
upon the industry and talent displayed in the paper; but he did
not accord with the opinion, that any general rule could be laid
down to suit all cases. Many points required careful considera-
tion; the velocity and rise of the tide, the local currents, an eddy
caused by a bend of the ri\'er, the width of the channel, the nature
of the trade and tlie size of the vessels, would all influence the
plans of an engineer, whose skill and talent should be displayed
by his meeting and combating successfully, the natural difliculties.
For this reason few entrances were similar, and it was evident
that in practice it had been found impossible to establish any
definite angle. If that were possible, one set of drawings would
suflice for all cases, and the exercise of skill and judgment would
no longer be required.

Mr. ScoTT Russell confirmed Mr. Rendel's views; the science
of engineering had not yet arrived at such definite conclusions, as
to enable given rules to be laid down for a subject embracing so
many considerations. It was evident from tlie examples brought
before the meeting, and from many others which were familiar to
all engineers, that it was not possible to lay down any undeviating
principle; but in comparing the examples, and considering local
peculiarities, he thought it might be assumed that a step towards
it had been arrived at. If, as was stated, facilities for docking a
loaded ship upon the flow of the tide were given, by having the
entrance pointing upwards at an angle of 60°, and for vindocking a
loaded vessel on the turn of the tide, by an entrance pointing at
the same angle down the stream, it must be evident that the wide
entrance, with the piers at opposite angles, as proposed in (fig. 16),
would be advantageous wherever sufficient ground could be ob-
tained; and if a deep fore-bay could be constructed so that it
would not silt up, it would afford additional facility, as a vessel
in entering would swing and come in without interfering with a
vessel going out. This was only the first step to a tidal basin,
which appeared to be a great convenience for an extensive trade.
This however presumed that the docks were upon a wide river, and
where land was not of very great value; but in a narrow channel,
where the stream or the tide set heavily across the entrance, and
where the value of the land on the banks was as great as in London,
even that rule could not be observed, and the engineer must be
guided by local considerations, in order to afford the greatest
amount of facility at the least cost.

Mr. Red.man expressed his regret, that Jlr. Rendel had not
been present when the paper was read, and that he had only par-
tially heard the discussion upon it. It had certainly not been his
intention to assume that there were certain angles for dock
entrances applicable to all sites; on the contrary, he had distinctly
stated, that all the circumstances of position, set of tide, &c.,
must be carefully attended to. The examples he had given for
proposed enti-ances, were intended as examples of combinations of
the good qualities of the different entrances on the Thames, and
were laid down in accordance with the opinions generally enter-
tained in the port of London, among ship-builders, pilots, and
dock-masters, whose practical opinions upon such a subject were,
he conceived, well worth attention. These examples, therefore,
were only recommended where the site and the set of the tide
would admit of such constructions. Neither did he understand
the tone of the discussion to lead to the conclusion that one
angle was suitable for all situations; for, on the contrary, the dif-
ferent attendant circumstances appeared to have been considered
by the various speakers.

He could not agree with Mr. Scott Russell, that possessing a
well formed fore-bay, the direction of the lock, or inner portion of
the entrance, became of minor or secondary importance. It was
necessary, having the upper wing pointing upwards at the angle
shown, that the lock should be in the same line, in order that the
vessel might be easily drawn in. Mr. Russell had also fallen into
error in assuming that a vessel was iindocked upon the ebb; if
that were the case, the direction of the lower wing would be un-
important, as immediately the vessel's bow met the tide she would
swing round into the desired position; such however, was not the
case, as vessels were undocked upon the flood, and it was necessary
to form the lower wing in such a manner, that by means of the
warps attached to her larboard bow, as she left the entrance, she
would be brought head upon tide, and swing in the requisite di-
rection. If the lower wall pointed considerably up the stream,
the labour in counteracting the tendency of the tide, and hauling
her bow down stream, would be much increased. It might like-
wise be oljserved, as Mr. Russell had instanced, that a position
where the tide set very strongly across the entrance, was the exact

l:3G

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

site for ivhicli sucli an entrance as that sTiown by fiif. 16, vvas
adapted; the reasons for this had before been given, and were, in
his opinion, (piite obvious.

Mr. Brinkl accorded fi:enerally "ith the views expressed by Mr.
Uendcl; lie thought, however, that althouirh tlie Institution niifiht
not be able to fix any rules or principles, which would evidently
have an injurious tendency, the mectinsrs were extremely useful, in
makiiif^ the profession better aequaiuted with what had been done,
and in affordins^ opportunities for discussing the principles of con-
struction and the results of certain works.

It did not appear, that any dock entrances had been actually
constructed of the form and at the precise angle laid down in
fig. 16; now there did appear to him certain disadvantages, at-
tendant even upon that plan. Suppose, for instance, a rapid
flowing tide, with the wind setting directly up the stream and
across the entrance; he apprehended there would be much diffi-
culty in bringing the vessel to, swinging her and hauling her down
into the entrance. Therefore, wherever from the prevalence of
certain winds, such a combination of circumstances would be liable
to occur, no engineer would think of employing that particular
form; but would endeavour to find a position for the entrance
where an eddy existed naturally, or he would form a fore-bay to
produce still water, in order to facilitate the entrance of the ship.
It appeared also to him, that there would be considerable difficulty
in bringing a vessel so directly against the tide, upon leaving, as
was proposed. The examples that had been given were undoubtedly
useful; it would, however, be dangerous to assume that they af-
forded sufficient data whereon to base arbitrary rules for cases
which, to superficial observers, might appear identical; but the civil
engineer, whose province it was to examine, and weigh maturely,
all the considerations involved, would see at once that every case
must differ, and his skill and experience must be exercised in
meeting and providing for all the local difficulties. It appeared
therefore certain that in this, as in almost every other branch of
engineering, no arbitrary rules could be laid down to meet all
cases, and the civil engineer must be guided by his scientific and
practical knowledge; the great use of examples being to enable
him to avoid a re))etition of the errors which had been found to
exist and to cause inconveniences in works previously executed.

Mr. Redman, in answer to Mr. Brunei, said there was no en-
trance on the Thames of the exact form laid down in fig. 16; but
such a fact, would not, he conceived, be urged as an objection
againt its ado])tion where circumstances would permit it; many
entrances on the Thames possessed some of its individual features,
— for instance, the lower wing of the Shadwell entrance of the
London Docks (fig. 11), and the upper wing of the Blackwall
entrance of the West India Dock (fig. 2) ; there were also numerous
examples, shown in the drawings, where vessels were docked and
met the tide, when leaving in the manner proposed. The conside-
ration of the occurrence of a rapid Hood, with the wind setting up,
induced him to give the preference to an angle pointing up-stream,
as being most available under such circumstances, and he believed
that to be the general opinion of persons well acquainted with the
system of docking vessels in the Thames. It was true, however,
as had been shown in the paper, that diametrically opposite
opinions had been entertained, which had induced constructions
very different to those now proposed, but which, by the addition of
supplemental outworks, resolved themselves very nearly into the
form laid down in fig. 16. The object in pointing the lower wing
down-streain, was to bring a vessel, when departing, head upon
tide. It had been already shown, that there were numerous
examples in the Thames, where vessels when outward-bouiul met
the tide at a great disadvantage, from the lower wing not affording
such re(piisitc facilities; a vessel leaving such an entrance as that
under consideration, with a warp attached to her larl)oard bow,
swung innnediately into the requisite position; but if the entrance
jiointcd up, or was even square, she would have to swing completely
rouml with a chance of tailing upon the ground. He could not un-
derstand the objection to the ])roposed forms, which he thought
had been misunderstood, and if a vessel could not arrive in, or
leave an entrance so formed, upon a river circumstanced like the
Thames, it was difficult to imagine the particular conformation
which would iirovide the requisite facilities. The fact of laying
down general principles for cases of engineering such as these,
founded u]»on the experience of the past, due consideration being
given at the same time to all tlie attendant circumstances, would
not, he conceived, lessen the duties of the engineer, as the varia-
tions in the level, the site, the foundation, and the construction,
would still demand the exercise of his judgment and e,\perience,
as well as his constant services, as heretofore.

BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE.
(With an Engraving, Plate VI II. J

Sir — I gladly embrace the op|)fntunity aff(n-ded me by your ex-
cellent ./«»r»a/, to correct the errors in Sir John Renuie's state-
ment in your number for March last (p. 77), as to the Bell Rock
Lighthouse, which statement, while professing to be a re])ly to a
letter which I addressed to liim on the 26th December last, is in
reality fouiuled upon a loni; correspondence between Sir John
Rennie and myself, which followed upon that letter. I should
have l>een most willing to leave the public to form their opinion of
the matter in discussion fr(mi that correspondence itself, which,
representing both sides of the question, affords, I submit, more
trustworthy data than the c.r parte statement of Sir John Rennie,
in which, I am sorry to say, by omitting some facts, and misrepre-
senting others, he endeavours to sup])ort his extraordinary position,
that the late Mr. Rennie designed and built the Bell Rock Light-
house.

I have, therefore, to request that you will publish at length the
whole of the corresjiondence that has taken place, to which I refer
all who are interested in the matter. On this, as I have observed,
I should have been willing to rest the cimtroversy ; but certain
statements of Sir John Remiie, which reijuire to be exposed, com-
pel me to trouble you with some preliminary remarks.

In the first place, then, I have to observe, that throughout the
whole of Sir John Rennie's statement, I can trace an evident
tendency to withhold what might seem to identify Mr. Stevenson
with the original design and ultimate execution of the work, and
to magnify, to the fullest extent, every fact that appears to support
his own view, — a spirit which ought not to have a place in such
discussions, and which has led Sir Jidin into sundry errors; but, as
I do not feel justified in making such a statement without proof, I
must trouble your readers with the following instances.

Sir John says, that "on tlie 23rd December 1800, Mr. Stevenson
wrote a Report to the Commissioners of Northern Lighthmises,
wherein, after describing tlie locality and characteristics of the
Rock, he proposed tu^o designs for a Lighthouse, — one of cast-iron
on pillars, and another of stone." He afterwards goes on to say,
that the late Mr. Rennie was applied to by the Commissioners, and
visited the Rock in August 1805, and, "on the 30th December fol-
lowing, made a long Report to the Commissioners, embracing the
whole subject; and, after commenting at length upon the various
designs submitted to him, decided upon recommending a stone Light-
house; and observes, that as to the practicability of erecting such
a work on the Bell Rock, I (Mr. Rennie) think no doubt can be
entertained, with such examples before us as the Tout de Corduan
and the Eddystone." — The tendency of these statements is un-
doubtedly to show, that Mr. Stevenson's mind was not made up as
to the best structure, and that Mr. Rennie not only settled that it
should be of stone, but decided that it was perfectly practicable.
Now, Sir John states that Mr. Rennie's Report "emliraced the
whole subject," but he has suppressed the fact, that Mr. Steven-
son's embraced the whole subject also; and further, he has stated
that Mr. Stevenson proposed two designs, when, although be men-
tiinis historically that three plans had occurred to him, he jn-oposed
only one for adoption, viz. a stone tower, the practicability of which
he, at the same time, pronounced to be ckhtain. In proof of this
I refer to the Repm-t itself, dated 23rd December 1800, in which
Mr. Stevenson first details minutely the characteristics of the Rock.
He then describes the different works that had been executed at
the Eddystone, the Longship, the Smalls, the South Rock, and the
Tour de Corduan. all of whicli, excepting the latter, he had visited,
in (u-der to inform himself as to what had been done in similar
situations. He then proceeds to say, "that until the moment he
landed (ui the Rock, he was uncertain if a building of stone was
apjilicable;" and that, jirevious to his survey of it, and in ignorance
of its size, he had tliouglit./!y.yZ of a floating light, and sccuiidli/, had
made a design for a Lighthinise on iron pillars; but that an inspec-
tion of the Rock had convinced him of tlie practicability of an
erection of stone, which, and wliich aliine, he accordingly recom-
mended, as the following extracts prove. His inspection of the
Rock having satisfied him that the situation was more exposed to
be acted on by any floating body than he at first imagined, he says,
that "he found it difficult to suppose any set of pillars of adequate
strength to resist the force of a loaded vessel, which must render
the pillar-formed construction very uncertain." That the risk
attending the exposure of the metal to the action of the sea ought
not to be wholly o\erlooked "(» giring preference to a circular build-
ing of stone;" and, in conclusion, that "he has estimated the juUar-
formed Lighthouse at 1 j,000/., and although that for the tower of
masonry amounts to 42,630/. S«., yet, as it is treading a beaten path

SMEATOtl'S EDDYSTONE 1759.

•Janu^ Jiuiivi't. tfrj*

EFEREMCES

1 J/T Sftratntm-.t oiiflinal desiifn i\ir the Bell Roek Litjhthmuie WOO

2 ilX Jtemiieis sketch Date Feb^ 1S07 ihe mily ,1romn_q ever tiirrtisJud
fy' him for ihe Work

S Tower as ttmahed <litY.Tin}) from hoth in .umn^ iiimen.iions

■J Smeaton's Lddystone hiflhthoui-^

Uei^lit of Solid iihove hnv water M^ Ste^ensmii ojifjuiol Je^iiin -'tOFeet
■^■' ^^ us executed :iOT,et

^^" P" ■'■» Pnijiosed m MKJieuni,:s R,'/u>rt .'OFeet

100 .

JHamttrr Uitontttr Biamttfr Siiiimterat

42FM

lefut 'ifO.STca IS.Tttt

1

J.5 .

U '.

IS.S3 .

1U.83 .

« .

IS .

20.0 .

a.o.

S6 .

u .

B.-a .

w.so .

£ii^mtei- and JrchAectIt Joiaval.Hay 18-W.

Jiy'Alty K.tAI/iifciwwn.«(finr

136

site
ada]
his <

Ren
not
hav<
mak
and
stru
It
cons

^^•.
tend

flow

aero

cult

into

cert

to 0

forn

whe

proc

It a

in b

was

usef

ford

whii

eiiici

alit

mus

mee

ther

engi

case

prac

him

exis

]Vj

tran

sucl

agai

entr

— fo

Lon

enti

exai

met

ratii

indi

as b

that

syst

as 1

opin

ver)

Fupi

forn

dow

tide

exai

tlie

sucl

und

swu

poiii

roui

ders

had

leav

Tha

whii

dow

foui

give

not,

tion

wou

as H

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

137

which leads to cprtmntij. it is siire/y to he preferred in a work of this
kind: the foundation-courses of stone must be more tedious, yet in
this there is nothing impractiaible; and when tlie difficulties of the
first courses are surmounted" (which, be it observed, wei-e over-
come by Mr. Stevenson himself) "the superiority of a fabric of
stone over one of iron will be readily admitted." This is an opin-
ion given four years before Mr. Rennie made his first Report, and
clearly proves that Mr. Stevenson (and not Mr. Rennie, as Sir
John's extracts imply) was the first to recommend and pronounce
practicable the erection of the present Bell Rock Lighthouse
Tower.

Again, I refer to that part of Sir John's letter, wherein, in his
anxiety to show that the work was entirely under Mr. Rennie's
direction, he says, that on 29th October 1807, Mr. Rennie made a
Report, describing the progress of the works; and, among other
things, reported that "the cofferdam (recommended by Mr. Steven-
son) was not necessary." Now, on referring to the Report of
26th December 1806, which is n joint report, signed by Mr. Rennie
and Mr. Stevenson, the following paragraph will be found :

"Sixthly^ A cott'erdam will be wanted, to the height of 4 or 5 feet, so as
to enable the workmen to continue so much longer than they could do were
the tide allowed to flow over the foundation, when it rises above the level of
the rock."

But Sir John has rashly made it appear, from the way in which he
has stated the matter, that the said cofferdam was a notion of Mr.
Stevenson's, condemned by Mr. Rennie; whereas the Reports in his
hands not only show that it -was jointly recommended, but also that
it wasjfiintlt/ dispensed with, as appears from Mr. Rennie's Report of
29th October 1807, from vvliich Sir John quotes, which, after stating
"that the remainder of the articles mentioned in our Report of
26th December, should be provided as soon as possible," goes on to
say, that it is "proposed to do tlie work without a cofferdam at all.
There has been sufficient trial already made, to satisfy us respecting
its practicability w ithout a cofferdam."

Sir John is further anxious to claim for Mr. Rennie the seleetion
of the material of wliich the tower was to be built, and says, that, in
his Report of 30th December 1805, he recommended, for the e.xte-
rior of the tower, Dundee granite, a stone which certainly does not
exist, and could not, therefore, have been proposed by Mr. Rennie;
but be this as it may, the selection of the stone was made after tlie
joint Report by Mr. Rennie and Mr. Stevenson in 1806, in which
they recommend .'liwf/epH granite in the following words: — "Ife
have no hesitation in recommending that the under part of tlie
building, at least as far as the first apartment, sliould be of Aber-
deen granite" and this material was accordingly emplnyed. Tlie
Dundee stone to which I suppose Sir John Rennie alludes, is the
well-known old red sandstone of Kingoodie, which was used in the
upper part of tlie Lighthouse.

Again, in attempting to show that the work as executed is not
in accordance with Mr. Stevenson's original design. Sir John says,
"the building as erected, it will be observed, differs materially from
that proposed by Mr. Stevenson ; the base is much wider." Now,
in fact, tlie very opposite of this rash assertion is the ti ue state of
the case. The base of the building in Mr. Rennie's sketch is wider,
but the tower, as executed, has a base of 42 feet, being the same
diameter as that adopted by Mi. Stevenson in his original design.

Sir John Rennie also states, that his father repeatedly visited" the
works, and had the "entire responsibility, superintendence, ma-
nagement, and direction of the whole works." WhaX Sir John's
idea of repcatedlg ^•isiting a work of such importance may be, I do
not know; but I cannot discover that Mr. Rennie was on the Bell
Rock more than twice (it may be thrice) during the whole four years
occupied in its erection. His first visit was in 1807, "when the
workmen were preparing the rock to receive the foundation of the
Lighthouse" (see his Report, October 29, 1807), and the second in
1808, after the work had been brought to a close for the season, at
which time only three courses of masonry had been built; and if
ever he was a third time on the Rock, it was not during the build-
ing operations. It thus appears, that Mr. Rennie never saw a
single stone of the building laid; and Sir John's statement, that he
had the "entire responsibility, superintendence, management, and
direction of the whole works," and "repeatedly visited" it, stands,
therefore, in striking contrast with the real facts of the case.

Again, Sir Jolin Rennie says, that, "it does not appear from Mr.
Stevenson's book that he made separate Reports to the Commision-
ers during the construction of the works." Now, to this I oppose
tlie statement, made in my letter of the 9th February last, that
Mr. Stevenson continued to rejjort directly to the Lighthouse Com-
missioners as to the progress of the works; and the jiroof of this
assertion is simple. Thus, among the Minutes of the General
Meeting of Commissioners, of 8tli January 1808, is the following:

— "Read Report by Mr. Stevenson on the different operations con-
nected with the Bell Ruck Lighthouse, which the Commissioners
approved of, and earnestly recommend the most persevering exer-
tions in the prosecution of this undertaking." The minutes also
notice the reading and approval of Mr. Stevenson's Reports on the
progress of the Bell Rock works at the following dates, viz. 14th
January 1809, 5th January 1810, and 14th July 1810, when the
ivorks were nearly completed, beside several reports, in the form of
letters, in the course of the operations.

After the instances I have given, I think I am warranted in say-
ing, that Sir John Rennie was bound, before publicly calling in
question the merit so long and generally acknowledged as due to a
member of the same profession, to have seen that liis averments
were more in accordance with facts; and as it must be as irksome
to the reader as it is to me to follow him through the maze of error
which his letter contains, I willingly proceed to another part of the
subject, and leave him to account for such discrepancies and mis-
statements if he can.

Although I am desirous that all who take an interest in this
matter should peruse the accompanying Letters, which passed
between Sir John Rennie and myself, 1 am well aware tliat many
professional men will not willingly take that trouble. For their
satisfaction I have prepared the accompanying Plate, which shows,
on one scale, Mr. Stevenson's original design of the Bell Rock
Lighthouse of 1800, Mr. Rennie's sketch of 1807, and the work as
actually completed in 1811, and also Smeaton's Eddystone. Refer-
ring to that Plate, I beg leave to make the following statement of
facts, most of which are embodied in my appended Letters.

1.?/, In 1800, Mr. Stevenson, as Engineer to tlie Lighthouse
Board, made the design of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, shown in
Plate VIII. fig. 1, with detailed sections, and plans of floors, and
courses (figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8); and I assert, without fear of contra-
diction, that it embraces all the peculiarities which distinguish the
Bell Rock from the Eddystone.

2f/, That, in 1800, Mr. Stevenson accompanied that design by an
elaborate Report, in which, after detailing his inquiries and re-
searches as to other works, and the various devices that had occur-
red to him for establishing a light, he concludes by '■'■giinu.g the pre-
ference to" a stone tower, and states that the practicability of its
construction is certain.

3d, The Board, in 1803, consulted Mr. Telford; and in 1804 they
applied to Mr. Rennie (I believe on Mr. Stevenson's suggestion) as
the oldest and most eminent engineer of the day, for his advice as
to the practicability of the proposed work. In this there was
nothing extraordinary. It was very natural and proper that the
Commissioners, before embarking in a work of such magnitude and
difficulty, should wish to have the view of their own engineer con-
firmed by so high an authority as Mr. Rennie; but can this destroy
the effect of the evidence, to which I have referred, that Mr. Ste-
venson originally projected the stone tower, or detract from the
ci-edit due to him for having done so ?

4rt, j\lr. Rennie corroborated Mr. Stevenson's views as to the
practicability of building a stone lighthouse, and recommended
that it be adopted, and specially referred to the model prepared by
Mr. Stevenson.

5th, The work was resolved on, and in 1806 a Bill was obtained
to enable the Commissioners of Northern Lights to borrow money
for its erection. In the memorial presented to Parliament on that
occasion, the Commissioners state, that "The Memorialists have
received several estimates of the expense of erecting a Lighthouse
upon the Bell Rock. They have more particularly had recourse to
the professional abilities of Mr. Rennie and Mr. Stevenson, civil
engineers, frjm wliose reports they have reason to believe that the
sum will not exceed 43,000/." Tlie following is an extract from
the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons, to whom
the Bill was referred : —

Extract from Report of the Committee of the House of Commo^is.

" The Committee to whom was referred the Petition of the Commissioners
of the Northern Lighthouses, and to report the matter to the House, as it
shall appear to them, —

" Proceeded to examine Mr. Robert Stevenson, civil engineer, who, in his
capacity of Engineer for the Northern Lighthouses, has erected six Light-
hcuises in the northern parts of the kingdom; and has made the erection of
a Lighthouse on the Cape or Bell Rock more particularly his study, — espe-
cially since the loss of about 70 sail of vessels in a storm wliich happened
upon the coast in the month of December 1799, by which numerous ships
were driven from their course along the shore, and from their moorings in
Yarmouth Roads, and other places of anchorage, southward of the Frith of
Forth, and wrecked upon the eastern coast of Scotland, as referred to in the
Report niaiie to this House in the month of July 1803; the particulars of
which he also confirms: That the Bell Rock is most dangerously situated,

19

138

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[M.,

lying in a track which is annually navigated by no less than about 700,000
tons of shipping, besides His Majesty's ships of war and revenue cutters :
That its place is not easily ascertained, even hy persons well acquainted with
the coast, being covered by the sea about hall-flood, and the liuulmarks, by
which its position is ascertained, being from 12 to 20 miles distant from the
site nf danger.

"That from the inquiries be made at the time the Yori man-of-war was
lost, and pieces of her wreck having drifted ashore upon the opposite and
neighbouring coast; and from an attentive consideration of the circumstances
which attend the wreck of ships of such dimensions, he thinks it probable
that the Yori must have struck upon the Bell Rock, drifted off, and after-
wards sunk in deep water : That he is well acquainted with the situation of
the Bell Rock, the yacht belonging to tlie Lighthouse service having, on one
occasion, been anchored near it for five days, when he had an opportunity of
landing upon it every tide : That he has visited most of the lighthouses on
the coast of England, Wales, and Ireland, particularly those of the Eddy-
stone, the Smalls, and the Kdwarlin, or South Rock, which are built in situa-
tions somewhat similar to the Bell Rock : That at high water there is a
greater depth on the Bell Rock than on any of these, by several feet; and he
is therefore fully of opinion, that a building nf stnne, upon the principles of
the Eddystone Lighthouse, is alone suitable to the peculiar circumstances
which attend this Rock, and has reported his opinion accordingly to the
Commissioners of the Northern Lighthouses as far back at the year 1800;
and having given the subject all the attention in his power, he has estimated
the expense of erecting a building of stone upon it at the sum of 42,685/. 8s,

" Your Committee likewise examined Mr. John Rennie, civil engineer, who,
since the Report made to this House in 1803, has visited the Bell Rock, who
confirms the particulars in said Report, and entertains no doubt of the prac-
ticability of erecting a lighthouse on that Rock, is decidedly of opinion that
a stone lighthouse will he the most durable and effectual, and indeed the
only kind of huilding that is suited to this situation : That he has computed
the expense of such a building, and after making every allowance for con-
tingencies, from his own experience of works in the sea, it appears to him
that the estimate or expense will amount to 41,843/. 15s."

6tli, Mr. Rennie was thereafter appointed, by the Board, Chief
or Consulting Engineer, and acted jointly with Mr. Stevenson in
reporting to and advising the Lighthouse Board; the value of his
expected services, however, being not so much real and absolute as
contingent on the event of anything going wrong in the hands of
Mr. Stevenson, the Official Engineer to the Board, who was his
junior both in years and in experience; and who, in sending his
design and estimate to 'Sir. Rennie, says (in a letter dated 28th
December 1805), "In lianding you these plans I by no means
should wish to he understood to do anything more than lay before
you a subject which lias cost me much, very much trouble, and
consideration, without at all supposing that they are the best that
may be thought of for the purpose." (Yet these very plans by Mr.
Stevenson were substantially those which were afterwards exe-
cuted.) "On the contrary, your great experience and practice,
must make a subject of this kind familiar to your mintl, and be
higlily improved in your hands."

7th, Tlie only drawing furnished to the Board by Mr. Rennie is
that shown in Plate VIII., fig. 2, which was prepared in 1807, six
years after Mr. Stevenson's original design, and is a mere pictorial
sketch, copied from the Eddystone, and not a working drawing.
It is obvious that it was made merely for the purpose of illustrating
Mr. Rennie's views as to the extension of the base of the Tower,
a modification of the original design which seems to have been
acceded to by Mr. Stevenson, as it is recommended in their joint
Report of 29th December 1806, but which Mr. Stevenson after-
wards found it was not advantageous to follow to the full extent
indicated by the sketch alluded to, as the diameter of the existing
Tower is only 42 feet, being the same as Mr. Stevenson's original
design, instead of 45, as shown in Mr. Rennie's sketch. In other
respects the sketch is a servile copy of the Eddystone, as will be
seen by comparing it with fig. 4, which is a section of that work.
It shows no details; not even the position and level of the door,
which, in such a building, is a matter of no small moment. In
fact, it is clear that it never was intended by Mr. Rennie to
represent more than the line of the proposed extension of the
base: the whole of the im]irovenients on the interior work of the
Eddystone having been introduced into Mr. Stevenson's original
design.

Stk, The Bell Rock Lighthouse, as executed, is shown in
Plate VIII., fig. 3. Any professional reader will at once see, from
the sections, that the interior work of the tower is in general ac-
cordance witli that of the original design by Mr. Stevenson, fig. 1 ;
and differs from the Eddystone, amongst other things, in this
respect, that the arched form of floor is discontimietl, and the
thrust on the walls counteracted. It will also be apparent, that,
as already noticed, the diameter of the tower at the base, as
executed, is the same as the original design, being 42 feet, while

the diameter of Mr. Rennie's sketch is 4.5 feet. It is farther
worthy of notice, that Mr. Rennie recommended (in his Report of
30tli December 1805, which, by the vvay, is strangely enough
stated by Sir John as a jiroof of his having directed the details)
tliat the solid part of tlie tower should be carried up 50 feet from
the rock, wliereas it is in reality only 30 feet, in terms of Mr. Ste-
venson's original design of 1800. It will also be seen, that the
greater diameter at the top wliich characterises Mr. Stevenson's
original design and the work as e.vecuted, forms an important dis-
tinction between Mr. Stevenson's and Mr. Rennie's views. Jlr.
Rennie, in his sketch, has f(dlowed the Eddystone, whereas Mr.
Stevenson increased the diameter of the tower at its top, and thus
obtained much better accommodation for the lighting apparatus.

9tli, As to the extract from Mr. Rennie's Report of 2nd October
1HU9, on the strength of which Sir John Rennie tries to found a
claim for his Father, as having set aside Mr. Stevenson's plan, all
that can he drawn from that Report is, that Mr. Rennie recom-
mended the addition of tlie dovetails of Smeaton's floors to the
plan shown in Mr. Stevenson's design of 1800, wliich shows the
floor-stones passing tlirough the outer wall, and the radiated stones
also connected to each other by means of feathers, as actually
adopted in the work. Sir John Rennie marks in italics the
description of the stones as ^^radiated from a circular block in the
middle;" but this is the very description of Mr. Stevenson's plan
(fig. (i, in the Plate), and the only change is the introduction of
the Smeatonian dovetails at the centre-stone, as shown in fig. 9,
in addition to the fmthera on the sides of the stones. As to the
other words italicised by Sir John Rennie, "I have already drawn
out," I shall not oppose to them Mr. Stevenson's words (at p. 501
of Account), which were never contradicted, where, speaking of
Mr. Rennie's sketch (fig. 2), he describes it "as the only plans or
drawings furnished for this work by that eminent engineer;" but
shall rather find a more natural explanation, by supposing that Jlr.
Rennie had casually made some sketch, showing his idea of adding
Smeaton's dovetails in tlie centre-stone. Again, as to "the stones
being deeper in the direction of the radius of the Lighthouse"
(Rennie's Report of 29th October 1807), what is that, I would
ask, but the method shown in Mr. Stevenson's original plan (see
section, fig. 7), in which the stones, as already said, go through the
whole wall, instead of resting in notches cut in it, as shown in
Smeaton's section (fig. 12).'' Let it also be borne in mind that Mr.
Rennie, in this Report, is detailing what luid been done, and is not
setting forth what is to be done.

loth. But such a tower is, after all, merely a likeness of Smea-
ton's Eddystone; and the general conception of it, — if the details
of the joggling, &c., and of the floors to prevent thrust, &c., be
excepted, — implies nothing original. The great merit lies in the
execution. Now, for four seasons, Mr. Stevenson personally con-
ducted the operations with the -greatest fortitude and ])erseverance,
while Mr. Rennie, during that period, was only tirice (perhaps
thrice) on the rock, and never saw a single stone of the structure
laid! In this respect, ftlr. Stevenson followed the path of Smeaton,
who laid aside every other engagement, and gave his personal at-
tention to the execution of his great work.

llth. All that can be really said to be original in the design of
the Lighthouse, or in the management of the works, is due to Mr.
Stevenson, who proposed and designed the stone tower, planned
the tying floors, the ring or band joggles, and laid out the gradu-
ally-diminishing thickness of the walls (see Account, p. 445;
and Plate VII., fig. 6, of his Account\ He also conceived the
nioveable jib-crane (Account, p. 91), the balance-crane, used in
building the upper part of the tower (Account, p. 295); and, above
all, the tempirrary wooden barrack, and the floating light (proposed
in Mr. Stevenson's Report of 15th November 1800), witliout which
the completion of the work would have been much retarded.
The value of these suggestions, and the estimation in which they
were held by the Board, will best appear from the following ex-
tract from the minutes of meeting of Northern Lights of 9th
July 1811 : —

" Read Report by Messrs. Hamilton and Duff,* of the following
tenor : —

" In observance of the minute of the Bell Rock Committee of the 18th
June, we went and inspected the models deposited in the store of the de-
partment at Leith, and found them all there entire, and in preservation,
except the model for the coflerdara, which, being of a large size, and incon-
venient to be preserved, has been broken up. Mr. Hamilton, however, re-
members having seen it, so that there is no doubt that all the models men-
tioned were prepared by the engineer. These were assuredly deserving of
credit, and were highly necessary to induce the Commissioners to engage in
the great undertaking of the Hell Rock ; and we are both of opinion, that

* Ttie Committee appointed to audit accounts.

1849.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

139

v'llhout the temporary house upon the Rock, the model of which is the last
article in the eni/ineer's account remitted to us, the Lighthouse tcould not
have been erected near so soon, and perhaps not even now. We therefore
think tliis piece of mechanism deserves much commendation, and does credit
to Mr. Stevenson's foresight and judgment. We farther observe, that Mr.
Stevenson has been at considerable expense in various journeys to Ireland
and elsewhere, in the furtherance of this great object ; and that he ought to
have some consideration, in name of interest, upon such outlays. As to the
last article, which is blank, for designs, drawings, preparing an address to
the Commissioners, &c., we rather think the matter falls under Mr. Steven,
son's duty as engineer, and that we cannot, strictly speaking, take it much,
if at all, into account; that upon duly considering the value of the outlay,
the expense of the journeys, and the length of time, Mr. Stevenson has not
been indemnified on these accounts, we are of opinion that it would he
proper he should be paid the sum of 300 guineas for every thing set forth in
the prefixed account ; and we report the same accordingly.

(Signed) " R. Hamilton.

"Adam Duff."

" Which Report being considered, the meeting approve thereof, and au-
thorise the clerk and cashier to pay Mr. Stevenson the sum of 300 guineas
accordingly."

1'2M, As a further test of the value and amount of work per-
formed, it may not be out of place to state that, while Mr. Telford
received fees to the extent of 77/., and Mr. Rennie to the extent
of 428/., Mr. Stevenson received 4,052/. 16«., of which 315/. above
referred to, were for his origfinal reports and designs made in ISOO,
and a //iOw.«n)(rf (7«i»p«« of which were paid to him by the Light-
house Board at the conclusion of the work, in terms of their vote
passed before the operations were commenced.

13///, In proof of the opinion held by the profession on this sub-
ject, it may also be stated that the Council of the Institution of
Civil Engineers, in their Introduction to the first volume of the
Transactions, which was published in 1826, give sketches of tlie
lives and works of various deceased Engineers. In speaking of
Smeaton they call the building of the Eddystone his greatest
work. Of Rennie they give an account from his earliest to his
latest days; and although they enumerate upwards of twenty
works in which he was engaged, their list does not include the Bell
Rock Lighthouse; a feature in the report by the Council of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, which contrasts very strangely with
Sir John Rennie's assertion, that his father designed and built the
Bell Rock Lighthouse.

14//4, Mr. Rennie himself, in his letter of 7th September 1807,
says to Mr. Stevenson, that, if successful in the work in which he
was engaged, '''•it will iyiiinortalise you in the annals of fame."

Lastly, What was the opinion of the Commissioners of the
Lighthouse Board, to whom Sir John Rennie says, "the greatest
credit is due for the public spirit, energy, and ability with which
they brought forward and carried out to a successful conclusion
this im])ortant maritime work.''" This may be easily learned from
the facts; 1st. That, at their General Meeting of 14th July 18J2,
"on the motion of Mr. Hamilton, Mr. Stevenson, Engineer, was
directed to prepare an Account of the building of the Bell Rock
Lighthouse, from the commencement to the conclusion of the un-
dertaking, and that under the direction of the C'onimittee formerly
appointed, viz., Mr. Solicitor-General, Mr. Hamilton, and Mr.
Erskine; and the Clerk was authorised to answer the orders of that
Committee for any sums not exceeding 400/. to enable them to
defray the expenses of this and the drawings that will accompany
it." 2d, From their frequent visits to the Rock, the Commis-
sioners knew every step of the proceedings, and felt along with
Mr. Stevenson in all his arduous toils; and they have, accordingly,
recorded their approval by inscribing his name and erecting his
bust in the Tower, in terms of the motion of Sir \\'illiam Rae,
Bart., then Lord-Advocate of Scotland, who moved "that a bust
of Mr. Robert Stevenson be obtained and placed in the library of
the Bell Rock Lighthouse, in testimony of the sense entertained
by the Commissioners of his distinguished talent and indefatigable
zeal in the erection of the Lighthouse."

All this, however, is nothing in the eyes of Sir John Rennie,
who, in defiance of facts, and in absence of proof, states boldly
that Mr. Rennie designed and built the Bell Rock Lighthouse,
worked out the details, and, in fact, that nothing was done with-
out being submitted to and receiving his approval. It is one thing
to make a statement, and another thing to substantiate it; but it
is the less wonderful that such an assertion should be made by Sir
John after the rash statements to which 1 have already alluded at
the commencement of this letter.

In his last letter. Sir John takes a somewhat different stand, and
avows another ground on which he rests his claim, in these words:
— "The simple fact of your Father having been appointed assist-

ant engineer, under the late Mr. Rennie, and at his, Mr. Rennie's,
request, independent of any other point, settles the question."'
So, then, the fact of Mr. Stevenson's original design, five years
before Mr. Rennie heard of the subject, including, as I have shown,
all the peculiarities of the work which distinguish it from the
Eddystone; of his having, jointly with Mr. Rennie, reported on
the work, and proposed the departures from Smeaton's outline, as
well as his being coupled with Mr. Rennie in the Minutes of the
Board, under the term "the Engineers," and of his having pre-
sented Reports on the progress of the work directly to the Com-
missioners, all go for notliing. Nay more, his having prosecuted
the work at much personal risk, the late Mr. Rennie having frankly
given him the whole credit, and the Commissioners having, both
by pecuniary and honorary tributes, expressed their sense of his
position, and their having also entrusted to him the task of pre-
paring, at their expense, an Account of the work, are facts which,
it should seem, are to be entirely cast aside on tlie mere collocation
of the words "chief and assistant engineers." So wills Sir John
Rennie; and having committed himself, by suppressing, in a formal
notice of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, even the very name of the
man who originally designed and actually executed it, we need not
be surprised to find him persevering in the rejection of claims
which he has already thus publicly denied. With such a course,
the anxiety which he professes to render justice "to all concerned"
forms an unseemly contrast, and like all other spurious virtues, it
runs to excess in a devious path; for not only does he elevate the
foremen of the carpenters and masons to the same platform with
his father's coadjutor, but even singles out the Commissioners of
the Northern Lights themselves, (whose merits are not the point
at issue, and whose public-spirited exertions have been long since
acknowledged in higher quarters) as the objects of his formal com-
mendation. But I forbear further comment; and will only repeat
two questions already proposed to Sir John Rennie, but which have
not been replied to.

First, Since the example shown by Smeaton, what credit can
possibly be due to any engineer in connection with the Bell Rock
Lightliouse, which is not included under one or more of the three
following heads, viz.: —

Either, the original proposal of Smeaton's Stone Tower, for a
rock in an exposed situation, 15 feet under high water.

Or, the proposal of any improvements on Smeaton's design and
mode of carrying on the work.

Or, the personal superintendence of the work, necessarily involv-
ing so much fortitude, zeal, and self-denial; and.

Secondly, Which ot these sources of credit can be claimed for
Mr. Rennie?

Tn conclusion, I ask, who will deny that Mr. Stevenson can
justly lay claim to each of them.''

AVith many thanks for the indulgence you have kindly granted
to me, I am, &c.

Edinburgh, April 10, 1849. Alan Stevenson.

Correspondence between. Sir .John Rennie and Mr. Alan Stevenson.
I. Mr. Alan Stevenson to Sir John Rennie.

Edinburgh, 25 Regent Terrace,— 26th Dec. 1848.

Sir — I am most unwillingly compelled to call your attention to a state-
ment in your "Account of the Breakwater in Plymouth Sound," now for the
first time brought under my notice. I allude to a passage on page 29, where
in reference to the Lighthouse on the Breakwater, yon state that " the ma-
sonry of the solid part of the Lighthouse Tower was to have been dove-
tailed and cased with granite, upon the same principle as that of the Eddy,
stone Lighthouse Tower; and the hollow part of the tower, as well as the
floors, was to have been constructed upon the same principle as that adopted
by Mr. Rennie. in the Lighthouse designed and built by him on the Bell Rock
on the east coast of Scotland, in the year 1806 — which system differs from
that adopted by Smeaton at the Eddystone, inasmuch as the whole of the
floors are formed by large stone landings, connected together in the centre by
a key-stone, instead of being radiated in the form of an arch. By this means
the whole is joined and tied together in the most cflicient and substantial
manner, without the use of chain-bars, hoops, or other iron work, which is
found to be preferable, as the lateral pressure upon the outer walls is thereby
avoided, and the building rendered more secure."

Now, I am constrained to say, that the Bell Rock Lighthouse was not
"designed and built" by Mr. Rennie, but by my Father; and, in proof of
this, I refer you to the Report of the House of Commons, on a Bill to en-
able the Commissioners to borrow '25,000/. for the erection of the Light-
house, which is quoted at page 103 of his "Account of the Bell Rock Light-
house," and in which it is stated that the Committee began by examining
Mr. Robert Stevenson, who had reported his opinion on the subject to the
Commissioners, and had estimated the cost of the Lighthouse, so far back as
the year 1800, at 42,685/. 8s. ; and that they afterwards examined Mr. John

19*

l;o

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

L-Mav,

Rennie in support of the Bill, " who confirms the particulars in said Report"
(viz. my Father's), and whose estimate ditl'ered fnmi his hv a mere fraetion,
being 41,843/. Ihs. My Father's original design is given in Plate VII. fij. 0,
and Mr. Uennie's at Plate VII. fig. 15; and the actual building, which differs
in height and other circumstances from either, and may he called a com-
pound of both, is shown at Plate XVI. Far he it from me to lake from Mr.
Rennie one tittle of any praise which may be due to him in connection with
the Bell Rock Lightliouse. This, I am sure, no one has so fully awarded to
him as my Father himself has done ; for both in his Account, and through-
out their correspondence during the erection of the Lighthouse, he invaria-
bly speaks of Mr. Rennie with that respect which is due from youth to age,
especially when, as in liis case, age is rendered honourable by professional
eminence. So much, indeed, was this feeling manifested, that ray Father, in
their correspondence, asks Mr. Rennie's friendly advice as to the renjunera-
tion which he should seek for his labours at tlie Bell Rock. Mr. Rennie,
who was at that time engaged with the Leith Docks, was, in fact, consulted
by the Lighthouse Board, chiefly, I have reason to believe, on my Father's
suggestion, as may indeed be gathered from a passage at page 445 of his
Account (where he speaks of Mr. Rennie having " obligingly favoured" him
by examining his original models). He accordingly speaks of Mr. Rennie as
the " Chief Engineer" with whom he made joint Reports on the subject.
Hut this in no measure derogatis from the truth of my statement, that
Mr. Stevenson first proposed and designed, and evenlualty did actually build,
i/ie Belt Rocit Liglithouse. Wliile, also, my Father frankly tells us, that,
throughout the course of the work, he advised with Mr. Rennie, it is no less
obvious that he sometimes differed in opinion from his adviser ; and the
executed work accordingly differs, as above stated, from the origin.il designs
of both engineers. In point of fact, also, Mr. Rennie merely furnished a
plan (now before me), showing the diameter of the base proposed by him,
ijut without any plan or section of the courses, together with an elevation or
pictorial representation of a Tower like Smeaton's, which (see Stevenson's
-i/ccown/, page 501) " are here preserved as the only plans or dratvings fur-
nistiedjor tliis work by that eminent engineer." If any detailed plans be in
your possession, they are those w-hich, at Mr. Rennie's request, were sent
from my Father's office, afler the execution of the work.

The only point which needs farther explanation is, that which you speak
of as the difference between tlie Eddystone and the Bell Rock — viz. the ad-
vantage of converting the floors into connecting -ties, instead of permitting
them to act with a disuniting thrust ; but this, he it observed, formed a dis-
tinctive feature of my Father's design and model, in the year ISOO, six years
before Mr. Rennie's advice was asked, and is thus described by him at page
500 of his Account, in speaking of bis original model and design :— " Fig. 7
shows one of the floors, each stone of which forms part of the outward
walls, extending inwards to a centre stone, independently of which they
were to be connected by means of copper bats, with a view to preserve their
square form at the extremity, instead of doveiailing. These stones were also
modelled with joggles, side^'ise, upon the principles of the common floor,
termed feathering in carpentry, and also with ilovi tailed joggles across the
joints, where they formed part of the outward wall, as shown in this figure."
This subject he again notices in the body of the narrative, where he says, at
page 345, — "The floors of the Eddystone Lighthouse, on the contrary, were
constj-ucted of an arch-form, and the haunches of the arches bound with
chains, to prevent their pressing outward, to the injury of the walls. In
this, Mr. Smeaton followed the construction of the Dome of St. Paul's ;
and this mode might also be found necessary at the Eddystone, from the
want of stones in one length, to form the outward wall and floor, in the then
state of the granite quarries of Cornv\all. At Mylnefield Quarry, however,
there was no difliculty in procuring stones of the requisite dimensions ; and
the writer" (Mr. Stevenson) " foresaw many advantages that would arise
from having the stones of the floors to form part of the outward walls,
without introducing the system of arching. In particular, the pressure of
the floors upon'the walls would thus be perpendicular; for as the stones
were prepared in the sides, with groove andfeattier, after the manner of the
common house-floor, they would, by this means, form so many girths, bind-
ing the exterior walls together, as will he understood by examining the dia-
grams and sections of Plate VII." (above quoted) "with its letterpress de-
scription, agreeably to which he had moilelled the floors in his original
flesigns for the Bell Rock, which were laid before the Lighthouse Board in
the year 1800."

It thus appears, that even this arrangement of the floors, which you so
highly value as t!ie great improvement on Smeatons's design, and for which,
at page 30 of your v\ork, you reiterate your claim in favour of Mr. Rennie
in a somewhat feebler tone, — I say it appears that even this improvement
was entirely due to my Father.

The real state of the case, therefore, is simply this: — That Mr. Stevenson
alone built the Bell Rock Lighthouse, and that he did so after a design of
his own, in some measure modified to meet Mr. Rennie's views, but, not as
you would lead one to suppose, in respect to " the system" of tying the walls
by means of the floor-stones, which formed, as I have already shown, part of
my Father's original design in 1800. Such also is the general conclusion at
which the public have arrived, for they well know who built the Bell Rock
Lighthouse; and such was the opinion of the Lighthouse Board, who, on
the motion of Sir William Rae, Bart., then Lord Advocate of Scotland,
" resolved that a Bust of Mr. Robert Stevenson he ohtaineil, and placed in
the library of the Bell Rock Lightliouse, in testimony of the sense enter,
tained by the Commissioners of bis distinguished talent and indefatigable

zeal in the erection of that Lighthouse." Such, above all, was the feeling
of your venerable Father himself, who, in a letter to my Father (in my pos-
session) of date " London, September 7, 1807," uses these remarkable
words, not more unequivocal in awarding the praise where it is really due,
than honourable to nini who penned them : *' Poor old fellow !" says he,
alluding to the name of Smeaton, " I hope he will now and then take a
peep of us, and inspire you with fortitude and courage to brave all diflicul-
ties and dangers, to accomplish a work which will, if successful, immortalise
vou in the annals of fame. With such perseverance as yours I entertain no
doubt of final success."

I grieve sincerely to be forced to say that ynu have ventured to contradict
this testimony by entirely omitting the name of the original projector, with
whom your Father was merely conjoined as an adviser in this great work,
the merit of which, you must well know, consists in the original boldness of
the proposal to follow Smeaton's example in such a situation as the Bell
Rock, which is submerged by the tide to the depth of Jif teen feet, and still
more in its successful execution. To both of these sources of professional
fame you cannot possibly deny that my Father alone has any claim ; for, as
already shown, he proposed and reported on the work in the year 1800, and,
like Smeaton himself, was present on the rock during every stage of the
actual building of the Lighthouse.

If this statement shall give you any new light on the history of this mat-
ter, and thus alter your views, I shall rejoice to receive from you an acknow-
ledgment of my Father's merits, and to give you in return an acquittal, in so
far as 1 am concerned, from the serious charge which the facts above stated
seem to imply.

I have taken this matter into my own hands, because I am unwilling that
my Father should, at his time of life, be drawn into a correspondence of
this kind. I remain, &c.

Alan Stevenson.

II. Sir John Rennie to Mr. Alan Stevenson.

London, 2lith January, 1R49.
Sir — I beg leave to apologise that absence from London, on the Conti-
nent, for above two months, and from which I have only just returned, has
unavoidably prevented me from receiving and replying to your letter of the
14th ultimo, and which 1 hope you will excuse. 1 have read your letter
through with much attention, and, in justice to the late Mr. Rennie, I feel
bound to say that I see no reason to change my opinion as stated in my
Address, and of which you complain ; indeed, I think your Father's Book
alone on the Bell Rock Lighthouse confirms it, where, — see Mr. Rennie's
Reports of the 30th December 1805, 26th December 1806, 29ih October
1807, 12th December 1808, 2d October 1809,— this last Report is not in
your Father's Book, — you will find also, in page 179, cap. iii., your Father
uses the following words : — " When the writer, who had now been secluded
from society several weeks, enjoyed much of Mr. Rennie's interesting con-
versation, both on general topics, and professionally on the progress of the
Bell Rock wor/cs, on w/iich he was cotmilted as Chief Engineer I !" That
excellent and able engineer, the late Mr. David Logan, who was cognisant of
the facts, repeatedly told me that nothing was done without being previously
submitted to, and receiving the approval of, the late Mr. Rennie ; in fact, the
w hole responsibility rested with him, as Chief Engineer, as admilted by your
Father, and, as such, Mr. Rennie is entitled to the credit of it. In saying
thus much, I shonld be extremely sorry to detract from your Father's merit,
as second engineer, acting under the superintendence of the late Mr. Rennie.
It is my intention to collect the documents together, and to print them, since
you have already done the same with your letter ; and I feel much obliged
to you for giving me the opportunity. I am extremely sorry to have any
difference with you upon the subject ; but, in justice to all parties, this is the
proper course, and if I have made any error (which 1 do not apprehend), I
shall have much pleasure in correcting it. — I am, &e.

John Rennie.

To Alan Stevenson, Esq.

III. Jlr. Alan Stevkxson to Sir John Rennie.

Edinburgh; January 29, 1849.

Sir — Your letter of the 20th reached me while on the eve of starting for
the Solway F'rith, whence 1 have just returned. 1 lose no time in saying
that, as it does not contain one single fact beyond what is already given in
mine of the 26th to yourself, it calls for little comment from rae. To my
letter, which states the case truly, I therefore again refer, as proof that your
Father merely acted as chief or consulting engineer, and that my Father
actually planned and erected the Bell Rock Lighthouse; and, in particular,
that he alone designed what you have spoken of as the distinguishing pecu-
liarity of that structure.

Your reference to your conversation with the late Mr. David Logan, for-
merly foreman of the masons in the Bell Rock workyard at Arbroath, and
afterwaids in your employ, is ill-judged; and, had you known that, in the
course of the operations, my Father had found it necessary to supersede
Mr. Logan as clerk, and restrict him solely to the duties of a foreman,
yuo would not probahy have referred to him as your authority on the
subject.

The entire suppression of my Father's name in your allusion to the Bell
Rock Lighthouse, takeu in counection with the tenor of your letter, now

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

141

before me, satisfies ire that you will never Ho justice to my Father, and that
it i8 needless for me to waste time in farther correspondence with you on
thissuhject. I am, &c.

Alan Stevenson.

IV. Sir John Rennib to Mr. Alan Stevenson.

{Bell Sod Lightlwme.)

London, ;llst January, 1849.

S,a I beg to acknowledge yours of the 29th inst., received this morning,

and beg to observe, that it is no answer to mine of the 20th inst. In my
Address (of which you complain) there was no room to enter into details,
but in the work which I am about to publish on the Bell Rock, and which I
have had some time in contemplation, I shall take care to do justice to your
Father and all concerned.

With regard to your observations about the late Mr. David Logan, I have
only to say, at present, that, after leaving the Bell Rock, he was appointed,
by the late Mr. Telford, to superintend the works at Dundee, afterwards to
the works at Donaehadee by the late Mr. Eennie, and by myself to those at
Port-Patrick and Whitehaven, and be closed his valuable career as engineer
to the Clyde Trustees, by whom he was selected from a numerous list of
able competitors ; and he enjoyed the entire confidence of the late Mr. Tel-
ford, Mr. Rennie, myself, and wherever he was employed. I must say,
therefore, that after such testimonials to his ability, integrity, and general
good conduct, your remarks are by no means appropriate, and cannot, in any
degree, invalidate Mr. Logan's testimony. Since your style of writing is so
irritable, I should be extremely sorry to prolong this correspondence, and
quite agree with you that it can he of no service. 1 he real merits of any
case can only he decided by calmly and dispassionately considering the evi-
dence upon which it rests ; and I am satisfied in resting the claims of the
late Mr. Rennie upon their merits. — I am, &c.

John Rennie.

To Alan Stevenson, Esq.

V. Sir John Rennie to Mr. Alan Stevenson.

[Bell Rock Lighthouse.)

London, Ist February, 1849.
Sir — In order to prevent you from committing yourself farther upon this
subject, and upon which, I am sure that your proper sense of candour will
induce you to admit at once that you have unconsciously been in error, I
herewith send you copies of some minutes of tFie Commissioners of North-
ern Lighthouses. I cannot, for a moment, suppose that you were cognisant
of them when you wrote your letters of the 14th of December last and the
29th ultimo ; at the same time, I feel justified in saying, that I think it was
your duty (considering your intimate connection with the Board of Northern
Lighthouses) to have examined diligently these minutes before giving your
statements to the world, as I think it would have prevented this unpleasant
correspondence. As regards myself I willingly forget what has passed; and
I trust that henceforward nothing will occur to prevent that harmony which
ought ti» exist amongst members of the same profession. — I am, &c.

John Rennie.

P.S. Of course it is my intention to publish all the documents as I told
you.
To Alan Stevenson, Esq.

Excerpt from a Minute of a Meeting of the Commissioners of the Northern Lighthouses,
held at Edinburgh, the 3d December lM.Hi.
" PreBCnt— The Lord Provost ot Eoinburgh.

Thomas Henderson, Esq., first Bailie of Edinburgh.
William Rae, Esq , Sheritf-Dt-pnte of Orliney.
R. Hamilton, Esq., Sheriff Depute of Lanark.
D. Woneypenny, Esq., Sheriff- Depute ot File.
James Clerk, Esq., Sheriff-Depute of hdinburgl?.
John Rennie, Esq., Civil Engineer.
** This meeting having been called for the special purpose of taking preliminary steps
for carrying into effect the powers vested in the Commissioners by Act of Parliament, for
erecting a Lighthouse on the Cape or Bell Rock, and the ditferent reports on the subject,
particularly on the kind of building to be adopted, hcving been duly considered, and Mr.
Rennie having verbally delivered his opinion on the subject —
" Resolved unanimously, —

"That the building to be erected for the purpose of a Lighthouse on the Bell or Cape
Rock shall be of stone, and that the same sh 'II be erected under the direction of John
Rennie, Esq., Civil Engineer, whom they hereby appoint chief engineer for conducting
the work.

" Mr. Rennie having stated to the meeting, in general terms, his opinion as to the form
of the building, and ihe particular sort of materials to be used, &c., he was requested to
furnish the Commissioners with plans ; and as to the kind of stone, as he was about to
proceed to Perth, he was requested to visit the Dundee Quarry, and also to inspect the
Aberdeen granite, and report upon this subject.

'■Mr. Stevenson was authorised to proceed along with Mr. Rennie, and to endeavour to
procure a yard and the necessary accommodation at Arbroath.

" Extracted by C. CUNNINGHAM, Sec."

Excerpt from a Minute of a Meeting of the Commissioners of the Northern Lighthouses,
held at Edinburgh, the 26th day of December 18U6.
•* Present— The Lord Provost of Edinburgh.

Thomas Henderson, Esq., first Bailie of Edinburgh.
Robert Hamilton, Esq.. Sheritf- Depute ot Lanark.
Edward M'Cormick, Esq., Sheriif-Depute of Ayr.
James Clerk, Esq., Sheriff. Depute of Edinburgh.
John Rennie, Esq.. Civil Engineer.
*' Messrs. Rennie and Stevenson having, in terms of last minute, proceeded to Dundee
and Aberdeen, and examined the diiferent quarries, they presented a joint report in the
folloning terms : [Here the report lollows, and the various orders made thereon.]

" Mr. Rennie proposed to the meeting that Mr. Stevenson should be appointed assist-
ant-engineer to execute the work under his superintencience, and mentioned lo the Com-
missioners that the mode of re-imbursing him for his trouble, and the risk attending the
business which was customary in similar undertakings, and what he knew would be most
agreeable to the Board of Treasury, would be to allow him a certain per.centage upon a
limited sum of expenditure, with such a sum at the conclusion of the work as they may
may choose to fix. And the Commissioners agree as to the appointment of Mr. Steven-
son to be assistant-engineer under Mr. Rennie ; but they delay taking into consideration
the recompense to he made to him, both as to the amount, and the manner of doing it,
until next meeting. " Extracted by C. CUNNINGHAM, See."

VI. Mr. Alan Stevenson to Sir John Rennie.

Edinburgh, February 9, 1849.
Sir — Ynur letter of the 1st inst., with copy of some Minutes of the
Lighthouse Board, I received in course of post; but have not found time to
reply till to-day. These Minutes only affirm what was long ago slated by
Mr. Stevenson in his Account of the IJell Rock Lighthouse, and what 1 have
repeated in my letters to you, that the late Mr. Rennie was employed as
Chief or Consulting Engineer. You must be perfectly aware that I am not
disputing about names but about yac^i; it is, therefore, indifferent whether
this circumstance be stated as above, or whether the co-relative statement
(which is so clearly implied in it) be added, viz., that Mr. Stevenson, who,
be it observed, was Engineer to the Board, was nominated Assistant, or, as
we should now say, Acting Engineer under the late Mr. Rennie. This is
quite true, and has been amply admitted; but what of that? In no respect
does it touch my averment, that Mr. Stevenson, and not Mr. Rennie, designed
and built the Bell Rock Lighthouse.

Let me recapitulate, as briefly as possible, the grounds of ray statement,
as given in my letters to you; or as drawn from my Father's Account of the
Bell Rock Lighthouse, and from the Minutes of the Lighthouse Board.
They are as follows : —

\st, Mr. Stevenson, in the year 1800, made a design of the Bell Rock
Lighthouse, with a report to the Commissioners, embracing the chief pecu-
liarities which distinguish that structure from the Eddystone, such as the
mode of diminishing gradually the thickness of the walls, — the introduction
of ring or band-jngales, — and the tying of the walls by means of the lioors,
so as to avoid the outward thrust, which last improvement is erroneously
claimed by you, in your work on the Plymouth Breakwater, for the late .\Ir.
Rennie. Mr. Stevenson also, at that early period, made drawings and models
of the work, and estimated tlie cost at 42,635/. 8*. It is also worthy of
notice, that the Report alluded to distinctly shows that Mr. Stevenson was
the prime mover in bringing about the building of the Lighthouse, and to
his early exertions in a great measure are mariners indebted for its ultimate
establishment. — (See Accoimt, p. 442.)

2d, In 1804, Mr. Rennie was called in by the Lighthouse Board (and I
believe on my Father's suggestion) as the oldest and most eminent engineer
of the day, for his opinion as to the practicability of Mr. Stevenson's pro-
posal to build a tower of masonry on a rock covered to the depth of 16 feet
at high water of spring-tides, a work the successful issue of which was then
much doubted, the first entire course of the Eddystone being on a level with
high water.

id, In the Evidence before the Committee of the House of Commons in
favour of the Bill for authority to erect the Lighthouse and for power to
borrow 20,000/., Mr. Stevenson, the Engineer of the Board, was first called
to explain his proposed plans and estimates, and to state his opinion as to
the practicability of the work, while Mr. Rennie merely corroborated them.
And, in particular, be it observed, that Mr. Stevenson's estimate, which, as
above stated, was 42,635/. 8s., diflTered from Mr. Rennie's, which was
41,843/. 16«., by a mere fraction, thus showing that their views of the matter
were identical ; while Mr. Stevenson, the original proposer and prime mover
of this great work, had the precedence of his future colleague by a period
of at least six years.

ith. The only plan furnished to the Commissioners by Mr. Rennie is that
shown in Plate Vll. of the Account of the Lighthouse, the original of which
still exists. It is a mere pictorial view of a tower without sections; and the
Lighthouse, as actually executed, is not in accordance with it, but is a modi-
fication adopted by Mr. Stevenson, during the progress of the works, and
embraces the best points of his own original design made in 1800, and of
this sketch which was furnished by Mr. Rennie in February 1807. Even
the height of the finished tower considerably differs from the sketch of .Vlr.
Rennie.

oth, But such a tower as the Bell Rock, is, after all, merely a likeness of
Smeaton's Eddystone suited to the situation ; and the general conception of
it implies nothing original. The great merit, therefore, lies in the execution
of the work. Now, throughout the whole four years' operations, Mr. Rennie
was only twice on the Rock for an hour or two during a tide ; while Mr. Sta-
venson, for four seasons, personally conducted the operations on the Rock
with the greatest fortitude and perseverance, and also superintended all tiie
details in the workyard at Arbroath.

dth. All that can really be said to be original in the design of the Bell
Rock Lighthouse, or in the management of the works, is due to Mr. Steven-
son alone, who first proposed the measure at all, and designed a Lighthouse
of stone; planning the tying. floors, — the ring or band. joggles (fig. 6,
Plate VII. of his Account), and laid out the gradually-diminishing thickness
of the walls, which, in particular, distinguish that Tower from Smeaton's
{Account, p. 445). He also conceived the moveable jib-crane {Account,
p. 191) and the balance-crane used in building the upper part of ths Tower

142

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

(Account, p. 292). The erection of the temporary harrack on tlie Rock for
the workmen {Report, 15th Novemher 1806) was also an experiment of his
equally hold and novel, without which it may wpU he questioned whether
the work could have been completed even in double the time that was spent
on it.

7th, The Testimony of Mr. Rennie himself, in his letter formerly quoted
by me, and also of the Lighthouse Board by placing a bust of Mr. Steven-
son in the Tower, while clearly showing to whom tlie merit of building the
Lighthouse is really due, are facts, which, rightly understood, do not derogate
from the lesser measure of credit due to Mr. Kennie for the " advice" given
by him to the Board as the chief or consulting Engineer, the value of which
was in truth not so much real and absolute as contingent upon the event of
anything going wrong in the hands of Mr. Stevenson, the otficial and regular
or stipendary Engineer of the Board. Nor let it he forgotten that part even
of that advice was given by Mr. Kennie in a joint Report with Mr. Steven-
son himself, who, besides this, reported periodically and directly to his con-
stituents, and nut through Mr. Rennie, during the progress of the work.

Upon these grounds I objected, and do still object, to the statement in
your work on the Plymouth Breakwater (for I know nothing of the
Address to which you refer); and I repeat, that Mr. Stevenson alone first
jiroposed and finally built the Bell Rock Lighthouse, and that while the late
Mr. Rennie acted juintly with him as the adviser of the Board, Mr. Steven-
son, as above shown, actually introduced all the improvements into the
design of the building, and the implements and methods of conducting the
operations which in any respect distinguish the Bell Rock Lighthouse from
the Eddystone. To Mr. Stevenson is also due the additional and much
greater merit of having followed Smeaton in personally conducting the
whole operations, sharing in all the risks, anxieties, and privations which at-
tended it, and encouraging by his daily example of zeal and self-denial, the
workmen who were resident for months together on that desolate rock.
The late Mr. Rennie did none of these things; and be, therefore, in the
letter above alluded to (which he addressed to Mr. Stevenson), most frankly
and naturally gives the whole credit of the work to my Father, by staling
that, if successful, the work would "immortalise him in the annals of fame;"
and the Commissioners who, from their frequent visits, knew every step of
the proceedings, and feit along with Mr. Stevenson in all his arduous toils,
have, as already noticed, also recorded their approval by inscribing bis name
and erecting his bust in the Tower.

How strangely and painfully does your statement contrast with the testi-
mony of your late Father, and of those who were most conversant with the
facts of the case! You endeavour to raise a claim which Mr. Rennie himself
never made, founded on the meaning of the words Chief and Assistant ; and
had you, in disregard of all the known facts of the case, strictly confined your
statement to the literal terms which the juxtaposition of these words may seem
to warrant, you would still have done real injustice to my Father by preferring
an extravagant claim, not, however, so susceptible of a formal refutation as
the present one; while I might, in that case, have been induced, by a desire
for peace, to leave my Father's merits to that slower hut not less thorough
vindication which time not seldom mysteriously works out. But you have
not been content with the middle course of claiming a moderate or even
greater share of the praise, but have grasped at the whole. You have for-
gotten, or liave shut your eyes to the fact, that Mr. Stevenson was the
original proposer and designer of the work, — that he schemed all the pecu-
liarities which distinguish it from Smeaton's great work ; and that even,
technically speaking, he was Mr. Rennie's coadjutor in it, and along with hira
jointly reported on it, and gave advice about it, and, above all, that he per-
sonally superintended the whole operations; and having passed over these
facts, you have easily gone a little further, and have entirely suppressed all
mention even of his name; nay, you have actually claimed for the late Mr.
Rennie, as in your opinion the distinguishing peculiarity of the work, that
very feature which very prominently appears in Mr. Stevenson's original
design, made four years before Mr. Rennie had ever heard of the subject.
Y'ou seem to otter, as an excuse for the suppression of my Father's name,
the casual nature of your notice of the Lighthouse in your Address,
which, as I have already said, I have never seen. It is not to any such casual
notice that I refer, hut to your deliberate statement, on pages 29 and 30 of
your " Historical, Practical, and Theoretical Account of the Breakwater in
Plymouth Sound;" and I am therefore at a loss to comprehend your motive
in repeatedly referring to your Address, which I have never seen nor
heard of, and to which I have never alluded. j

Finally, I ask two questions : \st. Since the example shown by Smeaton,
what credit can possildy be due to any engineer in connection with the Bell
Rock Lighthouse, which is not included under one or more of the three
following beads : —

Either, the original proposal of Smeaton's Stone Tower for a rock in an

exposed situation, 16 feet under high water;
Or, the proposal of any improvements on Smeaton's design and mode of

carrying on the work;
Or, the personal superintendence of the work, necessarily involving so
much fortitude, zeal, and self-denial .' And,

2dly, Which of these sources of credit can he claimed for Mr. Rennie.'
Y'ou speak of your intention to publish a "Work" on the Bell Rock
Lighthouse, in which you will "do justice to Mr. Stevenson, and all con-
cerned." What necessity can possibly exist for such a work, from the
hands of one who never saw the Lighthouse, after the public have been for
twenty-four years in possession ot an "Account" of it, prepared, at the

command of the Lighthouse Board, by the Architect himself in his official
capacity, and in which the services of every one employed, from the sea-boy
to tlie " Cliief Engineer" are so studiously set forth, and no one statement
of which has ever been impugned, the pul)lic are best able to judge, llav-
i[ig said thus much, 1 should be unwilling, on grounds merely inferential, to
assume that I know what you intend by doing "justice to my Father, and
all concerned;" and I therefore abstain from expressing any opinion as to
your motives in issuing your proposed work. — I am, lic.

Alan Stevenson.

VII. Sir Jon.v Rkxnie to Mr. Alan Stevenson.

[Hell Rock Lighthouse.)

London, 10th February, 1849.
Sir — I have this day received yours of the 9th inst.,and have only to say,
that it admits tlie wliole case ; and as it will he unnecessary to continue this
correspondence, you will have an opportunity of seeing my statement in
print, and the world will judge for itself.

You seem, however, to have forgotten two or three points, — Y'our Father in
his book does not clami the merit of even the first suggestion, but gives it to
Sir Alexander Cochrane— who proposed it to the Lighthouse Board in 1793;
neither does your Father claim even the second place, for he gives it to Captain
Brodie and Mr. Couper; and as for your saying that the late .\lr. Rennie
gave your Father the credit of it, this certainly is contrary to what I have
always heard him say myself; and I have some copies of his letters, com-
menting in very strong terms upon your Father attempting to claim the
merit. Mr. David Logan, Mr. Francis Watts, and all who were upon the
work, have given nearly the same evidence. I mean the principal persons.

I am, &c.

John Rennie.
To Alan Stevenson, Esq.

VIII. Mr. David Stevenson to Sir John Rennie.

Edinburgb, 13th February, 184!).

Sir — In my Brother's absence I acknowledge receipt of your letter of the
10th, received this morning.

In order to prevent mistakes, I think it right to say, that my Brother's
claim as to my Father's having originally proposed the erection of the Bell
Rock Lighthouse, refers not to the mere establishment of a light or beacon,
which, from the days of thj Abbot of Aberbrothick has been before the
public, as fully detailed in my Father's book, but to the proposal to erect a
building of stone, which was first suggested by him in 1800.

It seems strange, if the late Mr. Kennie did not give my Father the credit
of the work, that he should have written his letter of 7th September 1807
(for it is not a small degree of credit that can be said to "immortalise a man
in the annals of fame''), and further, that he should never, either directly or
indirectly, have intimated to my Father a contrary opinion. I confess 1 do
not understand, after so great a lapse of time, the grounds of a claim of this
kind, supported by an appeal to the statements of two foremen employed at
the works, and now dead, whose testimony can never surely overturn that of
my Father and of Mr. Kennie himself, as above alluded to. But if such
evidence be to be founded on, we have ample reference to persons noio alive
who were employed at the works in similar capacities, and who give a very
different account of the matter. I am, &c.

David Stevenson.

IX. Sir John Rennie to Mr. David Stevenson.

(Bell Hod Lighthouse.)

London, ITHIi February, 1849.

Sir — I beg to acknowledge the receipt of yours of the 13th, and have
only to observe, that your supposition that the late Mr. Rennie gave your
Father the credit of the Bell Rock Lighthouse is a mistake, for 1 have uni-
formly heard him say to the contrary. I view the extract of the letter you
allude to wholly in a different light. The simple fact of your Father having
been appointed Assistant Engineer under the late Mr. Rennie, and at his,
Mr. Rennie's, request, independent of any other point, settles the question.
It would be just as reasonable to give any of the gallant generals who com-
manded at Waterloo under the Duke of Wellington the credit of the battle
of Waterloo, as to give an assistant engineer acting under a ctiief, and ex-
pressly appointed on that condition, the credit of the work of the chief
engineer. I am sure that you will see that it is unnecessary to continue this
correspondence. My statement is being printed, and the public will judge
for itself. I am, &c.

JoH.N Rennie.

To David SteVffnson, Esq.

(I did not think it necessary to reply to tliis Letter of Sir John
Rennie; but tliere is obviously no analogy between the cases he
comiiares, for tlie Duke of Wellington was present at the battle;
but Mr. Rennie was not present at the work.)

A. S.

1849.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

143

THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE AND ART.*

(Concluded from page \V6.J

Mr. Fergusson's Fourth Chapter is on Etruria, his views with
regard to which have already received some notice at our hands.
He was, he says, originally opposed to the Lydian origin of the
Etruscans, because almost every modern writer agrees in rejecting
it. On the other hand, he found that almost all the old historians
bear witness together for the Lydian origin. For it, we have
Herodotus, Strabo, Pliny, Seneca, Plutarch, Paterculus, Tacitus,
Appian, and Justin ; and against it only Dionysius of Halicarnas-
sus, and Hellanicus of Lesbos. Then, too, it is to be said, that
hardly any modern writers agree as to what the origin is. The
theory of Mr. Fergusson is the only one which is consistent with
the old writers and the artistic evidence, while there is every
appearance of likelihood in it.

Having laid it down that the Etruscans were a branch of the
great Tartar race, and of the same blood as the Pelasgians, he is
able to follow this out by a comparison with the artistic remains,
which appear to support it. The Pelasgians in Greece so mi.\ed
with the Hellens, that the distinction was soon lost sight of, — but
not until a great influence had been brought to bear on Greek art.
The influence of Etruria on Rome was no less — perhaps more, for
the latter took half her arts and civilization from Etruria; but the
latter, until her fall, borrowed nothing from Rome.

Some ivlio refuse the Lydian origin, assign an origin from
Egypt; but Mr. Fergusson truly says, that, great as is the likeness
between Etruscan and Egyptian works, they are not one and the
same; and there has not been found in all Etruria, one single
object of purely Egyptian character, or which would not raise
wonder and perplexity on the banks of the Nile. A few scarabsei
of the age of the Lagidae must, of course, have been imported.
That there is anything of the Egyptian spirit in Etruria our
writer thinks the less wonderful, as the Egyptians held Asia
Minor for Ave centuries before the presumed migration of the
Etruscans.

The distinct shape of Mr. Fergusson's proposition is, that the
Etruscans were a people of Lydia, or at least of Asia Minor, who,
about a century after the time of the exode of the Jews from
Egypt, or about as long before the Trojan war, in about tlie age
of Ninus the Assyrian, and the year 8800 of the Decimal Era,
emigrated by sea from Smyrna, the only port of Lydia, and landed
and formally settled in Italy in the land of the Umbrians, between
the valleys of the Arno and the Tiber, where tliey built or took
twelve towns, in which they dwelt until the growth of people made
them send off' twelve bands of settlers to the northward, where
they seated themselves in towns of the valley of the Po, subject
to the old League. Afterwards, other twelve bands of settlers
were sent off' to tlie southward, who seated themselves in what was
aftervvards known as ]Magna Grfecia.

As Mr. Fergusson says, this view solves at once one of the most
difficult problems of ancient history, inasmuch as it states that
both Greece and Italy received their civilization from the same
source; and accounts for the great likeness between the arts and
civilization of the two countries in the earlier ages of their being.
This, too, accounts for the alphabetic characters of eacli, being of
the same class, and not, as commonly assumed, by those of Etruria
being borrowed from Greece. Both received them in Lydia from
Phenicia.

This Etrusco-Pelasgic fellowship is so strong in the earlier
times, that it is hardly possible to assign a distinct character to
each ; — so far from it, the works of either derive an illustration
from the other; and no better commentary on the «ords of Homer
and Hesiod can be found than the paintings from Ciere or Vulci.
If any one wants to see a contemporary illustration of the funeral
games held by Achilles on the death of Patroclus, nowhere will he
find a better than in the Etruscan room of the British Museum.
There have we the charioteers, the riders, runners, wrestlers,
boxers, and fencers; the hurlers of the quoit, and the darters of
the spear. There have we the booths, with the lookers-on, and all
the fashions of the high feast.

Mr. Fergusson remarks in Pelasgic Italy and in Pelasgic Greece
the same want of temples; as too is to be noted in the motherland
of Asia Minor. There was a worship for the same oracles, and the
same love of soothsaying. In all these countries, the chief archi-
tectural remains are tombs; and these so like in make, as to be
almost the same. The people worshipped the same gods, under

* " An Historical Inquiry into the True Principles of Beauty in Art, more especially with
refjreiue to Architecture." By JAMES FERGUSSON, Esq., Architect, authorof " An
Essay on the Ancient Topogrnphy of Jerusalem," " Picturesque Illustrations of Ancient
Architecture in Hiadostan," Fart the First. London : Longmans, m4d.

almost the same names, and with the same rites; had the same
eddas or mythology, and the same half-gods and heroes, of whom
Hercules, the greatest, belongs almost as much to Lydia and Italy
as to Greece.

Our writer having taken up the Lydian origin of the Etruscans,
is willing to believe in the visits of Evander and Eneas to Italy.
This tale has likelihood, but no good witness for it.

We think Mr. Fergusson decidedly wrong in the importance he
attaches to the political form of the federation of the twelve
towns. Republicanism is no more the characteristic of the Ibero-
Pelasgic race, than kingship of the Indo-Europeans. The pages
of Tacitus, and the early history of the English, will show that
the Germani were essentially republican in their institutions; and
whatever importance our writer may attach to those of the Iberi-
Pelasgi, as influencing the freedom of Greece and Rome, the free-
dom of the world in this day springs from no such birth, — but from
the laws of our forefathers in the marshes of Jutland.

Some time is given in the work before us to restoring what
Vitruvius calls an Etruscan temple, but which is rather to be set
down as Roman work. The suggestions of the writer are in-
genious.

Of the tombs, we are told that they embrace a very wide period
of time, and are well deserving of further investigation than
they have received. The tumuli or barrows are a characteristic
of the Etruscans, as of tlie whole race; and Mr. Fergusson gives
many interesting illustrations of the Regulini-Galassi and other
tombs, with an interesting restoration of the tomb of Porsenna,
from the text of Pliny. This work was +00, perhaps 450, feet
high, so that it was one of the most remarkable buildings in the
ancient world. In this restoration Mr. Fergusson has introduced
a roof, hat, or umbrella, to represent the petasus of Pliny.

Mr. Fergusson says that we shall never extract any new ideas of
grand or monumental art from the remains of the Etruscans. In
Greece, the temple and the theatre, with their accessories, supplied
the focus to which the Grecian mind bent all its strength; in
Egypt, the palace-temple served the same end: but in Etruria
there were neitiier temples nor public buildings, other than tombs,
for the development of art; and our writer thinks that tombs
never are nor can be truly national monuments. He objects, that
tliey were and must be the offspring of individual vanity or of in-
dividual superstition; and no nation ever was remarkable for
tombs, when it was the custom to leave them either to successors
or to national gratitude. Tliat in Egypt, Etruria, and India, .all
the mausolea were raised by tlie great themselves in their lifetime,
as their last resting-place. AV'e cannot, nevertheless, agree that
we, or the other Indo-European races, have a peculiar fear of
death, but the contrary. The faith of AVoden, even more strongly
than that of Christ, held forth to the English greater joys to be
had after death; and the fear of death is rather a characteristic of
the Jews, than of Indo-Europeans. Still, it is the fact that the
Indo-Europeans are not a tomb-building race: but that perhaps
the rather because they have always attached more importance to
the life hereafter than to the life of this world, and have not
thought the latter wanted any remembrancer.

The chief development of the Etruscans was in the more useful
arts, which the Greeks almost let alone. The roads and bridges of
the Etruscans are still monuments of industry and constructive
skill; their sewers and tunnels, after twenty-flve hundred year»'
wear, are still unsurpassed by the gi'eat works of the Romans; ami
their town walls and castles are yet in being. They drained lakes
and marshes, and tilled plains almost barren ; so that they must
have done much to bring Italy into a high state of civilization, —
from which Mr. Fergusson thinks the Romans profited; and that
they took the civilization of the Etruscans as their own, quoting
'■'•Sic vos non votns": but if the Romans were in a state of barba-
rism on the fall of Etruria, the latter would be brought to the
standard of barbarism — not the former to the standard of civiliza-
tion.

In their engineering works, the Etruscans used several modifica-
tions of the arch, including the true arch, of which illustrations
are given among the engravings.

If the Etruscans did not succeed in high ai't, in many of the
lower arts they were most accomplished. Their jewellery, chains,
bracelets, rings, earrings, &c., show an elegance which is even now
unsurpassed. Their candelabra were sold in Athens in the proud
days of Greek ai't. Their cabinet work of bronze and ivory
reached a high degree of perfection.

From a review of the wliole, Mr. Fergusson thinks we ought to
assign a higher rank to the commercial people of Etruria than is
commonly awarded to them. Their character essentially diff'ers
from that of the Egyptians in all its leading features, while Mr.

144

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

Fergusson discovers a strikinar likeness to that of Assyria;
and he urges the stiulv of the antiquities of Assyria and Etruria,
as a means of mutual ehicidation. On every ground of art and
arclueology, however, the study of Etruscan antiquities is valuable
and interesting.

The Fifth, and last Chapter of the volume as yet published,
refers to Rome; and we think it needful to point out that Mr. Fer-
gusson breathes as bitter a hatred of the Romans and all belong-
ing to them, as he does a strong love for Greece and all that is
Greek. The latter he looks ui)on as examples of what is to be fol-
lowed; the former, of what is to be shunned. Of course, he has
to deprecate the strong prejudices in favour of Rome; but we
think his prejudices go as far the other way. He draws, there-
fore, a most unfair picture of education in England and abroad;
and by too great violence misses the opportunity of giving useful
advice.

As soon as a boy can spell short words in his own tongue, says
our writer, he is sent to school to learn Latin; and from that hour
till he leaves the university, nothing is dinned into his ears but
Roman worth, Roman greatness, and Roman glory. Their learn-
ing, a low copy of that of (ireece, is held up before his eyes as the
richest and noblest the world has brought forth: the writers of his
own people are kept from him; and the Christian faith still more
carefully kept in the background, lest it should hinder his classical
studies, — though these are avowedly as useless as they would be
hurtful were it tried to carry them out Tliey are, however, only
learned to be forgotten, and the worst effect with us is lost time
and misdirected ingenuity.

The above picture shows how passion may bewilder even the
sharpest-sighted men, for hardly a word of it is true, and it will
not fit England, France, or Germany. Latin is, it is true, taught —
but so is Greek ; the later writers are not unread, and no one can
think but that theological teaching bears by far too great a share
in the teaching of the English schools at any rate. The chui-ch
catechism is a part of the examination for graduates, and men of
bright minds have been plucked for giving answers in it, though
witli the right meaning, not in the very words.

AV'e do not understand Mr. Fergusson to ask for the outlawry
of Greek from the schools, but that it should be upheld; yet all
that he says against Latin will tell as strouirly against it — nay,
it will tell against Hebrew and the Bible. "Neither an hereditary
monarchy nor Christianity formed any part of the institutions of
Rome" — forsooth, neither did they of the Jews, Greeks, nor of
our forefathers: indeed, such a ban would outlaw the learning
of the world, and bring orthodox books within a narrower list
than the ImUw Exjiurgatoriiis of the Vatican. The Bible, Ho-
mer, and Shakspeare all fall before such a sweeping law.

Scarcely less wild is the attempt to put to the account of the
Latin classics, the various events of the French revolution; the
good of which Mr. Fergusson sets aside, and the evil he exagge-
rates. We should say nothing about this, but in fairness to our
readers we are bound to do so; for when a writer shows his weak-
ness in such set sliape, it is a warning against trusting him too far
on other grounds. Many, too, will take the hint from his histori-
cal wanderings, to withstand his teachings on art.

Had Mr. Fergusson recommended the preference of Greek
writers over those of Rome, he would have lieen consistent with
himself, and done some good, for surely it is better to begin with
the Iliad instead of the Eneid, as much as it is better to begin
drawing from the round instead of copying from an engraving.
As, too, the great purpose of classical studies in education is not
to give immediate instruction, but to train the mind in habits of
application and hard work, — and for which classical studies have
advantages, peculiar to themselves as comjiared with mathematics
and natural history, — the substitution of Greek for Latin, as the
preliminary and preferential course, would be free from objec-
tions.

It is because Mr. Fergusson has not understood the nature of
education, that he has fallen into a further mistake. He says, if
there is one thing in which the common-sense of the English race
has shown itself more than usually pre-eminent, it is the contempt
with which the English treat their education, and their oblivion of
it. It is because Greek, Latin, and mathematics only constitute
the training machinery, and not the ultimate end of education,
that they are set aside when the mind is trained, and the man is
able to apply his jiowers to the business of the world around him.
It is not that the P^nglishman contemns his education, but that he
derives the best fruit from it, — that he does not want to carry his
school-books about with him.

The mistake of the French and Germans leads to other results.
Tliey think that the great eiul of school education is to give imme-

diate, special, and self-sufficing instruction : but the end is, that
their men, fresh from school with the whole circle of the arts and
sciences crammed into them, are unable to cope with our English-
men, whose minds have been trained by hard work in their schools,
and by the practice afterwards of that greatest of schools— the
world. Some may think the Frenchman or High Dutchman better
taught and more accomplished than the Englishman, but the evi-
dence of facts is in favour of the superiority of the latter. What
result the University of London, and the Useful-Knowledge-
cramming system of the i>resent day, may have in bringing down
our su])eriority, remains to be seen.

If i\Ir. Fergussson is right as to his finishing stroke, the waning
influence of Roman example, he might better have spared his on-
slaught: he would not have wasted his strength, nor wearied his
allies.

The comment on the political history of Rome, tastes of the
bitterness of the rest; but we can only grieve that a less partial
analysis had not been applied, for the writer shows that he has the
power, if he had the will, to make a fairer estimate of Rome than
is commonly done. It wanted not virulent abuse and misrepre-
sentation to teach us that Rome was neither greater nor better
than ourselves : it wanted only a truthful investigation. He has
brought to light many valuable reflections, on which we should
like to comment, — but we cannot so well leave our beaten track as
he can. By bringing the light of art to bear upon the political
and social system, Mr. Fergusson has given a higher value to art-
istic studies, and has illustrated their importance. The fault now
is, that the scholar is nothing of an artist, and the artist nothing
of a scholar; and we therefore miss the entirety of ancient learn-
ing and art. Mr. Fergusson, therefore, legitimately discusses his-
torical and political questions, — for, as he treats them, they belong
to the domain of art; and any objections we may make apply to
the doctrines, they demur to the allegations and not to the juris-
diction.

\V'ere even Roman literature studied by the light of art, and ;n
its entirety, Mr. Fergusson's diatribes would utterly miss.

We cannot refrain from observing, that if English literature
were made to take the part of the classics in education, we shouli ,
it is true, get rid of the fondness for Roman worth, Roman great-
ness, and Roman glory; but we should be more given to self-
glorification than we are — worse than the French, High Dutch, or
Yankees. "Lagloire de la France" would be outdone; the one,
free, wise, and great Dutch f(dk would be out-talked; and "our
most remarkable country" of tlie stripes and stars would swell
itself up still more, in tlie strain to outboast the Britishers. It is
better sometimes to think of Roman greatness and Roman glory,
for they are no longer — they are vvitli the dead: of the masters of
the world we have nought but the ashes, and in the midst of the
greatest empire that has yet been seen, lords of a fifth of mankind,
we too may bethink us of the end of all things.

The remarks of our writer on Roman institutions are the key to
those on Roman architecture; but they apply with more justice.
Rome was certainly behindhand in art, — her architects, like our's,
were copyists, and bad ones; originality she had none, and she
could not derive inspiration from Greek art, for the breath of
Greek art had fled; and of Etruria, slie took rather the cerements
of the dead than the faslnons of the living.

Before the time when the Romans began to build, the Doric order
had fallen from what ,Mr. Fergusson considers its early purity of
style and design, and the Romans had neitlier carving nor painting
with which to bedeck it. They took up the Doric order, but made
it worse by thinning the columns, like the wooden posts of their
Etruscan friends. On the Corinthian order Mr. Fergusson re-
marks at length. From its ornate character it well suited the
purposes of the Romans, vvhile it could be adapted as they pleased;
and if tlie plan of tlie building needed little thought, the execu-
tion of the order needed still less, as there were no intricate
spirals, no carving, and no painting, and all was purely mechanical
■ — any stonemason could work it out. Our writer is willing, there-
fore, to consider it ahnost a Roman order, and the example in the
temple of Jupiter Stator as the most perfect thing in arcliitecture
that Rome brouglit forth. He approves likewise of the Roman
adaptation of a sculptured base.

'I he forms of the Roman temples are objected to as clumsy
adaptations from the Greek. There is not a single instance of a
perfect peristylar temple, and the buildings were small. The
temple of Venus and Rome, commonly restored as a perfect
peristylar example, 3(ja feet by 177, we think the writer justified
in treating as tuo temple cells, placed back to back, and so joined
together as to try to look like one temple.

The best specimens of temjiles of the Roman time are those

1849.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

145

built in the provinces, many of which, as tliose of Baalbec, must
have been unmatched by anything at Rome, and the two temples
at Baalbec unmatched by anything in the Roman world.

Of the Pantheon we believe our writer speaks fairly. He ob-
jects to the portico stuck on to the drum of the building, as a
clumsy and unsuitable piece of patchwork, the lines of which do
not range with the rest. The interior for conception is unmatched
in the olden world. The simplicity of its proportions is dwelt
upon as worthy of observation, though the details are Roman and
clumsy. The proportion of the height being exactly equal to the
width, Mr. Fergusson admires; and he thinks modern attempts
fail from trying to combine the Gothic steeple with the Etruscan
vault, and therefore the internal vault is carried high up into the
external ornament, — thus ruining both its proportion and its size.
Wren seems to have felt this, for his inner dome of St. Paul's is
built up separately from his outer one, and kept down much lower.
Mr. Fergusson, however, thinks it would have been infinitely more
pleasing in proportion, and both it and the church have looked
much larger, if, instead of being twice its width in height, it had
sprung from the whispering gallery, or the stringcourse above that.
Indeed, the dome of the Pantheon he would have brought ten or
fifteen feet lower, because it now crushes the drum or perpendicu-
lar part, and makes its decorations look more insignificant than
they should do.

We cannot complain of prejudice being shown against the civic
buildings of the Romans, for they are treated as being as magnifi-
cent in their kind as any the world has yet seen. The Coliseum
he selects as the type of Roman art, as he did the Hypostyle Hall
of Karnac for Egypt, and the Parthenon for Greece.

The columns, and particularly the sculptured columns, of Rome,
Paris, and London, Mr. Fergusson treats with severity; though, as
he says, the Romans were the less to blame, as they placed the
column of Trajan within the court of a basilica, having galleries
from which its sculptures could be seen. Still, it would have been
better had the same length of sculpture been made the frieze of a
building.

The end to which he comes is, that the best and only satisfactory
works of the Romans are those belonging to the engineer — the
roads, bridges, aqueducts, harbours, and fortifications, the model
of which was got from Etruria, and not from Greece. The dis-
tinctive merits of Roman works are the mass and the constructive
magnificence, — marred sometimes, in architectural works, by clum-
siness in the artistic details, for which engineering works offered
little or no temptation.

If, says our w riter, we have gone beyond the Romans in the two
arts in which they were really original and successful — namely,
law-making and engineering — why should we ascribe to them a
superiority in literature and the fine arts, in which they were
avowedly below the nations of antiquity ?

We have thus followed Mr. Fergusson at some length through
his elaborate work ; we have followed him into every branch of
research, and have not spared our pages or the time of our read-
ers. We do not know if any ask that we should make an apology
for so doing, but we feel that we have discharged a duty. Mr.
Fergusson devotes talent, years, toil, and money to the execution
of a work much wanted; and so far from treating his task as if it
were to be slurred over, or as if it were unworthy, he has brought
to bear upon it all the resources of a most cultivated mind, and all
the illustrations of the most advanced state of knowledge. To do
this is to uphold the nobility of art; and we should be sorry to
stand idly by when such a service was done, — to neglect a work
which has justly excited the greatest attention from the press and
the public, — or to treat with coolness what has been wrought with
such good will.

If we had wanted one reason above all others for noticing Mr.
Fergusson's book, it is to uphold him under the accusation of in-
troducing irrelevant matter; whereas we consider he has rendered
a common service to the fine arts and the other branches of learn-
ing, by showing their intimate connection, — and the more particu-
larly, by the reference of the fine arts to philosophy. He is only
blamed for the idleness and ignorance of others; and instead of
joining with them, we recommend to them his example.

The fine arts are either unworthy studies, or they belong to the
general circle of learning, and admit of illustration from it. If
the latter, our artists must become scholars, which so few of them
are, — and our scholars must become artists. Whoever brings back
one art or science to the common fold of learning, renders an
essential service to all arts and sciences; and we think this merit
is due to Mr. Fergusson, for treating systematically what tlie
great men who have gone before him have given authority for by
treating with partiality.

This work will be esteemed a useful and valuable one according
to the use the reader makes of it. If he slurs over it, as requiring
too much thought and care, — if he casts it aside as opposed to his
prejudices, — or even if he blindly adopts its conclusions, he will
not ascertain its value: but if he truly seizes the independent
spirit of the author, — if he sets himself free from the shackles of
cant, — and gets the power of thinking for himself in matters of
art, he will have rendered a service to the fine arts, by giving
them one true votary the more.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK,
FASCICULUS XCIII.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter aw the winds.
To bloiv on whom I please."

I. It is equally matter for surprise and regret, that, instead of
confining his study, as he appears to have done, to Palladio's
buildings, Inigo Jones did not, while he was at Venice, direct his
attention to the examples of the earlier Venetian style, — from
which he could have culled mtich that was capable of being en-
grafted on the Elizabethan he had left at home, and by the aid of
which he might have advanced the latter to a finished English
style, — at least, have put it in the way of becoming such in time;
for between both the styles just mentioned there are, with of
course many differences, not a few points of contact also ; and an
infusion of the former might greatly have improved the latter.
Instead of so doing, Inigo contented himself with importing the
style of Palladio quite '■'■neat." Thereby he has obtained among us
the name of the English Palladio; — the plain English of which is,
that as far as he was Palladio at all, he was so only at second-hand
— a professed imitator and copyist.

II. It may very fairly be questioned whether professional men
are the best judges of iesthetic quality in design, and capable of
appreciating it impartially. Educated as they are at present —
which is pretty much like being uneducated as regards the essen-
tial principles of their Art — architects are apt to contract pre-
judices which in turn contract both their judgment and taste;
blinding them equally to errors and defects in productions of
established repute, and to merits in those which happen to deviate
more or less from conventional rules. The opinion which is un-
supported, either way, by valid reasons for it, and rests only on an
appeal to precedent, custom, and ordinary rules, is surely no better
than prejudice; and even if it be one on the right side, it is no
better than prejudice still. Nor are prejudices and contracted
notions confined to professional men, since the generality of critics
are equally chargeable with them, owing to their having imbibed
them from the same sources as the others, and to their speaking
by rote — "by heart," as it is called, and that is a very different
matter from speaking l>y head, and with thoughtful consideration.
For my own part, I should be inclined to trust rather to the ver-
dict of a jury of artists, than to that of one composed entirely of
architects; of course I mean only as far as composition and design
are concerned. What strikes the eye of an artist as good, as Iiar-
monious and consistent in its proportions and ensemble, and other-
wise effectful, may pretty safely be assumed to possess the meriJjTf
sound artistic quality, if no otlier. It is true, the followers of the
other Fine Arts cannot be competent judges of the technicalities
and processes of Architecture; but then if such ignorance ought
to disqualify them from passing any opinion upon productions of
Architecture, the same ignorance, or perhaps a greater degree of
it, would disqualify the whole of the rest of the public; so that
architects would have none but themselves to admire them, or to
patronise their Art. As to the opinion entertained of architects
by artists, I fancy it to be the reverse of flattering, for among the
latter I have heard more than one accuse the former of obtuseness,
and want of iesthetic perception and feeling — at any rate, of tlie
non-exercise of them; therefore, although Architecture itself may
be a Fine Art, it is now rarely exercised as such, — so that those
who practise it merely according to precedent and routine, have
little or no claim to the title of aitists; for even although the
structures erected by them may be satisfactory, scarcely ever do
they put into them aught of design which emanates directly from
their own minds.

III. The value of an artist's opinion in regard to Architecture is
sufiieiently apparent from what that of Reynolds has done for
Vanbrugh. But for the honourable testimony borne to his peculiar

21)

146

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL.

LMav,

merits by Sir Joshua, the name of that Sir John mipht still have
had attached to it the ridicule endeavoured to be affixed to it by
tlie puny wits of his day — or rather, by tlie p\iny witticisms wliich,
in their utter ignorance of art, they levelled against him; seeing,
as tliey did, no other quality in his buildings but that of heaviness.
That Vanbrugh was exceedingly careless and faulty in his details
— sometimes coarse even to slovenliness, is not to be denied; still,
he showed himself to be a master in j)icturesque composition, es-
pecially if compared in that respect with his contemporaries. To
unqualified praise he is assuredly not entitled, but assuredly also
it is not difficult to discriminate between his defects and his
merits, — not difficult to avoid the former, although not so easy,
perhaps, to rival the latter.

ly. It would seem, however, that critical discrimination is not
at all the forle of either architectural students or their teachers.
It is not at all uncommon to find buildings that are exceedingly
unequal in point of design, good perhaps in some respects, yet
equally faulty in others, recommended- — at least, so it would seem
— as studies, without one syllable of caution as to their faults.
Of some of them, indeed, the faults are so striking tljat they
hardly need be pointed out; still there is danger in passing over
them. Hence much mischief is likely to ensue from such works as
Letarouilly's "Edifices de Rome Moderne," from which some are
now freely borrowing subjects, which they exhibit as if they were
most unquestionable models of design and good taste — nothing
being said to the contrary. For such purpose, one publication has
recently selected the facade of the Palazzo Costa, which, either in
ignorance or unwarrantable audacity, it asserts to be "charac-
terised by elegance, resulting from a study of proportion, fitness,
and requirements;" whereas, the fact is, it shows itself to be cha-
racterised by the reverse of elegance, and by what, as far as the
principal floor is concerned, may truly be called very dumpy pro-
portions, the windows there being considerably less than a double
s()uare in height, and not even twice as high as the pedestal or
dado beneath them; nor is that the only defect in the design.
Another subject selected by the same publication from Letarouilly,
is the elevation of a little palazzo, by Vignola, in the Piazza
Navona. Although A'ignola is a great name, the merit of that
design of his is exceedingly small; consequently it ought not to
be put forth as if it were such as to recommend itself to especial
notice at the present day.

V. That all the views of tlie farade of the British Museum
which have hitherto appeared should confine themselves to the
central pile, and judiciously omit showing the wings, is so far from
being complimentary to Sir Robert Smirke, as to be equivalent to
a declaration that the latter do not at all belong to the other, and
that so far from contributing at all to form a grand extended com-
position, they are to be looked uptui as something altogether ex-
traneous,— in other words, will not bear looking upon as adjuncts
to the main pile. Pity, therefore, that those official residences
were not, as they easily might have been, put quite in the
background, and the sites now occupied by them left for the
erection of additional galleries, as will, no doubt, be required at
no very distant period. The tacit condemnation would be critical
damnation enough of the facade as a composition, even were it
not accompanied by a taciturnity on the part of criticism with
regard to the rest, which gives us plainly to understand that not
even a single syllable of |n-aise can be pjausibly uttered in favour
of it. Setting aside tlie columns themselves, which are no more
designed by Sir Robert than by the stonemasons who executed them
— there is nothing whatever that amounts to design properly so
called. Besides which, as here ajijilied, the number of columns is
made to produce far more of dull monotony than of richness and
scenic efiect; which, however, is not very surprising, since Smirke
and Effect are the very antipodes of each other. As I have more
than once before, 1 believe, expressed my opinion of the Wusenin,
many— that is, what readers 1 have, will probably think I entertain
downright spite against it. Well, I confess to the impeachment;
for I do hold the building to be a miserable abortion in ])oint of
design, considering tlie jiurpose of the building, and the ojiportu-
nity which it afforded. At any rate, if the public can be satisfied
with the Museum, they have very little right to find fault w ith the
National Gallery as they do. The latter, however, is made the
scapegoat of our architectural sinnings, or the conductor to carry
off the lightning of our criticism from many things that are infi-
nitely worse, it may be freely admitted that the (iallery is neither
what it ought to have been, nor so good as it is still capable of being
made, both in its interior and exterior, by some partial alterations;
yet, as regards the interior, no alterations can be planned for it jiro-
periy until it be finally determined whether the Academy are to
retain the portion now occupied by them, or the whole be appro-

priated to the national collection of pictures. At all events, it
cannot be said even now that Wilkins's structure disgraces Trafal-
gar Square, the latter and the buildings on its other sides being
quite graceless in themselves. Those, too, who can shut their eves
to the uncouth taste and vile deformities of St. Martin's Church,
and open them only to admire the portico, or rather the columns,
might surely do the same with regard to the Gallery. Still it is
not very difficult to guess why they do not do so, the true reason
being simply this: the one has been greatly cried-up, and the other
cried-down.

VI. St. Stephen's, Walbrook, is another greatly cried-up affair;
and as in matters of architectural taste former judgments are
never revised, but seem to be regarded as irrevocable verdicts, — it
continues to be still spoken of as a masterpiece — that is, when-
ever it is now spoken of at all. In my opinion, the defects in its
design so greatly exceed its beauties as completely to neutralise
them. There is much in the interior that is positively mean and
ordinary; and with more than light enough, there is no efl^ect of
light, — on the contrary, a most disagreeable kind of spottiness in
that res])ect is occasioned by the ugly little oval holes in the walls
for windows; whereas, had the whole been lighted lii/piethral/y
through the dome, — with perhaps one or two smaller secondary
openings for light in other parts of the roof, the effect both as
to light and otherwise would have been greatly superior. I have
seen a drawing by Allom, of an interior — a design, I believe, for a
chapel — which was so undisguisedly borrowed from St. Stephen's,
Walbrook, that it might be considered a rifacrianiento of it; and the
outline of the idea — so to speak, was there filled up gracefully and
artistically, and the original skeleton transformed into life and
beauty.

VII. At the risk of shocking the straitlaced prejudices of many,
I venture to question the propriety of invariably putting churches,
as we have done for some time past, into mediaeval costume, to
the exclusion of any other style. In villages, and otlier country
places, it is in character and at home, but seems quite out of
keeping in streets where every other (diject wears quite a modern
air, and denotes the reverse of mediaeval times and habits. I
admit that one tolerably sufficient, or I might call it cogent,
reason there may be for having recourse to a style at variance
with that of all suri'ounding buildings — namely, tlie very fact of
its being so much at variance, that the mere adoption of such
costume stands in lieu of other character — of that distinctive
character which an architect would else have to work out of
design. Do I then wish that for churches in the metropolis we
should turn to ^Vren for models, or return to that soi-disant-
classical style which was in vogue among us some twenty or
thirty years ago ? Most assuredly not; for while the old churches
in the City are almost without exception barbarously uncouth, the
modern ones are, with the exception of that of St. Pancras and
Hanover Chapel, desjierately dull and mean; and even St, Pancras
and the other might be greatly better in many respects than they
now are. — If such be the ease, why should I advocate the return to
a style in which so little that is satisfactory has been performed
for church architecture.' Why, it is precisely for the very reason
that so little has been done in it properly, and answerably to the
capaliilities of such style, that I could wish to see it resumed, —
but treated in a very difi'erent spirit, and so converted, as it easily
might be, into something very superior to what has hitherto been
made of it. Here I oughtj perhaps, to exjilain that "Easily"
refers rather to the plastic capabilities of the style itself, than
to tlie capiicity of the present race of architects for properly
availing themselves of those capa!;ilities. One thing that would
be an ini])ro\enient in itself, and also lead to otlier iminove-
nients, would he the ado]ition of In/prrl/irii/ /iylitini/^ either ac-
cording to the mode which Mr. Fergusson shows to have been
practised by the Greeks, namely, by upright openings in a cle-
restory in the roof, — or else by lanterns or skylights, after which
last manner the German M'alhalla is lighted. For artistic effect
nothing can equal such mode of admitting light; whereas, even
leaving efl^ect out of the question, the windows now employed for
cliiiiches are little better than architectural blemishes both inter-
nally and externally. Of course I mean in those churches vvhich
are not in the Gothic style, because there windows are among the
principal characteristics and beauties of the style, and the source
of great variety of design; while for so-called Grecian or modern
church architecture, they are just the reverse. So far from being
made ornamental in any way within the buildings, they are there
left mere naked apertures, without any sort of dressings or attempt
at such embellishment as might be conferred upon them; and
there being nothing corresponding to mullions and tracery to fill
up the apertures themselves or give occasion to design, their ap-

184.9.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

•147

pearance is that of nakedness, blankness, and poverty: the con-
sequence of which is, that the more there is of ornament bestowed
on other parts of such an interior, all the meaner do the windows
show themselves, especially as the glazing itself is invariably of a
very mean description, and has a cold and dingy look. Yet, surely it
would not be difficult to remedy the last-mentioned defect by em-
ploying metal-work instead of lead, and making it of various
ornamental patterns that should be in conformity with the style of
the architecture. Internally, the metal-work might be either en-
tirely gilded, or partly gilt and partly bronzed, accordingly as a
greater degree of enrichment might be found suitable. Hardly
necessary is it to observe, that both stained and diapered glass
might also be employed with excellent effect; although, of course,
it would require to be treated in quite a different manner from the
painted windows in Gothic churches, so that the resemblance should
be only that of material, and not of style and ideas. And why
should the use of coloured glass be confined to one particular style,
any more than other materials are? — "Gentle Sliepherd, tell me
why."

ON THE OBLIQUE BRIDGE.
By F. Bashfokth, Esq.

Spiral Courses.

Mr. Buck, in his "Essay on Oblique Bridges," directs the
"twisting rules" used in working the beds of tlie arch-stones,
to be placed at a greater distance apart at the extrados than at
the intrados. There could be no objection to such an arrange-
ment, provided the dimensions of the "twisting rules" were de-
termined accordingly ; but it has long appeared to me that the
method by which Mr. Buck has arrived at the difference of the
widths of the two ends of one rule (=/tan 5), supposes that they
are to be applied in parallel directions on the bed of the stone, at
a distance / apart.
Let R, r, be the radii of the extrados and intrados respectively;

*, (p, the angles of the extrados and intrados;

/, I', the distances apart of the intradosal and extradosal ends
of the twisting rules;

* -(p:=5; and R — r = e=the thickness of the arch.

™. , sec*

Tlien I' — I .

secip

In Examples, page 25, R = 20-32 ft.; »-=17-32ft.; e = R-r =
3ft.; /= 42 in. = 35 ft.

* = Zof the extrados (Mr. Buck's <),) = 59° 23' 7";
<fi = / of the intrados (Mr. Buck's 0„) = 55° 13' 49";
5 = * — (p = 4° 9' 18";
/ tan 5 = 42 tan 4° 9' 18" = 3-05 inches;

/' —

sec *

/ T = 47-03

sec <p

47 inches nearly.

J3

Mr. Buck directs two strips of wood to be provided (AB, C D,
fig. 1), each in length R- ?-=3ft.
The opposite sides of one, AB,
are to be parallel, and of the
other the end D is to be greater
than the end C by / tan 5, or 3-05
inches in this case. A, C, are to Fv. l.

be applied at the intrados at a distance I, or 42 inches, apart;
B, D, are to be at the extrados, and at a distance := 47 inches
apart.

The twisted beds of the arch-stones may be supposed to be
generated in the following manner :— Let the straight line AC
(fig. 2) have an arm BDE rigidly attached at right angles to it;

Fig. 2.

and let D, E, be two points, such that BD = r, B E = R. Suppose
AC to coincide with the axis of the intrados of the oblique arch,
and have a uniform motion in the direction of its length AC ; and
also let the arm BE revohe uniformly. Suppose these uniform
velocities to be so adjusted that BE may revolve through 180°

whilst any point B in AC describes a space L = the axial length.

Then DE will describe the twisted surface proper for the bed's of

the arch-stones, and the equations to the path of D will be

L
r = rcose, x = rnne, y=—B =. fi9 (1)

IT ^ '

the horizontal axis of the cylinder being the axis of y, and a verti-
cal line with which BD coincides when 6=0 being the axis of z.
Also, the equations to the path of E will be

Z = Kcosfl, X = Ksine, Y = fi9 (2)

And if, in equations (1) and (2), we give 6 the same value a, the
corresponding values of .Tyz,XYZ, will be the co-ordinates of
the points D, E, respectively, for one position of the arm BE; and
these points may be considered to be coincident with two corners of
the bed of an arch-stone. Also, by giving to 6 another value, 0, "e
may determine the co-ordinates of the remaining two corners of
the same bed.

Suppose that P,p, Q,7, are the four corners of the bed of an
arch-stone, yj 7 being the intradosal, and PQ the extradosal cours-
ing Joints. Let X' Y'Z', ,r ^z'; X"Y"Z", x"y"x", be the co-ordi-
nates of P,p, Q,f/, respectively
and }.

Fur P. Fur p.

r'=.r sill al
(3) z' =rcu»a 1(4)
y'= Mil J

Let z =z Ax+'By+c{7) be the equation to a plane passing through
the three points P,/>, 7.

Then, since (3) and (4) are points in (7), substituting, we get
Z' = AX'-)-BY'-t-c; i'^Ax'-f-By'+c ;

or, (Rcoso) =: A(Rsina)-fBMa+c (8)

rcosa = Ar sin a -t-B^a-f-c (9)

Subtracting,

U cos a — rcosa = A (Rsin a — r sin o) ;
or, (R — r)co>a = A(R — rjs.no; or, cot a = A.

And therefore equation (9) becomes

rcosa — r uutasiu a-|-Li^aT-c = r cos a-j-B^a+c ;
or, 0 = B^a-j-c; or, c = —lifia.
Equation (7) now becomes

z = jrcola-|-By— Umi = X col a+R(!/ — iia) (10)

And the point (6) is situated in this plane; hence,
• " = x" cot a-^ [5{i/" — fiay,
or, r cos;8 — rcot asin3 — B(/»|8 — ;ua) = B/i(e — a);

or, . — Bu(B — ii): nr R — S_'"

Sin a

X =Riin a]
Z' = R CDsa y (
Y'= ^.a J

0 — a for P and p ; 6 = /3 for (j
For Q. For q.

.(o) 2" = rcos;3 1(0)
i"= m3 J

X"=RsinB]
Z" = Rcos/8 W
V'= ^S J

- Bn{B-a);

or, B

M (3 — n) sin a

Substituting in (10), we get the equation to the required plane
passing through P, p, and q,

r 6ina(— /3)

z = xcota -i- ■

{y-h") (11)

/i(/3 — a) sin a

Suppose now that the distance p 5 (fig. 3), measured along the
intradosal arris of tlie arch-stone, =: /; and that
the angle 7/) TO = <p. Let fall the perpendicular
pm on qm. Then mpq may be considered to be a
portion of the development of the soffit, pm being
parallel to the top of the abutment.
pm =y"-y' = Y"-Y', in (3), (4), (5), & (6), = ;x(B-a)

= ;;y cos ip = / cos (p (12)

Also, /sin<p = my = r((3— a) (13)

Now, the length of a perpendicular let fall from
a point X" Y" Z", on a plane z = Ax+^y+c, is

Z'-AX"-BY'-c

V» = + ^ — == Hymers' Geom. of 3 Dimensions. Art. (.'.;)

And substituting from equation (11) the values of A B and c
we get length of the perpeudicular let fall from X", Y" 2"' on tlie
plane (11),

nil .i-n f- sina — S

Z"-X"cota -)- - ,_ ^,_g- (Y"-Ma)

Qra = -I-

V

H (g — fljsin a

1 -(- col- a -(-

ir sin(n-)3) \
\l). una {a— 0)1

= +

R (sin g cos g— cos a sin $)

bill a

+

r sin(g — /3)
^ (g — fl)sing

M (e-g)

V

cosec'' a -j-

r sing — 3^"

(r sing — g\
M {a-0))

20*

MS

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

L-Mav,

= +

Rsin (a — fl) — rsin (a— fl) (R— r) sini sin >;> |

L / cos <p J [

:(!+)

/ C06 (p

I = 4? in. = 3'5feet; (K— r) =: 3 feet

- sin ip = -lOCO, wliicli is the circular measure of 9° 30' 40"

ii/'sincp)
cos <^
and <p — 5i° 13'

rsii

19",

1 +

Qii

J r sin/"' sin <p
36 X sin(- sin (pj

= 3 0558 ;

=: 3-403 in. = 34 in. nearly.

-^30558

Nosv, manifestly, PQ ; pij{l) = L sec * ; L sec cp = sec * ; sec
.sec* ^^ sec (.19° 23' 7")

or, PQ = ;

— 47-03 =: 47

nearly.. (15)

sec cp ' sec (55" 13' 49")

If tlie "wiiidina; strips" be applied in the manner directed by
.Mr. Buck, the difference in the widths of the two ends of the one
that has not parallel sides ought to be 3-4 in., instead of 3 inches
as there pven.

If, on the contrary, the winding strips be so ap])lied that the
distance of the intradosal ends A, C, and also the distance of the
e.\tradosal ends B, D, be 42 in. apart, the twist (/tan 3) = 3-05 in.
is quite correct. If AC = 42 in., and BD ^ 47 in., tlien we get
for the twist 3-05 x J^= 3-41 in., which differs only by -j^th of an
inch from the value of Q?i found in (15).

It is quite true, when an arch-stone for an oblique bridge
(not a quoin) has been properly formed, that the length of the ex-
tradosal arris I'Q will be greater than the intradosal urrisp/] of the
same bed, in the proportion of sec* : sec<p. But, on the otlier
hand, the sole use of the winding strips is to obtain two straight
lines a certain distance apart, such that if two other straight
lines be drawn parallel to them through a given point, these two
straight lines may contain a given angle.

Fif. 4.

If tangents be drawn to the extradosal and intradosal helices at
the points E, D, corresponding to one position of the arm BD,
these tangents will be inclined at an angle * — ip. Hence, if the
winding strips are to be applied paratkl at a distance (R-r), and
in the direction of the length of the stone, make the angle hoa =r
* — <p = 5; take oa = the length of the rules, and draw ub at right
angles to oa. Then ah = oa tan 5 is the required twist. Again, if
the strips are to be applied across the stone, they must each be in
length ^ R - r. Suppose they are to be applied parallel, and at a
distance / = oa' ; draw a'b' at right angles to oa' meeting ob' in b' ;
then a'b' will be the e.xcess in breadth of one end of the rule over
the breadth of the other end of the same rule.

In Mr. Buck's Essay, pages 13, 22, and 27, the difference of -j^ths
of an inch in 3 inches appears to be worthy of notice; but it may
be remarked that the obliquity of the bridge in this e.\ample is 30°.
In the generality of cases, the difference of the twist would not be
nearly so great as in the above example ; but as it is both more
accurate and more convenient to apply the winding strips in pa-
rallel directions, there appears to be no reason why any trouble
should be taken to calculate the divergence of them.

The value of Qn at (14) may be put under the form

?sin{- 8in<p}

IC""*) J

2 = *^l-ftan^<p nearly

el

el
= — sin 26 = 3-408 inches
2r

■ sin 9 cos

r

(since <f is never much greater than 45°, and r is always much
greater than /).

St. John's College, March, 1849.

REVICWS.

A Dictionary of Architecture, Decorative and Constructive, cS'C.
By M'alter Bebnan. Part I. 18mo. London: Williams and
Co., 1849.

^Ve have here a novelty, — a novelty, at least, in its shape, for
although we have had more than one dictionary of the kind before,
this is, as far as we are aware, the very first that has appeared in
so convenient and popular a form. It goes, perhaps, to tlie oppo-
site extreme from some of its predecessors; and we think that a
size larger — one adapted to the book-shelf, rather than the pocket
— would have been preferable, and if similarly printed in double
columns, quite as economical. Judging from this First Part, which
though it contains sixty-four pages, goes no further than the term
"Architholus," the volume must when completed be an inordinately
bulky one, — unless it be intended that the work shall eventually
form more than one volume, of which however no intimation is
given; neither is it stated in how many parts it will be completed.
What is chiefly certain is, that it is designed to be a popular manual
for the use of artificers and workmen, as well as architects, en-
gineers, and students of architecture; which being the case, w-e
cannot help being of opinion that the editor has overdone it, and
in his ambition to introduce "many hundred words that have not
been inserted in any previous architectural dictionary," has cram-
med into it a great many which are quite out of place except in a
professedly archaeological glossary. To give those terms belonging
to mediiev'al architecture which are now in use, is proper enough;
but to thrust in those which have long been altogetlier obsolete,
which cannot be now revived, and which are not at all needed, the
same things being now described by more familiar words, is not
only injudicious as far as the work is concerned, but injudicious in
its principle, inasmuch as instead of enlarging and enriching, it
only encumbers the vocabulary of the art with antiquated and
useless lumber. 'Whether, as it certainly ought to do, this dic-
tionary will give us such really convenient and useful terms as
"Astylar," and several others that ha; e been employed by recent
writers, remains to be seen when it shall have been moi-e advanced.
■We find the term "iEsthetics," but the definition — such as it is —
is only a borrowed quotation; from whom is not said, but <ippa-
rently from Mr. Joseph Ciwilt, for if the words be not precisely
the same, they certainly express his sneering opinion of a term
which, in the glossary appended to his treatise on "The Orders,"
Mr. Leeds has shown to be singularly expressive and useful.

The explanation of the term "Anti-Vitruvian" is also partly bor-
rowed, and apparently from the same source, the remark printed
as a quotation being as follows: "Erroneous opinions adverse to
the classical authority of Vitruvius on architectural topics, ex-
pressed by some modern professors to attract notoriety " This
seems to be pointed against Professor Hosking; but others, among
whom are both Fergusson and our own Candidus, have been
equally strong, therefore equally erroneous, and no doubt from the
same unlucky ambition of "attracting notoriety." Yet, after all,
it may be questioned whether error does not lie rather on the side
of Vitruvius's admirers, — his defenders we cannot possibly call
them, since they say nothing whatever to rebut the sneers of
his iwtoriety-seeking detracters. Now, if any one be Quixotic
enough to take up his cudgel fairly in behalf of Vitruvius, and in
good earnest belabour with it his tiepreciators, let him do so; but
the merely calling their opinions erroneous is not very far from
admitting them to be correct; nor has Mr. Bernan attempted to
settle the dispute. AVe rather fancy that some of the remarks
which he himself has occasionally indulged in, w ill, if they do not
actually involve him in dispute, prove not a little offensive to
many. The following, for instance, which occurs under the term
"Architect," is tolerably strong and pungent: "In spite of the
opinion of the ignorant public, re-echoed by the dull and costive-
brained (!) of the profession, which confounds the means with the
end, the merit and fame of an architect must rest on his talent for
invention ;" — the italics are not ours — "without it all the construc-
tive knowledge of his age will not raise him above the rank of a
builder-mechanic: and he alone is to be accounted happy in his
art to whom the gods have granted the creative spirit. The su-
premacy of the gift is apparent from its rarity." — Bravo! Bernan:
for that matches Fergusson's "monkey styles of modern Europe;"
or the piquant escapade in Leeds's treatise on "The Orders," viz.,
where copyism is defined to be the process for converting design
into manufacture, and an architect into a machine. Verily, ar-
chitectural heresy seems to be spreading — some will say, most
alarmingly, — or as others will reply in rhyme, most charmingly.
"Amateur-Architects" are treated by Mr. Bernan more mildly than

181.9.1

THE CIVIL EXGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

My

"costive-brained" professionals. He admits them to be "useful
pioneers in diffusing a taste for the art among tlie pulilic;" nor will
we quarrel with him for speaking of "their actual ignorance in
general of the rudiments of the art." The ignorance of such
persons is, undoubtedly, to be regretted, but is no more the neces-
sary effect of their being amateurs, than it is the cause of their
becoming such. But in ignorance both they and the rest of the
public are likely to remain a long time, before the professionalists
endeavour to enlighten them by supplying them with the sort of
elementary instruction needed for properly pursuing the study of
architecture in its character of a Fine Art. Confessed it must
be, tliat those who at present pass for amateurs — because they
happen to be the one-eyed among the blind— are, for the greater
part, mere dabblers,— persons without any real artistic knowledge or
feeling; apt, as is here said, to be "unwearied talkers," but talkers
of mere nothings, retailers of dates and such matters, very much
in the style of "In the name of the Prophet! Figs." Astotalking,
however, they seem to have ri%als in those whom Mv. Bernan
styles "Palavering Architects"! Even so; for he has actually
ventured to introduce, or rather thrust into his Dictionary, a term
which we suspect he has invented for tlie nonce,— viz. "Architect
■ Verbori-m. a ])alavering architect; one who is loquacious ever-
more, and produces trifles; one who supplies the lack of artistic
invention by verbal knackery, &c. &c." Really our friend Candi-
dus is meek as a sucking dove in comparison with Bernan.

Materials for a N'ew Style of Ornamentation, consisting of Bo-
tanical Subjects and Cotnpositioyis drawn from Nature. By H.
Whitakeb. London: Weale, 18t9.

A work of this kind is a proof of the healthy growth of public
opinion in matters of art. The author has been impressed with
the want of originality in the ornamental details of our architec-
tural works, the servile copying of classic models, and the demand
that now exists for a better application of our artistic resources.
It is not that the classic models are bad,^ for many are most
beautiful; it is not so much that they are hackneyed — because
beauty can never pall,— but that the monopolitan adherence to
former types involves the neglect of all else that is beautiful in
nature.

We have all those plants which the Greeks so justly admired
and studied; but we have access, as they had, to many others, —
and still more, we have access to the vast field of nature which
was beyond their reach, and which daily yields to us new forms,
from tlie same Mighty Hand, and endowed with the same admira-
ble attributes. It is this neglect, this abnegation of the great
domain of the beautiful in nature, which has constituted one of
the greatest reproaches on our modern school of art. AV'ith ma-
terial resources greater than the Greeks, we remain their copying
slaves, — as much entliralled as if we could be sold by an Atticus, a
Cassius, or a Seneca, who bought and sold learned and artistic
slaves.

Mr. Whitaker has, without any presumption, undertaken to
apply some of the materials within his reach, and has, from plants
unknown to the ancients, elaborated fidiage well worthy to be
compared with any designs of the best schools of old. He has not
attempted to lay down the law as a teacher: he only shows the way
in which others can direct their studies; and he gives most useful
examples. This manual will be the more valuable, not for the
designs it contains, for they are necessarily limited in number and
scope, — but for the practical directions and exemplifications it
affords for the guidance of the architect and student.

With the progress of public taste the architect has assumed
more extended functions; and instead of copying a plate from the
authorities, and leaving the details to the stucco merchant, he is
called upon to exercise his inventive faculties on the architectural
decorations, external and internal, the furniture, fittings, paper,
and carpets; and where he does not design, he has to check the
designs of the inferior artists, men now well trained in the Schools of
Design. He has likewise to obey the requisitions of patrons more
fastidious, because possessing a better knowledge of art; and the
architect has therefore only one means of making his way, and
that is by working hard. The day of copying is doomed, and
those who will not give in to the new movement, will be themselves
given up. Already we perceive in our public works a happier dis-
position, and strong indications of the professional ardour, though
rather in the way of promise than of performance.

HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING.

1. Remarks on the Improvement of Tidal Rivers, illustrated by Refer-
ence to works executed on the Tap, Rihhle, Forth, Lune, and other
rivers. By David Stevenson, C.E. Second Edition. London:
Weale, 1849.

2. Report of the Committee appointed by the River Dee Commission-
ers. Chester, 1848.

There is no branch of engineering so obscure as that which
relates to the improvement of rivers and harbours, and perhaps it
is so from the want of good collections of observations and facts.
If anything is published, it is commonly a report suggestive of
works, or a treatise in behalf of some particular theory, supported
by local experience. As the difficulties of forming any general
theory are the greater from the diversity of geographical features,
so it is not to be expected that any work can ever provide a spe-
cific mode of construction in individual cases ; but herein consists
the special claim to distinction of hydraulic engineering, as one of
the highest branches of the profession. A railway or canal can,
with very few modifications, be laid down from one general model
in any particular district; but no attempt can be more unpropitious
than to apply a successful harbour plan to another locality. Each
plan must have a special and severe study, in which the engineer
must set his brains to work, and not rely upon being able to copy
the laboui-s of any one else, — although he should be fully able to
avail himself of the experience of others.

Unhappily, hydraulic engineering is commonly looked upon as
a mere question of construction; and our great engineers think
they have nothing to do but to run out a pier, or build a sea-wall,
of the best masonry, and that the work is done. That the strong
walls should be thrown down, or the enclosed harbour be choked
up, they do not dream of; and the more particularly, if they have
what they call a scouring power.

A caniil or railway cutting, or embankment, has only to deal
with the present; but a pier or sea-wall, %vhen once put up, pro-
duces a change in the local operations ; so that it is necessary not
to provide for the present, but to calculate what will be the future
result of the works. This, again, is a proof of the powers of mind
needful for the proper exercise of this branch of engineering.

It has likewise this peculiarity— that it has baffled many of the
greatest engineers; and what have been received as established
modes of practice have, in the progress of time, been proved to be
gross absurdities. Thus, for instance, in 1755, Smeaton proposed
on the Clyde the erection of a dam with locks at Marlingford,
below Gla'sgow. Had this been done, the fate of Glasgow as a
harbour would have been sealed, and the lower part of the river
ruined. Golburne projected to narrow the stream by a succession
of jetties and groynes, which result in making a river a course of
ponds or pools and bars, as in the cases of the Clyde, Tay, Dee,
and Ribble; from all of which, except the Dee, the groynes have
been removed.

It does no credit to English engineers that there is no good book
on hydraidic engineering, — not even a compilation of the many
scattered publications; and the result is, there are more blunders
committed in hydraulic works than in the whole range of civil
engineering, and for this sufficient reason — that the blunders of
the past are constantly repeated. This state of affairs is the more
to be regretted, for our rivers and harbours are of tlie very great-
est importance to us in a commercial point of view, and in our
unreclaimed shores we have a source of agricultural wealth which
no wise nation should neglect. Sir John Rennie is now engaged in
recovering a surface on the coast of Lincolnshire worth eighty
pounds an acre, and worth nearly three hundred thousand pounds
in the whole. We are quite within compass in saying that lands
worth ten millions can easily be recovered on the shores of these
islands, and which would yield food for above half a million of
people.

Mr. David Stevenson, who is the author of the work "On the
Civil Engineering of North America," and engineer to the Con-
vention of Royal Burghs of Scotland, has been employed on four
considerable tidal rivers, in the improvement of which he has been
very successful, and he has done the further good service of pub-
lishing his observations. The first edition of these has been
already noticed, but they acquire so much more importance from
the additional observations, and the subject itself is of so much
interest, that we feel it calls for some attention at our hands.

Mr. Stevenson establishes the classification of three sections or
compartments of river engineering, which are useful to be borne
in mind, as tending to avoid confusion of ideas. These three sec-
tions are — first, the non-tidal part of the river; second, the tidal
portion of the river; and third, the sea portion, or "sea proper."

i-.o

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

Kai-h of these compnrtnierits having very different eharacteristics,
requires a totally different class of works for effecting improve-
ments.

In this short book, Mr. Stevenson limits himself to the con-
sideration of the works he has executed witliin the tid.al compart-
ment. The volume of the fresh-wator stream is, lie says, a con-
stant cpiantity, and cannot be aufrmented by works of art; and,
therefore, the engineer must direct his endeavours to produce "an
increase in the duration of tidal influence," as the surest means of
effecting improvement.

This he considers may, to a certain extent, be attained in all
instances by lowering the bed of the river, and removing all ob-
structions to the free flow of the tide, so tliat tlie ]iropagation of
the tidal wave may be hastened. This, Mr. Stevenson, from his
own e.xperience, shows very satisfactorily may be accomplished.

The great value of such works is their tendency to increase the
backwater, by which the sea channels are kept open, for no works
can be of any use which disregard this purpose; neither are they
any better, which operate on the seaward compartment without
directly operating on the tidal compartment.

The causes of retardation commonly found in operation are —
the winding of the rivers, the slopes of their beds, the downward
flow of the fresh water, and the projection of obstacles into the
stream, — the latter often the production of engineers. The com-
bined effect of these causes is so powerful, that the water is some-
times heaped up in the rivers in an extraordinary way, so that in
the Dee, Mr. Stevenson found that after the tide had risen 18 feet
■t inches at Flint, it had not begun to flow at Chester, 12 miles up
the river. Now, the fall of the bed of the Dee being 11 feet from
Chester to Flint, there was therefore a fall at this time of tide of
no less than 7 feet 10 inches from Flint to Chester, or a fall up the
river.

A])plying his principles to practice, Mr. Stevenson was able, in
the Tay, to get at Perth inland a deptli of 5 feet at low, and 15
feet at high water of ordinary spring tides ; instead of, as for-
merly, 1 foot 9 inches at low, and 10 feet at high water. He has,
therefore, enabled steamers of small draught of water to ply regu-
larly at low water from Perth to Dundee, and vessels drawing 14^
feet can now come up to Perth in one tide with ease and safety,
instead of grounding or being otherwise obstructed, and losing the
tide for Perth, — a misfortune, as he says, which at those times
when the tides were falling from springs to neaps, often led to the
necessity of lightening the vessel, or keeping her waiting till tlie
next springs. The works cost 53,000/., and 841,480 tons of mate-
rial were excavated.

On the nibble, our engineer got an increased tidal range of
between three and four feet, and an acceleration of the tidal vvave
of about forty minutes, — -so as to make Preston a port, and quad-
ruple the tonnage dues. The cost was 40,000/.

On the Forth, Mr. Stevenson is still at work, with the view of
getting ships up to Stirling, and has been successful in his opera-
tions so far as he has proceeded.

Another river on which he is engaged is the Lune, and although
the works were only begun in November 1847, he has already de-
pressed the level of low water at Lancaster 1 foot 4 inches, accele-
rating the spring tides about 25 minutes, and the neap tides about
50 minutes, the time of high water remaining the same. There is
a gain of an increase of depth of not less than 4 feet in the navi-
gation up to the quays at Lancaster.

The pamphlet which we have named in the heading to this
article, discloses a case of great neglect and mismanagement on
the part of the River Dee Company, who have not C(unpleted their
covenants for imjiroving the river Dee — but rather impaired it, so
tliat the trade of Chester is most seriously impeded. The Dee
Commissioners, who publish this statement of their case against
the Com|)any, are powerless for want of funds, and it is not sur-
prising that they advocate handing over the management of the
river to the Tidal Harbour Commissioners, — on the principle, we
presume, that they cannot be worse oft'; though, from what we
have seen of government commissions, there is little good to be
hoped from them.

From the Dee many thousand acres of land might be reclaimed,
and the navigation improved, without its costing the country any-
tliing more than the temporary advance of tlie funds for the pro-
secution of the works : but that river remains in a state which is
ruinous to tlie city of Chester, and, to our minds, disgraceful to
the engineering science of the country.

If hydraulic engineering were properly prosecuted as a profes-
sional study, we should not find our resources so shamefully ne-
glected, nor such a wasteful outlay of the public money in mis-
named harbours of refuge, while the country would be adequately

provided with harbmir accommodation. With a proper adminis-
tration, neitlier Fleetwood nor Great Grimsby Wduhi be private
works, but would be national enterprises, carried out to afford
accommodation to populous and thriving districts. \\ hile, how-
ever, hydraulic engineering savours of quackery, the government
will be able to carry on theii miserable system of alternate neglect
and jobbery.

REGISTER OF NE'W PATENTS.

GAS IMPROVEMENTS.

Alexander Angus Croll, of the Gas-works, Tottenham, Mid-
dlesex, for ^'■hrijirovements in the manufacture of gas, and in appa-
rntu.f to be 7tned in transmitting gas." — Granted August 22, 1848;
Enrolled February 22, 1849.

The improvements consist, first, in setting retorts and apparatus
for making gas from coal. Secondly, for a mode of employing
steam passed through highly-heated carbon, and then mixing with
carburetted hydrogen as it is distilled from coal. Thirdly, for so
employing sulphurous acid gas as to combine with sulphuretted
hydrogen gas and to cause the sulphur of the gases to be thrown
down or precipitated. Fourthly, for apparatus to he used in
transmitting gas.

It has heretofore been proposed to employ long retorts capable
of being fed at each end, and in such manner that tlie jiroducts
of gas from the last charge shall pass over the charge which has
been for a length of time in the retort, for which purpose each
such retort was provided with a rising-pipe at each end, to carry
oft" the gas evohed first from one end of the retort, and then at
the other, the dift'erent ends of each retort being fed at distant in-
tervals, so that the two charges therein will at all times be in a
different state of process, one charge being comparatively fresh
whilst the other charge will be comparatively spent.

The first part of Mr. CroU's invention consists of using similar
retorts, which can be fed at each end, but in ])lace of having two
rising-pipes, one at each end, as heretofore, for carrying off the pro
duced gas, he has only one rising-pipe which he applies at one end
of a retort, and then, in place of feeding the two ends alternately,
and at distant periods one fi'om the other, he charges both ends at
the same time, by which arrangement considerable advantage
results in the manufacture of gas.

The second part of the invention has for its object the use of
steam passed through carbon at a bright red heat, and then causing
it to pass over or amongst the charge of coal which is being dis-
tilled in a retort. For this jiurpose he prefers to use retorts as
above described, and at the end most distant from the rising-pipe
is charged the retorts with coke, and there is a steam-pipe to con-
vey steam into the retort at that end, and at the other end of the
retort a charge of coal is supplied at every five hours, and steam
is allowed to flow in for about the first three hours of each charge.
About fifteen gallons of water evaporated and caused to pass into
retorts for each ton of coals (that is, when Newcastle coal is used,
but when Kennel coal is used the quantity should be increased),
produces the most advantageous working, but he does not confine
himself to the use of that quantity. The object being to obtain a
larger quantity of gas of a fair illuminating power and a less pro-
duce tif tar.

The third part of the invention is for the use of sulphurous acid
in such manner as to deprive carburetted hydrogen gas of the
sulphuretted hydrogen gas with which it is contaminated, and thus
to obtain the sulphur of both compounds in the form of flour of
suljihur.

He first makes a solution of sulphurous acid in water by connect-
ing a vessel or vessels of cast-iron (arranged as a \W)ulfe's appa-
ratus used for impregnating liquids with gases) with an oven or
other suitable apparatus for carrying on the combustion of sulphur;
and by means of an air-pump or other arrangement for producing
a draught connected with the vessel containing the water or liquid
to be impregiuited, a current of sulphurous acid gas from the burn-
ing sulphur is made to pass tlu-ough the water or liquid, and by
which it is largely absorbed. This is done till the liquid is
nearly saturated with sulphurous acid, and to effect this about
six ounces of sulphur will require to be burned for every gallon
of water.

The sulphurous acid thus made is transferred to the first of a
series of three vessels, (or, it may be, other number of vessels), con-
structed and arranged exactly in the same manner as the wet-lime
purifiers in common use at gas-works; the other two vessels are
charged with a weaker solution, derived after the process has been

184.9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

lol

once put in operation from the washers to he afterwards mentioned,
and by a portion of the suli)hurous acid wiiich is disengaged from
the first vessel. Each of these vessels is charged exactly as is done
with the liquid in the wet-lime purifiers, so that the gas may pass
through and come into extensive contact with the solution of sul-
phurous acid; the gas is made to pass first into the vessel with the
strong solution, and thence into the second, and thence again into
the third. In thus passing through these successive purifiers the
sulphuretted hydrogen in the coal-gas and the sulphurous acid are
both decomposed, and sulphur is abundantly deposited. 'When the
sulphurous acid in the first vessel has been all decomposed, or
nearly so, the contents must be discharged into a suitable reser-
voir, where the liquor may settle or be filtered, and the sulphur
obtained and dried. The vessel must then be charged with a new
solution, and the process proceed as before. In practice, instead
of using a separate vessel, as already described, for preparing the
solution of sulphurous acid, two sets of purifiers are used alter-
nately, and therein to charge the liquid with sulphurous acid in
the one set when the coal-gas is being passed through the other;
and instead of using fresh water for this purpose the liquid is
transferred, already partially charged, from the second to the first,
and the contents of the third transferred to the second, as in like
manner the third has been charged from the washers now to be
described.

On account of the volatility of the sulphurous acid, a portion of
it is carried over with the gas, and, therefore, to free it from this
impurity it is made to pass through other three vessels, called
washers; and finally, that every trace of impurity may be removed,
it is passed through a common dry-lime purifier. The freedom
from impurity may be ascertained at any stage of the process l)y
the usual test of acetate of lead for sul])huretted hydrogen, and
by the smell, if there be even a most minute portion of sulphurous
acid present.

These washers are arranged so as to be put in connection with
either series of purifiers at pleasure, and any construction may be
adopted by which there is a free passage for the gas and a thorough
exposure of it to the water, and for this purpose the ordinary lime
purifiers already referred to answer very well. In the washers
these are charged with water only, and as it becomes impure it is
transferred through the series onward, and then into the purifiers,
the last vessel of the series being always supplied with fresh water,
and care being taken that it never gets so charged with sulphurous
acid as to allow of its being disengaged with the gas. Such is the
general mode of procedure, that in practice it is not necessary to
discharge or transfer the contents of the purifiers every time they
are impregnated with sulphurous acid, but only when the accumu-
lation of sulphur, tar, &c., renders it necessary, and also if more
water be required in the washers than it is necessary to transfer to
the purifiers, then it may be run out, and, after depositing its sul-
phur, may go to waste.

It has heretofore been proposed to have gas-holders fixed at a
distance from the works, in order that they may be near where the
supply is to be given, and it has been proposed to aid the trans-
mission of gas from the works by means of exhausting apparatus.
Now, the fourth part of the invention consists of so working tliat
the gas in the main between the gas-works and the exhauster, in the
vicinity of the gas-holder, at a distance may be maintained at a
proper degree of pressure for supplying the intermediate district.
For this purpose Mr. Croll causes the "exhausting apparatus to be
capable of taking the gas to such an extent as to exhaust the gas-
main, so that if no provision were made for maintaining the gas at
a proper degree of pressure in the main, no supply of gas to the
intermediate district could take place from the main. When the
exhausting apparatus is at work, he causes there to be a branch-
pipe from the main to the gas-holder, such branch-pipe being con-
nected at a point from the gas-holder beyond the exhausting appa-
ratus, and on such branch-pipe is applied a governor, which he
prefers to be such as are now used at gas-works to regulate the
pressure of gas in the mains. By this arrangement, although the
exhausting apparatus will at all times when at work be propelling
gas into the gas-holder from the gas-main, with a tendency to ex-
haust the main, a quantity of gas will pass from the gas-holder by
the branch-pipe into the main, which quantity will be regulated by
the governor, which will thus keep the gas in the gas-main at the
desired working pressure, and the gas-holder or gas-holders at a
distance from the works will only be supplied by the exhausting
apparatus with the quantity of gas, which would' otiierwise cause
the gas in the main to rise in excess of the desired working
pressure.

MANUFACTURE OF IRON.

John Davie Morries Stirling, of Black Grange, N. B., gen-
tleman, for ''^ improvemetiff/ hi the manufacture of iron and melallic
compound.-^."— Granted October 12, 184.8; Enrolled April 12, 1849.
[Reported in the Mechanics' Magazine.']

This invention relates to the manufacture of malleable iron, and
to certain combinations of alloys of malleable iron and cast-iron,
and of malleable iron or cast-iron, or malleable and cast-iron with
other metals.

The improvement in the manufacture of malleable iron consists
in mixing a quantity of scrap-iron with cast-iron in the proportion
of s'ot'i to jth or even ^j^th part, by weight, of the former to the
latter, whereby the refining process may be wholly or partially
dispensed with. The malleable scrap-iron may be introduced into
hollows in the bed of the pig-furnace containing the cast-iron, and
melted with it; after which it is boiled and puddled, or puddled
only, in the ordinary manner. Or, the malleable, scrap, and cast-
iron may be melted in a suitable furnace, and then run into pigs or
slabs, or into a puddling furnace. Or, the scrap may be heated in
a furnace, but not sufficiently high for the pieces to stick together,
and the melted cast-iron then run into it, and the fusion of the
two completed. These proportions will, of course, have to be
varied according to the nature of the cast-iron. The quality of
the malleable iron will be much improved by mixing with it refined
iron or steel scrap, when either of these materials can be easily
and cheaply obtained.

The patentee then specifies several combinations of malleable,
scrap, and cast iron with different metals, which are as follows : —

1. A given quantity of the preceding combination is mixed with
from —77 th to Trrnrt'i P^>'t I'* it'* weight of block or grain tin; or,

2. AVith ■nT77t'' P'i''t of its weight of zinc, or any one of its
oxides (calamine being preferred;) or,

3. With from .^^th to TTTnjth part of its weight ot copper mixed
with one per cent, of the black oxide of manganese of com-
merce.

In order to mix the ainc with the iron, the molten metal is run
out of the cupola or other furnace, and the blast-pipe closed. The
zinc is then |daced upon the coke, and, when melted, runs through
it and combines with the iron which adheres to the sides of the
furnace. The proportion of zinc to iron should be between 4 and
7 of the former to 1 of the latter, and may be employed, when
mixed with a small quantity of lead to prevent its heating, for
bearings, &c. And

Lastly. The patentee proposes to manufacture a substitute for
gold, which he terms "British Gold," by mixing 1 part of the zinc
alloy of iron with 4 parts of copper and manganese; and a substi-
tute for silver, by mixing 6 parts of the zinc alloy of iron with 2
of nickel and 10 of copper.

The combination of copper and manganese is effected by placing
them in a crucible covered with a suitable flux, and applying heat
until they fuse. The proportion of manganese to copper should
be from one to two per cent.

[The patentee makes no claim to any of the various processes
and combinations described in his specification.]

BORING MACHINE.

Daniel Watney, of Wandsworth, Surrey, distiller, and Jajies
John Wentworth, of the same place, for '■'• iynprorements in ma-
chinery for drilling metals and other substances." — Granted October
12, 1848; Enrolled April 12, 1849.

The apparatus consists of a rectangular metal frame, supported
loosely on a foot by a screw and nut, which allows it to turn freely
in any direction, and is furnished at top with a screw, carrying a
circular disc, which is also free to revolve thereon. This fi-ame is
maintained in a vertical or horizontal position by having the foot
and disc screwed into contact with the floor and ceiling, or to the
two sides of a chamber or mine. A block of metal slides up and
down the space of the frame, and is fitted with clamp pieces and a
screw, carrying at one end a socket-head, and at the other a nut,
whereby it may be maintained stationary at any required distance
from the foot-piece. This socket carries a screw, having a hole
liored in its head, to serve as a bearing to the drill, so that it may
be made to work in a horizontal or vertical line, or in a direction
at any desired angle to either of them. Motion is communicated
to the drill from a prime mover in the ordinary manner.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

TMay,

VENEER-JOINING MACHINE.

PiKRRE Armand Le Comte de Fontainemoueau, of 4, South-
street, Finsbury, Middlesex, for '■'■certain iiii/iroretnmit.i in the mar
rliiiicri/ for cutting voiid, and in /ui/iii;/ anil uniting veneers." (A
foniniunication.) — Gninted May 2j, 18+7.

Ilaviiii; in our last number (p. 115) described the machinery em-
])loyed by tlie patentee in cuttinfr wood into veneers, we now i^ive
the reinainiiif; portion of the s|)eL'ification — namely, for "improve-
ments in apparatus for pasting and doubling veneers, and their
ap])lication to useful purposes, such as for hangings of apart-
ments, HiC."

The application of sheets of veneers to several useful purposes,

exhibits a longitudinal section drawn through the centre of the
apparatus. Similar letters of reference apply to the same parts.
It is easy to understand, by examining them, the general disposi-
tion of the machine and its manner of working. The linen cloth
a, which is to serve as a lining to the veneer, is previously rolled
over a cylinder or drum A, the axes of which are so adjusted that
they move freely in the grooves of the upper part of the cast-iron
supporters B. The sheet of veneer made by the cutting machine
which, as before stated, is of a great length, is also rolled over a
second cylinder C, the axes of which also move freely in their
forked supporters I). The sheet and the cloth are both at once
and together unrolled from the surface of the cylinders, and soon
meet beyond the glueing apparatus, which is placed at a short dis-

Fig. 9.

and especially to cabinet-making, is well known, but until now on
account of the processes for cutting wood into veneers having only
produced sheets of small dimensions, the manufacturer has been
very limited in their use and application, as he could not lay on or
cover large surfaces by a single and same sheet.

This is obviated by means of the wood-cutting machine, de-
scribed in last month's Journal, for cutting logs into extremely thin
sheets, of an almost indefinite breadth, so that such new mode of
producing veneers naturally offers several easy and useful applica-
tions of those sheets, not only for veneering in general, but also
for hangings, floorings, carpeting, &c., which they can replace
with the greatest success.

The usual veneer sheets, as obtained by the ordinary processes
of sawing, are directly glued when they are to be applied on the
woods which they are to cover. Instead of operating in that man-
ner with the large sheets cut by the process before described, and
to render them fit for the new applications to be made by this
process, it is intended by the new process to paste them on all
their width on canvas, thin cloth, or any other similar tissues
whatever; by that means those thin sheets obtain a very great sta-
bility, which permits afterwards to use them with the utmost
facility for veneering or covering every kind of surface, whatever
may be its width and surface.

In order to put such improvements into execution, that is to
say, to lay glue perfectly well, all the surface of those large and
thin slices or sheets of wood upon the tissue or cloth in such a
manner that their superposition and adhesion should be complete,
firm, and permanent, the hereinafter described apparatus has been
found to answer in every respect.

Fig. 8 is a general plan of the machine above alluded to; fig. 9

tance from the cylinder C. That glueing apparatus consists of a
cylinder or brush E, which dives in a pan F, filled with paste pre-
viously heated in a balneum marce, or sand bath, by steam, by
means of a second pan G, which encloses it, or by any other suit-
able means.

The cylinder E, receiving a continuous rotative movement, is
constantly impregnated with a certain quantity of paste or glue,
which it spreads "in abundant quantities over the surface of the
cloth or stuff, as this last passes over its circumference, and on
which it is forced bare by the pressure of a sort of right angular
ruler H, set directly above it, and which at both its extremities is
kept and led in grooves O O. That ruler H, could be replaced in
case of need either by a weight or springs, or any other suitable
contrivance. The veneering sheet passes only under the pasting
cylinder E, or rather, under the balneum miirie, and is directed by
a rod or long moveable roller I, purposely placed on the frame V,
towards the two large and strong cylinders J and J', between
which it must pass at the same time as the cloth, so that they may
he both sufficiently pressed together, and adhere to each other
uniformly in all their length and breadth. The cylinders are so
disposed that the necessary degree of pressure to ensure the com-
plete adhesion of the cloth and sheets is given at once.

When egressing from these cylinders, the cloth and the veneer-
ing seem to to form but one single body like a very thin pasteboard,
but they are too wet to have a good solidity, wherefore it is neces-
sary to dry them with the same rapidity as the pasting and uniting
action has been affected by the pressing cylinders. For that pur-
pose, it has been considered that the most convenient and rational
means consisted in using steam, which is made to enter into some
hollow cylinders like those long used in paper-making machines.

1849."]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

153

However, as it is most essential that the dn'ini? should not be too
quickly obtained, for fear eitlier of un])astini; or preventing a
thorough equal pasting, care must be taken that the steam which
arrives from the boiler in the two first cylinders K, K', which are
placed close to the pressing cylinders J, J', be not too hot, and that
the steam which reaches the last range of cylinders M, M', be the
hottest. It would be very easy, in case of need, to cause the same
steam to run successively' in like manner in a greater number of
cylinders, in order to obtain more surely in the meantime, by that
said operation, a perfect, smooth, even union, and a regular past-
ing and drying without any trouble or difficulty.

It is understood tliat the sheets of veneer being united to the
cloth, passing thus from one to the other pair of cylinders, and
receiving successi\ely more and more heat, are dried gradually
without any chance of being over-heated by that process; when
they arrive at the last pair of heated cylinders, they are entirely
dry, and form one single and only sheet, whicli is rolled over the
drum P, to which a convenient rotary motion is given according
to the direction described by the arrow, as shown in the engraving.

As that cylinder in receiving the united veneer and cloth be-
comes progressively larger, it is necessary to lessen the velocity of
its rotation in order to keep as much as possible rectilineal motion
of the united veneer and cloth.

For that purpose, that cylinder P, is put in motion by means of
a pulley, and of a distender, which bearing more or less heavily,
and to the required degrees, on the strap of the pulley, causes this
last to be drawn with more or less velocity, and in order that the
united veneer and cloth should remain well distended over the cir-
cumference of the cylinder P, without being unpasted, a pressing
cylinder, the weight of which is evidently proportioned to the
velocity, is conveniently placed above it.

To take aw;iy from the surface of the pressing and heating
cylinders the superabundant paste, which, by the pressure, egresses
through the sides of the united cloth and veneer, some moveable
scrapers or knives have been adapted; tliey are set on the axes of
those cylinders, and as they bear on them, care must be taken to
maintain them constantly at their proper position by means of
weights suspended to levers which are adjusted to those axes, and
on the outside of the machines.

To vary also, in case of need, the distance between these pressing
and heating cylinders, their cast-iron frames have been so disposed
as to allow them to roll upon two parallel bands or rails. Thus,
at the feet of each of those frames are adjusted some cast-iron
small wheels or rollers, by means of which the position of the
cylinders can be easily changed, and consequently they can be
made to advance or recede as it is judged convenient.

ON SIR BALTHAZAR GERBIER'S "COUNSEL AND
ADVICE TO ALL BUILDERS."

On the Contents of a work by Sir Ba/thazar Gerbier, written in the
nth century, and entitled ^'Counsel and Advice to all Builders." By
Sydney Smirke, Esq. — (Read at the Royal Institute of British
Architects, March 19.)

The small volume of which I am now about to give you some
account, possesses very slender claims to literary merit — nor has it
much intrinsic professional value; yet it has, I think, still, great
claims on our attention, as being among the very earliest of our
native literary productions exclusively on the subject of our art.

The earliest edition of Sir Balthazar's Counsel and Advice is
1663. The early date, therefore, of this book gives it a value, —
and a stronger interest attaches to it in our eyes, as giving some
insight into the practice of architecture at the period of our great
master, Sir Cliristopher AV^ren. Sir Balthazar was born at Ant-
werp, in 1599, and was brought up as a miniature painter. He was
knighted by Charles I., and was employed by him, in conjunction
with Rubens, to negotiate a treaty with Spain; he also resided at
Brussels in a diplomatic character. He was subsequently em-
ployed as an architect by Lord Craven.

The treatise commences by adverting to the author's previous
work, which he describes as a little " manual, concerning the 3
chief principles of magnificent building — viz. solidity, conveniency,
and ornament;" wherein he "notes the incongruities committed
by many undertakers of buildings." He points to the Grecians
and Romans as the best builders, and urges that men should not
be subject to fancies nor "inslaved by weather-cock-like spirits,
to make their buildings according unto things o la mode." He fur-
ther condemns the incongruity committed by surveyors, "who were
minded to show that they were skilled in describing columns

Cornishes, and frontispieces, although, for the most part, placed as
the wilde Americans are wont to put their pendants at tlieir
nostrils."

The author then proceeds to treat more particularly of his ad-
vice to all builders. "Whoever," he says, "is disposed to build,
ought, in the first place, to make choice of a skilful surveyor, from
whose directions the several master workmen may receive instruc-
tions by way of draughts, models, and frames." I should here say
that the author throughout uses the terms surveyor and architect
as perfect synonyms; there is no indication whatever of that dis-
tinction which is now, in England at least, universally received.
He then adverts to some of the requirements of architects, and
especially dwells on the knowledge of perspective as essential;
he teaches that the arcliitect should consider the ground whereon
the building is to be erected, and then govern himself as the
ground will gi\e him leave; or, as Pope has since more elegantly
expressed it, "consult the genius of the place." He must place
the front of a country house towards the east, "by which means
he may shelter his double lodging rooms from tlie north-west."
I cannot say that this piece of instruction is very intelligible. We
can hardly regard the north-west as the aspect most to be shunned.
The author here adds, what he quaintly calls a nota bene to builders
viz., "he must cause all the back of his stonework (which stands
within the brickwork), to be cut with a rebate 3 inches broader
than the breadth of his jambs and cornish, which will hinder the
rain from piercing into the inside of the wall, and through the
meeting of the brick and stone." He deems it necessary to make
a sort of apology for tliis advice, as implying that "surveyors and
master workmen in this refined age which abounds in books, with
the portractures of the out and inside of the best buildings, are to
seek the first points of their apprentiship; of whom I ask the
reason why modern buildings are so exceedingly defective; and
whether it is not because many of them have been but apprentices
lately, and too soon become journeymen; and that surveyors (who
either affect more the building to themselves a strong purse, or are
blind to the faults which their workmen commit), like careless
postillions, hasten with the packet maile to the post-office, be it
never so ill-girted, whereby it oft falls in the midway."

The author then advises how to try the capacity of a surveyor.
"The readiest way to try him," he says, "is to put liim to draw a
ground plot in the builder's presence; to make him describe the
fittest place for a seat; the ordering of the rooms for summer or
winter; to contrive well the staircases, doors, windows, and chim-
neys,— doors and windows so placed that they may not be incon-
venient to the chimneys, — the bedstead place from the doors and
windows, and of a fit distance from chimneys."

He then adverts to the "seelings of rooms," adapting their
height to the size, character, and use of the room. A bedchamber
of state may be 30 feet wide, 40 feet in length, and 16 or 18 feet
high; whereas a closet, 10 feet square, adjacent thereto, if made of
the same height, would be "preposterous, and like a barber's comb-
case." The dimensions here set down for a state bedchamber seem
somewhat extravagant; but it must be remembered tliat our au-
thor's advice is apparently addressed to royal or noble builders;
and in the 17th century business was transacted, and morning visi-
tors were received, usually in the bedchamber, a practice which, at
the present day, has not fallen altogether into desuetude on the
continent.

The author then proceeds to the subject of exterior architecture.
He points out the necessity of cornices over doors and windows, to
prevent rain from falling on them, which he illustrates in his usual
quaint way, by comparing a "cornish" to "the broad brim of the
good hat of a traveller in a rainy day."

"The good surveyor," he adds, "wiU order ornaments to the
front of a palace according unto its situation: shun too much
carved ornaments on the upright, whereat the southerly windes
raise much dust;" also "shun those spectacle-like cant windows
which are of glass on all sides, for it may be supposed that the in-
habitants of such houses and rooms with cant windows (exposed to
the north-west) may well imitate a merry Italian fisher, who in a
winter, windy, rainy day, had been stript to his skin, and having
nothing left to cover him save his bare net, wherein he was wrapt,
put his finger through one of the holes, asking of passengers what
weather it was out of doors." It is here to be observed, that at
the period when our author wrote, classical architecture, on its
revival, was still struggling with the Gothic forms that had pre-
\'ailed for so many centuries previously. These cant or bow win-
dows were peculiarly characteristic of the Tudor and Elizabethan
ages, and so firmly rooted were they in the domestic habits and
usages of the time, that the revivers of classical architecture were
driven to make many attempts to retain the old favourite form

21

l.U

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

LMav,

witli a new dress; and down to the priveit day we seem to have
remained true to the (dd spectarle-like cant window of our fore-
fathers, wliich, wliilst it is almost universal in Knirland, can
scarcely he met with in modern architecture on the continent.*

Sir lialtliazar then jiroceeds to ffive us advice of not a very im-
portant nature on the suhject of balconies, balustrades, and Cor-
nishes. He says that the Grecian and Roman surveyors ever made
the Cornishes and ornaments about the windows of the upper
stories to be higgler than those on the lower ; and illustrates his
remark by a somewhat pedantic reference to Michaelangjelo,
Raphael d'Urbin, and AUiert Durer. He then teaches us as to
the proportions of doors and windows. The chambers of a palace,
he says, should have the doors wide enough for two to pass at once,
and the height to be double the width ; all other chamber doors
should be convenient for a man of complete stature to pass with
his hat on. 'Windows must be higher than they are wide, because
light comes from above, and the middle transome should be above
ti feet from the floor, otherwise the transome would be opposite a
man's eye ; " hindersome," as he says, "to the free discovery of
the country. The leaning-height of a window should be 3^ foot,
and not so low that wanton perscms may sit on them and break
the glass, or that they may show themselves in cuerjio to passen-
gers. '' A good surveyor," he says, " shuns the ordering of doors
with stumbling-block thresholds, though our forefathers affected
them, perchance to perpetuate the ancient custom of bridegrooms,
who, wlien formerly at their return from church, did use to lift up
their bride, and knock her head against that part of the door, for
a remembrance that she was not to passe the threshold of their
house without their leave."

'■ Doors, he says, should be on a row, and close to the windows,
that when the doors are opened they may serve for screens, and
not to convey wind to the chimney."

The hearth of a chimney ought to be level with the floor ; and
chimney mantles ought to be of stone or marble. It is necessary
to cover the top of chimneys to keep out rain and snow ; the
smoke holes can be very conveniently made on the sides of their
heads. Had the knight lived in these times he would doubtless
have been very severe, in his quaint way, upon the monstrous
fashion of modern chimney-pots.

" Roomes on moist grounds do well to be paved with marble," and
'' a good surveyor shuns the making of timber ])artitions on the
undermost story." '" The good surveyor doth contrive the repar-
titions of his ground plot so as most of the necessary servants may
be lodged in the first ground-story, whereby there will be less dis-
turbance, less danger of fire, and all the family at hand on all oc-
casions." " Finally, he ought from time to time to visit the work
to see whether the building be performed according unto his di-
rections and moulds." The author then proceeds to a chapter on
clerks of works. " A darke of the werkes," he says, " must be
verst in the prices of materials and the i-ates of all things belong-
ing to a building; know where the best are to be had ; provide
them to the workmen's hands," and so on, adding that " though
nails to some seem not very considerable, yet ought the clarke of
the werke to be discrete in the distributing of them to some car-
])enters whose pockets partake much of the austruche's stomach."
" His eyes must wander about every workman's hands, as on those
of the sawyers at their ])it, so that they waste no more than needs
in slabs; on the laborers' hands in the digging of the foundation
for the bricklayers, that all the loose earth may be removed and
springs observed."

Some of the ordinary duties of a clerk of the works are then
enumerated ; as, that he should pi'event bricks being tumbled out
of the cart ; that he should suffer no sammell bricks to be made
use of, and that he should not suffer the bricklayers to lay any
foundation except the ground be first rammed, though it seem
never so firm. " No great and small stuff," he says, " should be
huddled together in the foundation, but all laid down as even as
possil)ly can be, to ram it the better and the more equal, and must
be of scdid hiird stuff with no concavities daubed over with store
of mortar," and he adds here in a marginal note that these pre-
cautions were observed in building the foundations of Solomon's
Temple, but he does not give us his authority fortius information.
The clerk of works is further to see that the line-and-plumb
rule be often used ; that the bricklayers make small scaffling holes,
and never suffer them to begin scafflings in the morning, but before
leaving of their work ; " for if in the morning," he says, " most of
them will make it a day for the gathering of nuts."

* Lord Bacon, who wrote somewhut before the date of this book, had none of our
author's prejudice against these emiiowed windows. '* 1 hold them," aays he in his
well known e*siiy on building, " of i-ood use, lor they be pretty retiring pluces for con-
ference ; and besirles, they keep both the wind and sun otf, for that whkh \voulU Btrilie
almost tiiruu^Ji iiu i-oauj dotli scarce puss the window."

Then follow some injunctions respecting mortar, that I scn-cely
need particularise — and the author proceeds to the subject of ma-
sonry. The workmen must observe exactly the surveyor's molds,
and work close and neat joints, using but little mortar between
them, not only because much mortar will be washed away, but that
Cornishes will also appear like a rank of open teeth ; and they
must not forget to shore up the middle part of the liead of the
windows, as well as the sides, to prevent an une([ual settling of the
work, and, consequently, cracks. There here ensue, for the next
thirteen pages, detailed directions for the proportioning of the
several orders.

"It is the rule of the ancient masters, whose reliques, to be seen
throughout most places of Italy, make many strangers that come
their gape so wide as that they need no gags. '

The author now enters upon the subject of carpentry. He
teaches "That the carpenters should be good husbands in the
management of the builder his timber; on the cutting of the
scantlings; their sparing to make double mortices, which do but
vveaken the summers. To lay no gerders which are needless and
hindersome to the hording of a room; no summers to be laid
except the ends of them are either pitcht, or laid in loam to pre-
serve them from rotting," "and therefore in Italy, France, and
Germany, and among the most prudent and solid builders, the free
masons, put stone cartouches in the top of the inside walls which
are bearers to the summers, as such cartouches are seen in divers
churches, and some of them are carved in ornamental figures."
He alludes, no doubt, here to the stone corbels ujion which we
sometimes see the ends of principal timbers resting: an excellent
old practice which we in our own days follow, although in a much
less picturesque way, by inserting the ends of our timbers into
cast-iron shoes projecting from the face of the wall. The utili-
tarian tendencies of modern practice have been very subversive of
the old picturesque ways of our ancestors, whether on costume,
furniture, or architecture. An upholsterer now ascertains with
precision the size of the piece of oak that will just carry his table;
he seeks till he finds the safe minimum scantling, and this success-
ful discovery is the triumph of his art. ^V'hilst our forefathers
would take a log of oak, unregardless of this politico-economical
search after the greatest possible strength with the least possible
stuff', and would carve it into one of those ponderous and fantastic
legs which charm us by their quaintness, although they defy our
efforts to lift them.

In further illustration compare the broad, deep, capacious fire-
places, whereby our forefathers would warm themselves, with the
scientifically-constructed, snug, rumfordized stove, with bevelled
cheeks, no hobs, contracted openings, all contrivances admirably
adapted to meet our modern requirements of convenience and
economy; but how destructive to the poetry of our grandsires'
ruder arrangementsl^men of a rough, bold stamp, who, provided
they secured to themselves a warm chimney corner, appeared to
regard with great indifference the minor evils of smoke and blacks.

Then follow many other details of the manner the carpenter is
to lay his timber, and the author adds that the clerk of the works
must be very careful not to suffer the carpenters to lay any timbers
under the chimneys, "whereby many houses have been set on fire,
and burnt to the ground." We have then a variety of scantlings
for the timbers of floors and roofs, which scantlings he gives as tit
for substantial structures, but which are "not usual in lime-and-
hair bird-cage-like buildings"— a remark that leads us to the con-
clusion that the flimsy structure of modern speculators was not
wholly unknown to our ancestors. The care of the clerk of tlie
works must also be on "materials of weight, as sjiuder, wherewith
an unconscionable plummer can ingrosse his bill." In this respect
we see that 200 years' experience has not advanced us — we have
still "unconscionable plummers." "The clerk is to see sauder
weighed and well managed, and in the attesting of bills have a
care not to pass his eyes slight/i/ over them, lest when a plummer
sets pounds of candles used about his sauder, that trick prove as
insupportable as that of one who, having played away a round
sum of his master's stock in a journey to the East Indies, set down
in his bill to have paid a hundred pound for mustard." "He must
likewise have a clear insight on the glass paines of the glazier;
suffer no green paines of glass to be mixed with the white. He
must with his eyes follow the measurer of the work, his rod or
pole; so the line wherewith the joiner's work is measured, that it
be not let slide through the measurer's fingers, since the joiner's
work hath many goings in and out, and a leger-de-mayne may be
prejudicial to the paymaster's purse. It were likewise better to
agree with painters to have their work rated on running measure
and on the straiglit, as the carpenter's work, who, (being of an
honest Joseph's profession), are as deserving to be well payd as the

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

15-)

painters, who do but spend the sweat of wall nuts (to wit, oyle),
the carpenters that of their browes."

"As for coverings of buildings, lead is best for churches, for
who would rob them but Goths and Vandals? Blue slates are most
comely for a nobleman's palace," "a roof covered with them is of an
equal color, when as red tiled roofs the least breaking of them
makes great chargeable work for the tiler, who often removes ten
tiles to lay two new ones in their place, and renders the nobleman's
roof like a beggar's coat."

Our author then proceeds to some remarks on the making of
bricks, and recommends the clerk of works to look well to the
working of the clay, which, if not well wrought, will never make
good bricks. He says, that it is usual to pay 5s. per thousand for
making and burning bricks, the clay-digging therein comprehended.
He then goes into some details as to the relative expense of mak-
ing bricks, and purchasing them made; whereby it appears that
only 6s. Hd. is saved in 20,00 bricks, by making them. He says,
that of clam-burnt bricks, 500 out of 20,000 are unfit for work.

Various other d> tails are entered into respecting thi' making and
use of bricks. Men dig clay, he says, for 6d. the thousand; lime
is burnt at 4s. per load, and cost 40s. a load. Touching the use of
chalk in building walls, he says, that "those that mend the making
use of chalk in their walls must be contented (if the ground hath
springs) with the green mold which breaks thro' the whitened
walls within doors. Walls about a parke or court may be filed
with chalk, which may be digged for 18s. per load, and brought for
2s. 6rf. the load." "Good country bricklayers do work at 27s. the
rod, the bricks not being rubbed. Good London bricklayers will
work the rod for 40s. with rubbed bricks; the inside for 33s.,
arches comprized."

Then follow some remarks about lime burning, describing the
mode of burning it "in China and otlier parts of the Indies,"
wholly with wood and not in kilns.

Our author now proceeds to a new division of his work, which
he heads, "As for Choice of Master Workmen." "King Henry the
Eighth," he says, "showed a good precedent when the Serjeant
plummer, calling his workmen to caste, in his presence, a leaden
medal which was given him:" the king told him, "he would have
no walking master-workmen." Those, therefore, which are fit to
be employed are working masters, and not those who walk from
one building to another; "nor will any master-workman deny to
have had as much more done and well, by bestirring theii hands
and tools in their workmen's presence than otherwise." I cannot
refrain here from calling your attention to the singular social
change that has taken place since King Henry inflicted his repri-
mand on the walking instead of the working master. Fertile as he
is said to have been in oaths, certainly no usual oath would have
sufficed to express the royal indignation had he lived in these
times, to have seen the master-workmen not walk, but drive up to
his works in as fair an equipage as that of any of his most favoured
courtiers.

We have next a division of the work entitled "As for the
Builder and Proprietor." He advises the builder (by wliich term
he always means the employer) to buy his own materials, and to
have in reserve such a stock of his own as he can well spare, and
also, he adds, "against the mistakes of workmen, a stock of pa-
tience;" nor to begin building walls before March, nor after the
middle of September.

The next twenty-eight pages contain a variety of miscellaneous
and not very well assorted notes respecting the prices of materials
and workmanship.

Touching the paving of courts, to prevent the overgrowing of
grass and the charge of too often weeding, he says, "it would not
be amiss to lay dialk or lime under the paving, and to do the same
in gardens under gravel walks" — a piece of advice which is well
worthy of notice.

With respect to street paving with pebble stones, he alludes to a
Mons. Le Coeur having recently introduced great improvements in
paving works done under the commissioners. This French under-
taker appears to have formed a company for carrying out a new
invention in paving, "whereby they are not only able to make a
most substantial good pavement, but are likewise capable by that
same new invention to maintain it durable for twenty-one years."
Our author (who, as must have been observed, is remarkable for
the want of order and method in his remarks), brings his book to
a close with some, what he calls necessary notes. "What contri-
butes more to the fatal end of many a good mother's son is ill-
building: paper-like walls: cobweb-like windows: doors made fast
as witli packthread, purposely made to tempt men who, througli
extreme want, are become weary of a languishing life, and to
whose fatal end ill-builders are in a manner accessory." He says

that the scarcity of thieves vaunted -jf by the Hollanders, German
and other northern nations, is to be attributed to the defence they
are wont to make againt thieves : he then describes very particu-
larly the Hollanders' mode of making outside window-shutters so
secure by fitting them very closely to the reveals, and by a careful
arrangement of the bolts and hinges, — precautions which, however
necessary, certainly do not lead us to entertain any exalted idea of
Dutch honesty in the seventeenth century.

The entrance to a hall, he says, is not so proper in the middle as
at the end, or at all events, set as much as possible near the end.
He urges, that the principal floor of a building should not be level
with the ground; he then introduces "his story of one in authority,
who, passing by a town wherein the people generally did not outlive
their thirtieth year, caused all the backs of their houses to be
made the front; and the windows which were forward to be made
up, to free them from that infectious aire that did shorten their
lives, which had its eff'ect accordingly, and it is therefore I do so
much insist on the point of placing a building where good aire is,
and that neither chimnies nor doors may be so (ilaced as to serve
for the attraction of infectious aire, which kills more than the
sword, or the sea overturnes ships." A truth, which, althougli
uttered in 1663, we seem now, in 1849, only just beginning to per-
ceive the importance of. The book closes with some desultory
remarks of no great importance as to the choice of clerks of
works and surveyors, from which I need only quote the following
portion: —

" Let all owners [of houses, he means] be prepared to repent,
whether they build or not, for it is like the fate of many who
marry, or marry not. Let both the one and the other lay, as in a
scale, their several charges, vexations, cares, labours, and plea-
sures, they will find this to be true — viz., if they build they must
be at great present disbursements, vext with as many oversights,
and to be over-reach'd in bargains concerning their materials. If
they build 710/, they are subject to the inconvenience of houses
built according to the fancies of [other] owners ; and when they
shall cast up the summs of money spent in tlie rent, besides many
chargeable alterations, they shall finde that they might have built
a better and more fit habitation for them and tlieir posterity."

LAMBERT'S HYDRANT,

This hydrant, on account of its simplicity and economy, is the
best that we have seen ; it has been adopted by Mr. Laxton at the
Falmouth Waterworks, under a pressure of ITO feet, with success.
It is formed in three parts : A, elbow-pipe to be attached to the
main; B, one of Lambert's 2-inch diaphragm cocks, made of cast-
iron, with a screw -nozzle to receive the swivel of the hose; and
C, a cast-iron box, with cover. The top is fixed flush with the
pavement. The cost of the hydrant is, for a 2-inch cock, 22.s\ ;
box and cover, 6s; flange, elbow, and bolt, 3s. 6rf. : making in the
whole 11. Ms. 6d.

21*

\:>r,

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

[ May,

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

March 27 and April 3.— William Cubitt, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.
The paper read was a "Description of the Groynes formed on the South
Rocks, the site of the new docks at Sunderland." By Mr. W. Brow.ne,
Assoc. Inst. C.E.

These groynes have heen erected for the purpose of retaining the de-
posited materials excavated from the new doclis, and of arresting the sand
and shingle which naturally travel southward, in order to form a barrier
heach, that should cfffctually exclude the sea from beyond a given line.
The three first, whose lengths varied from 326 feet to 358 feet, were erected
at a height above ordinary high-water mark of 2 ft. 6 in. and 10 feet at the
seaward and inner ends respectively. The exterior was composed of ashlar
work ; the interior partly of the excavated magnesian limestone, and partly
of rubble set in mortar; the batter of the north sides was two and a half
inches to a foot, that of the south sides one to one, and the crest was formed
into an arch, with a radius of 5 ft. 6 in. The four other groynes were con-
structed of a different form, in consequence of those first erected not retain-
ing the deposited excavations, and accumulating other materials as was de-
sirable, and from their having been injured by the sea during a heavy storm
which occurred at the time of the equinoctial tides during the spring of
1848, when a breach was made in the first and third groynes, and at the
same time some of the stones in the second groyne were loosened; these
effects were produced at about the same point in each, namely, the intersec-
tion of the inclination of the groyne with the line of ordinary high-water
mark ; and it was found, from observation, that the momentum of the
waves was greatest at about the time of high water. The sides of these
groynes were semi-cycloidal, each being generated by a circle of 12 ft. 9 in. in
diameter, and uniting at the apex ; the seaward and inner ends are respec-
tively 7 feet and 10 feet above ordinary high-waler mark, and their lengths
varied from 510 feet to 579 feet. The foundations of these groynes consisted
of a course of freestone, laid at an average depth of 2 feet below the sur-
face ; the sides were also of coursed freestone, set header-and-stretcner al-
ternately, and the hearting of large sized rubble, closely packed, the vacan-
cies between it and the ashlar work being filled with small stones set in
Komau cement, so as to ensure a solid .bed ; at a depth of 6 feet below the
crest of the groyne, and resting upoi! the rubble hearting, coursed ashlar was
introduced, and carried as near to the crest as possible, the vacancy being
filled with small rubble and Roman cement. The constructioji of these
groynes commenced at the seaward point, and they were placed at distances
of from 350 to 450 feet apart ; the quantity of material excavated and de-
posited between them was stated to amount already to 730,000 cubic yards ;
11 consisted partly of hard blue clay and partly of marly rock or soft mag-
nesian limestone, and the harrier beach formed hy them had completely
withstood all the gales which occurred during the wmters of 1817-8, and
1848-9.

During the discussion, Mr. Murray explained very clearly his views in the
design for the docks, and for the direction of the groynes, and the various
works in the harbour for arresting the waves in their progress up the river.
The investigation of this subject elicited some very interesting remarks as to
the action of waves striking walls and groynes at various angles, when
instead of being reflected they were in part retained and guided along the
face. This was a peculiarity which, it vras, stated, should be taken advan-
tage of in hydraulic works.

April 17. — Robert Stephenson, Esq., M.P., V.P., in the Chair.
The paper read was " On an application of certain Liquid Hydrocarbons
to Artificial Illumination." By Mr. C. B. Mansfield, B.A.

The paper first noticed, that liquid hydrocarbons had heen comparatively
little used for the production of artificial light; and that in the instances in
which they had been applied, their liquidity, and not their evaporability, had
been turned to account. In the use of the common volatile oils, the excess
of carbon in their composition was the great difSculty ; but when that was
surmounted, that excess became an actual benefit.

There were two methods of rendering this carbon efficient as " light
fuel," when advantage was taken of the volatility of the substances; one
was to cause the vapour, as it escaped from a jet, to mix rapidly with the
air. The other, to mix the vapour, before combustion, with other gaseous
matters containing less carbon. The adoption of the first of these was in-
stanced in Ilolliday's recently patented Naphtha Lamp. The second, con-
sisted of the new arrangement described in the paper.

This principle was carried into practice in two ways. The first (which was
illustrated hy a lamp then burning on the table) was effected by mixing the
hydrocarbons with some other inflammable spirit containing very little car-
bon. The mixture was described as being made in certain definite propor-
tions, which ensured a perfectly white light, and from which any deviation
would result in a flame of inferior quality, — pale, if the hydrocarbon were
deficient, — smoky, if the mixture were poor in spirit. The ingredients most
accessible in this country were stated to be, wood, spirit, and a volatile oil
from coal naphtha, in the proportions of two-thirds of the former to one-
third of the latter. Alcohol and oil of turpentine had heen similarly used
on the continent, though the former was too dear for use in England.

The other adaptation of the same principle, and that which it was the
chief object of the paper to describe, was the dilution of the hydrocarbon
vapours with permanent gases of inferior, or even of no illuminating powers.
That application might be called the napthalization of gas, or the gasiza-
tion of naphtha, according as its main object was to enhance the services of
the gas, or to utilise the liquid : the latter was the object of the new pro-
posal described in the paper. The farmer had been already accomplished by
preceding inventors.

The first invention was that of Mr. Donovan in 1830, who proposed to
confer illuminating power on gases that were inflammable, but not lumini-
ferous, by charging them with the vapour of hydrocarbons; but from the
want of a sufficiently volatile fluid, he was compelled to have a reservoir
close to every burner. The next application was that of Mr. Lowe, who in-
creased the light obtained from coal gas by passing it over surfaces of naph-
tha. Mr. Beale's air light was then noticed; its object was to use hydro-
carbons for illumination, by passing a current of air through vessels contain,
iiig those liquids. There existed, however, the same obstacles to this plan
as to that of Mr. Donovan, viz., the heat required to evaporate the only
liquid hyilrocarbons then accessible.

The paper represented that at length the difficulty had been solved, hy the
discovery of a liquid hydrocarbon, as volatile as spirits of wine, but contain-
ing sufficient carbon for the most perfect light, and obtainable in any quan-
tity. This hydrocarbon was procured from coal tar, and was called " Ben-
zole." Its volatility was such as to enable it to naphthalise atmospheric air
as effectually as ordinary naphtha did coal gas.

The system proposed hy the author (which was illustrated in the room by
a working apparatus) consisted in conducting a stream of almost any gas, or
even of atmospheric air, through a reservoir charged with Benzole or some
other equally volatile hydrocarbon ; the gas or air so naphthalised being then
conducted like common coal gas through pipes to the burners. It was
stated, that the system was applicable on any scale, from the dimensions nf
town gas-works to the compass of a table-lamp. In the apparatus exhibited,
a small gas-holder, filled by a pair of bellows, supplied common air through
pipes. The gases formed by passing steam over red-hot coke would answer
well for this purpose, and it would depend on local circumstances whether
this mode of generating the current would be preferable to the expenditure
of the mechanical force necessary for driving atmospheric air through the
pipes. Pure oxygen charged with the vapour would explode on ignition ;
it was therefore suggested that this might prove a useful source of motive
force. It was, however, stated to he difficult to form an explosive mixture
of the vapour with common air. By decomposing water with the voltaic
battery, naphthalising the hydrogen with Benzole, and burning it with the
aid of the equivalently-liberated oxygen, a sin)ple hght of intense power
might be obtained. The system was shown to be a great simplification of
the ordinary system of gas lighting, as no retorts, refrigerators, purifiers, or
meters were required, and the products of combustion were as pure as those
from the finest wax. It was expected that the elegance of the material and
the simplicity of the apparatus would induce its introduction into buildings
and apartments where coal gas was not now considered admissible.

The apparatus and conditions necessary for the success of the method
were, a flow of cheap gas, or of air, driven through pipes by any known
motive power, and a reservoir of the volatile spirit through wliich the main
pipe must pass in some convenient part of its course; these pipes and reser-
voirs being protected from the cold. It was stated, that though the liquid
did not require to be heated above the average temperature of the air, it was
liable to become cooled by its own evaporation, so as to require an artificial
supply of warmth. This was readily effected by causing a small jet of
flame of the gas itself to play upon the reservoir, and by a simple contriv-
ance, called a " Thermostat," by which the flame was shut off when neces-
sary, the temperature could be made self-regulating, so as never to rise above
or fall below a proper degree. The cooling due to the evaporation, would,
of course, be inversely proportionate to the quantity of liquid in the resir-
voir. If atmospheric air was used as the vehicle for the vapour, the jet-
holes in the burner, from which it escaped for combustion, must be sligliiiy
larger than those for coal gas. Some burneis, contrived for the purpose nf
accurately adjusting the size of the orifice to the quantity uf luminiferous
njatter escaping, were exhibited and described ; they were made so that hy
moving a part of the burner, any required quahty of flame, from lightlcss
blue to smoky, could be obtained, there being a medium point at which the
most perfect brilliancy was arrived at. The burners would answer equally
well for coal gas, though that material could not, even by them, be made
to evolve so white and pure a light as that from Benzole vapour.

In conclusion, some data were given on which a calculation of price was
founded. It was stated, that a gallon of Benzole, of the degree of puriiy
requisite for the purpose, would cost about two shillings and sixpence; to
this, the expense of the air current and the interest of the original outlay
on apparatus was to be added. This the author presumed would not raise
the cost to more than four shillings for the consumption of the Benzole. U
was stated, that one ounce of that liquid would give a light equal to four
wax candles, of four to the pound, for one hour; or one gallon for about
one hundred and twenty hours. It was inferred, that a gallon of this mate-
rial was equivalent to about one thousand cubic feet of coal gas.

Finally, for comparison with coal gas at a distance from the mines, it was
stated, that while to produce one thousand cubic feet of gas, at least two
hundred pounds of coal must be transported, one gallon of Benzole did not

1849.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

157

weigh more than seven pounds ; this, in carriage, would give Benzole an ad-
vantage of twenty-eight to one over coal as a source of light.

In the discussion which ensued, high encomiums were passed upon the
talent and patient labour exhibited by Mr. Mansfield in the investigation of
this important subject, vthich promised to lead to most remarkable results,
as an extension of gas lighting to positions where it had not before been con-
sidered applicable.

April 24. — William Cubitt, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

The paper read was " On the Construction of Locomotive Engines, espe-
cially those modifications which enable additional Power to be gained without
materially increasing the Weight, or unduly elevating the Centre of Gravity."
By Mr. T. R. Crampton, Assoc. Inst. C.E.

It was contended, that the durability of the working parts of the engine,
the stability of the permanent way, and the freedom from oscillation so
essential for the comfort of travelling, all depended upon the steadiness of
the engines when at high speeds. This consideration led the author to
introduce several modifications of the ordinary construction of locomotives;
the driving-wheels were removed from the centre of the engine to behind
the fire-box, placing all the weight on and between the extreme points of
support. The centre of gravity was so reduced, that on the narrow-gauge
railways, the angle of stability equalled that of the broad-gauge engines.
All the moving parts of the machinery were removed from beneath the
boiler and placed on the two sides, within the easy inspection of the work-
men, and enabling the repairs to he eflfeoted with ease and dispatch. These
dispositions had the effect of enabling a larger amount of heating surface to
be given in the boiler, within a certain length of engine, than even in the
larger class of engines of much heavier weight; thus, in fact, simultaneously
concentrating the power and reducing the weight.

Upon this principle, snme engines of a smaller class had been constructed,
containing the water and coke tank within the same frame and on the same
wheels as the boiler; this arrangement became practicable in consequence of
the removal of the machinery from beneath to the two sides, leaving a con-
venient space for the tank, and the whole weight was placed within the
extreme wheels, reducing, at the same time, the centre of gravity of the
mass ; for it was argued, that the two points of importance were to place
the weight on and between the extreme wheels, and to bring the line of
traction identical with the centre of gravity of the moving mass.

These positions were illustrated by a set of diagrams, showing the various
constructions of engines that had been induced by the requirements of
railways, and the demands, whether for economy of fuel, or increase of
speed; and demonstrating that the class of engines having the driving-
wheels under the centre of gravity of the boiler, was that which oscillated
most at high speed ; but that the class possessing the greatest amount of
steadiness, was that in which the driving-wheels, and the weight which must
accompany them, were removed to the hinder extremity of the engine.

The paper gave the details of the various changes, and the arguments for
and against each class of construction, and the author requested, that if his
reasonings were proved to be fallacious, some rules should be laid down
for guiding the general practice of engineers in the construction of locomo-
tives.

In the discussion which ensued, the arguments chiefly went to show, that
it was the length of the base, or the area of the space covered by the
wheels, rather than their position, and that of the weight upon them, that
induced steadiness. On the other hand, it was contended, that although
additional steadiness bad been obtained in the old engines by thus extending
the length of the base, yet that if, as had been shown to be practicable, a
greater degree of steadiness could be obtained from an engine of less length
between the extremities, when the driving-wheels were removed from the
centre to the extremity, it was manifestly advantageous to adopt such a form
of construction. This was practically instanced by a small engine, of less
than nine feet between the centre of the wheels, running with perfect
steadiness at high speed ; whereas, with the old class of engines, it had
always been considered necessary for safety to have at least eighteen feet
between these centres.

SOCIETY OF ARTS, LONDON.
April 11.— B. RoTCH, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

"On the Oxalis Crenata." By Baron De Sharce. Specimens were ex-
hibited.

The Oxalis Crenata has been known to the scientific agriculturists of
Europe for some years : it is a tubercle the culture of which, however, upon
a large scale has been little practised. This tubercle is stated by Baron de
Suarce (who has cultivated about two acres and a half of it upon his own
estate in the south of France) to possess a larger degree of nutriment than
most of the farinaceous plants which form the basis of human food in our
climate. The total weight of the crop produced upon the above land by
the Baron was ten tons, from which three tons of flour was obtained. From
the steins of the plant, which may be cut twice a-year, and can he eaten as a
salad or spinach, 90 gallons of a strong acid was obtained, which, when
mixed with three times its bulk of water, was well adapted for drink. The
acid, if fermented and brought to an equal degree of acidity with vinegar, is
superior to the latter when used for curing or preserving meat, as it does not
render it bard, or communicate to it a bad flavour. The flour obtained from

the Oxalis Crenata is superior to that obtained from the potato, maize, or
buckwheat, as it makes an excellent light bread when mixed in the pro-
portion of one-fourth corn flour : this is not the case with potato, maizr,
or buckwheat flour. The Baron concluded his paper by expressing his wil-
lingness to make any further communication to the Society on the subject, as
he would consider it a great happiness to be enabled, with their aid, to in-
troduce into England the culture of a tubercle which seems destined to be-
come a resource of food for the lower classes, more precious perhaps than
even the potato.

In reply to a series of questions, the Baron stated that the Oxalis Crenata
came originally from South America ; ihat it is hardy, and unatfected by the
change of temperature; and grows readily in any soil, it being diflicult when
once introduced to eradicate it.

"On the importance of the Animal Refuse of Towns as a Manure, and the
method of rendering it available to Jgrtcttltural purposes." By Dr. Atres.

The author commenced his paper by calling attention to the necessity of
preserving the animal refuse of towns, and the importance which is attached
to it in China and Flanders, in many departments of France, Tuscany, &c. ;
and also to the various forms in which it is applied to the earth. Having
alluded to the importance of this subject in connection with the improve-
ment of the sanitary condition of towns, and the injurious effects upon the
inhabitants of London in particular, by allowing the putrid matter to be car-
ried into the Thames, there to be tossed upon the waves, and left exposed
upon the shores at each retrocession of the tide, — he proceeded to consider
the contents of the cesspools of London alone, which he has calculated can
not yield less than 46,500 tons of perfectly dry matter annually — a quantity,
according to the analysis of Liebig, suflicient to fertilise at least 1,000,000
acres of land, and the monetary value of which cannot be stated at less than
340,000/. Having next alluded to the plans which have hitherto been pro-
posed for drying and rendering this great mass of matter portable and avail-
able for agricultural purposes. Dr. Ayres proceeded to describe a plan which
he has recently patented for effecting so desirable an object. His process, he
stated, essentially depends on the fact that all the gaseous and volatile pri)-
ducts of putrefaction are combustible, and are resolved into the ordinary
products of combustion when carried over any incandescent surface, or over
or through burning fuel when mixed with atmospheric air. Thus ammonia
is resohed into nitrogen and water; sulphuretted hydrogen into sulphurous
acid and water; carburetted hydrogen into carbonic acid and water; and
phosphoretted hydrogen into phosphoric acid and water. The volatile orga-
iiic matters associated with the gaie^ are completely destroyed ; carbonic
acid alone passes through the fire unchanged. All these gases, with the
exception of ammonia and carbonic acid, exist only in very small proportions
in putrescent animal matter. U follows from what has been stated, that all
the volatile products of putrefaction are thus resolveable into the ordinary
products of combustion, which are well known to be innocuous. It suffices
to conduct these gases and vapours through a fire to effect their entire
decomposition and destruction. The apparatus by which this process may
be worked is susceptible of many modifications, but those to which he parti-
cularly desired to direct the attention of the Society, consist in drying the
animal refuse by the application of heat, either obtained from steam-pipes or
otherwise, and at the same time destroying the volatile products of putrefac-
tion by burning them.

A lengthened discussion followed the reading of the paper, at the close of
which the thanks of the meeting were presented to Dr. Ayies for bis com-
munication.

April 18.— T. WEBsTitR, Esq., F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

"On the supposed Influence of Oxygen on the Colour or Tint of Flint
Glass." By F. Fellatt, Esq.

The author in commencing his paper stated that the remarks contained in
the same are entirely the result of experience in the manufacture of glass in
large quantities, it being only under such circumstances that many of the
changes there noticed can be observed, because they are so minute that in
dealing with small quantities their occurrence would not be perceptible. In
speaking of white glass the term is comparative, as no glass is perfectly
colourless, and to the practised eye of the glassmaker there exists no two
pieces of the same tint or shade: the word colour therefore is used to denote
that particular tint or shade, whatever it be, which all white transparent
glass possesses. With these remarks, the author proceeded to consider the
action of oxygen as affecting the colour of flint glass in two distinct particu-
lars— first, its action upon the glass mixture during its melting or founding,
whilst in a state of fusion ; and, secondly, during its annealing or gradual
cooling.

The constituents of flint glass are silica, lead, carbonate of potash, and
nitrate of potash. The silica is found sufliciently pure as fine sand which
abounds in some districts ; that from Alum Bay, Isle of Wight, is much es-
teemed. The protoxide of lead (litharge), or the deutoxide (red lead), is the
state in which the lead is used; and the potash is the ordinary curl and
nitrate of potash of commerce. These, when mixed in certain proportions
and subjected to a strong heat for sixty or seventy hours, produce flint glass.
The purer the material, the more transparent the glass : but although all the
materials be chemically pure, a colourless glass is not the product, — owing
to some chemical change which takes place during the melting, the glass \%
tinted with green. This is generally stated to arise from the presence of
oxide of iron, but the author believes that in must instances it is owiu); to

153

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

tlie want of a necessary proportion of oxygen in the mixture, — which the
following experienci' will go far tu prove.

The tint of green is always minus when the lead in the glass mixture is in
the highest state of oxygenation — that is, when red-lead is used; and lowest
when litharge is employed in the mixture. When an excess of earhonate of
jjotash is used, the green tint is deep, hut may be entirely overcome hy the
use of the nitrate of potash, and superseded hy a purple tint when no metal
but lead is present.

Oxygen being the agent by which these changes in the colour of the glass
are effected, the glassmaker, in order to overcome the green tint always
present when oxygen is minus, uses the oxide of manganese, which has the
property of giving off its oxygen very slowly. An excess of manganese
gives to glass a purple tint, and where altogether absent the glass is always
green.

Having thus called attention to the peculiar composition and mode of
manufacturing flint glass, he proceeded to describe the changes which take
place in the colour or tint of glass, and the methods employed by the glass
manufacturer to convert the mass from a green, purple, amber, or other tint,
to a pure or colourless metal ; and brought forward examples tending to
jirove that the changes in the colour of glass are due to the presence or
absence of a given proportion of oxygen. Manganese, as a metal, gives no
colour to glass, although hy the oxygen it yields to the lead in the mixture
a purple colour is produced, because by reducing the quantity of oxygen,
either by polling or subjecting the glass to a long continued heat, or by sub-
iiiitting it to the action of carbon, the purple colour is removed, though the
manganese still remains. Iron and copper also assume different colours
■when combined with different proportions of oxygen. If this be true, may
not all colours of the oxygen of other metals, such as iron, copper, and lead,
be due to the combination of certain proportions of oxygen with the metal
or metals present, so as to induce a particular molecular arrangement, from
which the glass has the power of absorbing a particular colour ?

A lengthened discussion followed the reading of the paper, in which
Mr. A. Pellatt, Mr. Christie, Mr. Wilson, Mr. Palmer, and other gentlemen
connected with the manufacture, took part, at the close of which the thanks
of the meeting were presented to Mr. F. Pellatt for bis commuuication.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

March 19. — Ambrose Poyn',t3B, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

A letter was read from Mr. B. Ferrey, containing a sketch of the life of
the late Mr. Miles, an associate of the Institute, who died recently at the
early age of thirty-two yenrs.

Mr. Geoghegan exhibited a rubbing from the frieze of an Elizabethan
mantelpiece, discovered lately during the alterations to Wiarton House, near
Staplehurst, Kent. In the original, which is elegantly executed in the Kent-
ish rag-stone, the pattern is very slightly incised in the stone.

Mr. Std.n'ey Smirke, V.P., read 8 paper "On the contents of a work by
Sir Balthazar Gerbier, written in the 17th century, and entitled 'Comiset and
Advice tu all Builders,' together with some remarks suggested thereby." (See
Journal, p. 153.)

Tlie Chairman observed that, although Gerbier's work was undoubtedly
one of the earliest on the suhjett in our language, it was not the first. Wal-
pule mentions a treatise hy John Shute, a copy of which had recently been
recovered hy Professor Willis.

Mr. Taylor, jun., described his patent method of facing walls with stone.
It was mentioned, in connection with the subject, that the tower of Chelsea
new church was faced after the brickwork of it was finished, and that the
masons began at the top and worked downwards. Projecting courses bad
lieen worked in.*

y^jirit 10. — Sydney Smirke, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

The Chairman announced that the Royal Gold Medal of the Institute for
the year 1848 was awarded to the Signor Cavaliere Canina, of Rome, as
the Historian of Architecture from the earliest period, and for bis antiquarian
researches,- — he having published a series of important works on the various
ttyles of art, and likewise on the Tombs of Etruria, the cities of Latium,
and other antique remains.

The Report of the Council relative to the competition for the "Soane
Medallion" and the "Medal of the Institute," was read and adopted; when
the author of the successful Essay on Palladian Art was announced tu be
Mr. Wyatt Papwortii.

A paper was read "On the Hollow Brick Ceiling recently turned over
St. George's Hall, Liverpool." By Robert Rawlinson, Esq.

Having stated that it had been the intention of the late Mr. Harvey L.
Elnies, the architect of this building, to construct the ceiling with patent
compressed bricks, Mr. Rawlinson observed that he in using the hollow
bricks bad only adopted a mode of construction known to the ancients, and
also applied to some of the early Christian churches in Italy — and in build-
ings of a more recent date. He stated that, although not much in use of
late years, these hollow bricks are now likely to be more generally applied;
as, owing to a relaxation of the excise laws and the application of m.ichinery,

* Facing the brickwork with sloue after the liqilding is erected is not Dew: it was
jiflnpled by Sir Robert Sniiriie, in the Temple, to the new Chanib^rs, and ulBO at the
1. litisU iMuaeum.— i-.d. C'.E. ft; A. Jou.nal.

they can be manufactured at a less cost than solid bricks — while they pos-
sess the advantage of being lighter. It has been suggested, too, that tlie
hollow bricks may be econdmically applied in the construction of the parti-
tion and external walls of cottages and other buildings, with the advantage
of combining dryness with facility of ventilation.

The construction of the arch in question was of some importance from its
size, the span being sixty-eight feet and its thickness one foot. The hrii ks
used by Mr. Rawlinson were twelve inches in length and four inches square,
with a longitudinal perforation two inches in diameter. The weight and
cost of the arch thus constructed was one-fourth less than they would have
been had solid bricks been used. The work was set in mortar (formed of
Halkin lime used fresh and made in a steam-mill), with the exception of five
feet on each side of the key, which is set in cement. The spandril walls are
similarly constructed, at distances of four feet six inches, with circular open,
ings which afford a passage along the sides. On removing the centerings,
the arch was found to have deflected only three-eighths of an inch.

ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS.
March 12. — George Lees, Esq., A.M., V.P., in the Chair.

The following communications were made: —

" On the Warming and Ventilation of Dwelling Houses." By Captai.v
John H. Hall.

A communication on the economical warming and ventilation of dwelling-
houses by means independent of open fires in the several rooms — consisting,
first, of general observations on the inefficiencv and wasteful character of
the existing method of warming houses ; and, secondly, describing cer-
tain arrangements for insuring an uninterrupted supply of warmed fresh air
to any one or more, at pleasure, of the several apartments of a house, by the
use of one stove or warming apparatus.

"Description of a Tubular Raihray Bridge of a new construction.^* By
Daniel .Miller, Esq., C.E.

In this design it is intended to form a construction of malleable and cast
iron, so as to apply their respective properties in the most advantageous
manner to resist the opposing strains of tension and compression which are
brought into action in a structure of this nature. A drawing shown repre-
sented a design on this principle for a railway bridge to cross the Clyde at
Glasgow Harbour in two spans of 200 feet each. Each span consists of three
girders, each 18 feet deep, which divide the bridge into two lines of rails. The
upper part of each girder is formed of a circular tube of cast-iron, 2 ft. 9 in.
diameter, which is of the best form and material for resisting compression.
The upper side of the tube is thicker than the lower, as the inner circumfer-
ence is eccentric to the outer. The lower part of the girder consists of a
rectangular tube, 3 feet deep by 2 ft. 9 in. broad, formed of plates of mal-
leable iron chain, rivetted and strengthened at the corners by angle-iron.
This is considered the best form for resisting the tensile strain and preserving
the necessary rigidity. These two tubes, forming the upper and lower sides
of the girder, are united by frames of toughened cast-iron, which are cast of
an open trussed form, so as to secure lightness and strength. At intervals of
15 feet, brackets are attached on each side of the centre of these frames,
from the extreiuities of which proceed wrougbt-iron rods to the top and
bottom, for the purpose of increasing the lateral strength and rigidity of the
frames. The girders are united to each other transversely, both at top and
bottom, by an arrangement of braces and struts of wrought and cast iron.
All the cast-iron in the structure is proposed to be of Mr. Stirling's tough-
ened cast-iron, which, by the recent government experiments, is proved to
possess remarkable advantages in elastic resistance, and in resisting compres-
sion and tension; and removes the objection hitherto prevailing again^t
employing cast-iron for railway bridges of large span, or where exposed to
vibratory action.

The author considers that this combination of malleable and toughened
cast-iron will fulfil the principal conilitions required in such a structure, iu
economy, rigidity, elastic resistance, and ornamental appearance.

" On a new Electro-Magnetic Coil-Machine." Bv Dr. Thomas Wright,
F.K.C.P.

Dr. Wright stated that his machine consists of a bundle of thin iron wires,
seven inches long by six-tenths of an inch in diameter, wound with thirty
yards of No. 16 copper wire. It is fixed by half its length in a frame of
wood, the other half being free, to permit a thick brass tube to slide over it.
It is furnished with a self-acting adjustment for interrupting contact wiih
the battery, an account of which was published by the author in Sturgeon's
"Annals of Electricity" for March 1840, and which is, the author believes,
used in all electro-magnetic coil-machines. The great power of this instru-
ment was stated to depend upon the accuracy of the construction of the
electro-magnet. A great number of experiments were instituted by Dr.
Wright, for the purpose of determining the proportion to he observed be-
tween the coil wire, the iron to be magnetised, and the battery; this differs
with the kind of battery used, but for general purposes the arrangement
above described appears to be the best. Dr. Wright stated that it is most
essential that the coil wire be brought as close as possible to the iron ; and
that to effect this, the coil wire is simply insulated by a single layer of the
thinnest tissue paper, instead of the coverings of worsted or cotton which
are generally used. Dr. Wright stated that an instrument thus constructed.

1819.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

150

besides giving a succession of powerful shoclis, possesses an extraordinary
power of effecting chemical decomposition: the electro-magnetic machines
he had hitherto seen scarcely affording more than a few bubhles of gas when
employed in the decomposition of water, while Dr. Wright's machine gives
a torrent from the electrodes of the voltameter. Dr. Wright stated that a
most powerful machine may be packed in a box 8 inches by 21, which can
be carried conveniently in the hand. In medical practice, Dr. Wright found
that the slill smaller machine, which he exhibited, is more than sufficiently
powerful, though its size is only 3J by I5 inches.

March 26.— John Cav, Esq., F.R.S.E., President, in the Chair.
The following communications were made: —

"Description of several neiu and simple S/ereoscopes, for exhihiting as
Solids, one or more representations of them on a Planed By Sir David
Brewster, F.R.S.

This paper contained the description of a particular stereoscope, con-
structed with two semi-lenses, or two quadrants of a lens, united as specta-
cles, but in such a manner as to give double images of objects, or of draw,
ings of solids, as seen by each eye separately. When two of the images
thus produced were united, as in the instrument, the solid, either raised or
hollow, from which the drawings were taken, was reproduced. Another
stereoscope, called the Total Reflection Stereoscope, was described, which
ri quired only one drawing of the solid, the other drawing being created by
the instrument and united with the picture seen by the other eye. Single
and double reflecting stereoscopes, of great simplicity, and easily constructed,
were also descrilied; together v\ith microscopic stereoscopes, which can be
carried in the pocket.

"Description of a Time- Signal for Railways, Steamboats, Sfc." By James
S. ToBROP, Esq.

The present instrument has been devised to meet a great want, which has
long been felt, for some certain and effective means of informing or warning
the public of the approaching departure of passenger trains. Bells rung
within or near the station, cannot answer the purpose, the sound being easily
stifled, and apt to be regarded, when loud enough to be heard at any dis-
tance, as a nuisance. Clocks are still more useless, as they are visible only
at short distances, even when they can be placed on conspicuous positions.
This time-signal, or railway trains' monitor, consists of a moveable ball
mounted on a lofty pillar, wound up to the top by clock-work, and taking a
definite time to descend. For railways this time is set to ten minutes.
When the ball is seen at the top of the pole or pillar, passengers approach-
ing the station are informed that they have ten minutes; if half-way down,
five minutes, and so on. Being capable of being made a conspicuous object,
its indications can be distinguished at a considerable distance by intending
passengers, who are thereby saved all unnecessary excitement and uncer-
tainty in making their way to the station, while the officials are also saved
from the annoyance of questioning as to the time the train is due.

"Notice of a peculiar property of Gutta Percha." By James S.
ToaROP, Esq.

Gutta Percha, when cast and rolled into sheets, assumes a property belong-
ing to fibrous substances; it acquires tenacity in a determinate direction.
When in the roll or sheet this tenacity is longitudinal, but if a strip be cut
from the breadth two peculiarities occur — the strip is susceptible of a definite
elongation to nearly five times the original length, and its direction of
tenacity is reversed. When it is considered that Gutta Percha is origin-
ally a fluid substance, or gum, these peculiarities are curious and remark-
able.

"Description and Drawing of a Rapid Filter, adapted for the perfect Fil-
tration of JVater for the supply of Toiims, or for any other purpose where
a large quantity of pure water is required." By Messrs. T. and W. Stirling,
Bow-Bridge Slate-works, Stratford, Essex.

The objects and advantages of this apparatus were stated to be — 1st, While
it is capable of being so combined as to filter large quantities of water, it
also acts upon each gallon that passes, with the same minuteness and deli-
cacy as the chemist employs for his most careful operations. 2d, It is made
of a material upon which water has no decomposing effect. 3rd, While it
may be readily cleansed, it is in no degree liable to get out of order. 4th,
It occupies but a small space compared with the quantity of water filtered
by it; and 5th, It is so arranged as to be guarded from the disturbing effects
of frost or rain, and protected from soot, smuke, and dust.

A series of slate boxes or cisterns, the size and number of which are regu-
lated by the quantity of water required to be filtered, as shown in the draw-
ing submitted to the Society, are so placed that the reservoir or pipe from
which they are supplied shall have a head of water of about two feet six
inches. The water passing along the main-pipe, enters each filter at the
bottom through a branch-pipe, and passes through three strata of filtering
medium (the lowest of which rests upon a hollow basis, across which a fine
wire-gauze is stretched), through which it rises to the top of the filter in a
perfectly pure state. The filtered water then passes from the top of each
filter through a small pipe into a slate channel, along which it runs into the
pipe, reservoir, or other receptacle for the filtered water. The filtering
medium consists of three strata of incorrodible mineral substances, and the
chamber in which they are placed admits the introduction of a hair-brush
such as is used for cleaning bottles, and with this the bottom of the filter-

bed is readily cleaned of all residium in a few minutes. The apparatus can
be adapted to filter any quantity of water from 500 to 50,000,000 gallons,
and may be applied not only to domestic use, but to the purposes of paper-
makers, brewers, distillers, chemists, bleachers, wool-staplers, printers, and
other trades for which large quantities of pure water are indispensable.
The usual method of filtering water supplied to towns is by means of reser-
voirs of subsidence and filter-beds, which occupy a large space of ground,
and at best effect the object very imperfectly. This apparatus, however, can
be so managed as to occupy only about one.twentieth part of the space
required by the other methods now in use, and may be enclosed in a covered
building, so as to protect it from rain, soot, and dust, and, when necessary,
warmed by flues to prevent the action of the filters from being impeded
during severe frost.

"Notice on the Ventilation of Pvl/lic BuihJings and Private DveWnys
with peculiar reference to the method adopttd by him in the New Police
Office, Edijiburgh." By R. Ritchie, Esq., C.E.

Mr. Ritchie brought under the notice of the Society the method oi'
ventilation he had carried into effect at the new police buildings, Edinburgh,
which plan was founded upon the principle for which, in 1847, this Society
had awarded to him a silver medal and plate, value ten sovereigns. He
stated that the certainty of operation of this process and its efficiency had
now been fully attested. He described that a furnace, placed at the base-
ment of the building, was made to heat, with the utmost simplicity, a very
powerful patent hot-nater apparatus, placed 70 feet above it at the roof, for
extracting the foul air. The various rooms and cells in the building were
each provided with a conduit to carry off the exhaled air, and these conduits
terminated in a long gallery under the roof; the extracting apparatus was
erected at one part of the gallery at the bottom of an ascending shaft.
This shaft terminated in a louvre, so arranged that the orifices of discharge
could be regulated (according to the direction of the wind) in the furnace-
room at the basement. By means of this powerful appparatus, the exhaled
air drawn from the rooms ana cells into the gallery, passed without obstruc-
tion into the atmosphere. He pointed out that this plan of ventilation pos-
sessed the obvious advantage, that it was free from the risk of the reflux of
foul air and vapours of combustion into the rooms and cells, and it is likewise
free from danger of fire. Mr. Ritchie stated that this mode of ventilation
could easily be adapted for one or for many apartments ; and he considered
it applicable to mining ventilation. The consumption of fuel for the ven-
tilating apparatus at the police buildings was exceedingly small for the
effect produced. He also described .the means provided for supplying fresh
air for renovation, which in winter was warmed by means of a mild hot-
water apparatus, and the air regulated in moisture in a chamber of prepara-
tion. He stated that this method had been applied most successfully by
him at various buildings, and referred, amongst others, to St. John's Chapel,
Prince's-street, which was equally heated with one fire, which was substi-
tuted in place of two stoves formerly used. The success of this plan was
attested by the Chairman. He also made some suggestions as to the great
advantages which would arise, were systematic arrangements for ventilation
incorporated with the construction of buildings generally; and he mentioned
various modes for making the conduits for exhaled air.

THE ARCHITECTURAL EXHIBITION.

Sir — In the last number of your periodical you have alluded to a drawing
which 1 forwarded to the 'Architectural Exhibition,' as appearing again
under a change of names. From some cause, probably that of a hasty com-
pilation of the catalogue, the drawing was inserted therein as a "Design for
a Library," — whereas, there still existed at the back of the frame the original
description, and to which the catalogue was revised in the second edition,
without nay having named the matter to the parties concerned in its forma-
tion. You will therefore perceive that the alteration did not proceed from
any intentiou on my part to make one design answer for a different pur-
pose.

I am, &c.,

WVATT PaPWORTH.

10, Caroline-street, April 20, 1849.

Drying Closet. — Some recent experiments with a new drying closet at the
Middlesex Hospital, show that it is not necessary to have an external air
drain. The closet is 6 feet by 8 feet, and 7 feet high, heated by radiation
from the flue of an ironing stove which passes through it. The closet was
previously tried with an air drain, and it has been found not to be so good as
one without a drain.

6 Blankets. 18 Rugs,

lb. lb.

Weight when put in 44 169

Weight when taken out 23^ 87.4

Wattr evaporated 20| 81i

Time in evaporating 1 h. 35 01.

Temperature of closet when rugs were put in .. 2(10*^

Ditto when taken out \W-'

Fuel consumed equal to one-tuurtb the weight of watt-r evaporated.

ICO

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

[May,

Gutta Percha Tubing. — This tuUitiif is such an extraordinary condu«tor of

sound, that its value, not only to deaf persona, but to the public genemlly, will speedily
lifj appreciated. It bus already been titled up in dwelling-houses, in lieu of bells,— as
speaking tubes for giving and receiving messages In mines, railway statlous, prisoiia,
workhouses, hotels, and all large establishments, it is invaluable.

Neto Motive Power.— Count de Werdinsky has communicated to the
* Mining Journal' a discovery which he believes he has made, by which a convenient, in-
expensive, and highly. effective motive poiver can be obtained from xyloidine, or gun
cotton. He says :—" I have been engaged in constructing an engme and locomotive, to
be worked on common roads by xyloidine, on the follinving plan:— Small quantities of
xyloidine are exploded successively into a copper recipient of a spheroidal form, of
i.'l inches diameter, and ^ inch strong in metal. Each separate explosion is adequate to
produce, by means of double cylinders, a complete revolution of the crank. The object
i»f the copper recipient is merely to allow the intense gases thrown into it room enough
to expand, and thus to change their percussive iutensity into a mora gentle dynamic
power, without in any way losing any of the quantity of that power. I can, therefore,
let out from that copper recipient as much of the gases, through a stop-cock, as would
l)roduce a pressure of from ,'{0 to tld, or 1211 lb. upon the squiire inch of the piston; more-
over, by the very heat accumulated in the metal of the recipient, the gases are kept up to
their original strength, so that, the longer the engine continues to work, the greater the
fiimparative economy of xyloMine, on account of the heat of the recipient and of the
machinery, which serve to keep up great expansion, and consequeetly great power in the
giises. My experiments with a steam engine of about 2^ horse-power, on the above prin-
ciplo, answered admirably; but while these experiments were going on, I made a further
riscovery.and this Ust one is verging almost on a miracle. The most prominent features
of my last discovery are— that the propulsion of carriages on railways, and on common
joads, will b« now eflecti'd without engines, steam, fire, water, magnetism, air, or animal
power, and propelling of ships without either of the above means, sails, or paddles, or
any propellers whatever."

The Spanish War-Steamer 'Cohn.'—A very fine steam-frigate, built by

IHessrs. Wigram, for the Spanish government, anl fitted with engines of ;{50-horse
jiower, by Messrs. Penn, of (jreenwich, was tried down the river on the l.'5th ult., to ascer-
tain her speed, and the working of her engines. She lett Blackwall at 12 o'clock noon,
havintf onboard Gen. Viogdet, of the Spanish army, Messrs. de Zulueta, Capt. Halstead,of
Her Britannic Majesty's Royal Navy, Mr. Wigram, and the Messrs. Penn, and proceeded
(iown the river to Long Reach, where the measured mile was tried once down and once up
the river, and the speed against the tide found to be H'-MH, and l;i'4;i8 with the tide,
making an average of 10'83-t knots per hour, a very excellent result considering the size
vt the vessel and the power of her engines, which made from 23 to '2i^ revolutions per
minute with a five feel stroke, and the common paddle-wheels, which were preferred, as
a serviceable description of works not liable to become deranged during service. The
length of the vessel is 190 feet, with a breadth of beam of 31 tt. U in., and a fine sweep-
ing deck, admirably constructed for thii facility of working her guns. Her depth of hold
is 20 feet, with ample room for the engines; the whole space around them is very clear,
and every person cwnnected with them and with the boilers is under the immediate super-
intendence of the engineer in charge of the working of the engines. The engines work
remarkably steadily, and during the trial gave the greatest satisfaction, as there was not
the least appearance of a hot bearing, or delay on any account whatever. The armament
of the *' Colon" is to consist of two fi.-t. pounder guns on traversing platforms, and four
32.pounders. She will carry I'l days' fuel at full speed, or 400 tons of coal, with three
months' provisions, and shot and shells for ser:,ice. Her jirincipal cabins are neatly fitted
up, and the whole arrangements are highly p;.?ditable to Messrs. Wigram, who have pro-
duced a war-steamer of a really serviceable a'liscription.

liZST OF NEVr PATENTS.

GRANTEH IN ENGLAND FROM MaRCH 20, TO APRIL 19. 1849.

SijT Months alloyed for Enrolment , v.itless otherwise expressed.

William Henry Balmain, and Edward Andrew Parnell, both of St. Helen's. Lancaster,
innnufacturing chemists, tor inipiovements in the manufacture of p'.ass, and in the prepa-
ration oi certain materials to be used therein, parts of which improvements are also ap-
j.Ilcable to the manufacture of alkalies.— March 5. [This patent was accideotully omitted
in last month's list.]

John Macintosh, of Bedford-square, for improvements in furnaces and machinery for
obtaining motive power, and in regulating, measuring, and registering the fluw ot fluids
and liquids. — Sealed March 24.

David Henderson, of the London Works, Scotland, engineer, for improvements in the
manufacture of metal castings.— March 2t;.

Alexander Parkes, of Harborne, Stafford, chemist, for improvements in the deposition
and manufacture of certcin metals, and alloys of metals, and improved modes of treating
and working certain metals, and aUoys of metals, and in the application of the same to
various useful purposes. — March 2(5,

Stephen White, of Victoria-place, Bury New-road, Manchester, gas engineer, for im
ITOvwmentb in the manufacture of gases, and in the application thereof to the purposes
cf heating and consumiig smoke; also improvements in furnaces for economising heat,
and in apparatus for the consumption of gases.— March 2li.

John Mason, ot Rochdale. Lancaster, machine-maker, and George Collier of Barnsley,
York, manager, for certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for preparing and
spinning cotton and other fibrous materials, and also improvements in the preparation of
yarns or threads, and in the machinery or apparatus for weaving the same.— March 26.

George Thomson, of Camden-road, cabinet-maker, and James Elms, of the New-road,
gentleman, for improvements in the machinery for cutting and tying-up firewood.—
March 2H.

William Buckwell, of the Artificial Granite Works, Battersea, Surrey, civil engineer,
for improvements in compressing or solidifying fuel and other materials.— March 2H.

Richard Satchell. ot Rockingl>am. Northampton, for improvements in machinery for
depositing seeds, and hoeing and working land. — March 2H.

Pierre Reii6 Guerin, of Havre, for improvements in steering ships and other vessels.—
Uarch 28.

Charles Green, of BirmJneham, patent brass tube manufacturer, and James Newman,
of Birmini?ham, manufacturer, for improvements in the manufacture of railway wheels.
—March 28.

George Henry Manton, of Dover-street, Piccadilly, gunmaker, and Joslah Harrington,
of Regent's -circus, gunmaker, for improvements in priming, and in apparatus for dis-
charging fire-arms. — March 2a.

Francis Voulllon, of Princes-street, Hanover-square, manufacturer, for improvements
in making bats, caps, and bonnets. — March 28.

William Hartley, of Bury, Lancaster, engineer, for certain improvements in steam-
engines. —Blarch 28.

Frederick William Norton, of Lascellea Hall. York, fancy cloth manufacturer, for cer-
tain improvemenia in the production of figured fabrics. ~31aich 2d.

Osborne Reynolds, of Dedham, Essex, clerk, for certain improvements in railways. —
March :?8.

Thomas Harrison, of Liverpool, merchant, for certain improvements in the construc-
tion of baking ovens, and also in certain machinery for working or using the same. —
March 2rt.

James Thomson Wilson, of Glasgow, for improvements in the manufacture of sulphu-
ric acid anrl alum. — March 28.

James Fletcher, of Salford, Lancaster, manager, and Thomas Fuller, of the same
place, machinist and tonlmiiker, fur certain improvements in nuichinery, tools, or appara-
tus for turning, boring, planing, and cutting metal and other materials. — March 28.

James Lawrence, the elder, of Colnbrook, .'iliddlesex, brewer, for an improvement or
improvements in brewinK worts for ale, porter, and other liquors, oud in storing ale, por-
ter, and other liquors. — March 2H.

John Britten, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for certain imp''ovement8 in the means,
appiiratus, and appliances for cooking, preserving, prepai'ing, and storing drinks and arti-
cles of food, and in preparing materials for constructing the same ; also in constructing
vertical rousting jacks and chains for the same, a|»plicable to other chains, parts of which
improvements are applicable to other similar purposes. — March 28.

William Beckett, of Northwich, Cheshire, draper, and Samuel Powell, of Witton,
Northwich, Cheshire, foreman, for certain improvements in the manufacture, making, or
construction, of certain articles of wearing a[iparel.— March 2d.

Henry Howard, of Raihvay-place, Fenchurch-street, for certain improvements In the
manufacture of glass; also in the construction of furnaces for melting and fining the
same. — March 2H.

William M'Bride. jun., of Sligo, Ireland, but now of Havre, France, merchant, for im"
provpments in tlie up|>aralus and process for couveiting salt water into fresh water, and
iu oxygenating water. — April 2.

Alfred Vincent Newton, of Chancery-lane, mechanical draughtsman, tor improvements
in SL-parating and assorting solid materials or substances ot different specific gravities.
(A communication. J — April 2.

Samuel Alfred Carpenter, of Birmingham, Warwick, manufacturer, (or a certain im-
provement in, or substitute for buckles. — April .'J.

Alfred Woollett, of Liverpool, artist, fur certain improvements in gun cariiages. —
April 3.

William Parry, of Plymouth, Devon, gentleman, for certuin improvements in shoeing
horses, and in horse shoes. — April 'i.

Henry Dunington, of Nottingham, manufacturer, for improvements in the manufacture
of looped labrics, and in the making of gloves and hat bands.— April 3.

James Godfrey Wilson, of Chelsea, engineer, and William Pidding, of Elizabeth-strest,
Piuilico, for improvements in obtaining perfect combustion, and in apparatus relating
thereto, tbe same being applicable t > every description of furnace and fireplace, as also to
other purposes where inflammable matter or material Is made use of.— April 3.

A grant of an extension of an invention for the term of four years from the 4th day of
April, for a certain improvement or certain improvements in the making and manufac-
tuiing of axlelrc'-s, for carriages and other cyliudriial and lonicul shaita. To Chailes
Geach and Thomas Walker, assignees of James Hardy, the original inventor.

Gaspard Brandt, of Little Gray's-inn-lane, Middlesex, machinist, for improvements in
the construction of tbe bearings of railway engines, and railway and other carriages now
in use. — April 13. *

James Childs, of Earl's-court, Old Brompton, Middlesex, wax bleacher, for improve-
ments in the manufacture of candles, night lights, and caniiie lamps. — April 1(>.

Thomas Cocksey, of Little Bolton, Lancaster, millwright, and James Nightingale, of
Brightines, Lancaster, bleacher, for certain machinery to facilitate the washiiiy and ciean-
in" of cotton and other fabrics, which machinery is applicable to certain upermiuus ia
bleaching, dyeing, printuie, and sizeing warps and piece goods. — April 1(>.

Louis Prosper Nicolas Uuval Piron. engineer, of Paris, tor certain improvements in
tubes, pipes, flags, and kerbs for pavement and tram-roads.— April i(>.

Charles Shepherd, of Leadenhall-street, city of London, chronometer maker, for cer-
tain improvements in working clocks and other time-kaepers, telegraphs, and machluery,
by electricity.— April ItJ.

Robert Clegg, Joseph Henderson, and James Calvert, of Blackburn, Lancaster, manu-
facturers, ior certain improvements in looms tor weaving.— April l(i.

John Ruthven, of Kdir.burgh, engineer, for improvements in preserving lives and pro-
perty from water and fire, aud in producing pressure for various useful purposes.—
April Iti.

William Henry Phillips, of York-terrace. Camberwell New-road, Surrey, engineer, for
improvements in extinguishing fire, in the preparation of materials to be used for that
purpose, and improvements to assist in saving life and property. — Aprd 16.

William Little, of the Strand, Middlesex, for improvements iu the manufacture of
materials for lubricating machinery. (A communication.)— April 1(».

William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for improvements in ma-
chinery for tbe manufacture of net Uce or other similar fabrics. t,A communication. J —
April 16.

William Hyde Knapp, of Long-lane, Southwark, chemist, for improvements in pre-
paring Wood tor the purposes of matches and firewood. — April 17.

Thomas Nicholas Greening, of the firm of Messrs. Burdekins and Greening, of Shef-
field, cutlery manufacturers, for improvements in knives aud lorks. — April 17.

Alexander AllioU, of Lenton Works, Nottingham, bleacher, for improvements in appa-
ratus for ascertaining and for marking or registering the force or pressure of wind, of
water, and of steam ; the weight of goods or substances ; and the velocity of carriages ;
also in apparatus for ascertaining, under certain circumstances, the length of time elapsed
alter carriages have passed any given piacci and for enabling the place or direction of
floating bodies to be ascertained.

George Remington, of Warkworth, Northumberland, civil engineer, for certain im-
provements in locomotive, marine, aud stationary steiim-engines, and in hydraulic and
pneumatic engines. — April 17.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil eigineer, for improvements in boilers
or steam generators. (A communication.)— April 17.

Henry Bessemer, of Baxter-house, Middlesex, for improvements in the methods of
extracting saccharine juices from the sugar cane, and in the manufacture of sugar, as also
in the machinery or apparatus employed therein. — April 17.

John Ormerod, of Holt Holme Mill, near Newchureh, Lancaster, spinner, fur certain
improvements in carding cotton and other fibrous substances.- April ly.

Robert Gordon, of Heaton Norris, Lancaster, engineer, for certain improvements in
tbe ventilation of mines. — April 11*. [This patent was not sealed till the ll>th, but bears
date the 4th day of April, per order of the Lord Chancellor, being opposed at the Great
Seal.]

1849.]

TPIE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

161

MALLEABLE IRON LATTICE BRIDGE.

By C. E. A. Blair.

{With an Engraving, Plate IX.)

The bridge is proposed to be constructed of malleable iron
throughout. The top and bottom of the main girders are com-
posed of plates rivetted together, with covering plates at the
joints. The sides are formed of strip iron, Scinch by i-inch, with
a single rivet at each intersection. The advantages of tliis prin-
ciple of construction are that the largest spans may be crossed with
the minimum headway, the distance from underside of girder
to level of rails being reduced to 2 ft. 2 in. The saving of expense
in cuttings and embankments would necessarily be greatly less-
ened, inasmuch as the greatest height required from surface of
ground to rail level would be about 21 feet.

The sectional area of the bottom flanche is to the sectional ai-ea
of the top as 6 to 7, and the breaking weight in the centre is taken
at 6 tons per foot of the span.

Bridges on this principle of construction (not exceeding 80 feet
span) may be erected at 40/. per yard forward, or about 19/. per
ton, including all details.

For extensions of existing railways this plan is very advantage-
ous, as the works can be executed with great rapidity and with
perfect success. Bridges on this principle have been erected by
Mr. Hawkshaw on the Lancashire and York Railway.

Manchester, March 21, 1849.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK,
FASCICULUS XCIV.

" I must liave liberty
Withal, as Urge a charter as the wiuds.
To blow on whom I please."

I. How far the "Seven Lamps" are likely to enlighten the
public on the subject of architecture may be better judged by-and-
by. It is not every one whom they will enable to see his way
much better than at present; nor is it every one who will thank
the Lamplighter, — so far from it that some of his opinions and ut-
terings will seriously offend many. I'ugin and his party will say
that his book truly resembles a lamp in one respect — namely, in
being a wick-ed thing, for it denounces the Romanist Church in
unqualified terms of abhorrence as being "in the fullest sense anti-
christian." "Our detestable Perpendicular" is an expression that
will not be at all relished by Mr. Barry, and the commissioners for
rebuilding the Palace of Westminster. Mr. Pickett will feel
sadly agrieved by what is urged against the employment of Iron
as "a constructive material," and against cast-iron ornaments.
The protest against Machine-Carving, as being not only bad but
"dishonest also," will be equally unpleasant to others. "Do not
let us talk of Restoration," will scandalise not a few among us.
And, "we shall not manufacture Art out of Pottery and Printed
Stuifs," will scandalise quite as many of a different class. In
another quarter, our Lamplighter's aversion to Railroads and Rail-
way travelling, and his advice that no more money should be
expended on Stations and other railway buildings, will not obtain
him friends. His condemnation of Heraldic decorations, "its
similitudes and arrangements being so professedly and pointedly
unnatural that it would be difficult to invent anything uglier," will
cause some to make such wry faces that they themselves will look
as ugly as the ugliest heraldic images. Similar workings of the
human countenance will again be produced by his deprecating and
depreciating "rigid imitations of mediaeval statuary," which he
affirms to be "mere insults to common sense, and only unfit us for
feeling the nobility of their prototypes." His severe reprehension
of cheap churches, and cheap architecture generally, and of the
piesent "that-'ll-do" system, will not at all ingratiate him with
jobbers and "speculative" builders. Putting all this and a great
deal more besides together, it will be well if his "Seven Lamps"
do not prove to be seven mischievous Fiiebrands, that will singe
and scorch numbers of folks, both those in the profession and out
of it.

II. There is, indeed, one in the profession who, so far from being
at all singed or scorched, is on the contrary absolutely irradiated,
— at any rate, one of his buildings is set in a most luminous light;
for the 0.xford Graduate scruples not to express his "sincere admi-
ration of the very noble entrance and general architecture of — "

No. 141.— Vol. XII.— June, 1849.

of what will hardly be guessed even when the reader is informed
that it is one of our metropolitan structures — the British Museum.
However sincere Mr. Ruskin's admiration may be, it is by far too
laconic to be of any particular value, or to amount to more than a
bare opinion unsupported by a single remark in evidence of its
justness. Yet, some special remarks were certainly required, since
the praise accorded to that edifice seems to be in flat contradiction
to much that he elsewhere says. Besides that, the general bare-
ness of the facade and its utter destitution of ornament would
seem to do anything but recommend it to one who shows that he
has a taste for even the most profuse decoration; the fa'.ade itself is
but a mask, and one so awkwardly put on 'that it does not even
conceal the meanness of the general structure behind it. Among
other remarks of the same tendency, "it is not well," he says,
"that ornament should cease in the parts concealed; credit is given
for it, and it should not be deceptively withdrawn; as, for instance,
in the backs of the statues in a temple pediment." It.isum teneutis?
— here is a gentlemen so over-scrupulous on the score of honesty
and probity of work and workmanship, that he would have parts
that can never, while the building remains in an entire state, be
seen at all, be carefully finished up, yet can conveniently shut his
eyes to the gross inconsistency and palpable wholesale deformity
occasioned by its being seen that the stone Ionic facade is merely
"a show-front" stuck on to a brick building of very homely and
warehouse-like character, to say nothing of the paltry bits be-
tween the main building and the official houses. Mr. Ruskin
surely reminds us of the giant who could swallow mill-stones
with ease, yet was at last choked by a pound of butter.

III. It is not generally known, perhaps, that the Oxford Gra-
duate is the same person as the Kata Phuxin of Loudon's "Archi-
tectural Magazine," a clever but fanciful, and frequently so mys-
tical a writer, that if he does not actually lose himself in his
darkly-expressed sayings, his meaning is both mist to and missed
by the generality of readers. An eighth lamp is required to throw
light on some of his enigmatical expressions and phrases — such,
for instance, as '■^Parasitical iHubliniity," which, by the rule of ob-
scurum per obscurius, he gives as tlie definition or explanation of
the term "Picturesque." And he afterwards goes on to say, '■^The
picturesque is developed distinctively c.ructhj in proportion to the dis-
tance from the centre of thought of those points of character in which
the sublimity is found;" — to make out the meaning of which far
exceeds my comprehension.

IV. Passing from Mr. Ruskin's ambitious sublimities and eccen-
tricities of language, and following liim where he is more intelli-
gible, even there we occasionally find him startlingly eccentric in
some of his critical opinions. And after his profession of sincere
admiration for the British Museum — which, by the by, might have
been referred to by him as a notable instance of that "formalised
deformitv, shrivelled precision, and starved accuracy" with which
he reproaches his own countrymen — startling it is to hear him
descant with enthusiastic rapture on the Doge's Palace, the Cam-
panile, and front of St. Mark's, at Venice, as "models of perfec-
tion." Of the last-mentioned he says, that "although in many
respects imperfect, it is in its proportions, and as a piece of rich
and fantastic colour, as lovely a dream as ever filled human imagi-
nation" ! What will the Parthenonites, — or what will the de-
votees of our o« n mediseval styles, say to that flotirish ? Certain
it is that the ^^Lamjis" here afford us some entirely new light, for
never before, as far as I am aware, have any of those three struc-
tures been spoken of otherwise than as architectural singularities
<ind grotesques, — as such, curious and interesting enough, but
devoid of any element of beauty. Mr. Ruskin himself does not
attempt to conceal from his readers tliat the general opinion
hitherto entertained of them has been the reverse of favourable.
Like myself, he is not one of those who speak by book, and merely
re-echo' or repeat drowsily by rote stereotyped praise or censure.
On the contrary, witli a manly candour w Inch is much more rare
than it ought ti) be, he quotes' the summary condemnation passed
by a professional critic on those three works of architecture.
Woods says of them : "The strange-looking church, and the
great ugly campanile, could not be mistaken. The exterior of
this church surprises you by its extreme ugliness more than by
anything else. The Ducal Palace is even more ugly than anytliinfj
I iiave previously mentioned;" — whereas he of the "Lamps"
speaks of the last as "the model of all perfection," — an opinion
as marvellous as any of the wonders wrought by Aladdin's lamp.
Pity that we did not get it before, because then, perhaps, we
should have had a copy of the Doge's Palace for the Army
and Navy Clubhouse. However, we may still have it for some-
thing else, now that we are enlighteueii as to its extraordinary
merits.

23

162

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

V. Of Sansovino's works, and the Inter soliool of Venetian ar-
cliitecture, Mr. Ruskin says notliintr, altliouRli tliey would afford
studies of a more practical nature than do tlie edifices wliicli lie so
frreatly extols. (_)n the other hand he says, Init merely in general
terms, that Venice atfords "a model" — that is, J suppose, models — •
"of domestic liothic, so prand, so coni|)lote, so nobly systematised,
that, to my mind, there never existed an architecture with so
stern a claim to our reverence." Such then being the case, it
would have been no more than proper to have specified some ex-
amples of that particular and less-known class; pointing' out at
the same time, with some degree of distinctness, the peculiar
merits which would seem to justify his very high, and now appa-
rently very extravagant, encomium. Some such explanatory com-
ment and critical desciiption is all the more needed, because we
have hitlierto had none at all with regard to what he speaks of, or
r.tther merely hints at, we being left entirely at a loss to know
'.vliether he alludes to examples that are to be met with in Cicog-
nara's work, or other publications, or to some that have been nei-
ther described nor delineated. If it be only to the former, few
will agree with him as to the excellence of Venetian Domestic
(iothic, for it certainly is anything but a model to be at all fol-
lowed at the present day, — assuredly not by us, who have far
better models here at home.

VI. Though he could charitably throw a mite, or rather lump, of
admiration to the British Museum — and that building certainly
stands in need of such charity — Mr. Ruskin has very little admira-
tion for English architecture generally, and none at all for one
structure which we have hitherto been deservedly proud of.
King's College Chapel, Cambridge, finds no favour at all in his
enlightened eyes, for he scruples not to stigmatise it as "a piece
of architectural juggling"! Again, elsewhere, he says: "What a
host of ugly church towers have we in England, with pinnacles at
the corners, and none in the middle ! How many buildings like
King's College Chapel, looking like tables upside down, witli their
four legs in the air!" — a kind of criticism on a par with that which
likens spires to extinguishers, and window pediments to cocked-
liats. "Knock down," he adds, "a couple of pinnacles" — perhaps
he means tlie turrets — "at either end in King's College Chapel,
and you will have a kind of proportion instantly." After this, our
"Oxford" man would do well not to visit Cambridge, lest some
Cambridge man should knock a couple of his teeth down his
throat, not only in return for the compliment, but to give his
mouth "a kind of proportion instantly." — Well, perhaps the mo-
dern King's College, in Somerset-place, satisiies him much better
than the other. Indeed, any one who admires the British Museum
can very reasonably afford to admire that building also, and dis-
cover in it — at least, by the aid of a lamp — the desirable quality of
nobleness.

VII. Or perhaps the British Museum is something quite un-
pai'alleled in this kingdom, in comparison with which St. George's
Hall, at Liverpool, is a mere puny and common-place piece of
architecture; for i\Ir. Ruskin, strutting in tragic buskin, assures
us that "all we do is small and mean, if not worse, — thin and
wasted and unsubstantial. It is not modern work only; we have
built like frogs and mice since the thirteenth century (except only
in our castles)"! Like frogs and mice ! what their architecture
may be I know not, but no doubt, if it exist at all, it must be very
ancient and very Homeric. One thing, however, is very certain —
that our "Lamplighter" has neither seen nor otherwise knows
anything of such modern JInglish works as Blenheim and Castle
Howard, or Greenwich Hospital; or, unless his face is of brass —
of the same metal as his lamps — he could never had the effrontery
to taunt us with having done nothing but what is mean and small
— thin, wasted, and unsubstantial. The idea of Blenheim being
uii.siihxfrintiii/, would be considered a very substantial qualification
for Bedlam.

\'III. Among many other crotchets, of which the title of his
book may stainl for one, Mr. Ruskin lays it down as a law that
"all the most lovely forms are directly taken fi-om natural objects,"
and further assumes "the converse of this — namely, that forms
which are not taken from natural idjjects iniisf be ugly;" — which
surely amounts to another qualification for Bedlam. Were such
the fact, Mr. Ruskin, who, notwithstanding all his lamplight, must
here have been groping quite in the dark, might have spared him-
self the trouble of saying anything at all about beauty, since the
very law which he would establish would at once convict architec-
ture of being necessarily ugly in the main, its forms being al-
together conventional, and it admitting of the imitation of natu-
ral forms, vegetable or animal, only in sculptural accessories or
details. Even in those details, too, which are borrowed from
plants and foliage, an abstract and funnalUvd imitation, instead of

a direct and mimic one, ought to be adopted. Nature may very
properly be looked to for fresh hints and motifs, but it is a great
error to attempt, as some seem now inclined to do, to engraft
botany upon architecture. So far from contributing to or en-
hancing beauty, all direct imitation of the kind is likely to be
attended with a ccmtrary effect. You may, if you like— supposing
such decoration suitable to the particular occasion, represent foli-
age twined round the shaft of a column ; hut it must be uniform
and regulated, for to show it iinturalli) as that of a real climbing
plant which had so grown accidentally, would be a mere conceit,
— at variance with the nature of architecture itself, and, although
in a different way, as unnatural as trees clipped into artificial
forms.

IX. "There are many forms of so-called decoration in architec-
ture," continues Mr. Ruskin, "habitual, and received therefore
with approval, or at all events without any venture at expression
of dislike, which I have no hesitation in asserting to be not orna-
ment at all, but to be ugly things, the expense of which ought in
truth to be set down in the architect's contract as ^ For Monstrifi-
cation.' 1 believe we regard these customary deformities with a
savage complacency [complacency of a savage would be less of a
bull], as an Indian does his flesh patterns and paint. I believe that
I can prove them to be monstrous, and I hope hereafter to do so
conclusively." — AVhat a cruelly tantalising hereafter! And so in
the meanwliile we are to remain in a state of darkness and savage
complacency, without so much as a single gleam of lamplight to
enable us to guess what those terrible deformities are, and whether
they belong to all the styles we practice, or only to certain of
them. It will be well if we do not, when duly enlightened by
Mr. Ruskin, discover that a great deal has been and will be ex-
pended on the new Palace of AVestminster for mere Monstrifica-
tion.

X. In speaking of the Greek "egg-and-dart" moulding, our man
of lamps and liglit babbles somewhat lack-a-daisily about birds'-
nests and rounded pebbles; — whereas birds'-nests and pebbles have
just as much to do with the matter as ladies' ringlets have with
Ionic volutes. Unless there existed direct evidence to the con-
trary, plain common-sense would infer that such pattern was
adopted for the carving of the ecliinut,; as being well adapted to
the contour of that member, and producing, together with beauty
of design, much effect of light and shade. Speaking of the Port-
cullis, he is obliged to admit that "there is no family resemblance
between it and cobwebs and heetles'-wings." Into what strange
extravagancies a man who is sensible enough in some things, may
be led by such crazy crotchets as is that of referring or endeavour-
ing to refer almost everything connected with architecture to some
prototype in nature, as its express model. Cobwebs are, I will
venture to assert, the very last things that would have been
thought of by those who invented the portcuEis. Rhinoceros
hides for themselves would have been infinitely more to the pur-
pose.

XI. Wrapped-np and perhaps mystified by his own recondite
fancies, Mr. Ruskin has quite overlooked one very awkward con-
sequence res\ilting from his own doctrine, for if it be, as he would
have us believe, that forms 7iot taken from natural objects 7Jiust be
ugly, how prodigiously ugly must all furniture be. Yet, consider-
ing his ingenuity and liveliness of imagination in detecting analo-
gies and resemblances that never occurred to any other mortal, ho
may be able perhaps to find out some natural objects that served
as models for tables and chairs. As to beds, they of course come
from — the bottoms of rivers.

XII. Mr. Ruskin frequently speaks very unguardedly, uttering
whatever conies uppermost without giving it a second tliought or
any after consideration. Although they have ever been considered
equallv legitimate and beautiful architectural decorations, he will
not tolerate either festoons or wreaths. "Uo not," he says, "carve
the images of garlands looking as if they had been used in the
last procession, and hung up to dry [!] and serve next time
withered. AVhy not also carve pegs and hats upon them.?" The
interrogation is no doubt meant to be smart, and nothing less than
a clincher, nevertheless it seems to me to show merely downright
silliness; for if that be valid argument, it would serve just as
well if turned quite differently, and directed against what Mr.
Ruskin himself certainly would be very loth to have hit,- — since,
just as well might it be said, for instance, do not carve leaves or
flowers upon the top of a column, where they cannot possibly
grow, therefore look as if they had been merely stuck up to dry in
tlie sun, before being used for culinary or medicinal purposes.
AVhy not, as columns are said to have heads, give them either
wigs or hats to keep their heads warm, especially those which are
obliged to stand in the open air.? Hats, however, would suit only

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

163

the frentlemen or Dorics; the two lady orders would he distin-
guished hy caps and bonnets.

XIII. In his next section or paragraph— for JMr. Ruskin's
book is divided into numbered paragrajihs just like this Note-Book
of mine, — he falls foul of what he calls "one of the worst ene-
mies of modern Gothic architecture — the dripstone, in the shape
of the handle of a frying-pan" — no, not frying-pan — "of a pair of
drawers" — pshaw! wrong again! — "the handle of a chest of
drawers, wliich is used over the square-headed windows of what
we call Elizabethan buildings." Really that is lifindling Eliza-
bethan architecture very unceremoniously! That form he assures
us is the ugliest possibly, and to convince us that it is so, exclaims:
"Look abroad into the landscape, and see if you can discover any
one [form] so bent and fragmentary as that of this strange wind-
lass-looking dripstone. You cannot. It is a monster." And so
Mr. Raskin goes on abusing the poor dripstone, till the foam nearly
drips from his own mouth.

XIV. The Ionic capital fares very little better than the Eliza-
bethan dripstone; for our great enlightener says that in his
opinion it is, "as an architectural invention, exceedingly base."
Yet, if so, there must be a great deal of baseness and bad taste in
the British Museum, which he nevertheless professes to admire:
although, except the Ionic columns and their capitals, there is
nothing to admire — at least, not in the facade. Probably, how-
ever, he does not extend his admiration to the front, although he
does not say so. — Reserving for some other occasion my remarks
as to his injurious opinion of the Ionic capital, I now pass on at
once to another strange antipathy, accompanied witli inconsistency
also. His dislike of Heraldry as embellishment in architecture
has been already noticed, and for such dislike there is certainly
some reason, the forms and combinations employed for it being for
the most part very monstrous and tasteless. He goes, however,
very much further in his dislikes, and would proscribe mottoes,
legends, and inscriptions; and that for the oddest reason — if rea-
son it may be called — conceiveable, namely, because "of all things
unlike nature, the forms of letters are perhaps the most so"!!
Nevertheless, he afterwards either conquers or quite forgets that
unfortunate antipathy to letters, wlien belauds "tliatgood custom,
wliich was of old universal" of inscribing mottoes and sentences
even on the walls of ordinary dwelling-houses. It is an awkward
thing for a writer to have such a terribly short menuuy as to con-
tradict himself point-blank at different places in the same book.
Here I take my leave of Mr. Ruskin for the present. Having
shown up some of his crotchets and absurdities, in my next Fas-
ciculus I will bring forward some of the really instructive and
valuable points in his work. And one of them is truly limiinous,
throwing so much light upon an important matter wliich nearly all
other writers have helped to obscure, that it ought to be written
on the walls of every architect's office.

ARCHITECTURE,— ROYAL ACADEMY.

In not better encouraging the Exhibition got up by the Ar-
chitectural Association, the profession showed as little policy as
they did liberality of feeling, for most assuredly an ojjposition
shop is very much needed to render them independent of the
Academy; since even did that body show itself more disposed
towards architecture than it now does, the accommodation which
it can afford it is so inadequate to that of the architectural
subjects which are actually hung up and catalogued, that not
above half, if so many, can be so seen as to be intelligible; and
that inconvenience is still farther increased by the preposterous
system of hanging, which is to occupy the Hue and thereabouts
by some of the larger drawings, no matter what tliev are, while
smaller ones, which, if they are worth looking at at all, ought
to be immediately upon the line, are hung either much too
high or much too low. Surely it would be better were the Aca-
demy to admit fewer drawings of the kind than they do, and
to be more scrupulous in the selection of them; whereas, they
not only take in very inferior designs, together with what are
mere views of buildings — and those generally very stale in subject,
— but they actually hang up some of the paltriest and most unin-
teresting productions of all, upon the very line. More tlian one
design is so placed this season, that would have been favoured bv
being put into an obscure situation; — wOiether those which are so
put are treated exactly as they deserve, we cannot undertake to
say; but what we do see, do not, upon the whole, impress us very
favourably. We perceive more of falling-off than of any ad-
vance;— no accession of fresh talent, no fresh subjects, and no

freshness of ideas; on the contrary, much affectation of antiquated
fashions in building, to a degree withal that in some instances
amounts to masquerading, and is as preposterous as would be tlie
adoption of tlie phraseology of our elder dramatists in modern
conversation. Tlius. because they are unable to extract its better
qualities from its defects, architects give us Elizabethan with all
its wonted dross and coarseness — pure only because it is unpurified;
wherefore, so far from being aii\' merit, its puriti/ becomes a posi-
tive fault; and of such purity the present Exhibition affords too
many instances.

Even were the show of architectural designs more satisfactory
in all other respects, it is sadly deficient in variety, the subjects
being too nearly of tlie same east as regards the class of buildings
shown, and also style and treatment. Gothic and Old English
or Elizabethan predominate almost to the exclusion of any otiier
style; and what few others there are, are not at all remarkable.
There is, indeed, a large drawing (No. 1090) of "Tlie South
Facade of tJie Assize Courts at Liverpool" — but besides that, it is
a very poor and flat performance as a drawing, whicli is the only
share' the exhibitor can claim in it: the design itself shows merely
the talent we have lost, instead of any that we have gained to re-
place it. Architects do not now-a-days care, it seems, to let us see
more than what is actually done or likely to be done. They have
no notion of putting forth ideas gratuitously; or if any such pro-
ductions are offered, they are stifled by the I'eto of those who ex-
clude or admit as to them seems proper For aught we know, it
may be the Academy's Chaplain ! who holds the St. Peter's keys
of the Architectural Room. Although such office appears more pro-
perly to belong to the Professor of Architecture, we feel assured
— at any rate would fain persuade ourselves, that he does not even
participate in it, or else matters would be managed differently, and
very much better than they now are. What kind of designs are
admitted any one can see: what are rejected is not so easily as-
certained, they being known only to the authors of them, and
their immediate friends. We ourselves can speak confidently as
to one instance of rejection last year — namely, that of the design
for improving the facade of the National Gallery, which, as will
be remembered, was afterwards shown at the Architectural Asso-
ciation's Exhibition. \Vhat could have occasioned the exclusion
of a subject likely to excite some attention and interest, when su
many dull and humdrum designs obtain admission, is rather to be
guessed at than said; for though if uttered our suspicions might
be deemed chimerical, we fancy that could the truth be proved,
they would be found to come very near it. We are all the more
confirmed in them, because we this year find a design (No. 1091)
for a building for the Vernon Gallery, which seems to have been
received solely on account of its insignificance and harmlessness,
for it is certainly not at all calculated to lead to any stir or agita-
tion. Instances of very unfair rejection this season have been
rumoured; and if tlie designs turned away were at all above me-
diocrity, it was notliing less than scandalous and treacherous on
the part of the Academy to serve them so, and at the same time
to accept so many infra-mediocrity things as they have done.
Fortunately, there is now a means of exposing the tyrannical con-
duct and injustice of the Academy towards architecture, because
those who have been unjustly treated by that body, can now ajipeal
to the public through the Architectui-al Association; which society,
if it mind what it is about, may easily turn the conduct of the
Academy in regard to architecture, to excellent account.

Although we do not know what arcliitectufal drawings have been
turned away, we do know that they have turned away models alto-
gether, which is an innovation quite the feverse of improvement.
At first we thought that the absence of works of that class was
purely accidental and owing to none liaving been sent in; whereas,
we learn from a contemporary tliat a model by Mr. Dighton, of a
large building now erecting under a government department, was
actually turned away. It being a large building says nothing for
its interest as an architectural subject and its fitness for exhibition,
but its being by Mr. Dighton is of itself sufficient guarantee for
the excellence of the model. The banishing models is certainly
quite a new freak on the part of the Academy. Had models been
turned away or refused admittance in order that a screen for draw-
ings might be fixed along the middle of the room, there would have
been sufficient reason for doing so, although even in that case
models might have been allowed to find a place in the hall.
The least that could have been done was to give notice in their
advertisements that models had been put under ban. The Aca-
demy allow it to be seen that they are no friends to architecture,
and seem also to think that it has none in ^iny otlier quarter; at
least, not any who eitlier can or dare to remonstrate with them
for their treatment of it. ^Ve almost begin to think with the

22*

]fi4

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[June,

editor of the Arl-Jniirna/ that arohiterts have no Imsiness in the
Academy, althouirh for a somewliat different reason from his —
namely, because, with one exception, tliey s)^^ themselves to be
drones in it, and do not make it tlieir business to do anything in
lielialf of architecture, or to defend its interests. AV'ere tliey to
do so, we should soon see a very yreat chanfre for tlie better in the
Architectural Room, and in the general <|uality of the things there
admitted.

As to tlio Professor of Architecture, it is no great wonder that
lie suffers things to take their own course, for he is asleep and
dreaming. Nor is "The Professor's Dream" (No. 1102) of the
most lively and imaginative kind, it being marked by none of
those bidd flights and exuberam-es of fancy which dreams, at least
••remarkal]le dreams," usually consist of. On the contrary, he
seems merely to have fallen asleep over Durand's "Parallele," and
dreamt that he was employed to make a collecti(ni of "elegant e.v-
to tracts" out of it. Really the Professor seems exceedingly loth
let us behold anything or any ideas of his own, for when he does
exhibit, which is hut very rarely, it is only nominally, and in the
capacity of draughtsman rather than of architect or designer. First
of all, he gave us a mere hotch-potch of AV'ren's buildings; next,
merely a composition of sculjiture for filling up a pediment; and
now this "synopsis," whidi after all is no more than "a develoji-
ment of tliat first ])ub!islied in the Useful Knowledge Society's
Life of Sir Christo]iiier W^ren." A\'hen Professor Cockerell wakes
up, he will perliaps show us something less borrowed and stale, —
something in which he is more immediately concerned; for in-
stance, some of the best ])arts of the interior of the Taylor Insti-
tute at Oxford, and of the Fitzwilliam Museum at (Cambridge.
As he now manages, he finds that though he takes care to ward
off criticism, he cannot exactly shield himself from animadversion
and very disagreealile remarks.

Mr. Barry, as usual, exhibits nothing, hut is content to he him-
self exhibited this season, lioth in a portrait and a bust, — the former
of whicli is so far from being at all satisfactory as a likeness, that
we at first thought we nnist have mistaken the number in the cata-
logue. Of Professor Donaldson, too, all that we see here is a bust
of him. On the other hand, we do belndd Professor Pugin, — not
in effigy of his person, but in several full-length designs, which
are more remarkable i'm- the oddity of the mode of representa-
tion and execution adopted, than for anything particularly praise-
worthy in them as designs. It has been said of Mr. Pugin that he
patronises bad drawing, and we now perceive that he patronises
\ery queer perspective, and very bad colouring also; for nothing
can be more flat and crude than the latter. As if determined to
run (|uite counter to everybody else, while others are solicitous to
set off their designs by every artifice of colouring, and to make
them as much like pictures as possible, he goes to the opposite ex-
treme, and is studiously unpictorial in every respect. Yet, we
will not be certain that even in this apparent rejection of all arti-
fice, there is not a good deal of artifice at the bottom — affectation
there certainly is. The nion.ilrurt dii/ilo has such charms for some
peoi>le, that they will not stick at sheer absurdity in order to gratify
tlieir passion for it, as has been shown of late years by Turner in
his pictures, and now by \Velby Pugin in his drawings. Could we
fancy that the mode of representation adopted by the latter were
so with the intention of scarecrowing people away from those
drawings, there might he some policy in it; for assuredly neither
No. 10H,5, which shows us Mr. Piigin's own residence at Ramsgate,
with a church tacked to it, nor No. 1117, "Bilton Grange, Rugby,
the seat of Washington Hibbeit," is not, on being looked into
and considered as a design, found to display any of that superior
forif he has obtained credit for. He is by far too blind a venera-
tor of median-alism in all its rustiness, to be at all to our taste;
for the way in w liich lie employs Gothic, makes evident how unfit it
is fin- domestic architecture at the present day. In one respect,
indeed, Nos. 10H5, and 1117, are more than usually satisfactory,
since the small interior views and plans placed upon their borders
serve to convey a tiderably complete idea of the respective hiiild-
inRS. We have also in No". 1013, "The new Dining Hall at Alton
Towers," another work of Mr. Pugin's, although the drawing itself
is evidently by a difl'oreiit hand, and both on account of its subject
and execution is one that deserved to be placed exactly on the
line; as did also No. 1071., "Interior of part of the new buildings
at East Sutton Place," C. J. Richardson. Were the line entirely
occupied by the best subjects and drawings, some of the best must
nerhaps he hung less advantageously; but it appears to us nothing
less than stultification to |ilace on the line several things that
ought not to have been admitted at all, while others that both
reipiire to be and are deserving of being looked at attentively,
are put more or less out of sight. Surely the architectural draw-

ings must in the first instance be chosen by drawing lots to decide
which are to be admitted; after which, those who are appointed to
hang them are hlindfidded. In this room the hanging is so
wretchedly — or else, maliciously managed, that besides injustice
towards good things, uncalled-for cruelty is shown towards some
of the worst. Although it may look like unaccountable fa-
vouritism, it was surely nothing less than the refinement of
cruelty to put, with mnlice pfe/ioise, just where they are, the two
interiors of Ormotid Quay Cluirch (in the Pecksniff-Gothic style),
as if on purpose to disgust us by letting us plainly see that they
are the "perfect abominations" they have been called. Nor are
they the only things which would have been favoured by being
either turned away or thrust into the ranks of the Indistinguish-
ahles. It will be thought that we keep harjiing very wearisomely,
again and again, on the mere matter of bad hanging. True, we
do so, and it is in order that our obstinate importunity may force
attention to it, to some purpose. Were there no Professor of Ar-
chitecture, nor a single architect, we could only be surprised that
any body of artists with the title of a Royal Academy should
take in so many things not fit to be seen, so many more than can
be properly seen, and as the climax of absurdity, to hang up some of
the very worst and poorest of all in the very best situations. As
painters, the general body of the Academy may know no more of,
and care as little about architecture as their own porters. Not
only may they be incapable of judging between good and bad de-
signs, but not even so much as know what are designs, and what
are mere views. They may have no suspicion that the front of
^Vells Cathedral (1015) was not designed by Mr. Dolby, nor that
of York Minster (1109) by Mr. Bedford; but then, why do they
not leave architecture to the architects.'' To suppose that the
latter are now even so much as consulted, would be to suppose that
they are what we do not care to say; but it is certain that they
show themselves to be very remiss in not properly remonstrating
in behalf of their own art. — May there never be occasion for our
making any such unpleasant remarks again!

There ai-e very few designs this season which show us any build-
ings either lately executed or now in progress, that are in any
other style than Gothic or Elizabethan. The only subject which
shows us an edifice of any importance in a different style is No.
1090, "The South Facade of the New Assize Courts, Liverpool,"
W. H. Campbell; in which rather large drawing Mr. C's own
share is merely that of draughtsman, and even in such character he
is by no means an extraordinary one. What is extraordinary, how-
ever, is that any one should be at the pains of merely letting us
see another person's ideas, if he could not at the same time show
some talent himself. Had the design been his own, we might have
praised his abstinence from any of the usual allurements employed
upon paper, and his trusting entirely to its intrinsic merits as an
architectural composition. As such is not the case, the absence of
all aim at pictorial quality and effect is rather unaccountable, it
being so contrary to c.rh'ibitiini practice; for while many things
wliich we here see have an adventitious interest imparted to them
by dexterity of colouring, and by background and figures, which
does not at all beUuig to them as designs, Mr. Campbell has not
rendered Mr. Elmes's building by any means his debtor by his
mode of showing it. Not only is the colouring flat, but light and
shiide are so feebly expressed — in fact, merely indicated instead of
expressed, that the drawing looks more like a vision than the
view of a real building. Besides which, the perspective is some-
what faulty, and the point of view injudiciously chosen; for had it
been taken a little more obliquely, while the south portico itself
would have been in a more pictures(iue attitude, we should have
distinctly seen the square pillars and low screen walls between
them in the other faf ade, which are by far the most original ideas
in the design, and which would have contrasted admirably with
the round columns and open intercolumns of the south portico;
which latter, although certainly a noble and classical piece of ar-
chitecture, gives us little more than a correct copy or restoration
of the front of a Corinthian temple. The only touch of originality
there, is the lofty stylobate on which the portico is raised, and the
steps leading up to it, both which together, add the picturesque to
the classical, — or would have done so, but for the three windows
in the stylobate, which mar the whole facade so shockingly that it
ought even now to be seriously considered whether they cannot by
some contrivance or other be got rid of; and got rid of they
certainly ought to be, were it even by some sacrifice of internal
convenience. — Here we will take the liberty of adjourning till our
next Number.

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

165

IMPROVED PUMPING ENGINE.

The great economy of fuel that was first attained by the Cornish
engineers in their single-acting engines for pumping water from
mines,, some years ago attracted mucli attention among engineers
generally. The fact of the alleged economy having been really
attained, was first denied or doubted; then tlie subject was inves-
tigated, and the fact found not only to be true but easily accounted
for. It was nothing more than might have been expected from
the great degree of expansion effected in the steam-cylinder, effi-
cient coveriiig of all radiating surfaces, and generally great care
on the part of the engine workers. These were admitted by all to
be the great sources of economy; but many supposed that they
were in some way necessarily connected with single-acting engines
working on the Cornish plan. This led to the erection of several
Cornish engines for waterworks' purposes in various parts of the
country, and the saving of fuel has in all cases been found to be
very great, when compared with the former Boulton and Watt
engines.

So slow, however, is frequently the progress of con-ect ideas on
mechanical subjects, that it is only now that those interested in
such works are becoming gradually convinced tliat the desired
economy of fuel may be attained without the cumbrous and ex-
pensive machinery of a Cornish engine.

The peculiarities essential to the (Cornish engine are, that it is
single acting, and that it should not directly lift the water it is
intended to raise by its means, but that it sho\ild lift a ponderous
weight, which is then let fall, and in falling raises tlie water. The
faults connected with such engines are, that they are double the
necessary size, and do their work in an indirect manner; and the
only reason given for adopting this description of engine is, that
no other engine could work with the same amount of expansion.
But in the calculations of saving, all consideration of the loss of
interest arising from the greater first cost of the Cornish engines
has been omitted. This greater first cost arises not only from the
much larger size of engine required to do the same work on the
Cornish system, but also from the necessary concomitants— huge
balance-weights on the pump-rods, engine-houses and foundations
double the necessary size, and stand-pipes that have not unfre-
quently cost nearly as much as the engines themselves. The
interest on this large expenditure has frequently gone far to swal-
low up the saving on the fuel.

We have been led to make these preliminary remarks in conse-
quence of inspecting a small engine, of 20-horse power, made for
the Richmond Waterworks Company by Messrs. Simpson, of Pira-
lico, which is a double-acting engine, and cuts off the steam at
one-fourth of the length of tlie stroke, so as to expand the steam
into four times its original bulk; and all the radiating surfaces are
neatly and efficiently clothed with non-conducting substances.
From several trials, it has been ascertained that the consumption
of fuel is only 2| lb. per horse-power per hour, and that even this
economy, it is expected, will be considerably exceeded when the
company have fixed a second boiler, the present one being only
one-half the size that the makers intended the engine to work
with. This result, we think, clearly proves the practicability of
emulating the Cornish economy of fuel with double-acting engines
judiciously constructed.

This engine has another advantage not very common with
pumping engines, in being capable of working at the same speed
as an ordinary mill-engine. This is accomplished, partly by the
construction of the pump-valves and partly by the use of a new
kind of pump lately registered by Mr. Thomson, Messrs. Simp-
son's manager.

The annexed engravings, figs. 1 and 2, show a section and ex-
ternal view of this pump, from which its action will be very easily
understood. It is, as will be seen, in many respects the same as
the old bucket-pump; but there is added to it the plunger pp, the
sectional area of which is half that of the pump-barrel b b. This
simple addition makes the pump double-acting, and suitable for
being wrought by a double-acting engine; for, when the bucket is
ascending, one-half of the water that it raises, instead of going
out at the delivery-pipe d, occupies the place previously occupied
by the plunger, and when the bucket descends, this part of the
water is then expelled by the phinger. Equal quantities of water
are thus delivered at each stroke, and the pump is double-acting,
while at the same time it has only two valves, and is nearly as
simple in its construction, and occupies as little space, as a single-
acting pump. In all pumps it is of the first importance that easy
access should be afforded to all the valves, and when this condition
is adhered to, and the valves made large and of the best modern
construction, those who have made double-acting pumps on the

present system with four valves, know that they are both expen-
sive in their construction and unwieldy in their dimensions. 1 hese

Fig. 2.— Internal View.

Fig. 1.— Extetiial View

View of Top. View of Valve.

objections are very much obviated by the plan we have now de-
scribed, and much advantage is also derived from the water having

IGO

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[J UXE,

nil turns tn m;ike in passinpc through the pump. This prevents the
ciuuMission thiit is so nlijectioiialile in many pumps, and enables tliis
piniip to be worlit'd niucli (piiclser tlian one of tlie old construc-
tiiiii. \Vc consider this, therefore, as a decided improvement in
tlie application of douhle-actinf;- engines to the pumping of water,
find we hope that so obvious an improvement will speedily secure
for itself an extensive ado])tli)ii among the parties interested in
tliis department of engineering.

The following particulai-s give some of the dimensions of the
engine : —

Diameter of cylinder, 90 inches.

Length of stroke, 3 feet.

Length of beam from cylinder centre to connecting-rod centre,
9 feet ti inches.

The boiler is cylindrical, with an internal tube, the diameter of
the boiler being 4 feet, and of the tulie 2 feet; the length 15 feet.

The engine works two pumps, both being connected directly to
the crank-end of the beam; one of them S inches nearer the cy-
linder, and the other 8 inches farther from the cylinder, than the
connecting-rod centre. With this arrangement, one pump has a
stroke of 31 inches, and the other a stroke of 41 inches. The
object of having two pumps is that one may be wrought when the
water is being pumped to the higher part of the town, and both
used when the water is being delivered in the lower district. The
diameter of the plungers in both pumps is the same, viz. 8 inches,
and the diameter of the buckets is llj inches.

It is to be observed that the design is ultimately to work the
engine with twn boilers of the above dimensions; but the second
one has not yet been fixed.

In estimating the performance of the engine, the hoi'se-power is
taken at 33.000 lb. raised one foot per minute, and the number of
liorses'-power is determined by an indicator fixed on the delivery-
)>ipe of the pump, which, combined with the speed of the engine,
gives the ejfectivc power, exclusive of the friction of both the
engine and pump.

The steam-valve is two short slides connected together and
wrought by cams, so as to dispense with the use of a separate
ex|)ans!on valve.

It will he observed that tlie distance from the centre of one
pump to the centre of the otlier is only IG inches, and both are
fixed in a well of 5 feet square, which shows the great compact-
ness of this kind of double-acting pump. With no other kind
would it have been possible to put two pumps of this size in so
small a space, and at the same time leave sufficient room for exa-
mination, repairs, &c.

BATEMAN AND MOORE'S PATENT HYDRANTS.

The Patent Fire-Cocks are introduced as substitutes for the
inefficient wood plug, at present in general use. Under constant
high pressure, they supersede the necessity for fire-engines, as in
cases of fire they can be brought into almost instant operation,

with the most perfect ease
and efficiency, and with-
out any waste of water.
They can be also expedi-
tiiMisl)', cheaply, and most
etfectively applied to the
watering and thorough
cleansing of streets, al-
leys, courts, public build-
ings, windows, Ike. ; in
railway stations iov sup-
]>lying engine tenders,
cleansing carriages, &c. ;
and placed within mills,
warehouses, and public
buildings, they would af-
ford the most important
protection against fire.
They are also adapted
for watering gardens and
pleasure grounds, and by
the application of suit-
able spreaders or jets, for
syringing fruit trees, &c. The valve of the cock is closed by the
]iressure of the water, — the great therefore such pi-essure
becomes, the more is the tightness of the valve secured, and effec-
tual safety from leakage ensured.

The fire-cock consists of a cast-iron box or casing, containing a
self-acting valve, A, closed by the pressure of the water. For
street purposes, this casing is attached to a vertical branch from
the water main, and when not in use the outlet of the valve is
closed by a loose cover or stopper, and the whole protected from
injury by a cast-iron case, similar to the ordinary cases or covers
for protecting street cocks or fire-plugs. The valve. A, consists of
a ball of less specific gravity than water, covered with india-rubber
or other elastic substance, and closed by the pressure of the water
against a properly prepared seating.

THE SOCIETY OF PAINTERS IN WATER COLOURS.

The Exhibition is on the whole superior to last year's. The
President, Mr. Copley Fielding, exhibits forty- two works, the
best of which are, View near the head of Loch Tin/ (23), — an effect
after rain; Vieu! of Siiowdou (120), — the effect of Suowdon in the
distance is well sustained; and Scai-lmroiigli (130), — the stormy cha-
racter is very good: they all show the artistic powers of Mr.
Fielding. The .atmospheric effects he produces with great free-
dom.— Air. Cattermole, the delineator of scenes of the Middle
Ages, has two excellent studies: — Tlic Chapel (24.2), representing a
number of persons at prayers, — it is both picturesque and solemn;
and The Call at the Alonasterij (2o3), %vhich is free, graceful, and
forcible. — Mr. F. Tayler's Morning (28), and Evening (39), are two
masterly productions. The first represents five dogs waiting for
the entrance of their keeper,— their faces are full of expression;
the latter, when they are tired and weary, and shut up for the
night: they are two of the best paintings of this artist. The
Chase in the time of Charles II. (144) is equally good; as also is The
Stag Hunt in the Last Century (lil). — Mr. De Wint's Wilsford,
Lincolnshire (294), and a Hag-Ficlil, are good, particularly the
latter; but in a View of Lincoln (139), the water and trees are not
at all good, — it appears an unfinished picture. — Mr. George Fripp
exhibits some excellent subjects, which all show great finish and
effect, particularly The Valley of the Thames near Reading (^5i); in
The All'e Jilanche, Mount Blanc (111), the mountainous scenery is
well shown, — this is the best; and The Weir at Fanghourne (121).
— The architectural drawings of Mr. Sanniel Prout are. as usual,
all deserving of notice, particularly the Gothic ones: The Porch
of Ratisbonne Cathedral (9), and .SV. Etienne Bennmis (229), es-
pecially.—TAe High Altar Cathedral of Toledo, Spain (82), by .Mr.
Lake Price, is an admirable drawing, and one of the best we have
seen of his; the ornamentation is elaborately worked out. — Mr.
Glennie has a classic example — View of the Temple of Neptune at
Pcestum; the background is subdued in order to give more effect
to the building, which is carefully drawn. — Mr. Palmer strains too
much after effect in Sun and Shade (149), and Sheltering from the
Sturm (175): the contrasts ai-e violent. — Mr. Topham has an effec-
tive composition in Making N'ets (247): all his paintings have the
merit of originality. — Mr. Frederick Nash, in No. 62, interior of
Exeter Cathedral, is deserving of great praise. — Mr. 'Wright shows
a good composition in TheMouse,or the Disappointed Epicure6;{l7 i):
it has much expression.

NEAy SOCIETY OF PAINTERS IN WATER COLOURS.

This is the fifteenth Exhibition; the Drawings number 402. —
Mr. AV'arren, the President, has a large ])ainting — Joseph's Coat
brought to Jacob (27(i), illustrating the Scripture history, where
the brothers bring tlie blood-stained garments of Benjamin to their
father, who is weeping at the supposed loss of his son. There is
great feeling in tliis picture, and shows the power of the artist. —
Mr. Haghe, the Vice-President, exhibits two pictures — The Ve-
teran's Stnn/ (202) is the best. It is representing an old cavalier
listening to tlie deeds of prowess done at Edge-Hill; the counte-
nances and situations show Mr. Ilaghe's great skill and expressive

touch. Mr. Vacher has a good arcliitectural subject — The Piazza

of St. I'etcrs during the Benediction (221); the buildings are well
drawn in this. — l\Ir. Aaron Peuley has an effective picture in
Serenity (357); it is a scene on AVindermere Lake in the evening:
the picture well expresses the title. — Mr. Laporte sustains his
reputation in Cantaljs (324); the horse is well drawn, and is repre-
sented pawing the ground, anxious to start.— One of the best in
the Gallery is The Murderers of Thomas Chase, nf Amersham, draw-
ing up the Letter to the Clergy (iuo), by Mr. Edward Corbould, who
has attempted a great deiil, and has been well rewarded for his

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

167

trouble. The fifjures are well drawn and strikina:, and the faces
of the murderers are full of thought and expression; the armour
is excellently done, and the colouring rigorous, and does great
credit to this persevering artist. — Mr. J. Chase has a good archi-
tectural picture — The Return from Matins (35). — We cannot
compliment Mr. Wehnert on his figure as Peace (185): it does
not come up to his former efforts. — Mr. Absolon has a harvesting
scene. Plenty (55); there are a great many figures in this which
are well executed, the positions are good, and all express tlie
pursuit in whicli they are engaged. — There are fifteen views taken
in Australia, by Mr. J. S. Prout, painted on the spot : they ai-e all
good, and show the peculiarities of the country. The best land-
scape is by Mr. T. L. Rowbotham, jun., Rouen (191), the quays
and bridges of which are shown in a remarkably clever manner —
Mr. James Fahey has an animated picture, The Hop Garden (135):
it represents a number of persons employed picking the hops. —
Mr. F. Richard's Julia (175) has a pretty face. — Mr. Robins's pic-
ture of Portsmouth (77); ]\Ir. Ua^■idson's Bolton Park; Yorkshire
(103), a good study of trees; and Mr. H. Maplestone's Romney
Marshes (82), a view of Rye in the distance and the ruins of VV'in-
chelsea Castle, are worthy of notice.

REVIE'WS.

Weale's Quarterly Papers on Engineering, Part XII. London:
Weale, 1849.

This is the last number of a very useful series, the conclusion of
which we very much regret. It was a very laudable undertaking
of Mr. AVeale to provide the means of jniblication for those pro-
fessional papers too short for a volume, and too long for our
pages, and which did not come within the scope of the Institution
of Civil Engineers. AVe only wish that tlie zeal of the profession
and the condition of commercial affairs had afforded Mr. AV'eale a
better return for his labours, and sufficient inducement to persevere
in his undertaking. As it is, the Quarterly Papers constitute a
valuable accession to the library of the engineer, and include many
practical subjects, illustrated by numerous engravings.

Architectural Publication Society. Illustrations, Parts I. and II.
of Volume for 1848-9.

The Architectural Publication Society is an institution M-hich
the architects ought to support; for most branches of learning
have such a society, and it argues want of zeal to be behindhand.
Architecture is, however, now redeemed from this slur.

The numbers now before us contain the illustrations to what
will, we hope, be the Great National Dictionary of Architecture,
which the members of the Society have undertaken to compile.
Twelve plates in each number give numerous examples illustrative
of the articles Campanile, Ceiling, Chimney, Corbel, Cornice, Cor-
tile. Diaper, Doorway, Fayade, Loggia, Metal-work, Pavement,
Stained Glass, Staircase, and Hlndow Coronets. As the Society
have access to the public and private collections of architectui-al
drawings, it is naturally to be expected that many curious and
original examples will be included in the series.

'The undertaking is, we think, particularly well deserving of
the support of the members of the arcliitectural profession, as it
will place before them a copious and valuable library for reference.

It may be very usefully taken into consideration by the en-
gineers, whether they should not have an Engineering Publication
Society, to reproduce the numerous reports on Harbours, Canals,
Railways, and other public works, which abound with useful infor-
mation, and are inaccessible to the profession.

Buildings and Monuments, Modern and Mediceval. Edited by
George Godwin, F.R.S. Part I. London, 1849.

This is a reprint, in a separate form, of some of the large wood
engravings in the Builder, and being carefully worked-oft' on stiff
paper, slightly tinted, they have an exceedingly good effect. In-
deed, they do great credit to the art of wood engraving, and will
form a cheap and handsome work, as well suited for the library of
the architect as that of the amateur. Some modern buildings are
included in the series, and the text is further illustrated by ground
plans and details of the work. iMany will prefer them in their
present form to their original appearance in the columns of the
newspaper.

The 3Iining Almanack for 1849. Compiled by Henry English,
Mining Engineer, Editor of the Mining Journal. London : Min-
ing Journal Office, 1849.

Mr. English has here produced a work which will be found of
very great value to every engineer, and the more so as so few
books are published on mining. The Almanack contains a great
many original papers by well-known writers connected with the
mining interest. Among them are those 'On the Jurisdiction and
Practice of the Stannaries Courts,' by H. S. Stokes, Esq.; the
'Newcastle Coal-fields,' by Matthias Dunn; the 'Custom of Tin
Bounds;' 'Records of Ancient Mining,' by J. Y. Watson; the
'Cornish Steam-Engine,' by James Sims; the 'Structure of Crys-
talline Rocks,' by Evan Hopkins; 'Assaying,' by P. N. Johnson;
'Fire Damp,' by Professor Ansted; 'Gold Deposits," by Dr. Cliffe;
the 'Cost-Book System'; 'Mineral Topography of Great Britain,'
by A. W. Tooke; 'ftlineralogy,' by G. Abbot; 'Lives of Trevi-
thick and Stephenson,' by Hyde Clarke; and papers by E. Smirke,
T. Clark, the Editor, and Dr. Albert. Copious tables of Statis-
tics and Scientific Data make it a very practical work.

A Letter to Lord John Russell, on the Expediency of Promoting
Railways in Ireland. By George Preston Whiie, C.E. Lon-
don: Weale, 1849.

This is a practical and interesting pamphlet on a most important
subject, of which Mr. AVhite has taken a very liberal view. We
say, without any professional bias, that no measure is so necessary
for Ireland as railways; and it is most discreditable to the minis-
try, that neither upon this nor any other reproductive undertak-
ings has one single practical suggestion been adopted, nor any
propounded by the cabinet itself. Tlie Irish, tlierefore, suffer
doubly — from their own idleness, and tlie idleness of the govern-
ment.

i\Ir. White's remarks on the Standing Orders do no injustice to
their oppressive character. He says —

"The Standing Orders were framed with a view of protecting private in-
terests; the slightest consideration will show that this object has been more
than realised. The sums of money which landowners have received for
supposed injuries caused by the passing of a railway through their property,
are almost incredible. The Manchester and Birmingham Company paid up-
wards of 16,000/. per mile for their lanii, and the Eastern Counties paid
nearly as much. Now, supposing that the railway occupied ten acres to the
mile, which is a fair average allowance, it would appear that these two com-
panies have paid for their land at the rate of 1600/. per acre.

The clause in the Standing Orders, which still e.xists, requiring the assents
and dissents of landowners and occupiers, can be attended with but little
advantage, and is liable to great abuse. It is impossible to conceive, taking
into consideration the benefit conferred on property by railroads, and the
amount of compensation given by railway companies, that landowners can
be serious in their opposition. In nine cases out of ten they oppose a line
of railway in order to make the company pay exorbitantly for the land re-
quired. It is ceitainly a useless clause, affording no proof of the desirable-
ness of the project.

Many of the clauses of the Standing Orders which apply to the plans and
sections are quite inconsistent. At the same time that you are allowed to
make a deviation in the line, you are compelled to adhere to the original
gradients, an alteration of only a few feet being allowed. Now it is evident
that, in a sideling country, deviation is impracticable under the requirement
as to gradients. The clause requiring the landowner to be furnished with a
statement of the greatest depth of cutting or height of embankment through
his estate, is equally useless ; for should the line be deviated from, which is
frequently the case, there may ultimately be an embankment instead of a
cutting, or vice versa.

Another objectionable clause in the Standing Orders is that requiring a
deposit of ten per cent, in the Court of Chancery, which has so signally
failed to produce the object for which it was framed, namely, making a l/ond
fide company ; whilst it has had the ill effect of locking up a large amount
of capital, on which no interest has been paid, and has often been the means
of discouraging really useful projects. This object of the legislature might,
I think, be more effectually obtained by rendering it illegal to dispose of
shares until a large amount of the capital was paid up. This was done in
the case of the Dublin and Kingstown Railway, and was in that instance
attended with the happiest results. It would possess the further advantage
of preventing over-speculation in railway shares."

We do not, ho%vever, concur in this last suggestion, for we do
not see either the good or the necessity of preventing speculation
in railway shares. Trade, under all circumstances, to be efficient
must be free.

168

THE CIVIL ENGIXEEIl AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jink,

FRICTION CURVE

A well-known defect in revcilvina: valves is their want of tight-
ness after some use, or tlieir great friction when tightened by force.
In a stop-cock with a conic:il i)lug, for instance, the amount of
wear in the bigger ])art differs from that in the smaller part, be-
cause every point in the former has a longer way for friction than
any point in the latter. To lessen this defect^ it is necessary to
make the plug nearly cylindrical. The consequences thereof are —

1. A comi)arativeIy trifling pressure causes the plug to stick in
its socket like a wedge.

2. The bore, instead of being made round, as it ought to be for
giving tlie fluid a free passage, must be made flat.

3. \ ery little wear causes the plug to sink considerably in its
socket; from which again results

4. The necessity of making cocks comparatively long and heavy.

Fig. 1. Fig. -2.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6.

The friction between a plug and its socket divides itself so that
the products of the pressure multiplied with the length of way are
the same for any point in tlie rubbing surfaces. The length of
way being difi"erent in different parts, the jiressure must differ also :
it is greatest on the smaller end. Now, as tlie bigger end must be
tight as well as any otlier part, the destructive wear [abrasion] of
smaller parts is apparent. Therefore, considering such a trun-
cated cone to be dix ided into infinitely narrow ones, I propose to
take a more obtuse cone for each bigger part; and in such progres-
sion, that it would require equal pressure for every point in the
surface to cause an uniform, sinking of the plug in its socket by
wear The shape thus obtained is one with a curved surface, as
shown in fig. 1.

The main feature of the generating curve for such a siirface is
the equality of all tangents drawn to the axis. Hence tlie use of
an instrument I constructed as shown in tig. 2, A, ami B, where the
curve is described by a little drawing-pen moving on a liorizontal
plane.

Figs. 3 to 6 show some examples for the application of the de-
scribed principle.

Fig. 3.- A.

Fig. 3.— B.

Fig. 3, A and B, represent two stop-cocks, which from their
shape may be called ie/?-cocks. They have none of the imperfec-
tions of those now in use, while they possess the natural tendency
of insuring tightness by wear.

Fig. 4 represents part of a regulator for a locomotive engine, for
transmitting the angular motion from the handle to the inside of
a boiler; here the amount of friction varies with the pressure of
steam which acts against the journal.

Fig. 5 represents an axle for astronomical or surveying instru-
ments, &c. ad, bb, cc, are annular parts of one
and the same curve surface, and are so chosen
merely for the purpose of exemplifying the va-
riety of ways in which this principle may be
applied, as for most purposes an axle with
an undivided curve surface (as in fig. 1) will
serve as well, or better.
Fig. 6 shows how to
construct the thi-eads of
screws according to this
princi|ile. The propor-
tions I prefer are —
nb onc-fourtli of a c ;
a c one-fourth, sixth,
eighth, tenth, or twelfth
of the diameter.

As a further illustra-
tiim of the variety of
contrivances to the
construction of which
tlie descrilied principle
may lie iiscfully applied,
1 will luime the follow-
ing:— Curve-shaped re-
volving valves (instead
of flat ones) for regu-
lating tlie quantity of
steam let into the cy-
linders of locomotive
engines.— Similar valves
(instead of slide valves) for steam-engines, which applied to either
end of the cylinder, wcuild cause a considerable saving of steam, —
as in many engines (for instance, those on railways) a great deal
of steam in tjie canals is now lost. — A revolving motion, varying in
speed, would be better than the motion given by an eccentric. —

Fig. 4.

1819."]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

169

Safety valves. — Turning joints in pipes. — The diiferent centres
(fig. 6, A) and journals in turning-lathes. — Spindles. — Axles of
railway turn-tables. — Footsteps for upright shafts. — Couplings for
shafts." — Collars of screws (fig. 3, B, a and b) — Glass stoppers; — in
short, all those contrivances which present similar rubbing sur-
faces.

8GLNP
The friction is a mniimum and equal to „ /r)j_ j;-, i ^^here

P = the whole pressure which the rubbing surfaces have to bear

in the direction of their axis.
D = the diameter of the larger part.
d = the diameter of the smaller part.
L = the length of the generating curve.

G := distance of the point of gravity of the curve from the axis.
C := co-efficient of friction. And,
N ^ number of revolutions.

Measures to be taken of equal units.

William Fairbairn, Esq. having kindly assisted me in bringing
out my scheme, I have great pleasure in publicly acknowledging
my obligations to him. This gentleman gave me his favourable
opinion about the principle described above, and allowed me to
make some trials on one of his locomotive engines.

I beg to offer my services as patentee, and as manufacturer of
most of the articles mentioned above, as well as of instruments
for drawing the curves.

Christian Schiele, Mechanician.

Manchester, May, 1849.

STEAM AND VACUUM GAUGE.

{From the Journal of the Franklin Institute.)

The Committee on Science and the Aits, constituted by the Franklin Insti-
tute of the State of Pennsylvania, for the Promotion of the Mechanic
Arts, to whom was referred for examination and report, an "Engine j
Register and Manometer Steam and Vacuum Gauge," invented by Mr.
Paul Stillman, of the City of New York, Report: —
That the instrument referred to is designed for application to
marine steam-engines, and that it is, in outward appearance, simi-
lar to the marginal sketch.

It is threefold in its purposes — consisting, 1st, of a circular
cast-iron box, faced with a dial, in which are cut side by side, six
(or more as may be required) slots, through which may be seen
the numbers representing the revolutions of the engine; this is
denominated the "counter" or "register;" 2nd and 3rd, of two
gauges, one for steam, the other for vacuum, connected by suit-
able pipes with the boiler and condenser. Both these latter
consist of vertical glass tubes, hermetically sealed at their upper
ends and having their lower ends immersed in small chambers (the
joints being insured perfect by tinning the brass glands surround-
ing the tubes.) These chambers communicate with the reservoirs
for the mercury only by the lower end of the small chamber, into
which is screwed a plug; so that it is only by the minute leakage
around this screw, that the same pressure is maintained on the
mercury in the tube and that in the reservoir. The object of this
arrangement is to prevent the too rapid agitation of mercury con-
sequent on differences of pressure, and also to enable the tubes to
be filled and then inverted in their reservoir, without loss to the
contents, — in fact, supplying the place of the bulb in common
gauges.

The steam gauge then, having been partially filled, indicates by
the compression of air, caused by the forced ascent of the mer-
cury; and the vacuum gauge, being at first entirely filled, indicates
by the descent of the mercury, as in common gauges. To pre-
vent, in the steam gauge, the soiling of the tube, caused by the
oxidation of the mercury, a small quantity of naphtha is intro-
duced on its surface. These gauges are thus presented in a com-
pact form, and in a manner not very liable to derangement. But
as it would require a practical experience to test their supposed
advantages over those in common use, the committee, at present,
will confine themselves to a consideration of the "Register," of
which the following is a description.

By an attachment to any suitable part of the engine, a vibratory
motion is communicated to an arm attached to a central horizontal
shaft, placed parallel to the dial, and within the cast-iron box — to
the ends of which is also fixed a frame carrying a small shaft
parallel to the former, on which six palls or arms are attached,
side by side, and at a certain distance apart, in such a way that
the right hand pall may fall without the others, but cannot rise
without carrying the rest.

This frame-work, with the pall-shaft, &c., is made, by the motion
of the arm attached to the engine, to describe an arc of 36°, or to
move through one-tenth of a circle.

The ends of the palls respectively rest on, and slide over, six
cylinders placed side by side on the central shaft, all of which are
free to move in the same direction and independently of each
other, and are arranged in the following manner: —

For the sake of clearness, we shall number them 1, 2, 3, 4, &C.,
beginning with the right-hand one.

On the right-hand edge of each cylinder are cut 10 slots, and on
the left-hand, which overlaps the edge of the next, only one slot;
these slots being of such a size as will admit the end of one of the
palls; then on the back motion of the frame-work, &c., the pall is
carried back till it drops in, when the forward motion carries with
it the cylinder so locked.

In the central spaces (between the laps) in each cylinder, and
opposite to one of the slots in the dial face, the numbers 1, 2, 3,
&c., to 0, are engraved at equal distances round the circumference.

The palls are placed one over each of the slots, so that the pall
can fall into the inner cylinder only when the slot in the outer
one comes directly under it; and as this occurs only once in a
whole revolution, and as the motion of the palls is only through
one-tenth of a circle, it follows that cylinder No. 2 can only be
moved through one-tenth of its circumference, after cylinder No.

1 has moved a whole revolution, or ten times that space, and so
on. Thus, if the figures on No. 1 represent units, those on No.

2 will be tens, on No. 3, hundreds, tkc. ; and extending the same
principle. No. 1 must move round one hundred thousand times to
produce one revolution of No. 6. It will be observed that every
revolution of the engine must insure one-tenth of cylinder No. 1
to move round, inasmuch as the ten slots in its right-hand edge are
not covered by any other cylinder, as is the case with the rest.

The cylinders being free to move in the direction of their
motion, or forward, they may be adjusted at any time to their
starting point, without deranging any of the palls, or even open-
ing the case.

The committee judge the following to be the advantages of this
arrangement: —

1. The compactness and symmetry.

2. The ease veith which the result may be read. And,

3. The facility of adjustment.

The two latter being important considerations in an apparatus of
this kind.

The arrangement is also probably of less expense than the old
form of counter.

In view of all which points, the committee are of opinion that
Mr. Stillman is entitled to the First Premium awarded at the Ex-
hibition, where it was placed by him in October last.

By order of the Committee.

Philadelphia, February 9, 1849.

William Hajiilton, Actuary,

23

170

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON.

(Continued ffom page 107.J
XIV. LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER FIRST BILL.

In 1823 and 182+, the minds of tlie traders of Liverpool were
kept alive to tlie need of a railway, as well by the writings of Mr.
Sandars as by the ffreat want of means for carrying- goods. A
declaration was signed by 150 of the leading merchants of Liver-
pool, setting forth "that a new line of conveyance has become ab-
solutely necessary to conduct the increasing trade of the country
witli speed, certainty, and economy."'

To set at rest the' doubts of those who did not know whether a
railway between Liverpool and JIancliester would do well, some
gentlemen went to Northumberland, to see the railways there at
work. These gentlemen were Mr. Sandars, Mr. Lister Ellis, Mr.
John Kennedy, of Manchester, and ;\Ir. Henry Booth. They met
George Stephenson at Darlington, and went with him over the
Stockton and Darlington Railway, then being made; and after-
wards over se\'eral rail or tramways near Sunderland and New-
castle, and which were at work either with locomotives or fixed
engines.- As the great end of the Northumbrian railways was to
haul coal, so that of the Liverpool and Manchester railway was
then thought to be to haul cotton and other goods. On tlie 20th
May 18;J4-, these gentlemen made their report to a committee
sitting at Liverpool, of which I\Ir. John Moss was chairman; and
it was settled to make a company for a double railway between
Liverpool and Manchester. A list was opened for shares, and was
soon filled with names from Liverpool and Manchester. A board
was likewise named, of which the then Mayor of Liverpool, Mr.
Charles Lawrence, was made chairman, and George Stephenson, of
Newcastle, was named engineer.^

Steplienson set to work forthwith to lay out the line, and drew
up a plan, which was sent into the committee. It was not, how-
ever, till the 29th of October that the prospectus was sent forth.
The chairman was, as already said, Mr. Charles Lawrence; among
the deputy chairmen were Sir. John Moss and Mr. Joseph San-
dars; and among the directors Mr. Robert Benson, Mr. Henry
Booth, Mr. James Cropper, Messrs. John and Peter Ewart, l\Ir.
William Garnett, Messrs. Adam and Isaac Hodgson, Mr. Joseph
Hornby, Mr. ^Villiam Potter, Mr. William Rathbone, and Mr.
William Rotherham. Of these, many are now directors of the
London and North-AVestern Railway, and had a great share in
making the Grand Junction, North Union, and other railways.
The solicitors were Messrs. Pritt and Clay, a member of which
firm is still one of the leaders of the railway interest.

The estimate was 400,000/., taking in the cost of locomotive
engines and everything else; and it must be remembered this was
for a rough goods line. The stock was four thousand shares of
one hundred pounds each. The goods going between Liverpool
and ALinchester were taken at one thousand tons daily. The pro-
spectus seems to have been drawn up by Mr. Sandars, its gi'ound-
work being the letter of that gentleman on railways. It takes a
bold and wide view of the question, and is a document well worthy
of the great purpose for which it was intended.

By this able writing the canal-owners were roused, and In
answer to it the Leeds and Liverpool, the Birmingham, the Grand
Trunk, and other canal companies, sent forth circulars, calling
upon "every canal and navigation company in the kingdom, to
oppose in limine and by a united effort the establishment of rail-
ways wherever contemplated." The Liverpool and Manchester
Railway therefore sent their prospectus, with a letter dated 2.?th
November 1894., to leading men, begging them to uphold the rail-
way company.^

In the next year, the ever-to-be-remenibered 1825, a bill for a
Liverpool and Manchester Railway was brought before parliament,
and some of the parliamentary committee went to London to
watch the bill.'' Of this committee we believe Mr. Booth was
one. To beat the railway, the owners of three canals, the Duke
of Bridgewater's, the Mersey and Irwell, and the Leeds and Liver-
pool, banded together. With these were two land-owners, the
Earls of Derby and Sefton, who set up the common tale about the
holiness of their domains being broken in upon, and the privacy of
tlieir dwellings destroyed by bringing into their neighbourliood a
great highway. Now, it seems the company and tlieir engineer
had been careful on this head, for their road was not to go within
a mile and a half of the dwelling of the Earl of Sefton, and was
to cross the Earl of Derby's lands over the barren mosses of Kirby
and Knowsley, about two miles from the hall."

1 Saridars'B Letter, p. 2:).-
3 Bouth'8 Account, p. 10.
5 Booth's Account, p. U.

-Bootli's Account, p. H. 2 Bootli^B Account, p. U.

4 V'olume of Prospectuses belonging to H. Booth, Esq.
6 Prospectus. Booth's Account, p. I J.

On the 8th February 1825, the petition for tlie bill was laid
before the House of Commons, and on the 9th, the Committee on
Standing Orders resolved the orders liad been complied with.' At
that time they had not found out the way of wasting the money
of shareholders, by having standing orders such as no engineer
could foUow, nor which could not be got through if any one op-
posed.

On the 18th February, the bill was read a first time; and on the
2nd March, a second time, after a debate of about an hour and a
half. Sir John Newport, ^Ir. Huskisson, ISIr. Williar.^ Vates Peel,
Mr. Doherty, Mr. Calcraft, and Mr. Henry Broughniii, spoke for
the bill; Mr. Greene, and Mr. George Phillips against it. There
was no division.' Since then, we have found Lord Brougham the
greatest foe of railways, and wishing to go back to turnpike roads
and stage-coaches at ten miles an hour.

Nemo unquam fuit lam impar sibi.
Committees wei-e then named otherwise than now; and General
Gascoyne, member for Liverpool, was asked to be the chairman,
which it is said he kindly undertook. The movers of the bill
then named committee men of their own, and got as many friends as
they could to come forward. On the 21st March, Mr. Adam made
his opening speech for the bill, being followed on the same side by
Mr. Serjeant Spankie, Mr. Joy, and IMr. AV'illiam Brougham. The
witnesses spoke strongly on behalf of the railway. On the 2nd of
May, Mr. Spankie summed up for the railway.

The canal-owners began their case on the 3rd May, having Mr.
Harrison, Mr. Alderson, Mr. Parke, Mr. M'Donalil, Mr. Earle,
and Mr. Cullen. ISIr. Harrison acknowledged that there was
great loss of time in carrying goods by water, and that the railway
was shorter, being 30 miles instead of 50; but he held that the
canals and liver could carry all the trade of the harbour; that the
levels and sections were wrong; that the locomotive was an un-
sightly-looking thing; and that the cost of the railway would be
three or four times as mucli as the estimate. In behalf of this, Mr.
Booth says" Mr. Francis Giles was brought forward to give his
opinion that it would cost upwards of 200,000/. to carry the railway
across Chat Moss alone. From the ofBcial copy, JNIr. Booth takes the
following evidence of Giles: — Q. Be so good as to tell us whether
in your judgment a railroad of this description can be safely made
over Chat Moss, without going to the bottom of the Moss.? A. I
say certainly not; (and again) undoubtedly not. — Q. 'Will that make
it necessary to cut down the 33 or 3+ feet of which you have been
speaking; (and again) and afterwards to fill it up with other soil.''
This Giles likewise answered in the aflSrmative, and said it was
quite impossible to get a railway through the Moss at any cost.

jMr. Stephenson seems to have remembered this man's conduct;
for Mr. Herapath tells uSj^" "at the time the Southampton Rail-
way was in committee, this Giles, who had just descended from the
witness-bo.x, after giving some extraordinary evidence of the cost
of construction, which turned out to be much too low, was ac-
costed by Mr. Stephenson in the committee-room, thus: 'Giles,
you are the best fellow to tell a lie and stick to it afterwards I
ever heard in my life.' At another time, having made some sharp
observation on Giles, the latter replied: 'If you had not said that,
Mr, Stephenson, so good humouredly, I'd have knocked you down.'
'You knock me down,' rejoined Mr. Stephenson, taking this Giles
by the shoulders, 'wliy, I'd put such a fellow as you in my pocket.' "
The opposition were able to prove errors in the surveys and sec-
tions, which were acknowledged in committee, and set right; but
an unfavourable turn was given to the committee. On the 30th
of May, Mr. Harrison ended his case; and on the 31st, Mr. Adam
answered him. The committee then divided on the preamble,
which was carried by one, there being 37 members for the bill, and
36 against it.^' These numbers will show how large the commit-
tees then were. They consisted of the parties named by the
friends of the bill, and a list of local members, which would in
this case be the Lancashire list. Only a few members attended
daily, but on every division numbers would be brought up, most of
whom had not heard even one word of the evidence. The com-
mittee of five gets rid of this evil, but without lessening the cost
to the shareliolders, or the fees of the lawyers. Indeed, it will be
found, whatever is done, that the oppression of the lawyers never
becomes less, but too commonly their means of extortion are
strengthened.

So far had the railway company got after a three months' war in
parliament, and thirty-seven working days spent before the com-
mittee. All that had been done was to prove the preamble, and
the clauses of the bill had to be gone through, when the outlying^
members might be brought up to vote. Accordingly, on the 1st of

V Booth's Account, p. 15. 8 Booth's Account, p. 16. 9 Booth's Account, p. 17.
1 0 Rjihvay Jourujl, 4;o seaes, Vol. X., p. S6r. 1 1 Booth's Account, p. 18.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

171

June, the first clause of the bill, empowering the company to make
a railway, was lost on a division by 19 to 13; the clause to take land
was next put and likewise lost; whereupon Mr. Adam, on behalf
of the railway company, withdrew the bill.^^ In the committee,
Stephenson was ex.imined; and in his speech at Newcastle, he
said, "I tried to keep the engine down to 10 miles an hour. I
had to place myself in that most unpleasant of all positions — the
witness-box of a parliamentary committee. I was not long in it,
I assure you, before I began to wisli for a hole to creep out at. I
could not find words to satisfy either the committee or myself.
Some one inquired if I were a foreigner, and another hinted I was
mad. But I put up with every rebuff."

Such was the end of the first trial to get a bill for a railway be-
tween Liverpool and Manchester; but the board forthwith set to
work to try again for the next year.

The backers of the railway felt sure, says Mr. Booth, that their
failure was not to be set down to any lack of public opinion in
favour of the great work which they had undertaken; and under-
standing many members of parliament strongly felt tlie great
wortli of tlie proposed railway, it was thought right a meeting
should be held between the railway committee and such of the
members as were able to come, so as to give some expression of
opinion on the then state of matters.

This meeting was held on the 4th June 1825, when seventy-one
members were present; and among them. General Gascoyne, Sir
Robert ^V^ilson, Mr. Huskisson, Mr. Spring Rice, Mr. AV'illiam
Yates Peel, and Mr. Richard Hart Davies. Mr. Spring Rice, now
Lord Monteagle, has almost throughout been a great mischief to
railways. As Chancellor of the Exchequer, he raised the deposit
on railways to ten per cent.; in the Lords he has been intriguing
for a government audit on railways. The meeting passed resolu-
tions in favour of a railway, and a renewed application to parlia-
ment.

XV. LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER SECOND BILL.

On getting back to Liverpool, the railway committee advertised
their intention to go again before parliament. As George Ste-
phenson was not known in London, and it was thought his know-
ledge of the locomotive was not enough to give him weight before
the House of Commons, it was determined to set him aside, and
have engineers better known to the public. On the 1st of July,
therefore, it was resolved that Mr., now Sir John Rennie, should
be asked to become the engineer of the company. After some
writing, it was settled that Messrs. George and John Rennie
should be asked to become the engineers. George Rennie un-
dertook a new survey of the country between Liverpool and Man-
chester. ^^

On tlie 12th of August, the committee, moved thereto by the
engineers, determined to take a new line of way, going much to
the south of the former; and Mr. Charles Vignoles, on behalf of
Messrs. Rennie, was named to make the sections and plans for this
undertaking. As these went on, it was seen the new Rne would
cost more than the old, which had been set down at 400,000/. The
committee had, therefore, to think how they should raise the fur-
ther money which would be needful.

IMr. R. H. Bradshaw, M.P., was trustee for the Duke of Bridge-
water's canal, and the manager of it. In the beginning of the un-
dertaking he had been asked to have shares, but refused. It was
now thought a more fitting time to settle with the Duke of Bridge-
water's interests, and it was at length agreed the Duke of Sutlier-
land should become a shareholder for one thousand shares.'*

On the 26th December 1825, a new prospectus was sent forth,
and in which the committee give their support to the locomotive
system.

In February 1826, the committee again went to London. On
the 7th, the petition for the bill was sent in; on the 9th, the
standing orders were passed; on the 10th, the bill was read a first
time, and on the 20th a second time, without a debate. The com-
mittee-room was then the fighting ground, for it was always much
easier to knock down a bill there than in the House. On the 16th
of March, the preamble was voted by 43 to 18; and on the 6th of
April the bill read a third time. In debate, General Gascoyne, Mr.
William Yates Peel, Mr. Huskisson, and Sir John Newport, spoke
for the bill; and the Hon. Edward Stanley, now Lord Stanley, Sir
Isaac Coffin, Mr. Philips, and Captain John Bradshaw, against it.
The numbers were 88 for the bill and 41 against it.

On the 7th of April, the bill was read a first time in the Lords,
and on the 10th, a second time. On the 13th, the bill went into
committee, there being thirty- three peers present; Lord Kenyon
in the chair, and the Earl of Derby to support his own interests.

12 Booth's Account, p. 19. i3 Booth's Accouat,,p. 23. i4 Booth's Account, p. 24.

Evidence was given against the use of the locomotive; but so
poor a case was made, the Lords did not think it needful to hear
any witnesses for it.' ^ Mr. Jessop gave evidence in favour of the
estimates.

On the 27th of April the committee divided, 30 for the bill and
2 against it; these two being the Earl of Derby and the Earl of
Wilton. The bill was on the 3rd of May read a third time and
passed; and on the 7th May 1826, received the Royal assent.

On the 22nd of May, the committee sent forth a circular, call-
ing the first meeting of shareholders, and in which they say: "They
have already received a proposal from an engineer of eminence, to
furnish an engine that sliall comply with the clause in the act,
compelling the consumption of smoke, — the engine proposed not
to be paid for, if it do not answer the objects of the company."'"

The first meeting was on the 29th May 1826, when twelve direc-
tors were chosen by the shareholders, and three by the Duke of
Sutherland; and on the 30th of May, Mr. Lawrence was named
chairman, and Mr. Moss deputy-chairman. At this meeting, the
question of a principal engineer came under discussion. It was
the wish of Mr. Sandars and his friends to have an engineer resi-
dent in the north, but others wished to keep the Messrs. Rennie;
and the Board wrote to ask them to undertake the professional
superintendence of the works. Mr. Booth says, that on the 17th
of June, George Rennie saw the board, and proposed to superin-
tend the execution of the works, making six visits yearly, and re-
maining on the gi-ound seven or ten days at each visit, but asking
that the resident engineer should be named by him."

Nothing will show more strongly the slow communication be-
tween the great towns of London and Liverpool, five-and-twenty
years ago, than this proposal of George Rennie. To make these
six visits, which were two months apart, he would have to travel
each year fourteen or fifteen days, night and day, boxed up in
what Lord Brougham calls a comfortable stage-coach, travelling
on the turnpike road at some ten miles an hour; — but which we
know was most uncomfortable, and which made a man so tired at
the end of the journey between Loudon and Liverpool, that he
wanted a long time to refresh himself. An absence of ten days or
a fortnight at Liverpool, away from home, was aggravated by the
slowness of the post; neither was the control of the engineer over
the lower officers during his absence made any whit more efficient
in Lord Brougham's Saturnian time.

For no class have railways done more than for professional men,
and among these perhaps most of all for engineers. They can now
undertake works at a great distance, and exercise an efficient con-
trol over them; the more efficient because it can be brought into
play at any moment, instead of the resident engineer having it in
his power to do as he liked at all times than the visits few and far
between of his principal. The readiness of commmunication and
cheapness of postage enables daily reports to be made; and pro-
fessional men are able to travel, without being kept away for pro-
tracted periods from the comforts of home.

On the 19th of June the board met, and at length declined
George Rennie's proposition, and named George Stephenson en-
gineer-in-chief.'« We believe it had been left to Mr. Sandars to
choose between Stephenson and Mr. Rastrick, and that he named
the former.

XVI. LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER WORKS.

The works began on Chat Moss in June, and the first shaft of
the Liverpool Tunnel was opened in September of the same year;
but very little way was made with either. In January 1827, the
earthworks were begun.'"

At tliis time, public works were on a scale so much smaller that
it was hard to find contractors with wagons, tools, and plants
enough for sucli an undertaking as the Liverpool and Manchester
Railway; and great works instead of being done cheaper, were
sometimes more costly, — being the monopoly of the great contrac-
tors, or done by the companies themselves. For a long time, in
the beginning of railways, works were carried on by the companies
under the superintendence of the engineers. In the end, a class
of capitalists has been made in England, who are ready to under-
take the greatest works, many of whom can hold a contract for a
million, and who have been able to carry on works abroad to the
great profit of this country. This class of capitalists has much
helped tlie growth of railways, not only by making great works
cheap and easy, but by making the cost certain. All great works,
however well carried on, are open to risk; but formerly this risk
fell on the companies, whereby the estimates were exceeded. Now
1 ■ —

15 Buoth's Account, p. S3. ^o BIr. Booth's volum's of Prospectuses.

1 ' Booth's Account, p. 37. i 8 Booth's Account, p. 37. Ritchie on Uailwaj'S,

p. 23'J. Volume of I'lospectuses. i s> Booth's Account, p. 3?.

231=

172

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOUR^JAL.

[June,

this risk is iimlertaken liy tlie contractors, and it is much more
ronimiiii for the cost to be lielow tlie estimates than formerly it
Has for the estimates to be behiw the cost.

Dock and harbour works, however jj^reat, are very unlike railway
contracts, reachinfr over fifty or a liuuilred miles; neither are
canal works on a like scale, for the latter by means of locks can be
made without heavy embankments; nor are the cuttings so deep,
nor the tunnels so many or so long. On a railway, the need of a
smooth way leads to high mounds, deep cuttings through rock or
sliifting sands, and long tunnels coming near to the ground-line
or reached by heavy slopes. To master these works, railway con-
tractors were brought forward, — an operation which Stephenson
helped to bring about, though without the knowledge or the inten-
tion of the great results which flowed from it.

The great contracts have brought up a host of navigators, one
of the not least striking among the social wonders of this daj'.
Here we have brought together men picked from the best of our
workmen in the two islands, of the strongest thews, of the small-
est teaching, of brutal passions, and skilled in the display of their
strength and in the disregard of danger. These men are hundreds
of thousands in number, liable to be tlirown out of work whenever
quacks in parliament choose to stay public undertakings, and who
will in a time of strait form an army ready for any mischief which
mob-leaders can prompt and madness can carry out.

The great want of workmen and plant threw on Stephenson
great labour, and he had to organise his staiF under difficulties
now little understood. As he brought some men from North-
umberland, he was set upon by the papeis for favoritism, and for
letting loose these wild men of the east to corrupt the manners of
the Lancashire men, and an explanation was published in his de-
fence.

Tn 182G, the directors tried to get a loan of 100,000/. from the
Exchequer Bill Loan Commissioners, which was after some corre-
spondence granted, 2 0 and it lightened the call upon the share-
holders in the lowering times of the great panic. The loan was
given mostly on the ground that it was desirable to afford em-
ployment to working-men in those times of distress.

The great work of 1827 was the tunnel under Liverpool, and
here Stephenson's mining knowledge was of very great worth to
him, and was of no less weight with the directors and the working
men. Night and day were the mining and digging carried on, and
many difficulties had to be overcome. The ground was in some
places a soft blue shale, with much water; in others was a wet
sand, to go through which much care and skill was needed, as it
had to be pinned and propped with timber. ''i Work like this,
though now common, was then so new, the engineer was more
tasked and had a greater burthen on him. In passing under
Crown-street, near the Botanic Garden, for want of enough props
the ground fell in, being a depth of 30 feet of loose moss earth and
sand. At this time Stephenson was away from Liverpool.

Sometimes the miners would not work at all, and the presence,
superintendence, and encouragement of Stephenson were often
needed to keep them at their posts,^" jq gjyg confidence to them
by sharing their dangers — a call to which, as already seen, he was
never deaf. Practice now gives hardihood: there are thousands of
tunnel miners who cheer each other on to the rashest attempts;
but at the time we are naming they were little used to the work,
and they had to bore their way almost in the dark, with the water
streaming around them, and uncertain whether the props and
stays would bear the pressure from above till the archwork was
made good. Happily a great part of the tunnel was hewn through
a fine red sandstone, clean and dry, and needing no masonry. ^^

The tunnel was under the care of Mr. Locke, as assistant-
engineer ; being one of his first great works, and was carried
through to the satisfaction of the shareholders. 2*

By iSIarch Ib'JT, there was a working railway on Chat Moss, and
the directors in their report speak strongly in favour of Stephen-
son's operations. They say:" -'The roadway over the Moss will
bo cfl'ected with much less diflficulty than was apprehended by
those whose ignorance on the subject of mosses, or whose profes-
sional bias, altogether prevented any rational judgment of the
matter."

In an amended bill that year brought before parliament, the
directors got power to pay interest on calls during the progress of
the works,— a measure of great importance, and although strongly
o))posed at all times, umpiestionably conducing to the ready raising
of money for railway ])urposes.

In 1828, it was found that notwithstanding 212,000;. had been
spent, the work was not going on as fast as could be wished, and

20 Booth's Account, p. 38. 2i Booth's Account, p. 39. 22 Booth's Account, p. 3D.
UB roolh's Account, p. 39. 24 Tooth's Account, p. 40. 25 Vol. of Prospectuses.

the directors were therefore earnest for greater speed, so as to get
an earlier opening. The wm-kmeu had been partly kept back by a
wet winter, and partly by want of money, but l)y no want of zeal
on the |)art of George Steplienson. In this year a bill was got for a
new line laid down by Stephenson between Rainhill and Bury-lane,
whereby the railway was shortened and the cost lessened. In
tlie report to the yearly meeting on the 27th March 1828, all these
points were noticed, and likewise the state of the estimates, which
were shown to be likely to be e.\ceeded on some heads of engineer-
ing outlay, besides land; but although 39,57i/. had been left by
the engineer for contingencies, this was swallowed up by one head
of outlay — parliamentary expenses.

At this time the directors say they had, after due consideration,
authorised the engineer "to prepare a locomotive engine, which,
from the nature of its construction and from the experiments
already made, he is of opinion will be effective for the purposes of
the company, without proving an annoyance to tlie public. In the
course of the ensuing summer it is intended to make trials on a
large scale, so as to ascertain the sufficiency in all respects of this
important machine." They likewise express their confidence in
Mr. Stephenson, their principal engineer, whose ability and un-
wearied activity they are glad of this opportunity to acknow-
ledge.-''

In 1829, a fourth act of parliament was got, which provided for
a Manchester station, and also to raise 127,500/. for providing sta-
tions, engines, wagons, and carriages,^' which had not been asked
for in the first act of parliament. Indeed, it was for some time
not uncommon to make no provision in estimates for stations or
carrying stock, such being considered of small importance.

About this time, the board were embarrassed with the Exchequer
Bill Loan Commissioners. In making the loan of 100,000/., the
latter had kept a hold on the last 30 per cent, of the calls, as a fur-
ther security for repayment in case the works should not be of
sufficient value. The board being wishful to use these calls for
the works, asked the commissioners for the leave to raise them,
when the commissioners sent down Telford to report on the value
of the works. This he did in the end of November, spending one
day on the line, and leaving his assistant to take detailed measure-
ments of the work. 2 s

Telford's report was carefully worded to throw the greatest
doubt on the undertaking, whether as to the amount of work to be
done, the cost of it, the time needed, or the certainty of it. This
report was given in on the -Ith February 1829, and the commission-
ers resolved not to release any part of the calls. Some of the
Liverpool directors then went to London, and having shown the
unfairness of Telford's report, succeeded in obtaining the powers
required.

Telford, speaking of the power to be employed, said that the use
of horses had been done away with by introducing two sets of in-
clined planes, and he considered this an evil, while the planes must
be worked either by locomotive or fixed engines; "but which of
the two latter modes shall be adopted, I understand has not yet
been finally determined; and both being recent projects, in which
I have had no experience, I cannot take upon me to say whether
either will fully answer in practice."-"

This is far from satisfactory in Telford, after the locomotive
engine had been before the world five-aud-twenty years, and he
had himself laid out raihvays,^'' in which it vFas liis business to
inquire as to the most advantageous mode of propulsion. He
ought to have known about the locomotive, and indeed must have
known, — but tliere was a great deal of jealousy in the very highest
quarters, which had it been given way to would have utterly stop-
ped the growth of railways. In aftertime, Stephenson himself
was inoculated with tlic same feeling, and showed it with no less
warmth. It behoves the public, however, always to be on their
guard against swallowing any statements on authority, and par-
ticularly when they bear on any new undertaking. Tlie locomo-
tive, gas, high-pressure steam, steamboats, and electric telegraphs,
would all have been swamped if authority had had full sway.

In the spring of 1829, the directors, earnest for greater speed,
ordered the contractors to employ two gangs of men on all the
cuttings, one by night and one by day. After this time, night-
work anil Sunday-work became too common to be thought wonder-
ful. Notwithstanding the wishes of the directors, a wet summer
and autumn threw the works back; indeed, the heavy and lasting
rains lodged much water in the cuttings, which had to be pumped
dry." More rain fell in this year than for fourteen years before.''-

26 Volume of Prospectuses. 27 Booth's Account, p. 43. Vol. of Prospectuses.

28 Volume of Prospectuses. 20 Telford's Report, Liverpool IS29, p. 16.

3 0 See Rejjort of Telford on the Knaresborough Railway, in the Library of the Insti-
tution of Civil Engineers.

31 Booth'i Account, p. 44. 32 Volume of Prospectuses.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

173

In 1829, a skew-bridge was opened at Rainhill. This, too, is
another work common at this time, but thouj^ht worthy of being
set down by the historian of the railway. More books have been
written since 1829 on skew-bridges, than there were then skew-
bridges in the island.

In this year two locomotive engines were used for the first time
for loading marl at the two great cuttings.^^ Stephenson, by doing
this, opened a new field for the locomotive. Now, a good stock of
locomotives is held by contractors, besides ballast-wagons, and
thus a great means of economy in earthworks was brought about.
The plant of a great contractor now always includes a locomotive
engine and rails. This is another example of the unintentional
benefit derived from the progress of a great improvement: indeed,
in taking up an impro\'ement, no one can foretell to wliat it will
lead, nor in what indirect manner it may benefit the community.
Tiie doctor wlio took up the lump of gutta percha at Singapore so
few years ago, did not know tliat he was giving his fellow-country-
men a material, which though of little use in the East, should be
of so many uses liere. What was there made up into the handle
of an axe, was here to take the several shapes of a child's toy, a
surgical bandage, a steam-engine band, a speaking-pipe, a shoe-
sole, or a medallion, and set to work the mind of every mechanic
and man of learning, to find new applications.

On 31st July 1829, the great tunnel being finished, and lighted
with gas, which made it more of a novelty, was opened as a show
to the townsmen of Liverpool, and %vas seen by several thousands.
A shilling was paid by each person, and the money was set aside to
be shared between the Liverpool and .Manchester Infirmaries and
the families of the workmen who had met with hurts upon the
line. From this fund a very fair sum was raised.

The locomotive contest in 1829 will need to be spoken of by
itself, and therefore we may go on with the works. These were
still going on in the beginning of 1830, and the board found that
more money was wanted, though the line was ready to be opened
throughout. The more that was seen of the undertaking, the
more needful was it known to be to get station and warehouse
room, and greater accommodation for the traffic. At this time, a
cattle station was first thought of, and a coach manufactory was
set up. The whole outlay was then reckoned at 820,000/.^^

In 1829, the coal traffic was begun, and on tlie ISth September,
1830, the line was partially opened for carrying passengers. The
lamentable death of Mr. Huskisson at the state opening, is an
event too well known to he dwelt upon.

There was a controversy, as usual, whether the rails should be of
cast or of wrought iron, but the board, on Stephenson's advice,
adopted Birkinshaw's wrought-iron rail, as on the Stockton and
Darlington Railway; Stephenson, however, raised the weight from
28 lb. per yard on the latter to 35 lb. per yard on the Liverpool and
Manchester,' '' so needful had it already become to get a stronger
rail."* The cost of the rails was, on the whole, 12/. 10s. per ton,
and the whole weight 3487 tons; the cost of the chairs was 10/. 10^.
per ton, and the weight 1,4-28 tons.^' In 1834, the directors re-
ported that these rails were found too weak, and ordered stronger
and heavier rails.'^* From 35 lb. the weight rose to 50 lb., 65 lb.,
and 75 lb. 3 0

Of thirty-one miles, eighteen were laid with stone blocks, and
thirteen with sleepers of oak or larch, the sleepers being laid on
the embankments and mosses.*" The two mosses crossed were
Par Moss and Chat Moss. The former was small, and about
20 ft. deep, and by June 1830 was already beginning to be brought
under the plough. Chat Moss was much greater, being then a
barren waste of about twelve square miles, and in depth from
10 to 35 feet; tlie whole being so spongy and soft, that cattle could
not walk over it. The bottom is clay and sand, on which is the
mass of peat.*i This has likewise been brought under the hands
of the husbandman.

To the 31st May 1830, the whole outlay for surveying and en-
gineering, from the beginning of the undertaking, was 19,829/.,^- so
that the reward of Stephenson could not have been very exor-
bitant.

In 1831, a new tunnel was found needful at Liverpool, to extend
the line, and next year the works were begun by Stephenson.

In 1831, the outlay for cranes became greater, and the want of
them on railways has led to many valuable inventions. In the
same year, in consequence of a passenger train having run over an
embankment, Stephenson set about a self-acting break, which has

employed so many since. A guard-rail wa5 thought of at that
time for the side of the lines, but was given up.

In 1832, the timber traffic was begun, and reached 5,000 tons

yearly.

Besides Mr. Locke, other now well-known engineers were em-
ployed under Stephenson. Mr. John Dixon was for a long time
resident engineer, and Mr. Allcard superintendent of locomotives.

C To lie continued J

3 3 Volume of Prospecluses.
3 5 Ritchie on Railways, p. 42
37 Booth's Account, p. 101.

3 9 Ritchie on Railways, p. .'J4-

4 0 Booth*s Account, p. 102
12 Booth's Account, p. 97.

3 4 Volume of Prospectuses.
30 Booth's Account, p. t31.
3 s Volume of Prospectuses.
-Whishaw on Railways.

4i Booth's Account, p. 54 and p. 56.

PUBLIC ENTERPRISE, PATENT LAW, AND
NATIONAL PROGRESS.

(Continued from page 103.)

If the engineers, and therefore other enterprising classes, are
trammelled by the patent laws, so are they by every act of legisla-
tion. If, indeed, the engineer were a quack, hurtful to the com-
monwealth, he could not be kept within closer bounds ; and it says
little for the practical bearing of our system of government, that,
with the greatest want of public works, the civil engineers have for
the last two or three years been starving. Engineers are so far
from receiving encouragement, that they are in every way kept
back. They have latterly forced the government to make a sani-
tary movement, but although many classes of public works are
necessary for the proper development of a healthy condition of the
people, there is every impediment to their construction. A com-
pany for making waterworks, a bath, a slaughter-house, a market,
or a sanatorium," must expose itself to the risks and costs of a par-
liamentary contest. In a case of our own, a bill for setting up
waterworks in a town of from six to seven thousand ])eople, was
thrown out, by local influence, in its last stage in the Lords; and
a great part of the capital, which might have been laid out in
works, was wasted in fees. Thus capitalists are hindered from
putting their money in undertakings, which may become an utter
loss, for they have not that safeguard that come what may, still
there will be something for their money.

Every class of public work is exposed to the same evils, and the
engineer and the patentee are ever thwarted by the legislative hin-
drances to their getting capital for their undertakings. However
useful may be the undertaking, or however -ivorthless, there is the
same system applied to both; and the hardships are such that they
work, as many of them are meant to work, as clogs on the growth
of public enterprise. However praiseworthy it may be to stop
jobbing, it cannot be praiseworthy to stop useful works, and tliat
system must be bad which looks rather to hindering rogues than to
fostering honest industry. As matters now stand, there is every
reason why a man should not embark in any useful undertaking, to
however small an amount, for he puts his whole wealth in peril by
becoming what the lawyers are pleased to call a partner.

This is one of the great evils of English law-craft, beginning no
one knows how — that they have taken a false view of the relations
of partnership, so that in the eyes of our lawyers a fellowship of
two or three men and a fellowship of two or three thousand are
held to be on the same footing; though any one might tell before-
hand, if he did not know it by seeing it, that such associations are
as unlike as may he. It is quite true, that they are both associa-
tions or partnerships of single men, but they are thereby no more
under the same laws of goverimient than the hamlet of Gander-
sheim and the whole Germanic empire. No tradesman deals with
such associations under the same circumstances, no man embarks
in them under the same conditions, and the common-sense of so-
ciety has drawn the distinction between small partnerships and
joint-stock companies— one acknowledged in all systems of law but
that of England; and here the more wilfully denied because par-
tially acted upon.

If a patentee, having gone through the plucking process of get-
ting a patent, then wants a thousand or two thousand pounds to
enable him to work it, the wisdom of the government places him
at the mercy of those few persons who may be willing to incur the
risks of partnership at his expense. George Stephenson, for in-
stance, must pay a forced contribution for the assistance of Messrs.
Losh, and has to wait for years before he can obtain an engine-
factory of his own — a factory, it is true, which made a great repu-
tation, and brought great wealth to this country by sending hun-
dreds of locomotives abroad, but which in the chapter of accidents
might never have existed.

Some persons think it an advantage that a patentee shoukl be
laid at the mercy of capitalists for the working of his invention,
but on what real or moral ground cannot be stated. It must rest
on the hankering after money-grubbing and the furtherance of

174

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

the money-grubbing school, which no sound thinker has ever con-
sidered to want extraneous help in this country; and it must fro on
tlie assumption, that a patentee being poor is thereby a worthless
and hurtful member of the commonwealth, who ought to he kept
down by confiscation. The fair remuneration for capital is one
thing — the oppression of a patentee is another, which has no ne-
cessary connection with it; and we do not therefore feel called
ni)ou to uphold on any fanciful grounds the claim to plunder the
patentee.

As matters now stand, the patentee must give up the working of
his patent altogether to another, or he must give up a large share
of it, if he is able to get it worked at all. This is overlooking the
very great difficulty the inventor of a new process has in bringing
it into use, from the inveterate prejudices or vested interests of
those engaged in old processes. Thus, as said by the Ed'mhurcjh
liuview, although a watch is a very imperfect i)iece of mechanism,
the perfection of the economical processes of its manufacture are
such that an improved watch could scarcely be made to sell against
it, for above a hundred different trades would be called upon to
change their tools and acquire new processes. These circum-
stances always act more or less against the inventor, and to our
minds they constitute quite hindrance enougli in the way of any
useful invention, without the necessity of having those other
shackles which are clung to so strongly by the upholders of the
present system of evil. Some might think, if they were laying
down laws for Atlantis or Utopia, that the inventor should be
lielped to stem the tide of prejudice. 'We dare not say anything
about that.

So long as the inventor is restricted to a few persons for obtain-
ing capital, his chances are less, and the price he must pay is
greater, for a virtual monopoly is created. At the same time, he
is hindered in the hel]) he might get from the great capitalist or
the small capitalist; and therefore these two latter classes are
injured, by being prevented from investing their money. It is,
indeed, the necessary result of evil laws, that while they give a
worthless monopoly to a few, they do a great injury to the
many.

A great capitalist who is willing to encourage a useful inven-
tion, and who as he has the greater means has likewise the greater
inclination, is frightened from doing so, — for if he lays down
only one hundred or one thousand pounds for a new locomotive
factory or a new spinning-jenny factory, he thereby perils his
hundreds of thousands or his million. The statement of this peril
is answer enough to all applicants, and the fact itself works so
effectually that our merchant princes are, under a heavy penalty,
))re^•ented from encouraging any useful invention which has not
the immunity of an act of parliament, shielding against individual
responsibility. Thus, instead of the English mechanic thinking it
a blessing that he lives in a country where there is capital to over-
flowing, and where there is the energy and enterprise of Lord Ash-
burton, Baron Rothschild, Baron Goldsmid, or Mr. Morrison, he
can only grieve at their prosperity, for the advancement of any
man renders him less able to promote useful undertakings.

If anything could help the inventor, it is the munificence of
men such as we have named, wlio uphold largely our public insti-
tutions, who engage in our great public undertakings, and who
want not the will, if they had but the option, of encouraging what
tlieir own intelligence points out to them as useful and praise-
worthy.

The small capitalist is equally injured, for instead of being
allowed to put his few pounds in a joint-stock company, he is
driven to tlie savings-bank.

All this results from the unlimited liability attaching to partner-
ships, and the want of efficient means of establishing companies
free from such liability.

Some persons may think this works well, and if we look only at
home we may bless ourselves that we are no worse off; hut we have
already shown that we are so much dependent on the pi-ogress of
other rivals, we dare not nurse ourselves with any such delusions.
M'herover we look abroad, whether on our side of the Atlantic or
the other, we are struck by the progress of manufactures, mining,
and material wealth, by means of joint-stock associations, whereby
such jioor countries as Saxony, Flanders, and New England, are
able not only to enter the field against our manufacturers, but to
drive them out. It lias therefore ceased to be optional with us,
whether we shall uphold a vicious and oppressive system, or whe-
tlier we shall do justice.

In all those countries where the Code Napoleon prevails, there
are the greatest facilities for establishing not only ordinary part-
nersliips, but socktes en comtimndite, and socict<'s aiioiii/mes. Tlie
sockti en commandite consists of sleeping partners who are not

liable, and managing partners who are so; the societe anonyme is a
joint-stock comi)any witli limited liability.

Here, perhaps, may be the fitting place to answer the objections
of those who, relying u))on their imaginations, and not on the
evidence of facts, choose to consider limited liability and joint-
stock undertakings as injurious to private enterprise and the
public.

It is a very favourite objection, that joint-stock companies
would drive out private enterprise in any branch of business in
which they embarked. The answer is simply this, that they can
only do so when the business is one unsuitable for private enter-
prise. The trader, looking after his own afl'airs, has such immense
advantages over any joint-stock company, that it is he who would
beat the joint-stock company, and not the company which would
beat him, in any fair career. This has been too long established to
be gainsaid, even if we knew that joint-stock glass companies,
joint-stock copper companies, or joint-stock ironwoi'ks had driven
single traders out of the field. The truth is, private enterprise
wants no such protection as is tendered to it, — it can do well
enough without.

Another objection is, that great frauds would he practised on
creditors. Perhaps there might be such, — but creditors are best
able to protect themselves, and are perfectly cognisant how they
give credit. Here, again, is the opening for the competition of
private enterprise, for a creditor considers whether it is better to
trust a company, which is not personally liable, or a firm, which is
personally liable. Perhaps the best answer is, that there are nu-
merous corporations and companies in this country with limited
liability, that transactions to the yearly extent of one hundred
millions are carried on with them, and that persons are found to
transact business with them.

Indeed, no valid reason can be brought forward against the in-
troduction of the societe anonyme and the societe en commandite into
this country, while there are the most urgent reasons why they
should be introduced fortliwith. The Manchester cotton-spinner,
the Derbyshire silk- weaver, and the Nottingham framework-knit-
ter have now to compete with joint-stock establishments abroad,
and they want every resource that can be got. Indeed, nothing is
more striking than the progress of the joint-stock system abroad^
Even in the bleak regions of Vermont or Maine, the newly-born
towns are crowded with buildings and works, erected by the joint-
stock contributions of the traders and workmen. Thus is enter-
prise stimulated, industry rewarded, and frugality upheld; and
thus are our own kindred preparing for a rivaky in which we seem
doomed to be beaten.

If we look at home we find many reasons, even among ourselves,
for a reform of our system. The copper and tin mining interests
of this country, the value of which has never been under-rated,
are wholly upheld by a joint-stock system. Either the cost-book
system, which is that of a societe anonijme, or a scrip system, which
is that of a societe en commandite, for the directors are responsible
on the bills they draw, constitutes the machineiy by which the
administration of our mines is carried on. Indeed, were it not
for the companies our mines would have been closed. AVe might
refer to many other instances in support, but the greatest is this —
that a sufficient case of evil cannot be made out from our experi-
ence against joint-stock companies.

To say that speculation and jobbing would be extended by an
extension of joint-stock companies, is about as wise as to say —
and there may be found people in the House of Commons to say
this — that cheating and lying are extended by the extension of
our liome trade.

V/e can see no reason at all why we should not enjoy all the
advantages of the United States or of France; but we should be
contented in the first instance, if any lingering doubts remain, to
take what may be considered a safe instalment. Among under-
takings to which we would at once give the advantages of joint-
stock companies with limited liability, by simple registration of
the deed with tlie clerk of the peace and the Registrar of Joint-
Stock Companies, are the fcdlowing: — A\'aterworks, gasworks,
baths, bridges, docks, marine-slips, warehouses, granaries, halls of
commerce, markets, slaughter-houses, manufactories for agricul-
tural imjilements, works of iriigation and drainage, canals, rail-
ways, mining, smelting, schools, libraries, sanatoriums, deaf-and-
dumb asylums, blind asylums, lunatic asj'lums, museums, observa-
tories, botanic gardens, zoological gardens, galleries and exhibitions
of arts and manufactures, telegraph companies, manure companies,
mining, fisiiing, fish-curing, salt-works, and river improvements.
Such companies might be allowed for any new processes, as gutta
percha, gun cotton, electric light, iSlC, and for any establishment
where none of the kind exists in the neighbourhood. The Privy

1349.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

175

Council might likewise have the discretion of giving the privilege
on speciiil application.

Cases for non-liability of sleeping partners would be steamboat
companies, common road and canal conveyance companies, pawn-
broking, theatres, brickworks, limekilns, and coke ovens.

A very significant illustration of the working of our system, and
one very humiliating to our pride, may be found in the electric
telegraph. Here we have one company, badly worked, over-
charginir, and badly paid : the United States are already covered
with telegraph wires. AVhy ? They have neither more money nor
more business than ourselves, but they have better legislation.
Tiie state of New York, with a population of some three mil-
lions, has passed a general law for electric telegraphs, under
which companies can at once be established with a limited lia-
bility.

If we look beyond these islands, we shall find our miserable
system equally blighting elsewhere. We have so lately spoken
upon railway and steamboat enterprise in India, that it is needless
to say more than that this subject affords a memorable instance of
the way in which the national interests are trifled with. A good
law would give facilities for steam navigation to Australia, for
whaling companies, for cotton cultivation in Hindostan, and sugar
making in the West Indies.

Some curious information is given in the Report for 1848 of the
Registrar of Joint-Stock Companies. One hundred and twenty-
three companies were provisionally registered, and of these no less
than ninety-si.x companies proceeded no furtlier. Among these
were the following: — Patent Galvanised Iron Company, Morley
Gasworks, Wolverhampton Market, 'Wolverhampton Railways
Approaches and Town Improvement Company, London Marine
Electrical Telegraph Company, Britisli Fishing Company, Lich-
field Market Hall, Caldwall's jPatent National \Vindlass, Farmers'
Estate Society of Ireland, Hydraulic Telegraph, Bungay Naviga-
tion Tontine, Arley Coal, Iron, Brick, Lime, and Coke Works,
South Hams Flour Mill, Bangor and Coytmoor Slate AVorks,
Camborn Consols Mining Company, Henley and London Water-
works, Belper Gasworks, Coggesliall Patent Plush Manufacturing
Company, Walsingham Gasworks, West Hartlepool Shipping
Company, Royal Slate and Slab Companj', Banbury Carrying
Company, Cornwall New Mining Company, Wimshurst Patent
Submerged Pi-opeller Company, Bury St. Edmund's Gasworks,
British Smelting Association, 'Aberdare Gasworks, Kirrage's Pa-
tent Sewer Block, Alnwick Gasworks, Tynemouth Gasworks, Sal-
combe Market, Great Ayestern Fisheries, Cardiff Steam Towing
Company, Dawley Gasworks, British Southern AV^hale Fisheries,
Leeds Stock Exchange, Sanitary Baths, Edinbridge Corn Ex-
change, Mossley Gasworks, South Hayling Building and Ferry
Association, Brierly-hill Gasworks, Surrey Consumers' Gasworks,
South Tyne Colliery, Ampthill Gasworks, Kent Indurated Stone
Company, Torquay Market, Patent Electric Light Company,
Hartlepool Baths, New Steam-Tug Company, Combined Vapour
Engine Company, Kingsbridge Public Rooms Company, Wareham
Docks.

In this list are no less than thirteen companies being for new or
small towns, and the utility of which may be considered as little
liable to question, — but of which the prospects are very doubtful,
as most of the undertakings fall through from tlie legal and par-
liamentary difficulties in their way. If this be the case in those
classes of enterprise which are well established, matters are much
worse as affecting the prospects of getting capital for working
patents and new processes.

A very great evil in this country, which should not be left un-
noticed, is tlie want of proper courts for deciding matters affecting
trade. By the invasion of tlie lawyers these liave all come into
their hands, to their very great emolument, and to the very great
loss and hindrance of all men of business. Formerly in this coun-
try the jurisdiction as to trading cases was in the hands of men of
business. The several merchant guilds had full powers to settle
all cases affecting their members, and the several trades guilds of
the City of London still hold the power by charter, though ousted
of it by the lawyers. All cases between masters, working-men,
and apprentices, or between masters and the others, ought rightly
speaking to be settled by the guild of the respective mystery; but
this is all done away with, and great evil has arisen therefrom.
Elder brethren of the Trinity House are still called in in running-
down cases, but commonly the lawyers sit alone. Abroad, we have
the name of a nation of shopkeepers, and it would be supposed we
can manage our own mercantile matters; but who is there abroad
who would believe that even in arbitration they are referred to
lawyers, and not to men of business? AV'hoever heard of a judge
recommending a patent case to be referred to an engineer? No

one; for the recommendation always is to a member of the
bar, — and the consequence is, that awards are not unfrequently
given which are wholly incapable of being carried out, and the
parties have to come to an arrangement irrespective of the arbi-
trators.

The only tendency in the right direction was by the appointment
of men of business as official referees; but otherwise, the tendency
is to exclude men of business. Thus, even those cases of trade dis-
putes, and differences upon the registration of designs, of %vhich
the jurisdiction was given to the justices of peace, as being many
of them men of business, have come under the cognizance of
police magistrates, who are only lawyers. In the Court of Chan-
cery, where the references are constantly of matters of business,
as of accounts, and framing schemes for managing estates and
trading transactions, those references are made to the Masters in
Chancery, not one of vvhom is a lawyer; and if he knows anything
of business, it is in despite of his legal education, which utterly
unfits him for anything of the kind. Indeed, lawyers are kept
so closely to the tether of law by the solicitors that they are de-
barred even from literary exertion, or the pursuit of the higher
studies, without which a right exercise of the reasoning powers
cannot be acquired.

In France they liave been wiser than we are: every small town
has its Tribunal of Commerce, the judges of which are men of busi-
ness, and are chosen by the men of business; and most trades have
a conseil de prud' homines, while scientific and practical evidence, or
that of experts, is imperative in all cases of a nature to call for it.
It has been very well advised in a pamphlet lately published,
under tlie initials "'A. P. P.," that our commercial legislation should
be in the hands of the trading classes, as well as the administra-
tion of the law. As it is, we are a law-ridden people.

If a stranger looks at the institutions of England, in the mat-
ters now under our consideration, and looks likewise at those of
other countries, lie may come to the conclusion that the working
of those institutions has placed us in a condition of decided in-
equality. That it has not done so, constitutes one of the difficul-
ties in the way of reform, for persons are blinded to the imme-
diate consequences of our commercial legislation, because these
are happily counteracted in some degree by other circumstances.

As there is much misapprehension on this subject, we think we
cannot do better than devote to it a few words. In England we
have the resources of a great accumulation of mechanical power,
of large capital, and great natural enterprise. These have a
powerful influence, and are wholly wanting in France and Belgium,
and partially so in the United States.

When the Fleming has made a sum of money in trade, instead
of applying it in the extension of his business, in joint-stock en-
terprise, or even government stocks, he lays it out in land. Every-
thing favours the small purchaser of land' in Flanders, as much as
everything here hinders him. He has a simple registered title,
and "pays only ad valorem duties. He can therefore go on buying
field after field, while here the cost of stamps and long deeds of
conveyance often comes to more than the purchase money; and the
result is, that here the small cajiitalist is quite shut out of tlie
land market, to the great injury of the latter, no doubt, and he is
therefore restricted in the application of his capital to purposes of
trade. Here the capitalist never becomes a land-owner until lie
has realised a large sum ; and commonly, only a small part of his
capital is so applied. It is the next generation from the money-
maker which buys land. In Flanders, the resources of trade are
always being drained off by the land market; and although theo-
retically this should find its level, it has not yet done so, but the
price of land is enhanced, so that sometimes sixty years' purchase
is given. Under such circumstances, nothing but the Code Napo-
leon keeps the great establishments of Ghent and Liege at work.
Where a large factory is established by private enterprise, it is
commonly by foreigners, Hollanders and English. Indeed, most
of these were established and upheld by the King of Holland,
AVilliam I.; and on his withdrawal, it was necessary to make them
joint-stock undertakings.

In France, the ambition of the tradesman is likewise limited.
AVhen he has got together 2,000/. or 4,000/., enough to keep him
quietly, and provide for the conventional family of one son and
one daughter, he gives up trade, retires to the faubourg or banlieu,
and becomes a rentier or proprietaire, a fund-holder or a holder
of house property. Few are those who stop to double their stakes
or to engage in larger undertakings. The sou becomes an em-
ployee of the government, or, what is the same thing, a profes-
sional man; his friends are employed in buying a charge or lodged
in the Caisse des Consignations. Everything beyond this career
is e.\ceptional, and all tends to keep the trader within it. The

176

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

QJlXE,

laws of bankruptcy are most severe; the unfortunate are treated
there as the criminal, and not as here, the criminal as the unfortu-
nate. The settlement of property on women is most strict, and the
disposal of the wife's property greatly hampers both parties. Here,
again, is enterprise deprived of its resources; thoiigli, during the
peaceful reign of Louis Philippe, the country very much improved.
The funds, however, absorbed a large sum in new loans, and the
French have been employed for some time in buying back from
the English the rentes and railway shares. If, therefore, the
French do not press us more strongly in foreign markets, it is be-
cause we have greater material and personal resources.

In the United States there is no want of enterprise, — there is a
spirit of enterprise beyond us; but the country is thinly-peopled,
and is wanting in those buildings and roads, the accumulated stock
of ages, the working plant of society, which so much abounds
here. The New Englanders are, however, doing their best to
make uj) for their wants, and with freer laws, greater enterprise,
and the power of accumulating capital in joint-stock undertak-
ings, they will prove more formidable rivals to us than they have
yet shown themselves.

Now is the time to be stirring — not when we are beaten, but
while we have still the time to make headway. We have got a
warning, and we nnist take it. We are losing several branches of
trade already, and unless we bestir ourselves we shall lose more.
To beat our rivals, we must take advantage of the same means
that they do, and we must have the same freedom for our industry
and enterprise.

CTo be continued.J

REGISTER OF NEW PATENTS.

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.

Samvkl Thornton', of Birmingham, AVarwickshire, merchant,
and James Edward i\tc C'onnell, of Wolverton, Buckinghamshire,
engineer, for '■'■improvements in steam-engines, and in the means of
retarding engines and carriages on railways, and in connecting railway
carriages or wagons together; also improvements in effecting a commu-
nication between one part of a railway train and another, by signals or
otherwise." — Granted August 7, 1848; Enrolled February 7, 1849.
f Reported in Newton's London Journal.']

This invention, so far as it relates to improvements in steam-
engines, consists, firstly, in an improved construction of piston;
secondly, in certain alterations in the chimney and blast-pipe;
and thirdly, in certain arrrangements and alterations of the educ-
tion-passages and valves, for the purpose of diminishing the back
])ressure, or the resistance of the steam in the eduction-passages
to the motion of the piston.

The improvement in the piston consists in a certain arrangement
and combination of parts, for the purpose of ensuring uniformity
of pressure on the rubbing surface of the piston.

p-T'" "A^umss^sW^ai

Fig. 1.

The improved piston is shown in cross section at fig 1. The
novelty consists in the adoption of one or two packing-rings a, a,
which are of a form to allow of a projection towards the interior
of the piston, having the surface conical at b, h; on which conical
surfaces two inner rings c, c, are accurately fitted, in such a man-
ner as to act easily to and fro; — the expansion of the outer or
packing-rings being allowed for by their being cut asunder in the
usual manner. The inner rings are not cut; but, being concentric
with the outer rings, they are made to fit closely against the
conical surfaces b, by the elastic pressure of a spiral spring /,
which allows of their taking a position suitable to the varying
diameter of the rings a. On each of the inner rings c, there is
fitted one of two thin elastic discs e,e, of tempered cast-steel, for

the purpose of receiving the pressure of the spring/, which causes
the inner rings, ce, to act on the outer or packing-rings, as before-
mentioned, and thus render the rubbing surface steam, water, or
air-tight. Instead of the two discs being pressed from each other
by means of the spiral spring/ a spring of india-rubber or other
elastic substance, placed in the centre of the rings round the
])iston-rod, may be employed for that purpose. In this arrange-
ment of the piston, the rings may, by means of pins or holders, at
relative distances in the piston, be shifted round, so as to wear
equally, and prevent the formation of ridges and marks in the
cylinder or packing. The piston may be also made of wrought-
iron or steel, in one piece with the piston-rod, and with the adop-
tion of one breadth of packing, so that the piston may be as light
as possible. Under this division of their invention, the patentees
claim the construction of pistons above described, in which the
packing-rings are adjusted by means of two conical surfaces, acted
on by a sjiring and elastic discs.

Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

The second improvement, relating to steam-engines, consists in
cei'tain alterations in the chimney and blast-pipe of locomotive
engines, and is intended to obtain, from the escaping steam, an
efl^ectual means of accelerating the ingress of atmospheric air to
the furnace, and at the same time increase the effective force of
the steam acting upon the pistons. It is generally known that the
quantity of steam which escapes, at the usual pressure, from the
smallest cylinders of any engine used on railways, is sufficient to
eject the air from the chimney; and it has been the usual practice
to vary the diameter of the chimney in a certain proportion to
the diameter of the cylinders of an engine, and to preserve a
nearly uniform height for the chimney: namely, tlie greatest which
the l)ridgcs o\-er any particular railway would admit. Now, the
object of this part of 'the invention is to obtain the advantage of a
chimney of a height incompatible with the ordinary working of a
railway, limited as such height is by the head-way of the bridges;

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

m

and this is effected by adopting two or more shafts, instead of one,
as the chimney, into which shafts the steam is discharged simul-
taneously from a corresponding number of blast-pipes. Fig-. 2 is
a vertical section, and fig. 3 a plan of a chimney, having three
shafts a, a, a, say five feet long each. Into these shafts three blast-
pipes b.b,b, convey exhaust steam simultaneously; which, being
discharged at the top of the chimney, will cause a rapid in-draft
of air to the furnace.

The patentees do not confine themselves to the particular ar-
rangement shown in the drawing; but they intend to use two,
three, four, or more shafts for the cliimney, with a corresponding
number of blast-pipes, and of dimensions according to the quantity
of steam to be discharged. They claim the division of the chim-
ney into several shafts, into which a like number of blast-pipes
exhaust simultaneously, as above described.

The third improvement in steam-engines, which consists of an
improved arrangement of the eduction-passages and steam-valves
in high-pressure engines, for the purpose of increasing the effective
power of the steam, is shown in longitudinal section at fig. 4, and
in cross section at fig. 5. To all persons acquainted with the
working of steam-engines, it will be evident that a great saving of
power and consequent economy will result from diminishing the
back pressure of eduction steam on the piston; or, in other words,
much of the power now expended in expelling the steam from the
cylinder, after it has performed the operation of pressing the pis-
ton to the end of the stroke, will be saved, if the passage for this
eduction steam is rendered more direct and capacious than accord-
ing to the arrangements at present adopted. In order to accom-
plish this, the patentees have arranged the eduction-passages and
valves as shown at figs. 4, and 5. n, represents the present cylin-
der, as in use on a locomotive engine; b, the slide-valves of the
engine; c, c, the valve-spindles; d, the steam-passages; and e, the
eduction-passage. In addition to this (the ordinary arrangement),
another eduction-passage from the cylinder to the atmosphere is
provided at each end of the cylinder, as shown at/,/,/; and this
passage may be placed as found convenient, either exactly opposite
the opening from the interior of the cylinder, or at any interme-
diate distance between that and the passage which admits the steam.
The valves are also somewhat differently arranged, as one valve g, at
each end, is used for the purpose of regulating the emission of the
steam from the cylinder. These valves g, g, are attached to the
same spindle c, c, as the ordinary steam-valve, and are moved
simultaneously with it. In order to explain the operation of the
above, it is proper to state that the valve <7, at either end, is so
placed that it is open to the atmosphere from the cylinder at the
same instant that the eduction steam, from the same end of the
cylinder at which the said valve is placed, is escaping by the ordi-
nary passages to the atmosphere. The size of the passage for
steam, next to the interior surface of the cylinder, as shown at
A, h, should be increased, in order to allow for the increased area
of the eduction-pipes, caused by the additional passages through
the valves (jf, 51. ?, i, represent the two blast-pipes for taking the
eduction steam to the chimney; and the arrangement of these
]>ipes, and also the plans of packing the back of the valves, may
be varied according to the circumstances and particular construc-
tion of the engine to which they may be applied. It will be obvi-
ous that a similar arrangement of valves and eduction-passages,
for increasing the area for the passage of eduction steam, may be
adapted to any of the various kinds of engines in which high-
pressure steam is employed, as well as in locomotive engines. It
will be understood that, by the arrangement of passages and
valves as described, the pressure in the blast-pipe and eduction-
passages will be diminished, so as to admit of a diminution of the
back pressure or resistance to the motion of the piston. The
patentees claim the constructing and arranging of the eduction-
passages and valves in the manner above described and repre-
sented.

The second head of this invention relates to improvements in
connecting railway carriages or wagons together; and consists,
firstly, in an improved method of coupling; and, secondly, in im-
proved arrangements of the buffers.

And first, as to the improved method of coupling the carriages
and wagons together.— The object of the improved method of
coupling is to obviate the present dangerous mode of coupling
railway carriages and wagons, wherebv the men employed to do
that work are constantly liable to be crushed to deiith, or to
receive serious injury, particularly when in the act of coupling
merchandise or mineral wagons together. This is effected by pre-
venting the necessity of a man going under, or standing between,
the carnages or wagons, when in the performance of the duty of
coupling them together or uncoupling them.

Fig. 6 shows, in elevation, a carriage with the improved coupling
apparatus applied thereto; and fig. 7 is a plan gf the framing of
the carriage, showing also the arrangement of the coupling, a, n,
a, are brackets, for supporting the rods which carry the hook-
links; b,b, are the hooks; c, c, the coupling-links, placed in their
coupled position. At e, (see fig. 6,) the right-hand link is shown
as turned up uncoupled. J\ J\ are handles for working the
coupling-links: they may be applied to the outside of the carriage
or wagon as well as to the inside of the framing, /i, /*, are mitre
or bevel wheels, for working the screws which draw the buffers of
the carriages together.

Fig. fi.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 7.

Figs. 8, and 9, show, in plan and side views, a modification of
the above-described arrangements. «, «, are the brackets; 6,6,
the hooks; and r, and rf, the links. The right-hand link d, is
shown as coupled ; and the left-hand link c, falling down over the
link rf, to be coupled. /, are the handles for working the coupling-
links; /(, is a worm-wheel, for drawing the buffers of the wagon
together; /, is a shaft, with an endless screw, for working the
worm-wheel; fr, is a rod, for connecting the coupling-hooks to the
springs under the carriages; and /, /, show the handles for giving
motion to the shaft «', which carries the endless screw for working
on tlie worm-wheel and drawing up the carriages. They give also
a plan for tightening the carriages from their centres, by making
use of one worm-wheel and one shaft passing through from one
side of the carriages to the other: and they claim the connecting
of railway carriages and wagons together by the arrangement abo\e
described, whereby carriages may be coupled together or un-
coupled from the outside, without the necessity of any person
being between them.

The second improvement, under this head of the invention,
consists in connecting railway carriages and wagons by means of
an improved system of buffers, so as to ensure uniformity in height
of the same, whereby, whatever may be the position of the car-
riages or wagons, in respect of deflection of springs from load or
other circumstances, the buffers will always be at the same dis-
tance from the rails, and in a line with each other both laterally
and vertically: thus ensuring safety to the train in this particular,
and also great economy in tlie wear, and ease in the travelling of
the carriages or wagons. This improvement consists in attaching
the buffers to, or connecting them with, the axles, or a frame
affixed to the axles, instead of the bodies of the carriages; by
which means the buffers, or the line of their action, will maintain
one and the same height from the surface of the rails, to whatever
amount the carriages may be loaded. It will be obvious that, pro-
vided the buffers are attached to a frame affixed to or connected
with the axles instead of to the carriage (the height of which from
the rails is liable to variation according to the load and other cir-
cumstances), the line of the action of the buffers will be main-
tained. The patentees recommend that the buffer-rods should
be hollow, and of wrought or drawn-iron tubing; but this is not
essential. They claim as an improvement in connecting railway
carriages and wagons, the constructing and arranging the carriages
and wagons so that they may be brought together by means of a
system of buffers, framed to or connected with the axles, in such
manner that tlie line of their action, when the carriages and
wagons are coupled together, may be at one and the same height
throughout the train, and independent of the loading of the
carriages.

The third head of this invention relates to improvements in the
means of retarding engines and carriages, and in effecting a com-
munication between one part of a railway train and another by

24

178

TH£ CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

QJuNE,

sifrn.il (11- (itlionvise; and consists, firstly, in certain arrangements
for tninsinittiiii; sijfiials from one part of the train to another; and,
secondly, in certain arranijements for bringing tlie lireaks into
action by or throiigli the system of buffers. It is well known that
various suggestions have, from time to time been made for effecting
or facilitating a communication between different parts of a train
with certainty; and, amongst others, it was suggested some time
ago by James Edward McConnell (one of the present patentees) that
tlie carriages should be cmistructed with a continuous platform, so
arranged that a guard might travel from one carriage to another
while the train was in motion. But it is desirable that some more
expeditious means should exist of communicating from one part of
a train to another, and of bringing into action all the breaks
throughout the train.

The last-described part of the invention, viz;, the arrangement
whereby the buffers or their line of action are preserved at one
and the same heiglit, affords the means of attaining the object;
for, by employing hollow buffers, and carrying a chain through
them, every carriage througliout the train may be communicated
with; and by the adoption of hollow or tubular buffers, breaks
may be ap|died to any or all of the wheels of the carriages or
wagons in the train; by means of levers, &c., a chain, rod, or rope,
extending through the buffer-tubes, is connected to levers or
«heels, whicli act on the breaks when the chain is drawn tight.
,/./,,/, represent the levers, which are acted on by the chain by
means of a toothed quadrant, working in the tube; and which
levers are fixed to the breaks A', k,!{.

One or more chains, lines, wires, or other mediums of communi-
cation, may be introduced, as considered desirable, for signals,
breaks, &c.; and when the carriages have been coupled up, the
ends of the chains, rods, or other medium of communication, may
be connected together through a slot or openings at each end of
the hollow buffer-rods. The various modifications of which this
)iart of the invention is susceptible will be obvious.

The patentees claim, as their inii)rovements in effecting a com-
munication between one part of a railway train and another, the
giving signals by means of a chain, line, wire, or other medium of
communication, passing through lioUow or tubular buffer-rods, and
connected with different parts of a train, as above described; they
also claim the means of retarding engines and carriages on rail-
ways by actuating the breaks by means of a chain or rope, passing
through hollow or tubular buffer-rods, as above described.

STEAM-ENGINES AND HYDRAULIC MACHINERY

Alonzo Buonaparte Woodcock, of Manchester, for ^^itiiprove-
iiitnits in stmm-nigiiiex, mid in apparatus fur raising^ Jorciiiy, and
cimreying water and otiier fluids." — Granted August 22, 18-18; En-
rolled February 22, 184.9.

The invention relates — Firstly, to the improvement of the
jiiston of the steam cylinder, the stufling-box of the piston-rod,
and the bucket or piston of the air-pump.

Secondly, to the improvement of pumps or apparatus for raising
or forcing water and other fluids in those parts known as the
buckets or pistons of such pumps, blowing cylinders, and other
similar apparatus.

Thirdly, to the improvement of the apparatus used in conveying
water and other fluids in those parts of such apparatus known as
valves, taps, and cocks.

Fourthly, to improvements in the cylinders or barrels of pneu-
matic and hydraulic machines. And in order that the invention
may be fully understood, the patentee says in those parts of the
machines above described, as the cylinders and pistons, it is
usual for the circumference of such piston or bucket to fit ac-
curately into and press hard against the internal circumference of
such cylinder, so as to prevent the fluid that may be contained in
one part of the cylinder from passing to another; in other words,
that the piston shall be steam-tight, water-tight, or air-tight, as
the case may be. When this tight fitting is obtained and the ma-
chine set to work, the piston or bucket slides against the circum-
ference of the cylinder, thus causing great friction, loss of power,
and wear of the rubbing surfaces.

The object of the first, second, and third parts of this inven-
tion is, the substitution of a rolling packing for pistons or buckets
for those of the sliding character, herein described, and the ai)idi-
cation of such rolling packing generally to the purposes herein
named, and others of a like nature.

The elastic rings are made of a cylindric or other suitable form,
and of any suitable elastic material as india-rubber (caoutchouc),
any variety thereof, or compounds; but rings of india-rubber,

prepared by Messrs. Macintosh and Company, under a patent
granted to Mr. Thomas Hancock, are preferred.

The internal diameter of the ring is made smaller than the pis-
ton for which it is intended, and the piston of so much less
diameter than the cylinder in which it is to work as that when the
ring is stretched on to the piston and the whole inserted into the
cylinder, the ring, by reason of its elasticity, shall be compressed
into an elliptical figure in its section; and as the permanent elas-
ticity of the ring has a continued tendency to regain its original
figure, it consequently presses firmly against the external circum-
ference of the piston and the internal circumference of the cylin-
der, thus making a perfect air-tight or steam-tight joint. The
piston being now put in motion the ringrevolves upon its own axis,
and at the same time rolls along the circumference of both piston
and cylinder, thus jireserving the tightness of joint without any
contact or rubbing of the piston against the cylinder, so that there
is no friction or wear, and no oil required for lubricating. The ring
by reason of its elasticity adapts itself to any irregularity in the
surfaces of cylinders or pistons, and where such rolling pack-
ings are used, the cylinders and pistons need not be bored and
turned, but may be left rough from the casting, and consequently
the first cost of such apparatus be very much diminished.

Fig. 1 is a sectional drawing of so much of a lifting-pump with
the rolling packing applied thereto, a, a, is the working barrel
of a common lifting-pump, h, i, is a hollow bucket or piston, c,
is a valve made to open upwards, rf, d, is the elastic packing
forced into an elliptical form by pressure against the circumference
of the barrel n, a, and that of the bucket b, b, the result being the
formation and continuance of an air-joint. The elastic packing
being made to roll upwards by the motion of the piston, the air is
withdrawn from the lower part of the pump; the water follows,
and passing through the valve c, is delivered at the mouth c.
These rings are applied to the pistons and cylinders of steam-
engines in the same manner as for air-pumps.

The elasticity of the rolling packing permits the passing of
mud or particles of coal, stones, sand, and other substances, con-
sequently pumps made according to this invention are not liable to
become choked or injured by the friction of granular particles,
hence they are well adapted for excavations, mining purposes, and
ships. For such purposes barrels or other portions are made of
the usual materials as wood, lead, cast-iron, or other metal; but
for purposes in which wood would be destroyed, and the pre-
sence of lead or other metal injurious, as in chemical operations,
or where great cleanliness is required, as, for domestic purposes,
the barrels and other portions of the pumps are made wholly or in
pai't of glass, china, or earthenware.

Fig. 2 is a sectional drawing of the invention applied to such
apparatus as is used in conveying water and other fluids as valves,
taps or cocks, a, o, is the outer cylinder or casing which is fur-
nished with two or more openings as the inlet b, and the outlet c.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

179

d, rf, is a metal piston made either solid or hollow according to the
size of the valve; for small taps they may be solid, but where
weight is objectionable, as in large valves for water or gas mains,
the patentee prefers to make them hollow, e, is a screw firmly
connected to the piston at /; and passing through the nut handle
g. Now if this valve be connected with a water cistern or main
by means of the flange at b, the water wiU flow into the casing of
the valve as far as tlie rolling packing;', j, as shown, but no further.
The handle being now turned and the piston raised, the packings
h,h, and ?, i, will roll along between the piston and casing beyond
the outlet c, thus allowing the water to flow freely tlirough. The
act of turning the handle in the contrary direction will cause the
packings to roll back to tlieir former situation, and thus eiJ'ectually
cut off' the passage of the water. The patentee does not confine
himself to one outlet, but places any number of openings in the
circumference of the casing, and thus obtains any number of jets
that may be required. He prefers an oblong figure for the outlets
at those parts of the casing where the elastic packing rolls over
them in order that it may not ])ress far into them in the act of
rolling. Where great pressure of fluids is to be sustained, he pre-
fers rolling packings to be made solid, as shown in section, fig. 2,
but in the cas6 of glass or earthenware valves, cocks, or pumps,
or where very light jiressures are used, he makes the rolling pack-
ings hollow, and wliolly or in part fills them with air or otlier fluid,
and thus renders them more soft and yielding than when made
solid, but in either case causes them to be made of permanently
elastic materials, as hereinbefore described.

The improvements in cylinders or barrels of pneumatic and
hydraulic machines consist in rendering them elastic by forming
them of, or lining them with, vulcanised india-rubber. These
linings are made of any required thickness, taking care to have
tlie interior surface as smootli and e\en as possible, and are attached
to the barrels or cylinders of pumps or other macliines, whether
formed of wood, metal, pottery, glass, or other material, by any
suitable cement or other means. The patentee forms tliese barrels
entirely of vulcanised india-rubber. Tlie pistons to be used in
these barrels may be such as have been before described, but he
prefers them to be made of some smooth and inelastic material,
such as glass or metal (preferring tin), or hard wood, and of such
a form as that the rubbing surface should present a curved or
rounded figure to the barrel, the part impinging being only of such
a breadt^ as may be necessary to prevent the passage of fluids.
When the entire barrels are made of vulcanised india-rubber, be
proportions the thickness to the diameter, the pressure of the at-
mosphere, and the duty the machine has to perform. By means of
these elastic barrels and linings, the amount of friction is greatly
diminished and the wearing parts rendered much more enduring
than with ordinary barrels.

APPLICATION OF COAL TAR.

KoBERT Angus Smith, of Manchester, for "impro demerits in the
application and preparation of coat tar." — Granted October 19, 184.8;
Enrolled April 19, 1849.

This invention relates to coating the interior of water-pipes
with coal tar.

The coal tar is reduced by distillation, or otherwise, to a thick
pitch-like mass, which is kept melted at a temperature of ,'«)0'
Fahrenheit (or such temperature as will keep tlie matter in a fluid
state), in an open vessel. The interior of the water-pipes is first
cleaned, to remove any oxide; and then the clean surface is coated
with linseed oil, particularly when the pipes cannot be immediately
coated with the coal tar. ' The pipes are heated to about 300^
Fahrenheit in a stove; then they are immersed in the melted coal
tar, in which they are allowed to remain for about an hour; and at
the expiration of that time the coal tar will generally be found to
have attached itself closely to the surfaces of the pipes, both in-
side and out: the chief object, however, is to obtain a good coat-
ing on the inside. The patentee states that, in removing the pipes
from the melted coal tar, he has found it desirable to pour a
quantity of linseed oil on the coated surfaces, which he finds to
have the efl'ect of removing any excess of the coal tar; and the
oil, running into the coal tar, keeps it fluid, and prevents it from
beconnng unsuitable for the operation of coating the pipes. In-
stead ot heating the pipes before immersion, a like effect may be
produced by immersing the pipes in the melted coal tar after the
interior surface has been cleaned, and allowing them to remain
therein for some time after they have become as hot as the coal
tar: this process will generally occupy about one hour and a half.

MANUFACTURE OF STEEL.

Alfred Vincent Newton, of Chancery-lane, Middlesex, me-
chanical draughtsman, for ^^certuin inipnnvmentt,- in t/ie nianujacture
of steel." (A communication.) — Granted November 2, 1848; En-
rolled May 2, 1849.

This invention relates to the process of refining the metal, and
forcing currents of atmospheric and gaseous air during the pro-
cess, so as to convert it into steel; and also to preparing the metal
previous to submitting it to the process of conversion into steel.

The apparatus consists of the converting furnace, to the tuyere
whereof a blast-pipe is attached, formed into three passages, pro-
vided with valves for regulating the air currents. Two of the
passages communicate with two irmi receptacles in front of the
converting furnace — the centre passage passing between tliem and
to the frinit of the receptacles. These receptacles are provided
with gratings and ash-pits beneath, and with covers for closing
them.

The process of converting the metal into steel by this apparatus,
consists in allowing the air to pass into the two passages of the
blast-pipe communicating with the receptacles, such receptacles
being tilled with charcoal, which is then ignited, and the recep-
tacles closed by means of the covers; the air thus passed through
the receptacles is formed into carbonic oxide, and enters the
tuyere of the converting furnace, where it is mixed with such a
quantity of atmospheric air from the centre passage, as may l>e
judged desirable, though the patentee states, that a large quantity
should generally be avoided. By means of the valves, the quan-
tity of gaseous or atmospheric air can be regulated by the opera-
tor. To prepare the metal for the process of conversion, the
patentee states, that if it be pig-iron, it is to be melted sufficiently
in a cujiola furnace, to which is applied the apparatus above
described; hut if it be wrought-iron, a plumbago crucible is used,
in which the metal is to be placed, being properly stratified with
charcoal, or carbonaceous material.

OXIDES OF IRON.

William LoNOMAin, of Beaumont-square, Middlesex, gentle-
man, for ^'inipn)rement-i in. treating the oxides of iron, and in obtain-
ing products tlierefrom." — Granted October 26, 1848; Enrolled April
26, 1849.

The improvement relates to treating the oxides of iron for ob-
taining a black or dark coloured pigment, or a volatile oleaginous
product, or an inflammable gas. The oxide of iron is finely pul-
verised and mixed vvith carbonaceous matters. The proportions
vary considerably: — the addition of 10 per cent, of carbonaceous
matter is generally sufficient; but the patentee prefers a little
excess of carbonaceous matter, and mixes the oxide of iron with
from 12 to 15 per cent, of carbonaceous matters, or such a quan-
tity that, when the process is complete, a slight excess of carbona-
ceous matter will remain in the retort unemployed. Any kind of
carbonaceous matters, which are not too volatile or expensive, and
which can be mixed intimately with the oxide of iron, may be
used; but when not in a fluid state, they must be pulverised.
Those preferred are resin and tar. When resin is used, it must
be pulverised, and the oxide of iron mixed therewith in a dry
state. When tar is employed, the oxide of iron is mixed there-
with in a moist state, for the purpose of facilitating the incorpora-
tion of the materials; and the mixture is dried at a temperature
sufficiently high to deprive it of nearly the whole of its moisture,
and reduce it to a state of powder.

The mixture is to be put into retorts or close vessels; and the
patentee prefers to use cast-iron retorts, of the ordinary kind, five
feet in length, and one foot in diameter, with a cover, to be
fastened on the open end, and a ring at the opposite end, for the
purpose of lifting it. A retort of this size may be charged with
IgCwt. of the mixture; and then (the cover being secured) it is
lifted by a crane, and placed in a suitable furnace, in a vertical po-
sition, vvitli the cover end downwards, in order that the volatile
products evolved from the mixture may be consumed, and thus aid
in heating the retort. The heat is to be gradually raised until the
whole of the retort has arrived at a low red heat; at which tem-
perature it must be kept until about two hours after the evolution
of the combustible volatile products has ceased; and then, the
process being complete, the retort is removed from the furnace,
and allowed to become cold, or nearly so, before the charge is
withdrawn — as it would be injured by contact with the air whilst
hot. The material produced will be black, or dark coloured, and
will form a good pigment for many purposes. Some carbonaceous
matters, when used in the production of this material, will cause

24*

180

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

tJu^E,

it to lie sufficiently pulverulent; but, when this is not the case, it
must he (ground or pulverised: the pulverised matter is to he
^^rouud with oil, so as to form jiaint, in the usual way. When the
i-onihustihle volatile products of the calcination are not hurnt, the
cover on the retort is luted, so as to make it air-tight, and a pipe
inserted therein to convey the volatile products to a condenser.
The calcination will cause a volatile oil to be evolved from the
contents of the retort, and the oil will pass through the pipe into
the condenser, where it will he condensed. The calcination will
also cause the evolution of an inflammable gas, suitable for the
juirpose of ilhimination; which gas must be conveyed by a pipe
from the condenser to a gasometer.

The claim is for treating oxides of iron by mixing them with
carI)onaceous matters and subjecting them to the action of heat in
the manner above described, for the purpose of obtaining one or
more of the several products before mentioned.

PAINTS FOR CLOTH.

KoBEKT Thomson Pattison, of Glasgow, Scotland, for "on im-
proved preparation or material for fiaiiiy paint or pigment colours on
fotton, linen, woollen, silJe, and other miven /iihrics." — Granted No-
vember 2, 18t8; Enrolled March 2, 1849.

Tlie improved preparation for fixing the colours is made or ex-
tracted from butter-milk in the following manner: — The butter-
milk, as soon as possible after churning, is put into a boiler and
lieated to 160° Fahrenheit, which causes the curd to precipitate
from the whey; it is then strained through a cloth, to separate the
curd from the whey; after which, the curd is sulijected to pressure
in a cheese-press for a night; it is next broken and granulated,
by being rubbed through a wire sieve; it is then spread upon cloth
sieves, arranged on shelves in a room with a stove, for gradually
drying it; and, when dry, it is ground to fine powder: it is now in
a fit state to be used for fixing colours on fabrics. It is necessary,
after the milk has been heated, to add to the boiler a quantity of
acid sufficient to effect the precipitation of the curd: most acids
will answer; but oxalic acid is recommended to be used. AVhen
the curd has been precipitated, it is treated in the same manner as
that obtained from butter-milk. The fixing material is termed by
the patentee "lactarine." The relative quantities of the lactarine
and the colours to be applied to the fabrics will vary according to
the result desired to be obtained with regard to the colour or
shade. As an example, the followinn; mode of fixing a medium
shade of ultramarine blue is given; — 1 wo gallons of water and three
pounds of lactarine are mixed in a suitable vessel, and then four
gills of ammonia fort are added, which will have the effect of dis-
solving the lactarine and converting the mixture into a thick gum
or gummy substance. In another vessel one gallon of water and
twelve pounds of ultramarine blue are mixed together, and the
contents of the two vessels are thoroughly mixed; the combined
mixture is then strained through a fine cloth, after which it is
ready for printing. The operations of printing, straining, and
finishing the fabrics, are successively performed in the manner
usually adopted by calico printers.

BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE.

Sir — I have carefully read Mr. Alan Stevenson's letter of the
loth ult., in reply to mine of the 8th February last, the former
contained in the ftlay number (]). l.SO), and the latter in the March
number (p. 77), of your valuable Journal ; and as the main facts
and statements in my letter remain undisturbed, upon which it
a])pears to me, as I have no doubt it will to your readers also, that
the whole case rests, I do not feel that any further answer is re-
quired, and I shoulil be sorry to waste the' valuable time of your
readers by following Mr. Stevenson through a variety of niinor
details, — all of which are easily answered, although they have
nothing to do with the main question at issue.

Mr. Alan Stevenson, by publishing in your Journal what he
says was his father's original design for the'lJell Rock Lighthouse,
as well as the one actually executed, proves beyond all doubt that
his father's design was not adopted or executed; and his father's book,
together with the correspondence in your Journal, proves equally
beyond doubt that previous to any design for the lighthouse being
adopted, or to any of the works being commenced, the late Mr.
Rmnie was appointed chief engineer, and furnished his own design,
and Mr. Robert Stevenson was appointed assistant engineer under
the late Mr. Rennic, and carried Mr. Rennie's design into effect,
under his directions, with such alterations as Mr. Reunie con-

sidered advisable during the progress of the work, which he (Mr.
Rennie) superintended and directed, from the commencement to its
final completion. It is quite superfluous, therefore, for me to pur-
sue the subject further.

Mr. Alan Stevenson's doctrine, that the assi.itant engineer, acting
under the directions of the chief engineer, should have the merit of
the whole, instead of the chief engineer, is so contrary to common-
sense, as well as to the universally-acknowledged practice, that I
do not think he will find that any member of the profession or
of the public will agree with him.

Giving Mr. Robert Stevenson, therefore, as I have done, every
possible credit which is due to him for the very im])ortant services
he i-endered previous to the work being placed under the late Mi-.
Rennie, as well as for the able manner in which he discharged the
duties of assistant engineer under the late Mr. Rennie whilst the
work was being carried into efi^ect, I still adhere to the statement
contained in my work upon the Breakwater in Plymouth Sound,
and in my Address to the Institution of Civil Engineers — viz.,
that the late Mr. Rennie designed and built the Bell Rock Light-
house.

I am, Sir,

Your humble servant,

London, May 17, 1849. Joh.v Rennie.

FBOCEEDZNGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.

j4pril 25. — Robert Stephenson, Esq., M.P., President, in the Chair.

The President opened the proceedings of the meeting by tendering to
them his sincere thanks for the distinguished privilege they had conferred
upon him, by electing him the President of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers. He assured them that he highly prized it, and would endeavour
to prove himself worthy of it by altenduig with diligence and energy to the
interests of the Institution. In undertaking that duty, it was not merely
because he delighted in mechanical pursuits, but he was actuated also by
the feeling that he should be doing honour to the departed. In undertaking
it, however, it was necessary that he should express to them how apprehen-
sive he was — at least, that he had apprehensions — of an Institution of that
kind fading for want of energy on the part of its members. What had
hitherto been the character of almost every Institution of the kind in this
country? — almost universal failure. It was a remarkable circumstance, that
in a country like Great Britain, whose wealth and power are so closely con-
nected with the development of the Mechanical Arts and Sciences — it ap-
peared to him, in fact, a complete anomaly — that Institutions of that kind
should not appear to reach a higher standard than they now had. They
saw Astronomers cultivate and maintain a society for extending their know-
ledge of the movements of the heavens. They saw Geologists maintaining
and extending societieti for investigating and developing the structure of the
earth. They saw Physiologists and Botanists maintaining and extending
their societies for investigating and developing the knowledge of the animal
and vegetable productions of the earth : yet they had witnessed only lan-
guidness and inactivity in the pursuit of those arts and sciences on which
the nation's wealth absolutely depended. That it should be the case was to
him the more remarkable, because the nation stood pre-eminent for their
mechanical abilities. It was not egotistical in him to say this in Britain,
because all foreigners conceded to them an unmeasured pre-eminence in
tliose particular arts. Without despairing therefore of the success of the
Institution, he felt tliat in undertaking the task he was now doing, it was
necessary that he should impress upon the members the absolute necessity
of co-operating with him with energy in the further development of the
Institution. With that strong conviction on his mind, he wished also
strongly to impress it on them ; for without energy and industry they must
fail as heretofore. He would endeavour to do his part, and trusted and
hoped most sincerely that the members would not fail in doing theirs, for
without their assistance no efforts of his would sustain an Institution of
that kind.

The following papers were read : —

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF PERMANENT WAY.

"0« the Construction of Permanent Way." By Mr. Hobt, of
Brighton.

The subject on which a few remarks are here offered for con-
sideration, seems hardly to fall within the scope of this Institu-
tion; there exists, however, such an intimate connection between
the construction and condition of the permanent way and the per-
formances of the motive stock, as regards speed, economy, and
safety, that little further apology need he made for the introduc-
tion of a few observations on the various kinds of permanent way
now in existence.

The rapid deterioration of the permanent road on most of the

]849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

181

leading lines of railway since the introduction into general use of
a class of engines considerably more powerful, and by consequence
larger and heavier, than those in use four or five years ago, has
been sucli as to attract the notice of the public, and to call forth
the anxious attention of those on whom more immediately devolve
the duties of engineering and management. That there has been
deterioration, more especially in the rails themselves, and that it
has been lately manifesting itself far more rapidly than had been
calculated upon, is evident from the additional strength now given
by most engineers to the rails and other parts of the permanent
way, in order that repairs may be less continuous, and renewals
less frequent.

If the question be regarded in a general view as connected with
economy, whether of first cost or annual maintenance, it will be
manifest that these two points have an essential bearing on each
other. A system of road may be expensive in its first construc-
tion, yet cost so little in maintenance, and last so long a time, as
to be in the end far cheaper than a road less expensively formed,
but requiring greater annual outlay, and more speedy replacement.
Circumstances being equal, the annual cost of maintenance dis-
tributed over a period of years, and including both labour and ma-
terials, should form a very distinguishing test to apply in ascer-
taining the merits or defects of the different constructions of per-
manent way now in use; for it may fairly be argued that the road
which costs least to repair will also last the longest, a state of effi-
ciency and security being presumed.

Acting on tliis view, the writer has endeavoured to collect such
facts in regard to mode of construction, and cost of maintenance,
on different lines, as might suffice when collated, to determine tlie
most advantageous, and ultimately economical, mode of construc-
tion, as well as to obtain some practical information as to the
points wherein existing systems appeared weali or defective ; and
had intended simply to offer these facts, so far as they might be
useful, for the consideration of the members of this Institution.
But in pursuing this investigation, and attempting the proposed
comparison, it became apparent that the cost of maintenance was
controlled by elements not only not common to the different sys-
tems under consideration, but varying even on contiguous porti(ms
of the same line; these elements being, the nature of tlie sub-
stratum, or material of formation; the character of the ballast;
and the extent and kind of the traffic; — circumstances which,
whilst they render it difficult to arrive at any accurate average of
the cost of maintenance on any particular line, make it imj)ossible
to deduce satisfactory results from a comparison of those ave-
rages.

It therefore becomes necessary to take up the question more at
large, and to ascertain the conditions of stability and efficiency
which are required in all permanent way, and tlie manner in which
the various systems at present in use meet those conditions.

The principal of these conditions may be arranged as under : —

1. Sufficient platform or bearing surface on the ballast to prevent the
whole road from being crushed down into the ballast.

2. Sufficient bearing surface of the various parts one on another to pre-
vent their crushing into each other.

3. Sufficient cross-ties to secure uniformity of gauge between the two
rails composing one line of rails.

4. Sufficient side stiffness in each rail.

5. Sufficient strength, quality, and shape of materials, to prevent their
crushing in themselves.

6. Such general precautions as shall tend to the protection and preserva-
tion of the more perishable portions from atmospheric and other influ-
ences ; on this last point, however, it will not be within our limits at present
to enter.

These conditions satisfied, the questions of economy and sim-
plicity of construction, remain for consideration.

The bearing surface of the permanent road on the ballast has
been variously provided. Amongst the more prominent of tlie
modes now in use we may notice roads laid upon,

1. Stone blocks.

2. Cross sleepers (of usual make).

3. Cross sleepers (of usual make) brought nearer together at the joints,
with a larger sleeper under the joints.

4. Cross sleepers of triangular section.

All of the foregoing usually sustain and secure the rail by the interven-
tion of chairs.

5. The longitudinal hearer used on the broad gauge lines.

6. The same as laid on the narrow gauge at London Bridge.

7. A combination of the cross sleeper with the longitudinal bearer now in
use on the Midland Great Western Railway of Ireland, and formerly laid
down on the Croydon line.

In these three plans, a flat-bottomed or a bridge rail is bedded on and
secured directly to the longitudinal bearer.

8. And lastly, the system introduced on the South Coast lines, and on the
Great Southern and Western of Ireland, in which a bridge rail is imme-
diately fastened to cross sleepers. The cross sleepers in the case of the
Southern and Western of Ireland vary considerably in size, and are placed
at proportional distances, tl.i; great body of the support being under the
joint.

Briefly to compare the amount of bearing surfaces respectively
presented to the ballast under tlie several systems mentioned above,
it will be found that, assuming a length of rail at 18 feet,

1. With stone blocks there are l'33ft. super per foot run of rail.

2. With cross sleepers (of usual make) equally distributed, l'12ft. super
per foot run of rail.

3. With the same brought nearer together at the joint, r36 ft. super per
foot run of rail at the joint, and for ift. l-J-in. each side of joint ; and 1'04
ft. super per foot run of rail, over the 9 ft. 9 in. remaining to make an 18 ft.
length.

4. With sleepers of triangular section rather more surface is presented to
the ballast.

5. With that used on the broad gauge lines, 125 ft. super per foot run of
rail.

6. With the longitudinal bearer used at London Bridge, 1-17 ft. super per
foot run of rail.

7. With the combination of the longitudinal and cross sleepers used on the
Midland Great Western of Ireland, 1"43 ft. super per foot run of rail ; and
in cases where more sleepers are introduced on boggy or peaty ground on the
above line, or in the road on the Croydon line, 1'75 ft. super per foot run of
rail.

8. With the construction adopted on the Great Southern and Western
Railway of Ireland, a general average of 1-50 ft. super per foot run of rail;
the proportions varying from 250 ft. super per foot run of rail at joint, to
0'93 ft. super per foot run of rail in centre of rail.

The next point for attention is the amount of bearing surface of
the several portions of the permanent way one on the other, neces-
sary to prevent their crushing into each other.

On instituting a similar comparison to the previous one, it will
be found tliat, assuming as before an 18 feet length of rail,

1 and 2. — With stone blocks and cross sleepers placed at equal distances
apart, which may be regarded as the older forms of construction, wheri
rather light chairs were used, there are 20 super inches per foot run of rail
at the joint, and 17 super inches per foot on the remaining length.

3 and 4. — With cross sleepers br'ought nearer together at joint, of usual
make, or of triangular section, with large chairs, 23^?^ super inches per foot
run of rail at joint, and 4 ft. 1 J in. on each side of joint ; and 16J super
inches per foot run of rail for the 9 ft. 9 in. remaining to make up 18 ft.

5, 6, and 7. — With the longitudinal bearer used on the broad gauge lines
and at London Bridge, and with the construction used on the Midland Great
■Western Railway of Ireland, and on the Croydon line, 60 super inches per
foot run of rail,

8. — With the cross sleepers to which a bridge rail is immediately attached
on the Great Southern and Westei'n of Ireland, a general average of 16 in.
super per foot run of rail, in proportions varying from 27 in- super per foot
run of rad at joint, to 10} in. super per foot run of rail in centre of length.

It must be remarked that in these last four instances, whether
with bridge rails or flat-bottomed rails, packing plates are placed
under the joints, and in the road at London Bridge at intervals
along the rail, to prevent it from burying itself in the timber, more
particularly at the joints; and that on the broad gauge lines a
packing of hard wood is introduced between the rail and the
bearer, which presents to the longitudinal timber a surface of 108
superficial inches, or 0-75 superficial feet per foot run of rail,
through which the fastenings for securing the rail pass.

The modes adopted for tlie preservation of the gauge next claim
our attention. ^Vith stone blocks there is no provision for this
beyond the stability of each individual block. With cross sleepers
this essential object is very completely secured. AVith longitudi-
nal bearers this point is secured by cross timbers with strap bolts;
these bolts securing the longitudinal timbers hard up against the
ends of the cross pieces. In the case of the Midland Great
Western Railway of Ireland and the old Croydon line, as has
been before mentioned, cross sleepers are used with the longitu-
dinals.

The next point for consideration is the side stiffness in each in-
dividual line. With stone blocks and cross sleepers, whatever be
the kind of rail used, the side stiffness depends entirely on the
strength of the rail itself to resist lateral strain between the points
of support. The rails used with longitudinal bearers are in them-
selves very stiff laterally, whether of the bridge or flat-bottomed
section, and their immediate connection with the longitudinal
bearers gives a further amount of side stiffness to this construction.

From the foregoing remarks we collect, that stone blocks as a
means of support on the ballast, although presenting a large
amount of bearing surface on the ballast, and being in themselves

182

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

solid ami stable, neitlior retain tlie mail in {;au(;e, nor secure the
correct continuous elevation of the dirt'erent points of support in
the same line of rail; and as from this circumstance their use is
chiefly confined to cutting-s where the substratum is hard, and the
ballast Rood, their hardness gives a peculiar harsh and grating
feeling to the carriages passing over them.

The situations now are comparatively few in which stone blocks
can be procured for cost to surpass the wooden sleepers, especially
when the labour of jumping and plugging the holes for the cliair
pins are taken into account. It is liowever to be remarked, that
in cases wher; horse power is used they have the advantage of
leaving a clear way for the horses' feet.

Cross sleepers, which have, on the narrow-gauge lines, been so
extensively adopted, whilst presenting a very sufficient bearing
surface on the ballast, unite in themselves a cross tie to preserve
at every ])oint of support uniformity of gauge, and are readily
packed and adjusted. Triangular-sectioned sleepers present theo-
retically a very large bearing surface to the ballast to resist down-
ward pressure; it is however doubtful whether, except in ballast
of a very firm and binding character, this eftect is got from them,
as in coarse and open ballast the sharp edge of the sleeper has a
tendency to work downwards into the ballast with the motion of
the trains, and to cant with the driving forward of the rails, a
defect to which all cross sleepers are more or less liable. These
last sleepers ha\e the great advantage of being surface packed, so
that repairs can be eifected without the removal of a large quan-
tity of ballast.

For side stiifness between the points of support both with stone
blocks and the various kinds of cross sleepers the lateral strength
of the rail is alone depended on; and in this respect the double T
rails so extensively used seem ojien to some objection, for to
their deflection sideways with an engine slack in gauge, or tra-
velling at a high velocity, may l)e attributed much of the side
oscillation so observable at times, which a variation of speed will
often check.

The writer is aware that it has not been usual to attach much
importance to tliis question; and in Professor Barlow's valuable
work, in commenting on the small amount of side deflection as in-
dicateil by experiments in what were then considered most unfa-
vourable circumstances, Professor Barlow says (p. 421) : —

"Tlje whole ol these experiments" (on the lateral deflection of railway
bars) " have a tendency to show that the stress which the bars have to sus-
tain in tills direction is not such as to require to be more amply provided for
than the iiicreabed thickness the bar must have to meet the grea'er vertical
strain due to a longer bearing. In other words, the additional strength given
to the bar for the purpose of resisting the vertical strain will be amply suffi-
cient to meet and resist the lateral strain."

That is to say, the rails then experimented on were deemed
strong enough laterally, and it was held that further increase of
strength vertically, necessary for a longer bearing, or we may add,
to su]iport heavier loads, would suffice to impart the requisite
lateral strength to the rails.

The weight of the engines since Professor Barlow conducted
these experiments has been doubled and even trebled, the weight
on the driving-wheels more than doubled, and the speed, no unim-
portant element in producing side oscillation, has been almost con-
stantly doubled, and on special occasions quadru]iled; the weight
of the rails has crept up fnmi 45 or 50 lb. per yard to 75, 80, 90,
and even 100 lb. per yard, hut the side stiffness has by no means
pnqxirtionally increased. In cases where even 70 lb. rails have
been tried with long bearings, the side oscillation has been found
so constant and violent as to necessitate a recurrence to the
shorter bearings most in use, from 3 feet to .'i ft. 6 in.

'I"he longitudinal hearers have the advantage of presenting a
continuous hearing surface to the ballast, and of giving with the
rail great and unifornr side stiffness to each line of rail, so that
conqiaratively few cross ties are needed to keep the line in gauge,
tliose on the broad-gauge lines being 15 feet apart. To these two
main features, continuity of bearing on ballast, and continuity and
amount of side stifliiess, are to be attributed the great ease and
evenness of tlie motion of the engines and trains on the Great
A\'estern Railway.

This system of construction is open to the following objections:
— The expansion and contraction of the rails tends to loosen the
fastenings, especially at the joints; and from this cause, with the
comparatively complex nature of the cross ties, the maintenance
is more expensive than on ordinary roads laid on cross sleepers,
and it seems difficult to lift this road without great care and atten-
tion. When a cross sleeper is used under the longitudinal bearer,
securing at the same time correctness of gauge and of the cant of
the rail, this objection vanishes; and the cross sleeper being raised

and packed, the longitudinal timber may he packed subsequently.
This last construction, as used on the old Croydon line, stood a
very large amount of traffic, although laid on substratum of a very
inferior character.

AV'here a bridge rail is laid down directly on cross sleepers, the
rail undoubtedly possesses in itself considerable side stiffness be-
tween the points of support; it does not however contain so much
vertical strength to resist deflection as the ordinary double r rail,
and the expansion and contraction of the rail is apt in cases to
split the joint sleepers. The proportions in which, in the Great
Southern and Western of Ireland, the bearing surface on the bal-
last is varied (from 2'50 feet to 0-93 feet super per foot run of
rail), give so great a preponderance to the joint, that it may be
doubted whether in practice it will not he found that constant
packing is required in the centre of the rail lengthwise; and the
amount of bearing surface of the rail on the sleepers is so small
that there will he much crushing of the rail into the timber, espe-
cially on the curves.

Having made these general remarks on the various peculiarities
of some of the leading modes of constructing permanent way, it
remains for us to consider the shape, strength, and quality of the
materials used, to prevent them from crushing in themselves.
This more immediately applies to the rails, or wearing surface of
the permanent way. It is in this respect that most of the systems
have alike suffered since the introduction of heavy engines.

The rails most in use vary from 2j to 2,^ inches in width on the
upper table or wearing surface, and are for the most jiart made
rounding at the top. Now if we look at the line of contact of a
tyre on a rail, it will be found that a comparatively small portion
of the width of the rail, in favourable cases not more than ] j inch,
and in some instances less than g inch, is in actual contact. Now
if it be assumed that on a 3 ft. 6 in. wheel of an engine in work-
ing order, a weight of 6 tons has to be carried, and if the strength
of the iron in large railway bars to resist compression be taken at
8 tons per inch — (and it is doubtful whether more may be taken)
— then the line of contact of the tyre on the rail in section being
f inch, it is obvious that such line of contact will have to be ex-
tended in the other direction into a surface of 1 inch, before the
surface of the rail in contact with the tyre becomes sufficient to
resist the weight superimposed, and the amount of compression in
the rail will be represented by the versed sine of the chord of an
arc 1 inch long with a radius of 2 ft. 9 in. The limit of compres-
sion of iron, such as is used in railway-bars being determined, it
is evident that the amount of bearing surface between the rail and
tyre will vary directly with the weight superimposed; that its ex-
tent in the length of the rail (or the length of the circumference
of the wheel in contact), will vary with the length of the line of
contact in section; and the extent of the compression or length of
the versed sine, will vary with the radius of the wheel.

The amount of this permanent compression, or of the motion pro-
duced in the particles of the iron beyond the elastic limit, even
supposing all the compression to take place on the rail and none
on the tyres of the wheels, will evidently be inflnitelv small; but
it may be fairly argued that such motion does take place, and re-
newed from time to time, from infinitesimal and insensible, becomes
palpable and evident in its results.

It is difficult on other grounds to account for the rapid deterio-
ration of rails, — the word deterioration being used in contradis-
tinction to destruction, as the rails now removed on some of the
leading lines have in many cases lost more than 2 lb. per yard of
their original weight, showing that although rendered useless,
they have not given out a fair amount of wear to the companies.
For this information the writer is indebted to Mr. Dockray, and
would take this opportunity of acknowledging the kind courtesy
of that gentleman in permitting access to his very valuable report
on this subject.

The cause of the removal of rails when not thoroughly worn
out, is their becoming distorted in sliape, such distortion being the
result of lamination. Now this effect may be produced either
from defective shape, or want of strength in the material itself to
bear the superincumbent load. In reg. rd to the usual T-headed
rail, the impression very generally prevails that the shape is in
fault, and it may very readily be imagined that a rail of this make,
shall gradually grow distorted, from the pressure bending down
the overhanging portions of tlie top table, without of necessity
proving any motion to have taken place from absolute crushing.
But bridge rails are found not to wear uniformly down, (as they
should do if no crushing took place); the upper corners of the
rail turn outwards, and when the wearing part of the rail has been
rolled or crushed out sideways, the centre part of the top is driven
downwards, and the sides turned completely over.

1819.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

183

These observations would seem to confirm the conjecture pre-
viously hazarded, that under the weights now given to the engines,
and with the limited extent of the tyre in contact with the rail in
section, the rails themselves are gradually crushing; and remem-
bering that the theoretical line of contact of the tyre on the rail
in section must in all cases become a surface of greater or less ex-
tent, this effect is more to be attributed to engines with small
sized wheels used for goods traffic, than to the weight or speed of
engines for express traffic, whose wheels are so much larger in
diameter. And could the matter be investigated, it would be
found that the rails suffered more from the passage of goods or
mineral trains, than from that of passenger trains at whatever
speed.

Fig. 1. — Longitudinal Elevation

slightly larger than those in the cross sleepers to prevent the tim-
bers from splitting. The rails may of course be manufactured in
such lengths as may be most convenient, and the cross sleepers
distributed accordingly, and it may be found that the sleepers
maybe placed at wider intervals. The longitudinal timber is to
be secured at the ends by a common half-lap joint, this joint to be
always on one of the middle sleepers, and not under the joint of
the rail.

A modification of this road is shown in figs. 3 and 4, in which a
longitudinal timber V2 by i in. is used, and the chairs not let into
the timber, but a saddle, .?, introduced between the chairs. The rails
may be secured to the chairs either by a hard wood or wrought-iron
key; the latter of which is more efficient, as it is not affected by
with Chairs let into Timbers.

u

a

»

Tig. 3.— Longitudinal Elevation, with Intermediate Saddles.

Fig. 2. Fig. 4.

On the preservation of the perishable parts it would be beyond
our limits to enter. Payne's process certainly has some effect in
rendering the timber uninflammable, and therefore possesses ad-
vantage in the case of timber viaducts, or the planking of bridges.
Saturating the timber with creosote, as adopted by Mr. Bethell,
has produced very satisfactory results in preserving the timber
from dry rot or decay.

The length to which this paper has extended will prevent more
than a very cursory description of a permanent way which would
embody the more desirable feature of efficiency and stability.

The engravings, figs. 1 and 2, show a wide double T-rail repre-
senting a fair bearing surface to the tyre of from 2 inches to 2i
inches, and possessing a considerable amount of side stiffness, being
in depth 4 inches, and in width 3^ inches, and weighing about
100 lb. per yard.

The rail is secured by chairs to a longitudinal timber, 1 1 inches
and 5i inches, the chairs being sunk into the timber till the bottom
surface of the rail is in contact with the top of the timber, along
which a slight groove is cut, of such a shape that the rail shall
bear harder on the outside edges of the groove than in the centre.
Beneath the longitudinal timber, are sleepers of triangular section
placed immediately under the chairs, 2 ft. 6 in. apart at the joints,
and l feet in the centre of the lengths of rail, these last being
supposed in lengths of 17 feet. The sleepers are cut out of
10 inch balk, and retain the road in gauge, whilst presenting an
additional amount of bearing surface on the ballast, and admit of
being packed without much removal of the ballast. In fact, these
sleepers offer peculiar advantages for this mode of construction,
although any others might be used. The chairs are secured
through the longitudinal timbers to the cross sleepers by hard-
wood tree-nails, the holes in the longitudinal timbers being bored

wet or dry, and it prevents the rails from driving forward in the
chairs. The wrought-iron keys are more costly, but as in this
case they are merely composed of short lengths of iron tube, the
difference in expense would not be considerable. There is a
difficulty in replacing the chairs which will readily be seen by the
members, but in practice this may not be found a very serious ob-
jection.

The President observed, that it was an important subject for considera-
tion ; the main question seemed to be, whether the surface of the rails was
actually suffering from the crushing action that Mr. Hoby spoke of. It
looked almost as if they had reached the limit of their powers, when they
began to crush the material.

Mr. M'CoNNELL thought that a greater breadth of bearing surface of the
rails would not be found to yield the advantage anticipated by Mr. Hoby ;
as it was so difficult to keep the bearing of the wheels in a straight fine, and
extending over the whole surface of the rails.

Mr. WooDHOusE remarked, that the rail proposed appeared to him rather
shallow for the purpose, being only 4 inches deep.

Mr. M'CoNNELL said, he should be afraid that the rail would deflect be-
tween the saddles when a heavy weight passed over.

The President observed, that the rail was very considerably increased
in thickness laterally, and appeared a strong rail, but it must be remembered
that the strength was diminished in proportion to the square of the depth.
He did not attach so mwh importance as the writer of the paper appeared
to do, to the fact of the permanent way fiaving deteriorated more rapidly in
the last three or four years than previously. It was certain that on the
older railways, which had been at work for 13 or 14 years, the deterioration
of the rails had been much more rapid during the last three years of the
time than the first three years, but he thought the wear and tear of the
present rails had been much overrated. It must be remembered that the
present heavy engines had been increasing in weight, whilst the rails had
been getting older and more worn ; aud he believed that the weight of
the present engines had got pretty nearly, if not quite, to the feasible limit.

Mr. WooDHOusE remarked, there was an objection to the proposed plan,
that broken chairs could not be replaced without taking the rail out, which
would be very objectionable.

The President observed, it would certainly be a serious objection if the
rail bad to be taken out in order to replace a broken chair: all practical men
were averse to it. He thought the lip on the inner side of the saddles
might be dispensed with, which would allow them to be changed without
disturbing the rail.

[The paper "On a Patent Solid Wrought-iron Wheel," by Mr. Hbnry
Smith, owing to its length, we are obliged to postpone until next month,
but we give the two shorter papers which followed it.]

18(

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JCNB,

BAINES' RAILWAY CHAIRS AND SWITCHES.

This Paper was read at the last mieling, but was not then discussed j the
inventor, Mr. Baines, of Norwich, attonded the present meeting to give fur-
ther information and particulars on the suhject.

Mr. Baines exhibited and ex|il;iined specimens of the joint and interme-
diati' chairs. Tlie Joint Chair had one jaw on the outer side, fitting close
up to the head of the rails, and the rails were fixed by a horiznjiial dowil-
pin If inches wide and g-tbs inulj thick, which was passed through a notch in
the end of each rail, and a corresponding hole in the outer jaw of the chair,
and was drawn up hy a vertical cotter driven through the dowel-pin on the
other side of the chair. A wrouj?ht-iron plate 9 inches long was placed
under the head of the dowel-pin, fitting close up to the head of the rails on
the inner side, and this plaie was drawn up tight against the rails by driving
the vertical cotter, and formed a stiff scarfing piece across the joint of the
rails; this plate was a little cambered, and was sprung flat by driving the
cotter. The Intermediate Chair was intei led to hold the rail without the
use of a key; the two jaws were of the same form, both fitting up close to
the head of the rail, but they were placed obliquely instead of opposite to
each other; the chair was slipped endwise on to the rail and then twisted at
right angles to the rail, which made it grip the rail between the two oblique
jaws. The chair was forced tight against the rail, either by screwed spikes
with conical beads and eccentric countersink holes in the chair, which forced
the chair further round and increased the pressure of the jaws ou the rail
when the conical head of each screw was drawn home into the countersink;
or another plan for doing the same thing was by using square spikes tapered
to a greater breadth at the upper part when they passed through the chair,
so that by driving them down the chair was forced further round against the
rail.

An estimate was presented of the comparative expense of laying a rail-
way on the above plan and on the ordinary plan, and the following were the
respective amounts stated in it, — the amount in each case being only the
cost of the chairs, keys, and spikes, as the rest would be the same in each
case: —

The cost for a mile of single way, laid on the ordinary plan, with £

wood keys and iron spikes 3-4d

The cost for a mile of single way, laid on the above plan, with

square taper spikes .'^40

The same, with screu'ed spil^es i^03

but the square taper spikes were considered equally efficient, and they were
more convenient than the screwed spikes for drawing out in repairs, &c., as
well as less expensive.

Mr. Baines in answer to questions from the President said, the only trial
tliat had yet been made of thera was a short length of line at the entiance
of Norwich Station, which had been at work with these ciiairs for eleven
luonths with complete success, and had not required any repair of the
chairs. It was situated where all the trains ran over in entering the
station.

A trial of the joint and intermediate chairs would be made shortly on the
main line of the North StafTurdshire Railway at Danes Moss, near Burton,
in the trial already made of them at Norwich, there had not been any loose-
ness of the keys of the joint chairs, and they remained just the same as
when first put down. He had made a trial of the joint chair by removing
the whole of the ballast away from under the joint sleeper, and the joint
chair held the rail ends so firmly, that scarcely any deflection could be per-
ceived when an engine passed over. He thought these chairs would do
away with the canting of the joint sleepers, and would prevent a great deal
of the noise in passing over the joints.

Mr. M'CoNNELL suggested tliat it would be preferable to make the
dowel-pin with rounded edges, and the notches in the rail ends similarly
rounded at the bottom, for the purpose of preventing any risk of the rails
splitting from the angles of the notch.

Mr. Baines said, he did not see any objection to the proposal; but he
thought there was not any risk of the rails splitting from the notch, because
a clearance of J-inch was left between the dowel-pin and the top of the
notch, so as to prevent any pressure ever coming upon the dowel-pin. The
joint chair formed a coupling between the rail ends, and the rails supported
one another.

The President observed, that if this joint chair stood the test of the
working on a main line, it would be the thing desired, but he feared there
were too many parts about it to stand well, lie considered the construction
of some secure fastening for railway chairs was of the last importance fur
railways, and thought the subject well deserving the attention of the mem-
bers ; it was desirable to have as few parts as possible, and those not very
costly.

Mr. WooDHOusE asked how it was intended to replace a chair becom-
ing loose or breaking, — whether the rail would have to be taken out for the
purpose .'

Mr. Baines said, he proposed having some chairs east wider in the jaws,
which would allow them to he slipped on the rail from the underside, tor
the purpose of replacing any broken chairs without taking out the rail,
(tut he fully expected there would be very little breakage of the chairs,
because there were no keys driven into them, and a great proportion of the
breakage of the ordinary chairs was caused by driving the keys ; also the
new chairs were made stronger than usual. He had tried one of the inter-
mediate chairs by suspending it from oue of the jaws, aud hanging a weight

of 10| tons from the other jaw for several weeks, and there was no failure
in it.

Mr. Baines next explained the Switch, the principal improvement in it

being the additional depth of the switch tongue, which was made about
an inch deeper than the main rail, and the bottom flanch of the switch
tongue worked under the main rail when the snitch was shut ; for the pur-
pose of driving under the main rail all the dirt that got between them in
the working of the switch, instead of driving the dirt against the main rail,
which was an evil in the ordinary switches where the rails were all of the
same depth, and caused the risk of accident by the switch being prevented
from closing properly. Another advantage obtained from this construction
was, that the bottom flanch of the switch was kept entire to the end, instead
of being planed off on one side, as in the ordinary switches, and that in-
creased the steadiness and strength of the switch tongue.

The President remarked, that the switch tongue was chamfered equally
on both sides.

Mr. Baines explained that the tongue was formed according to Mr.
Wild's plan, with the point dropping under the head of the main rail ; and
the tongue was shaped exactly the same on both sides, so that the switch
could be used either right or left handed.

STEPHE.MSON'S EXPRESS ENGINE.

A Paper was read, accompanied by drawings, "Descriptive of an Express
Engine," manufactured by Messrs. Robert Stephenson and Co, for the
York, Newcastle, and Berwick Railway, in 18-18, and intended to run express
trains between Newcastle and York, a distance of 83 miles, as soon as the
relaying of the line is completed which is now in progress. It was intended
to have tried a series of experiments on the working of this engine, and to
have accompanied the present paper with the results of the experiments,
but these have been unavoidably postponed in consequence of the relaying
of the line; the engine is at present running between York and Darhngton,
and is working satisfactorily, with a small consumption of fuel.

The engine has inside cylinders with a crank axle; and six wheels, inside
hearings for the crank axle, and outside bearings for the leading and trailing
axles. The cylinders are 16 inches diameter, aud 20 inches length of stroke.
The valves are vertical, and are placed on the outer side of each cylinder,
instead of the inner side ; the exhaust passages are carried under the cylin.
ders, and unite at the blast-pipe. The steam ports are 1} inches wide by
13 long, and the exhaust ports 2^ inches by 13 inches ; the traverse of the
slide-valves is 4^ inches. The eccentrics are fixed on the ends of the
crank-axle outside of the wheels, and the valves are worked by the expan-
sion link motion. The pumps are worked by the same ecccentrics, and are
fixed at the sides of the fire-box. The boiler is 3 ft. 10 in. diameter, and
II feet in length, containing 174 tubes of IJ inches outside diameter, and
11 ft 5 inches length. The inside fire-box is 3 ft. 9 in. lone, by 3 ft. 8 in.
wide, and 4 ft. 9 in. high from the top of the fire-bars to the underside of
the roof.

The Heating surface in the Fire-Box is 82 square feet
Ditto ditto Tubes 964 „

Total Heating Surface 1046 „

The driving-wheels are 6 ft. 6 in. diameter, and the leading and trailing
wheels are 3 ft. 9 in. diameter. The outside and inside framing consists
each of a single flat wrought iron plate 1 inch thick and 8 inches deep ; the
inside frame is bolted to a flanch upon the cylinder and to a bracket on the
fire-box ; the outside frame is bolted to a flanch upon the steam-chest, which
is in one casting with the cylinder, and is attached to the boiler by three
wronght-iron brackets on each side. The weight of the engine in working
trim is about 22 tons.

The President observed that this engine did not differ materially from
the ordinary express engines, except that the steam chests were brought out-
side and the eccentrics placed outside the driving-wheels. He might state
that he had seen the engine, and the consumption of coke including getting
up the steam was 18 lb, per mile with the express trains, which were gene-
rally very small, having only three or four carriages.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

May 1, and 8. — JosHnA Field, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The discussion on Mr. Crampton's paper, "On the Cunslruction of Loco-
motive Engines" (given in last mo\\\.\\\ Journal), was continueil through both
these evenings. The same tone of argument was kept up, and numerous
instances were adduced supporting the views of both sides; but without ar-
riving at any definite result, other than that it was desirable in all engines
to lower the centre of gravity, in order to establish a greater angle of stability,
and to arrive at a ratio between the circumference of the driving-wheel and
the cubic content of the cylinders : such as whilst the greatest speed might
be maintained with an economical consumption of fuel, every facility should
be afforded for starting rapidly, which was a point of importance on lines
running frequent trains. On the one hand it was argued, that small driving
wheels were essential for quick starting; and on the other hand it was con-
tended, that with a given amount of evaporating surface in the boiler, the
tractive power would be the same under all circumstances at the periphery

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

185

of the driving-wlieel, provided a given relative proportion existed between
the cubic content of the cylinder and the circumference of the driving-
wheel, and that large wheels reduced the wear and tear.

The long disposed of question of the stability of the long boiler engines
was again cursorily touched on and disposed of.

The diminution of the wear and tear of the sides of the brasses of the
engines, having the driving-wheels behind, and the greatest weight upon the
extremities, leaving a comparatively light load on the centre wheels, was ad-
duced as a proof of their stability, an engine of that kind having run
twentv-five thousand miles without anyapprecialile lateral wear; whereas an
ordinary engine on the same railway, had worn away a thickness of a quarter
of an inch whilst running the same distance.

A paper was read, describing "A kind of Permanent Way, which had
been somewhat extensively laid down on the Lancashire and Yorkshire and
other Raihvays, in the north of England." By Mr. Hawkshaw, M. Inst. C.E.
The principle was that of a bridge rail, weighing seventy-five pounds per
yard, placed upon continuous longitudinal timber bearing, and the novelty
consisted in having at each joint a malleable iron plate chair, with a projec-
tion on the upper surface, fitting witliin the interior of the rail, and the
flanches, which were fourteen inches long by eight inches wide, and half-an-
inch in thickness, attached to the rail by rivets in such a manner as to fix
them firmly together, and yet to allow for the expansion and contraction
caused by the variations of temperature. The details of the arrangement
were very simple and complete, and it appeared to succeed perfectly, as in
an extent of twenty miles of railway so laid, over which numerous heavy
trains had ran daily, at considerable speed, for the last year, only three
rivet-heads were found to have been knocked off when recently examined.

May 15. — The discussion on Mr. Hawkshaw's paper was continued
throughout this evening.

Some interesting observations were made on the actual destruction of the
cast-iron chairs and double-headed rails, and the advantages that would re-
sult from the more general substitution of continuous longitudinal limber
bearings for the present transverse sleepers and cast-iron chairs. The gra-
dual ameliorations that had taken place in the forms and strengths of the
bridge rails and their various fastenings were discussed ; and it was contended
that the hollow bridge rail was more durable than any other, that the upper
surface was more compressed in rolling, and that the system of connecting
the end, whether by rivetting to a plate, or by holts and nuts, made a better
and more even joint, and therefore produced a more level surface for the
engines and carriages to run upon. The duration of the timber was de-
clared to be such, that a second set of bridge rails bad been laid down on
the longitudinal timbers, whereas the cross sleepers had never been able to
hear that. This, however, it was asserted, arose principally from common
timber being used for the transverse sleepers, whilst the best kind, well
creosoted, was used for the longitudinal bearers.

The systems of inserting a piece of hard wood between the rail and the
main timber, as on the Great Western Railway, was much approved, as was
also the plan of side transoms halved into the main timbers, as it enabled a
better system of drainage to be employed than had been usual with that
kind of permanent way.

The new systems tried by Mr. Samuels on the Eastern Counties Railway,
and of which several models were exhibited and described, received much
commendation, particularly the plan for dispensing with the joint chairs and
uniting the ends of the rails by two side pieces, or fishes, of cast-iron, bolted
through and to each other, so as to render that part quite equal in strength
to the body of the rail. The question of the roeajis of allowing for the
contraction and expansion of a line of securely-fastened rails was dis-
cussed, as was the creeping or advancing motion of rails in the direction of
the traffic.

The general opinion seemed to be decidedly in favour of the longitudinal
bearing, although it was admitted that many of the transverse-sleeper rail-
ways— for instance, such as had been laid on the plans of Cubitt and of
Hawkshaw — were so good that it was not to be presumed they would be
removed to make way for the longitudinal system.

May 22. — Mr. Field, the President of the Institution, held bis Annual
Conversazione on Tuesday evening. May 22nd, at the rooms of the Institu-
tion. The President was well supported in doing the honours of the
evening by the vice-presidents and members of council, and by Mr. C.
Manby, the secretary, whose general arrangements, and selection and distri-
bution of the works of art and the models, claim the highest praise.

From such a large collection we can only particularise a few, and we must
give the place of honour to the works of art. On the walls were the por-
traits of the celebrated engineers, Locke, Brunei, Fairhairn, and Mr. Isam-
bard Brunei, by Grant, Hornby, and Patten. Around the walls and on the
tables were beautiful specimens of the pencils of Etty, Haghe, Lee, Fahey,
Scanlan, Pitt, Wood, Boxall, Richmond, jutsum, Forrester, and many others.

Mr. Thomas contributed a beautiful marble chimney-piece, intended for
Mr. Peto, and a statuette of Ariel commanding the storm. Mr. Behnes, also
sent an excellent bust of Mr. C. Barry. Mr. Deighton's model of the
Kneller Hall Training School was an excellent specimen of Mr. Mair's archi-
tectural skill and taste. Among the principal of Salter's models were, Mr.
Fowler's New Holland Pier, and his Girder Bridge over the Trent ; Mr. Jee's
Dinting Vale Viaduct; Captain Moorsom's Viaduct on the Waterford Rail-
way i Mr. G. Edwards' Bridge over the Waveney ; Mr. Grainger's Bridge

over the Calder ; Mr. Stephenson's Tubular Bridge over the Menai Strait^ ;
and of the Bishop's Rock Pile Lighthouse, erecting in a most perilous
position, by Messrs. Walten and Biirges. Cochranc's Sawing-Macbine ex-
cited great attention ; as did Giirdon's Cata-Dioptric arrangement, and Wil-
kins's Fimrth Orrler Dioptric Light Apparatus.

The Earl of Kosse contributed the model of his maiinificent Telescope, as
did Mr. Cowper those of his own, Mr. Lassels's, and Mr. Nasmyth's method
of mounting Equatorial instruments.

The Electric Telegraph Company had a fine collection of working instru-
ments, and Messrs. Brett and Little contributed a series of theirs.

Mr. Strode's self-igniting gas burner, and Mr. Biddell's self-regulating
gas-burner, were both much admired.

Messrs. Adams exhibited a complete series of improvements in railway
carriages, permanent way, &c. ; and Messrs. Johnson and Cammell an
equally complete assortment of steel springs, files, &c.

Mr. Roberts had a beautiful collection of models and working instru-
ments, exhit)iting his usual talent of invention and beauty of execuiion.

Messrs. Mitchell had a series of models of the various applications and
mode of using the screw- pile and mooring. Very complete models wire
also shown, by Mr. Woods, of Clements' sugar-refinery, and of a rotative
tlynamometer.

Messrs. James Wall and Co., sent two curious models of an ensine with
an oscillating cylinder, made by Murdock in 1785, and of a locomotive
engine, by the same ingenious man, prior to 1784.

Messrs'. Ransome and May exhibited some shavings of cast-iron, cut by
tools of immensp power, from railway wheels.

Messrs. Maudslay sent a model of a large gun, intended to be loaded and
sponged by the hreech ; and a method of feathering paddles.

Messrs. Seaward and Co.. contributed a series of models of plans for
raising stern propellers; and Messrs Chubb also sent a beautiful specimen
of an iron chest, very superior in workmanship and design.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

April 30.— T. Bellamy, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

The first part of a paper by Mr. J. W. Papworth, '^On some Features nf
tlie Connection beficeen the Architectnre and Chronohyy of Egypt, vith an
account of a work by M. J. B. Le Sueur, 'On the Chronoloyy of Egypt illus-
trated by its Monuments'- — to which the medal of the Institute of France
was awarded in 18i7"— was read.

Recalling the traditionary origin and the literary, philosophical, and reli-
gious obligations of the Greeks to Egypt, the author proposed to consider
the debt of architecture owing to the Greek translation of Egyptian skill : —
for this purpose the first step would he to consider how the dates of monu-
ments generally were fixed ; next the monuments themselves would be de-
scribed and dated ; then their characteristic features could be placed in
tables, from which his deductions would be drawn. He took as his text the
opinions of Barry and of Jomard, " that the monuments alluded to are of
■very remote antiquity, or during the most flourishing period of the arts in
Egypt ; the general resemblance of the fluted columns to those of the Gre-
cian-Doric order is manifest; and, in addition to many other remarkable in-
dications in the Egyptian temple, clearly point to Egypt as the source tf
both Greek and Roman architecture." Slightly running through the stages
of discovery and arrangement, the author mentioned Mr. Wathen's book as
one in which his forlhcoming deductions were most decidedly contemned ;
and adding a notice of the scope and value of Mr. Sharpe's last work, pro-
ceeded to give some account of the great work of Le Sueur, beautifully
printed with moveable hiernylyphic type — Ihe first, and a splendid first, child
of the Republican Government Printing-Oflice. It contains, above all other
matters, the interesting translation and adaptation of the great chronologic
Canon of the Museum of Turin, in hieratic writing, formerly of very con-
siderable extent, — and which, if perfect, might have set at rest the qucestio
vexata of Manetho's Dynasties, for it is not divided into such portions, but
into eras.

The dates of Le Sueur, which give 5000 B.C. to the pyramid builders, ap-
pear extraordinary to those who with many English savans consider that
1800 is quite remote enough. In accordance with the more moderate dates,
a table was exhibited which showed the succession of the kings about to be
named ; and the author proceeded to show that the monumental history of
his art on one hand proved the table. — while the table, on the other, ac-
counted for the works. The Proto-Doric theory of ChampoUion, supported
by Jomard, Rosellini, and Wilkinson, was mentioned as having incurred
niuch ridicule ; and the theory of Lepsius, as to an Asiatic influence on
Egyptian art, was disowned by the author, — who proceeded, on the state-
ments subsequently made by Lepsius, to divide Egyptian architecture into at
least four classes or orders systematically arranged ; the third and fourth,
being imitative of nature, formed one division, — while the other was com-
posed of the first and second classes, illustrated by dated examples (from
Ghizeh, Karnak, and Quorneh for one period of art, and from Benihassan,
Karnak, Dair el Bahri, Medinet Aboo, Eleuthyias, Kalabshe, Amada, and
Samneh), whence the peculiar and geometric characteristics of the first divi-
sion were drawn and put into juxtaposition.

A discussion on this part of the paper being very probable, Mr. Papworth

25

186

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[[June,

was interrupted by the Cliairman with a request to reserve the remainder of
his [oper, which was nearly concluded, for another evening, so that llie dis-
cussion luiglit liave a tufficient period allowed to it. Messrs. Donahlson and
Titc made some remarks to the same cfl'cct; — and the meeting adjourned to
the 21st of May.

May 7. — This was the annual general meeting, and the following offiee-
heareis were elected for the ensuing year : — President : Earl de (irey ; Vice-
Presidents: T. Dcllamy, A. Salvin, and S. Smirke ; Honorary Secretaries:
T.L.Donaldson and J. J. Scoles; Council: W. J. D.mthoin, H. E. Ken-
riall, G. Mair, C. Mayhew, A. Mee, I). Mocatta, C. C. Nelson, C. Parker,
V. C. Penrose, and T.'H. Wyatt; Treasurer: Sir \V. R. Farquhar, Hart.

May 21 — Mr. J. W. Papworth read the concluding portion of his paper
commenced as aliove. He dwelt at some length on the progressive develop,
nient of the features of the third and fourth classes of his system ; which he
illustrated hy dated examples from Karnak.Gliijeh, Beni Hassan, the column
in the British Mustum, Luxor, and Elepliantis for one period of art ; and
from Phila;, Esneh, Dendera, Omhos, and Edfou ; whence the peculiar and
imitative characteristics of the second division were drawn and put into
juxtaposition. In summing up uU the above, the author considcreii tha the
had made it appear that two great epochs were established with certainty for
Egyptian arehitecluie, as well as for its political history,^ — each having its
particular style : the first which arose from rock cut constructions, and imi-
tatcd also in monuments above ground ; this style flourished in liie old Pha-
raonic reigns before the Hyksns invasions, renewed itself probably under the
seventeenth, and shows its last efforts under the eighteenth dynasty — under
which, and at the commencement of the glorious period of Egyptian supre.
macy must be placed that great change which operated probably not only
u]ion architecture, but on all the arts and on the entire civilisation of the
l)eople. Then was seen a new style of architecture ; which, however, had its
birth anteriorly, and by the side of the former style, embracing and develop-
ing \\iG principle of vegetation in its colu7nns, imitating in every point orga-
nic nature, and decorating them with allegoiic ornaments.

Mr. Papworth afterwards read a supplemental paper, being a translation of
the views of Lepsius " On the Relation of the later Egyptian Order to the
Greek Column."

SOCIETY OF ARTS, LONDON.

May 9.— W. TooKE, Esq., F.U.S., V.P., in the Chair.

Mr. D. Wyatt, architect, read a paper "On Metal Work and its Artistic
Design." — He commenced with some remarks on the absolute necessity of
the study of s/wcj/Jc rfespyn, in order to confine the errant imaginations of
artists witlun reasonable bounds, and in order fully to take advantage of all
tlie natural properties, mechanical capabilities, and recorded experiences pe-
ouliarly belonging to all materials, in the elaboration of which it is requisite
that an alliance between use and beauty may be effected. The author main-
tained that all propriety and perfection in manufacturing design were deriv-
able from the result of such studies, and that the more clearly the objective
individuality of every ingredient was preserved and enunciated in the finished
article, the more satisfactory to both eye and mind would the character of
its ornamentation appear.

The specific design of metal work was described as based on three great
studies, a thorough knowledge of which was requisite to all who would either
m.Tnufactnre, compose, or criticise in any one of its various ramifications.
The first of these was that of the distinctive characteristics and appliances
of each metal. The second, its form as modified by all the mcihanical pro-
cesses of manufacture. The third, a thorough analytical and critical acquaint-
ance with the best models in which reasonable and good proof of art can be
traced, and through modifications of which pleasing associations of idea
may be commanded at the will of the designer.

In accordance with his scheme thus laid down, the author proceeded to
deduce the correct theory of the iiianufaclure of each metal, from the pro-
perties with which it had been endowed by nature. He then described at
considerable length the process hy which almost all objects in metal must be
produced, dwelling on those best harmonizing with the character of each
substance, and the accredited conventionality of its use. Thus he emphasi-
i.'A the refining, beating into sheets, wire-drawing, stamping and torsion of
gold, the beating in a plate, gilding, dead silvering, parcel gilding, soldering,
&c. of silver, the hollow casting of bronze by means of wax and of moulds,
and the solid founding of iron in complex forms. Having disposed of the
structural processes, the author analysed the decorative or superficial ; enu-
ujerating the leading peculiarities of engraving — matting, niello, cooking,
liurni-hing; the six chief divisions of enamel, and three or four varieties of
damaskeening. Tlie mechanical limits of the art being thus pointed out, the
impressions suggested by the history of past chefs d'oeuvre were cursorily
csamined. The great antiquity of metal work, and its details, among the
.lews, Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Etrurians, and Komans, was
demonstrated from descriptions furnished hy various authors and by monu-
ments of wonderful merit still existing. The speaker passed quickly over
the mcdiieval portion of the subject; and concluded by calling attention to
tlie beautiful examples by which he was surrounded, and urging a systematic
recognition of first principles and practical details to he superadded to the
study of Eeauty and fine Art in the abstract.

May 16. — Mr. F. Whish aw read a paper " On tlie Importance of thorough
Ventilation in Collieries" by Mr. Edgington, the latter gentleman ex-
plaining, by diagrams on the walls, the various details.

After alluding to the vast importance of the subject, and the interest
which was at the present moment drawn towards it, the writer explained
the nature of fire-damp, or carburetted-hydrogen gas, which was continually
more or less being given out in coal mines ; and the several details of various
analyses which had been taken, all productive of different results, each pro-
ducing more or less of the light olefiant gas, hydrocarbon, &e. These
analyses were taken after treating the gases with caustic, potash, &c., to
free them from caibonic acid, which the writer regretted, as it would have
been desirable to ascertain what quantity of carbonic acid fire-damp in its
native state contained. The blue flickering flame seen towards the roofs of
fiery miiics arose from the presence of the bi-liydrate of carbon. He was
aware that some of the first chemists of the age approved of the use of
wire gauze as a preventive of the flame coming iu contact with the outer
atinos]}here; but he consiilered the safety of such a lamp very questionable,
particularly when affected by blowers, and when the interstices or meshes of
the wire gauze became clogged with the fine particles of carbonaceous mat-
ter floating about in all mines, when it caught fire and formed a conductor
to the outer explosive atmosphere, and from these circumstances he did not
think it entitled to the proud title of safety lamp. Wliat he meant by per-
fect ventilation was not a system aided by air-pumps, fan-blowers, high-
pressure steam, or other artificial means ; be wished to see a system hy
which a safety-lamp was not required, and the men might work securely by
caudles, and he believed it possible to adopt such a system of natural ven-
tilation round the face of the workings where the men were at work.
Under the present system, when an accumulation of fire-damp took place
along an unbroken wall at the back of the goaf, and exploded, the men are
thrown towards the open wnik, and their destruction is certain. The changes
continually taking place in the atmosphere of a mine are not noticed, as the
men, being intent on their work, cannot be always on the watch.

Mr. Edgington then proceeded to describe his plan of ventilation, for
which purpose he referred to several diagrams, and a plan of Haswell Col-
liery. It will, of course, be impossible to follow the explanation in the
absence of these; but the general plan recommended appeared to be with
two shafts, a down-cast and an upcast ; space should be left to ventilate the
back roads, and thus all gases set free will be immediately carried from the
men. The air is to he so split that one-half should ventilate the goaf and
the other half the coal face. There should be as many streams as there
were stalls ; and in these, when practical, the air should he returned. Mr.
Edgington then further described his new plans of cutting headings from
the roads to carry away the gas and air to the up-cast shaft, and connecting
all the high levels together to drain the roofs. His system could be carried
out in all existing workings, and the expense would be comparatively little
or nothing, in proportion to the good eftected, as naked candles might be
used, and the collier pursue his work iu perfect safety. He said the greatest
evil at present in existence in the northern collieries was the want of any
regulated arrangement in the ground works. In the Haswell Colliery (where,
in the last explosion, 75 lives were lost), for want of this arrangement,
there were no less than twenty. two current or divisions of air passing iu aU
directions, and counteracting each other. Under tlie new system, on re-
moving the walls, the currents of air should be reversed, and the safety of
the mine would be continued. He also explained how, in cases of fallen
roof, by cutting the end of the roadway up to a level with the roof or
cutting a way diagonally down to the roadway, the current of the air and
the gas would be continued uninterruptedly.

ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS.

April 9. — George Lees, A.M., V.P., in the Chair.

The following communications were made: —

"Account of a Binocular Camera, and of a method of obtaining Drawings
of Full Length or Colossal Statues, and of Living Bodies, which can he e.r-
hil/ited as solids ly the Stereoscope." By Sir David Brewster, F.R.S.

In this paper tlie author pointed out the changes which take place in tlie
visual representation of bodies of three dimensions, such as statues, build-
ings, and living bodies, when they are viewed at difft-rent distances by one
or both eyes, or when reduced copies of statues are viewed in a similar man-
ner. He showed that full length and colossal statues, as works of art, are
not so perfectly seen as reduced copies of them, and that there is ceteris
paribus a certain ratio between the distance of the eyes and the magnitude
of a body of three dimensions, when its visual form is best developed. The
author then described a Binocular Camera, and explained a method of ob-
taining by its means such dissimilar drawings on a plane of full length, and
cidossal statues and living bodies, as will give the best representations of
them in relief when united by the stereoscope. The Binocular Camera
described by the author is composed of two semi-lenses, obtained hy
bisecting an achromatic lens. These semi-lenses are placed at the distance
of the two eyes, or at such multiples of that distance as may be necessary to
take dissimilar drawings of full-sized or colossal statues, for the purpose of
reproducing the statue in the stereoscope. The author described and ex-
plained a method by which statues of all sizes, and living bodies, may be

1849.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

187

reproduced, as it were, and exliibited in three dimensions; and he pointed
out the great advantage whicli the sculptor would derive from the possession
of dissimilar drawings of works of art, and from the study of them when
viewed in their true relief in the stereoscope. A Microscopic Stereoscope,
with several curious diagrams, was exhibited, and, in paiticular, the effect of
dissimilar drawings, made by the Binocular Camera, of Danneker's statue of
Ariadne on the Leopard, when united in the stereoscope. The united
image stood out in high relief as in the original statue.

"Sequel to kis Description of a Revolving Yahjefar Locomotive and other
Steam-Engines." By John ANnERsoN, Esq.

A description of this vaUe was read to the Society in 18-16. The valve
has a rotary in place of a reciprocating motion, and Mr. Anderson considers
it much more suitable for locomotive steam-engines than the common
valves.

"On Improvements in the Roofs and Glazing of Conservatories and Hoi-
hotiscs, with a Drawing." By Mr. William Cooper.

In this paper the author remarks that the Romans glazed their hothouses
with a transparent substance, called lapis specularis, a fossil of the class of
"talcs," with which they were chiefly supplied from the Island of Cyprus,
and which is used to this day by lanthorn-makers j and so good a substitute
is it said to have been, that the Emperor Tiberius had cucumbers at his
table throughout the whole year. The author gives a description of the
magnificent conservatory at Chatsworth, constructed by Decimus Burton,
Esq., architect, London, for his Grace the Duke of Devonshire, at a cost of
32,000/., and containing 70,000 superficial feet of glass ; and such is its
extent, and convenient arrangement, that three or four carriages have been
driven in it at one time. Instead of wooden sash-bars, the author recommends
wrought-iion bars, galvanised, which are by far the best and cheapest in the
end, inasmuch as they require no painting, and are not subject to decay, the
galvanised iron being an effectual remedy against the action of oxygen.
The expense of copper bars of sufficient strength to bear a great weight of
glass (especially during a hurricane, which has been proved to press at a
weight of 501b. per superficial inch) entirely precludes its use fur conserva-
tories; besides, copper for this purpose is othernise objectionable, because
every drop of water containing oxide of copper carries death to tlie plants.
Glass is now very cheap, and, instead of using panes of glass six inches
square, as formerly, puttied close at the joinings, and which ciuses a drop of
water arising from the condensed vapour, and which is injurious to the
plants; the author recommends sheet glass from 30 to 60 inches long, and
from 6 to 9 inches wide, cut to an elliptic form at the ends and overlapped,
and to allow one half-inch of an opening at each joining, exactly at the
centre of the elliptic, puttying the remainder across in the usual way, thus
allowing breathing room to the plants, and the escape of the superabundant
carbonic gas emitted from them. The author exhibited two drawings of
conservatories of moderate dimensions, constructed on the most improved
principles, with central coned roofs ; the bend of the gkss forming an arch,
more effectually resists a storm. The air is heated by means of tanks and
hot-water pipes, being the nearest approximation of artificial to natural heat.
The best stones for pavement are found ou the estate of Lindsay Carnegie,
Esq., of Kinblethmont, near Arbroath. Glass ventilators are used instead of
the old method of ventilation by raising the sashes, which is attended with
risk and inconvenience, and often with serious injury to the plants. For
some purposes, and for angular roofs attached to garden walls, the author
recommends the use of rough plate glass ^ or f inch thick, on account of
. its cheapness and durability.

"Description of a Saw-Mill, intended for Colonial tise where Metal is
scarce and Wood abundant." By Mr. William Reid Douglas.

It was stated that this perpendicular saw-mill is particularly adapted for
colonial purposes, owing to the small quantity of metal required in its con-
struction— that it is also much simpler and less expensive in its construction
than the ones in general use, and is adapted to saw either round or square
timber. The motion is communicated to a shaft, on the one end of which
is fixed a fly-wheel, on the other a crank communicating the motion to the
working beam, the other end of which is attached to the under part of the
saw-frame ; on the same shaft is fixed an eccentric, which works a catch on
a small ratchet wheel fixed on the end of a wooden roller, on which the
rope winds as it draws forward the slide bench, the motion of which can be
retarded by the application of pulleys, if required.

"A Machine for Cutting down Standing Timlier, capalle of being used
by one man." By Mr. George D. Howell

The macliine is intended to be useful where labour is scarce. The saw
being fixed in a frame, admits uf one power pressing each way alternately.
The body of the machine is so constructed that it may be taken to pieces,
and rendered portable.

"An Improved Glazier's Machine." By Mr. George D. Howell.

This glazing machine, by being secured by the screw underneath, was
stated to be less liable to shift, or to jolt, or be unsteady, as when secured
with the pins in present use : and by having the cross-bar padded, secures
the paint inside from injury by friction. The common machine, it was
stated, could be altered to this plan, with comparatively little expense.

ON BOILER CRUST

Mr. William West, of Leeds, lately read the following paper before the
West Riding Geological and Polytechnic Society, "On tlie Component Parts
of the Crust or Fur in Boilers": — " It has been common to speak of bicarbon-
ate of lime, or carbonate of lime dissolved in water by excess of carbonic acid,
according to the opinions on a theoretical point of authors describing the
same substance, as yielding the crust, or 'fur,' of steam boilei-s; and either
to deny or overlook the share which sulphate of lime has in the formation
of this troublesome deposit. Among those who have gone so far as to deny
the existence, or, at least, the practical importance, of sulphate of lime in
these cruses, is Dr. Ritterbandt, the proprietor of a very ingenious, and, I
believe, in some situations, a very effectual patent method for preventing in-
crustations of the carbonate, by introducing chloride of ammonium into the
boiler. At that temperature carbonate of ammonia is driven off, and the
highly soluble chloride of calcium remains, in place of insoluble carbonate
of lime. I have, however, so often found in these crusts not merely a nota-
ble, but a considerable, portion of sulphate of lime, that I liave on different
occasions, when my subject required, called attention to its presence, and
expressed an opinion, which I have found much to confirm, that it is even
more troublesome antl mischievous than the carbonate alone. The specimen
now treated of was formed, under somewhat peculiar circumstances, in a
low-pressure boiler. It contains not a trace of carbonate, yields not a
bubble of effervescence with acids, and a portion dissolved in a large quan-
tity of water yields, with chloride of barium, a quantity of sulphate of
barytes, closely equivalent to what it would furnish if pure anhydrous sul-
phate of lime. It contains a little oxide of iron. It is not the curious salt
discovered by Professor Johnstone, containing half an atom of water to each
atom of sulphate of lime ; for ten grains, finely powdered, lost by exposure
to a red heat only three-tenths of a grain — less than a quarter of an atom
of water, and, therefore, hygrometric or accidental ; and the sulphate is es-
sentially anhydrous. The deposition of sulphate oi lime from a solution,
far below saturation, takes place in the manner which 1 described some
years ago, in the Journal of the Royal Institution. As each bubble of
steam is disengaged during brisk ebullition, the sulphate of lime, of course,
separates; for its re-solution time would be required, but tiefure that can
take place many other particles are separated, and these rapidly cohere into
portions large enough to subside and to resist yet more the solvent power of
the water. I have elsewhere, and on other occasions, stated my belief that
though gypsum, in its hydrous and ordinary crystals, is asofter mineral than
calc spar, yet that boiler crusts containing much sulphate of lime are harder
than those composed wholly or chiefly ol carbonate. The present specimen
curiously confirms this opinion. I am assured by the workmen that not
only was it with difliculty removed by the tools usually employed lor sucli
purposes, but that even the ' sate,' or hard chisel, used for cutting cold
iron, is sometimes broken or turned by this crust."

BRUNTON'S NEW COLLIERY VENTILATOR.

At Gelly Gaer Colliery, a ventilator upon an entirely new construction, in-
vented by Mr. Brniiton, has been erected under his superintendence, for the
special purpose of testing its power of rarefiotion. On Friday the 4lli ult.,
Thomas Powell, E-q., of the Gaer, proprietor of the colliery, together with
several practical and scientific gentlemen, attended to see the machine put
to work, and to ascertain its capability.

The machine is applied to the top of the upcast pit by a short tunnel or
air-course, and is driven by a steam-engine. By the principles of this ma-
chine, the air is subjected to the influence of centrifugal force, whereby any
degree of rarefaction necessary to the complete veutilatiun of a colliery may
be attained with the greatest economy of power. The rarefaction produced
was indicated by a water gauge ; and being carefully noted and compared
with the velocity of the machine, was found most satisfactorily to correspond
with theoretical deductions. The rarefaction maintained in the upcast pit
being equal to 2J inches of water, or 131b. on the square foot, of course
produced a strong current through the workings of the colliery, one of the
aii--ways of which, 20 yards long, has a mean area of 9^ superficial feet ;
yet such was the power of the machine, that 18,000 cubic feet per minute
were propelled through this passage at a velocity of 32 feet per second, and
afterwards in its way to the upcast pit, through au opening of only 4 super-
ficial feet area, at a velocity of 70 feet per second, exhibiting a degree of
rarei'aciion and power of propulsion (the chief objects of the experiment)
to the entire satisfaction of all the gentlemen present. The quantity of air
was measured carefully in its passage through one of the levels 6 feet
square, where it travelled 20 yards in 7 seconds.

The mechanism of the machine is of the most simple and integral cha-
racter; has no valves or separate moving parts; has no attrition, and all
the friction is resolved into a foot pivot moving in oil. When at rest, offers
no irapeduiient to the air ascending from the pit, — liable to no derangement,
and is very inexpensive: in short, it is a simple mechanical implement,
whereby any degree of rarefaction necessary to ventilation is rendered cer-
tain, regular, and under visible inspection, being subject to the law of central
forces, which is as fixed and determinate as that hy which a stone falls to
the earth.

On the following day a very important experiment was made by stopping

2a*

IS8

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNTAL.

[June,

the influx of air from the down. cast shaft, ami in less tlian five minutes
the » liiile of tlie colliery was thus artificially sulijected to a rarefaction equal
to. am] in its effect upon the gas in the coal corresponding with, a sudden
fall of the harometrical column of about two-tenths of an inch of mercury,
and tliis may be greatly increased.

To this capability of drawing ofT at pleasure the carburetted hydrogen
from the goafs and fissures, during the absence of the workmen and their
lights, and the re-introduction of fresh air before the men resume their
work, when the colliery will be found in a state of extraordinary purity of

atmosphere, the inventor looks with great confidence as the most efl'ectual
means of preventing fire-damps, and also of promoting the health of the
workmen. Mr. Calvert, a large coal proprietor, one of the gentlemen
present, was so satisfied with the utility of the machine, having been under-
ground duiing its operation, that he has since given Mr. Brunton aa order
for one to be fixed at liis colliery immediately. We congratulate Mr. Powell
on being the first to introduce so valuable an invention — the adoption of
which, we trust, will be the means of saving the lives of many of our
colliers.

PATENT BRICK AND TILE KILNS.

These kilns are introduced by the Ainslie Brick and Tile Ma-
chine Company, for burning bricks, tiles, and pottery ware, and
are constructed on an entirely new principle, viz. : — that of burn-
ing (lotvitwanl.t, in ])laee of upwards, in a close kiln, and of apply-
ing the surplus heat of the burning kiln, which is now lost, to the
complete drying and partial burning of the goods in the series of
kilns in connection. Their superiority to ordinary kilns consists —

Fint — in a saving of fuel of more than three-fourths. The
amount of fuel consumed in burning goods made from clay varies
materially, according to the nature of the clay. The clay at the
experimental works of the above company, at Alperton, is the
London clay, and is very strong. In a veiy good kiln there, of
the old construction, the quantity of coals used in burning 1.5,000
pipes of 1,|, inch diameter, 12 inches in length, is about 11 tons:
whereas, in one of the company's patent kilns 25,000 of the same
sized pipes, of the same clay, are burnt in a very superior manner
with only 1 ton and It to 16 cwt. of coals; a'nd in another of
larger dimensions, more recently erected, lOjOOO of the same sized
pipes are burnt with only 2^ tons ; and when the series of four is
complete, the company entertain no doubt of being able to burn
55,000 of such pipes with one ton of coals, or less than 1 cwt. per
1000. 'l"he kilns are equally adapted for wood and peat fuel.

Sflroiid — Tlie saving in time. In a kiln of the description com-
moidy used, the firing must be kept up for three or four days, but
in the patent kiln, it is only necessary to fire 2G to 2H hours.

Tliird — their superior cfl^ciency. In the common kilns, the loss
in breakage, and in over and underburnt goods, runs from 5 to 20
l)er cent., whereas, in the kiln here shown, there is no loss what-
ever.

Fourth— the. great simplicity. For burning tlie old kiln, con-
siderable skill and great experience are required, whereas, the
liatent kilns can be managed by the most inexperienced work-
man.

Fifth. — As the same heat is made to pass through a series of
two, three, or four kilns in succession, the last of the series is used
only i'or the purpose of shm-dryimj, and the goods are placed
m the kiln as soon as they have aciiuired sufficient consistency to
bear the superincumbent weight. The advantages of this arrange-
ment are, that in fine weather the goods can be placed in the kiln
the first or second day after they are made; in moist weather, in three

or four days thereafter; and the operation of brick and tile mak-
ing can thus be carried on throughout the whole year, with the
exception of the time of frost, — in place of five or six months
only, according to the old system; and an immense saving in the
extent of drying sheds is also thus efl^ected.

Sixth. — These kilns are so constructed as completely to consume
their own smoke.

Seventh. — A single kiln on this principle Ciin be used, but the
saving is greater in using the series.

The kilns may be seen in use at the Tile Works at Alperton,
near Acton, Middlesex.

ON THE SEWERAGE AND OTHER WORKS OF
CHESTER.

A very able Report to the Tovvn Council of the City and Bo-
rough of Chester, on the Sewerage and other works under the
Improvement Act, has just been issued by Mr. Baylis, the Borough
Surveyor, from which we make the following extracts.

The Report commences by showing that the mortality of Ches-
ter is at the rate of ] out of 32'() of the population ; ami tliat the
unhealthy state of the city may be greatly attributed to the im-
l)roper supply of water, pumped up from the river without filter-
ing.

It next describes the present system of sewerage, and gives a
tabular statement of the old sewers, and the length of new sewers
required. The following table will show the proportions and the
cost : —

Estimate fur completmr/ the system of Sewerage, including the Cross
Drains, Traps, Gratings, ijC.

Sen-era

ft.

in. ft. in.

Lenglli in yards.

Price.

te s.

1 Class

... s

... 3

6 by 2 S ..
3 " 2 6 ..

4;i5

231

. . 22s

6-14 10

2 " ....

.. 20s

.... 231 0

3 " ....

... 2

9 " 2 3 ..

8.'i8

.. 183

.... 772 4

4 " ....

2

7 " 2 0 ..

1U28

.. ICs

.... 822 8

5 *' ....

... 2

4 " 1 !) ..

J4.54

.. 143

.... 2417 16

li "

•>

0 " 1 (J . .

3773

.. 12s

.... 2263 16

7 •• ....

... 12

in diameter

23U3

.. lOs

.... 1181 10

^ H233 4

Sewerage. — .Muih dilTerence of opinion exists as to the proper size for

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

189

sewers for town drainage. The Metropolitan Commissioners recommend
tlie tubular system, varying from G to 24 inches in diameter, Vfith a double
line of pipes, and in low districts converging towards a central well, from
whence the sewage is to be pumped hy a steam-engine, and forced to an
outlet on the banks of the tiver. In the carrying out of this system, it was
intended only to have them of the bare minimum capacity required for
house drainage, and storm water was to find exit in any way it coulil.

The Metropolitan Commissioners also condemned the sewerage works of
the City of London, and the Corporation in consequence called in Messrs.
Walker, Cubitt, and Brunei, the eminent engineers, to examine and report
upon them. The report repudiated the idea of reducing the size of the city
sewers, generally approved of the system adopted there, and recommended
the extension of it to undrained streets and a system of flashing. They
further state that London is the best drained city in the world, and that it
is in advance of, and has taught all other cities lessons in sewerage.

Manchester, 1 believe, is the only town that has taken the initiative from
the sanitary reports, and generally introduced tubular sewers, which if more
efficient than brick construction, are also much more costly, as will appear
by the following table : —

Egg-shaped Brick Sewers of
tbe 3:ime ca[)!iciLy.

2^. 6t1. per yard.

3s. 0 1.

.Is. (Id. "

Egg-shaped Tubular Sewprs.
In. In. Per Yard.

12 by 1) at 4s. Od.
16 '• 12 " Ts. 6d.

20 " 15 " 10s. ed.

S.'i '

' 18

15s. IJd

29 '

' 21

' 21s. Od

36

' 24

' 27s. Od

Od.
Si.
Ud.

Tliis is exclusive of excavation iu both cases.
An ingenious gentleman, named Wilkinson, of Newcastle, has invented a
material for sewers, wljich he states is coniposeil of a cement made in a pe-
culiar way, and which will increase in hardness with age ; it possesses
advantages over similar articles made of clay, as it does not warp or twist,
and the inverts can be made in 12 feet lengths, and tbe smaller size pipes in
4 feet lengths, they have also loose covers, so that they can be readily
examined at any time. The prices are as follows : —

2 inches bore 3d. per foot. (J inches bore Ud. per foot.

3 " 4d. •• 10 " Is. 4d. '■

Sewer in Blocks, 4 feet by 2 ft. C in., Ss. per foot.
Blocks for Inverts, 2s. per loot lineal.

The tubular system of sewers as a whole is not generally adapted for
towns, it may suit small tovins, or small collateral streets of large ones, but
they have not yet been manufactured large enough to be suitahle as main
drains for the drainage of large areas.

The sizes of sewers must depend entirely upon the area to be drained and
the fall or declivity to be obtained to the point of discharge, and at the
same time, they should be large enough not only for house drainage, rain
and stone water, but an allowance should be made for extraordinary storms.
It has been the custom with all our eminent liydraulic engineers not to ap-
portion their hydraulic or other works to the bare minimum duty they have
to perform, but to make due allowance for any unforeseen contingencies.

This has been strongly confirmed by the report on the City of London
above alluded to, in which it is stated that sewers should be large enough
to admit a man for the purpose of repair or to remove deposit, and that the
size for the main sewers should be 5 feet hy 3 feet, and secondary sizes
3 feet by 2 feet. They further state that the air of small sewers is worse
than large ones, and that no evil effect can be apprehended from well-
constructed brick sewers with a good fall and well cleansed, and they act as
under drains for the surrounding earth, which tbe entire substitution of
earthenware pipes wlih tight joints, would practically prevent.

Sewers with an Inclination of 1 In 250 will keep themselves clean, without
the aid of flashing; but when the Inclinations exceed that, a system of
flashing is indispensable to prevent deposit. But I consider in every case
an occasional cleansing of the sewers, where a current of water cannot be
obtained to pass through them, beneficial, as It tends to sweeten and purify
them, and is the means of removing the causes of noxious exhalations.

The form of sewer I have adopted is one approximating to tbe egg-shape
(tbe true egg-form not having yet been coricctly developed for sewerage
purposes), the arch is semi-circular, and the invert a series of segments. It
departs as little as possible from the strong and advantageous form of the
circle, (which is the figure of greatest capacity with an equal circumference)
while from placing the narrow end downwards, it concentrates the flow of
the water over a smaller area, reduces the friction, and thereby adds mate-
rially to Its capability of discharging fluids.

It is generally considered that the cylindrical is the strongest form that
can be adopted for sewers; but there are other questions to be taken into
calculation, as before stated, besides strength, viz., the best shape for the
passage and discharge of fluids, and that is now generally admitted to be the
egg shape.

I would strongly recommend for our future operations, the use of the
Portland or lias cements for the Inverts of our sewers, and blue lias lime
for the arches, as no other material should be used than good hydraulic
mortar in structures that are iu any way exposed to the action of water,
and where durability is desired.

The Portland and blue Has cement is cheaper than the Roman cement,
as it will bear a greater proportion of sand, while its strength and dura-
bility is superior. Puzzolano or T'erras are good hydraulic cements for
sewers, though probably more expensive than those above staled. From
e.xperimenta recently made, 1 find that smiths' ashes, or black oxide, adds

very materially to the strength of hydraulic mortar, though it adds also a
little to the expense. I think if ariaugements could be made, it wimld be
desirable to have the inverts of our sewers manufactured iu blocks, say
one foot or more wide, and two or three feet lengths, so as to have as few
joints as possible in the invei'ts ; and this might be further improved by
having tbe Interior surface glazed. 1 have made Inquiries from various
manufacturers, and they state there would be dilficulty in making them.
Again, it may be a question whether or not a smoother Invert may be
formed by rendering the interior surface of the brickwork over with
cement, as Is the practice of some eminent architects.

The same objection applies to the formation of the inverts of our sewers
in tbe rock, as to the dry brickwork alluded to above — the sewage will be
certain to percolate through the fissures in the rock. Tiie inverts of
sewers should invariably be made impervious to moisture.

Ventilation of Sewers. — Much of the otl'ensive gas that now escapes from
our sewers, might be prevented by trapping the openings elTeciually, and
by connecting air-shafts or flues with the sewers, or the walls of the
hishest houses on the summit levels, so that the foul air may be sent ia
the atmosphere, and dispersed where It could not possibly be injurious or
offensive. This is a plau I proposed two years ago, it is very simple ia
Us nature, and would, I think, prove effective.*

In London they are trying experiments to burn the gases by placing fires
on gratings over openings in the sewers made for that purpose; from
which it is proposed, I believe, to carry large chimney shafts to convey
away the smoke and effluvia: but this Is an expensive operation.

Contracts. — I would again endeavour to impress upon you the impor-
tance of conducting our sewage works on a diiferent principle than we
have hitherto done. I would recommend the earthwork to be let by con-
tract; the brickwork 1 would execute, and I would employ first-rate
workmen, at good wages, for that purpose. The bricks, cement, and
niurlar, we should find ourselves; and the whole should be done under
competent inspection.

At the present time it is necessary to have an inspector at the sewers, to
see tiiat the brickwork is executed properly by the contractor. This
same person could superintend the bricklayer as well as he could the
workmen of the contractor, and thereby save the contractor's profit, which
amounts to considerably more than his wages would come to; besides, we
should have more efllcient work. Mr. Newlaud, the borough engineer of
Liverpool, has adopted the plan, and approves of it. He calculates it
saves from 25 to 30 per cent.

Gratings. — It has been a practice with nie to place our sewer gratings
about fifty yards asunder ; they are made slightly, dished in the middle,
and with bars about | in. apart, so as ell'ectually to prevent stones and
other solid substances getting into the sewer : the bars are also beveled on
the under side, so as to prevent the dirt clogging to them. They measure
IG in. by 13^ in., and are about 2 cwt. each, and ne connect,tbeni with the
sewer with 9-in. pipes. Tbe old gratings weighed about 5 cwt, and
measured 30 in. by 24 In., with b.irs Ij In. to 2 iu. asunder. I often found
them connected with the sewer by 9 la. drain pipes, of an area of 03 in.,
while the clear area or space between the bars was about 351 inches.
The old traps also were of similar huge dimensions as to area.

I have recently introduced side gratings fitted into the curb stones, which
are more eliiclent, and not so unsightly as the old gratings; these, I find,
are recently introduced into Liverpool, and they have for many years been
adopted iu Birmingham and Paris.

In London, Liverpool, and other towns glazed pipes only are allowed
to be used, and in the former places they are uow entering into large con-
tracts fur supplies of them. Glass pipes are now being manufactured lor
the purposes of drainage and as water mains; from their straightness and
extreme smoothness, they will discharge a greater amount of fluid than
glazed pipes, but their high price, which is as follows, is rather an obsta-
cle to their nse.

1 inch 7d. per foot. Ji inch 141. per foot.

IJ •' 8d. " 24 " VA.

U " 9J. " 2i " Ifd. "

Ij " Hid. " 3 " 2Ud. "

2 " 12J.

The ends of the pipes are now annealed, so they are not so liable to
fracture as when first made, and tbe manufacturers have invented a collar
and cement that is used for the purpose of joining them together, and
which makes a perfectly water-tight Joint.

As the best security against the passage of foul air from sewers and
drains, all openings should be trapped, and the most etfectual trap I con-
sider yet invented for house drains is the syphon trap of glazed stone
ware. I have recently introduced the patent valve trap, the pipe being
composed of glazed sluue ware, and the valve of galvanized iron, but I
have discovered that it is not so effectual as the syphon trap, as you cannot
ensure tightness at all times, but they eflfectually prevent vermin getting
up the drains.

Street Cleansing. — The thorough cleansing of the streets of towns has a
salutary effect on the health of the inhabitants. Our principal thorough-
fares should be swept daily, and the Inferior streets twice or thrice a week,
and at the same time the streets are swept, the courts should be cleansed
likewise. Our principal streets contain 22,202 superficial yards ; second

* Tliis system ol ventilation is vicious in princple; by it the air w« breathe would liecome
contaminated. By the action of Ihe wmd, the upper stratum of air becomes iatermingted
with the lower stratum.— £d. C.E, & A. Journal.

190

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

I June,

class streets, 19,061 yards; anil the tliinl class 32,.'jl5 yardj; making a
total of 73,803 yards, which will require tlie labour of ■49 able-bodied men
to cleanse daily, and if cleansed as above slated, 18 ahle-hoilied men. There
are several methods recommended and adopted for cleansing streets — viz.,
by means of jets of water, (as adopted at Philadelphia), tlie patent sweeping.
machine, and hy hand labour.

Cost of cleansing by means of Jetsof Water, 5\ I. per 1000 yards.

Patent /«;jchlne KU'l.

fexperinunls nt Salfnrd) 83<1.

hand labour (able bodied) 18d. - — —

[jaiiper hand labour .... '..Md.

The followin;; is the resiili of expTiments tried by Mr. Chadwick,
niemiier of the Board of Health, in I'all-Mall, Loudon, to ascertain the
relative cost of the two systems of hand-labour: —

Tha price for sweepin.; P.dl.Mall was by pauper labruir .^s. lOd.
^^— ^— tree 2s. (I.I.

The paupers were paid 3.?. lOi/. a-day, the free labonrers 2s. Gil.

The system of pauper labour has had a fair and impartial trial on the
turnpike roads throu^hdnt the kingdom ; and if the opinion of such men
as Telford and Macadam are worth anything, it has been jusily con-
demned, and generally abandoned on the score of inefTicieucy and costli-
ness.

Street Surfaces. — The best material for the surface of streets has been
a subject of much controversy.

Macadam's system of making and repairing street surfaces with stones
broken small, resting upon the subsoil, is erroneous in principle: Tel-
ford's, with a solid foundation of sand or other slones, set or pitched by
hand, and covered wilh a coating of durable granite, whin, or quartx
rock, is much to be prt- ferred ; iti fact I consider the roadway of streets
formed with small broken stones totally inapplicable for towns, as being
expensive, unhealiliy for the inhabitants, and also as the means of adding
very considerably tu the labour of horses in draught.

The round or boulder stone pavement is also open to objection, as it al-
lows the liquid tilili to perforate through the large open fissures into the
subsoil, wilh which it becomes saturaied, and in certain states of tlie
w eatlier, gives olf offensive exhalations; and as generally constructed, with-
out a proper foundation, the stones being irregular in size, yield, in ditfer-
cnt proportions to the weight passing over them according to the super-
ficial area of the bearing surface of the stones, which form ruts and hol-
1 jws, and disagreeable inequalities in the streets.

But a good pavement may be formed of the round pebbles, provided a
foundatiiiu of concrete or other solid material is previously prepared, and
the slones carefully sorted, so as to have them of one uniform size.

As the best and most economical mode of preparing the roadway of
streets, I would recommend the square set pavement, composed of granite,
whin, or other equally durable stone, in blocks carefully squared, 6 to
7 inches deep, 2^ to 3 itches thick, and not exceeding 1 foot in lengib, to
be set in the streets in regular transverse courses, about IJ inch asuncier,
so as to alford a good foothold for the horses, and the lower part of the
cavity between the stones filled up with good sharp gravel, and the upper
part mixed with a little asphalle, so as to prevent moisture from penetrating
through.

The foundation I would have prepared with concrete 12 to 18 inches
thick, according to the amount of the traftic of the street; it may be
formed of gravel, broken stone, or burnt clay, as may be found the most
economical, mixed with a proportion of hydraulic lime and sand, and this
thrown upon the prepared surface of the street from an altitude and after-
wards shaped to the requisite curvature, and of one uniform thickness,
will make a sound and durable bed for the st-ts.

The curvature of a street should form a segment of a circle, with a
versed sine of not more than is required ju^t to throw oU' the surface
water. The great error in the form of many of our streets is the extreme
roundness that is given to the cross section. I consider that a versed sine
of four inches in a street thirty feet wide, ample.

The cost of the dilferent systems are as follows : —

Macailemized Roads; is. per superficial yard ; if on pitched foundation,
6s. 6d. ditto.

Pebble Paving: 2s. per superficial yard ; if on concrete foundations, is.
ditto

•Srjuare Sets: 4». per superficial yard; if on concrete foundation, Gs.
ditto.

Curb Stones. — The material for curb stones I shonlil prefer of granite, or
ether stone equally strong and durable. When set in their places, the face
of the stone should he previously wrought to suit the bevel of the wheels of
carriages. They should be set level with the crown or middle of the street.
If an arrangement could be made so that the curb and channel stones could
be formed in one piece of stone, with the channel merely hollowed out at
the angle or foot of the curb, so as to receive the surface water, they would
make better channels for its passage, and less liable to be deranged.

Chanml Stoves. — The old channels are so badly constructed as practically
to reduce the width of the i.treets some three or four feet; but I have intro-
duced an improved method of paving them with square steps, by which
means the whole width of the carriage mad can be used up to the curb stones.
I have used as a further improvement stones prepared purposely for channels
ten inches wide and six inches deep, which makes a better channel, from
having but few joints, for the passage of surface water ; but a channel formed
out ol the curb stones hollowed out at the angles, would make a better channel.

Reservation of Tnum Manures. — The whole of the liquiJ refuse of our
towns has Uw a long period been allowed to run to waste, and it is not
until recently Ihat alirutiun has been turned to its value as a manure for
land, and to the practicability of conserving it for that purpose.

in some of the continental towns it has been practised for a considera-
ble period on a small scale, but it has been left to the enlightened men of
this country and the present generation to develope plans to carry out its
principles and to effect the object.

It is the general opinion of those scientific men who have turntd their
attention lo this subject, that the liquid manure of towns is worth at the
minimum 10s. per annum for every inhabitant, and some assign a much
higher value to it.

But if we assume the minimum price at 10s. per head, Chester, with
its population, should produce near 12,000/. per annum ; but this of course
would not be net income, as itcould nut be obtained without a considerable
preparatory outlay and annual expense.

At Edinburgh, Ashburton, Mansfield, and Manchester, it has been tried
on a limited scale ; and it appears from the reports given of their works,
with a favourable result; but it is yet to be st en whether, when applied
on a general system, such great benefits can be derived from it as those
theorists, who have so warmly taken up the question, seem to anticipate.

In Edinburgh, where it has been practically applied to about forty acres
of barren laud, it has enhanced its annual value from 3s. to iOl. and 41)/.
per acre ; but the cost of the feeders and the preparation of the land was
25/. per acre.

Mr. Newlands, borough engineer of Liverpool, estimates the sewage
water of Liverpool to be worth, at the rate above stated, 185,000/. ; thai
if raised by steam-power 200 feet, it might be made to irrigate Oi),000
acres of laud in the Vale of Alt, but the cost of the preparation would
amount to 600,000/., which he considers quite a bar to the scheme, even
if the water cost them nothing.

He estimates the expense of pumping the sewage to be as great as the
supply of water to Liverpool.

He further states that the sewage of Liverpool would amount to eighteen
millinu tons per annum ; that as it could not be applied to land at all
seasons, it would require reservoirs to store it up, and they would occupy
GOO acres of land. The engine necessary to raise it would be 600-horse
power, and the total expense of land, reservoirs, engines, pipes, appa-
ratus, &c., would be 15,000,000/., and the annual expenditure 1,225,012/ ,
which, if applied to 900,000 acres of land (or a square of nearly 38 miles
on the side that he calculated) it would fertilize, the prime cost of the
manure would be about 1/. 7s. per acre for the manure.

According to this estimate, the total expense of the works would be
about 40/. per head, and the annual expenditure about 3/. 6s. per bead of
the population.

In Manchester the system has been practically tested. The manure is
brought from the sewers to the banks of the canal, where it is stored in
tanks at 3s. per ton, and the contents of the tanks are transferred, by
means of a syphon, info barges that are used to convey it to wherever it is
wanted to be applied.

It is applied to the land by means of canvas hose, and forced, by a small
steam-engine on board tlie vessel, to about half a mile on either side of
the canal. The cost of irrigating is about Is. per ton ; and it takes three
tons to the acre of concentrated manure, diluted with from three to six
times its vveight of water. This, according to the opinion of iNIr. Smith,
of Oeanston, and other eminent scientific agriculturists, is the cheapest
and most effectual way of manuring land — viz., by applying it in a liquid
state ; as when manures are applied dry, or in the ordinary way, they
must be dissolved in water before they can be appropriated or absorbed
by the plants.

I'he manure, when applied as proposed, in a liquid form, disappears
from the surface in about three hours, and cattle will eat the grass on the
following day.

The Liquid Manure Company of Manchester charge for twenty tons of
sewage 1/. per acre for irrigating laud, and 6d. per mile additional from
the source of supply. It is slated Ihat uear ftlanchestcr a comparative
experiment was made of the effect of liquid manure and guano. Onecwt.
of the Peruvian guano dissolved in water, was substituted for a ton of
the undiluled manure, and applied to ditlerent parts of the field. The
superior effect of the liquid manure upon the land was pointed out by the
prtiprietor, who was ignorant of the substitution.

Mr. Higgs's method it appears was brought before the public in the
year 184G,and iu the subsequent year it had ihe sauctiou of ihe legisla-
ture in an act for putting it into operation in Bermoiidscy, iu the county of
Surrey ; but previous to the erection of the extensive works by the act, it
was thought advisable to erect experiiiienlal works, where every opera-
tion might be fully tested by actual woi king. This was done at Northum-
berland Wharf, London, and fully verified the most sanguine expectations
which had been formed of its success. These experimental works were
visited by many scientific gentlemen, who invariably expressed satisfaction
at the results ; they were likewise inspected by the cousulling engineer,
and chief surveyor of the iMetropolitaii Commission of Sewers, who, in a
report to that commission, say — " Under proper regulations, we believe
that the work may be accomplished without anuoyauce to the neighbour-
hood, and with considerable advantage to the river Thames, by the inter-
ception of solid matter. It appears a simple scheme that deserves eucuu-
ragemeut, promising iu its character, and luexpeusive to work."

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

191

If these plans are carried out, it will be necessary to abolish all cess-
pools, so that all the valuable mailer that now flows into them may be
conieyed away to the collecting tanks, where it will subside and undergo
the process of deodorization and distribution.

Courts.— Our courts are what are usually denominated Cul de Sacs, and
but few, if any of ihem, are of an area suflicient for the number of the in-
habitants, if we allow the usual average of 25 square yards for each in-
dividual, the minimum area that health demands. Being very narrow, and
generally closed at one or both ends, they are very imperfectly ventilated,
anil therefore a larger area per inhabitant should be afforded them, if the
health of the city is to be maintained; or the number of the inhabitants
should be reduced to the minimum the space will allow, according to the
preceding scale.

NOTSS OF "ZnS r<£CNTK.

The Floating Railway Bridge for the Frilh of Tag. — This novel and fx-
traordinary piece of naval architecture has had her engines fitted at Mr.
Napier's dock, at Lancefield. She lately made an experimental trip down
the river to Greenock and hack. The vcsssel is of iron, 175 ft. long, 34 feet
broad, and 10 feet deep, the bottom being a very flat curve ; both ends are
alike, and quite square, so as to abut against the quay, and receive the
trains on deck from either end. The deck is flush, and clear fore and aft,
and on it are three lines of rails, so as to enable it to take the longest train
likely to require it. The steering wheel is amidship, elevated between the
paddle-boxes, and connected with the rudders at each end by long chains ; as
the vessel will not he turned, these rudders will, of course, be used alter-
nately, as either end becomes the stern. There are two engines entirely in-
dependent of each other, and instead of a shaft connecting the pa.idles,
each is moved solely by one engine, by which means extraordinary com-
mand is obtained over the movements of the gigantic machine, independent
of the rudders. The diameter of the cylinders is 56 inches, with a 3 ft. 6 in.
stroke; the valves work with great ease, and each engine is 100-horse
power. The valve gear is on deck ; there are two eccentrics which are
tlirown alternately in and ont of gear, as either end of the vessel becomes
in turn the head. The boilers are amidships, with a clear space all round
for facility of cleansing and repairs. Slie draws but little water, made eight
knots per hour, and is expected to be in operation in two months. There
are two small extra pumps for supplying the boilers, in case of the water
running low, and every precaution appears to have been taken to prevent
accident.

Marine Engines. — Mr. Napier, of Glasgow, is now constructing a pair of
engines for the American mail steamers, with cylinders 9G inches diameter.
When completed they will be nearly 900-horse power.

Exhibition of Machinery at Ghent. — A special exhibition of machinery,
frames, looms, and implements of trade (of Belgian or foreign make) em-
ployed in the manufacture of yarns and tissues of all sorts, is to be opened
at Ghent (on the occasion of the exhibition of the produce of the indu try
of Flanders) in the month of July. Special rewards, consisting of com-
memorative medals, of gold, silver, and bronze, will be awarded to such ex-
hibitors as shall appear to merit such a distinction.

Mode of Silvering Glass hy the Employment of Gun-cotton. — M. Vohl
has recently discovered that a solution of gun-cotton, in a caustic ley, pos-
sesses, in a high degree, the property of precipitating silver from its solutions
in the metallic form. In fact, on bringing gun-cotton into contact with a
caustic ley, of sufficient strength, the cotton will become dissolved in the
ley, giving out ammonia with a considerable degree of heat, and producing
a deep brown liquor, somewhat thick ; on pouring an acid into this, a brisk
effervescence is produced, carbonic acid and nitrous acid being disengaged.
The action of the gun-cotton, in this instance, shows that it is not simply
dissolved, but undergoes decomposition, by which the atoms of oxygen, in
the nitric acid, enter into combination with the atoms of carbon in the gun-
cotton, thus producing carbonic acid, which, as well as the nitrous acid pro-
duced by the nitric acid, combines with one part of potash. A fresh decom-
position of nitrous salt by the potash, in presence of hydrogenated sub-
stances, furnishes ammonia. The most remarkable property of this alkaline
solution is the following: — On pouring into it a few drops of a solution of
nitrate of silver, and adding ammonia until the oxide of silver formed is re-
dissolved (the mixture being slowly heated in a water bath), the liquor will,
at a certain period, assume a dark brown colour, and eflfervescc, the whole of
the silver being precipitated on the sides of the vessel. The mirror thus
produced is much superior in brilliancy to those produced by means of etherial
oils or ammoniacal aldehyde; and the facility with which it is produced
will doubtless render it of practical importance. This property is not exclu-
sively possessed by gun-cotton ; it is found also in cane sugar, sugar of
milk, manna, gums, and other substances which may be rendered explosive
liy treating them with nitric acid. Picro-aznic acid produces, under the
same circumstances, a reflective metallic surface; and it appears that this
reaction takes place with all bodies which, when treated with nitric acid, do
not furnish products of oxidation, but another series of bodies which admit
of carbonic acid for forming one of their constituent parts, since they at
the same time give up an equivalent of water. — Tecknologiste.

Method of Cleaning Vessels and other Articles of Silver. — Boil thirty
grammes of finely pulverised and calcined hartshorn in a quart of water,
and while on the fire put as many silver articles in the vessel used for boiling
as it will hold, and leave them there for a short time ; then withdraw them,
and dry them over the fire. Continue this until all the articles have been
treated in the same manner. Then introduce into the hartshorn-water clean
woollen rags, and allow them to remain until saturated; after which, dry
them and use them for polishing the silver. This is also the best substance
which can be employed for cleaning locks and brass bandies of room doors.
When the silver articles are perfectly dry, they must be carefully rubbed
with a soft leather. This mode of cleaning is excellent, and much prefer-
able to the employmeut of any powder containing mercury, as mercury has
the effect of rendering the silver so brittle as to break on falling. — Ibid.

Method of Soldering Cast-iron with Wrought-iron. — The following pro-
cess has been recommended for this purpose : — First melt filings of soft cast-
iron with calcined borax in a crucible; then pulverise the black vitreous sub-
stance which is thereby produced, and sprinkle it over the parts which are
intended to be united; after which, heat the pieces of cast and wrought iron
and weld them together on an anvil, using only gentle blows. This method
is peculiarly applicable for the manufacture of iron articles which are in-
tended to be made red hot, and are required to be impervious to fluids or
liquids ; as such a result cannot he obtained by simple fastening. — Ibid,

Self-Lighting Gas Burner. — A self-igniting gas-burner, invented by Mr.
Strode, of St. Manin's-le-Grand, is an adaptation of the zinc hydrogen, or
Duhriener's light, to the purpose of lighting a jet, or other burner, of coal-
gas. In this case, however, the hydrogen gas is generated in an impi-oved
manner by the galvanic action of a small battery of amalgamated zinc and
platinised silver plates, immersed in sulphuric acid, diluted largely with
water. The hydrogen gas so generated, is directed through a fine jet on a
hall of spongy platinum, and, when ignited, moved across the coal-gas
burner. The two cocks are ingeniously connected by means of a brequet
movement ; and an instantaneous light is thus produced by one movement
of the hand. The eff^'ct is magical, and pretty in the extreme ; and the ap-
paratus, which is small and portable, is a very becoming burner for the office
desk or library table, where we have no doubt it will be extensively used and
appreciated, as soon as Mr. Strode shall have announced it as ready for
general sale. So far it has only been used privately in the way of experi-
ment; but several months' constant use have served to prove its perfect uni-
formity of action. The safety it affords, by the avoidance of the use of
lucifer matches, is a consideration which will weigh with the prudent; and
the ease with which it is lighted and extinguished, will be very valuable, if
only in the avoidance of unnecessary heat. For chambers, bed-rooms, offices,
and libraries, in private houses, and for the ball table at night, it is perfect,
and, above all, safe. It is also easily connected to the ordinary gas branches
by a union connection fitting the common burner screw, and a flexible or
other tube.

Machine for Manufacturing Envelopes. — M. RiSraond, of Birmingham, has
just constructed a very ingeidous and complete machine for the manufacture
of envelopes. The machine, we are informed does its work in a very elB-
cient and admirable manner, the envelopes which it turns out being more
perfect and uniform in their construction than those produced by hand in
the ordinary manner ; but tlie quantity of work which the machine accom-
plishes is the most astonishing. Supposing it to be turned by manual labour,
one man, with the aid of three or four young girls or boys to gather the
envelopes, would, it is calculated, by its lueaus, be able to manufacture from
30,000 to 3.5,000 in an ordinary working day, the paper being cut before-
hand ; while an expert baud, in the ordinary way, exclusive of the cutting,
cannot, upon the average, make more than 2,000 in the same manner as
those in question, which have a device stamped upon them at the point
where the seal is usually placed.

Stvivel Bridges. — Mr. Dodd, of St. Vincent-street, Glasgow, has designed
a swivel bridge, for the Midland Junction liaihvay, to cross the Clyde canal
at Falkirk. The two main beams of the bridge are constructed of hollow
rectangular panelled tubes of wrought-iron, stretching across the water-way ;
they are stayed transversely by wrought-iron tension-rods and diagonal
timber-frames, and are further supported from the centre cast-iron pivot by
four cast-iron box-beams, which act as struts, and convey the strain from the
roadway to the top of the pivot. Two open ornamental cast-iron frames rest
one on each side of the upper circular plate of the pivots, and ate attached
together at top by a capital, and carry the saddle for two dia.;onal tension-
rods, bolted to the girders, which they stifi'en to a great extent. The pivot
is in form of an inverted truncated cone, c\lindrical at its U|)per end, where
it is guided hy a set of stationary anti-friction pulleys. The bottom enters a
small chamber through a water-tight stuffing-box, in connection with a
hydrostatic ram, by which water can be pumped in beneath the cone, whiL-h
will elevate the whole structure, sufficient to clear the bearings, when it can
be swivelled round. This is eft'ected by two hydraulic rams, placed horizon-
tally at right angles with each other, working a shaft, around which and
the cylindrical top of the pivot, is an endless chain, the communication of
the movement of the rams to which may be effected by the adoption of
various mechanical arrangements, according to circumstances.

Guildford Drainage. — The various plans for the drainage of Guildford,
sent in competition, were submitted by the committee to Mr. Ilosking for
examination, to assist them in making the award. Three plans have been
selected for final consideration — " Pioneer," " Specula," and " C. Engineer."

192

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JlNE,

Railway Bridr/es. — Upon the extension line of the IMackwall R,iilway, from
stepney to Bow, are tivo bridRes, wliich are of a peculiar I'unn, and the first of their
class ererled for railway pnrposes. The roiiiiway upon them is Bnpported on wrought-
iron girders, placed transversely hetween two arches, or ril)3, formed entirely of wrought-
iron. The clear span of one is IliMfeet, of the other 11*5 ft. Hin. Each arch or rib of
the latter bridge, which carries the railway over the Regent's Capal, is formed of a box
built with iron boiler-plates U-lf'ths inili in thickness, and anple-iron lirmly rjvetted
together, its breadth being 'J ft. lu in., ts depth about '2 feet, and sectional area Si square
inchffS, and Is connected at the base by a wrou^^it-iron tie-bar, which receives the horU
zoBtal thrust of the iirch, and Is formed of links having a total sectional area of fi'J square
inches, bolted togt-thei with bolts L'i inches in diameter, aided by eight others at each
joint, j inch in diameter. Between the tie bars and the arch a system of vertical and
diagonal bracing has been introduced, so as in a manner to distribute the weightof passing
loads equally over the whole arch. These ribs so formed are laid in cast-iron plates,
fixed at one end, and free to move at the other over rollers, so as to allow scope for the
expansion and contraction of the metal. The clear interval between the bearings is
lU; ft. Hin. and the rise of the arch is 8 feet to the underside of the box of which it is
formed, the roadway being benearh the arch, and abont 'J feet above the bottom of the
tie-bar. The structure is exceedingly light; but appears, nevertheless, sufficiently
strong to carry the weights wtiich may come upon it in practice, as far as the areas of
the arch and bowstring, or tie, are concerned, and has stood the test of a dead weight of
'-'40 tons (in addition to iis own weight of ^)'J tons), distributed in weights of 3-Li tons at
equal distances over its lengtli, with a deflection of 3 ll-lCths inches, and recovered
entirely its original position upon the removal of the load. As this proof exceeds con-
siderably any weight that can be brought upon it in practice, I am cf opinion tliat it
may be used with safety for the passage of trains : but as it is of so novel and light a
construction, and the action of the cro^s-braciiig and connection of the tie-bars have not
been ascertained by continueJ experiments of moving wt-ights, I sliould recommend that
it be examined from time to time, so that any defect, if it should exist, might be ascer-
tained, more particularly as the weight of the whole bridg-^ including the double line of
roadway and covering, only amounts to IW tons, and is very easily set in vibratory
motion by any moving power.— Capt. Simmons's Report. — [A small engraving of this
bridge i.t given in the Journiil of October last (Vol. XI., p. 30i>). and an engraving by the
inventor. Mr. Harrison, in tlie Journal for January 1848 p. 1. — Kd. C.E. & A. Journal.]

London and North Western Railway. — The new station at Euston-square
just opened, comprises a building 220 feet in length, by 170 feet in depth, designed by
Mr. P. C. Hardwicke. No expense has been spared to make it convenient, spacious, and
orna-nental. The cost is said to be about £150,CK)0. It contains all the necessary offices
for carrying on the business of this great estaldishment, including a large room, 75 lectin
length by 4.'> feet in width, for the purpose of holding the half-yearly and special meetings
of the proprietors. Several of the new offices aie already occupied, and when all the
offices are removed to the new building the old station will be taken down. According
to a report just presented to the directors by Captwin Huish and the resident engineers,
it appears that by reserving an annual sum of .^20,700, at 4i per cent., with compound
interest, the permanent way of the Londi-n and North- Western, 438 miles in length,
may be renewed as occasion may require.

English Locomotives in France. — The Northern Railway Company, since
its extension to Calais, now run their extra trains and employ locomotives on Crampton's
principle, aud travellers may now go from London to the French capital, via Dover, in
13 hours ; from Paris to Brusst-Is in 10 hours ; and to Cologne in 21 J hours. The Paris
and Orleans and the northern lines were the lirst to employ English locomotives, and which
caused great jealousy on the part of the French engineers. Since the revolution the re.
public has been more liberal than the preceding Government, and at present English en-
gines are becoming mure general on all the lines. These engines are not shipped to any
of the French ports, but enter France by way of Belgium, ai d then to their local desti-
nation by means of the northern line. The revision of the French tariff", particularly as
regards British machinery, iron, and coal has been proceeded with, imd will come into
operation soon after the installation of the new National Assembly. The republic is
evidently desirous to carry out the free system gradually, as the means of increasing their
Gwn trade and commerce, and opening up a more lively intercourse with this country.

Royal Arsenal^ Woolwich. — Considerable improvements have recently been
made in this important naval and military depot, especially In the foundry and carriage
departments. In the former a superior 30-horse power steam-engine has been put up,
and an entire new set of gearing for driving the diff"erent kinds of machinery in the dial
square for the manufacturing of guns. The engine has been fitted with Fairbairn's dou-
ble-beat equilibrium valves; the exhaust valve opens during the whole half-stroke, and
the steam valve can be sat to work at any degree of expansion, and by that means effect
a great saving in the consumption of fuel, 3 lb. of coal being found suificient for each
horse-power per hour. In the carriagt?^ department the large open spaces in the
square have been covered over with corrugated iron roofs, well li^jhted. At the eastern
end one of Nasmyth's hammers has been put up. of 20cwt., with a stroke of three feet
three inches, for the purpose of reforging the old pieces of iron and again making them
available for useful purposes. A neat engine of one-half horse power has been attached
for pumping water to the boilers, and two fuinaces for heating the metal. The saving
which will be effected by these additions will be considerable, and the quantity of work
which can now be executed by machinery brought to such perfection as to be far superior
for every kind of heavy work formerly performed by manual labour, places the autborities
in a position to meet any demand in cases of emergency.

The Iron Steam- Frigate ^'Megara.^' — This frigate, built by Messrs. W.

Falrbjirn nnd .Sons, for her Majesty's service, and launched from their yard, at Millwall,
on Tuesday, Way 22, is of the follmving dimensions :— Length between perpendiculars,
207 feet i breadth of beam 37 ft. 8 in.; depth of hold 24 ft. 3 in.; tonnage, 131)1 31 1)4.
She is constructed to carry— two guns on the gpiir-deck, 6(J pounders, S-) cwt. ; lour guns,
<I8-pounderB, (iO cwt. ; four guns, 32-pounders, 2.') cwt. ; lour tjuns on main-deck, 32-
poundi/rs, 3(! cwt. The keel and stern-post of the Megjera are of wrought-iron, H^ inches
wide, and of proportional thickness ; the frames consist of angle-iron, 6 inches by 3 inches.
|)laced 12 inches apart, in the way of the engine-room, and increasing in distance fore
and aft to 18 inches. The floors are 14 inches deep, by "-KUhs of nn inch thitk, and the
sheathing. plates vary from 1 l-lGths to 4 an inch in thickness, according to their position.
The engines of the Megiera have been constructed by Messrs. Rennie. She is to be pro-
pelled by a screw upwards of 13 teet in diameter, provision having been made for discon-
necting, and also fur 8bi])piug and unshipping the same, at pleasure.

I-IST or KE^V PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM ApRIL 10, TO MaY 24, 1819.

Sijc Months allowed for Enrolment, wilcss otherwiss expressed.

CharlesAlexandernroquette, of Rue Neiive St. Nicholas, St. Srartin, France, chemist,
for improvements in printing and dyeing fibrous and other materials— Sealed April 21.

William Kilner, of Sheffield, York, engraver, for improvements in manufacturing rail-
way and other axles, and wheels and machinery to be emi)loyod in such manufticture—
April 24.

Lewis Vernet, of Buenos Avres, for a method of preserving from cles'cniction by worms,
insects, decay, and tire, certain vegetable and animal subotances.— April 24.

Thomas Harcourt Thompson, of Blackheath-hill, civil engineer, for certain improve-
ments in apparatus for prevent ing the rise of t iHuvinm from (bains. sewirR, cisspon a,
and other places ; and in apparatus and machinery for resuluting the levels of waters m
nvers, reservoirs, and canals.— April 2t;,

George Simpson, of Nvwington-hutts, chemist, and Thomas Forster, of Streatham,
manufacturer, for improvements in manufacturing or treating solvents of india-rubber,
and of other gums or substances.— April 26.

John Barsham, of Chelmsford, Essex, manufacturer, for improvements in separating
the fibre from cocoa-nut husks.- April 2ti.

Charles lies, of Bordesley Works, Birmingham, machinist, for improvements in manu-
facturing picture-frames, inkstands, and other articles in dies or moulds; also in pro-
ducing oroaniental surfaces.— April 2fJ.

William Fanlconbridge, of Long lane, Bermondsey, Surrey, for improvements in the
manufacture of hose.pipes, driving-bands, and valves for atmospheric railways,— April
2(i.

Bartholomew Beniowski, of Bow-street, Covent-garden, major in the late Polish army,
for improvements in the apparatus for, and process of, printing.- April 26.

Robert Oxland, and Jo^in Oxland, of Plymouth, chemists, for improvements in the
manufacture of sugar. — April 26.

William Henry Burke, of Tottenham, manufacturer, for improvements in the manu-
facture of airproof and waterproL-f fabrics; and in the preparation of caoutchouc and
gutta-percha, either alone or in combination with other materials, the same being appli-
cable to articles of wearing apparel, bands, straps, and other similar useful purposes. —
April 2i).

John Horsley, of Ryde, Isle of Wight, practical chemist, for certain improvements ia
preventing incrustation iu steam and other boilers ; also for purifying, filtering, and other-
wise rendering water fit for drinkable purposes. — April 2d.

Alphonse Gamier, of Paris, France, but now of Scuth-street, Finsbtiry, merchant, for
certain improvements in extracting and preparing colouring matter from orchil. (A com-
munication.)— April 28.

James Wilson, of Old Bond-street, tailor, for improvements in trusses. — May 1.

James Godfrey Wilson, of Dlillman's-row, Chelsea, engineer, for certain improvements
in the manufacture of glass, and in machinery and apparatus connected therewith —
Meh' 1.

Alexander Munkiltritch, of Slanchester. merchant, for an improved composition of
matter, which is iipplicable as a substitute for oil, for the lubrication of machinery, and
for other purposes. (A communication.) — fliay I.

John Dalton, of HolHngworib, Chester, calico printer, for a certain improvement, or
certinn improvements, in printing calicoes and other surfaces; — May 1.

Samson Waller, of Bradford, York, manufacturer, for certain improvements in ma-
chinery or apparatus for weaving. — May 3.

Thomas Wentworth Buller, of Sussex-gardens, Hyde-park, esquire, for improvements
in thtt manufacture of earthenware. — May 3.

Matthew Kennedy, of Manchester, cotton-spinner, for certain improvements in the
method of packing cops of cotton, and other fibrous materials, and in the apparatus con-
nected therewith. — Miiy ^5.

Thomas Whaley, oi Cborley. Lancaster, coal proprietor, and Richard Ashtoii LightoU
ler, of the same place, cotton-spinner, f<ir certain improvements in machinery or appara-
tus for manufacturing bricks and tiles. — May 3.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery -lane, civil engineer, for improvements in the
jacquard machine. (A communication.) — May 5,

George Edmond Donisthorpe, and John Whitehead, of Leeds, manufacturers, for im-
provements in p'-eparing, combing, and hackling fibrous matters. — May y.

Samuel Wilkes, of Wednesbeld-her.th, near Wolverhampton, br.iss-founder, for im-
provements in the manufacture of knobs, handles, and spindles for the same, for doors
and other purposes ; and improvements in locks. — May 8.

Robert Sutcliffe, of Idle, ne;ir Bradford, York, cotton- spinner, for improvements in
machinery for spinning cottoc, silk, and other fibrous substances. — May 8.

George Henry Dodge, of the United States of America, now residing at Manchester,
inanulactnrer, for certain improvements in machinery for spinning and doubling cotton
yarns and other fibrous materials; and in miicbinery or apparatus for winding, reeling,
balling, and spooling such subslpnees when spun. — May 10.

Charlotte Smith, wife of Jabez Smith, of Bedford, for improvements in csrtain articles
of wearing apparel. — May 14.

Samuel Allport, of Biimingham, gun-maker, for a certain improved method of making
or manufacturing a certain part or p^rts of looms used in weaving.— Blay 14.

William Phillips Parker, of Lime-street, London, gentleman, for improvements iu the
construction of pianofortes, [k communication.) — May 15.

John Thorn, cf Ardwick, near Manchester, calico printer, for improvements in cleans-
ing, scouring, or bleaching silk, woollen, cotton, and other woven tabrics and yarns, and
in agoing fabrics and yarns when jirinted. — May 15.

Henry Bessemer, of Baxter-house, OM St, Pancras-road, engineer, and John Sharp
Cromartie Heyivood, of Islington, Middlesex, for improvements in expressing and Iruat-
ing oils, and in the manufacture of varnishes, pigments, and paints. — May lo.

Moses Poole, of London, gentleman, for improvements in ap])arutu3 for drawing flni 's
from the human or animal body. (A conimmunication.)— May l."».

Louis Alfred De Chatanvillard, of Rue St. Lazare, France, gentleman, for Improve-
ments in fire-arms, cartridges, bullefs, bayonets, and ordnance, (A commuFiication.)—
M:iy I.*).

Pierre Armand Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, of South-Street, FInsbury, for certalu im-
provements in weaving. (A comnuinicatiou.) — May 22.

Francis Edward I'olegrave, of Brighton, gentleman, for improvements in the means of
communicating between the passengers and guard of a railway train, or between the
guard and engine driver ; parts of which improvements are also applicable tu working
signals on railways. — May 22.

Solomon Israel L>a Costa, of St. Helen's, city of London, civil engineer, for improve-
ments in vessels for holding solids or fluids, and in machinery for manufacturing such ves-
sels—May 22.

Rees Reece, of St. John-street, Smitbfield, and Astley Paston Price, of Margate, Ktnt,
chemist, for Improvements in the manufacture and refining of sugar or saccharine mat.
ters.- May 24.

Andrew Crosse, of Gloucester Place, New. road, Middlesex, esquire, for improvements
In tanning hides and skins, and also in dyeirig fabrics and substunces. — May 24.

Thomas Goodfellow, of Tunstall, Stutl'ord, earthenware manufacturer, and Gcori-e
Goodfellow, of Shelton, Stiiftbrd, potter, for improvements in the method or methods of
preparing plastic mutei'lals for manufaciuring puri)Oses. — May 24.

Andrew Smith, of St. James's, Westminster, engineer, for improvements in machinery
for, or methods of, manufacturing rope or cordage, and improved modes of fittmg and
using the same. — May 24.

Frederick Steiner, of Hyndburn, near Accringlon, Lancaster, Turkey-red dyer, for im-
proved urocesses and apparatus to be used in the Turkey-red dye on cotton and its
fabrics— May 24.

RAILWAYS - PERMANENT WAY.

PLATE X.

DRAWiNtN'l. LONDON AND NORTH WCSTCRIJ RAILWAY. 7«*RAIL.

Cross Se^Juin- ihrcmj^hy RmZ' .. C^hair,
Kev A: S^Oeptr
7ilhf xperyard/

Guural P

'an . shtwmg Siegers , Stc

n ri

m

M

H

-S.

PI

H

1^

Ul

M

lol

01

lEl

MI

-la-

PI

|B1

W

--3 0..

— JO.'.

->

rpi

w

a

■fer

u

"@-

W

1

[eJ

Ig)

.iVwi^ EUnttion, a' Chair. Key.
&. Scetuin/ of SUeper

hongttixdaud £ie¥at>cn, of Sail , Su

^-Jl^-- JSk A U. Xk^^

LONDON AND NORTH WESTERN RAILWAY - 82 RAIL.
Gmeral PLuv , shemnq Slupers . S^jy

Cross ScdwTv of Rail shewing
SjJi Hsw of Omir ,

X- -8 «-

w

M

m

w

per yard' .

Zan^i&idmal' Hhva&ony of Bads, Say.

End, Yim of Chcur shfwuig Hey,
tc Cross SaJi^oTL, of Sleeper .

N?3.

P L AN.

GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY

Suborv of RmZ

Oec&ony at' A B.

SfitnoTi/ al HI'

&,Jt^

N?4

Langita3uwL Seobany LongituJjnoJb .Eleratum,'.

MIDLAND GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY * IRELAND .

■SecHon cf Bail and' Joint PIaU/

31.

Flan/shmm/j Slupers.

mOwiU' Rails , Fhm/ shemng HaiJU, &«'

*

^

IT

pa-y^

D

Strew Bob/ fbrJoitdi .

t

IfoocZ^ ,5«

Dowell wrJomta
of hon^xtuduuH Bearers

Tang lir ScnrnMcBt

Plany cfFan^

LZ JD

'~ClS

GREAT SOUTHERN and WESTERN RAILWAY, IRELAND .

PLATE XI,

ORAWINC NSS.

GeneraL Plan/ .

PERMANENT WAY.

«q

a,s w.i

9'U,:

H'

R>6

LongitnJjMoL Ulemtion/ ofBeal sJwmn^ Gvss Sedioru of Sleepers.

&VSS Sedzon, of Had. . Guar &i Slefper shemn^
SoUs.Su> used' ^^^^^^ aiJ JouiZs

azihs.

■Ip;

li^oss SfxtLony of Fml' <6, Sleeper.

Plait of Jottiii Chair
Wrot'Jreru

lTX.

J^J

N?.e.

PLAN.

Cross Sedlmx/ of Ball/. Chnr k Sleeper,

PLAN OF PROPOSED PERMANENT WAY

ptry.

_J a„,.-.

Jionmtaiawl EIcvoAmv of^&cds shemn/f
Saticn of Sleepers

o

oi

$'

■fS~

o

o

LONDON AND NORTH WESTERN RAILWAY,

N«.7.

ORAWINO SHEWING THE EFFECT OF I R F! E CU LARI T Y OF CA^T OF RAIL

MeraSjm ofWieek resting upon Bails ,sTx(vntU} tiu CanC ofthe-Bml',

■ Seedons of Tire' of Wteel & Rail/, shemn^ tlw eftkd afirregulantj of Cant) of Bad

FIG. I .

Yihnv dintidj carree^ .

FIG 2 FIG . 3

y/hen^GmteeLtoomiuh/vwar^ What Ccaited'too-nnuh'

'l xn/ ZO

fe-

1849. I

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

193

RAILWAYS' PERMANENT WAY.

{With Two Engravings, Plates X. and XI.)

Report on the Construction of Permanent Way. By Robert B.
DocKRAY, Esq. (By order of the London and Nortli- Western
Railway Company.)

To THE Committee of AVay and Works.
Gentlemen — In accordance with j'our directions, that I should
examine and report to you upon tlie permanent way as laid down
by Sir John IMacneill, upon the Dublin and Drogheda and Great
Southern and Western of Ireland Railvrays, I went to Dublin on
the 20th ultimo, and remained there until the 26th, and in the
interval travelled several times over portions of the lines, as well
as of others terminating in that city, and I carefully examined all
the details of construction.

Sir John Macniell very handsomely gave me all the information
I required, and was at some pains to explain tlie principles which
have governed him in adopting the peculiar construction which he
has introduced.

In laying before you the following remarks, I have thought it
desirable to extend my observations to the construction of perma-
nent way generally, with the view of determining the best mode ot
can-ying out the renewals upon the Southern Division of your rail-
way, which have become necessary at a period of time earlier than
I had anticipated, consequent upon the comparatively new circum-
stances of the great increase not only in the weight, but in the
speed of the engines.

I would here remark, that when competition was developing the
present high velocities upon railways generally, Mr. Robert Ste-
phenson gave it in evidence as his opinion, that the limit would be
found not in any particular gauge, or in the evaporating power of
the engines, but in the economic endurance of the permanent way
to bear the additional weight which must, as a matter of necessity,
accompany every increase of speed. Time is. in my opinion, ra-
pidly demonstrating the truth of this observation. Every new
class of engine which appears, surpasses its predecessor in power
and in speed; and it is evident from the large size of some of
those about to run upon your line, that at any rate the builders do
not consider that they have as yet reached the limit of their scale.
The rapid deterioration of the permanent way, however, about
which there can be no doubt, raises the question whether the
speeds already attained have not approached the economic limit to
which Mr. Robert Stephenson refers. If this be the case, railway
companies must look to a considerably increased outlay in the
shape of renewals of permanent way. It may be financially dis-
guised for a time, but sooner or later it must be met as a regu-
lai'ly-recurring charge.

I have no doubt that the wear and tear of the carrying stock is
also increased in a high ratio witli the speed, and I do not see why
the public are to reap the whole advantage, leaving the railway
company the burden of the additional cost. Means should be
taken by the railway body generally to raise the express fares,
and thus in some measure to share the benefit with the public.

Returning to the construction of the road, it is evident that in
all renewals, increased weight of rails, and increased dimensions
of the materials generally, must be adopted to meet the increased
duty required. It is of great importance in re-construction, that
we should ascertain the weak and defective j)oints : witli this view
I have carefully inspected many portions of the line, and have
availed myself of the knowledge of the experienced overlookers
who have been in your service since the commencement of the
works.

I find, as a general result, that stone blocks are not adapted to
high speeds, — they are rigid, the chairs cannot be retained firmly
upon them, and from this cause they are subject to rapid wear;
and as they are in this district very expensive in first cost, I should
recommend their being renewed with sleepers.

Wherever the stratum under the formation line (the bottom of
the ballast) is sound and hard, and there is a sufficiency of ballast,
the wear and tear of the road is confined, for several years, to
sim|)le renewals of keys, — until, in fact, the rails begin' to split
and laminate, under the action of the trains. This "period will
vary with the traffic: in ordinary cases I estimate it at from 15 to
20 years. There are still many years' wear in the rails laid down
at the northern end of this division of the line. Under this head
I should class the permanent way of the railways wliich are laid
upon the older geological formations, especially those I saw in
Ireland, where the substratum is almost universally of the very
best description for railway works. M'hen. however, works are
constructed in the clays of tlie tertiary and some of the secondary

No. 142.— Vol. XII.— July, 1849.

formations — all of wliich are highly susceptible to the action of
water — the expense of maintaining permanent way is much en-
hanced.

The lapse of time in developing the action of water upon the
clays, shows itself in a gi-adual softening of the substratum, so
that it no longer presents an uniform surface under the ballast,
but protrudes itself upwards, — and gradually mixing with the bal-
last, so far deteriorates its quality, as to render it soft and non-
resisting. In this state, the ballast slides into the railway ditches,
carrying the road with it, so as to require constant care in cor-
rectly maintaining the gauge. In all such cases the blocks must
be removed, and replaced with sleepers. Another evil is, that in
ballast so deteriorated no repairs can be executed except in fine
dry weather ; it presents no resistance to the beaters, and conse-
quently the defective bearings cannot be raised by any ordinary
process of repair — to open out such road in bad weather only
increases the evil. The remedy for this defect is to lift the road,
wlierever practicable, and add a few inches of good fresh ballast.

Permanent way laid upon a substratum as above described, is
subject to much more rapid wear than in the case previously men-
tioned ; the soft yielding nature of the bottom permits so much
movement amongst the parts, that they soon loose their fit, the
rails become injured at tlie joints, the chairs are worn, and the
keys require constant renewal.

6n the Southern Division of this line we have many miles of
sucli road — in fact, with the exception of the chalk district, there
is lery little sound material south of Rugby.

AYith tlie view of bringing before you the whole subject, I have
prepared a set of drawings of permanent way as laid down on
various lines of railway, selecting those which I consider best of
their kinds ; they are as follows : —

1st, The mode adopted bv Mr. Robert Stephenson. (Drawings
No. 1 and 2.)

2nd, That of Mr. Brunei. (Drawing No. 3.)

3rd, That of Mr. Hemans, on the iSIidland Great Western of
Ireland. (Drawing No. 4.)

4th, That of Sir John Macniell, on various Irish lines of rail-
way. (Drawing No. 5.)

Mr. Robert Stephenson's 3Iethoil. — (Druunnjs A'oi. 1 and 2. J

These drawings represent the permanent way on the London
and North- Western Railway, No. 1 being with a rail 75 lb. in
weight per yard, and No. 2" with a rail of 82 lb. per yard. The
latter shows the improvements recently introduced in the form of
the rail, increased weight of chair, &c.

The cost of 5 yards of single line of No. 1 is SI. lis. 5d.

The cost of 5 yards of single line of No. 2 is 61. 5s. Oid.

Tlie number of parts in the same length of No. 1 is 47

The number of parts in the same length of No. 2 is 49

— (For further details, see Appendix.)

The bearings are transverse sleepers, placed 3 feet apart on the
average.

This mode of construction is that generally adopted on the nar-
row gauge lines of railway. The cross sleepers possess many ad-
vantages ; they secure the accuracy of the gauge and of the cant
of the rail ; tliey afford great facilities for surface drainage, and
any repairs or renewals are readily executed ; they also at once
show, by the working of the ballast, when and where the road is
out of order, affording certain indications to the workmen where
their attention is required.

The weak point is at the joints of the rails : most engineers en-
deavour to remedy this defect by drawing the sleepers nearer
together at the joints, and by selecting the largest sleepers for
this bearing. To a certain extent, this is found to answer the
purposes, but it is apt to disturb the uniformity of the bearing
surface on the ballast, a point which I am inclined to think is of
some importance, as affecting the steadiness of the motion of the
trains.

Mr. I. K. Brunei's Method.— ( Drawing No. 3.J

This drawing is taken from the jiermanent way of the Chelten-
ham and Great AYestern Union Railway, at Gloucester, and which
I was informed embraced all the last improvements introduced by
Mr. Brunei.

The weight of the rail is 72 lb. per yard.

The cost of 5 yards of single line of railway is 6/. 14s. 54rf.

The number of parts in the same length of road is 81.
— (see Appendix.)

The bearings are longitudinal timbers, with a transome at every
15 feet apart, to retain the gauge. Thin pieces of wood are laid
across the timber bearing, and upon these the bridge rail is laid :

2;

i:)4

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

these packinfirs (])lace(l the cross grain of the wood) are to prevent
tlie rail bedding itself into the longitudinal bearing.

Cireat care appears to he necessary in laying down and fitting
the tindjers together, before the plate-layers can lay the rails.
There are a great number of parts, which presupposes increased
complexity : any re]>airs or renewals must necessarily be difficult
to eifect, as a general disturbance of the parts must result from
the renewal of any one : the continuity of the bearing cuts off the
cross drainage of the surface of the ballast, and induces an e.\pen-
sive system of suh-drainage, which is always liable to derange-
ment. In lifting the road, it must be a very nice operation to
maintain the cant of the rail at the proper angle.

The advantages of a longitudinal bearing are the uniformity of
the bearing surface on the ballast, and the continuity which it
gives at the joints of the rails ; in this latter respect, it is much
superior to tlie detached bearing.
Henians's ULidltiiul Grmt Wextern of Ireland. — (Drawing No. i.J

This road is on longitudinal bearings, differing from Mr. Brunei's
in that the transomes are placed under the longitudinal bearing.

The weight of the rail is 75 lb. per yard.

The cost of 5 yards of single line of railway is Ol. 3x. Id.

The number of parts in the same length of single line is 44.
— (see Appendix.)

This road may he considered as a combination of the transverse
and longitudinal systems, and although in some respects defective,
yet there is much to be learned from it. Mr. Hemans informs me
that in the portions of the road laid upon peat, or where the bot-
tom is soft, he puts in more transverse sleepers, with gi-eat advan-
tage to the stability of the road; and that in repairing such por-
tions, the men lift and pack the cross sleepers, without reference
to the longitudinal bearing.

Sir .John Macniell'.i Method. — (Drawing No. 5.)

Sir John Macniell has introduced on the railways constructed
under his directiims in Ireland, a description of permanent way
which from the attention bestowed upon its details merits particu-
lar notice. It consists of a bridge rail weighing 90 lb. per yard,
laid upon transverse sleepers, placed at an average interval of
2 ft. 6 in. apart.

The cost of 5 yards of single line of railway is 6/. 4*. 4-5rf.

The number of parts in the same length of single line is 36.
— (see Appendix.)

This road possesses great simplicity of construction : there are
no chairs or keys; the bed of the rail on the sleepers is cut out by
a machine, which at the same time bores the holes for the fasten-
ings. In laying the road, the rail is simply dropped into its bed
on the sleeper, and no further gauging is required. The materials
are so prepared before they are brought upon the ground, that any
ordinary labourer can lay the road with accuracy : this operation
is performed with an economy and dispatch which I never before
witnessed.

Sir John Macniell appears to consider that accuracy in the cant
of the rail, to suit the cone of the wheels, is the main desideratum
in permanent way, and the whole of his peculiar mode of construc-
tion has mainly this object in view. For this purpose, tlie adzing
of the sleepers claims much of his attention : it is effected by
machinery in such a way as to ensure that the inclination shall in
every case be exactly tlie same. Next, he adopted the bridge rail,
with its broad bottom flanch, in order that he may at once attach
the rail to the sleeper without the intervention of chairs and keys,
and by this means avoid the fitting of two additional parts,— accu-
racy in each of which is necessary to insure the correctness of cant
in the rail. The rail is also carefully examined before being laid,
and made perfectly straight, and all twist removed.

Sir John has thus reduced this road to one of the utmost simpli-
city, consisting of but two parts — the rail and the sleeper. He
takes every precaution that each individual of these parts shall be
exactly alike, and when brought together that they shall fit each
other, and thus produce an uniform surface of the rails.

On a careful examination which I made of this road, I found
that attenticm to these details has produced the effect which might
he anticipated — the top of the rail is wearing with unusual uid-
forniity, and there is no appearance of the flanches of the wheels
having come in contact with the edge of the rail.

On the subject of the cant of the rail, I am of opinion that
much of the side motion observable in railway trains is attribut-
able to irregularity in this respect. Drawing No. 7 has been pre-
pareil to illustrate this question. In figs. 2 and 3, the rails are
nhown irregularly canted, and in opposite directions The circum-
ference of the wheel where it touches the rail in fig. 2 is nearly
•Jths of an inch less than in the same wheel when touching the rail

as shown in fig. 3: the efl^ect of this variation in the size of the
wheel is to induce the carriage to describe a series of curves in its
attempt to e(iuali/e the diameter of the wheels ; the side motion
thus induced is often suddenly arrested by the flanch of the wheel
coming in contact with the edge of the rail, and the vibrations are
thrown in an opposite direction, — thus great irregularity of motion
is ])roduced, and often continued, and even augmented, long after
the vehicle may have passed the original disturbing cause. In no
other way can I account for the side motion so often noticeable in
our trains, — not at any particular part of the road, but irregularly,
sometimes at one place, sometimes at another, and often on )ior-
tions which, on after-inspection, appear to be in excellent order.

Proposed Method. — ("Drawing A^o. G.J

Having now noticed the good and the defective points in the
various descriptions of permanent way under consideration, I beg
to lay before you Drawing No. U, which describes a construction of
road which I have every reas(m to think will meet the peculiar
circumstances of our case. These circumstances are the number,
weight, and speed of the trains; the soft nature of the substratum
of the road; and the infei'ior quality of the ballast.

This permanent way consists of a longitudinal timber (which I
adopt simply for the purpose of breaking the joint of the rail),
accurately laid u])on cross sleepers. The rail, 100 lb. jier yard, of
the bridge form, has its bottom flanch of tlie same width as the
longitudinal timber, which it entirely copes; it is secured down to
the cross sleepers by fang bolts, at intervals of 3 feet apart.

The longitudinal timber is dressed to a gauge, so as exactly to
fit the groove formed in the cross sleeper; tliis groove is cut to the
proper cant. The longitudinal timber having parallel sides (when
laid on the cross sleeper), will also correspond with the cant, and
the rail being laid upon it w ill present an upper surface of a uni-
form inclination throughout its wliole length.

The cost of a yards of single line of this road will be 11. 5s. Shd.

The number of parts in the same length, 38. — (See Appendix.)

In conclusion, should the Board adopt this suggestion, I should
recommend that an experimental length of permanent way should
be laid down, with as little delay as possible, in such part of the
line as may place it under the most unfavourable circumstances.

I am, gentlemen.

Your obedient servant,

Euston-square, August 23, 1848.

Robert B. Dockray.

APPENDIX.— Pkrmankkt Way.

Comparative Estimates, shan-iiig tlie number of pieces required and the
expense in constriictiii;/ I j feet lenijth of Single line tiy each of ttie fol-
lowing methods, exclusive of Labour in laying down the Road.

London and North- West em Railway. (Old Method). — Drawing Xo. 1.

Number. Uescriutii r.. Wright. Hate. Amount.

11>. £ 3. A. Jt: s. il.

2 Rnils (75 111. per yard) /".W 10 0 U per ton. X 7 U

2 JointCliaiis 60 7 10 0 0 4 n

8 Intermtrtiate clitti I'iO 7 10 0 0 10 84

20 Iron Sijikes for Chairs 10 0 0 4 0 3 4

.■i Sleepers — 0 5 fi ' T.''

10 Keys - 0 0 L'i 0 1 10*

~^ 6 14 5

16,544 parts In a mile of single line.

Cost of ditto, exclusive of labour in laying *'2013 14 S

London and Norlh-Western Railway (New Method). — Drawing No. 2.

Number. Description. Weight. Rate. Amount.

Ih. se s. d. £ 8. A.

2 Rails (821b. per yard) 820 10,0 0 perjon. 3 13 U

2 Joint Chairs 82 7 10 0 0 5 6

8 Iiitermeiliale ditto 224 7 10 0 0 15 0

6 Sleepers ilHj feel cuhic) — 0 5 8 17 6

10 Keys - 0 0 2i 0 1 10*

22 Tienails for Chairs — IJ 0 li 0 2 0*

~^ 6 5 uj

17.248 parts in b mile of single line.

Cost of ditto, exclusire of l.ibour in laying £1,Vi\ 18 8

Great Western Railway (Mr. Brunei). — Draioing No. 3.

Number. Description. Weight. Kale. Amount.

111. £ s. d. £ s. d.

2 Uails(721h. per yard) 720 10 0 0 per ton. 3 4 0

2 Joint Plate. U 0 0 IJ per lb. 0 9*

2 Strwps for fastening TrimsoDies 4^ 0 0 4 Oil*

4 Holts for ditto -.

6 Nuts lor ditto

ti Washers for ditto ij.) 0 0 4 0 4 9

8 Spiiies f r Rails .

4 Screiv-bults at joints of Rail ,

4 Fangs ditto dlllu -^

I

184.9.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

195

Number. Description. \Vei«ht. Rnte,

lb. £ 8. d.

38 .. .. Brought Forward

40 Hardwood Packings iiniler Hails (B in.) — II 0 4:t

2 Longitudinal bearers {2'i\ feet cubic) . . — M "2 .1

1 Transome 1 U. H in. cubic — 0 2 3

SI
28,.^12 parts in a mile of single line.

Cost of ditto, exclusive of labour in laying £1,

Midland Great Western of Ireland {Mr. Hemans), — Drawing

Number. Description. Weight. Rate.

lb. £ 8. d.

2 Rails ("B lb. per yard) "liO 10 0 0 per ton.

2 Joint Plates 13 0 0 li

16 Screws to hold down Rails "]

8 Screw-bolt at Joints 1 29 0 0 4

8 Fangs for ditto J

2 Longitudinal Bearers (15 feet cubic). .. — 0 2 3
2 Transverse Sleepers (4J feet cubicl .. .. — 0 2 3
4 Trenails for joints of Longitudinal bear-
ers — 0 0 IJ

44
15,488 parts in a mile of single line.

Cost of ditto, exclusive of labour ID laying s£2.

Sir John MacnieWs Method. — Drawing No. 5.

Number. Description. Weight. Rate.

lb. £ 8. d.

2 HaiU (921b. per yard) 920 10 0 0 per ton.

8 Screw-bolts at J,. in ts 8-33 0 0 4

8 Fangs for ditto 8' 0 0 4

10 Spikes 8- 0 0 4

2 Wroughtiron Chairs 12 10 0 (1

6 Sleepers (20 ft. 9i in. cubic) — 0 5 (i each.

36

12,672 parts in a mile of single line.

Cost of ditto, exclusive of labour in laying j^"",

Mr. Dockray's Proposed Method. — Drawing No. 6.

Number. Description. Weight. Rate.

lb. £ s. d.

2 Bails (100 lb. per yard) 1000 10 0 0 per ton.

8 Screw-bolts Jit Joints —

8 Fangs for ditto —

10 Spikes —

2 Wrought-iron Chairs —

6 Transverse Sleepers — 0 ^ 6

2 Longitudiual Sleepers (Gft. 3 in. cubic). — 0 2 3 per foot

38
13,.376 parts in a mile of single line.

Cost of ditto, exclusive of labour in laying .£2,i

Sdmmarv of the Cost of Five Yards.

£

London and North- Western Railway (Old Method) . . 5

Ditto ditto (New -Method) .. 6

Great Western Railway (Mr. Brunei) .. .. ..6

Midland Great Western of Ireland (.Mr. Hemans) .. 6

Sir John Macniell's Method .. .. .. ..6

Mr. Dockray's Proposed Method .. .. ,. ..7

^38

Average Cost . . . . . . £6

Cost of Single Road per yard .. £\

0 9 8

d.
5

7
5i

7 4

10|
6f

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK,
FASCICULUS XCV.

" I must have Itherly
Withal, as Urge a charter a- the winds,
To blow on whon) I please."

I. I restime my comments on the "Seven Lamps" by quoting
the excellent passage last alluded to. "Of I'roportions," says
Ruskin, "so much has been written that I believe the only facts
which are of practical use have been overwhelmed and kept out of
sight by vain accumulations of particular instances and estimates.
Proportions are as infinite (and that in all kinds of things, as se-
verally in colours, lines, shades, lights, and forms) as possible airs
in music: and it is just as rational an attempt to teach a young
architect how to proportion truly and well by calculating for him
the proportions of fine works, as' it would be to teach him to com-
pose melodies by calculating the mathematical relations of the
notes in Beethoven's Adelaide, or Mozart's Requiem. The man
who has an eye and intellect will invent beautiful proportions, and
cannot help it; but he can no more tell us how to do it than
Wordsworth could tell us how to write a sonnet, or than Scott
could have told us how to plan a romance. But there are one or

two general laws which can be told: they are of no use, indeed,
except as preventives of gross mistake; but they are so far worth
telling and remembering; and the more so because, in the discus-
sion of the subtle laws of proportion (which will never be either
numbered or known), architects are perpetually forgetting and
transgressing the very simplest of its necessities." — After this, it
is to be hoped that writers vvill deal less in qu.ackery and mysti-
fication on the subject of Proportion than they have hitherto done;
and in such manner, too, as to contradict themselves, by repre-
senting it as an exceedingly subtle and abstruse matter, yet at the
same time so exceedingly simple as to admit of being reduced to
the plainest arithmetical rules, which, as they pretend, serve
equally well alike for the most opposite cases. According to such
truly mischievous doctrine, an architect has no occasion whatever
for an eye for Proportion, since rules and computation will serve
his purpose just as well, or even better, inasmuch as machine-like
accuracy is secured, — cold, spiritless, and lifeless. The doctrine
of some, Vitruvius included, would go to convert our art into a
sort of barrel-organ, upon which all can grind music alike. Of
course they do not say as much in plain words, neither are they
themselves, perhaps, aware of the tendency of their own doctrines
and o]iinions — viz., that nothing ought to be done or attempted
now except what has some time or other been done before; as if
among all possible forms and combinations there were none yet
untried that would be found beautiful: such doctrine is, no doubt,
excellently well-suited to, and accordingly finds favour with, the
Incapable.^; who have no artistic instinct or asstlietic feeling to
guide them, and who, therefore, are not only glad to be spared the
trouble of thought and invention, nothing more than ready-made
ideas being required of them, but rejoice also that others should
be prohibited from exercising them by the dread of being set down
at once for licentious innovators. Your small critics, too, who
gabble only by book and by rote, entertain a mortal dislike to
aught partaking of freshness of mind and invention, because it
puts them (juite out; yet, although they do not know what to
make of it, they do know that they may very safely sneer at it
as heterodox and capricious. It is not, indeed, from every one
that we can expect any really new ideas worth having, yet there
surely must be some who are capable of detecting latent sources
of the beautiful, and of manifesting power of invention subordi-
nated to that correct taste which, it may be presumed, has been nou-
rished in them by previous study, — and by study, a very great deal
more is to be understood than the elementary discipline and training
of the office, or than becoming familiar with the various styles of the
arts hitherto practised, such study being merely of a passive sort,
and requiring the exertion of no other faculty than the memory;
whereas, the study which is most needed is that diligent scrutiny
and thoughtful examination of styles and tlieir monuments, by
which, wliile learning what has been done, we learn also to perceive
what more may be done. In comparison with this last kind of
study, the getting by lieart — as it is called — of tlie history of
styles, is work only for girls and old women — old ladies of the
masculine gender, and all ages, included. Vulnit ijuuatam; it is
serviceable enough in its way, but will no more make an architect
than poring over Vasari and Lanzi will make a man a painter. As
matters are managed at present, however, we seem to be well con-
tent to get architecture without having architects, — content with
what amounts to no more than new editions of the architecture of
former times, without original authorship. In ardiitecture we have
contrived to get to Finis, which is surely a very fine feather in the
cap of this nineteenth century.

II. Ruskin lays by far too much stress upon the value of mate-
rial as absolutely essential to excellence of design. Most un-
questionably, genuine and therefore durable materials enhance th j
satisfaction we experience in contemplating an edifice that is
beautiful as a production of architecture, and we reasonablv
enough expect to find such materials to be employed for public
structures that ought to be enduring monuments of art. But Mi-.
Ruskin pushes what is in itself a proper feeling into downright
extravagance and absurdity when he denounces the making use of
artificial and imitative materials as "direct falsity of assertion re-
specting the nature of the material or the quantity of labour,"
which falsity lie asserts to be nothing less than a tiioral deliiiqueacji.'
— insomuch that he holds it to be "as truly deserving of reprob^;-
tion as any other moral delinquency;" — which does not say much fiir
Air. John Ruskin's notions of morality. He is consistent, however,
in attributing a high degree of positive merit to mere cost of labour
and workmanship for its own sake, leaving merit of design and the
artistic value of the work altogether out of the question. Yet,
very certain it is, that, so far from giving pleasure, sumptuous niii-
terial and e>;peusive workmanship excite a painful feeling — one of

26*

190

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

I Jti,v,

ret'i-et if not actual distrust when employed for, or rather waste-
fully thrown away upon, an inferior or even decidedly had desij^n.
Insisting so strongly as he does upon excellence of material and
workmanship as a xiiif-qita-iwn in architecture, and as if they were
of themselves all-sufficient— for, although perhaps he may intend
that it should he inferred, he says nothing as to the necessity for
corresponding excellence of design, notwithstanding that there
is very great occasion for insisting mainly upon that as the foun-
dation of all other excellence,— Mr. lluskin seems after all to en-
tertain hut rather low, not to sav vulgar notions of architecture
and its powers as a line art. A hiiilding that can be admired— as
far as it can he admired at all— only for the beauty and money-
worth of its materials, — and there are many such— is so far from
being an honour to, as to be a reproach to the aixhitect. It is for
the latter to confer a value u))on even the homeliest materials, and
to stamp a charm upon costly ones that shall enhance their ori-
ginal market value hundredfold, or even more; not for the material
and mere manual execution to give a vulgar £ a. d. value, as has
frequently been the case ere now, to Pecksniffian taste and Peck-
sniffian design. And so far, iMr. Ruskin shows himself to be too
much of a materialist in art, and to be strangely devoid of aesthetic
sensibility.

III. Even where there is equal beauty ff both material and de-
sign, it is for the latter alone that the aVchitect himself can claim
anv merit, for as to the other, and the workmanship of it, they
belong not to him, but in the first instance to his employers, and
in the next to the actual operatives. As far as his own talent is
concerned, it makes no difference whether his ideas be realised in
genuine or fictitious materials. That there usually is a great deal
of vulgar, barbarous, and paltry taste sliown where such materials
are made use of, is not to be denied; yet that is more the ftiult of
the design and the designer, or of paltry and slovenly execution,
than of the deception itself; which, if it be such as to impose
upon and consequently perfectly satisfy the eye, produces just the
same effect as would result from employing the actual materials
which are simulated. That refined taste and elegance may be dis-
played with materials which are in themselves of little or no
money-worth, is proved by Greek fictile vases and many antique
terracotta ornaments. Certain also it is that as objects of art,
well executed plaster casts from approved originals are preferable
to ordinary marble statues. It is owing to tastelessness and truni-
periness of design, and to slovenly coarseness of execution, far
more than to the ordinary quality of the materials employed, that
we have so much architectural trumpery. Because embellishment
with fictitious materials costs comparatively little, it is generally
oifensively overdone, and thereby alone proclaims itself to be spu-
rious; whereas, were it applied with proper reserve and discretion,
decoration of the same kind — of course provided it were satisfac-
torily executed^might pass unquestioned.

IV. So great is Mr. Ruskiii's enthusiastic admiration of cost and
labour for their own sake, that lie would have the same degree of
finish bestowed upon those parts of a building which are out of
sight, or nearly so, as on those which can be closely inspected.
"The principle of honesty," he tells us, "must govern our treat-
ment: we must not work "any kind of ornament which is, perhaps,
to cover the whole building "(or at least to occur on all parts of it)
delicately where it is near the eye, and rudely where it is removed
from it. That is trickery and dishonesty." My good Johnny
Ruskin, what an admirably honest world we should live in had we
no more dishonesty and moral delinquency than such decejition
amounts to, to encounter or complain of. Now, it is a generally
received maxim among artists that they should jn-oportion the de-
gree of finish they bestow on their work to the distance at which
it is intended to be viewed. So long as there be the appearance of
finish, it matters not how it is produced; nay, rude touches of the
pencil or chisel may tell effectively where the same careful mani-
pulation as is required for similar decoration that can be closely
examined would not tell at all. Even Mr. Ruskin is somewhat at
variance with himself when he afterwards says in another place:
" It is evident that for architectural appliances, masculine handling,
likely as it must be to retain its eil'ectiveness when high finish
would be injured by time, must always be the most expedient; and
as it is impossible, even were it desirable, that the highest finish
should be given to the quantity of work which covers a large
building, it will be understood how precious the intelligence must
become which renders incompletion itself a means of additional
expression; and how great must be the difference, when the touches
are rude and few, between those of a careless and those of a
regardful mind." To the passage just quoted I fully assent, —
not, perhaps, very disinterestedly, because it in fact makes strongly
for my own argument against what Mr. Ruskin had previously

urged. There is, indeed, no greater test of genuine artistic skill
than the producing by means of what considered in themselves
would appear to ordinary eyes mere rude and random touches, just
the desired effect — the labour of the mind sparing all superfluous
and unnecessary labour of the hand.

V. The following is an excellent piece of advice, and one of the
best and most pertinent remarks in Mr. Ruskin's book: "Among
the first liabits that a young architect should learn is that of
thinking in shadow, not looking at a design in its miserable liny
skeleton." The necessity for so doing requires to be impressed
upon the student, because according to the now almost universal
practice, on the continent especially, of showing architectural sub-
jects in mere outline engraving, the expression derived from liglit
and shade in all their various modifications and effects, is entirely
withdrawn from the student's consideration; whereas it is what —
if he is ever to become an artist in his profession — deserves his
most thoughtful attention. "Liny skeletons," as Mr. Ruskin very
happily calls them, give us rather abstractions of buildings — dis-
embodied unsubstantial spectra of them — than actual representa-
tions of them as they show themselves to the eye. No wonder
therefore that, excellent as they may be in themselves, works en-
graved in that manner have no interest for any except professional
men and a few studious amateurs. It must be admitted that out-
line engravings are eminently serviceable in one respect, because
they show form in all its minutest lineaments more clearly than
shadowed ones can do; and they thereby lead to correctness of eye
and hand in draw ing. Their insufficiency consists in their not
showing buildings as they really do appear, or designs as they will
appear, when executed. Many a building which when so shown has
a very disagreeably bald and vacant look, may, wlien seen in its pro-
per substantiality", and in all the vigour of broad liglit and shade,
be a striking object; and so, on the other hand, one which looks
exceedingly well when judged of by its pattern in outline, may be,
or turn out to be, comparatively unsatisfactory, tame, and spirit-
less. The greater pai-t of the details, perhaps, which show so well
as ornamental pattern upon paper, will be found hardly to show
themselves at all or very imperfectly in the actual structure. It
is owing to the practice of architects giving their attention too
exclusively to linear appearance alone, instead of at the same time
"thinking in shadow' also, that we get so much of mere pretty
pattern. AVe frequently see a great many "very nice" parts — a
"nice" bit there, another "nice" bit there, and so on; — just the
very things, perliaps, for an architectural scrap-book, where they
would be in their proper place. AVe can dispense with fragmentary
niceties of tliat sort in our buildings, which ought to show well-
considered artistic compositions, and not be mere scrap-books in
stone. — I have here been interrupted by a visitor, who, on my
pointing out to him \thfit Ptuskin says as to the necessity for
thinking in shadow, observed: "Aye, and of thinking and feeling
like artists, which very few of our architects seem ever to do
when they sit down to their drawing-board. Were some of them
to think a great deal more, and talk not quite so much maudlin,
frothy stuff' as they now do, it would be better for themselves and
for their art also." My friend went on in a similar strain for some
time, I listening to him the while far more patiently, nay compla-
cently, than most other persons would have done.

MR. FERGUSSON AND THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

Although little more than a brochure, the new production from
Mr. Fergusson's pen,* wliidi has just appeared, is likely to obtain
far more general notice, and that too immediately, than his larger
work lately reviewed in several successive numbers of this
Journal, for the latter appears to be quite a noli-me-tangere to the
rest of the fraternity of reviewers — even those who profess to take
especial notice of everything bearing upon and connected with
Art. His present "Observations," on the contrary, are so excoed-
ino-lv stirring that they can hardly fail to excite public attention,
and perhaps excite some commotion also in several quarters. While
many will be startled at the magnitude of some of his schemes,
others will marvel not a little at the fearlessness with wliich he
has probed and dissected the magnum opus of a living architect,
and proved it to be utterly naught. Such operating upon the
"livino- subject" is, we hardly need remark, quite contrary to the
usual etiquette of architectural criticism, which, perhaps for fear
of getting into scrapes, cautiously abstains from passing formal

* Observations on the Btilish Museum, National Gallery, and Niitionul Record Office;
with SuccestioMS for their Iraproreraent. By James Feru.uson. M.K.I.B.A., "ulhor of
"An Historical Inquiry into the True Princijiles of Beauty in Art."— London: J. %\ eale.

1849.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

197

judgment upon the doings of "contemporaries;" yet, for our part,
we do not see wherefore living architects should not be damned
with just as little ceremony as living autliors; — that is, of course,
supposing they deserve it.

For tlie present we will confine ourselves to the British Museum
alone, and to what Mr. Fergusson says of that monstrously costly,
and eu-regiously unsatisfactory national edifice. We certainly do
not quarrel with him for his opinion of the building itself, which
he minutely examines, and proves (very satisfactorily? ) to be as
unsatisfactory as it well could be. If we quarrel with liim at all,
it is for liis too-studied attempt to exonerate the architect liimself
from the disgrace justly due to him. "I would not, on any ac-
count," says Mr. Fergusson, "be understood to say one word
against Sir Robert Smirke, personally." Neither do we, nor have
we ever done so; for of the man himself we know no more than
we do about the man in the moon. As a man he may be excellent,
and even exemplary for aught we can say to the contrary, but as
an architect we hold him to be a most wretched one, and prosaic
besides; in short, no better than a Pecksniff on a larger scale.
After calling "the Museum as bad and as extravagant a building as
could well be designed," Mr. Fergusson immediately adds, "but
let the blame be thrown on the right shoulders;" and then pro-
ceeds to lay the whole of it on those of the unlucky Trustees.
Now, so far from thinking, as Mr. Fergusson appears, or is willing
to appear to do, that the Trustees dictated to Smirke, we should
rather fancy that it was Smirke wlio dictated — tliat is, recom-
mended to them the style and character their new building should
be in. There most assuredly is nothing in any of his previous works
to show that he would have chosen any other style or mode of de-
sign had he been left to his own free and unbiassed choice, and
granted a complete carte blanche. At any rate, even if the Trus-
tees did dictate the style, they did not stand over him while he was
making the design, and insist upon his introducing all the blun-
ders, faults, and absurdities wliieh we now find in it. To suppose
that would be supposing that the architect was a mere mechanical
agent or machine, that worked just as tliey impelled and directed
its movements. Either the design of the Museum is Sir R.
Smirke's, or it is not: — if, as the very natural supposition is, it
really be his own, he of course is answerable for it, and for all its
defects, deficiencies, and short-comings; and if, on the contrary, lie
has been no more than a mere clerk of the works, acting under
other persons' instructions and directions, in like manner as in case
of success he would have reaped the full credit due to their judg-
ment and good ideas, he must now abide by the discredit attached
to failure. We hardly know whether Mr. Fergusson is to be un-
derstood as speaking with sarcastic irony or not, wlien he says
that, had not Smirke fallen in with the ideas of tlie Trustees, con-
trary, as is of course implied, to his own better judgment, they
"would certainly have wished him a good morning, have sent for
some more compliant person, and he might have retired to oblo-
quy and" — oh! dreadful — "to starvation!" Nothing, it seems, but
his' compliance with the whims of the Trustees, saved poor Sir
Robert Smirke from pauperism and the workhouse, — though we
think he must have feathered his nest pretty well long before.
From starvation his compliance may possibly have rescued Sir
Robert, but most certainly not from obloquy, unless there be more
of praise than obloquy in its being said — and Mr. Fergusson him-
self says it — that it is, after costing about seven hundred thou-
sand pounds, as bad as bad can be. Whether Sir Robert will now
be glad to shelter himself from the pitiless pelting of criticism
under such excuse, we know not; but Mr. Fergusson certainly looks
upon him as having been a mere instrument, implement, or tool in
the hands of the Trustees, and accordingly observes, "Though I
have much to say against the building, I entirely exonerate the
architect"! — so that Sir Robert is after all a very fortunate man, for
if he has got his head broken, he has also go it well plaistered up
again by the same hand that cracked it, and now stands "entirely
exonerated" — just as safe and sound as ever. Sir Robert may
stick that feather of "entire exoneration" in his cap, without any
one envying him.

Luckily for them, the Trustees haveexcedingly broad shoulders,
and a good many pair of tliem, so that they can perhaps xery well
bear the wliole of the very weighty burthen which Mr. Fergusson
lays upon them. For one thing, they certainly are highly censur-
able,— for they being only trustees for the nation, and the work
a national one, to be paid for out of the nation's money, they
ought to have endeavoured to secure the most eflScient architectu-
ral talent to be found in the country, instead of blindly confiding
in an individual on the mere strength of his general repute. Had
Sir R. Smirke previously erected a Museum which liad obtained
general favour as a successful work of its kind, it would have been

quite a different case. But he had not done so; consequently, a
structure for such very particular purpose would be quite as nuuh
a first attempt on his part as on that of the most obscure indivi-
dual in the profession. Nay, it is very possible that some amongst
the obscure and unknown might have, in the course of tlieir stu-
dies, given attention to the particular subject. At all events, it was
the duty of the Trustees — both the big-wigs and the bald heads
which compose that many-headed body — to call upon the best talent
procurable, and afford it the opportunity of coming forward and
manifesting itself. If there was objection to a general public com-
petition, as merely opening the door to self-suflicient mediocrity and
a troublesome mass of designs, the majority of which must at once
have been set aside, at any rate a limited number of known talent
might have been invited to submit their ideas; from wliich the
better points might have been selected, and afterwards combined
together, two or even more architects being associated in the
work — supposing no individual design was so satisfactory as not to
be capable of improvement by engrafting upon it something bor-
rowed from others. This, as it appears to us, is the safest and
most rational course to be pursued; and the fairest to be adopted
in public — at least, all government works. Instead of which, they
are if not actually made jobs, made to appear to be such.

By throwing all the odium of the failure of the British Museum
upon the Trustees, Mr. Fergusson has, perhaps quite unintention-
ally, levelled a blow that falls very hard in a different quarter;
for he scruples not to call the new building at Buckingham Palace
"so liideously ugly that both the sovereign and the people must be
glad to get rid of them." The latter perhaps may, because they
had no hand in, nor were even so much as consulted about it; but,
as there is no evidence, or even so much as a doubt, to the con-
trary, the natural presumption is that the design was found satis-
factory and approved of in what the newspapers term "a very high
quarter." Tlierefore, the excuse put forth for Sir Robert Smirke is
equally valid for Mr. Edward Blore. "As a servant of the public."
tlie former "did wliat he was told to do;" and as the official architect
or surveyor of tlie Palace, the latter acted, no doubt, similarly, and
did as he was directed to do, although both the one and the other
might have shown skill and taste in complying with the general
directions given them. To hint that her Majesty would now be
glad to get rid of the costly improvement — or, to speak more cor-
rectly, the costly addition to the Palace, and to say that the Palace
itself so improved "will not long be tolerated, but a new one de-
manded," is anything but flattenng to some other persons besides
Mr. Blore, whom we accuse not, because he, no doubt, has done his
very best. Let us hope, then, that it has saved the poor man from
the horrors of "starvation."

After tliis digression, we return to the Museum, speaking of
whose fa9ade, Mr. Fergusson says: "If it is not beautiful, it is
inexcusable; if it is beautiful, a strong case is made out in its
f ivour. It certainly does not possess what is the strongest objec-
tion to the [inner] court, which is that it is not seen ; for no one
can either approach or pass the Museum without its catching the
eye; it is therefore in the right place, which the other is not; and if
ornament was to be added to the Museum, it was here that it was to
be placed. Is it then beautiful ? This [that] is a matter of taste
which each must answer for himself." As regards the last remark
and the doctrine implicated in it, we do not at all hold with Mr.
Fergusson, — because when a man comes before the public as a
critic, it is for him to instruct by plainly discriminating between
good and bad taste. All art is matter of taste; so that if one
man's taste be just as valid and of equal authority as another's,
many of the dicta and verdicts of careful and conscientious cri-
ticism might be reversed. Of the thousands, or tens of thousands,
and even hundreds of thousands, who in the course of a year visit
the British Museum, how many are there who can fully appreciate,
and who sincerely relish the Elgin Marbles.? Shall we say a score.?
— ten would be nearer the mark. If it is to be left to every one
to answer for himself whether a work of art, or what makes pre-
tension to be considered such, be really meritorious, there is, as it
seems to us, an end to all criticism — all esthetic reasoning; and
one man's judgment, or fancy without any judgment at all, becomes
quite as valid as another's.

Notwithstanding, however, the lenity with which he leaves every
one to judge for himself how far the facade is beautiful, Mr. Fer-
gusson gives it immediately afterwards as his own opinion that the
design is "both cold and unartistic," — adding, "there is a dismal
fune'real look about this specimen, which to my mind is singularly
repulsive;" and further says: "Since it has been erected 1 have not
heard one voice raised in its praise, and certainly not one vi ord of
laudation has been printed that I am aware of; but, on the con-
trary, blame has been both loud and deep." That, indeed, as « e

198

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jii.v.

are iiif(irme(l in a foot-note, was written before Mr. Ruskin's
"Seven Ijimips" had appeared, to throw a clieerinj;: gleam of lijfht
on Smirke's Aliiseum; and a very scanty gleam it is, for it leaves
ns altogetlier in the dark as to what are the beauties and merits
that obtain for it Mr. Ruskin's "sincere admiration."

.Mr. Fergusson appears to attribute the defects of the design —
its coldness and unartistic ehiiracter — rather to the style than, as
we do, to the architect's very prosaic treatment of it. Yet, surely
tlie style itself is not deficient in beauty; and, in fact, what of
beauty there is in the design at all, is derived entirely from the
Ionic columns alone, for in every other respect the building is so
frigidly bare as to have hardly the look of being finished. Even
tlie columns themselves, too, are so disposed as to produce more of
wearisome sameness and monotony than of architectural richness.
There is so little agreement between the colonnades and the build-
ing behind them, that the former might be taken for an after-
tl]ought, and be supposed to ha\e been added mei-ely to eke out
and dress up the other. Unless the spirit of the style evidently
aimed at by the colonnades could have been faithfully kept up in
all the rest, it would have been better to have let it be seen that
the anti<iue Greek character was not professed to be adhered to.
Smirke, on the contrary, has so managed it that bis tame and scru-
jjulous accuracy with regard to antique columniation occasions
such a disparity of parts, that integrity of enaenible is quite for-
feited.

We have said that the colonnades might pass for being an after-
thought, and they actually do appear to have been designed with-
dut any regard to what is behind them, because — as may be seen
by the plan given by Mr. Fergusson, who, however, does not point
out that very singular blunder — many of the windows are not in
the same axis as the corresponding intercolumns ; and in two
j>laces, a window comes immediately behind — tliat is, in the same
axis, as a column. This gross infringement of one of the simplest
rules of architectural grammar will probably be attributed to care-
lessness on the part of the engraver, especially as the jilan is on a
small scale ; whereas it occurs in the building itself, where it has
always pained our eyes. In a view either way straight down along
llie colonnade, from the entrance, the vista is sadly marred, and
made to have quite a lop-siileil look, by the window seen at the end
of it being out of the a.xis, and, moreover, sq\ieezed up against a
corner.

Mr. Fergusson has pointed out how, by placing the staircase
(wliich is lighted from above) on the south side, instead of next
tlie inner court, which last situation would have been better for
the first gallery, — windows might have been dispensed with in that
part of the colonnades; and by a very little contrivance in the
jilan, they might have been got rid of in the corresponding portion
on the other side of the entrance. As to the windows within the
return colonnades, where the irregularity above-noticed takes
jilace, they seem to be quite uncalled for, the rooms there (mostly
jirivate ones) being liglited from the opposite side also, and some
of them even from a tbird side.

As far as character is c(mcerned, there is nothing whatever in the
building to express plainly to the eye at once its specific jiurpose;
which particular definite expression might surely be imparted to a
museum far more easily than to a public edifice of any other class.
'I'liat it is the Museum is perfectly well known, — and so was the
lormer old building; yet surely the merely being known as such is
not sufficient, nor to be received in lieu <if intelligible architectu-
ral character, and marked indication of its peculiar purpose. If
there be any edifice which more than another admits of, or rather
demands arcbitec^tural luxury, it is a public museum of works of
art, for it ouglit to be a finished work of art itself; and thereby
tend to improve i)ublic taste. If we are content with a mere ware-
house or repository for books and sculpture, well and good. The
saving money in building, in order to a]q)ly it to enlarging the
(dllections, is intelligible and rational economy; whereas, to squan-
der it away by hundreds of thousands, to produce what is after all
i! poor, would-be-fine, botched-up structure, wherein the grossest
bungling, the most paltry meanness, and the most offensive eye-
sores disjday themselves,— is provoking and mortifying beyond
expression. The only comfort we now feel, is that the mortifica-
tion which we ourselves feel is, after what Mr. Fergusson has said,
likely to become very general, and to be most felt just where it
ought to he.

Although be has shown no contrivance whatever in any other
respect, Sir Robert Smirke lias contrived to make his Ionic colon-
iKides look no better than niere fi-iji/ieri/ — a sort of architectural
''cover-slut" to a very ugly and piean-looking brick building; and,
moreover, put on so slovenly, that it does not even so much as
conceal what it is intended to mask and hide. Even were the

central mass of the general facade many degrees better than it
actually is, and in itself satisfactory, still all the rest — tlie parts
mixed up, for we cannot say combined, w ith it — are such exceed-
ingly ordinary, everyday, and some of them even vulgar stuff", that
grandiose composition — and considering what has been e.\uended,
we ought at all exents to have had that for our money — is quite
out of the question.

Good, substantial, but quite plain brick houses would surely have
been good enough for the officers of the establishment; and had a
range of such bouses been erected in continuation of those on the
west side of Montague-street, besides great saving as to cost, two
decided advantages would have been obtained, — for, in the first
place, those houses would have screened out the ugly brick mass
to the which the "grand" Ionic facade is merely tacked on; and,
in the next place, there would then have been an opportunity of
jiroviding additional accommodation for the increasing collections,
by erecting, for the enlargement of the Museum itself, two e.x-
treme wings brought nearly up to the main structure, so as to
form together with it one consistent and well-balanced, yet varied,
composition. Such e.xtension in front is, however, now rendered
impossible; yet, that enlargement in some way or other would be
required within a few years, had become tolerably evident even
before the two ranges of official dwellings, which are made to offi-
ciate as wings, had been commenced. Perbaps the very best course
that can now be pursued would be to adopt what Mr. Fergusson
recommends, which is to convert the gallery of antiquities, and
other rooms occupied by the several collections of sculpture and
natural history, into a repository for the Public Records, — so that
tliey and the Library would form a vast national collection of lite-
rature and historical documents treasured in one and the same
building. This w ould require no alteration of the structure itself,
and the merely fitting-up the rooms for their new purpose would
be attended with comparatively small expense. The chief obstacle
in the way of its being done is that such scheme involves the ne-
cessity of a further one also proposed by Mr. Fergusson, which is
to incorporate the collection of sculpture and antiquities now in
the Museum, with the National pictures. He accordingly suggests
that the Barracks at the rear of the National Gallery should be
removed elsewhere, and additional galleries be erected on the site;
and the whole plan be gradually extended in the course of time, so
as to take in St. Martin's ^V^orkhouse also, and ultimately occupy
the whole space bounded by ^V'bitcomb-street and Dorset-place on
the west. Orange-street and Hemming's-row on the north, and
St. Martin's-lane on the east. And there we think he might very
prudently have stopped ; instead of which, he further proposes
that the present National Gallery should be taken down and re-
built; which certainly does appear to us a very uncalled-for, and
therefore wanton, piece of extravagance. Even Mr. Fergusson
himself vindicates that structure from the senseless abuse heaped
ujion it while several others which are many degrees worse are
allowed to escape perfectly censure-free. He questions whether
we should get anything much better upon the whole instead of it;
and further admits, that as far as they go, the present picture-
i-ooms answer their purpose sufficiently well. Then, why, in the
name of common-sense, should that be destroyed which requires
only to be enlarged ? — as may be done with the greatest facility,
provided the poii xto, the ground for additional buildings, and
of course, the requisite "wherewithal" or funds, also can be
obtained. So far, then, we do not altogether agree with Mr. Fer-
gusson; and we think, besides, that where so much is asked for, or
proposed all at once, alarm is likely to be taken, — and so in the
end nothing whatever be done. One effect, however, Mr. Fergus-
son's "Observations" will certainly have, though his "Suggestions"
may have none; since the former can hardly fail to make the
Trustees of the British Museum open their eyes pretty widely,
and stare at each other very profoundly, when they find out how
blunderingly they have managed their building, — and, what is
worst of air, that the public are now informed how egregiously
they have blundered from first to last. As for Sir Robert Smirke,
he, it appears, is intact, and remains tutus, teres, atque rotundus. At
the very worst, he can console himself by saying :
" Popnhia me sibilat j at mihi plaudo
Ipse donii, »iiniil uc liuininoa contemplor iti area "

Mural Paintinijs at St. Cross. — Coloured drawings of these paintings, re-
cently diseiivered on the walls of the Ciiurch of St. Cross, were exhiliited
l>y Mr. Francis liaigent, al a recent nieiUng of the Archsological Associa-
linn. Sniiie art- exceedingly elegant in design, and apparently of the early
part of the liflcenlh centnry.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

199

SOLID WROUGHT-IRON RAILWAY WHEELS.

(^Witlt Engravings, Plate XII.)

On a Patent Solid Wrought-Iron Wheel. By Mr. Henry Smith,
of West Bromwich. — (Paper read at the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers.)

The subject of the present communication is a new wrought-
iron railway wheel, which is forged solid in one piece, and is manu-
factured entirely by the forge liammer; the wheel is disc-shaped,
the disc portion being about g-inch thick, and gradually swelled
out to the thickness of the nave and the tyre.

The following may be stated as tlie cliief desiderata in a railway
wheel: — 1st. The greatest possible strengtli with tlie least possible
weight. — 2nd. Durability, implying also facility of repair. — 3rd.
Economy in cost.

On the first of these points it is conceived there will be no dif-
ference of opinion about the disc shape being the strongest possi-
ble; and also that when a wheel is made in one entii-e piece, it
must necessarily be less liable to the eifects of wear and tear than
one which is composed of a number of pieces. This will be made
more manifest by analysing the mode of manufacturing railway
wheels in the old or ordinary way. For this purpose, and for the
sake of drawing the fairest comparison between the wheel now
under consideration and the ordinary wheels, a wrought-iron wheel
is selected of the most improved make, liaving a wrouglit-iron
nave, with the spokes welded to the nave and to the inner tyre.
The following is the mode of manufacture of such a wheel: —
Pieces of iron with wedge-shaped ends, are brought together all
converging to a common centre. These are then welded toge-
ther to form the nave or boss, and the inner ends of the spokes, of
the intended wheel. Other pieces, T-shaped, are then welded to
the ends of these spokes and again to each other, foi-niing the
inner tyre of the wheel. This done, a rolled tyre-bar of a suitable
length, is bent into a circle of a proper diameter to go on the
inner tyre, and is welded to form a perfect circular hoop. This
hoop is then heated in a furnace and put upon the inner tyre, and
then the wheel is immersed in cold water to occasion such an
amount of contraction of the tyre as shall firmly fix it upon the
wlieel. Rivets or bolts are then passed through both to secure
them together.

Now, it is submitted that the whole process of thus producing a
wheel is open to many well-founded objections — such as the fol-
lowing:— The possibility of a want of dexterity in the manipula-
tion of the different parts, in the making and bringing them toge-
ther. The chance of doing so when the iron is not in a proper
condition for welding; then, the uncertainty of the hoops or tyres
being exactly the same length, or the wheels with the inner tyre
of precisely the same diameter; and again, the amount of contrac-
tion of the outer tyre depending upon its slow or rapid cooling,
will be affected by any variation in the temperature of the wheel
itself and the water in the "bosh" or cooling cistern, and these of
course cannot be kept uniform. — All these circumstances are op-
posed to wheels being well made with loose tyres, whether with
wrouglit-iron naves and arms or with cast-iron naves.

In reference to the second head, Durability, it is conceived from
the contingencies already alluded to, that it must be obvious, a
wheel made in one piece will be the more lasting; but on this point,
the wheel which forms the subject of the present inquiry has other
claims to prefer. In consequence of the iron in the wheel being
both granular and laminar, inasmuch as by the mode of manufac-
ture hereafter explained this result is ensured, and the grain of
the iron being brought to stand at right angles to the direction of
the wear, and the body of the iron being of a denser and more
compact character than rolled iron, it must doubtless be much
stronger and more durable than any rolled tyre-bar of piled iron,
which is liable to lamination, and altogether of a softer nature.
Again, the torsive and abrasive effects of the carriage-breaks will
not produce the same results on a solid disc wheel, as on one with
a loose hoop or tyre of rolled iron. Then as regards repairing,
wlien the tyre of the disc wheel is worn down so much as to re-
quire a renewal, the wheel can be put into the lathe and turned
cylindrical, to receive a tyre in the ordinary vvay, secured on by
bolts screwed into the tyre' from the inner side, or by countersunk
rivets through the tyre; and it must be then a better wheel than
any yet manufactured.

On the subject of Cost, it can only be observed at present, that
as the first expense does not determine this point, it must be left
to be settled by the results of a sufficient exi)erience.

The fcllowing is a description of the mode of manufacturing the
new solid disc irheels. In the first place, a stiv.ight bar of hammered

or rolled iron is taken, of 4 or 1^ inches width or more if required,
and sufficiently long to form a hoop of such a diameter as is most
suitable to make the intended wheel. Other pieces of bar-iron are
then laid flat and close together, and cut in lengths to the same
circle as the hoop, to form the base of a "pile;" the hoop is then
placed upon this foundation, and filled with scrap-iron. The whole
IS then put into a reverberatory or heating furnace and when at
the proper heat, is hammered in the tools or dies shown by draw-
ing A, to form a "mould;" the face of the hammer is recessed in
such a shape as to form an approximation to the shape of one side
of the intended wheel, but only about two-thirds of the diameter;
and the anvil-face has a circular recess, flat-bottomed, into which
the hammer-face enters. Two of these "moulds" are then put to-
gether back to back, heated in a similar way and hammered be-
tween the tools or dies B, which are of the same sectional form
and nearly the full-size scale of the finished wheel; but these tools
embrace only a segment of about one-fifth part of the entire
wheel. The "mould" is turned round hoi-izontally during this
process, being turned a little between each blow of the hammer,
and it is tlius hammered out to the form and size of the required
wheel. The wheel is then put into an annealing furnace, and is
planished between tools similar to the last, which are of the form
and the full-size scale of the finished wheel, as shown by drawing
C, and the wheel then only requires the tyre and the nave turning
in a lathe, and the centre boring out. The finished wheel is shown
in drawing D.

By this mode of manufacture it will be perceived that Low
Moor iron, or any other description of iron or steel, can be used if
required for the tyre of the wheel, and thus in all cases ensure n
clean wearing surface, and a compound character of fibrous and
granulated iron, which it is believed no other system of making
wheels affords.

The centres for large spoke wheels are also manufactured in one
solid piece in a similar manner, by the tools or dies shown in draw-
ing E; the top and bottom tools are both alike, and are recessed in
the form of tlie nave of the intended wheel, with a short portion of
each of the spokes radiating from the nave. The centre of the
wheel is thus stamped out by the hammer with a portion of each
of the spokes al)out a foot long, ready for welding on to the T-
pieces to form the inner tyre and tlie remainining portion of the
spokes. A tliin web or fin is left in the centre between the spokes,
which is afterwards cut out by the smith. The object of this con-
struction is to surpass in certainty of soundness the precarious
method of making them at present in use.

It is unnecessary to urge the importance of obviating, as far as
possible, the occurrence of such accidents as have too frequently
happened in consequence of defects of railway wheels; but a few
of these cases may be alluded to here, in illustration of the
subject.

The accident on the Edinburgh and Northern Railway in Octo-
ber last, when the tyre of the leading wheel of the engine broke
and threw the train off the line. That on the East Lancashire Rail-
w,ay in November last, where the tyre of one of the carriage wheels
broke. That upon the Brighton Railway in September last, when
the tyre of one of the engine wheels broke, throwing the train off
the line. And that upon the Great Western Railway, about two
years ago, where the tyi-e of a carriage wheel broke, and a portion
of it fell through a carriage, causing a fatal accident.

^V'ith the view of obtaining some practical information upon the
comparative resistance of tlie air to the revolution of the disc
wheels and of the ordinary spoke wheels, some experiments have
been tried at the Vulcan Iron Works, West Bi-oniwich, by JMr.
Henry Smith, with the assistance of Mr. Marshall, the Secretary
of the Institution; and the results of these experiments are ap-
pended in the following table.

Experiments on the Resistance of the Air to the Spokes of Wheels,

No. of Experiment

Description of Wheel

Weicht of Wheel, in lbs

Weight suspended, in lbs

Distance lolien by Weight, in feet...

Time of revolution of Wheel, in
secnnds

Total number of revolutions

Average speed per hour of Wheel,
in miles

l.e"gth of rope, in feet

iTime before rope was detacbed, in
seconds

Number of tevohuious before rope

I wns dvtached

iWeii ht wt toil rope, in lbs

1

2

3

4

Losh.

451

66

270

Disc.

414

56

270

Losb.

4.'il

56

279

Haddn

42:i

56
279

5.1

148

62
161

60
166

fiOi
176

17
270

17
270

18
365

19
355

15

15

17

17

38

Non».

as

None.

50

60

7

Disc
414

279

68
220

21
355

17

50

6

Disc.

414

56

279

22
355

Disc.

414
71i
279

75
267

35S
12
50

The.ie expeiimeiits were performed at an old mine shaft S7i< feet

200

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jii.v,

deep. The axle was plnced across t'lc top of the shaft 9nd carried
l>y two l)carinjrs with bras? steps; tlie wheel under experiment was
fixed on one end of the axle outside tlie bearing, and the counter
connected to tlie other end of the axle. The counter was so ffr:\-
diiated and arranged that the most correct observation could be
taken of the number of revolutions completed in each case.

A drum 2 ft. 3j in. diameter was fixed on the centre of the axle,
and a rope g-inch diameter was coiled on the drum, with the mov-
ng weight attached to tlio end of it hanging over the centre o f
tlie shaft; the other end was not attached to the drum, but held
only by the grip of the second turn of the rope, so that when the
rope was run off the drum by the weight falling to the bottom of
tlie shaft, the end of the rope detached itself from the drum with-
out any check. As there was not any means of descending the
shaft to bring up the rope and weight, a tail rope of the same
length and size as the main rope was attached to the weight at
one end, and the other end made fast at the top of the shaft, the
rope hanging double halfway down the shaft; this served to bring
up the weight and main rope after they had fallen to tlie bottom
of the shaft in each experiment. These two ropes weighed 7 lb.
each, and the weight of the main rope caused a gradual accelera-
tion in tlie moving weight, varying from nothing at the beginning
of th» descent to 7 lb. at the end; whilst the tail rope acting at
ta-st with half its weight, caused an increase varying from 34 lb. to
nothing at the end. The result was therefore, a total increase of
the moving power varying from 3g lb. at the beginning of the
fall to 7 lb. at the end; and as this was the same in each case and
the moving weight was also the same (5() lb.), its effect may be
neglected in ascertiiining the comparative results for the present
pui-pose.

The wheels tried in the experiments were one of the solid
wrought-iron disc wheels, a wrought-iron flat-spoked wheel of
Losh's pattern, with spokes 3^ inches broad, and a wrought-iron
flat-spoked wheel of Iladdan's pattern, with spokes 3^',^ inches
broad. These wheels were selected as near the same weight as
was practicable, the Losh's wheel being one-length heavier than
the disc wheel, and the Haddan's wheel one-forty-sixtli heavier
than the disc wheel. All the wheels were 3 feet diameter.

Deducting in each case the 14 seconds during which the power
was in action, the results are 46 seconds with Lush's wheel and
.53 seconds with the disc wheel, for the time of motion after the
power was detached; which are in the proportion of 100 to 115,
showing that 15 per cent, more resistance was experienced by the
spoke wheel than by the disc wheel.

The average result from both sets of experiments is 16| per cent,
difference of resistance in favour of the disc wheel, and this is at-
tributable to the additional resistance of the air caused by the Hat
spokes of the spoke wheel, as the friction of the axle caused the
same resistance in each case, the weight being nearly the same of
each wheel; and to prevent any change in the friction of the axle,
the wheels were changed without taking the axle out of its bear-
ings during the experiments. The axle journals were 2^ inches
diameter and 2,3 inches length; and the friction of the journals
was overcome by a weight of 15,^ lb. acting on the drum when the
•wheel was upon the axle, and by a weight of S| lb. when the wheel
was taken off.

As these experiments were made with wheels revolving on a sta-
tionary axle, it is requisite to consider what would be the compa-
rative effect if the wheels were rolling on their circumference
whilst revolving at the same rate on their axle, as in the practical
case of the wheels of railway carriages running on a railway. In
the former case the motion of the spokes is at a uniform velocity,
and always at right angles to the direction of the spokes; but in
the latter case of a rolling wheel the motion of the spokes is at a
varying velocity, and always inclined obliquely to the direction of
the spokes, except at the moment of each spoke being in the verti-
cal position. This is illustrated by the accompanying engraving,
where the successive positions of'^ the spokes are shown. The
outer ends of the spokes move in a cycloidal curve, having double
the velocity of the revolution of the wheel when they arrive at
the top of the wheel, but becoming stationary at the moment of
touching the rail at the bottom of the wheel. The average velocity
of the outer ends of the spokes is about 1:1 times greater than
when the wheel revolves on a stationary axle at the same rate of
revolution. The average velocity of the inner ends of the spokes
is about 3 times greater when rolling than when revolving on a
stationary axle. As the resistance of the air increases in propor-
tion to tlie square of the velocity, the average resistance to the
outer and inner ends of the spokes will be about U and 9 times
respectively greater in the former than in the latteV case. ' But'
this is reduced by the oblique position of the spokes as regards

the direction of their motion in the rolling wheel; the motion of
the spokes being twice dur^ig each revolution in the direction of
the spokes, and consequently the resistance of the air reduced to
nothing at those points. By measuring upon the diagram the com-
parative velocity of several jioints in a spoke in various positions
during a complete revolution of the wheel, and the inclination of
the spoke to the direction in each of these positions, the following
approximate result has been obtained: — that the total resistance of
the air to the spokes when the wheel is rolling is 3 times the total
resistance to the same spokes when the wheel is revolving at the
same rate of revolution on a stationary axle.

It follows that the result of the foregoing experiments has to be
multiplied by 3, and consequently the excess of the resistance of
the air to the spoke wheel over the disc wheel would have been
3 times I65, or i9^ per cent., if the wheels had been rolling in this
case instead of revolving on a stationary axle. This excess of
resistance of the spoke wheel would not be so great in the practi-
cal case of the wheels of a railway carriage running on a railway,
as the friction of the axle journals is greater in that case than in
the experiments, from the weight pressing upon them being
greater; and consequently the resistance of the air to the spokes
of the wheel would then bear a less proportion to the friction of
the axle journals.

Remarks made at the Meeting after the reading of the foregoing Paper.

Mr. M'CoNNELL said, he had tried two pairs of these wheel centres at
W'olverton, and had found them perfectly solid, and they were an excellent
job ; they were for the leading and trailing wheels of an engine 3 ft. 9 in.
diameter.

Mr. Smith said, in answer to questions, that his hammer with which the
wheels were forged was rather more than 9 tons weight ; it was a helve tak-
ing up under the belly, and was driven by bands. The weight of the finished
disc wheel was about 4J cwt. ; it was made with the first tools that he had
started with, and he had adhered at present to his original section of wheel,
but he did not profess it to be the best form of section that might be
adopted. He had made ahout 200 of these wheels ; there were some now
at work on the Birmingham and Gloucester line, and he had an order to
prepare some for the travelling post-office to register the number of miles
run by them. As to the cost of the wheel, he was ready to put himself in
competition with other parties.

The President remarked, that the durability or life of the body of the
wheel was so very much greater than that of the tyre of the vfheel, which
must be renewed when only about a tenth of the life of the wheel was gone,
and would then require a secondary process to put on the new tyre; and
consequently it appeared to him preferable not to incur any additional ex-
pense and trouble by forging the tyre on to the wheel, hut to manufacture
the disc alone, and put on a separate tyre in the first instance.

Mr. Smith replied, that it was not any more trouble to forge the wheel
with the tyre than without it; it was easily done, and the cost of manufac.
turing the wheel would be less than putting on a separate tyre. There would
be a little more trouble and expense in relyring the wheel for the first time,
but he thought that the iron of the tyre would be much more durable than
any rolled tyre could be, on account of the process of manufacture.

Mr. WooDHOusE asked what advantage the wheel would possess over a
cast-iron wheel if it were forged without the tyre ; but he thought there was
certainly danger of fracture from expansion in a cast-iron disc wheel.

Mr. Beyer remarked, that he had seen some cast-iron wheels that he
thought would last as long as wrought-iron ones, and he never could under-
stand why they were not more used ; there were many wheels of cast iron,
even large driving-wheels of C feet diameter, that had been running many
years, and he thought it was an important question of economy in railways.

The President observed, that when locomotive engines were began, some
25 years ago, they were driven to wrought-iron wheels, and thought it a
great advantage; and he thought that for rapid railway travelling, they must
admit, as a body of engineers, that wrought-iron was better than cast-iron
for such purposes. The present facilities for the manufacture of wrought-
iron bad been so >tiikingly shown to them on the present occasion, that he
thought it was hardly possible to save anything worth mentioning by the
adoption of cast-iron, particularly in the expense of a pair of large driving-
wheels.

Mr. Smith said, he bad been informed that the tyres were found to wear
longer on solid wheels than on spoke wheels.

The President remarked, that the tyre of large wheels would no doubt
deflect between the spokes, and this would not be the case with a disc wheel ;
there was certainly a bending process going on which might contribute to
the wear and ttar. But judging from the effects of rigidity in the wear of
rails, he thought the tyre would wear faster on a rigid wheel ; it was certain
that rails laid on a block road wear much faster than when laid on an elastic
road, and the dift'erence in their wear was very marked.

Mr. MiDDLETON observed, that Mr. Ephraim Uoulton had a patent for a
disc weeel, and many of them had been used on the Great Western Radway,
but they were not approved, and were all cast aside.

The President said he believed those wheels were a double disc, and the
tyre was riveted on; he understood that one principal reason for their being
discontinued, was the singular drum-like noise they made.

SECTION OF A ROAD CARRIED BOO.

ALSO PLAN AND SECTIONS OFASINOLE WOODEM CULVERT.

PLATE XII.

SOLID IRON RAILWAY WHEELS

SHEET- A

TOP TOOL.

BOTTOM TOOL

H—

^

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

201

Mr. Adams said, that these wheels were made with two wrought. iron
discs riveted to a ring of T-iron to form the inner tyre, and riveted to the
two faces of a cast-iron nave which was turned to receive them ; they had
been in use eight years, and he thoiiijht they would last many years, and
were as good wheels as the one under consideration, and much cheaper ; he
did not know why there had not been more of them made.

Mr. Smith observed, that by forging the tyre solid on the wheel, the risk
of accident from the breaking of the tyre would be avoided whilst the origi-
nal tyre lasted; and he thought that advantage was worth ensuring, as many
accidents had been caused by the tyres breaking or coming loose.

Mr. Beyer asked whether the wheels were all as good as the specimen
exbil)ited to the meeting, and whether the two moulds of which the wheel
was made were always perfectly united at the outer face of the tyre.

Mr. Smith said, he would guarantee the wheels to be all as good, and the
moulds were united as thoroughly and soundly in the forging as the bars in
piled iron.

Mr. Slate asked if he could tell what would be the probable wear of
these wheels; but Mr. Smith said there had not been sufficient experience
of their working to ascertain that.

Mr. Allan remarked, that the disc part of the wheel was almost ever-
lasting ; it would last 100 years, but the tyre would not last more than 3
years.

The President said, it was certainly a very good wheel, independently of
the question of the tyre ; and he was of opinion that the railway world was
very likely to be greatly indebted to Mr. Smith for his very excellent wrought-
iron wheel, and he saw no reason why it should not come into extensive use.
Aliout the tyre he had yet some doubt whether it was desirable or essential
for the sake of a small portion of additional safety for two or three years,
to forge the tyre solid with the wheel. He thought the mode of manufac-
turing the wheel was highly interesting, and it was a triumph in forging that
be was not prepared for.

RECLAMATION OF PEAT BOG.

{WithEiitjraviiigs, Plate XIII.)

On the Origin and Rpclamation of Peat Bog; vnth some Observa-
tions on the Construction of RwtiJs, liai/ii-ays, and Canals in Bog.
By Bernard Mvli.ins, Esq., C.E. Vice-President of the Institute
of Civil Engineers of Ireland; and M. B. Mullins, Esq., A.M.,
C.E., Member.

The following interesting paper is an abridgment of one read
before the Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland. Its great
length precludes our giving the introductory part : it chiefly re-
lates to agriculture, and may be seen in the Transactions of the
Institution.

Boads in Bog.

Good roads and navigable canals through bogs aid so much in
the process of reclamation, and have proved such stumbling-blocks
to projectors generally, that it is not inappropriate to make a few
observations on these subjects.

Hardness and smoothness of the surface are the chief objects to
be obtained in road making. The elasticity of the soil offers a
great impediment tp the attainment of these qualities; we there-
fore must calculate on considerable difficulties in making a bog road
unless managed with skill; indeed, when practicable at a cheap
rate, the peat should be entirely removed. However, as this could
not be done in the great majority of cases, we must have recourse
to other means; and although the elasticity of a bog can hardly
ever be destroyed, as may be seen by the shaking of the water of
the drains when a vehicle passes along the oldest roads of that
description, yet, if brought to a uniform and even bearing, and not
liable to those alternate ups and downs which are almost always
met with, the perfect flatness which is attainable compensates
much for the impediment produced by its elasticity.

In every line of public road through deep bogs, drains should
be made, 63 feet apart, enclosing the site of the road; and paral-
lel and external to these a catch-water drain at either side, at a
distance of 21 feet, thus occupying five plantation perches, as
shown at Plate XIII. fig. 1.

This great breadth of enclosure is necessary, in order to ensure
the drainage to an extent sufficient to give bearing and stability to
the elastic seat of the road; cross drains, will, in most cases, be
necessary, at a distance of say two perches asunder, leading at
right angles into the fence drains. The whole of these drains,
being made to such dimensions as the state of the bog will pre-
scribe, should be repeatedly widened and sunk, and the spoil of
the side drains thrown on the ramparts, or 21 feet spaces; when
the enclosures shall become sufficiently firm, the cross drains are
first to be filled-in with the bog material taken out of them, and

the spoil that had been heaped on the ramparts to dry, should be
wheeled in barrows to make the base or convex bed of the road,
which should be raised in the middle 2 feet in the first instance, to
admit of subsidence, and formed gently sloping on either side. The
breadth of this formation may be for public roads 30 feet, and for
accommodation roads 20 feet; for the latter an enclosure of four
perches in breadth will be sufficient. Great care should be taken to
have the bog material well chopped and trodden. If the spoil be
insufficient to form tlie bed of the road as described, additional
material may be had with most advantage by widening and sinking
the side di-ains, particularly the catch-water or outside drains,
which, besides carrying oft' the surface-water of the adjacent bog
at a distance from the road, will tend materially, by the more rapid
drainage and consolidation of the ramparts, or 21 feet spaces, to
resist the subsidence of the seat of the road which becomes, as it
were, propped on either side by banks of solid peat.

In wet bogs it will be necessary to continue the gradual opera-
tions described, for about two years before the road material can
be put on. At the expiration of that time, a soaling of stiff clay,
from 8 to 10 inches in depth, should be laid on, and over this a
covering of finely bi-oken stones or gravel, about 8 inches in thick-
ness.

If partial subsidence of the road should take place, a frequent
occurrence from insufficient drainage, the road material should be
taken up, and the sunken parts raised with dry bog-mould, firmly
punned or trampled, the soaling and metalling may then be again
laid on. The common practice of raising the sunken parts with
heavy road material is an error, for the tendency to sink is thus
greatly increased. It is, therefore, obvious that uniform pressure
is one of the chief objects to attain in bog road making.

Where sufficient time is not allowed for consolidation by drain-
age, a foundation is made with a layer of brushwood, or the slen-
der branches of trees which are tied up in bundles 10 or 12 inches
in diameter, and 10 or 15 feet long; these, known by the name of
fascines, are much used in Holland, and are laid firmly bound toge-
ther in alternate transverse and longitudinal layers; over these a
covering of earth is placed, and then the pavement or metalling is
put over.

This mode, as may be inferred, is not so good, and is greatly
more expensive than that recommended by us, and is only to be
had recourse to in particular spots where drainage is extremely
difficult, or in railroad making, where sacrifices are made to save
time; but no expedient ought to supersede a system of proper
drainage whether for railways or other roads — in the former a
"grillage" of cross timbers of large scantling and longitudinal
bearers will be the best mode of sustaining the rails, and it will be
found that the elasticity of the road, if made of the bog material
as described, will tend greatly to its stability and cheapness of
maintenance, there being no tractive contact as in common roads
with the surface. Bundles of furze or heath are sometimes used
as fascines in passing a road over a quagmire, but they are a mere
temporary expedient, and in every respect inferior to those made
of small branches of sufficient length, made in the manner subse-
quently to be described.

In dry shallow bogs catch-water drains may not be necessary;
with this exception, the same system of making is applicable in all
cases.

M'liere rivulets and streams are intercepted by the line of road,
they should be passed under it by suitable culverts, which, if built of
stone or brick, would in many cases be a work of much difficulty
and expense in the carriage of building materials, sinking founda-
tions, and keeping out water during their construction. These
considerations suggest the expediency of making culverts of
wood (Plate XIII., figs. 1, 2, and 3), siich as we had recourse to
with effect in the execution of the Ballinasloe Canal, twelve miles
of which pass through deep bog; the sides to be formed of round
native timber piles, 9 inches diameter, adzed off on one side to re-
ceive the sheeting, lightly shod, hooped, and driven firmly into the
hard, to the depth of 2 feet under the lowest assumed level for the
ulterior drainage of the district. Two rows of these piles to bd
driven in the line of the waterway, 4 feet apart from centre to
centre, and 4 feet from each other in the longitudinal direction;
three rows will form a double culvert.

Transverse capping pieces, of 9 inches by T inches to be notched
down on the heads of opposite piles, as per sketch, and bolted to
them with sufficiently jagged bolts; longitudinal sheeting of saw n
elm or beech plank, 3 inches thick, to be laid closely together on
these capping-pieces to which they are to be spiked; the sides to
be sheeted in like manner, from the level of the capping to the
bottom of the watercourse, with round wood of not less than 7 or
8 inches diameter, having one cut through the middle longitut'.i-

27

i02

THE CIVIL ENOINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURXAL.

[Jl'LV,

iKiIly; tliis sliet'liiifi: to be firmly spiked on at riiflit angles to the
]iilfs; the lioi(;ht of the cappiiifj-pieres ahove the bottom of the
culvert will necessarily he governeil by circumstances which we
cannot anticipate; sufficient waterway in all cases should be left.
A\'here the bottom of tlie watercourse is remote from the gravel
line, it will be necessary to floor the bottom of the culvert to pre-
vent its being choaked by the rising of the bog, the effect of pres-
sure on the sides. Cross pieces should be carried from opposite
)iiles, as at top, and on these the planking should be spiked to pre-
vent the floor lieiug forced up. Slieeting piles may be driven at
the upstream end if necessary, to prevent the water running under
the flooring.

The principle here suggested has this additional advantage, that
it will admit of the deepening of the watercourse for drainage
purposes, without detriment to the efficiency of the conduits. In
cases where a waterway of 2 or 3 feet in Ineadth is sufficient, hur-
dles may be substituted for the sheeting of the top and sides.

R(ii/iciii/s in Brnj.
The subject of Railway making through bogs being very little
understood, we propose the fidlowing system in preference to
throwing in earth to replace the jieat, an operation which may be
extremely e.xpensive if tlie material be remote, and the bog deep
and wet, for a complete embankment must in that case be made,
whose base will rest upon the gravel or clay at the bottom; it
would, in fact, be tantamount to embanking through a lake, as the
light wet peat, instead of being compressed, would be forced up
on all sides by the heavier material. I

The same preliminary operations being performed as for common |
roads — namely, side and catch-water drains, at the prescribed dis-
tances, and forming the bed or seat with dry peat well chopped
and trampled, we recommend, if the bog be wet and deep, and
time cannot be allowed for drainage, that a layer of fascines, 12
inches scpiare, and closely connected by pickets or twig-hands, be
laid transversely on the bog, as shown in Plate XIII., figs, i, 5,
and 6; over these are to be placed longitudinal pieces of native
round timber of about 9 inches diameter, passing each other 2 or
3 feet at the ends; the number of these will depend on circum-
stances, but there should not be less than one under each rail; part
of the upper surfaces of these round timbers is to be adzed oft', to
make a level bed for the rough cross pieces of say 12X6 inches,
which are to be firmly spiked down upon them at a distance of
4. feet apart from centre to centre; longitudinal pieces of half
baulk are then to be placed on these to carry the rail; the space
may then be filled to the level of the bottom of the rails with
gravel and sand, better known in railway language, as ballasting
and boxing. If the longitudinal round timbers be immerous, cross
pieces of i-inch plank may be substituted for half baulk.

It is proposed to adjust this road in lateral parallelism, as shown
in the anne.xed woodcut, by means of brackets c, bolted or spiked
on the cross timbers, and keys or wedges «, driven between these
brackets, and the longitudinal sleepers _/■, brackets at the centre

and joints may be sufficient;
|(| the vertical adjustment to be

made by wedges driven be-
tween the cross and upper
longitudinal pieces ; and
when subsidence takes place
to the extent of admitting
a filling piece, the wedges
may be taken out; the gauge
of the road to be preserved
from within by chocks, or
straining pieces between the

i=^

longitudinal sleepers. It is to be observed, that the mode of
bracketing recommended, obviates all the difficulty of adjustment
which occui-s when the road pieces are fastened by bolts and
spikes.

The object sought to be obtained by the method i)roposed, is in
the first place to include within the drains an extent sufficient to
give stability; and in the next instance, to ensure the permanency
of the state of drainage at which it may be thought advisable to
construct the framing, in order to attain by continuous bearing
tlie uniform resistance of the elastic material, of which the seat of
tlie road is composed.

Fascines in Bug.

If the bog be tolerably dry and not very deep, fascines, which
are not desirable, unless as a means of drainage, may he partly dis-
pensed with; in that case the round timbers may be laid on the
log; iu other cases, where a quagmire is to be got over, two or

three layers of them may be necessary, placed in alternate longi-
tudinal and transverse layers, the transverse one being uppermost,
to receive the longitudinal round timbers.

AV'hen fascines are used merely for drainage (Plate XIII., fig. 6),
for which jiuriiose they are particularly well adapted in bog, a
single continuous row of them should be laid with a proper fall in
the centre of the road uiuler the level of the round timbers; cross
rows leading from the side drains are to be made to communicate
with the centre, at distances of 15 yards apart, and by alternating
the cross rows at opjiosite sides, instead of making them meet each
other at the centre, a cross-drain will be had at every 7i yards in
length, and the portion of the drain not under the road may be
left open.

The bavins or fascines used by Belidor in waterworks and in
military operations, were made of shoots of six or seven years
growth', from 7 to 1 1 feet long, and 30 inches round, well tied with
three bands, the first 1 foot from the head, the second 3 feet, and
the third G feet, so that tliere remained about 4 feet of brush-
wood or small ends not bound; such a form, although answering
the purposes intended — namely, for breakwaters or foundations,
would not make a continuous drain; neither does the contrivance
adopted by military engineers, called the "fascine choaker," give
any other than a circular form, and an insufficient and uneven
pressure, both equally uusuited to drainage; to obviate these de-
fects, we have had recourse to a contrivance shown in the annexed
woodcut, which gives a square
form, and the degree of com-
pactness required.

Shoots of branches or brush-
wood of the requisite length
being procured, should be laid on
the moveable sole, on which cop-
per wires to serve as bands, are
to be placed transversely, in
number proportionate to the in-
tended length of the fascine, a
band in every 2 feet will be suf-
ficient; the faggot when put in,
should be 1 foot broad, and its
depth about three times what it
is intended to be compressed
to; thus 3 feet may be com-
pressed into 1 foot thick, and
i feet into say 18 inches.

It will not be necessary to be
very particular in placing all
the shoots longitudinally, a suf-
ficient number, however, must
i-eceive that direction to give
continuity; the press will bring
all the rest into proper form,
which being done, the copper
wires are to be tightly drawn
I and twisted, and tlie ends of
I the fascines sawn evenly off,
so as to make a close butt-
I joint ; the press may be en-
] larged to suit any length re-
quired ; fascines ought not to
I be less than 0 feet hmg; the
cuttings of hedges, if held by
I a sufficient number of longi-
tiulinal branches, will form an
excellent bavin when pressed { )

in the manner described, which
is one of the great advantages of the machine.

Canals in Bog,

The process of canal making tin'ough bog is a subject demand-
ing especial consideration and inquiry; so much depends on local
circumstances that no rigid system of operations ap]dicable in all
cases can be specified — tlie jiosition of the bog, its depth, its con-
tiguity to recipients for drainage, the level of the substratum upon
which it rests in reference to the le\el of those recipients, the
level at which the canal is intended to enter the bog, the depth of
cutting to be removed, and the nature of the bog, whether firm or
flow, are considerations which must influence the course to be
adopted, as well in the choice of site, as in the method of perform-
ing the work, upon both of which the success of the undertaking
will depend.

Smeaton, the aV.eit civil engineer of his day, having been coq-

1S49]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

203

suited in the year 1773 by the Grand Canal Company on the exten-
sion of their canal, fell into a grave error in advisinfr "To avoid
boffs if possible, but of all this going deeply into them," (Smeaton's
Reports, Vol. XL, p. 267.) In our time we are tauglit by e.xperi-
ence to inculcate contrary doctrine.

Bog lands are, in our opinion, particularly favourable to canal
extension; the site of the canal is purchaseable at a low rate, it is
cheap and facile in execution — -always presuming that the line is
judiciously chosen and skilfully worked; it is perfectly retentive;
does not gutter the slopes at the water's edge as in clay and gravel
banks; and the elasticity of the towing paths is such, that they
continue for years without repair if used exclusively as trackways.
Moreover, a line of canal passing through bog furnishes the means
of reclamation on an extensive scale, as well in the preliminary
process of draining as in the conveyance of manure for its cultiva-
tion. The increase of fuel, and the employment which its manu-
facture would afford to the working classes in its vicinity, are
great inducements to give a decided preference to bog lands for
the site of a canal, — of course, other requirements being suit-
able.

We are not surprised at Smeaton's advice to avoid bogs if pos-
sible, seeing the principle advocated by him of not going deeply
into them. The canal from the Forth to the Clyde, 35 miles in
length, passing partly through bog, was commenced by this cele-
brated engineer in 17()S, and was not finished until 1790, having
cost the large sum of 2^0,000/.

Bogs do not constitute tlie master difficulty of canal making, as
is sufficiently attested by the history of tlie great undertakings of
that description. The canal of Languedoc required the great
genius of Vauban, and the munilicence of Louis tlie Fourteenth,
to carry it through its difficulties. Peter the Great was obliged
to abandon the projected canal from tlie Don to the Wolga after
a very large sum had been expended on it, owing to the unskilful
laying out of tlie line. These examples, which might be multi-
plied, will suffice for our purpose.

That portion of the Grand Canal passing near the town of
Edenderry, in the King's County, furnishes a two-fold instance of
the difficulty of making a canal through bog, where the level of
the substratum is below that of the adjacent river, and of the ill
effects of not going deeply into the bog. It was supposed that the
level chosen, which afforded from 6 to 9 feet deptli of cutting, was
such as would enable the undertaking to be completed at the least
possible expense, assuming that the depth of cutting (allowance
being made for subsidence), would give a finished canal of the re-
quired dimensions — namely, 24 feet width of bottom, -t6 feet wide
at top, and 8 feet in height from bottom of canal to upper surface
of trackway. The excavation and drainage were carried on con-
currently, and that which ivas expected to be an unusually cheap
reach of canal in shallow cutting, ended, after several years of un-
remitting labour and enormous expense, in the formation of a
bank on either side, 45 feet high for a distance of 80 perches, so
that the canal with the carrying up of its sides and bottom to the
required level, containing 6 feet of water, was in the centre of a
high artificial embankment, having a base of fully 400 feet. In-
. deed the difficulties were so great, that it was more than once
contemplated to abandon the line, and to make a new cut; but
through the influence of the proprietor of the town of Edenderry,
an example has been furnished, for the benefit of the engineering
world at least, of an error of the gravest character having been
carried to a successful termination.

Tlie following process was adopted in making this canal. Parallel
drains, at 10 perches from the centre line on either side, were
made, and at 2 perches distant from these, and from each otlier, a
series of parallel drains, to the extent of 34 perclies from the
centre line on either side, were then made, embracing a breadth
of 68 perches; these were crossed at riglit angles, at 2 perches
distant from each other, so that the area of the bog, from the
10-perch drain to the 34-perch drain, on either side of the em-
bankment, was divided into squares or ramparts of 4 perches area
each. Tlie drains of those squares were continually widened and
sunk, and the spoil thrown on the ramparts. When the spoil be-
came dry it was wheeled, together with an 18-inch lift of the ram-
parts, into the embankment in which the material was firmly tram-
pled and chopped, and while all the dry ramparts were so disposed
of a new set were being similarly prepared by sinking the drains.
The formation of the canal thus proceeded until the navigation
was opened. Great quantities of clay were then boated for the
lining of the bottom and sides, soling the trackways, and covering
the whole surface of the banks, as well to give weight and strength,
as to secure them against fire and waste in summer. The material
being dry and light, the surface was set on fire many times, and

was liable for the same reason to be carried avvay by the winds;
the banks were, however, perfectly retentive.

Previously to the opening, when the water had been let in tem-
porarily, a breach occurred, the reconstruction of which (we had
the direction of it) cost 10,000/. in securing the embankment.
Tliis was done by wheeling dry bog material into the broach,
firmly ramming it into its place, and incorporating it thoroughly
with the broken sides. Forty years ha\e elapsed since this was
made good, and no similar disaster has since occurred.

Piling has sometimes been had recourse to in making up such
breaches; but it is a great mistake to drive piles in a bog embank-
ment, as they disunite the particles, and open a way for the water
to escape, thus increasing the evil they were intended to remedy.
Vallancey in his work on canals bears testimony to this fact, and
his views were derived from high, authorities, such as Castellus,
Belidor, and others.

It is necessary to observe that the Edenderry Canal was made
through the centre of a deep basin; the lowest tap practicable
being 15 feet above the adjacent river, the Boyne. It is therefore
obvious that an improper site was chosen.

We thus see the necessity of ascertaining in the first instance
the depths of the bog, the level and nature of the substratum;
and it may be laid down as a general rule that shallow cuttings
and embankments in deep wet bogs are to be avoided; that the
level at which marl is found, or near it, ought not be selected for
the bottom of a canal; and that perfect drainage should be carried
to such an extent and depth, as to give stability to an area ade-
quate to the sustainment of a secure navigation.

At the desire of the Institute we shall give a brief account of
our process of making a canal through deep soft bog, for whicli
purpose we shall make choice of the Ballinasloe Canal, the most
recently, and we may be permitted to say, skilfully executed, from
the experience previously acquired, and the most difficult of any
in which we have been engaged, with the exception of that of
Edenderry. Before our time, the Grand Canal was carried
through three short reaches of bog in the county of Kildare with
great difficulty; the water was forced into the canal before a suffi-
cient sectional area was obtained; and it was by dredging, at a
great expense and loss of time, that an imperfect navigable depth
of canal was subsequently had: and so clumsy were the operations
then carried on, that when all the locks were built and the gates
hung, one of the locks (the 20th) being at tlie commencement of
one of those bogs, and an aqueduct at its termination, it was dis-
covered, on the opening of the navigation, that a mistake of 4 ft.
6 in. had been made in the bog level, which was remedied by build-
ing an intermediate lock of the required fall.

The Ballinasloe canal is 15 miles in length, 12 miles of which
are through bog, averaging from 20 to 46 feet in depth, and
bounded on two sides by lai'ge rivers — the Shannon and the Suck.

Kylemore bog having been the wettest, softest, and the most
difficult to execute, we shall describe our mode of proceeding in
that locality. The length of this bog in the line of the canal is
3,100 yards, terminating at either end in ravines between it and
the adjacent bogs, leading from the upland to the river Suck,
which lies some distance north of the line of canal. The drain-
age of this lot was carried through those ravines with considerable
difficulty and expense, there being no intermediate lateral tap.

Operations were commenced by making a drain in the centre line
of the canal throughout its entire length, 5 feet wide at top, and
1 foot wide at bottom, and 3 feet deep where jiracticable, (Plate
XIII., figs. 7 and 8, H.) In situations — and they were numerous
— where the fluidity of the bog would nut admit this depth, it was
sunk about 2 feet; and in some places not more than from 1 foot
to 18 inches. At 30 feet from the centre, on each side, drains of
like dimensions were made, which lined out the limits of the top
opening of the canal A A, allowing 9 inches to the foot slope, as-
suming that the subsidence of the bog surface would increase the
slopes to 18 inches to the foot, and give the required breadth at
bottom and top of canal when complete. At 4 perches, and at
10 perches from the centre on each side, drains B B, C C, parallel
to the foregoing, were made, of like dimensions, making seven in
all, including the centre drain; these were crossed at right angles
from the 10-perch drain north of the centre line, to the 10-percli
drain south of it, D D. At 10 perches distance from each other,
and in the intervals of these crossings, other crossings E, were
made from the 4-perch drain north, to the 4-perch drain soutli, re-
ducing the intervals longitudinallj' within these latter crossings to
5 perches. All of those drains were worked by slight sinkings,
keeping the top openings, as at first, to 5 feet, until the bog ac-
quired sufficient consistence to allow deeper incisions into it. The
centre drain and the verge drains were most worked, and the

2?*

2(Jt

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

[JULV,

4-percIi drains next, and after these tlio lO-percli drains; the eross
drains in all cases were kept to tlie depth to which the parallel
drains had heen snnk.

After some time, when the spoil of the sinkings of the centre
ilrain and of the verge drains accumulated to an inconvenient
height, and that the ramparts F G, hecame consididated, which
the pressure of tlie spoil, aided hy drainage, speedily effected, one
of tluise ranipaits, say F, was excavated and wlieelcd out beyond
the lO-perch longitudinal drain north, C; after which the centre
drain and verge drain were boldly snnk, and the spoil cast in upon
the excavated rampart. The i)arallel drains were then sunk; con-
currently with these the cross drains were also deepened; subse-
ipiently to these ojierations the ram))art G, was excavated and
wheeled out beyond the 10-percli drain, south side, and the cross
and parallel drains consecutively sunk, as on the north side.

In this state of proceedings it hecame necessary to excavate and
wheel off the spoil of the cross drains, situate between the verge
drains and the 10-perch drains to a short distance beyond the
10-perch drains on each side, in order to admit of their being
widened and deepened boldly; the top openings increased to 6 feet,
and the depth to that of tjie parallel drains, the spoil of which
was cast back from the verges in order also to their being widened
and sunk, but in a less degree than those already mentioned. The
])roxiniity of the river Suck, running nearly parallel with the canal
for its whole length, afforded opi)ortunities of floating off immense
<|uantitics of spoil in time of flood, which considerably accelerated
tlie iirogress of the work.

Tlie effect of this system of drainage was to cause the whole
mass of bog, comjireliended between the 10-perch drain nortli and
the 10-perch drain south of the centre, to subside, subsidence com-
mencing at the centre and verge drains wliidi were unceasingly
operated upon daily, and decreasing gradually to the 10-perch
drains, which, with the intermediate drains, were less frequently
sunk. This rotation being performed, ramparts were prepared in
the manner before described, and when consolidated were exca-
vated and wheeled off to the prescribed distance from the centre
on each side, and the process of drainage between the verge drains
and the 10-perch drains proceeded with as before, all these opera-
tions being constantly repeated until the required depth was at-
tained. It was then found that the surface of the bog, originally
26 feet above bottom at the verges of the canal, had subsided on
an averge 20 feet, it having in many places sunk to within 4 feet,
and in some few places, where the bog was very soft, to the actual
level of bottom.

The slopes were then ranged and di-essed — the centre drain
straightened and sunk throughout below the level of the bottom
of the canal, which was thus ke|it dry and firm to resist the col-
lapse of the sides — the bottom cleared up, the cross drains E and
D, from the canal to the t-perch drains on either side, flUed up to
the level of the bottom of these 4-perch drains H B, and when the
former were, at their entrance into tlie canal, below the top water
line, which occurred in many places, shoots of sufficient capacity
were inserted for the full breadth of the trackw ays, to ])reveiit any
accumulation of drainage or surface water in the parallel or cross
drains, which would, if this precaution were omitted, or the pas-
sage of the water through those shoots impeded, cause great de-
rangement by carrying in the sides, ])roducing the subsidence of
the trackways and forcing up the bottom, a common occurrence
from the cause here assigned, evidences of which are \isible in the
•work referred to. The sides or hanks w ere then slowly and care-
fully raised with the lightest and dryest of the spoil to the re-
quired height. In soft places, where the surface of the bog had
sunk to the level of the bottom of the canal, fascines of heath
were laid under the light dry spoil of which the bank was formed;
the tap-drains were then closed, and the water, for the purposes of
navigation, rapidly let in — a [irecautionary measure of much im-
portance, in order to [irevent the rising of the bottom and collapse
of the sides, which would have inevitably taken place if it had
been slowly admitted. A, soling of clay 10 feet broad and 1 foot
thick, with 6 inches of gravel, was then laid on to form the tow-
ing-path.

\Ve may here observe, that throughout the whole of the execu-
tion of this reach of canal, 3,100 yards in length, none of the
numerous drains with which it was traversed attained a greater
depth, at any time, than about 4 feet, except at the margins of the
bog, terminating in the ravines at either ends; here the drains
were sunk to 6 feet and upwards; the work was three years in
hand, and had two years more been employed in the execution,
two-fifths of the cost would have been saved.

It may reasonably be asked, vvhy a top opening of 54 feet was
assumed for the canal in 20 feet cutting, requiring, when complete,

a bottom breadth of 24 feet, and slopes Ij to 1, which, hy these
data — viz., 20 X 3 4-24, would give a top ojiening of H 4 feet; and
why an extent of 10 perches on each side of the centre line of the
canal, should be adopted as the limit within which the drainage
was effected? To these queries we reply, that we had ascertained
previously, in the performance of similar undertakings, that sub-
sidence would result from drainage in jnoportion to the depth
and fluidity of tlie hog; and that if the tcqi opening were pre-
vented from narrowing by the closing in of the sides, the breadth
at top would be transferred to whatever point the subsidence of
the surface would rest at. We also had previously ascertained in
the instances which came under our observation, that the near de-
posit of the spoil to the opening, pushed in the sides by the in
cumbent weight, contracted the iqiening, closed tlie centre and
verge drains, forced u]) the bottom, and thus deranged the whole
system of drainage; hence it was, that distances of 10 perches
fi-om the centre line, on cither side, were fixed as the nearest
places of deposit of the spoil, as well as the least breadth to which
the drainage operations should extend; and the system adopted
fully answered our expectations. ^V'llere, for exam))le, the surface
had sunk to within 10 feet of the bottom of the canal; the height
at which the banks were formed (being 4 feet above water line, to
allow for ulterior subsidence), the opening at top was transferred
to tliat level where it became the proper breadth with slopes of IJ
to 1, and where the subsidence was greater or less, which necessa-
rily occurred from the unequal depths and composition of the bog,
and that the slopes were too prominent or too flat, or that contrac-
tion had ensued frcmi unskilful or negligent working; these irre-
gularities, from which slopes in clay cuttings and embankments
are not exempt, were easily rectified, and the saving was of great
value, both with respect to time and cost of execution. Had the
top opening been made in accordance with the specification —
namely 84 feet in breadth, the cubical quantity contained in a
lineal jierch would amount to 840 cubic yards; whereas with .i
54 feet top ojiening for the same length, and a subsidence to within
10 feet of bottom, the cubical contents would be 607 cubic yards,
making a saving of 233 cubic yards in the sectional area, which
upon the length of the lot, (486 perches) amounts to 113,238 cubic
yards, beingmore than 30 per cent., independently of the vast
reduction by drainage.

The extent to which the system of drainage was carried —
namely, 10 perches on each side of the centre, was for the purpose
of consolidating a space through which the necessary sinking for
the formation of the canal could be made, which it would have been
scarcely possible to accomplisli, without first having brought a suf-
ficient breadth of deej) flow hog into a dry firm state, capable of
affording facility in the execution and the requisite security to the
na\iaation.

Canals may be made through shallow and dry hogs with great
facility and cheapness by the ordinary process applicable to other
soils; care being taken in dry bogs, which may not be shallow,
that the bottom level of the canal be not remote from the gravel
line beneath the bog, which a judicious distribution of lockage
would enable the engineer to fix at a proper level; otherwise the
canal w ill be costly in its maintenance, and defective in its naviga-
tion, from the tendency of the banks to subside and the bottom to
collapse; and if by accident the water should run oft', serious de-
rangement would inevitably be the conseiiuence by the falling in
of the trackways and the swelling up of the bottom. Moreover,
fixing the bottom level of the canal considerably above the gravel
line would be greatly opposed to the reclamation of the bog.

We have thus endeavoured with the aid of the accompanying
diagrams, to give practical information on subjects presenting dif-
ficulties which an engineer in this countiy is frequently called on to
contend with; and as the principles laid down are the results of
actual experience, we feel assured of their correctness, and do not
hesitate to recommend their adoption.

Dover Breahcafer — The formation of this hieakwater, uiuler the super-
visiiiii of Messrs. WhIUci- and Biirgcs, is proceodiiig: satisfactorily. It begins
near the Look-out iiouso, ami is tu run out lo sea, in cants of about 8U0 ft.,
to forai a harbour. Aliout 200 feet is executid, and 100 feet will shortly be
added. The outer faces are of Liramleigh Fall stone, backed up with Port-
land stone. Tbe stones measure about bO cubic feet each. The space be-
tween the two walls is filled in solid witb concrete. Large blocks of hard
and dry concrete are prepared, reaiiy to use as tliey get out more to sea, and
two diving-bells are in ilaily use. There is a stcam.crane for landing the
stone from the ships, and tbe mills for grinding lime and brick-earth are also
worked by steam-power. .Messrs. Lee, uf Cbiswill-street, are the contrac-
tors.

1849."]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

205

LIFE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON.

{Concluded from page 173.)

XVII. THE LOCOMOTIVE STKUGGLE.

In layiii!! down a railway between Livei'pool and Manchester, a
new question was opened of what shnuld be the working power —
horses, fixed eng-ines, or moving engines. The early starters of
the undertaking' brought forward the locomotive, then new, being
moved to it by (ieorge Stephenson. The papers James laid before
Mr. Snndars were drawings of Stephenson's engine, and from that
time the struggle was no less for a locomotive engine than for a
railway. This was a bold stej). There was no locomotive running
nearer to Liverpool tlian at Leeds, and tliere only Blenkinsop's
engine. The step was so bold, that there were not wanting those
who wished for fixed engines, or even for horses, on the railway .-
Thus among tliose who were most earnest for a railway, tlxere was
great strife as to the way in wliich it should be worked.

In the first prospectus,-' as already said, tlie use of the locomo-
tive was taken up as a needful branch of the undertaking. In the
second prospectus, it was acknowledged that objections had been
made before tlie House of Commons to the use of the locomotive :
"Another and a more plausible objection was founded on the em-
ployment of the locomotive engine. It was contended, in the first
|)lace, that this new and peculiar power was incompetent to perform
the task assigned to it; in the si'coiid place, that it was unsafe; and
tusthj, that in its operation it would prove a public nuisance. By
the evidence, however, it was proved that it was perfectly com-
petent to perform all that was ])roposed to be accomplished ; and,
before the evidence was closed, the counsel for the opponents of
the bill admitted it was .snfc Upon the third point of objection,
the committee are confident such improvements will be made in
tlie construction and application of this efiective machine, as will
obviate all objection on the score of nuisance; and as a guarantee
of their good faith towards the public, they will not require any
clause empowering them to use it, — or tliey will submit to such
restrictions in the employment of it as parliament may impose,
for the satisfaction and ample protection both of proprietors on
the line of road and of tlie ])ui?lic at large."

In the report after passing the act made the 22nd May 1826, the
directors say : "Before concluding this report, the committee will
say a few words upon the locomotive engine — a power for the con-
veyance of goods and passengers w liich tliey look forward to as one
highly advantageous both to the company and the public. Tliey
have never doubted that the ingenuity of the country would be
exerted to construct an efficient and unobjectionable machine for
this purpose; and tliey are able to state, tliat they have already
received a proposal from an engineer of eminence, to furnish an
engine that shall comply with the clause in the act, compelling the
consumption of smoke, — the engine proposed not to be paid for, if
it do not answer tlie objects of the company."

In the report of 27tli March 1828, to the second yearly meeting,''
tlie directors say : "The nature of the power to be used for the
conveyance of goods and passengers becomes now a question of
great moment, on whatever principle the carrying department may
be conducted. After due consideration, the engineer has been aur-
thorised to prepare a locomotive engine, which from the nature of
its construction, and from the exjieriments already made, he is of
opinion will be effective for the purposes of the company, without
proving an annoyance to the pulilic. In the course of the ensuing
sunimei', it is intended to make trials on a large scale, so as to as-
certain the sufficiency in all respects of tliis important machine.
On this subject, as on every otiier connected with the execution of
this important task committed to his charge, the directors liave
every confidence in Mr. Stephenson, their principal engineer, whose
ability and unwearied activity they are glad of this opportunity to
acknowledge." — No particulars of this engine liave been given.

Although Mr. Sandars and his friends were staunch for the lo-
comotive, the board were not all of the same way of thinking, for
some powerful men set themsehes against it, and wished for fixed
engines. Out of doors, most of the engineers of that day were
against the locomotive; so that it was by no means settled Ste-
]ihenson should have his own way. Then, too, many beset the board
with plans of their own. The treasurer says'' : "Multifarious were
the schemes proposed to the directors for' facilitating locomotion.
Communications were received from all classes of persons, each
recommending an improved power, or an improved carriage ; from
professors of pliilosophy down to the humblest mechanic, all were

1 RJr. Sundais's Letter. — Mr, Sylvester's Uepcrl.

3 MSS. book of Prospectuses belonging to Mr. Booth.

4 MSS. book of Prospictuses belonging to flir. Booth.

2 JJo'jth's History, p. 67.
5 Boolli's History, p, <^7.

zealous in their proffers of assistance; England, America, and con-
tinental Europe were alike tributary. Every element and almost
every substance were brought into requisition, and made subservi-
ent to the great work. The friction of carriages was to be re-
duced so low that a silk thread would draw tliem, and the power to
be applied was to be so vast as to rend a cable asunder. Hydrogen
gas and high-pressure steam — columns of water and columns of
mercury — a hundred atmospheres and a perfect vacuum — machines
working in a circle without fire or steam, generating power at one
end of the process and giving it out at tlie other — carriages that
conveyed every one its own railway — wlieels within wheels, to mul-
tiply speed without diminishing power, — with every complication
of balancing and countervailing forces, to the ne plus ultra of per-
petual motion." Goldsworthy Gurney was very active."

This is a lively painting by one who well knew ivhat was done,
and it shows the power of skill and knowledge brought to bear
whenever a great undertaking is in hand. Many of the plans may
have been whimsical — many utterly foolish — most fruitless ; but
the end of all this work has been to make the locomotive in the
shortest time the best-finished engine we have. Tlie engine, with
its springs, buffers, fenders, safety-valves, wliistle, feed-pumps,
blast-pipe, axles, is the work of a thousand minds, — each giving
more or less, but all helping towards the same end. Nor is this to
be lightly set aside, for it gives a warning to us in other cases.
The first sketch of an engine is the work of one man, fraught with
many faults, — built on some great plan, but wanting in the means
of rightlv carrying it out. Trevithick builds a locomotive, wliicli
blows up for the want of safety-valves, which will not turn round
and will not run, or wliich wants crowliars to help it along. The
mind of one man is not enough to work out any great undertak-
ing : however great a man's mind may be, whatever his powers, he
is helpless alone ; it is only by the help of others he can bear him-
self tlirough. Independence may be wished for, may be sought
after, may be tried for,— but the world is so made that no one has
power but by the means and help of his fellow-men. On the other
hand, we ought never lightly cast away any new undertaking, merely
because it cannot be forthwith made to work; if the ground of it
be good, there is wit enough in the world to bring it into working
trim. ^

We have seen that in 1828 Stephenson had been so far backed,
that he was set to make a locomotive; but the other side were un-
tiring in their endeavours to put him down. In October 1828, two
of tlie directors' and the treasurer were sent to Uarlington and^
the neighbourhood of Newcastle, to see on the spot the working of
the locomotive and fixed engines. Mr. Booth says (p. 69) : "The
deputation returned with a fund of information; but of so mixed,
and in some respects of so contradictory a nature, that the great
question as to the comiiarative merits of locomotive and fixed
engines was as far from being settled as ever. One step was
gained. The dejiutation was convinced, tliat for the immense
traffic to be antici]iated on the Liverpool and Manchester line,
horses were out of the question."

The ground was narrowed to locomotive and fixed engines. The
next step was, as the directors and Stephenson differed, to name
two engineers to make their report on the two plans: but to choose
such was to choose enemies of the locomotive. -Mr. James '\\'alker
was chosen as a leading London engineer, and Mr. John Urpeth
Rastrick as a northern engineer. On" tlie 12th January 1829, tliey
went to a meeting of the board at Li\erpool, before setting out;
and on the 9th of March they sent in tlieir reports.'*

These i-eports are printed together, — first that of Mr. AValker,
next that of Mr. Rastrick. It seems that on the 10th of January,
they met at Stourbridge, where Mr. Rastrick was building a loco-
motive for America, t^n the 12th, as said, they were at Liverpool;
on the 13th they went with Stephenson along the line of railway ;
and on the l-tth were at Manchester. Tliey acknowledged tlie line
was "very superior to anytliing that had yet been done."" On the
1.5th, Stephenson went with them to tlie Bolton Railway, tlien
made under his direction. There they saw a locomotive, made by
liim in his best way ; and they say they had from Mr. Peter Sin-
clair, the secretary of the company, a report, "which proved the
great power which the engine is capable of exerting." i" There
was no lock-up safety-valve to this engine.' ' Spring safety-valves
had been introduced since 1824', and wrought-iron tyres instead of
cast, and the engine set upon a spring carriage. Mr. ^^'alker says

1832

. 12 and 2.'!.

6 Edinburgh Keview. Oetober ls:j2. Ans.ver to Lardner,

Library of Inslitniion of Civil Fngineers.)

7 Stephensnii and Locke's Iteport, p. G, says three directors. These were Messrs.
James Cropper, John lUoss. and Ailuni Hodgson. George Stephenson, with Messrs. Ro-
bert Stephenson and Locke, likewise made a report.

8 booth's History, p. C-[) e Walker's Ueport, p. 2. Rastrick's Report, p. 4^

1 o Walker's Uepoit, p. 2 * * Walker's Report, p. 17,

200

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jri.v,

everv new enfrino Stephenson ni:iile, flifl'ered in some respects frtini
the iMie precediuf; it, anil bears witness to the great improvements
made.'- The cast-iron tyres were worn out on tlie Darlington
Railway in ten weeks, wliile a set of wrought-iron tyres on the
Killingworth was twelve months in use.''' It was thus, and in
such small things, the locomotive was yearly brought into better
working.

On the Kith of January, at Leeds, Messrs. 'Walker and Rastrick
saw Rlenkinsop's engine; on tlie 17th, 18th, U(th, and 20th, they
were at Darlingtcui, and on the Stockton and Darlington Railway;
on the 21st at Sunderland, and on tlie Iletton railway. Part of
tliis had formerly been worked by loc(un()ti\es, but latterly they
had been given up, and fi.xed engines were used instead. From tlie
'i'iiid to tlie 29th, the weather being snowy, Messrs. AValker and
Rastrick were at Newcastle, and met Nicholas U^ood and Mr. H.
Thompson of Ayton. the great uphidder of fixed engines, which
they saw on the ISrunton and Shields Railway.' '

(_)n the 20th February, Messrs. AVallier and Rastrick met at
O.xford, and stayed until tlie 2tt]i, going over their several re-
ports.

Mr. AV'alker's aim was to overrate the cost of the locomotive,
and underrate the cost of the fi.xed engine; and he did not allow' =
the locomotive gave any greater accommodation to the public. It
is woi'th saying, that the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was
laid out for the locomotive, as it was then understood, for Mr.
Locke told Mr. Walker there were thirty roads crossing the rail-
way on the level.'" These the latter thought were inconvenient
for the stationary system, and ought to have been altered.

Mr. AValker says decidedly on the (piestion of comparative
safety, "As a general answer, I should say that the stationary is
the safer, chiefly from the locomotives being necessarily high-
pressure engines, and accompanying the goods or passengers upon
tlic way.""

i\Ir. Rastrick says: "I am decidedly of opinion that lo miles
per hour on a railroad may be travelled in perfect safety both to
goods and passengers:""* but then he speaks of stationary engines.
He thought, too, that locomotives weighing more than 8 tons could
not be conveniently used to get a speed of more than 10 miles per
hour. He ends this part by saying : "It was tlie decided opinion
of Mr. Nicholas \\'ood, when we saw him at Killingwi'rtli, that no
locomotive engine should travel more than eight miles per hour;
and his opiniim, from the great experience he has had in the use of
them, is entitled to the greatest respect : and I am perfectly of his
opinion, so long as the engines are made of such great weight;
thei'efore, the gi-eat desideratum must be to make powerful engines
of the least weight possible. Indeed, if we are to come down to
eight miles per hour, and from that perhaps to six, I should say
tliat the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was a comiilete failure
— all the golden hopes held out of expedition and dispatch would
completely vanish, and the jmblic would be most grievously and
bitterly disappointed. Therefore, we are of opinion that ten miles
per hour is tlie speed you ought to travel at."' "

Nicholas Wood, it has been already seen, was always behindhand
with Ste]ihenson, and it suiteil tlie opponents of the latter to set
AVood up against him, though it seems strange the maker and
worker of the locomotive should be held as of less weight than he
who only saw the working. Mr. Rastrick again sets Wood against
Stejihenson at page 53, decries the work of tho Lanenshh-e Witi-h
engine on the Bolton and Leigh Railway, and says of it, "That it
is, however, an experiment of any value for determining what the
regular work of a locomotive engine might be, that is to travel ten
or twenty miles right a-head, will, I should hope, not be asserted.
Experiments of this nature are more likely to do harm than good,
as they lead the public to expect much greater performances from
the locomotive than can ever be realised." — At page 72, Mr. Ras-
trick hints that althougli Chat Moss then seemed firm, it must sink
and give way under the locomotives.

Of these reports it is enough to say that each cleverly carried
out the work assigned to it : Mr. Walker's has a specious assump-
tion of candour which might deceive many, — Mr. Rastrick's shows
a wish to set aside Steidienson, and to iiut up himself and Nichidas
A\'ood against him. Mr. Rastrick was ready for whatever might
happen; and although he and Mr. \\'alker preferred the stationary
engine, yet if the locomotive were used, then he and Mr. Walker
had schemed an engine which was to set aside Stephenson's.-"
Mr. Rastrick was one of the engineers thought of for laying out
the railway when tlie Messrs. Reiinie vvere displaced. Stephenson,
however, liad the preference.

lii Wallitr, p.lS 13 Wnlker, p. l:l. i ■» Walker, p. 4. i 5 WalkLT, p. 2S.

18 Waller, p. 27.— Kaatriclt, p. 44. i? Walker, p. 28. is Ilabtiick, p. 28.

10 r.iislikk, p.4ll. lio Basil ilk. p. 54.

The rejiort of Mr. Walker was answered by Mr. Robert Ste-
phenson and Mr. Locke, in a panijihlet named, "Observations on
the Comparative Merits of Locomotive and Fixed Engines, as ap-
]ilied to Railways, compiled from the Reports of Mr. George Ste-
phenson." This answer showed so fully the em]>tiness of Mr.
AV'alker's assertions, as materially to damage the party who had
set him on. It is now useless to go into all the beai-ings of a dis-
pute, on which time has given a judgment which cannot be dis-
puted, against all the assumptions and forebodings of Messrs.
A\''alker and Rastrick, and in favour of the course adopted by
George Stephenson.

XVIII. UAINUILL.

In the third yearly report, of ISth March 1S2<), the directors
only say tliat they have received the reports of Jlessrs. AValker
and Rastrick, to which their consideration shall be given.

Messrs. AValker and Rastrick's reports, however decisive in their
terms, would not bear investigation ; and their promjiters seem to
have been so far discomfited, that the board at length settled on
the use of the locomotive. Mr. Richard Harrison had long thought
that a reward, to be offered by the company, would be the best way
to get at the knowledge of the best locomotive; and his brother
directors took up his plan, and, on the 20th of April, agreed to
give 500/.-' The opposition directiu-shad still sufficient influence to
trammel the competition, and, acting on Mr. Rastrick's suggestion,
they particularly limited the weight of tlie engine. Some were not
without hopes Stephenson would not be able to make an engine to
fulfil the conditions, or to carry the day.

The conditions, given forth on the 25th April 1829, were — 1st,
the engine should consume its own smoke; 2nd, an engine of six
tons should draw twenty tons at ten miles an hour with a pressure
of not more than 50 lb. ; 3rd, for two safety-valves, one beyond the
reach of the engine-man; 4th, the engine to have springs and six
wheels, and to be not more than fifteen feet high to tlie top of the
chimney; 5th, the engine with water not to weigh more than six
tons, and if less would be preferred on its drawing a proportionate
weight — and an engine weighing only four and a half tons might
be put on four wheels; Cth, for a mercurial gage, showing the steam
pressure above 45 lb. to the inch, and to blow out at a pressure of
CO lb.; 7th, the engine to be sent to Liverpool not later than 1st
October; 8th, the price of the engine not to be more than 550/.-'

The time was afterwards made the eth of October ; the ground
was chosen at Rainhill, a flat on the railway, two miles in length,
and nine miles from Liverpool. The judges were Mr. Nicholas
AVood, Mr. Rastrick, and Mr. Jidm Kennedy of JManchester — none
of them likely to be too favourable to Stephenson. On the morn-
ing of the 6th, the ground at Rainhill was crowded with many
thousand people, and among them several of the first engineers of
the day.-'

Five engines had been named, but only three came up; and each
of these was tried on a day by itself, Stephenson having the first
day for the Rocket. This was a four-wheel engine, weighing, with
water, four tons and a quarter ; the load to be given to it was 12f
tons, making a whole load of 17 tons. Shortly after the first loco-
motive was tried on the Killingworth Colliery Railway, it is said,
the means was found out of raising the heat of the fire, by carry-
ing the steam into the chimney, where it escaped in a perpendicu-
lar direction up the middle, after it had done its work in the
cylinders.-^ This was likewise followed in l^e lim-ket. (iurney says
he was the first to start this way of getting a draught. In 1828,
an engine was maile at Darlington, with a double fire-tube ;'^^ but
the ifoc/rc? was alile to pi esent a still greater surface to the fire,
Henry Hooth, the treasurer of the railway company, having sug-
gested to pass tubes through the boiler.''" The originality of this
suggestion has been contested, but never disproved. Frequently
before this it had been proposed to pass the water through thin
tubes in contact with tlie fire, and which did not succeed; but
Booth's plan was to pass the fire or heated air through the tubes
]ilaced in the water. Booth proposed this to Stephenson, who ap-
jiroved it; and they agreed to Iniild an engine and compete for the
jirize. It was fixed that Robert Stephenson and Co., of Newcastle,
should build the engine. Afterwards, Stephenson wished his son
Robert should have a share in the adventure, and accordingly he
had a third, the two other shares being held, as said, by Booth and
George Stephenson. To Henry Booth the world is therefore

i2 1 Iloijth, p. 71.

2ii Booth'8 History, p. 64 J Stophenson and Locke's Report, p. 72 ; Ritchie on Rail-
ways, p. 24; Whislintv's Railways ot' Great Britain; Lardner oa the Steam-Engine,
p. 244.

2 a Boolirs History, p. "4. Stephenson and Locke, p. (i4.

24 Stephenson and Locke, p. (>. 25 Steplienson and LocVe, p. 17.

2(1 S'ephcofnn and Lotke.p. Cj; Ritchie, p. 283 ; I.ardnet, p. ;iiil ; Futh Yearly
Report o! the Directors.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

207

much indebted for this gre.nt step in the progress of tlie loco-
motive, no less than for his other railway inventions.

Tlirough tlie disgraceful patent laws of tliis country, Henry
Booth had no protection for this invention, and no reward. The
invention was at once taken up by every engine-builder through-
out the world, and applied to thousands of engines. It is needless
to sav that the English paidianient have never given Bootli one
penny. It is not our way in this country to reward deser\ing men,
unless we cannot help it.

Accidents hajipened to Braithwaite and Ericcson's Novelty, and
to Hack« orth's Suiis Piireil, so that further time was lost. On the
8th, the Jioclxct had its last trial ; on tlie lOtli the Novr/t;/ had one
ti'ial, and on the 14-th another; and on the l.'Uli the Sans Pareil
was tried. These two latter met with several mishaps, though the
Noveltij ))romised well. Thus the Rocket carried the day. By way
of an end, the Rocket made two trips at "the astonishing rate of
3,5 miles an hour."^'

The Rocket engine was for some time worked on the railway, but
in 1837 sold to James Thompson, Esq., of Kirkhouse, Cumberland,
the lessee of the Earl of Carlisle's coal and lime works. It there
wcn-ked for five or six years on the Midgeholme traniwaj-, and car-
ried an express with the state of the poll, when Major Aglionby
beat Sir James Graham. It did a speed of nearly sixty miles an
hour. It was lately in the yard at Kirkhouse.^^ If we had in this
commercial and manufacturing country a national museum, as they
have at Paris, of Arts and Trades, then the Rocket engine would
perhaps be preserved in it, as it deserves to be.

The result of the struggle was decided in favour of Stephen-
son, and on the 2Sth March 1830, the directors reported they had
six locomotives on the line, and four others being built — two by
Robert Stephenson and Co., and two by Braithwaite and Ericsson.
Of the Novelty, they say that on the 26th January, they had wit-
nessed a fair experiment with it, and "the performance was such
as, in the opinion of the directors, to justify their ordering two
larger engines on the same principle, which will enable them to
obtain for this machine the most complete and satisfactory trial.''^"
In 18.39, it was said the locomotives were so costly, the directors
were going to give them up and use horses. The directors thought
it needful to answer tliis in tlieir report dated 23rd January 1833.
On the 24th July they report that Mr. John Dixon, the company's
resident engineer, had substituted brass tubes for copper, thereby
making a gi'eat saving.

The success of the locomotive was very much owing to the
staunch and steady endeavours of Mr. Sandai's and his friends, who
fought its battles for so many years.

XIX. Stephenson's other works.

As the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and the Locomotive
sti'uggle, stand forth as two of tlie greatest things in the latter
half of Stephenson's life, so it seems right to give to them more
room. They took, however, but a share in his works.

In 1824, he was employed on a line from Birmingham to the
north, since known as the Grand Junction, and made by Mr.
Locke. It was then called the Liverpool and Birmingham Rail-
way.^"

He was .afterwards employed on a London and Birmingham line,
In wliicli his son Robert succeeded him, and carried it out.^^

Another early line was one from Chester to Birmingham. Of
this he said,^'- "He remembered the time when he had to accom-
pany some directors of a line projected from Chester to Birming-
ham; and on coming to Nantwich, to get the consent of some
landowners, they told them, when they came into the house, the
canal proprietors had been before them; and it appeared, that to
poison their minds, the canal proprietors had told tliese land-
owners, that if a bird flew over the district when the locomotive
passed, it would drop down dead. [Laughter.] Judge his disgust,
when he knew that the locomotive would give sucli benefits to
England and the world at large." This was the beginning of the

2 7 Stephenson and Locke's Report, p. 79.

2 8 Carlisle Journal ; Leicestershire Mercury, August 19, 184S.
29 See likewise Booth's H story, p. 84.

3 0 Report on the Liverpool and Birmingham Railway, Au^. 18'.?4, by George Stephen-
son. (In the Library of the Institution of Civil Engineer.^.} A Statement of the

Ul.iim of the Subscribers to the Birmingham and Liverpool ':tailroad to an AlI of Piirlia-
nient, ill Reply to the Opposition of the Canal Proprietors. London : Bahlwin, 18L'i.

(This is dated 20 Dec. 1824. and contains the Prospectus.) Aris's Gazette, Dec. LHh,

1824, &c. — — W'hishaw's Railways of Great Britain, p. 157.

3 1 Beware the Bobbles. London, 18.il, p.. "1.5. Probable Effects of a Railway be-
tween London and birminghain. London, Rodi<e and Varty, Ipal. Conveyance upon

CaiialH and ItaiUvays Compared, by Detector, 1831. Remarks on London and Bir-
mingham Railway, by Investigator. London, Hicijards, 1830. Answer to Investigator,

by C. H. Capper. Birmingham, 1831.— (All these are in the Library of the Institution of
Civil Engineers.; ,

-2 Speech tit Tamworth.

Chester and Crewe railway, which he made." He likewise made,
in continuation of the latter, the Chester and Birkenhead Rail-
way.^^

In 1830, the Manchester and Leeds Railway was first proposed."
The committee applied to Mr. Walker and to Stephenson. Tlie
plan of the latter was preferred. In 1831 the act was asked for
and lost. In 1835 the plan was again brought forward, and a new
survey made, in which Mr. Francis Whishaw assisted, and likewise
Mr. Bidder. In 183G the act was obtained.

Stephenson surveyed and constructed the York and North Mid-
land Railway. ^"^ This brought him into friendship and partner-
ship with Mr. George Hudson, and they afterwards engaged in the
Claycross Collieries and Limeworks.

In 1830, Stephenson was engaged in several undertakings, but
his reputation was contested in many of the pamphlets of the day,
on the ground of want of experience.

From this time till 1835, he was busily engaged in railways, till
in the latter year of speculation he was at tlie height of employ-
ment. Many of the plans failed, and have been long since forgot-
ten.

In 1835 he was employed on the Birmingham and Derby.= ' At
this time were his London and Brighton Railw.ty,'^ the Maryport
and Carlisle Railway,^'-' and the North JMidland Railway.*"

The \Vhitby and Pickering Railway was a small work of Ste-
phenson's in 1832."

Except the London and Brighton line, the others were worked
out by him. He was likewise engaged on the Morecambe Bay or
'S^'est Cumberland Railway.^- *

The Manchester South' Union or Trent Valley was planned by
him,^^ and also the Newcastle and Berwick Railway. Tlie High
Level Bridge at Newcastle was one of his greatest designs, and he
lived to see it far advanced. It will be surmounted with a statue
of him. He surveyed a South-Western Railway from Bristol and
Exeter to Hook Pit," and tlie Manchester and 'Birmingham Rail-
way.*^

Robert Stephenson had been from time to time taking a greater
share in the engineering business, until at length, in 1840, George
Stephenson withdrew altogether.

He h.ad before this been invited to Belgium with his son, to give
his o]iinion on the Belgian government railways, and King Leo-
pold conferred on each the cross of his order of knighthood.

George Stephenson now had considerable wealth, and large I'ni-
fits from his engineering practice and locomotive f.ictory. He w;is
a great coalowner at Claycross, and in Leicestershire, near the
Leicester and Swannington Railway;* ° and it was very much owing
to his exertions that the working of coal*' and lime in the mid-
land counties has become so extensive. He was in favour of bring-
ing coals by railway to London, but his plans have not been fully
carried out.

At Tapton, near Chesterfield, in Derbyshire, was the seat of his
abode in latter years, and he gave much time to the improvement
of his house, grounds, and garden. His name sometimes appeared
as a director of railways, or as a consulting engineer, as in the case
of the Norfolk Railway, the Ambergate and Manchester Railway,
and the Whitehaven Junction Railway; but his own property took
up most of his time. He was chairman of the Norfolk Railway,
and director of the Leicester and Swannington Railway.*-^

His after-life was one course of triumphs. On the 18th June
1844, he was at the opening of the Newcastle and Darlington Rail-
way at Newcastle, when his health was given by the Hon. H. T.
Liddell, M.P., son of Lord Ravensvvorth. Stephenson's speecli in
answer has been often referred to, and is most interesting.

In 1845, Mr. Hudson moved for and obtained four several votes
of 2,000/. each, for a service of plate and a statue on the High
Level Bridge, from the Midland Railway Company, the York and
North Midland Railway, the Newcastle and Darlington Railway,
and the Newcastle and Berwick Railway.

In 1847, he was in\ited by Sir Robert Peel to meet a party of

3 3 Whishaw's Analysis, p. 41) Whishaw's Railways of Great Britain, p. 55.

3 4 Whishaw's Analysis, p. 47. Whishaw's Railways of Great Britain, p .^»1 .

35 WhUhaw's Analysis, p. Ij8.1d3. 36 Railways of Great Britain, p. 4;t7.

•T Whishaw's Analysis, p. 10. as Whishaw's Analysis, p. 129.

39 Whishaw's Analysis, p. 177.

4 0 Whishaw's Analysis, p. 188. -Whishaw on Railways, p. 367.

4 1 Whishaw on Railways, p. 428.

42 This was planned in 183':, by the author of this. Dfr. Sandars, a most intimate
fiiend of Stephenson, says that he was fond of quoting it as one of the most importa:it
uniiertakinys in the country, and was very anxious for the reclamation of the lands in
fllorec.Tinbe Bay and the Uuddon,

43 Whishaw's Analysis, p. I'i8. 44 Whishaw's Analysis, p. '225.
45 V^'hishaw's Analysis, ]). 332. 46 Whishaw's Analysis, p. 280.
4 7 Whishaw's R;iihvays of Great Britain, p. IW.

4 8 Railway Post- OiSce Directory for 1W7 aad 1848.

208

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCIirfECT'S JOURNAL.

CJ.,.v,

scientific men at Tamwortli, and on the 30th .lune (if tliat year,
was present ulicn Sir Robert raised the first sod on tlie Trent
\'allev RailHay, oriffiiially surveyed hy Stephenson. On liis liealtli
heing drunk, Steplienson made anotlier autobiojirapliical speech.

XX. DEATH OF STEPHENSO.V.

lie now married nijain, and the lady survives Iiim. — On the ior-
mation of tlie Institution of Practical Engineers at IJirniinghani,
lie became tlie I'resident, and took much interest in its jiroceed-
ings. From prejudice against some of the members, he refused to
belong to the Institution of Civil Engineers — one of the instances
of the extent to which he gave way to his personal feelings.

One of his last acts was promoting a chancery suit against the
Directors of the ^\'est Flanders Railway, seemingly on very slight
grounds, and which his son gave up in a very liberal manner.

He had now lived to see his son Robert a memlier of the House
(if Commons, and engaged in an undertaking (the great tubular
bridge) which will give him as lasting a reputation as that of his
father. Anotlier pupil, Mr. Locke, he likewise saw in the House
of Commons; and other ]mpils holding such high professional rank,
tliat he was justly looked upon as the father of a great school of
engineering. He was in the full strength of life and health, and
busy in tlie world, when lie was stricken down by death. He was
taken with fever, it is said, brought on by too long stay in one of
his hothouses. On the Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday, the
fever ran very high; but on the Friday he was better. Mr. Con-
dell, a surgeon of IJaslow, attended him day and night. On the
Saturday morning early, he again became worse, and at noon
breathed his last.'" This was on the 12th August 1848, and he was
then sixty-eight years old; so that his time of life was neither too
short for the world nor himself.

He was buried the next week in Trinity Church, Chesterfield;
all the shops in the town of C'hesterfield being shut, and hundreds
crowding in to pay their last tribute to him. The funeral proces-
sion included the Mayor and Corporation of the town, the clergy
and gentry, the clerks and agents from Lockaford and C'laycross
collieries, the carriages of many gentlemen and the mourners,
Messrs. Roliert, G. R.. and II. Stephenson, Iliiidmarsli, and Lang-
lands. On the coffin-plate was engraved,

(jeokge Stepiienso.v,
of newcastle upon tyxe,
died at tapton house,
august 12, 1848, aged sixty. eight years. ^''

George Stephenson married first in the year 1800, at Killing-
worth. His wife died in 1803, shortly after" the birth of his only
son Robert. Stephenson next married Miss IJindmarsh, daughter
of a respectable farmer in the neighbourhood of Killingworth, and
who had been his first love, but the match had been broken oft' by her
kinsmen as he was then only a poor working-man. He lived hap-
pily with her for many years."'

Stephenson's tastes and habits, when alone, were simple. In his
latter years it was his greatest delight to ramble about birdnesting
or nutting.''^ He was never fond of reading, but learned much
in talking with the men of bright wits who were his fellows. His
mind was fruitful in resources, and it was a rich treat even to the
imaginative to listen to him. In this he was much like Watt, and
gave proof that mechanical genius is akin to the highest intel-
lectual efforts of the poet and the philosopher. The American
metaphysician, Emerson, listened to Stephenson in silence and de-
light.'=

At home he gave much time to his dogs, cows, and horses;
rabbits, and birds; vines, melons, pines, and cucumbers. Every
day he took a long ramble watching the nests he carefully guarded
in his trees. On his hothouse he had set his pride, ami having
taken up with the idea that the great principle of vegetation was
to give as much light and heat to the soil as may he, he believed
and said he should grow pines at Tapton as big as pumjikins. This
he held forth at a dinner of the North Derbyshire Agricultural
Society.'-* It is asserted, his attention to these hothouses hastened
his death, = =

It is said of him by oup who knew him, "Never was a proposi-
tion made to him for the mental and temporal improvement of his
workmen in his collieries, of whom he had upwards of 1,000, but
it met with his immediate attention and consideration, with a
deep feeling towards their welfare which could not be sur-

■••i Chesterfield Gnzelte, August ILI, IS-H. 50 Derbysliiie Uourier.

■■« 1 Eliza Co(,k"s Jounul, p. (i.'i. aj Leicestprslrrff Mercury.

i-i Leicestersliire Mercury, 54 Leicestershire MerLury Ucrbyshire Courier.

* o Herapath's Railway Journal, Vol. X., No. 480, p. 86,",

passed.''^' ^\'hen ap]ilied to for assistance, lie ever endeavoured,
instead of giving temporary relief, to find constant employment
for the ap]ilicant.'''

To those who ap]ilied to him for countenance for new projects he
was not always so considerate; he was wrapt up in his own schemes
and looked ujion others with ill-will. His feelings towards Brunei
were shown with a warmth and bitterness unbecoming, and it ex-
tended to all the supporters of the atmospheric system. The
locomotive was his cherished idol, and woe to those who interfered
with its worship. A very coarse scene took place when Mr. Hud-
son brought before him a plan of Mr. F. W. Beaumont, the en-
gineer, for common road locomotives; and many more might be
quoted. His temper was too apt to give way, unless he had the
field wholly to himself.

Sometimes, however, he would relax. The writer in the Derby-
shire Courier relates, "A certain individual in humble life had
conceived a design he wished to have a ]iatent for, and made ap-
plication to Mr. Stephenson, that he might gain bis patronage in
order to give weight to the undertaking. Mr. Ste]ilienson made
some iiuiuiries relative to the nature of the jiroject, and having
heard a few words in rejily, said, 'Oli! I understand it altogether;
it will do very well." Tlie party, overjoyed with this approval,
said, 'Before I leave you will you he pleased to tell me your
chai-ge.''' 'Oh!' exclaimed Jlr. Stephenson, 'I make no charge;
but I tell you what you must do, you must send your instrument
down to my works, and I will attach it to them, and prove it; and
] I will do more — I will put it in the papers for you, and invite the
I public to come and examine it at work, and afterwards purchase it
j myself.' "

This he did, and sent a letter to the London daily papers, stat-
ing that he had tried a new steam-gage by Mr. Smith of Notting-
ham, and recommended it strongly.

The writer first-named tells a story however of him in another
style. "A gentleman who had thought of doing away with the
hills and valleys of railways, sent a friend to introduce his plan to
Mr. Stephenson, who, after having heard some little about it, in-
terrogated his visitor as to where the proposer himself was. 'I
have left him outside; he was afraid to come in lest you should get
the secret out of him.' 'M'hy! have you left him by himself.^'
'Yes.' To this he answered, 'You must not leave him by him-
self long, or you will soon have to get some one to take care of
him.'"

His plainness of mind and speech as often verged on simplicity
as on coarseness, and he ever had more respect for the man than
the coat, an examjile more uncommon in those who have risen
from the ranks than it is even among those of higher birth. He
was never ashamed of his own works and of his fellow-workmen,
and was most proud that he had been a working-man, and not a
lazy man. On one occasion, he came in contact at an hotel witli a
gentleman and his wife, whom he entertained for some time with
his shrewd observations and playful sallies. At length the lady
became curious to know the name of the stranger with the sharp
eye and unostentatious demeanour. "Why, madam," was his
answer, "they xised to call me George Stephenson. I am now
called George Stephenson, Esq., of Tapton House, near Chester-
field. And further, let me say, I have dined with princes and
peers, and commoners — with persons of all classes, from the high-
est to the humblest; — I have dined oft' a a red herring when seated
in a hedge bottom, and have gone through the meanest drudgery;
I have seen mankind in all its phases, and the conclusion I have
arrived at is this — that if we were all stripped, there's not much
dift'erence."'*

He was proud of his varied insight into mankind, and at the
dinner at Newcastle said, "I have dined in mines, for I was once
a miner; and I have dined with kings and queens, and with all
grades of the nobility."

His energy, ingenuity, and perseverance have been already
spoken of, but a few words more may be said. After leaving
Callerton Colliery, he went to ^^'albottle Pit as brakesman, waiting
on the engine while drawing the coals up from the pit. Thence
he went to Willington ballast-crane, likewise as brakesman. Here,
at the age of '■22 or 23, he began to learn to read. From AV^illing-
ton he went to Killingworth, still as brakesman. At this pit were
three brakesmen, who took the night shift by turns. The night
shift lasted eight or ten hours; and as there was little work to be
done in that time, only drawing up and letting men down, the
brakesman's time hung heavily on his hands. Stephenson, how-
e\er, made the most of his time, and in these night shifts began
learning to reckon. A\^hen he had worked his sums on a slate, he
sent them ofi^ next morning to a schoolmaster in the neighbour-

's Jjeiceaterstiire Mercury.

s' LItrbjsliire Courier.

i> 8 Uerby Reporter.

istg."!

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

209

hood to be set right; and who, in turn, sent him new questions to
answer. For this the learner paid fourpence a week. He likewise
in the night shifts mended the pitmen's clocks and watches, for
which he was paid, and cut out the pitmen's clothes. He further
taught cutting-out to the pitmen's wives; and to this day there are
some of them at Killingworth who work by his patterns. He
made shoes by the engine-fire, sometimes giving them to his poorer
kinsmen. Over the door of his house at Killingworth stands a
sundial, set up by himself, and to the last day of his life he was
proud of it. Not long before his death, while going over the line
of the Newcastle and Berwick Railway, he drew a professional
friend somewhat out of his way to have an admiring look at the
sundial. = " All this time he was deeply studying the steam-engine,
and exerting his mechanical ingenuity. Such a degree and variety
of mental labours is seldom gone through by the hardest student
in a college.

Statues were voted to Stephenson by the northern railways as
already shown, and by the Grand Junction Railway Company, in
1816. Gibson is employed on the latter work.

On his death, the greatest sympathy was shown throughout the
country by its representatives in the press. The notice of his
death in the railway newspapers and some of the provincial news-
papers appeared surrounded by a mourning border; and several
short memoirs appeared from the hands of those who had known
him. These have been here made use of. The Presidents of the
Institutions of Civil Engineers and of Practical Engineers like-
wise paid a public tribute to his merits. Before the latter an
eloge was read by Mr. Scott Russell. Robert Stephenson was cho-
sen to succeed him as President of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, held at Birmingham. Mr. Hudson, then presiding
over several railway meetings, expressed the sense the share-
holders felt of his loss. The Liverpool Board of the London and
North AVestern Railway passed a special resolution of condolence,
which they sent to his son. Lately, an engraving has been pub-
lished from the full-length portrait, by Mr. Lucas, representing
him standing on Chat Moss. Seldom was a man more honoured
in his life or on his death.

Stephenson had been employed in France, Belgium, and Ger-
many, as well as at home, and had received great honours; only
it will be seen from the government of this country did he receive
no honours. It is perhaps enough thus to speak of the system
which, in all its bearings, so improperly performs the duties of
national gratitude towards men of learning and knowledge. The
Royal Engineers, as government proteges, are better looked after;
and Stephenson saw Drummond, Reid, Gipps, and Denison, with
many others, receive honours which the government had at its dis-
posal, but not for meritorious civilians.

£9 Quoted by the writer of an interesUog sketch of Stepheason ia Eliza Cook's Jour,
nul.

ARCHITECTURE,— ROYAL ACADEMY.

[second notice.]

Of designs for churches there are so many that they impart
somewhat too great a sameness of character to the assemblage of
drawings generally; more especially as they are one and all in the
Gothic style. Upon the whole, they justify Mr. Ruskin's remark
that there are now many who can show quite as much or even more
ability than Mr. Pugin, who, as far as he is at present distinguished
at all, is so only by his excessive affectation and pedantry. There
is one design of his, by-the-by, which we havg not yet spoken of —
viz.. No. 1057, which shows the tower and spire of St. George's
Catholic (Jhapel, Lambeth, as intended to be finished; in which as
a composition we can perceive no great merit or beauty, — and cer-
tainly should that portion of the structure be carried up to such a
preposterous height, it must have the effect of dwarfing the church
itself, and making the body of the building appear diminutive in
comparison with it. There seems, indeed, just now, to be quite a
rage for lofty spires; which, if not always disproportioned to the
structures themselves, are frequently so disproportioned to the
funds that the design suffers greatly in other respects, both ex-
ternally and internally. In fact, just as a portico used to be some
years ago, a spire is now made an ad captandum feature, and as
making full amends for whatever deficiencies there may be in re-
gard to all the rest. Thus, instead of a commodious and well
. finished-up structure being provided in the first instance, to which
a spire can be added at some future opportunity, — or should that
never be done, will still be satisfactory in itself, — an ostentatious

spire is often attached to a small, and perhaps also mean-looking,
body, which can hardly be afterwards adequately improved, except
by taking down and rebuilding. "What can be worse," says Mr.
Talbot Bury (in Part II. of Architecture, in Weale's Rudimentary
Series) "than to see the body of a church shorn of all mouldings,
to lavish an unnecessary amount of enrichment on a tower?" Yet,
that is now frequently done, contrary perhaps in some cases to the
better judgment of the architects themselves, merely in compli-
ance with the want of judgment and one-sided notions, either of
committees who cannot be got at so as to be reasoned with, or
individual employers who will not listen to reason, or to any argu-
ments against their own whims. Some other remarks of Mr. Bury's
apply to several designs in the present exhibition, as when he tells
us that "the only requirement of an architect of the present day
(so far as the erection or restoring of churches is concerned),
seems to be a knowledge of the varieties of details of Gothic
buildings, which he is allowed to put together in any way he likes;
for according to the views of certain societies, they must of them-
selves produce a good building." Again, he observes: "The details
of cathedrals, royal chapels, palaces, and princely mansions, are
borrowed to disguise hospitals, schools, asylums, training colleges,
and even workhouses. This dishonesty in the expression of a
building, and the ignorant introduction or bad execution of use-
less ornament, seems to be (now) sanctioned by custom, and is
daily perpetrated: — -success stimulates the empiric to proceed in
his career, and the public taste becomes infected by his produc-
tions."

Instances of the species of disguisement reprobated by Mr.
Bury are met with here: what at first sight show like lordly-
looking Elizabethan mansions, turn out to be intended for hospi-
tals, or other charitable institutions; while villas congregated to-
gether under the title of a "Terrace," are made to look very
much like a range of almshouses. On the other hand, colleges —
at least, training colleges, which might without impropriety be of
some importance with respect to mass, and to regularity of struc-
ture, are cut up into a series of low straggling parts, merely
tacked together, without the slightest regard to architectural
ensemble. Such productions might rather be called accidents than
designs, for the several parts — no single one of which, perhaps, has
much merit in itself — might be transposed' ad libitum, or tliey
might all be shaken up together, and scattered out afresh, and the
composition would be just as good as ever, if not better. It re-
quires no art to produce that sort of picturesqueness which is
almost sure to be occasioned by mere irregularity and incongruity;
it being no more than what' often shows itself very decidedly
where not the slijjhtest pretension is made to architecture, to de-
sign, or to artistic effect, but where, on the contrary, the several
parts and features taken by themselves are decidedly ugly. Yet,
that species of the picturesque ought to be left to the painter; it no
more belongs to the architect than does that which arises from
decay. Where we know that buildings have grown up piece-meal,
by fresh patches added to them from time to time, irregularity
does not offend; but to design a building so as to appear at the
very first only a mass of "shreds and patches" — and of architec
tural tatters, as some of the things we here behold, do, particu-
larly one design for a Training College, which requires to be
trained itself, — is not a little preposterous.

By some it will be thought that our own pen requires to be res-
trained, for we have been indulging in a strain of general, yet not
quite uncalled-for remarks, instead of noticing or even pointing
out any designs in particular; although, were we gifted with the
same talent for expeditious criticism as some are, we might ere
this have passed in review the whole of the architectural subjects,
by merely extracting titles and names from the catalogue — as was
done, for instance, by the Illustrated News, — which mode of criti-
cism those readers who prefer it will there meet with. One of the
very few which deserve to be particularised for merit of design is
No. 1015, "The Private Chapel and Cemetery recently erected at
Carnsallock, Dumfries, for the late Right Hon. Sir Alexander
Johnston," E. B. Lamb, Regarded merely as a drawing, there
are others far more striking and captivating at first sight, being
set off by all the artifices and allurements of showy colouring,
staffage or figures, and pictorial effects. The structure itself, too,
IS but a small one, and the front of it here shown consists of very
little more than a doorway incorporated with a window over it,
and a gable, — the fewest and simplest features possible, yet which
are nevertheless made to produce a most happilv-conceived, and
happily-treated ensemble. Mr L. is evidently more ambitious of
setting precedents than of following them; and although that
would be presumptuous and unsafe in many, in him it is neither
the one nor the other; because he invariably displays far more

23

210

THE CIVIL ENGIN'EER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

than riidinary nvthtic forte, and shows himself capable of adhering
faithfully to tho irenuiue spirit of the style he adopts — be it Gothic
or any other — without tlie slightest taint of servile imitation.
Tills is high praise, but in his case not excessive, because amply
merited; and we only regret that we cannot extend it to many
other things which, lieing of greater magnitude, and affording
much greater scope for design, ouglit accordingly to have mani-
fested talent proportioned to the occasion.

For aught wc know to the contrary, many of tlie designs here
exhibited have been selected from among a number of others sent
in at competitions for the respective buildings; and if such be
really the case, we are bound to suppose — at least, until there be
proof to the contrary, that they were in each instance, the best
offered; yet few of them show particular talent. In fact, there is
a striking sameness both as to quality and ideas in subjects belong-
ing to the same class, which causes them to appear "made to order"
in compliance with some one of the prevailing fashions of the
day, among which Tudor and Elizabethan come in for an ample
share of favour. Of such style. No. 1037, "New Schools, &c., re-
cently built in the district of Christ Church, St. George-in-the-
East," G. Smith, shovvs a good application. There is also some-
thing good in No. 104!), "Design for an Elizabethan Villa," C. W.
C. Edmonds; for which, however, "mansion" would have been a
more a])proi)riate designation than "villa." Indeed, we almost
wonder that the latter term is not altogether repudiated as fopjiish
and outlandish, by the admirers of our "good Old English" tastes
and fashions.

In any other style than mediaeval and Old English there are
scarcely any designs at all, except "The Assize Courts at Liver-
pool," which drawing we spoke ot last month; and No. 1108, "The
Great Hall of the Euston Station," P. C. Hardwicke, a cleverly
executed interior, and not devoid of considerable scenic effect; yet,
at the same time marked by oversights and defects in its design
that might easily have been corrected or avoided. In our opinion,
the ceiling is too much decorated, — so much so as to cause the
lower part of the apartment to appear bare and unfinished, while
the large carved brackets or trusses which support it are out of
keeping with the order below, and take off considerably from its
importance, more especially as the columns themselves are shorter
than they needed or ought to have been; for strange to say, the
pedestals on which they are raised are made higher than the
railing between them, which produces a very awkward and dis-
agreeable effect. No. lOSl ought to-have shown ns at least a hand-
some specimen of modern design, it being according to the cata-
logue for a Building for the Vernon Gallery, but for w hich informa-
tion we should neier ha\e suspected that it was intended for a
picture gallery at all. "We will here bring our remarks to a close, —
somewhat abruptly, perhaps, but as it happens, time does not per-
mit us to say more.

ON THE PADDLES OF STEAMERS.

On the Paddles of Steamers — their Figure, Dip, Thickness, Mate-
rial, Number, &jC. By Thomas Ewbank, Esq., City of New York.
[From the Journal of the Franklin Institute.']

The world is awakening to the propulsion of steam- vessels, and
nations are about to compete with each other in increasing their
speed. Steamboat racing is too congenial with the age to be re-
))ressed ; its sjiirit, so far from having been laid by legal exorcisms,
or confined, as heretofore, to lake and river craft, has now seized
the ocean for its theatre, and laughs outright at adjurations. En-
gineers and naval constructors, animated with the ambition of
Olympian com])etitors, are preparing for a series of Atlantic cha-
riot races, compared with which, the whole Naumachian spectacles
of old were despicable puerilities.

Impressed with the interest of a contest unexampled in the
annals of mechanical science, and one so characteristic of the pro-
gi-ess of civilization, the following experiments were undertaken
with a view of eliciting facts that seemed imperfectly known.
Speculations on ])ropelling abound. 1 am not aware that a series
of exjjerfments similar to these, limited and imperfect as they are,
has been prosecuted. If any such are recorded, I have not met
with theOi.

Experiments on variowsly formed Paddles, made on the Harlem River,

New York, in 1845 and 1848.

For this purpose, the boat, fig. 1, was employed. It was 12^ feet

long, and 3^ feet across the middle. A wrought-iron shaft, 1 inch

square, with a crank, extended across the gunwales, and turned in

bearings bolted to tliem. Tlie ends of the shaft stretched 14.
inches over the sides of tlie boat. This prevented the wheels,
which were secured on their extremities, from throwing as much
water into the vessel as if they had been nearer ; and afforded a
better ojiportunity of observing the action of the blades. A person
seated at one cud of the boat readily turned the wheels, in either
direction, by alternately pushing from, and jjulling towards him,
two upright rods, which moved in joints at the bottom of the boat,
and were connected to the cranks by horizontal rods.

The wheels were very light, and of the simplest construction.
One is shown at fig. 2. Eiglit slender arms of -j^ square iron, have
their inner ends cast in the central piece.
They extended 20 inches from the centre,
and thus made a 40-inch wheel. To stiffen
them, and transmit any strain upon one to
the whole, they were braced tightly together
by the wire o, o, o, which was wound round
each arm, and retained by slight notches at
the corners. The various blades or paddles
were cut out of stout sheet iron. S<iuare
sockets, to slide o*r the arms, were riveted
to them; by which means they were readily
adjusted and secured at uniform distances '

from the axes. All were of the same area — 49 inches.

To test th6 qualities of the boat, and get her into working trim,
blades, 7 inches square (fig. 3), were fi.xed on the arms of both
wheels, and several excursions, u\> and down the
rivei', made with them. Their dip was 7 inches, or
rather more, for their upper edges were half an inch
below the surface. They were next remo\ed from
one wheel, and left on the other, as the standard liy
which to compare the effects of different shaped
ones. — They were distinguished as No. 1. Nearly
all the rest were formed from them: i.e. byre-
moving ])ortions from one part, and adding them to
other.s, as w ill be seen in the follow ing diagrams.
In this way there was no danger of making, through
mistake, one set of blades, of larger, or of less, superficial surface
than others, since no calculation of their areas was required.

In all the figures, the paddles are supposed to sweep through
the water in the position they are represented in, the lowest sides
being those which descend lowest in the fluid.

Fig. 4, — formed by cutting off the lower angles of fig. 3, and
ti-ansferring the pieces to the up|ier ones,
making a right-angled triangle, w itli sides
10 inches, and hypotenuse 14 inches. (By
mistake, the upper corners were cut away,
so as to leave the area of these blades 48
square inches, instead of 49.^ Eight of
these were fixed on the wheel (see b, fig. 1,)
to comjiete with the same number of fig. 3,
on a, both having 7i inches dip.

It will be obvious that, as both sets were
attached to the same shaft, if one proved
more efficient than the other, the boat would
be turned from a straight course, and be inclined, more or less
abruptly, to the weaker or less efficient set. The result was, that
those marked fig. 3 overcame fig. 4; and though only in a smalj
degree, yet quite sufldcient to establish their superior effect on the
vessel's progress. As we were not always out of the influence of

Fig. 3.

Fig. i.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

211

tides and slight breezes, each experiment embraced excursions in
various directions on the river. Once or twice, the boat went
straight as an arrow, but eventually the s(iuare paddles got the
better of the triangular ones. These dipped into the water with
little noise, and tlirew it off bcliind from their points.

Most of the experiments were made in smooth water, and, ex-
cept slight currents — aqueous and aerial — under the most favour-
able circumstances. Two persons occu])ied the boat, and the
greatest care was exercised in preserving the shaft in a horizontal
position. When results were doubtful, the experiments were re-
peated, and generally several times.

The same paddles (fig. 4) were next attached to the arms in the
position represented at fig. 5, the upper side
being, as in all other instances, 13 inches from
the centre of the axis. Through repeated trials,
they overcame the test paddles, fig. 3, and in a
rather more marked manner than fig. 3, surpassed
fig. 4. Tliey entered the water silently, but ob-
servers on shore thought they raised more water
behind, but did not raise it as high as fig. 3.
Their points were nearly three inches low er in
the water than the lower edges of fig. 3. The
boat described a circle of 400 feet, and another
of 600 feet. '''s- *•

The same blades were next tried as fig. 6. From the experi-
ment fig. 5, it was inferable that, if inverted, the effect of the
blade on the boat would be augmented, as a
larger portion would have a longer sweep
through the water. Such was the fact, and to
such a degree, that first two, and then four,
were removed from the arms, when the remain-
ing four were found equal to the eight of fig. 3.
The plates were next raised, till their lower
edges were on a level with those of No. 1. In
that position, two inches of their upper extremi- Fi?. 6.

ties were above the surface of the river; but, notwithstanding,
they had a decided advantage even then, over tlie square ones.

Lastlv, the same blades were turned into the position of fig 7,
(being fig. 4 reversed). The boat was turned on No. 1 under all
circumstances, describing circles from 80 to 150 feet in diameter.
Four of them equalled eight of No. 1. Thgy were thought to
throw off more water behind than their competitors, which, fi-om
the greater extent of their extremities, is probably true.

The next form tried was fig. 3, placed in the position of fig. 8.
These turned the boat round against the test ones, in circles vary-
ing from 50 to 200 feet. We then tried six of them against the
other eight, when there was little observable difference in the
results. Four were found superior, but three were unequal to
them. These, of course, entered the water without jarring, and
threw it off at their points. Mr. B. thought they threw up more
than fig. 3.

on the last point— some thinking they were quite as effective as
the opposing eight.

Fig. 7.

Fig. S.

Fig. U.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 12

Fig. 13.

Pig. 14.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 13 was a semicircle. Mr. B. undertook to test these.
Thev turned the boat in circles varying (from light winds and
tides) from 30 to 150 feet. Four were thought sometimes equal,
and sometimes superior, to eight of fig. 3. It is demonstrable
that these blades are less effective, though in a very sma.ll degree,
than those marked fig. 7, and, when reversed, more powerful than
fig 4.

Fig. 13,— formed as in the figure, but not tried, as it w.as evi-
dent their value would be nearly that of fig. 7, probably a shade
above them, but too minute to be detected, except in perfectly
still water.

Fig. 14,— a right-angled triangle, 7 inches across the top, and
ending in a point nearly 14 inches below it. These were, as might
have been anticipated, more effective than those of fig. 3. "Every-
thing about them," obser\ed Mr. B., "shows their superiority."
They, of course, entered the water without jarring.

The same were attached to the arms in the position of fig. 15,
and were unable to compete with fig. 3. The latter had a slight
advantage over them.

Fig. 9 were formed by removing the upper corners below, as in
the figure. Tliese seemed to have the advantage of fig. 8, but as
light winds troubled us, we felt some hesitation in pronouncing
them better. Four were superior to eight of No. 1. It was sup-
posed that a slight accession of resistance to the lower ends,
sweeping through the water, might be derived from opposing cur-
rents meeting in the forks, but we had no means to ascertain it,
if it existed.

Fig. 10 — cut out of plates eight inches square, with one-fourth,
(minus a superficial inch) removed, as shown in the figure. After
several excursions, these were thought to exhibit a veiy slight ad-
vantage over fig. 3; but from subsequent tests, they seemed to be
balanced. We, on another day, reversed them, as

Fig. 11, which had a decided preponderance over their competi-
tors.— Six predominated slightly over the latter, and four were
thought nearly equal to them. There was a difference of opinion

Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 17.

They were next reversed, as fig. 16, when they proved as effective
as figs. 7 and 12. — four being equally so as the eight opposed to
them.

They were finally changed to fig. 17, when the boat was turned
so rapidly, as to make it difficult, with a wide oai', to keep her in
one direction. Four were removed, and then she described a cir-
cle in less than 50 feet. Two more were taken away, leaving only
a couple to act against the eight on the other wheel, and to which
they proved equal.

From these experiments, it appears that, with equal areas, and
equal dip, triangular blades may be rendered twice as effective as
ordinary rectangular ones. This is made manifest by figs. 7, 12,
and 16,— :/o"J' of the former equalling eight of the latter. And
this, too, while the propelling surface of the smaller number was
only half that of the greater; for the four were as long in making
a revolution, as were the eight. Hence, the speed of a boat may
be increased by diminishing the number of her paddles — a fact
still further elucidated by fig. 17.

There can, I think, belittle doubt, that the greater the velocity
of a steamer's wheels, the fewer (within certain limits) should be
the blades; and that, at the rate at which some of our boats go,
the number might be reduced with advantage. Some have three,
others four, and in more than one vessel, without any load on
board, I have seen six submerged at each wheel. In these cases,
is it not evident that each blade, on entering, plunges, not as it
ought, into water undisturbed, but into that which preceding ones
have already broken up, and set in motion towards the stern? It
would seem that one in the act of plunging, another sweeping
under the shaft, and a third leaving the surface, are all that are
necessary to be kept up; and that a greater number, as regards the
speed of a boat, is positively injurious. Yet, under a vague idea
of attaining a higher speed, the number of paddles has frequently
been nearly doubled.

Snow, as every person knows, causes the wheels of land locomo-
tives to slip upon, instead of rolling over the rails. They revolve
as usual, but their carriages make little progress; hence much of

23*

212

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

the power spent (in tlieni is expended to no purpose. So it is
witli i);i(l(lle « lieels. A boat never jjrogresses in the ratio of their
revolutions, because of the yielding medium in which, and against
which, they act. They slip always — a result inevitable when mas-
sive solids wade through fluids. The distance between the Atlan-
tic steamers' docks, in Liverpool and New York, has been calcu-
Lited at 3,023 miles, but their paddles, in each trip, pass over a
space varying from a,000 to 8,000 miles. In steamers unaided by
sails, the disproportion is often greater. Now can this be modified,
by giving the paddles a better hold on the fluid they sweep through.''
Ihe e.xperiments, tigs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 1'2, 14, l(j, and 17, furnish
replies to the interrogatory.

The moral of the foregoing experiments is this: — As the pro-
pelling power of a jiaddle is greatest at its lower or outer extre-
mity, and diminishes to nothing at the surface, so its face should
enlarge with the dip, and be nothing, or next to nothing, above. —
Let rf, fig. 18, represent the end of an ordinary blade, or paddle.
Its upper part barely touches the water, and only for the moment
it is in the position shown But suppose it were immersed to the
line c, c, — say four or five inches — it would even then be no sooner
under, than above the surface again, so brief would be its immer-
sion. The lower edge, in the meanwhile, would sweep along the
extended curve there delineated.

Fig. 18.

Of what use, then, to make the upper part of a blade of equal
extent with the lower? Why accumulate surface where it is of
littie avail, and withhold it from where it is most wanted? — ex-
pending materials and power without any adequate return, if not
at an absolute loss. The quantity of water carried over a wheel,
is certainly greater by ordinary, than it would be by triangular,
paddles. The popular form and position of paddles are unphilo-
sophical, if viewed simply as propellers. Embrace the same area
in any other outline — in a circle, ellipse, square, pentagon, hexagon,
octagon, or other polygonous figure, and the propelling properties
would be increased, and the jar arising from their striking the
water also diminished.

If the long paralellogram be preferred, because of the ready ap-
plication of wooden |)lanks, then is the principal sacrificed to an ac-
cessory— the greater to the less. If triangular, or other improved
blades, require the adoption of plates of metal, would it be wise to
reject them on that account? — But of this by-and-bye. We shall
see that thick wooden blades ought to be condemned on account
of defects inherent in them.

But what is this expansion of the lower part of a paddle, and
contraction above, but Nature's own plan? In the tails and fins
of fishes, in wings of birds and insects, and especially in the
palmipeds, she has nowhere sanctioned a rectangular propeller.
All are inclined to equilateral, scalenous, or isosceletic triangles,
or are made up of them. Nor does she ever unite the levers that
work them to their sides. The junction is invariably at an angle,
and the reason is apparent — that the largest surface may have the
longest sweep.

Witli this view, the bodies of fishes taper down to meet the
blades; retaining only sufficient muscle to work them. The other
day, I had an opportunity of sketching the following. I am
ashamed to acknowledge that, till then, I was ignorant of the
exact forms of these natural propellers, although most of them
had passed under my observation on a thousand occasions. Too
many of us spend no more thought on the infinitely curious and
instructive mechanisms submitted by the Creator to our inspection
daily, than does the ox on the vegetable glories he feeds on. The
sentiment applies not more to religious than to physical truths —
"Light shineth in darkness, and the darkness comprehendeth it
not." We grope, as if blind, for that which is patent before
us.

The general outlines and proportions are given in the annexed

figures; the dimensions, of course, vary with the age and growth
of in<lividuals. The figures denote the width and length of the
exjianded tails — the latter being taken from the termination of the
body, as shown by the curves, which reach more or less into the
tails — that is, to strengthen them where strength is most re-
quired.

Fig. VJ.

a— Cnd.

i— Black Fish.

c — Sea Bass,
rf— Porgy.

g — Striped Bass.
A — Salmon.

I confess I had no idea of meeting with figures so closely allied
to the artificial ones which I had found most eff'ectual as propellers.
With the exception of the first two, the whole approach to equi-
lateral triangles.

In the absence of a more extended acquaintance with the minuter
aqueous and sub-aqueous organisms, the nearest of natural ana-
logues to steam-vessels seem to he the principal swimming-birds.
These glide through two elements at once. Their long and heavy
bodies, adapted to float gracefully on water, are provided with
organs of propulsion, placed far behind their common centres of
gravity — the cause tliat makes them such awkward travellers on
land. When a gale blows in the direction they wish to pursue,
like human navigators they take advantage of it; they spread
their wings to catch it, and are driven onward then, as steamers
are, by both wind and paddles.

The reciprocating action, and the expanding and collapsing fea-
tures of their aqueous organs of progression, are supposed to be
unsuited to the magnitude, materials, and velocity of artificial
ones. Perhaps they are; but may not their contour be perfectly
applicable: since, when open, and in action, the circumstances of
the two bodies propelled — the bird and the boat — are not essen-
tially dissimilar? Now, tliere is a marked adhesion to the trian-
gular foi-m in the webbed feet of birds; showing that, in the judg-
ment of the Creator, such an outline is the best for the purposes
of their prop\ilsion. Nor does it a])pear that this outline has, in
any material way, been modified to meet other exigences. In the
feet of water-fowl it is almost identical with the tail of the sea
bass. The legs, or rods, that wield these ornithologic paddles, are
invariably united to them at their points, or angles, and clearly for
the reason already stated.

Fig. 20 represents the foot of a petrel. It is a type of
all the swimming-birds' jiropellers. Few, except pro-
fessional naturalists, could distinguish between it and
the same organ in geese, ducks, gulls, swans, the alba-
tross, cormorant, diver, flamingo, &c., &c. Although
natural paddles are submerged when at work, and those
of our wheels emerge into air to repeat their strokes, I
doubt if a more efficient form could be given to the lat-
ter than the above. The cuspated extremity would ob-

Fig. 20.

184.9."!

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

->i;

viate the jar consequent on straight-edged blades striking the
water.

If I had a new boat to fit propellers to, they should resemble
figs. 7, 6, or 17; or I would rather make them like
half the foot of a swimming-bird, as fig. 21, in the
margin, — the perpendicular sides being next the
vessel, that the greatest strain might be nearest to
the power. Such blades would not be raised out of
the sea by a vessel's rolling, nor, when submerged,
be subject to excessive strainings, as common ones
are. They would produce no concussion, or but
little, on dipping, and would be twice as effective
as the same area employed in tlie current form and
fashion.

If the principle were required to be adopted in the present pad-
dles, it could be done at a trifling cost. I would remove portions
from the upper sides and attach them below, somewhat after the
manner shown at figs. 22, 23, 24, and 25.

Fig. 21.

Fig. 22.

Fig. 23.

Fig. 24.

Fig.

The portions 7mght be removed by curved instead of straight
lines.

If I used blades similar to fig. 7, I would Vandyke their lower
edges as at fig. 23, point them as at fig. 25, or fork tliem as at
fig. 22.

fTo be continued.J

DOUBLE-ACTION PUMP FOR WATERWORKS.

Sir — Having seen a description of an "Improved Pumping En-
gine," in Part Itl, page 165, of your Journal, and seeing it there
stated that an advantage is gained, "partly by the construction of
the pump-valves, and partly by the use of a new kind of pump,
lately registered by Mr. Thompson, Messrs. Simpsons' manager,"
we are led to believe that the public are to take both valves and
pump "as new inventions." We think the following remarks will
put the matter in the proper light.

The accompanying engravings show the arrangement used by us
for some years past.

Section of the Valve.

We were aware that the principle of this pump had been con-
•idered to be the invention of Trevithick, but the arrangement of

a bucket and plunger working in one cylinder we thought to be
nevv at the time we used them. In this it appears we were wrong.

Seer oc of Direct-Action Tump at the Waterworks, Trafalgar.^ luarp.

fur upon referring to page 281 of "A Description and Histoiii-ttl

211

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrs JOURNAL.

[J.

Account of Hvdrnnlic and othor Machines for Rnising Water," 1>y
Tlionias Ewba'nk, publisliccl in IRl^, we there find, that '"in some
pumps Ixith a solid and a hollow piston are made to work in the
same cylinder. Such was the arranirenient that constituteil the
single-cliamber fire-enf^fine of Mr. Perkins. A plunger worked
throufrh a stuning-ho-v ; its capacity was about half that of the
(•\-linder, consequently on descending it displaced only tliat jiortion
of tlie contents of the latter. The apertures of discharge were at
tlie u'iper part of the cylinder, and a single i-eeeiving one at the
liottoin. From the lower end of the plunger a short rod projected,
to wliich a hollow piston or sucker was attached, fitted to work
close to the cylinder, so that when the plunger was raised, this
piston forced all the water above it through tlie discharging aper-
tures."— And in the same page: "Such pumps are more compact
th.m those with two cylinders, but they ave more complex, less effi-
cient, and more difficult to keep in order and repair. The friction
of the plunger and sucker is much greater than that of the piston
of an ordinary doul)le-acting pump of the same dimensions ; and
the latter discharges double" the quantity of vrater: for, although
double-acting, the effect of these pumps is only equal to single-
acting ones."

Some of the latter remarks are undoubtedly right, and we in
some cases prefer the double-acting pump; and wlien two of the
double-acting pumps are employed, fixed on each side of the main
centre of the working beam of the steam-engine, we conceive it
impossible to devise a more efficient arrangement for raising water
from a few feet below the ground, to any reasonable height.

At the Waterworks at Trafalgar-square (erected by us in 18 ti),
and also at Ramsgate, the water has to be raised from a consider-
alile deijth below^ the surface of the ground, by direct-acting en-
gines, without balance-beams; consequently, had we not employed
tlie iilungers in the working barrels of the pumps, to counter-
balance the weight of the pistons, pump-rods, &c., by displacing a
quantity of water in their descent, the whole of the power re-
quired for lifting the pistons and pump-rods would have been
wasted.

We are. Sir,

Your obedient servants.

Easton and A-Mos.

(irorr, Souihwark, l\th June, 1849.

THE rUBLIC WORKS OF ENGLAND.

No. I. — Canals.

It may seem somewhat strange, that while canals of the greatest
magnitude had been undertaken on the continent, England con-
tented herself with scouring and deepening her rivers until the
middle of the last century. The necessity, it must be owned, was
nut so stringent as in France. Yet the development of commerce
in this country, long before the time we have mentioned, was suf-
ficient to render almost necessary some better means of inland
navigation than those affcu-ded by our natural watei'-courses. It
is true that the great southern towns, lying as they did either on
large rivers or by the sea, did not require canals to the same e.x-
teut as the cities of the northern and midland districts. As soon,
therefore, as industry and enterprise had begun to assume im-
])ortance in those parts of the island, the idea of forming canals to
the various centres of manufacture followed as a matter of course;
and in the year 1720 we find the first definite proposal for the exe-
outiim of one of these important undertakings ever made in this
kingdom. At that time the means of effecting a communication
between the east and west seas, through the estuaries of the Aire
and Rililde, had attracted the attention of the enterprising men of
Ym-kshire and Lancashire. Various schemes were set on foot for
carrying this iiroject into execution, which resulted in an act being
olitiiiued, ill 17'io, for the undertaking which has since ripened
into the Leeds and Liverpool Canal.

Before, however, any practical progress was made towards the
completion of this scheme, the Duke of Bridgwater commenced
the execution of his own magnificent canal, under the supervision
of Mr. Brindley. All other projectors now appear to have held
back until they could witness the result of this work; and, conse-
quently, scarcely anything was done in the way of inland naviga-
tion between 1737 and 17(>1, during which 2+ years the Dridyicider
CiiiKil was being carried through every obstacle and discourage-
ment, by the indomitable genius of its engineer, to a triumphant
completion. The history of that great work is too well known to

be repeated here; but the more than doubts expressed concerning
it, and the proiihetic warnings of inevitable failure which were
uttered on all sides during its progress, prove how little was at
that time understood in this country respecting that class of un-
dertakings; and they prove, too, how extremely slow is the first
growth amongst us of that very enterprise which we are after-
wards destined to work out into such splendid development. The
canal cost 220,000/. — an enormous sum at that time, and from the
purse of a single individual. It is said that the Duke of Bridg-
water had to live for many years upon 400/. a year, in order to pay
for it. The recompense has been no less remarkable Long since
the annual income netted by means of the canal was valued at
130,000/., and notwithstanding the completion of a whole network
of railways through the district it traverses, that return, it is be-
lieved, is at present considerably exceeded.

One single canal was commenced during the interval above men-
tioned; and which, having been completed before the Duke's, has
the honour of being the first work of the kind executed in Eng-
land. This was the Saiikey Canal, running from the mouth of the
Saukey Brook, in the Mersey, to St. Helen's. It is, however, little
more than an improved edition of the long-used river navigation,
as the brook is all along a feeder to the canal, which was by the
side of it. Its length is not more than 12 miles, the fall about
78 feet, with eight single locks and two double ones, so that this
first of our canal enterprises was no great work. Jlr. John Eyes,
of Liverpool, was the engineer.

The opening of the Bridgwater Canal gave a new impetus to
this branch of enterprise. The Louth Canal got its act in 1763,
little more than a year after the ojiening of the Bridgwater. The
greater part of this canal is on a continuous level, very little above
the sea, running from the Humber, near Tetney Haven, to the
River Ludd. The length is but 14 miles, and the original estimate
16,500/. It was so defectively constructed, notwithstanding the
facilities of the county, that the whole affair, after 28,000/. aliove
the estimate had been raised on loan, vvas assigned to a single
man, Mr. Chaplin, to manage in his own way. This was the re-
sult of a too stringent economy in starting. It took a long time
to get public companies to understand their own interest. The
Louth Canal is now a useful work, as far as it goes, and very bene-
ficial to the town of Louth and the neighl)ourhood.

The next canal attempted — in fact, tlie third opened in the
country — was, like the Bridgwater Canal, the speculation of a
single man. In 1764, Sir J. H. Duval cut a canal through the
solid rock, for the purpose of connecting Hartlepool Harbour, in
the county of Durham, with the sea. The canal is but 300 yards
long. The next canal was likewise a private undertaking, pro-
jected and executed by a single man. Air. J. Rymer made a canal
from his coal and lime works to the tideway in Kidvelly Harbour.
He obtained his act in 1766. Long after, in 1812, a company un-
dertook to improve and extend tlie canal, construct tramroads in
connection with it, &c., from which resulted the present Kidvelly
Canal, with its branches and adjuncts.

Thus, out of the four canals first executed, three were strictly
private. In 1766 the first really important public canal was com-
menced, the Staffordshire and Worcestershire. This work was en-
gineered by Brindley himself, to proceed from the Severn, at
Stourport, to the Trent and Mersey navigation, near Heywood,
in Staffordshire. Its rise is considerable, as upon the top level it
runs for 10 miles at a height of 294 feet above the Severn at
Stourport, and of 352 feet above low-water mark at Runcorn. In
length it is almost 47 miles, and it cost 1 12,000/., including a
variety of accessary expenses in clearing away shoals from the bed
of the Severn. The trade on this canal is immense.

The Trent and Mersey Canal was commenced in 1766. It was
suggested by the Duke of Bridgwater, witli whose water commu-
nication it is at one point connected, and was executed uji to the
time of his death by Mr. Brindley. The original estimate was
130,000/., but it cost 334,000/. Little wonder, for it comprises
127 aqueducts and culverts — one of the former over the River
Dove being very extensive— 91 locks, and 6 tunnels. The famous
Harecastle Tunnel, 2,S80 yards long, is situated on the summit
level of this canal, whose total length is 93 miles.

The next undertaking in chronological order is one of the
noblest works in the kingdom. The Forth and Clyde Canal was
begun in 1768. This canal, commencing in the Forth at Grange-
month Harbour, passes within two miles of Glasgow, and thence
into the Clyde, being the first realised attempt at connecting the
two great seas of our island. Its length is 35 miles, and the
greatest rise 155 feet. By the recent improvements it has under-
gone, sea-borne craft, drawing 10 feet water, are able to navigate
through it, between the Irish Sea and the German Ocean. The

18+9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

215

locks are 74 feet lona: by 20 wide; they are 39 in number. On its
course are 33 drawbridges, 10 large aqueducts, and 33 smaller
ones. Among its many reservoirs is one that covers 70 acres,
with a de])th of 22 feet at the sluice. The first idea of this under-
taking dates as far back as the time of Cliarles II. — that monarch
having taken preparatory measures for cutting a channel in the
same direction for tlie passage of shij)S of war. The design was
calculated to cost 500,000/., but was far too magnificent for the
inipovcrislied e.xchequer of the Stuarts. In 1723 a fresh survey
and estimate was made hy a good engineer, Mr. Gordon, but
nothing more was done until 1704, when Lord Napier employed
Mr. Maskell to make a report, the result of which was, that the
celebrated Smeaton was engaged to undertake tlie work according
to the present plan. Sundry difficulties, as usual, arose — the chief
being the enormous enhancement of the cost. Tlie estimates fixed
this at 147,337/, but when this had been expended, and between
70,000/. and 80,000/. additional borrowed, the projectors found tliat
only about lialf the length had been, though with much rapidity,
completed. Disputes then occurred with the engineer, amidst
which the works stood still, but being presently recommenced, the
canal was brought to within 6 miles of the Clyde, wlien its further
progress was again stayed by the want of funds. An act passed in
1784, alleviated this difficulty, by enabling the proprietors to bor-
row money from the Scotch ISarons of Exchequer, out of the for-
feited estates, and with this assistance the work was completed in
1790. The whole stock amounted at last to 519,840/. — considerably
beyond the sum estimated by Charles II. for his ship canal, and
which, if mentioned at the beginning, would have stilled the pro-
ject in its birth.

As a collateral assistance to the navigation of the Forth, the
Borrou'stoneu Canal was commenced in the same year witli the
Forth and Clyde. It is a level canal, about 7 miles long, and cost
21,000/., the original estimate having been 5,000/. In the same
year Brindley commenced the Coventry Canal, running from the
Trent and Mersey to Coventry. The project appeared a failure
for some time, as the requisite capital was not forthcoming. But
the Trent and Mersey Company took the matter up in 1782, and
the works were begun in earnest; it was finished in 1790, and forms,
with the Ashby-de-la-Zouch and Oxford Canals, which communi-
cate with it, the longest canal line in England, being upwards of
70 miles, exclusive of branches. TUe length of the Coventry
Canal is somewhat short of 38 miles, with \ery few locks, and a
level at the highest of 81 feet. The expense was about 90,000/.
Brindley's great object was to connect, by canal navigation, the
ports of London, Liverpool, and Hull. The last link in this
great chain was that grand undertaking, for the time, the Oxford
Canal. This work was commenced in 1769, beginning from the
Coventry C'anal at Longford, and extending to the Thames at
Oxford. The whole capital authorised to be raised for this pur-
pose was upwards of 300,000/. — the original estimate being
178,648/. The length is 80 miles, carried at the summit level at
the height of 387^ feet above the level of the sea. It has three
aqueducts, the one at Briuklow nearly 300 feet long, and two tun-
nels, the longest, at Fenny Compton, being 3,564 feet. The level,
at its commencement at the Coventry Canal, is no less than 74
feet above the surface water of that cliannel, and rises from thence
to the summit level about 75 feet. On the whole, this is one of
the most important canals in the kingdom, as forming the connect-
ing link between the inland navigation of the northern and south-
ern districts.

In the 20 years that followed, up to 1790, the number of canals
executed in the country was 17 — few of them of equal importance
with the preceding. Brindley projected the Che.stei^eld Canal in
1769; it was carried on under his direction and that of his brother-
in-law, Mr. Henshall, till its completion in 1776, at a cost of
150,000/. Its length is 46 miles, with 65 locks, and one very ex-
tensive tunnel, 2,850 yards long, near Ilarthill. Mr. Grundy had
proposed another plan, which would have saved 5 miles, and between
20,000/. and 30,000/., but Brindley's experience was preferred.
The undertaking was a very successful one; but the most impor-
tant of Brindley s later suggestions was the E/lesnwre and Chester
Canal. The famous aqueduct over the Dee is on this canal car-
ried at a height of 125 feet above its bed, on 19 pairs of stone
pillars, 52 feet apart. Several others of the great specimens of
canal works in the kingdom were of his undertaking. It runs
from Ellesmere Port to the Montg^'mery Canal, a distance of
61 miles, with numberless collateral branches. During the pro-
gress of this canal the greatest possible difficulty was experienced
in raising the money. The shares at one time were sold at 1 per
cent, of their original value. The whole cost was nearly 400,000/.

The Thames and Sererii Canal, another of Brindley's projects,

was commenced in 1783. The longest of the tunnels — the Tiirle-
ton Tunnel — is on this canal; it is 2|-miles liuig. It runs from
Stroud to Cirencester, with a length sonicwljat above 30 miles.
The original estimate for this work was 190,000/., the actual cost
above 500,000/.; one of tlie largest excesses in canal history — and
the more strange, as there are no branches. It has 42 locks. A
union between the Thames and Severn, by means of the Avon, was
another of Charles II.'s projects.

The other canals executed during the period alluded to were the
Baniiiff.stoUp, about 40 miles long, cost about 186,000/.; the Ercwask,
running from the Trent to Langley-bridge, about 12 miles, cost
23,000/^; the Cromford, from the Erewash to Cnuuford, 18 miles,
on which are one or tv.o of our finest aqueducts, cost 86,000/.; the
Bradford, 3 miles long, cost 9,000/.; tlie Dudley, of which the
original plan was a length of 13 miles, at a cost of 12,000/., but
the expense of cuts and connecting branches amounted to some-
where about 150,000/. additional; the Market Wehjhfon, 11 miles
long; the ^nrfot'er, 22^ miles long, cost 65,000/.; the St. Columb,
6 miles long; the Shropshire, a canal of 7 miles from the furnaces
at Coalbrook Dale to the Severn; the Stourliridge, and three
private canals — one executed by Sir J. Ramsdcn, near Hudders-
field, another bv Sir N. Gresley, near Newcastle-under-Lyne, and
the third by Lord Tlianet, a short affair, near Skipton Caslle.

After 1790 a violent impetus was given to canal speculations.
Between that date and 1795 no less than 43 canals were planned,
and acts relative to 15 new undertakings were passed in 179,3 — the
largest numlier of any year in history. The dates of the first
acts, relative to two of the most important undertakings in the
kingdom, the Grand Junethn and the Kennet and Avon, belong
to this period, being passed, the one in 1793, and the other in 1794.
The first of these, one of the most spirited enterprises of the kind,
begins at the Oxford Canal, near Braunston, to the Thames, at
Brentford — a course of 90 miles. The undertaking was the last
step in Brindlev's grand plan of inland communication throughout
the country. We liad attained already a comjilete %vater connec-
tion between Liverpool, Hull, and Loudon; but the old river com-
munication, with its tortuous course and manifold disadvantages,
still existed in a most important part, that between Oxford and
London; and it was to make the canal communication complete
that Lord Rockingham, in 1792, employed Mr. Baines to make the
survey for the present canal. The first estimate was 600,000/.;
hut, as usual, cuts and extensions required the raising of a further
sum of 550,000/., making this one of the most expensive under-
takings in the kingdom. The length is above 90 miles. There
are 98 locks and two tunnels, with several deep cuttings; one near
Bulbourne 3 miles long and 30 feet deep for the greater part of
tlie way. There are, besides, several embankments — in fact, this,
on the whole, came nearer to modern railway enterprise than any
work previous to the commencement of the iron age. From the
summit level at Tring to Harefield-park, a distance of about 21
miles, tliere is a fall of 300 feet — the height of the summit part
being 380 feet above the Thames at Limehouse. The Paddington
branch, which is a continuation of the Grand Junction, is for
34 miles quite level; the water-course for 20 miles, from Padding-
to Uxbridge, requiring but a single lock. The greater part of this
canal was completed in about 10 years.

Tlie Kennet and Avon Canal. — The most important water link
between the west and east of the southern counties in England,
was commenced in 1794. It runs from the Avon, at Bath, to the
Kennet, at Newborn; and, as the former river runs on to Bristol,
andfthe latter to the Thames, a communication is effected between
Bristol and London; in fact, between the Irish Channel and Ger-
man Ocean. It completes moreover the water circuit from the
northern districts round the island, and passes througli or near
several of the most important towns in the south. The original
estimate 570,000/.: but a further sum of 702,000/. was required to
be raised under four successive acts, to complete the undertaking.
The engineering difficulties were in some parts very great. In
Somerset and Wiltshire, the country through which it passes is
very rugged. At one place, near Devizes, a fall occurs of 239 feet
in 2^ miles, requiring 29 locks. The length is 57 miles, and the
whole rise 210 feet, with 31 locks, and the fall 404^ feet, with 48
locks. The expense per mile (22,315/.) makes this one of the most
costly canals in the kingdom. As a property tliis undertaking has
been most injured by the Great Western Railway. The company
were only enabled to compete with the railroad for the carriage of
heavy goods, by charging half their prices when they enjoyed the
monopoly. The railway at first only professed to carry liglit
goods, and thus disarmed the opposition of the canal, but it has
ended, as might have been anticipated, in carrying everything.
One or two of the aqueducts on the canal are of beautiful struc-

216

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JlLY

tare, the Duntlas aqueduct especially, which is situated about
4 miles from liatli.

Tlie number of the works now undertaken prevented the com-
nuMicement of new designs, and besides the continental disturb-
;inces began to be seriously felt. From 1795, to the end of tlie
century, only four canals were commenced — the Grand Western,
tlie Diirnet and Somerset, the Newcastle Junction, and the Aber-
i/irn.ihirc. All these, though very useful works, were but of se-
rimdary importance. The first-named, running from the Exe to
Taunton, cost about 330,000/. — the length is about 35 miles. The
■iecond was never executed; the third is a very trifling affair; and
the fourth only goes to the length of 19 miles: 36 canals have
lieen commenced in the present century, the principal of which are
the Regent's and the Caledonian. The larger undertakings were
often abandoned, at least in their chief points, which was the case
with the Bridgwater atnl Taunton. The Caledonian, as will be
<ei'n, does not pay at all. Tlie Grand Surrey, the original sub-
scription for which was 45,000/., but which cost above 300,000/. ad-
ditional, pays a very trifling per centage. Tlie Edinburgh and
Glasgov, the Macclesfield, and the Grand Union, are the tliree otiier
of most importance. Enterprise was, however, busy about the old
lines — most of which received important improvements in this
period.

.411 the undertakings here enumerated have been completed by
private persons, either singly or in association. The only work
actually undertaken by the government has been the Caledonian
( anal. Watt first surveyed this line, but it was carried into exe-
cution by Telford. It cuts com])letely through the Scotch islands,
ciimmencing at the foot of Ben Nevis, and running through three
Scotch lakes to Inverness. The length of the whole is above
(iO miles; but very little more than 23 of this is canal, the remain-
der being being lakes. The original intention was to facilitate the
transport of Baltic timber, but the traffic has turned out far
lielow the original expectation. The cost to the government has
been above 1,000,000/.; and in 18+2 the expenditure for wages and
maintenance actually exceeded the receipts; the former being
2,090/., and the latter 2,038/. We must add, indeed, tliat 576/. of
the charges are put down as extraordinary expenditure in building
boat-houses, &c.; but, even so, the surplus would have been very
little more than 500/. There are 28 locks on this canal, of which
a chain of eight, called Neptune's Staircase, alone cost 5,000/.
The works of the canal are of first-rate order, and the channel of
enormous breadtli and depth, as being intended for ship naviga-
tion. The width at top is HO feet; at bottom, 50; depth, 20 feet;
tlie locks 172 feet by 40. All this explains the cost, together with
tlie nature of the country tbrougli which the canal passes; but it
is an instance of the failure of government undertakings, as far
as mere profit is concerned. Vessels of upwards of 160 tons often
pass the canal. — Daily A^ews.

THE CENTRE OP GRAVITY OF A LOCOMOTIVE
ENGINE,

In all investigations as to the effects produced by the locomotive
engine, it is absolutely necessary to determine accurately the po-
sition of its centre of gravity. As the ordinar.v method of ascer-
taining this point by calculation is both tedious and unsatisfactory,
I am induced to give the outlines of a mode which has suggested
itself to me, and which, with careful application, will, I find, give
an accurate result. The annexed engraving represents' a four-
wheeled engine, whose axles are 7 feet from centre to centre.
Having first carefully ascertained the total weight of the engine,
the weiglit on each pair of wheels must be obtained by repeated
trials on a good weighing macliine. Suppose these weiglits are
found to lie respectively 11^9 tons, and F^7 tons; the position of
a vertical line CC'O, passing through the centre of gravity, can be

found by the equation jr ="— , where x = distance of the line

CC'O from /ill ; /= 7 tons, the weight on the front wheels ; d= 7
feet, tlie distance lietween tlie axles; and / = 16 tons, or total
weight of the engine.

Having thus found the line CC'O, it must be chalked upon the
barrel of the boiler. Assume for a moment that C is the position
of the centre of gravity : draw the line C'f. If now the front
wheels be placed on the weighing macliiiie, and tlie bind part of
the engine raised until the insistent weight indicated is equal to
Hi tons, it is evident that the point C will be in a vertical line
passing through the points C and/ By suspending two plumb-

lines in a plane at right angles to the road on which the engine
stands, and intersecting the point /, whenever the whole weight of
the engine is thrown upon this point, tlie line CC'O will be inter-
sected by the plumb-lines in the point C".

^7

Could the above method be practically applied, it would be the
most simple way of arriving at a knowledge of the point ; but as
it would be dangerous both to the engine and machine thus to dis-
pose a weight of (in some instances) thirty tons, it has only been
mentioned that the following plan may be more readily under-
stood : — On an inspection of the figure, it will be seen that the
line EQ is equidistant between H and F, and in this line the cen-
tre of gravity would have been situated had the weights on H and
F been respectively 8 tons. The front wheels having been again
placed on the weighing machine, two plumb-lines must be sus-
pended as before, but in a plane passing through the line EQ,
which may be termed the line of equipoise. It is evident now that
if we lift the engine behind, the plumb-lines will intersect the line
CC, whenever the weight indicated by the machine is equal to
8 tons, and the centre of gravity will be situated in their intersec-
tion. In this operation, compensation must be made for that por-
tion of the total weight which tends to move the front wheels for-
ward. The amount of this force can be easily calculated, but it is
better in practice to compensate it by passing the lifting rope
round a pulley, so that its direction may be in a right line with the
framing of the engine when lifted.

I have used a four-wheeled engine to exemplify my mode of

proceeding, because it is the simplest; but a six-wheeled engine

can be treated in the same way, when the lines CC'O and EQ have

been found. If h, m, and / represent the weights on the hind,

middle, and front wheels, and d the distance between h and m, — a

md
point y must be found, by the equation y = — - — , where the

weights /( and m may supposed to be concentrated: if D be put for

the distance between y and/ ~ will be the position of the line of

equipoise. Again, if t be put for the total weight of the engine,

X ■= — will be the position of CC'O, the vertical line passing

through the centre of gravity.

R. M.

The High Level Bridge on the Tyne, at Newcastle, on the York and Ber-
wick line of railway, will, it is expected, he openeii on the 1st of August. The
key of the last arch was driven home on the 7ih ult., by the Mayor of
Gateshead, Mr. Hawks, of Hawks, Crawshay, and Co., the contractors for
the ironwork. The first pile was driven on the 24th of April, 1846, in pre-
sence of its designer, Mr. U. Stephenson, M.P. ; and the first segment of
the lirst arch was placed so lately as the 10th of July last. The ironwork
rising to a height of 120 fett ahuve Ihe bed of the river, much caution was
called for, and from the careful and expensive arrangements therefore made,
there has been neither loss of life nor limb in the fixing of the six massive
arches, many of the castings of which weighed from 10 to 12 tnns each.
The cost of the bridge when completed is estimated to be 243,096/. ; the
viaduct through Gateshead and Newcastle, 113,057/,; land, compensation,
&c., 135,000/. total, 491,153/.

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

217

REGISTER OF NEW PATENTS.

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS.

Frederick Com.ier Bakewell, of Hampstead, for '•'■ improve-
ments in making communications from one phice to another bi/ means of
elcitricity."— Granted December 9, 184.8; Enrolled June 2, 1849.

This invention consists, in the first place, of methods of copying',
by means of electricity, written or printed charactei-s for tele-
graphic communications; and, secondly, of modes of breaking and
renewing the electric circuits with different stations, so as to corre-
spond only with the place required.

To carry out the first part of the invention, two or more instru-
ments are made as exactly alike as possible, so as to give equal
motions to a cylinder on each instrument. Parallel to the cylinder
is a screw, which carries a traversing nut from end to end as the
cylinder revolves. To the nut an arm is attached, at the end of
which there is a metal style or point that presses on the cylinder,
and is insulated from the rest of the instrument. The point is
connected with one of the poles of the voltaic battery, and the
cylinder with the other. On to the cylinder of one of the instru-
ments the message to be transmitted is attached. The message is
written on tin-foil with varnish or other non-conducting substance,
and the electric circuit is completed whenever the point is resting
on the tin-foil, and is interrupted when the point rests on the var-
nish writing. On the cylinder of the receiving instrument paper,
saturated with a scdution which electricity will easily decompose,
is placed ; and as a similar metal point presses upon it, whenever
the electric circuit is completed, by passing from the point to the
paper, a mark is made. Thus, by the revolution of the cylinders,
and the traversing of the nuts, spiral lines very close together are
drawn on the paper; but the circuit being interrupted when the
point of the transmitting instrument rests on the varnish, those
parts remain white. In this manner, if the transmitting and re-
ceiving instruments be moving exactly together, the point of the
former, by passing several times over each line of writing, will
cause the marking point to produce the forms of the letters on the
paper, the writing appearing white on a dark ground, constituted
of numerous fine lines.

It is essential that the corresponding instruments should move
synchronously. To effect this, the patentee employs electro-mag-
nets, to regulate at certain intervals the continuous rotations of
the cylinders. Several methods by which this may be done are
noticed, but the mode preferred is to use pendulums actuated by
clock-work, which at each vibration strike against moveable wires
or fine springs, that serve to bring the electro-magnets into action,
by completing the circuit with local voltaic batteries, one of which
is attached to each instrument. The electro-magnets being thus
brought into action at each beat of the pendulums, they are made
to regulate the instruments, by causing a detent fixed to the keep-
ers to press against projections in the cylinders. The movement
of each cylinder is made rather faster than the resulting motion
required; and the distant instruments are regulated to keep to-
gether by retarding their movements in a slight degree each time
that the electro-magnets are put in action by the pendulums. As
a means of ascertaining whether they are moving synchronously, a
strip of paper is placed at right angles to the lines of writing on
the transmitting instrument; and this produces a corresponding
white mark on the paper, by which the operator is enabled to tell
with great exactness whether the pendulum of his instrument is
vibrating faster or slower than the other, and he can thus adjust it
to correspond. The starting of the two instruments is contrived
by means of an electro-magnet, put in action by the electric cur-
rent transmitted along the connecting wires. The keeper of the
magnet presses against the fan of the receiving instrument, and
when the circuit is momentarily interrupted by the starting of the
transmitting instrument, the keeper falls back and liberates the
fan.

To copy print with these instruments, a portion of the printers'
ink may be transferred to tin-foil by pressure, or the foil may be
printed on from types. In copying small print, or small writing,
the cylinder of the receiving instrument should be larger than that
of the transmitting instrument, and the screw of the traversing
nut coarser, so as to produce a magnified copy of the original.

The patentee describes a variation in the mode of copying, by
using several points instead of one, so that several lines of writing
may be copied at the same time, the electricity being conducted
rapidly from point to point in succession. The rapidity with which
the copying process may be carried on may be inferred from the
size of the cylinder and the rapidity of its revolutions. The dia-

meter of the cylinder appears from the drawings to be about six
inches, and it is stated that it may be regulated to make thirty re-
volutions in a minute, and that seven times traversing over each
line of writing is sufficient for copying distinctly. On a cylinder
six inches diameter, about one hundred letters might be written in
a line, and that would amount to more than four hundred letters
per minute, with a single wire. In consequence of this rapidity of
action, the patentee says that the copying telegraph affords pecu-
liar facilities for establishing a system of stated transmissions and
deliveries throughout the day; every half-hour being named as the
interval between the communications with each town in the cir-
cuit.

Fig. I.

The annexed woodcut (Fig. 1) represents a plan of the copying
instrument. I, I, represent the frame containing the train of
wheels for giving motion to the cylinder C; D, the drum from
which the weight is suspended ; and F, the fan which prevents ac-
celeration. S, tlie screw on which the nut, N, traverses, carrying
the point P; M, the regulating electro-magnet; L, the keeper
and the connecting lever which presses against the projections E,
E, to retard and regulate the motion of the cylinder. To the

clock-plate p, from which the pendulum B (seen in section) is sus-
pended, there are fixed ivory brackets h, h, which support platinum
wires c, c, fixed to a cross wire o, that slides easily on the brackets.
The wires from the voltaic battery r, are connected with the clock-.

29

218

THE CIVIL ENGINEER ANU ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jui.v,

plate anil with the platinum wires, so tliat each time that the pen-
dulum strikes against c, c. the connection is made, and the magnet
acts. V, and Y, are the wires connected with tlie distant instru-
ment and witli tlie decomposinff voltaic hatteries.

Tlie second part of the invention is carried into effect by causing
magnetic needles that are deflected by tlie electric current in the
main telegraph wire, to bring into action scjiarate voltaic batteries
and electro-magnets at each station ; by which means the return
circuit through the earth is interrupted, and the station next in
succession is placed in circuit. Fig. 2 shows this arrangement,
which is repeated at each station, o, is the main wire; N, a mag-
netic needle, that may be deflected to the right or left in the usual
manner; c, c, are the ends of fine ])latinum wires, so arranged in
coiniection with the wires from the voltaic battery V, that when
the needle is deflected, the electric circuit is completed, and the
electro-magnet is brought into action. The wire A, A, connects the
main wire with the earth, and in the position shown the electric cir-
cuit is completed through the telegra])hic instrument E. I, a wheel
actuated by clock-work to make a revolution in about four mi-
nutes, and the electric connection is made through it by the wire
p. When the magnet is brought into action, it withdraws the
detent rf, and, by setting the wheel in motion, it breaks the con-
nection until half a revolution has lieen made, and it rests on
the opposite pin o. In this manner, all intervening stations may
be thrown out of circuit until the one required is attained. Modi-
fications of this arrangement are shown, by which the communica-
tions with branch lines may be opened and closed at will.

The patentee claims, —

1st, The arrangements described and shown for copying, at a
distance, written or ])rinted characters by means of electricity.

ynd. The employment of electro-magnets for regulating the
continuous movements of distant instruments, either with or with-
out the a])plication of pendulums.

3rd, Tlie use of pi'econcerted marks on the transmitting instru-
ment to serve as guides in regulating the receiving instrument.

Itli, Tlie arrangement for breaking the electric circuit at distant
stations by means of local voltaic batteries and local electro-mag-
nets, brought into action by magnetic needles deflected by the
electric current transmitted through the main wire; also the mode
of renewing the circuit by the mechanism described.

RAILWAY WHEELS.

William VYiubto.v, superintendent of the carriage department
of the London and North-VYestern Railway Station, Eu?ton-
square, Middlesex-, for '■^ improvements in the conxt ruction of vehicles
to be used on rmhcaijs^ or on other I'oiids and ways." — Granted De-
cember 15, 1818; Enrolled June 15, 1849.

The improvements relate, first, to the construction of wheels of
vehicles used on railways or other roads. The construction of the
wheel is as follows: — Into the boss, or nave, the ends of curved
wrought-iron spokes are cast, or in some cases the nave may be
made of wrought-iron; the spokes are connected to a wooden
felloe, and to the tyre, by countersunk bolts and nuts ; and be-
tween each pair of spokes, weilge-shaped pieces of metal are
placed, and connected together by a bolt, passed through a hole
formed therein, — the lower extremity of the bolt having a thread,
a corresponding thread being formed in the hole in the wedge, into
which the bolt takes; and by turning round the said bolt in ime
direction by a spanner, the wedge-shaped pieces will he made to
approach towards each other, and comiiress the curved sides of the
spokes, and thereby cause that part of the spoke in contact with
the felloe to be pressed forcibly against it; iind such pressure will
be transmitted from the felloe to the tyre; and in this manner a
solid and substantial wheel is formed.

Another form of construction of wheel consists in having the
cast-iron boss or nave of the wheel formed in two parts, the tvre
being connected to the boss or nave in the following manner: — The
boss or nave has holes formed therein, through which bolts are
passed, in a radial direction from the centre of the wheel, the bolts
being employed for the purpose hereinafter-mentioned, connected
to the boss or nave by countersunk bolts and nuts, passed thi-(nigh
holes formed in the parts of the nave and block, the outer extre-
mity of each of tlie blocks being securely connected to a ring of
wrought-iron, formed with two flanges, by means of countersunk
bolts passed through hides formed in the tyre, the ring, and block;
and there is a hole formed through the centre of each block, and
fitted with a short tube of metal, for the purpose of connecting
these last-mentioned parts together by means of a split key, passed
through a hole in the end of the bolt. Wedge-shaped pieces of

metal are placed between each pair of wood blocks, and connected
thereto, and to the boss or nave, by a bolt and nut; or the bolt may
be either cast into the nave of the wheel, in which case, there
would be a nut upon its other extremity; or the said bolt may be
screwed into tlie nave of the wheel instead of passing through it,
by turning round the bidt by means of a spanner. The wedge-
sliajied piece will be fmcibly pressed against and between each pair
of blocks, and as each of tliese wedges is successively tightened,
it will be obvious that each lilock will be compressed. The grain
or fibre of the wood blocks must be placed radiating from the cen-
tre of the wheel, and in this manner a solid and substantial wheel
is formed. It should be observed, that the wedges may be easily
tiglitened from time to time by the means before described, should
the shrinkage of the wood blocks require it.

Another modification of the wheel first described is as follows: —
In this case the wooden felloe is entirely dispensed with, tlie spokes
being in close contact witli the tyre of the wheel, and connected
thereto in a similar manner to the former wheel.

Another part of the invention consists in constructing wheels
for common roads upon the principle described with reference to
wheels to be used on railways. The diiference consists simply in
making the tyre of the wheel for common roads flat instead of
flanged, and the nave must be formed to suit the axle upon which
it is to be placed; in other respects, the arrangement and construc-
tion of the wheels are similar to those before described.

THE BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE.

The great engineering exploit of the month has been the floating
of one of tlie large tubes to its place across the Menai Straits, and
which was to have taken place on Tuesday, 19th ult., but owing to
some sliglit failure in one of the capstans, it was deferred until the
following day, when it was completed at half-past nine o'clock in
the evening. The perilous work had to be accomplished within 90
minutes, and if it had exceeded that time the chances were that
the tube would have been wrecked; however, so well were the
movements directed, it was accomplished in 85 minutes, leaving
five minutes to spare.

The cables that were used to guide the pontoons were twelve
inches in circumference, and said to be three miles in length; there
were about 300 men employed at the capstans, moorings, &c., be-
sides steamers engaged to tow the leviathan tube. It was floated
obliquely, and one end brought against the centre pier, then gra-
dually swung round, its face to the space between the piers. The
swinging the other end round to the tower on the Anglesea side
was a work of great risk and anxiety; fortunately, such was the
nicetv of the arrangements, and the rapidity of the directing
movements, that the final step was perfectly successful, and, by
the vigorous action of a gigantic implement like a vice, the tube
was clenched at its extremity, and in an instant lielil fast. On this
occasion, in addition to Mr. Stephenson and Captain Claxton, Mr.
Clarke, Mr. Brunei, and Mr. Locke were on the tube, rendering
valuable and unceasing assistance throughout the perilous pro-
cess.

The next operation, that of elevating the tube to its permanent
position, will be accomplished as soon as possible. This is to be
done by huge hydraulic presses, similar in design to those described
in the Journn/,'\\tl. XI., 184.8, p. 87 and 217, but of a larger de-
scription, commensurate with the size of the works, one cylinder
alone being almost large enough at the entrance to contain a man
standing, and of the ponderous weight of 40 tons. It is the most
powerful machine ever constructed. The two end tubes w ill then
be raised, and it is expected, from the rapidity of the movements,
that this great iron highway over the Straits will be ready for the
passage of trains in the autumn.

The names of the gentlemen who have been continuously en-
gaged (HI this great work, under Mr. Stephenson, since 1847 are
— Captain Moiu'soni, the resident directiu'; .Mr Frank Forster, the
resident engineer; Messrs. E. and L. Clarke and Wild, assistant
engineers; Messrs. Nnwell, Ileniingway, and Pearson, contractors
for the masonry, and Mr. T. E. Kawliiison, chief inspector of ma-
sonry; Messrs. iSlare, of Blackuall, and Messrs. Garforth, of Dun-
kinfield, contractors for the iron tubes; Mr. J. Greaves, general
manager of the masonry; Messrs. J. and A. Greaves, contractors
for the scaffolding and stages. Mr. G. Campbell, engineer of the
tube work, and Messrs. J. jlorris and II. Hodgkinson, managers of
it; and Messrs. Easton and Amos, who constructed the hydraulic
machinery for lifting the tubes, — all of whom were present.

A very interesting description of the herculean works connected

1849. 1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

219

with the construction of the tuhes, by an engineer resident on tlie
spot, has just been published by Messrs. Chapman and Hall, to
whom we are indebted for the accompanying engravings and de-
scriptive account.

Origin and Necessity of the Bridge. — In 1844 the Chester and
Holyhead Railway Company was formed, and it was soon perceived
by their engineer that the grand difficulty of the line was, how to
carry it over the estuary of tlie Conway and the Menai Straits.
As it is impossible to make use of the diain suspension bridge for
the passage of heavy railway trains, its flexibility rendering it
wholly unfit for cases where a stiff inflexible roadway is required,
some other mode of accomplishing the object was necessary; and
the difficulty in the way of this arose from the following causes: —
At both places there is a considerable traffic, carried on by vessels
of large size, to avoid any interference with which, it was reipiisite
that, in the building of the bridges, no scaffolding or centering
should be used, since that, if employed, would of course obstruct
the passage. In the ease of the Menai Straits, Mr. Stephenson
met this requirement by a design for a bridge, of two cast-iron
arches, the span of each to be 450 feet; the lieight of tlie crown
of the arch 100 feet, and of the springing 50 feet, from the water;
the use of centering being with great ingenuity dispensed with, by
connecting by tie-rods the half-arclies (m each side of the centre
pier with each other. The site intended for this was tliat on which
the present bridge is being erected. But the first dilhculty having
been surmounted, another and far more serious one presented
itself. The Commissioners of the Admiralty, on this design being
submitted to them for approval, insisted on a height of 100 feet
above the water, not merely at the crown of the arch, but also close
to the piers; thus giving but two alternatives — to retain the ardied
form, but increase its height by 50 feet; or, relinquishing the arched
form, to construct on some entirely new method, a beam, which
should depend for its stability simply on the strength of its parts; the
first i-equiromeut, moreover, rendering it necessary that it should
be either constructed in its ultimate position on a suspending
scaffolding, or else lifted entire, and at once, into its place, after
having been put together elsewhere. Tlie latter alternative was
the one chosen by Mr. Stephenson. His proposition of a tube or
girder, -1.60 feet in clear length, strong enough not only to carry
a railway train, but to bear its own weight, was received by the
public, on its first announcement, with almost universal incre-
dnlity. However, though the public doubted, the railway com-
pany had confidence in their engineer; and his labours and inves-
tigations have resulted in the present tubular bridges, whicli, from
their stupendous magnitude, the singularity of their form, and the
gigantic nature of the opei'ations by which entire bridges of such
unexampled weight are transported and raised into their position,
have excited more interest, both in the scientific world and the
public, than any other engineering works of the pi-esent day. We
have said that the arch and the chain bridge being unavailable,
Mr. Steplienson was driven to adopt tlie third possible form — that
of a beam; and we would impress on our readers that these tubes
are nothing but gigantic beams; they derive no strength from any
transmission of horizontal pressure to the abutments, as is derived
by the arch; nor from any mode of suspension, as in the chain

leaving the end of the bridge, passing close under the Anglesea
column. The shores are of the same precipitous and shelving
cliaracter at both places, but the stream is wider here than at the
suspension bridge, being about 1,100 feet across at high water. It
is divided nearly exactly in the middle by the Britannia Rock,
which at high water is covered to a depth of 10 feet. The rise
and fall of the tide is ordinarily 20 feet, and its velocity very
great, often as much as 8| miles an hour. It is from the Britannia
Rock that the bridge takes its name, the centre pier being based
upon it. It and the Anglesea shore consist of chlorite schist, a
very hard and intractable kind of rock, worked with great diffi-
culty: from this and the circumstance that no cofferdam was
used, and therefore few hours only could be consecutively spent
on the rock, some months were passed in laying tlie bottom course
of the tower. It was commenced in May 1W4B, the first stone
being laid without ceremony by Frank Korster, Esq., acting en-
gineer of the portion of the railway between Conway and Holy-
head, and of the masonry, scaffoldings, &c. of the Britannia
Bridge.

Const runt io7>. — The stone of which the towers are built is a hard
carboniferous limestone, or marble, called Anglesea marble; it
abounds in fossils, and is capable of receiving a very high polish.
It is obtained from quarries expressly opened for the purpose on
the sea shore at I'enmon, at the northern extremity of the island,
where it occurs in great abundance and in convenient strata of
every thickness, from 3 feet or 4 feet downwards. The stones are
split off with great dexterity by iron wedges, and wrought into
shape with heavy steel picks. Some of the stones in the work are
no less than 20 feet in length, and others weigli from 12 to 11 tons.
A great poi'tion of the interior masonry, however, is built of red
sandstone, from Runcorn, in Cheshire. This is a very soft stone,
and easily worked, but at the same time very durable, especially
when not exposed. The stones in the towers are all left with a
rough or quarry face, except at the angles and in the recesses and
the entablature at the top. This circumstance, coupled with
their immense size and height, gives the towers a truly noble ap-
pearance.

The approaches to the bridge are ornamented on each side by
collossal statues of lions, in the Egyptian style. They are each
composed of eleven pieces of limestone, and, although in a couch-
ant attitude, are 12 feet in height. Their lengtli is 25 feet, and
their weight about 30 tons. Being associated wiili so many other
large objects, their real size is not apparent. They were sculp-
tured by Mr. Thomas, of the new Houses of Parliament. It was
once contemplated to surmount the centre tower with a figure of
Britannia, in stone, 60 feet in height, by the same artist; but the
idea for the present is abandoned. The designs for the masonry,
both for this and the Conway, were furnished by F. Thompson,
Esq., of London. When the whole structure is completed, it will
consist of two immense wrought-iron tunnels or tubes, each con-
siderably upwards of a quarter of a mile in length, placed side by
side, through which the up and down trains respectively will pass.
The ends of these tubes rest on abutments, the intermediate por-
tions being supported across tlie Straits by three massive and lofty
stone towers. The centre tower, as has been just observed, stands

bridge, but resist incumbent pressure on exactly the same princi-
ples as the short plank does by which the village brook is crossed.
But their form, and the method of employing the material of
which they are composed, is so novel and beautiful, and so very
different to those of a simple beam or girder, that we would
willingly draw the attention of our readers to a few of these
points before proceeding to a detailed description of the tubes
themselves.

Description of the Work.— The particular spot at which the
Britannia Bridge crosses the Menai Straits is exactly a mile
nearer to Carnarvon than the suspension bridge; the railway, after

on a rock, which is covered by the tide at high water. The side
towers stand on the opposite shores, each at a clear distance of
460 feet from the centre tower. The abutments are situated inland
at a distance of 230 feet from the side towers. The Britannia
tower is 62 feet by 52 ft. 5 in. at the base; it has a gentle taper, so
that where the tubes enter it is 55 feet by 45 ft. 5 in. Its total
height from the bottom of the foundations will be, when com-
pleted, nearly 230 feet; it contains 148,625 cubic feet of limestone,
and 144,625 of sandstone, weighing very nearly 20,000 tons, ami
there are 387 tons of cast-iron built into 'it in the shape of beams
and girders. The land towers are each 62 feet by 52 ft. 5 in. at

29*

220

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

fJlLY,

the base, tapering to 55 feet by 32 feet at the level of the bottom
of the tubes; their liei^Iit is 190 feet from high water; they con-
tain '210 tons of cast-iron in beams and girders. Tlie chief dimen-
sions of the masonry, as well as of tlie tubes, will be seen upon
the engraving, which shows an elevation of the Carnarvon half of
the bridge. The scaffolding, both for tlie erection of the masonry
and for the support of the small tubes during their construction,
is of the same description as that employed at the Nelson Column,
TrafViIgar-square, London, and at the new Houses of Parliament.
It is that known to builders as "whole timber scaffolding;" its
name distinguishing it from the old kind, which was constructed
in a most cumbrous manner, with round poles and cords. The
timbers here are ''wliole balks" — logs of from 12 to IG inches
square, and some of them as long as 60 feet, and the method of
uniting them is such, that when taken down the timber is unin-
jured— nay, often increased in value from being more thoroughly
seasoned by exposure to the weather. Tlie scaft'old below the land
tube on the Anglesea side is, from the form of the shore, very lofty
— more than 100 feet in lii-ight at its outer end. As a piece of
construction it is most admirable; and from the multitude of cross
struts and bracing timbers, interlacing each other, its appearance
is very picturesque. That on the Carnarvon shore is not so lofty,
but is of the same e.xcellcnt construction.

It will be seen presently tliat the wciglit which these scaifolds
will have to support, when the small tubes are completed, is about
1,300 tons. The fi-aming round the Britannia tower rises to the
vast height of nearly 2.50 feet, and at this elevation stones of many
tons weight are transported over all parts of the tower witli perfect
ease, by means of travelling windlasses, called gantries, which roll
upon rail laid on the top horizontal timbers. Notwithstanding the
constant and very heavy winds that it has been exposed to, this
scaflolding, which looks so light and slender, has stood hitherto
without injury.

The four great Tubes. — The length of one of these tubes, as
constructed on the platform, is 472 feet; that is, 12 feet longer
than the clear span between the towers. This additional length is
intended to afford a temporary bearing of 6 feet at each end, after
they are raised into their places, until there is time to form the
connection between them across the towers. Our London i-eaders
will better appreciate tlie great length of these tubes by remem-
bering that if one of them were placed on end in St. Paul's Church-
yard, it would reach )07 feet higher than the top of the cross!
The span, in fact, is much greater than has ever before been at-
tempted, except in bridges on the suspension principle. The
length of the iron arch of Southwark Bridge, in London, the
largest rigid sjian in this country, is 240 feet. The height of the
tubes is not the same at all parts of their length. It is greatest
at the centre in the Britannia tower, where it is ,S0 feet outside,
and diminishes gradually towards tlie ends, at which, in the abut-
ments, the external lieight is only 22 ft. 9 in.; the top forms a
regular arch, (a true parabolic curve), and the bottom is quite
straight and horiiiontal. The clear internal height is, on account
of the double top and bottom, less by 4 feet than the external —
being 2G feet at the centre, and IS it. 9 in. at the extreme end.
The land tubes are outside 27 feet, and inside 23 feet high at their
smaller ends. The intermediate lieights will be seen on reference
to the figure. The internal width from side to side is 14 feet,
tlioiigli the clear sjiace for the passage of the trains is but
13 ft. .5 in.; the whole width outside is 14 ft. 8 in. The general
method of the construction of the tulies is readily seen. They
consist of sides, top and bottom — all funned of long narrow
wrought-iron plates, varying in length from 12 feet downwards,
and in width from 2 ft. 4 in. to 1 ft. 9 in. The direction in whiili
these plates are laid is not, as may be at first sight sup|ii)sed, arbi-
trary or immaterial, but is governed by the directions of the strains
in the different parts of the tube. Thus, in the toji and bottom,
where the strain is in the direction of the length of the tube, the
jilates are laid lengtliwise, whilst in the sides they are run up and
down. The plates, which are of tbe same manufacture as those
used for making boilers — "boiler-plate" — are of the best quality,
jirincipally from Staffordshire. They vary in thickness from i| to
^ of an incli; some of tliem weigh nearly 7 cwt., and are among
tbe largest that it is jiossible to ndl with any existing machinery.
In the sides, tlie ]dates are alternately 0 ft. (J in. and H ft. H in. in
length, 2 feet in breadth, and ^-incli thick, excejit at the ends,
where tliey become somcwliat thicker. They are joined together,
and greatly strengthened and stiffened at the joints by T-shaped
iron both inside and out, reaching from the top to the liottom, and
forming a complete pillar at every 2 feet, in the same manner as
the frames in a window-sash form a pillar between each two panes.
Jt is the projection of this T iron inside the tubes that reduces the

clear space to 13 ft. 8 in. The longest plates are in the bottom.
They are 12 feet long, by 2 ft. 4 in. in w idth, arranged in double
layers, each layer being nine-sixteenths of an inch thick at the
centre of the large tube, and seven-sixteenths at the ends. Those
forming the top are each 6 feet in length, and 1 ft. 9 in. in breadth.
In the middle of the tubes they are J of an inch thick, diminishing
to gths at the ends. These thicknesses are all dependent on the
amount of the strains in the tube, as the direction of the plates
was before noticed to be. In the tiqj and bottom will be seen the
cells or flues of which slight mention has been before made. Of
these there are eight at the top, eacii 1 ft. 9 in. square; and six at
the bottom, of the same depth, but wider — viz., 2 ft. 4 in., from
their number being smaller. The vertical partitions which form
these cells are connected to the horizontal plates at top and bot-
tom, and the horizontal plates themselves to the sides by angle-
iron r", fitting into the corners, and rivetted through both. This
r iron neighs in the top 45 lb. per yard, and in the bottom 27 lb.
The connection between the top and bottom and the sides is made
much more substantial by triangular pieces of thick plate, which
are rivetted in across the corners. These are technically called
"gusset-pieces;" they are intended to enable the tube to resist the
cross or twisting strain, to which it w ill be exposed, from the heavy
and long-continued gales of wind that will assail it in its lofty and
unsheltered situation. They will be seen on the figure, showing
an end \iev/ of the tube. The rivets are placed in rows, at dis-

tances of 4 inches apart in the top and bottom, and 3 inches in the
sides. They are rather more than an inch in diameter, and are
put into the holes red hot, and a head formed by beating up the
]irojecting end of the hot rivet by heavy hammers, the operation
being finislied by a steel tool, with a cup-shaped end, which gives
the iiead of the rivet a round and neat appearance. In cooling
they contract strongly, and draw the plates together so powerfully,
that it reijuires a force of from 4 to G tons to each rivet to cause
the plates to slide over each other; this resistance being due solely
to the force of contraction, and independent entirely of the
strength of the rivet itself. Each of the large tubes contains
327,000 rivets, and the whole bridge about 2,000,000. In all cases
great care has been taken so to distribute the joints of tlie plates
that they may never come near together; and wherever they
occur, a thick plate is carefully rivetted over the joint on each
side, so as to maintain an equal strength on every part. The same
rule is observed at the joints of the angle-iron. The rivet-holes
in the plates are formed by a machine which punches out a piece
of iron the exact size of the re(piired hole. The plates are fas-
tened upon a sliding-table, which advances at every stroke double
the required space between each rivet; two punches then descend
through the plate and form the hides. In this way about 40 holes
are punched per minute. Kacli tube contains about 10 miles of
angle and T-iron, and the whole bridge 65 miles. The weight of
the wrought-iron in one of the large tubes is estimated at about
1,600 tons, of which 500 are in the bottom, 600 iu the sides, and
500 in the top.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

221

BEVIE'WS.

The Marble Steam-Engine, designed chief y for the ttse of Naval
Officers and Engineers. London: Hebert, 18-t9.

The authors of this work are JMi'. Main, Professor at the Royal
Navy College, and Mr. Brown, Chief Engineer R.N. Their com-
bined talents Iiave produced a work of great interest to those en-
gineers who may be engaged in our steam marine; it contains
some valuable suggestions and hints that could only be given by
those who have liad extensive e.vperience in the engine-room. The
volume is well illustrated by numerous engravings, given in a re-
markably clear manner, which cannot fail conveying to the mind
correct notions of the whole of the details of the steam-engine.
A few exti-acts from the w ork will better show its true value than
any observations we may make in its favour.

The First Chapter is introductory, and explains tlie nature of
Steam. The Second is an explanation of the Marine Engine, en-
tering into a minute description of each part, from the cylinder to
the grease-cups. The Third Chapter exjilains the different direct
action engines that were inti'oduced into the navy about four or
five years since; the Fourth Chapter is on Boilers; and the Fifth
on "Getting up the Steam."

Instances in vhich it has been found (hat the Steam begins to escape before
the Pressure reaches the limit prescribed by the Safety- Valve,

This happens mostly with large boilers, having in consequence propor-
tionally large safety-valves; and the explanatiun may be given thus. The
valve being of considerable size, and the spindle in the centre, the edge of
the valve is sprung off its seating, and allows the steam to pass. It becomes
a question for consideration, whether it would not be advantageous, now
that boilers are so large, to employ two valves instead of one.

On the Causes of Priming when first Starting the Engines.

One cause of priming at first starting the engines arises from the pressure
being taken off the surface of the water in the boiler, and thus enabling the
ebullition to go on with greater violence ; but this is nut the principal cause :
the chief reason is, that many foreign substances become niechaiiically mixed
with the water; for instance, on getting up the steam in a muddy river, such
as the Thames, the mud will, by boiling, be driven up to the surface of the
water, and accumulating there will prevent the free course of steam to the
steam chest, and consequently it forces up the water and mud before it. If
there be any mucilage in the water, priming will also take place. Such
water is formed in deep bays and harbours, especially at particular times of
tide, from the mixture of seaweed and deconiposing vegetable u. alter.
There are few persons who have not noticed this fact one way or another.
The cook well knows the tendency a vessel, containing other substances be-
sides water, has to boil over at tirst; and in making coffee the case is re-
markably exemplified : the whole mass will he observed to rise to the sur-
face of the coffee-pot when beginning to boil ; but after some time these
effects are not so remarkable. Two instances of priming from this cause
may be mentioned. As H.M.S.V. Avenger, Captain Dacres, was going into
the very deep bay at Killybegs, Ireland, as the vessel came to an anchor the
boilers primed to such an extent as to make it necessary to haul out the fires,
so much of tlie water left them through the waste steam-funnel and engines:
indeed, the engines were completely choked with it. Again, a short time
afterwards, in Arran Bay, the fires had been banked up all night, and to sup-
ply the loss by evaporation, water from the Bay had been pnujped at inter-
vals into the boiler; and consequently when the slides were moved to start
the engines (the water-surface in the boiler being suddenly relieved of its
pressure), the engines nearly stopped; and at each return of the stroke it
was feared the cylinder-covers and bottoms would have given way. Now
this never took place at sea, unless when the fires were urged.

Some interesting facts may be stated connected with the new tubular
boiler fitted to the little 10 horse-power steamer Bee, attached to the Royal
Naval College to assist the students in gaining a practical knowledge of the
steam-engine. When steaming about the harliour, it is found that the boiler
begins to prime as the vessel approaches the inlets where there is the most
mucilage; and also if the water be blown out of the boiler, and afresh
snpply admitted, the priming afterwards will depend on the height and state
of the tide when the boiler is filled. If the boiler be refilled as the tide is
ebbing, especially at the time the water is leaving the mud, all hands are on
the look-out to find the engine-room flooded from the escape-valves ; hut it
it be filled as the tide is coming in from the sea, or when the water is high,
the same casualties are not expected. A boiler will likewise prime as the ves-
sel goes out of salt water into fresh, and also in going out of fresh water into
the salt : the first of these cases can be accounted for from the fact, that
fresh water boils at a lower temperature than salt water, and therefore as
the fresh water enters the boiler previously heated, the ebullition is more
violent; but the contrary case is difficult to explain; and indeed, this latter
instance would almost lead one to suppose the former explanation not to be
the true one. The same difficulty occurs in aticinpting remedies for prim-
ing; for melted tallow on the surface of some boilers will check the priming,
and in others it will increase it.

We would not enter here into the real cause of priming — namely, the
form and dimensions of the boiler and steam-chest, because that is a matter
beyond the control of the engineer and officers of the ship ; but it is very

clear that if a larger steam-space were allowed, and combustion took place
more slowly, and the boilers were nrtt so rontracted at the water-surface as
many of our marine boders are, we should not bear so much of priming.
It is probably true that those who have the management of the Cornish
engines scarcely know the meanine of the phrase.

Chapters VI., ATI., and VIII. relate to "Duties to Machinery
when under steam, during action, and on arriving in harbour;" and
contain some valuable suggestions, from which we give the follow-
ing extract : — -

On the Number of Boilers to be used when not going at full Speed, "

There is a common practice in our steam navy, when employed on a service
in which particular despatch is not the object, to use half the number of
boilers, and proceed at a speed proportionably less, in order to consume less
fuel in traversing the distance. The saving thus effected depends on the
fact, that the consumption of fuel per hour varies as the cube of the speed,
and the consumption of fuel per mile depends on the square of the speed.
Suppose, for instance, a vessel to be furnished with four boilers, and that her
speed when using all four is 10 knots, her speed with two boilers would be 8
knots nearly. Let us suppose, for argument sake, each boiler consumed half a
ton an hour ; then, at full speed, 4 half tons, or 2 tons, would drive the ship
over 10 knots, or 1 ton would propel her over 5 knots. Again, in the
second case, 2 half tons, or 1 ton would send her over 8 knots. Hence we
should, by this method, gain 3 knots in distance for every ton of coal : and
we may set it down as a general maxim, that the slower a vessel goes, the
greater the distance she will steam over with the same consumption of fuel,
'this is on the supposition that she meets with no strong head-winds, &c.,
such as to force her to use all her power. If, however, the wind or tide
would have the effect of making her go astern, her rate through the water,
for the greatest economy of fuel, should be at least half as great again as
she would have gone in the opposite direction if no power bad beeen used.
Thus, if a vessel be steaming up a river which flows at the rate of 4 knots,
her most economical speed would not be less than 6 knots, making good 2
knots over the grouijd.

But it is a question for mature consideration, whether a still further saving
might tuit be effected by a different mode of managing the fires. Suppose,
for instance, as we at first had arranged, that the vessel he going at 8 knots, '
using two boilers instead of four. The alteration we would propose is, that
instead of using two boilers she should use three ; but that the speed of the
ship should still not exceed 8 knots, which she would have had with two
boilers. To effect this, the engineer must do all he can to produce a slow
combustion ; and it is supposed by this slow cond)nstion a considerable
saving would be effected. Those of our rearlers who are conversant with
the mode of producing steam on the Cornish system will be more likely to
ajipreciate th s ; tor our entieavour is to make the two methods approximate,
by spreading the fuel over three sets of flues or tubes instead of two, and
so allowing more heat-absorbing surface. (Jne of the authors of this work
(Mr. Brown) had lately an opportunity of trying this plan for a short time
on board H.M.S. Avenger, though not long enough to obtain any measured
results. An order had been given to go tin with two boilers, and the fires
iti them were worked in the usual way, and kept in an active state of coui-
bu^tion. Shortly afterwards the order was given to proceed with three
boilers, but no additional orders were received to go on faster than with the
two. It was then found that it was scarcely possible to cover the fire-bars
in all the boilers with fuel, the rapid absorption from the great quantity of
surface was so effective in keeping up the steam. The saving of fuel was
very great, hut the limited time of the trial would not allow the actual quan-
tity to be ascertained. If difficulties should arise, when using large boilers,
in obtaining a small supply of steam — that is to say, if it be found that
when all the fire-bars are covered too much is generated, let one or more
fires in each boiler be put out, and their asb-pit doors closed, so as not to
allow the cool air to enter. And in using the boilers in this way the a^hes
may be repeatedly burned over again, merely throwing the clinkers away.

f'hapter IX. contains Miscellaneous Rules for calculating the
Power of the Etigine, the Screw, &c.

We wish the autliors would in a future edition illustrate their
rules with plain arithmetical computations, without having occa-
sion to refer constantly to a hook of logarithms. Most of the cal-
culations could be done in simple arithmetic as easily as with lo-
garithms; it would save the necessity of being obligetl to refer to
tables which are not always at hand.

A Treatise on the Law of Dilapidations and Nuisances, By David
Gibbons, Esq., of the Middle Temple, Special Pleader. Second
Edition. London: Weale, 1849.

Mr. (iibhons has retained the old title of his book as the one
best known to the profession; but in order to make it a complete
body of law for architects and surveyors, he has added to it the
law of Highways and Sewers. This book was before received as
the professional authority, but it is so much extended and amended,
and its value has been so much increased, that its reception is in-
contestable. It is needless for us to say anything in its recommen-
dation, for its character as an accurate compilation depends upon
the reputation of the author, tested by the orig-inal work.

222

THK CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jui.v,

PROCEEDINGS OF SCi;2?'?TIPIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

June 5. — Joshua Field, Esq., Prosidetit, in the Chair.

The paper read was a "D''scrt/ttion of a Method of RoUhuj Hitrs for Sun-
/>emion BriiUjea, and oilier like purjjoses." 15y Mr. Thomas Howabd,
A. Inst. C.E.

It was desciil)e(l th.it hy the ordinary process of mannfacture, tlie head,
or end of the hnk, cut of whicli the eye, or liole for the eonnecting pin, was
hored, liad heen snirietinies weldeil on to a parallel rolled har, or, at other
times, heen hammered to the ri quired form ; hoth these methods were, liow.
ever, ohjectionahic, owing, in the former case, to the insecurity, and in the
latter to tlie tediousness and exjiense. By the method introduced hy Mr.
Howard, the hars were rolled at once into the requisite form ; the shingle,
or faggot, was first passeil longitudinally, at a welding heat, through grooved
rollers, in the ordinary manner, and then, hefore lieing drawn down to the
intended thickness, was carried to rollers having hosses, or increased diame-
ters at the places corresponding to the heads to be produced, and thi-re
passed to and fro hetween the rollers transversely, or across the breadth of
the bar, thus receiving a pressure only at the enlarged parts of the rollers,
which gave the nei-essary increase of breadth at the heads ; it was then
taken to plain finishing rollers, and drawn out longitudinally in the usual
manner, until it attained the required length and thickness ; the heads being
alternards trimmed by machinery to the exact dimensions, and the holes
drilled for the pins.

It was stated that the chains of the large suspension bridge, erected by
Mr. W. Tierney Clarke over the Danube, at Pesth, which lately so satisfac-
torily withstood the heavy strain bronuht upon it hy a retreating army, were
constructed 'on this system at the King and Queen Ironworks at Kother.
hithe : as were those for lifting the tubular bridge at Conway, and over the
Menai Straits: and also that the links for a bridge now erecting by Mr.
Vignoles, at Kietf, in Russia, were manufactured by another firm, under
license to use Mr. Howard's system.

Some interesting observations were recorded of the results of the experi-
jnents for determing the strength of these hars, showing thera to possess
great elasticity and freedom from permanent set.

The discussion elicited some useful remaiks as to proportions of the area
of the body and of the head, and of the diameter of the pin, which, it was
shown, had much influence on the resisting power of the heads ; — the larger
the pin the less being the tendency to rupture the eye.

The process appeared to he admitted as a great improvement on the ordi-
nary mode of manufacture, and tending to give confidence to the engineer
that his designs could be executed in metal, uninjured by manipulation.

June 12. — The first paper read was " A Description of the Construction
of a Cottar Roof, with arched trusses of bent ti/nber, af East Iforsetei/
Parli." By the Right Honourable the Earl of Lovelace, A. Inst. C.E.

The roof which covered a hall of fifty-six feet long hy twenty-four feet wide,
was described as being sustained by four arched trusses, springing from stone
corbels. The ribs of these were each composed of four layers of deals,
three inches thick, bent to the required form by steam heat. All the mould-
ings surrounding the tracery were also bent to the required forms in the
same manner, thus giving great strength and lightness, as well as performing
the work with greater economy of labour. The tracery was cut out from
two thicknesses, half-an-incb each, of tub-stave oak, glued together, with the
fibres at right angles to each other, which facilitated the carving, and gave
greater strength to the minute tracery.

Tlie ceiling was formed of half inch diagonal boarding, and as the slate
battens crossed it in a horizontal direction, the roof was strongly braced
against the action of wind, and the staining of the alternate boards gave a
p'leasing variety of effect.

1 his kind of construction was first suggested by Colonel Emy, in his work
on Carpentry, hut he had applied it to much llatler roofs of large span,
whereas Lord Lovelace's intention was to demonstrate its ajiplicability to
roofs for edifices in the Pointed and Tudor styles, and to show that gieat
advantage would result from bending timbers rather than cutting them to
tlie requisite forms; that the thrust of the roof might he entirely tuken
from the upper part of the walls, and carried far down them, and that such
a construction might be adopted as would satisfy every condition of solidity,
and, at the same time, admit of considerable decoration.

In the discussion which ensued, the ingenuity of the design and of the
mode of execution of the roof were equally approved, and the noble Earl
was deservedly complimented for the motives nliich induced him to bring to
the Institution the account of one of his works.

The second paper was "A Stalemrnf of Observations made on the Initial
and Terminal Velocities of Trains ni descending Inclined Planes." By Capt.
\V. MooRsoM, M. Inst. C.E.

Till oliservalions were eighty-two in number, and were made during the
ordinary passing of trains on the Waterford and Kilkenny Railway, the
gauge of which is !j ft. 3 in., over two adjoining inclines, each falling at the
rale of 1 in 100 for upwards of a mile and a half, with a short interinediaie
level between them.

The speeds at which the descent was begun, varied from 20 to nearly 44
miles pc r hour, and the loads varied from 32 to 94 tons.

One of the planes presented for the greater part of its length two curved
of a radius of IjJ- and 1^ miles respectively, and the other plane was strai^jht
for part of its length, but contained a curve of 2J miles radius.

The general results in the more curved plane were, that initial velocities
of 20 to 30 miles per hour, at the top of the plane, became terminal at ve-
locities of 24 to 28 miles per hour; and on the siraighter plane the same
initial velocities became terminal between 20 and 31 miles per hour.

Again, on the more curved plane, initial velocities between 30 and 40
miles per hour, became terminal at velocities between 29 J and 31 J luiles
per hour; and on the straighter plane the same initial velocities became ter-
minal at 30| to 33 J miles per hour.

Initial velocities above 40 miles per hour were noted only upon the more
curved plane, and became terminal at 30 to 31 miles per hour. There did
not appear to he any constant proportion between tlie load in motion and
the terminal velocity ; but the latter appeared to be dependant more upon
initial velocity than upon the weight or character of frontage of the trains.

The general practical conclusion vvas deduced, that the question of gauge
had little or nothing to do with terminal velocity derived from gravity, and
that the views generally entertained by engineers, during past years, of the
great resistances experienced by trains at high velocities were borne out by
the observations recorded in the paper.

The proceedings of the evening concluded with a paper by Lieut. -Colonel
Hariy D. Jones, R.E., M. Inst. C.E., descriptive of the Bridge at \thloue,
erected under the authority of the Shannon Commissioners, from the designs
of Mr. Rhodes, M. Inst., C.E.

The paper described the great difficulties experienced from the rush of
water into the cotferdams, through the porous gravel stratum in which
they were placed, and the ingenious modes of overcoming these impedi-
ments. The biidge, of three arches of stone and one of iron, the latter
having the means of opening for the navigation, was fully described, and
was admitted to be not only a beautiful structure, but to have been built for
a so. all sum (about 24,000/.) considering its extent. A beautiful set of
drawings, and the printed specifications for the work, illustrated the paper.

June 10. — The paper read was " On the Employimnt of High- Pressure
Steam, working expansively, in Marine Eayincs" By Mr. John Seaw.\rd,
M. Inst. C.E.

This communication was described to be the substance of a reply, by the
author, to some questions addressed to several eminent engineering firms, by
the Hon. H. L. Corry, M. P., when secretary to the Admiralty. This reply was
found to furnish so much useful information, and so completely to open the
question of the advantage or disadvantage of using high-pressure steam,
and of cutting off the steam at various portions of the stroke, that it was
conceived it would be advantageously produced at the Institution, in order
that the subject should be fully discussed. Unfortunately, the absence o(
the principal members at the floating of the first tube of the Britannia-
bridge frustrated the latter expectation, but the substance of the paper
appeared to be fully appreciated.

The argument was so continuous that it would be difficult to attempt to
do more than to give a taint idea of it, as the limits of this account would
not suflice for an alistract of it. It first reviewed the mode of working ma-
rine engines for some years past, and noticed the gradual change that had
occurred, particularly the tendency to use high-pressure steam, instead of
that of a pressure of about 41b. above the atmosphere. It then examined
the system of cutting off the steam at various parts of the stroke; and as,
at the same time, a remarkable augmentation had occurred in the speed of
the vessels, which was naturally attributed to that cause, it inquired mi-
nutely into these several causes and etTecls, as well as the considerable
reduction in the consumption of fuel which took place, enabling the vessels,
consequently, to make longer voyages, or to carry less fuel forgiven distances.

In this examination, all the arguments for and against the use of high-
pressure steam, and the presumed gain or loss of mechanical power in the
use of the expansion piinciple in the cylinder, were canvassed at length ;
and the paper wound up with replies of the author to the three questions
from the Admiralty, to this effect : — " The highest pressure of steam that
we have, in any case, put upon a marine boiler of our own construction, was
about 16 pounds to the sqmre inch; hut we are not inclined to repeat the
experiment, as we feel assured that we can obtain equally good results with
steam of a lower pressure — fiom 10 to 12 ib. is the usual pressure we em-
ploy in the merchant service for engines and boilers of coinpaiaiive small
power. The steam pressure at present em|iloyed in the service is about 8 Ib.
per square inch. W'e consider steam of this pressure to be well adapted for
the exigencies of the service ; we believe it is calculated to secure all the
important advantages of iiower, economy of weight and space, in a very
eminent degree ; those advantages will, in some respects, be slightly in-
creased by augmenting the steam pressure to 10 or 12 lbs. to the square
inch. We strongly recommend that the steam eniployed in the navy should
not be of greater pressure than 10 lb. per square inch, or in extreme cases
12 Ib. to tlie square inch ; any material increase to the latter pressure will
be attended with considerable risk, without any adequate advantage."

In the discussion which ensued, these propositions were, to a certain ex-
tent, concurred with, hut with limitations as to the introduction of other
fiirms of boilers ; and it was explained that the arguments of the paper
were only applicable to condensing engines working expansively, and, there-
fore, Icit the question of the introduction of the using of high pressure

1849."]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

223

non-condensing engines quite untouched, and free for discussion at a future
period,

June 26. — The paper read was " Observations on the Otstruct ions to Navi-
gation on Tidttl Rivers." By Mr. J. T. Habrisin, M. Inst. C E.

The tirst part of the paper treated, in a general manner, of the circum-
stances affecting the deposition of materials and the action of water upon
them; and in the latter part an application of these circumstances was
made, in explanation of the formation of obstructions existing in the bed
and at the entrance of tidal rivers.

Under the former head, the materials forming obstructions were first ex-
amined, the places whence they were derived, and the causes affecting their
initial removal ; cohesion, friction, the specific gravity and size of the mate-
rials, were shown to affect the question of their motion. The action of
water upon these materials formed the latter part of the subject. Under
tliis head, the character and effects of pure stream moiion and forced mo-
tion, in the form of a pure wave of translation, and of standing waves, were
severally considered. It was shown, that during pure stream motion the
water had the greatest velocity where the channel was deep ; that curves in
the channel gave rise to increased depth and velocity ; and an explanation
was given of the deposit of materials by the water after leaving a curved
channel ; that the effect of a pure wave of translation was, to scour the
shallows and deposit the material in the deeps ; and, as its momentum was
destroyed, to heap up a bank rising gradually. The effect of standing wave
motion of water was shown to be tlie formation of a succession of deeps
and shallows.

Under the latter head, the first division treated of the action of river
water — first, in its own channel, when the subject of impediments, as piers
of bridges, weirs, &c., was examined ; 2nd, where it discharged into a large
basin devoid of tide, under which head the formation of deltas, &c., was
discussed; 3rd, when the basin into which it flowed was subjected to a rise
and fall of tide, but without perceptil)le current.

The second division treated of the action of the sea without the entrance
of the river. Attention was drawn to the effect of the situation of the en-
trance, with respect to the direction of the tidal wave. It was shown, that
in some cases, part of this wave set directly up the river, as in the case of
the Severn, &c. As a branch of this subject, the peculiarities of the tidal
action, described in a communication to the Royal Society by Capt. Beechy,
as existing in the Irish Sea, were commented upon, and an explanation
offered of some of them. In other cases, the tiilal wave setting at right
angles to the direction of the river, when the wave which passetl up it was
generated at the entrance. The deposition of materials near the mouth of
rivers by along-shore currents, and by the wind waves, was then briefly
touched upon.

The third division treated of the action of the water in entering rivers so
placed, that the wave was generated at the entrance. The circumstances
which affected the quantity of water entering were considered ; it was shown
to be limited by the width and depth of the entrance, and the rise of the
tide ; and again, by the degree of freedom with which the momentum gene-
rated is transmitted. It was also shown that this freedom of transmission
depended chiefly on the depth of the water ; and other circumstunces affect-
ing it weie explained.

Under the fourth division, the removal of bars by the ebb tide was dis
cussed ; and the propriety of the water having a free motion, and not being
forced over the bar, was shown. It was argued, that bars are frequently in-
creased by a narrow or shallow channel at the entrance causing a head of
water, and the consequent formation of a standing wave between it and the
bar. The deeper the channel could be maintained, and the further the water
could be made to flow up it, the better would be the eft'ect of the ebbing
waters upon the bar. It was shown that the deep water found within the
entrance of many rivers is caused by the flood tide, and that an improve-
ment in the bar would probably have the effect of lessening this depth,
which, in many cases, would be considered a disadvantage.

The filth division treated of the effect produced on the bed of the river's
channel. The difference in the motion of the water on the flood and ebb
was shown. When the tidal wave was oscillatory at the entrance, the ten-
dency of the tidal action was to draw out to sea the material lying in the
bed of the channel at the entrance, and to heap up sand-banks in the upper
part of the estuary. When the tidal wave was generated at the entrance of
a bottle-necked estuary, the formation of sand-banks within the entrance,
with tlie false channels which accompany them, was explained, as being the
result of the flood tidal action. The effects produced by the ebb tide were
shown to be generally similar to those described as produced in rivers proper.

The sixth division drew attention to the remedies necessary for prevent-
ing obstructions ; and to that end it was urged that the sources whence the
materials are derived should be first attacked ; the possildlity of checking
the progress of shingle along the coast towards the mouth of rivers, and its
entrance when there, as well as the washing down of the detritus from
the upper part of rivers, was discussed; and it was agreed that much might
be done by groyning the coast, carrying out piers at the entrances and in the
upper part of the river, by groyning the banks in some places, and allowing
a free scope for the deposit of the material which is being washed down in
others. The suliject of piers at the entrance of rivers was then more freely
entered into, and the effects produced by their being built too close together
and curved were discussed. Some points which it seemed desirable to :ittpnd
to in fixing the lines for confining rivers, were generally considered ; aail the

paper ended with the expression of a hope tliat it might lead to discussion,
and a further collection of facts, upon which alone any sound theory can be
founded.

After the meeting, Mr. F. A. Carrington exhibited in the Library a beauti-
ful model, in relief, of portions of the counties of Lancaster, Yorkshire,
Cheshire, Notts, and Derbyshire, extending from Manchestei to Lincoln ;
and the Humher, east and west ; and from Leeds and Bradford to Chats-
worth Park, noith and south. These models show at a view the whole phy-
sical geography of a district, and are admirably calculated for projecting
works of both civil and military engineering ; and if they were a step in the
sanitary improvements of towns, the progress would be more certain, and
less costly.

The meeting was adjourned until the commencement of the next session,
which it was proposed should be at an earlier period than heretofore.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

June 4. — T. Bellamy, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

A paper was read, '"Ort the Building Materials employed at Paris, and in
the Valley of the Lower Seine." By G. Burnell, Esq., Jun.

The author give a detailed account of the qualities of the piincipal build-
ing materials used by the architects and engineers of Paris and the valley of
the Lower Seine, accompanied by some statistical statements of the quanti-
ties used in those localities. In comparing these with the quantities em-
ployed in England, the most remaikable difference appeared to exist in the
greater use in this country of iron, especially cast iron, which may be ac-
counted for by that material being mucii dearer in France. The use of gyp-
sum in France, which we call Plaster of Paris, instead of morlar made en-
tirely from lime, for filling in the internal partitions and for forming the
floors and ceilings of the rooms, was alluded to as rendering the buildings
less combustible than in England. Mr. Burnell commented on the bad sys-
tem adopted in building some of the modern houses in Paris, where, by using
squared stones for the fronts next the streets, rubble stone for the party-
walls, and lindier Iraniirig filled in with plaster for the back walls, — fissures
and cracks are produced in consequence of the unequal combination and the
dififerent expansive jrower of the nraterials thus applied. For the covering of
the roofs, slatci and tiles are used in France, but zinc is more generally ap-
plied in that country than in England,- — the dryness of the climate rendering
it less liable to corrode than with us; being much cheaper than either copper
or lead, it is frequently employed where those metals would he applied in
England. Mr. liurnell urged the necessity of more accurate and detailed
investigations of the chemical properties of building materials than have,
hitherto been considered necessary, — be observed that "little is here known,
comparatively speaking, of the chemistry of the art of building, that little
having principally been gleaned from the scientific researches of the French
authors."

A discussion ensued on the subject of the greater amount of resistance
ofi'ered by stones when used in the direction of their natural bed.

The Report of tlie Council to the Annual General Meeting, May "111, 181'.',
has just been issued, from which we collect the following extracts; —

The agitated state of Europe during the past year, following immediately
upon the vast financial embarrassments of the year 18t7, has not failed to
irroduce a serious eflfect on the arts, to which a state of peace is ever favourable.
The council feel that to these circumstances may be attributed the absence
from this report of one feature always hitherto satisfactory, — the notice of new
works of magnitude and interest, in which art and science might have acquired
further development. Symptoms of returning national prosperity are how-
ever to be observed, and as these, if realised, cannot fail to operate bene-
ficially on all the arts of design, it may reasonably be expected that a future
council will be enabled to make a more favouralile record than can be done
on the present occasion. But notwithstanding this barrenness of matter as
respects art, the fiflds of science have nut been unproductive.

The various accidents which have occurred during the last few years in
some extensive buildings in the manufacturing districts, and likewise in works
connected with railways, from failures of cast-iron, have given rise to the
question as to the dependence to be placed on that material ; this has
attracted the attention of the government and of several scientific men. A
series of elaborate and accurate experiments, on a large scale, have been
gone through by our honorary member. Professor Ilodgkinsou, and various
expedients have been suggested by practical men; amongst others Mr.
Merries Sterling's patent method of increasing the tenacity of cast-iron by
the admixture of wrought scraps, promises important results. As iron has
been largely introduced of late, and is likely to be still more extensively
employed in the construction of buildings, the problems to be solved demand
tlnit the most serious attention should be bestowed upon the system of
wrought-iron framings, frequently adopter! by French architects and
engineers, and perhaps instructive principles might be derived from a com-
parison of the relative values of the systems in operation in France and in
England.

Fire-proof construction is becoming of more general adoption, and
various schemes have been brought under the attention of the Institute at the
ordinary meetings. The revival of the ancient mode of constructing vaults
and arches, by means of hollow bricks, as employed in a somewhat different
form in the vaulted ceiling of St. George's Hall at Liverpool, recently' cuo-

224

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jr,.v,

structed under the Hirection of Mr. Rawlinson, and described by him at a
late meeting, — Mr. Uarrett's description of Messrs. Fox and Barrett's patent
mode of coiislriicting fire-proof floors and ceilings, and likewise Mr. IJeard-
more's method of constructing malleable iron fire-prcof flooring, given at
preceding meetings, may be enumerated; — the subject however seems to be
in its infancy, and it is to be hoped that some combination may be suggested,
which may unite economy with complete protection from fire in public and
private buildings.

The report tlien refers to the attempt of establishing a benevolent fund ;
and next refers to the difficulty of obtaining suitable apartments to hold the
meetings of the Institute, library, &c.

The report laments the loss by death of Mr. Miles and of Mr. Eginton of
AVorcester, both of whom have for many years been associates; and further
of Mr. Paxon, a few weeks after his election as an associate, and before
he had actually l)een admitted. We have likewise to regret the decease
of our honorary fellow, the Rev. Robert Norgrave Pemberton, of Church
Stretton.

The report then refers to the annual prizes, which have been already
reported.

The competition for the medals of the year has unfortunately been far
from satisfactory; for although the silver medal of the Institute has been
deservedly awarded to Mr. Wyatt Papworth for his essay " On the Peculiari-
ties of the Palladian School of Architecture, and a comparison and contrast
of its elementary principles and details with those of Roman Art," yet the
Institute have been compelled to withold the med;il offered for " an Essay on
Uoofs, and forming the Flats and Gutters of Buildings, &c." as likewise the
Soane medallion offered for the best design for " a Building to serve as a
National Repository and Museum for the illustration and exhibition of the
productions of the Industrial Arts," neither the essays nor the designs sub-
mitted having been deemed worthy of regard.

The designs for the Soane medallion, apparently the productions of very
young men, exhibited generally a remarkable absence of the recognised
elementary prmciples of architectural composition, together with a lamentable
want of knowledge of construction; and in some cases, such glaring discre-
pancies between the plans, sections, and elevations were apparent, that the
etuncil felt necessitated to withhold the reward offered, lest it might be
inferred that the Institute recognised as a standard of merit, productiotis of
the class submitted this year: — in the hope of eliciting for the future more
matured talent, the council have extended the limit as to the age of com-
petitors for the Soane medallion to thirty instead of twenty-five years as
heretofore.

The council have observed with deep concern the absence of tliat spirit of
noble emulation which should stimulate the junior member of the profession
to strive for distinction, in the acquisition of those prizes offered to his
anibilion by the Institute: he should reflect that tlie se.il of approbation,
stamped by the rewards of this body, is an honour that must accompany him
tlirough life. A medal from this Institute is a title to the respect of the
public and of his professional brethren : the very energies he exerts to
he worthy of that distinction, are invigorated by the praiseworthy effort to
merit the approval of his seniors. The wide range of thought to be taken,
the studies to be pursued, the monuments to be investigated, the elevation of
ideas and of imagination, required to qualify himself for the important
Struggle, must have influence upon his future standing in the profession,
even if not immediately successful. He should never be satisfied until he is
crowned by success and has grasped- those honours which the generous
encouragement of his seniors holds out to his enthusiasm and perseverance.
Is'othing less than the utmost concentration of purpose and unwearying
application can qualify a man to be an architect, and enable the laborious
student to acquire the mass of learning, the perfect mastery of the pencil,
that acquaintance with construction, that familiarity with the mineral and
vegetable worlds and with the laws of mechanics, which are requisite to
ensure future reputation and success. He should avail himself of the many
motives to exertion, and the numerous sources of instruction now open to
him, but which were not accessible to the less-favoured studies of his
seniors, who had to struggle under every disadvantage to acquire even the
rudiments of the art which they profess.

Th"! recent political convulsions which have already been alluded to, have
had their influence upon the progress of the art on the Continent. But it is
satisfactory to observe that the governments of France and Prussia, amidst
their violent civil contests, have recognised the moral and political import-
ance of continuing their public monuments already in course of erection, as
a means of employing the well-disposed artizans. Vast sutns have been allo-
cated by those countries to the completion of important edifices, nor has a
miserable economy deprived those buildings of the embellishments to be
derived from the chisel of the sculptor, or the pencil of the painter. It is
however to be deplored that the horrors of war have visited several beautiful
cities of Europe, and occasioned serious injury to numerous precious works of
art, which it will require many years of prosperity and peace to restore to
their pristine splendour.

The council refer with satisfaction to the numerous and valuable additions
that have been made to the library aud collection, by donations and by
purchase.

The Builders* Benevolent Instilution. — We wish to direct the attention

of otir professional readers to this excellent institution for giving relief and granting per-
manent pesioiia to decayC'l miistera, who have been practically engaged in ihe trades con-
nected with building, and their widows, — pensions nfit to exceed 24/. per aiunim to ttie
UiJtles.apd *2(J/. per annum to the females, payable monthly; and forgiving temporary relief
to deserving workmen of masters being members of the institution. By reference to our
advertising columns, it will be seen that the Second Anniversary Dinner is to be held on
the l8<h inst., to be supported by the Earl of Carlidle, aud numerous members of the
proiession.

Boat for His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales. — By command of His

Royal Highness Prince Albert, Mr. H G. Hoblnson, Captain Light, Captain Smith, R.N.,
anti fllr. C. .Manby, Secretary of the Institution of Civil Engineers, attended at Bucking-
ham Palace, on the 22iid. ult., to present a beautiful life-boat, constructed on a peculiar
principle, for His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales. The foUowiut; are the dimen-
sions of the boat: —

Length over all 20 ft. 0 in.

Ditto on the keel , 17 4

Breadth at the main thwart 3 23

Ditto at the back-board thwart 2 llj

Ditto at the rowlojk 3 7^

Depth 0 lU

She was built by Messrs. George Searle and Sons, of Lambeth, boat-builders to Her Ma-
jesty, and is constructed of bird's-eye maple, the linings, saxboards, and thwarts bein^ of
Spanish mahogany; her keel-b;ind, stem-bend, and rudder-hangings are of bronze, the
rniider of maple, with a carved yoke, gilt, and silk lines au 1 tassels of crimson and gold
colour. She is also fitted with an elegantly-ca-'ved chair, the seat of which is covered
with crimson satin damask, with an elaborate [jattcrn in raised velvet of the same colour,
the back being supported by the Prince of Wales* feathers, carved in maple and height-
ened with gold. The rowing mat is of the same material as the cushion of the chair,
and there is a small foot.ottomjtii of Utrecht velvet. The sculls are of mahogany, and
very light. The boat, which is a '* single scuUiog skiff," is lined throu/huut between the
timbers with Captain Light's patent material, which gives to her all the buoyancy and
other propei ties of a life-boat.

liXST OF NE^V PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM MaY 24, TO JUNE 7, 1849.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment^ unless othe^toiss expressed,

David Smith, of New York, lead manufacturer, for certain new and useful improve-
ments in the means of manufacturing certain articles in lead — Sealed May 21).

Richard Edward Hodges, of Bycroft, Hereford, gentleman, for improvements Jn me-
chanical purchases, which are also applicable in whole or in part to pn^jectiles. — May 29.

Edmund Grundy, of Bury, Lancaster, woollen manufacturer, and Jaci)b Farrow, of the
same place, manager, fur certain imiirovements in machinery or apparatus for preparing
wool for spinning, and also improvements in machinery or apparatus for spinning wool
and other fibrtus substances. — May 21*.

John Diiigdale, and Edward Birch, both of Manchester, tool and machine makers, for
certain improvements in cou'structiog and propelling ships, or other vessels. — May 31.

William Goose, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for certain improved machinery for ma-
nufrtL'turing nails. (.A communication.) — June 5.

William Henry Smith, of Fiizr ly-squire, civil engineer, for certain improvements in
breakwaters, beacons and moorings, parts of which are applicable to otber purposes.—
June 5.

George Simpson, of Buchanan-street, Glasgow, civil and mining engineer, for a certain
improvement or improvements in the machinery, apparatus or means of raising, lowering,
supporting, moving, or transporting heavy bodies. — June 5.

Samuel Dunn, of Doncaster, gentleman, for improvements in constructing tunnels, and
in apparatus to be used for such or similar purposes.— June 5.

Thomas Lawes, of the City-road, gentleman, for improvements in generating steam,
and in the means of obtaining and applying motive power. — June 5.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery lane, civil engineer, for improvements in stoves,
grates, or fire-places, and in warmi jg or heating buildings. (A communication.) — June 5.

Thomas Jowett, of Burrage House, in Bindley, York, stuff manufacturer, for certain
improvements in the method of stopping power looms, aud preventing injury to the cloth,
or i.ibric, in the cours:- of being woven. — June 5

George Hinton Bovill, of Abchurch-lane, London, engineer, for improvemects in ma-
nufacturing wheat and other grain into meal and fiour. — June o.

Jacques Hulot. of Rue St. Joseph, Paris, manufactuier of fabrics, for improvements in
the manufacture of the fronts of shirts. — June 5.

Daniel Miller, civil engineer, of Glasgow, for certain improvements in the mode of
drawing shi])3 up an inclined olane out of water. — June ft.

Victor Hippolyte Laurent, of France, engineer, for Improvements In looms for weaving.
— June 5.

Osgood Field, of London, merchant, for improvements in anchors. (A communication.)
June 5.

A grant of an extension of her Majesty's letters patent for the term of five years from
the 27th of May, 1849, to Thomas Hornby Birley, assignee of George Bodmer, the original
inventor of an invention for certain improvements in machinery for preparing, roving, and
spinning cotton and wool. — June .*).

Thomas Masters, of Regent-street, gentleman, for certain Improvements in the con-
struction and arrangement of apparatus for cooking, heating, and evaporating fluids, and
obtaining decoctions and infusions from certain vegetable and animal matters, parts of
which improvements aie applicable to certain chemical processes. — June 7.

Edward John Payne, of Chancery-lane, London, for improvements in marine vessels, in
apparatus for the preservation of human life, and in moulding, joining, and finishing hol-
low and solid figures, composed wholly or In part of a certain gum, or combinations of
certain giuns; also for improvements in dissolving the aforesaid gums, and in apparatus
or machinery to be used (or (he purposes above mentioned. — June 7.

Robert Wilson, of Low Moor Ironworks, Bradford, York, engineer, for certain improv-
menta In steam-engines and boilers, aud methods of preventing accidents in working the
same. — June 7.

Bennett Alfred Burton, of John's-place, Southwark, engineer, for certain improve-
ments in the manufacture of pipes, tiles, bricks, stairs, copings, and otber like or similar
articles from plastic materials j also improvements in machinery to be employed therein.
— June 7.

John Edward Hawkins Payne, of Great Queen- street, Middlesex, coach lace maourac*
turer, and Henry William Currie, engineer, for improvements in the manufacture of coaoh
lace and other similar looped or cut pile fabrics. — June 7.

Charles Jumes Anthony, of Pittsburgh, America, machinist, for certain new and useful
improvements in the means of treating unctuous animal matter. — June 7.

William Henry Ritchie, of Brixton, gt;ntlemnn, for improvements in fire-arms.— June 7.

John Houston, of Nelson square, surgeon, for improvements in obtaining motive power
when steam and air are used. — June 7.

[We are compelled, from want of space, to defer the remainder of the present month's
list till our next Number.]

loured S Oraivn dy Hapim^. &J A Brandon,

Puhhslied by D.Bogue, 86 Tlcet Street

J.H.Jobhuui.luti..

m

m

'^

IB19."1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

229

CHURCH ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATIONS

1. Gothic Ornaments; drawn from Existing Authorities. By James
H. Colling, Architect. London : George Bell, 1849.

2. Examples of Ancient Pulpits existing in England; selected and
drawn from Sketches and Measurements taken on the spot, with
descriptive letter-press. By Francis T. Dollman, Architect.
London : George Bell, 184.9.

3. The Open Timber Roofs of the Middle Ages; itlastrated by per-
spective and working drawings of some of the best varieties of
Church Roofs, with descriptive letter-press. By Raphael and
J. Arthur Brandon, Architects. London: David Bogue, 1849.

{With Three Engravings, Plates XIV., XV., and XVI.)

In whatever way we look at it, the extent of publication on
church architecture is gratifying, for it stores up materials for the
student, and, by showing the infinite fertility of resource of the
mediajval architects, it very strongly suggests the propriety of
adopting now the same course which they did — not the path of
imitation, but of invention. Whatever may be the extent to which
the inventive faculties are to be applied, it is indispensable the
architect should be well acquainted witli the resources of construc-
tive art, and should be fully master of the experience of the past.
For this end and so far, books are valuable; but nothing can be
more injurious than to push them beyond this, and make the work
of the present day the thievish copy of the work of old. English-
men have not degenerated; and if they could apply their ingenuity
in the ninth century, so can they in the nineteenth, and so ought
they.

This is a cuckoo note of ours, but we have encouragement to
persevere in it, because it is already listened to; and, although
small, there is an evident improvement, and an evident desire for
improvement, of which the architectural publications give full tes-
timony. Tliere are readers for them, — therefore they are bought,
and more are written; the resources of illustration are brought to
bear, and a class of books is now placed at the disposal of students,
which formerly masters could scarcely buy. We have before us
three of these publications — -'Gothic Ornaments,' by James Col-
ling, being the Fifth Part; 'The Open Timber Roofs of the Middle
Ages,' by Raphael and Arthur Brandon; and 'Examples of Ancient
Pulpits existing in England,' by Francis T. Dollman. All these
are by architects, and all have been got up with great caie by
Mr. Jobbins.

The 'Gothic Ornaments' constitutes a gorgeous work, illustrated
by gold and coloui-, giving correct ideas of the magnificence of the
original examples, of which the unilluminated works afford but a
scanty conception, as they give form without the chief characteris-
tic of the medireval architect — colour. In the present day, too,
the public are better instructed, and are unwilling to take form
alone as the representation of Gothic art; and the architect is
compelled to go through a wider course of study, giving him a
more enlarged acquaintance with art. The addiction to the study
of form alone has done more than anything to keep back, in this
country, the pursuit of architecture in every form. This special
and restricted study, this abstinence and seclusion from the catho-
lic pursuit of art, necessarily involved a complete neglect of chiaro
oscuro, as well as of colour, and hence the bareness aud baldness of
our architectural monuments. The sculptor, who restricts himself
to bas-relief, the painter who draws only cartoons, can scarcely
lower himself to the tameness too prevalent in our buildings.
Nothing is better calculated to remedy this than the restoration
of the architect to his proper sphere, — reminding him that his is an
intellectual and elevated pursuit, and that no department of art,
no feature of beauty, no work of nature, is beneath him, or is un-
necessary for his acquirement. Those who look back on the studies
of the architectural student in the beginning of this century, which
Stuart's 'Athens' might be said to satisfy, and compare them with
the requirements of the present day, will see how much architecture
has advanced, and will acquire the hope that if we have not already
the full results, we shall not long be kept waiting for them.

Whatever some may think as to the mediaeval architect being
ignorant, living in what are popularly known as the dark ages, yet
it may very much be questioned whether at any time then the
architect was worse educated than now— if, indeed, he did not re-
ceive a more liberal and catholic training. The practitioner in
architecture was a member of one of the great colleges, in which
a wide circle of studies was pursued; and we may see by the works
which have come down to us that he largely shared in them. So
much attention has been gi\'en to Free Masons, and so much non-
sense has been written about them, that the actual position of the
architect has been too commonly lost sight of. Freemasons never

No. 143.— Vol. XII.— August, 1S49.

existed before Wren's time, in the modern sense, but Free Masons
there certainly were, as Free Barbers, Free Tailors, Free Cord-
wainers, and Freemen of every craft; and the Free Masons were
in no respect distinguishable from any other guild, and there is no
authentic document to show that they were otherwise. The Free-
mason after whom the archiEologist searches was the monk, a man
trained in Latin learning, and having access to the great stores of
knowledge; well versed in the vernacular learning of French or
English, — but, above all, cunning in music, drawing, painting,
carving, building, mechanics, and husbandry, and dabbling in every
art and handicraft of the day. If less book-learned, he was very
handy; if he had no newspaper or periodical, he was a travelled
man himself: he had been to court, to Paris, to Rome, or the Holy
Land, and was thrown into society with the most intellectual men
of the day. If he had read few books himself, and had access to
few, yet all the stores of learning whicli could be spread by word
of mouth were his; and a travelling monk served at once as a
newspaper, a book of travels, and a digest of the library of his own
monastery, and perhaps of many others. A'bu multum sed nndta —
what was learned was learned thoroughly. A man who had ardour
enough to become a good architect was likewise well versed in
other studies; and many of the names which have come down to us
are those of the best scholars and greatest men of the time. The
architect then was not so liable to be bullied by idle lords, and by
purse-proud commoners, making a boast of their own ignorance,
for he was often the chancellor or prime minister of his day. Ar-
chitecture was not claimed as the mystery of a few, and was there-
fore not the byeword of the many. Architects will never again
become prime ministers; but it will be no harm when prime minis-
ters know something of architecture, and architects treat their
profession as one of liberal ideas and pursuits. It may seem that
to study bricks and mortar only is the most practical way of
becoming an architect, but the experience of ages is rather in
favour of the preliminary of an architect being a man of learning
and education.

Fig. 1. — Roof over the Nave of Outwell Church, Norfolk,

We cannot transfer one of the illuminated drawings from Mr.
Ceiling's work, and therefore we are narrowed in our selection.
The one we have given (Plate XIV.) shows the details of a highly
painted Stone Canopy from the Stalls of the Ladj' Chapel in Ely
Cathedral.

^Vhat called itself classicism was all in favour of pure marble
and white stone : the colouring which the Almighty has distributed
throughout creation, as one of the unequivocal stamps of authentic
origination, was ignored, and any attempt to use its rainbow tints
was declared unclassical, unpleasing, and unsublime. It is won-
derful that pictures were still allowed to be made with colours,
though certainly some ingenious men did paint black and white
imitations of bas-reliefs, and thereby gave the example of classi-
cality in painting; but architecture and sculpture were completely

30

226

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

under its domain, and at length such a thinfr as a
])ninted Imildinf,'-, or a coloured statue, was not
broufjlit fortli: and had matters gone on thus,
notliing else than classicality would have been
seen. Polyelironiy has shaken the pseudo-classical
in architecture, but sculoture is still fettered; and
though Gibson has indulged himself with a tinge
of colour, he must be a bold man who will ap-
ply the resources of art to the sublime works of
the sculptor. For ourselves, we cannot see why
colour is to be limited to a flat surface, nor why,
because we like INIadame Tussaud's well enough
so far as it goes, we should not like much more
a work in which the powers of sculpture and of
painting are e(mally brought to bear. If in
Haily's Three Graces the eyes had been put on,
the hair of the head and eyebrows tinged, the
lips reddened, and the ground distinguished by
colour, we cannot see what harm would have
been done. iSIarble may be a very good repre-
sentative of the flesh,— Pliidias thought ivory
lietter; but either is a very bad representative of
tlie hair. — Who will be the first to show that
he can think for himself in sculpture .''

By the example from Ely Cathedral, as by so
many others, we see that the mediaeval architect
was neither afraid nor ashamed to overlay rich
car\ed stonework with colour, and the bright blue

Mg. 2.

and crimson given in Mr. Colling's first plate show that an effect

is produced beyond that of plain white stone. Architects are now
timidly beginning to put in a coloured marble column or tablet in
e.xteriors; but what, except themselves, is to prevent all the re-
sources of coloured stones and metals from being brought into use
— and where such cannot be got, artificial colour } Many a pimp-
ing cornice might be improved by colour, and in the so-called
Gothic buildings, flat panels ought to have appropriate heraldic
decorations. What more foolish than a shield without charges, if
a shield is to be put up ?

Mr. DoUman's 'Ancient Pulpits of England' supplies a great
want, for even this piece of church furniture is now becoming
the subject of study. We wish he had said something about
foreign works ; but, at any rate, he has given us three-and-twenty
English examples, some coloured and some plain, executed in stone
or wood, between tlie years 1270 and 1533. All the examples are
drawn and delineated with great care, and the dimensions marked,
and are further illustrated by the details being enlarged. The
engraving (Plate XV.) represents the Stone Pulpit in St. Peter's
Church, Wolverhampton, Staffordshire, and is described as follows

"Sale circa 1480. — An elaborately enriched example, attached to one of
the piers on the south side of the nave. The panelled enclosure of the stairs
is original ; across the coping of which, at the foot of the staircase, a gro-
tesque sniraal, in a sitting posture, forms a remarkable singularity in the
design. The leaf ornaments are boldly carved and considerably undercut,
and are very effective."

Messrs. Brandon's book is particularly important, for there is
now a great demand for open timber roofs, and an acquaintance
with the best constructive examples is most desirable. They have
evidently given to their subject great labour and research, and
they have produced a work which will be useful to the architect,
whether practising church building or any other branch. The
number of examples given in detail is thirty-five, mostly from
Norfolk and the eastern counties, but with some others. They are
all from churches.

Messrs. Brandon have given a very useful and interesting pre-
liminary dissertation, founded on their own experience, and we
wish much our space allowed us to transfer it to our pages, for it
is of a character eminently practical. They class the roofs in four
main divisions— 1st. Roofs with tie-beams; 2nd. Trussed rafter or
single-framed roofs; 3rd. Roofs with hammer-beams and braces;
Uh. Roofs constructed with collars and braces, or with the latter
only. As an example of the first division, we select the engraving
of the Roof over the Nave of Outwell Church, Norfolk, (see
woodcut, fig. 1.)

"In the churches of the middle ages, a perfectly horizontal tie-beam is of
extremely rare occurrence. Where a tie-beam is used, we almost invariably
find it cambered, as are also the coUar-heams : even the hammer-beams will
be getierally found, on close inspection, to incline upwards from the walls.
The disagreeable effect of a straight tie-beam was often further counteracted
by having curved braces framed from its underside, connecting it with the
wall-pieces ; thus forming an arched support for it, as at Outwell Church,
Norfolk.

1^11"

-Roof over North Chapel, Wellingborough Church, t^Tortharoptonshire.

"In roofs of higher pitch, the builders still endeavoured, with varied suc-
cess as to effect, to retain the arehcd shape in conjunction with the tie-beams.
A curious specimen exists at the church of St. Mary the Virgin, Pulhaui,
Norfolk, where the beam literally divides the arch in two.

"As the Perpendicular period drew towards a close, tie-beam roofs of very
low pitch were of general occurrence; in fact, they were frequently almost
flat, with no more rise to throw oflf the wet than could be obtained by the
camber of the beams. These roofs were oftentimes profusely ornamented,
as in that over the North Chapel of Wellingborough Church, Northampton-
shire (see woodcut, fig. 2). In this instance, the eastern bay, as was very
frequently the case, is panelled, while the others are left open to the raf-
ters.

"Of Collar-braced Ronfi. — These include also roofs braced together with-
out collar-beams, the braces simply connecting the wall-pieces and principals
together. This style of roof is a natural simplification of the hamnier-heain
roofs, among which we have already described some varieties without collar-
beams, others without struts, and one without either; having found that these
members could be dispensed with safely, the next transition, that of omitting
the hammer-beam itself, followed very soon ; indeed, in either of the before-
mentioned cases, it plays a very subordinate part — take, for instance, the roof
over the nave of Capel St. Mary's Church, Suffolk ; the hammer-beam, with
its brace and wall-piece, form little more than a continuation of the collar-
beam brace ; nor is it of much more importance in the roof over Palgrare
Church ; at Brinton it is boldly omitted : the wall-piece is tenoned into the
underside of the principal rafter, the foot of which is likewise connected with
it by means of the usual horizontal piece of timber, which might to distin-
guish it be called a wall-beam ; the arched braces, which in this roof termi-
nate somewhat abruptly, effectually bind and hold the main timbers together.
It is worthy of remark, that this roof in appearance and general construction
bears a striking resemblance to a form of roof that had been executed at least
a century eatlier — we mean the roof over Tunstead Church, the most impor-
tant difference being, that in the latter the curved braces are of the same
thickness as, and appear to form part of, the principal rafters ; whereas, in
the former they are not more tban four inches thick, while the principal raf-
ters themselves are about ten. Of course, this observation applies only to
the general appearance of the two roofs, that at Brinton being more orna-
mental, especially in its cornice and cornice-braces, as well as being more
elaborately finished.

"The next roof illustrated, that over the nave of St. Mary Magdelen's
Church, Pulham, Norfolk, is one of the most beautiful of the kind that we
have met with ; the shape of the arch, and the general design of this roof,
are far more pleasing than in the preceding example; all the timbers are well
moulded, and the cornice and purlins fringed with a cresting of strawberry-
leaves, the former being further enriched with a double range of figures of
angels and flowers alternating, and their positions in the second range coun-
terchangcd. The eastern bay of this roof is much more highly ornamented
than the other parts, the mouldings of the various timbers are more elabo-
rate, and the spaces between the principal rafters are boarded under the com-
mon rafters, and subdivided into panels with the emblems of the Evangelists
painted thereon: the whole of the roof still retains traces of the colours and
gilding with which it was once rcsfilendent, the distinction between the east-
ern bay and the remainder of the roof being still kept up in the treatment of
the colouring ; the former was coloured all over, whereas the colour was only
applied to the ornamental parts of the latter, such as the carvings and the
more impoitant mouldings, leaving the general ground-work the natural co-
lour of the wood; and this v\as tlie most usual way of introducing colour in

1819.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

227

rnofs, it being of rare occurrence to finJ the wood entirely concealed, as at
Knapton and t'algrave.

Fig. 3.— Boof over Chancel of St. Mary's Church, Leicester.

"The Roof over the Chancel of St. Mary's Church, at Leicester (woodcut,
fig. 3), is similar in general design to the Pulham roof, hut of a much ruder
construction : this roof, though a double-framed one, has no ridge-piece, the
rafters being simply crossed and halved, and pinned together, as in an ordi-
nary trussed-rafter roof."

As a coneludiiig specimen of the work, we select a Plate which
describes the Roof over the Nave of Freslingfield Church, Suf-
folk, (Plate XVI.)

MILITARY AND CIVIL ENGINEERING.

1. An Essay on a Proposed A'eu' System of Fortification^ with Hints
for its application to our Ahdional Defenses. By James Fergls-
soN, M.R.I.B.A. London : Weale, 1819.

2. Aide Memoire. Weale.

Fortification is now commonly looked upon as a special subject,
exclusively belonging to the military engineer; and it will strike
some with equal surprise to see a work on fortification by a civilian,
and to find it reviewed in our columns. If, however, fortification
has come to be regarded as a special art and mystery, it is only of
late : it was not always so, neither does there seem to be any good
reason for it. In most cases, it is true, the subdivision of employ-
ment leads to the improvement of a given art; but in fortification,
it may be questioned whether such has been the result, and for this
very good reasons may be assigned. AVhenever the subdivision of
employment is carried to the extent that but few persons are en-
gaged in a particular branch, then evil must be produced, because
there is a want of emulation among the professors, a want of phy-
sical and moral force for the development of the subject, and,
above all, the want of a sufficient public to criticise, to supervise,
to applaud, and to reject. Such is the state into which fortification
has come in this country and in some others, since it has ceased to
command the sympathies and co-operation of the general world of
science.

Neither in classic times nor on the revival of learning was there
such restriction, and we therefore find among the professors of
fortification many most eminent men of science. To say nothing
of Archimedes and his ancient prototypes, Albert Durer, Michael
Angelo, and San Micheli are examples of military engineering
practised by men whose ordinary pursuits were of a far milder
character. Fortification is at present so little of an art, and still
less of a mystery, so far as any practical and useful application is
concerned, that its technical acquirement does not require any
extraordinary study or labour. There is, therefore, no real incon-
gruity in a work on fortification by an architect; it is selon les
regies, and will remind Professor Hosking of military architecture,
— and we welcome Mr. Fergusson's essay because it is likely to do
much good, directly and indirectly.

It is a strange beginning for an essay on any art, to assert that
it is in a most unsatisfactory and imperfect state; and yet the
writer has very good authority in his behalf, and it besj)eaks some
boldness that he should apply himself under such circumstances.
IMilitary critics have, over and over again, pointed out the defects

of the bastion system, and book after book has been written with a
view to its amendment, without correcting the practical vice, be-
cause all exertion has been in a %vrong direction. So far from any
good being done, the efforts of reformers have mostly tended to
improve the flanking defense, thereby introducing greater real
weakness. The merest tyro is so impressed by the state of affairs,
that he is naturally tempted to design some new outwork, or to
improve those of the present system.

Those who have studied fortification for naval purposes must be
forcibly struck with the antithesis and opposition of principles
displayed in military and naval fortification. The military man
does his best to get a perfect flanking defense — the naval man goes
straightforward to work, and throws his whole strength into a
direct fire. It wiU be found, too, that where a ship comes, under
fair circumstances, in contact with a land battery, as our naval
annals fully show, — the ship, by bringing greater weight of metal,
comes oiF the conqueror. The best examples of fortification,
moreover, are those most in accordance with nautical principles.

Thus the great amount of ability possessed by the military en-
gineers of Europe is neutralised, because it is exercised in a wrong
direction, and because there are wanting the sympathies of the allied
professions. So little is known about fortification, that it is looked
on as a mystery, and there are perhaps few civil engineers in this
country who know anything of it, or have any desire to know. It
is, nevertheless, very much to be wished that it formed part of
professional studies, because an acquaintance with it would be
calculated to produce very gratifying results. In the colonies, the
civil engineer is often the only practitioner; and it is of great
importance he should have sufficient knowledge, in case of a sudden
emergency, to provide the requisite military works of defense.
In this country, too, the arrangements of our harbour works are
often, in a military point of view, prejudicial, because the engineer
has no regard to military purposes; whereas some attention in this
respect might mitigate the defenceless state of our coasts, and
provide for their defense.

So far as military engineers are concerned, they would in every
way gain hy fortification being taught in the engineering colleges.
There would be a greater body of practitioners, and therefore bet-
ter and cheaper books and periodicals; there would be a greater
association of intellect, and therefore an enhanced reputation to
the professors of the art. Against this good there is no counter-
vailing disadv<antage to be set, because althougit civil engineers
would sometimes be employed on military works, yet more military
works would be executed, and there would be a greater reliance on
the special practitioner One advantage, which cannot be over-
rated, is that there would be a greater application in military art
of the boundless resources of mechanical science, for which this
country is so distinguished.

As there is no need for mystery in fortification, and as the art
can be readily comprehended, none of our readers need feel any
diffidence in taking up Mr. Fergusson's book; and they will be the
more gratified, as it is a continuous appeal to their common-sense,
and the exercise of their judgment. Tliey have not to take any-
thing for granted, — nothing is laid down ex cathedra; and they
proceed to a perfectly independent and impartial investigation,
carried on by themselves as much as by the author.

Mr. Fergusson's great canon we take to be the weighing each
scheme by the money-wortJi, which constitutes a practical test, ad-
missible anywhere, but peculiarly acceptable in this commercial
country. He thus gets a standard on a subject which hitherto has
been without one of a satisfactory cliaracter, and he secures tlie
sympathy and attention of all those who are interested in the na-
tional expenditure and defense.

t)ur writer takes the opportunity of adverting to the anomaly,
which is received iiulisputedly by so many, that since the invention
of gunpowder the art of attack is superior to the art of defense,
though, as he afterwards sliows, there is no reason either in theory
or practice for any such notion. The besiegers and the besieged
have the command of the like resources; and it is the quantity of
these at tlie disposal of each, which must casteris paribus govern the
result. In simple terms, it is a fight of artillery, and, as in line
battles, the relative projiortion of this arm must exercise the
greatest influence on the e^'ent.

Why, under such circumstances, fortification has become so in-
efl'ective that its works were virtually set aside by Napoleon in his
campaigns, it does not seem very easy to explain, — and yet in real-
ity it has arisen from increasing the flanking defenses, which are
only wanted as a reserve; exhausting the resources on these works;
neglecting tlie superiority of direct fire, and making no adequate
provision against vertical fire. While the use of shells has been
increasing, the construction of casemates and protected works has

30*

228

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[AUOI'ST,

not kept pace with it; and now all that has to he done hy an ener-
getic commander is to burn the town with shells, and the eiireintc
falls into his hands, unhreached and unhurt, within eijttht-and-f'orty
liours. Tlie citadel of Antwerp held out, it is true, hut the tow n
was in other hands; and in the revolutionary wars now going on, a
honibardment replaces a siege as the means of getting hold of a
fortified town. It is very questionable, tlierefore, whether, in a
military point of view, it is worth while fortifying towns, and the
art of fortification must limit itself to intrenched camps, field
works, batteries, and harl)Our defenses. Anything which can be
shelled will he burnt, and no civil population « ill hear patiently
this process. When, however, the houses have been burnt out, a
town makes, as our writer says, a better defense for the invader
than the home garrison.

We think it therefore perfectly useless to consider how an e7i-
ceiiite can be i)ut round a town, and shall limit ourselves to con-
sider the construction of a citadel, which will give the fairest ex-
am])le of the application of the several schemes of fortification.

The defects of the bastion system, as established hy various au-
thorities in the last and present century, and summed up by our
author, with some additions of our own, are, that its works are

1st. Liable to lie enfiladed.

2nd. They want direct fire to their most exposed parts, the sa-
lients.

3rd. Their flanking defenses are insecure.

4th. A\'ant of combination and co-operation between the faces
after the besieger has reached the counterscarp of one, which
therefore becomes isolated.

5th. Their entire e.xposure to vertical and plunging fire from
ricochet and sliells.

6th. A\^int of security in communicating with the outworks.

7th. The advantage of position each outwork taken gives to the
liesieger.

sth. The insecurity and inconvenience of the covered way.

Sth. The e.xposure of the reserve pieces to the tirailleurs in the
last stage of a siege.

10th. The eff'ect of the earthworks in damping, rotting, and
forcing out the brick and stone revetements.
11th. The necessity for a disciplined and well-trained garrison.
12th. The small real service rendered in holding out against an
enemy.
13th. The moral discouragement of the soldiery.
1 Uh. The enormous expense.

Fortifications of tlie first class are indeed of very little good,
and cost an enormous sum, and strategists make very little account
of them. They never materially delayed Napoleon s advance, and
ilid not delay his fall, although all that he could himself suggest,
and all that Carnot could do, was exerted for the improvement of
the internal fortresses of France. The student cannot fail to be
gratified by the sight of the cordon of first and second class fort-
resses on the French and Belgian frontiers; hut if he sets to work
to calculate how an army would be mo^ed among them, he receives
but a very moderate impression of their value, for they would only
be attacked w hen theii defense, politically s|)eaking, was no longer
l)ossihle. In fact, so strongly impressed does the strategist become
w ith these ideas, that he is ai)t to conceive hut a contemptuous
opinion of the resources of fortification,- — and none the less for
l<jiow ing its little merit as a branch of instruction.

Mr. Fergusson has set himself to remedy the defects pointed
out, to get a cheaper system, works that shall hold out longer if
not entirely, and a superiority of material resources for the de-
fenders.

He adopts a circular system, without outworks, with a wide wet
ditch, and an ciirehite of several ramparts, rising within and above
eacli other. Great part of the works is casemated, and the maga-
zines are put in greater safety. On the woi-ks is mounted a heavy
armament of guns and mortars, superior on each face (of construc-
tion) to any field-train which has yet been brought out. His
flanking works are kept low down, and beyond the reach of direct
fire. These works he proposes to construct on a cheap and simi)le
plan. Altogether, we think he has made out a good case, and one
which cannot well lie upset.

This scheme was laid by him before the editors of the 'Profes-
sional Papers of the Royal Engineers,' hut, for some reason we
know not, they were refused. This is rather singular, for the
most valuable contributions in those volumes are on civil engineer-
ing works, and by civil engineers, and Mr. Fergusson's contribu-
tion was on military engineering. It is however stated, there was
an examination by an officer of the Royal Engineers, of high at-
tainments, who raised many objections to Mr. Fergusson's plans.
This could be no sufficient bar to the publication of the paper,

which, if erroneous in some details, was of professional interest.
Now it has come before another tribunal, it can he ascertained that
it is a work of particular merit. If the piecemeal objections of an
officer of engineers are to be thus authoritative, we may at once
dismiss from our studies Montalend)ert, Carnot, Choumara, Merkes,
Bordwine, Fergusson, and every innovator. In other words, we
close the way to discussion and improvement. The rejection was
the more ungracious, as there is no other professional serial in
which such a paper could be conveniently published. It is for-
tunate Mr. Fergusson's zeal and means overcame this impediment,
and led him to the publication of a sepai-ate hook, which, as mat-
ters turn out, is likely to prove much more influential.

Mr. Fergusson assumes that the eff'ect of construction must,
under any ])roper armament, give an advantage to the fortress as
against the besieger. This he asserts on several grounds, as these
— the former works are better constructed; they have heavier guns,
more mortars, and are better covered in; they cannot be scaled.
Therefore a defending force must be able to contend with a greater
number of assailants. It is this condition which must be niain-
tained permanently.

Our writer prefers wide and deep wet ditches, because they
defend themselves, and because he wants no outworks. Though
he provides the means of sortie for the purpose of keeping the
enemy constantly on the alert, and thereby diminishing their
working force, he justly deprecates sorties, as leading irreparably
to the diminution of the personnel of the garrison. He is speaking
of a normal system : of course he would want outworks to take in
positions necessary for defense, and would likewise want the means
of sortie in such cases, to delay their fall or to recapture them.

It is in getting rid of the outworks that he does the most good,
for thereby he gets rid of a great source of harass and weakness.
The outworks must be defended from the place, and the place is
thereby made subservient to the outworks, instead of looking only
to its own defense. More men, too, are lost in outworks than they
could he in the body of the place, and thereby the strength of tl;e
garrison is impaired. Outworks can never adequately defend
themselves, for so few guns can be mounted on them; neither can
the place adequately protect them. Every face of the outwork
becomes a prolongation of an enemj's battery, and the whole work
is therefore taken in detail, and becomes a harbour for the enemy.
When the French did so at Antwerp, they had achieved a success,
for they got under cover. It is like unravelling a bit of knitting
— one mesh loose will undo the whole. An outwork is i-educed,
the enemy gets up to one face, reduces that, and the whole place
falls, with the smallest expenditure of means. To make an attack
on two or three faces harasses the garrison, and gives other chance
of success : but in truth it is hardly essential.

The author has provided for dry ditches because there are situa-
tions where water cannot be got, and he is thereby driven into
greater expense; but he still resists the addition of outworks.

On a face of 400 yards, Mr. Fergusson gets so much room that
he can mount 1,000 guns and mortars. This will appear monstrous
to the common school, but it is the right way and the only way.
What is to he done everywhere is to get the gi-eater number of
pieces and weight of metal. The system is particularly applicable
in England, as vve have such vast establishments; we could, in case
of need, cast 1,000 guns daily, besides iron shot. The author
allows for a field-train of 200 pieces being brought up, and against
one face; though the largest train yet brought up against a place,
and that tlirough a peaceful country, was the French train of 144
pieces, for the siege of Antwerp in 1831. From what we saw of
this we are sure it is a feat which could not he easily managed in a
hostile counti'y, and it is not likely to he paralleled for some time
in the state of warfai-e now going on.

Assuming that 200 guns are brought up, it does not seem easy, as
our author says, to bring them all, or any considerable nundier, to
bear fnmi the first ])arallel on any one face. Their effect, too,
woiild be limited to that of direct fire; and it is difficult to con-
template what good they could do in a flat, open country, towards
the reduction of the place. It must be remend)ered here is no
enfilade work and very little chance of dismounting guns, while
the besiegers' guns are exposed, even under blindages. The fire of
the place cannot be reduced and silenced, and the place cannot be
reduced de vife force. The assumption tliat the besieger could sap
up to the edge of the ditch, and then establish his batteries and
silence the fort over a sufficient breadth of rampart to enable him
to eff'ect a passage across the ditch, seems quite untenable. In-
deed, by all the ordinary modes of superficial oft'ensive works, it
apjiears impossible to get near the place, unless by a casualty; nei-
ther does mining off'er greater promise.

The author has devoted considerable space to revetements and

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

229

the details of construction, and which will be read with interest.
He relies as far as possible on earthworks, and the masonry revete-
ment he endeavours to keep down below tlie direct line of tire.
His revetement, too, is not a mere retaining-wall, but is detached to
a great extent from the earth body. It tlius becomes a kind of fender
to keep off escalade. His reasons for this cause are very satisfac-
tory. In this, as in other details, he has followed Chasseloup,
Carnot, and other authorities, but with many modifications.

Having provided for the defense against direct fire, the next
point is against vertical fire; and as our author keeps a greater
weight of mortars, and a sufficient cover by casemates, he may be
regarded as having done his duty in this respect. He adopts case-
mates on the system of General Ilaxo, which are ojien in the rear
(and therefore, free from smoke), drier, and better ventilated. The
modifications here suggested as to these casemates are, so far as
our knowledge extends, practical and valuable. He likewise intro-
duces mortar and steam-gun casemates.

The plans for 2)owder-magazines are ingenious, l)ut we are far
from being satisfied as to the result of the wilful or accidental
explosion of one of these.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK,
FASCICULUS XCVI.

" I must have liberty
Withal, US large a charter as the winds.
To blow on whom I please.**

I. Whether Mr. Ruskin's "Lamps" will much enlighten our ar-
chitects, remains to be seen. What their opinion generally may
be of his book I know not; but I do know — at least, have heard,
that some of them scruple not to call it "very queer stufl';" and
perhaps the majority of them fancy that their own little Lamp of
Copyism is better worth than all his seven. Re that as it may,
quite certain it is that his Lamps have enlightened the gentlemen
of the public press, many of whom have now for the very first
time touched upon the suljject of Architecture, and have become
all at once exceedingly critical upon it; speaking, if not with dng-
matisra, most assuredly with abundance of pupjy-ism, puft' in-
cluded. This sudden light, it may reasonably be suspected, is
derived not so much fi-om the book itself as from the circumstance
of its authorship, and from the nimbus that plays around the tem-
ples of the "Oxford Graduate;" tlie probability being that had it
appeared with the name of plain Jolin Ruskin, and under a less
mystical title, the daily papers and the reviews would never
ha:e touched it at all, or been able to make anything of it;
whereas, now, having got their cue, they go into raptures accord-
ingly, and bestow if not very "sincere admiration" — as IMr. Rus-
kin himself does on the British Museum — at least, sufficiently
well counterfeited admiration, chuckling, perhaps, all the while at
the idea of having imposed brummagem upon John Ruskin, which
he will clutch at, and pocket as fine gold. Speaking of his book,
the Morning Fust assures us that "ladies may read it;" which
would seem to imply that there is so much indelicate and paw-paw
stuft' in architectural books in general as to render them very ob-
jectionable and unfit reading for ladies. No doubt ladies' may
read it very safely; the only doubt is, whether they can understand
a writer who appears very frequently not to understand himself,
at least shows himself unable to explain his meaning intelligibly,
but flounders about in mere high-sounding verbi?ige; which, being
high-sounding, has been taken by some for eloquence fraught with
feeling, and — "feelosophy." As a specimen of such, the Dub/in
Universlfi/ 3Iugas:ine quotes the following super-sublime passage:
"For, indeed, the greatest glory of a building is not in its stones,
nor ill its gold. Its glory is in its age" — cjiuere, its per cent-r;.vt' —
"and in that deep sense of voicefulness, of stern watching, of myste-
rious sympathy, nay, even of approval or condemnation, whicji we
feel in walls that have long been washed by the passing waves of
humanity," &c., &c.! Of course this is, or ought to be, exceed-
ingly fine, it being evidently intended to be so; but to me, wlio am
not one of the enlightened, it appears to be the merest babbling
and gabbling,--certainly what any lady may read, but also what
any "old lady" might write. 1 sliould like' to have that "deep
sense of voicefulness" interpreted into honest plain English; also
"washed by the passing waves of liumanity." By "washed," does
Ruskin mean "white-washed?" And what, again, does lie mean
by "the waves of humanity.''" Possibly it is merely owing to the
thickness of my own skull; but I must confess that many of his

sentences and expressions appear to me no better than the veriest
jargon of tawdry sentimentalism and cant, and of the most dis-
gusting affectation.

II. Curious, at all events, it is, that those who pretend to ap-
plaud him to the skies, give him no credit for, nor take any notice
of some of his most striking and original opinions — such, for in-
stance, as his unqualified condemnation of our English "Perpen-
dicular" style, and "our own Tudor," which he affiims to be "an
ugly and impotent degradation!" notwithstanding that it has been
adopted for the new "Palace of Westminster," — wliich costly
edifice, by-the-Iiy, is treated very cavalierly by Mr. Fergusson,
who more than hints tliat we are' already tired of it before it is
finished.— Just now, the epithet "Detestable," which Kata-Phusin
Ruskin so cavalierly a])plies to that style, is particularly ungraci-
ous and unsavoury. "It adopts," he says, "for its leading feature,
an entanglement of cross bars and verticals, showing about as
much invention or skill of design as the reticulation of a brick-
layer's sieve!" What an awfurthunderbolt is hurled there! For-
tunate then is it, that whomsoever else it may strike, it lias not
struck any of Mr. Ruskin's own reviewers; nor have they been at
all shocked by it. It is true what i\Ir. Ruskin says concerning
that style does not amount to much in mere words, but the opinion
itself amounts to nothing less than the most violent and unquali-
fied condemnation of the style wliich is followed for the greatest
architectural undertaking of the present age — a structure in which
what he thinks constitutes the viciousness of the style has, in-
stead of being at all moderated, been carried to the utmost excess.
In one respect, perliaps, the comparison he has made holds good,
inasmuch as we detect the character of a sieve in what has drained
away so much money. Briefly as Mr. Ruskin's depreciatory
opinion is expressed, we cannot possibly suppose that it was ut-
tered hurriedly and unguardedly, because he himself says: "I have
always spoketi nith contempt of the Tudor style;" and his com-
parison certainly does indicate contempt in the most marked man-
ner. Had it been uttered by almost any one else, such ojiinion
might have been disregarded and left itself to contempt; but com-
ing from the quarter it does — from one for whom his reviewers pro-
pliecy that he will henceforth be a standard and paranunint autho-
rity in matters of taste and art, such emphatic denunciation of that
particular style is particularly unfortunate. Sliall we say that Mr.
Ruskin is decidedly in error there.? — that would be awkward; be-
cause, if he has fallen into an error of such magnitude — so exten-
sive for injustice of opinion and insensibility of taste as to condemn
one entire style, one moreover that may be called peculiarly
English, — what is to assure us that many other of his peculiar
opinions are not equally erroneous; or how is lie to be trusted as a
safe guide? Besides which, to admit him to be in error tlierc,
would be also accusing his critics either of singular stupidity in
not detecting it, or of flagrant violation of their duty in not warn-
ing us against it; also of want of tact, because a few remarks of
a contrary tendency would have served to give some value to their
praise, and would have corrected its nauseating fulsomeiiess, which
last must, I think, be far less gratifying to IMr. Ruskin himself
than to his publishers; since he himself must be well aware that
the "Opinions of the Press," as they are called, can do little (ir
nothing in securing permanent reputation for a work like his, it
being on a subject on which the so-called "gentlemen of the press"
know no more than their own readers.

III. What with his off'-hand wholesale condemnation and some-
wliat flippantly-uttered abuse of the Perpendicular and Tudor
styles, his extravagant praise of the Doge's Palace at Venice, and
his "sincere admiration" of the British Museum, — Mr. Ruskin
shows himself to be a decided nonconformist in architectural taste,
and, as far as the first-mentioned styles are concerned, to go di-
rectly against the popular current. Nevertheless, such noncon-
formity and utter disregard of prevailing prejudices, have been
somehow or other overlooked by his reviewers, either owing to
their obtuseness or to their dislioiiestj' — perhaps their cowardice.
Now, I myself am — certainly ought to be — the very last to find
fault with'Mr. Ruskin for freely giving vent to his own opinions,
— in some of wliich he is likely to stand quite alone ; but it surely
was the duty of his critics to prepare their readers for what must
have caused some of them to make wry faces. His tirade against
"that treacherous phantom which men call Liberty," must shock
not a few; his sneering at the idea of anything being done for Art
by "pottery and printed stufl's," will not obtain him friends in the
manufacturing districts or schools of design; and his utter aver-
sion to Railroads and Railway travelling, cannot fail to scandalise
a \ery numerous class indeed, if we include the holders of shares.
Little would it have mattered what he himself says, did not his
reviewers assent to and sanction such exceedingly outrageous nc-

S80

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[ACGI'ST,

tions by their silence, instead of reprobating them, as they ought
t<) have (lone, — if only to show, as they had a fair opportunity of
doing, tlieir own inijiartiality, and that they were not to be im-
])osed upon by the prestige of the reputation ])reviously aef[uired
bv the same writer's 'Modern Painters.' By that reputation the
gentry of the press had their cue given them; they felt certain
that they might praise safely — conscientiously is quite a different
matter. Enough it was for them that they might, very safely to
themselves, "lay it on thick;" and they have done so accordingly,
hnlteriiiff Ruskin over with their oily phrases in such manner that
t!ie butter actually drops off again. They might have spared their
butter and tlieir pains, for after all, ciii iinim? — what can toadying
puff do for a work which aims at becoming influential? — and which
if it ever so become, must be seconded by opinion, and very great
change of opinion, in a different sphere from tliat of the public
press, which, whatever it may be in other matters, shows itself to
l)e in tliose of Architecture and Art equally empty-headed and
hollow-hearted.

IV. "'We want no new style of Architecture," says Ruskin, and
very justly too; or did we so, we should never get one, if by a
"new style" we are to understand a sudden transition to a system
of architectural elements, forms, and combinations decidedly dif-
ferent from, and in no respect modelled upon, those which either
now are or formerly have been in use. Yet such impossibility
affords no argument at all for resisting, as we now strenuously do,
all further extension and modification of the styles we profess to
adopt. We merely think of copying them as closely as we can;
and where they stop short, we stop too, through our inability to
carry them on in the same spirit — or if not precisely in the same,
in a congenial one. As Mr. Ruskin excellently well observes — it
is in fact one of the most sensible and valuable remarks in his
book — "A man who has the gift, will take up any style that is
going, the style of his day, and will work in that, and be great in
that, and make everything that he does in it look as fresh as if
every thought of it had just come down from heaven. I do not
say that he will not take liberties with his materials or with his
rules; I do not say that strange changes will not sometimes be
wrought by his efforts, or his fancies, in both. But those changes
will be instructive, natural, facile, though sometimes marvellous;
and those liberties will be like the liberties that a great speaker
takes with the language, not a defiance of its rules for the sake of
singularity, — but inevitable, uncalculated, and brilliant consequen-
ces of an effort to express what the language, without such infrac-
tion, could not. There may he times when the life of an art is
manifested in its changes, and in its refusal of ancient limita-
tions."— Most true: yet what with plodding servile copying, and
slavish, superstitious adherence to precedent. Architecture has
now, instead of an artistic, only a sort of artificial life. It is no
longer permitted to grow with the growth of society, to keep
pace with its advance, and with general improvement in other
respects, — but is stunted, dwarfed, and crippled like the feet, or
rather pettitoes of a Chinese lady. If we need no new style, we
certainly do need, and that very greatly, much more freedom for
those which we have and make use of.

V. Excellently well, again, does Ruskin point out the proper
use and service of Precedent— num. Ay, to guide and instruct, not
to fetter and enslave, as it is allowed to do. "When we begin," he
says, "to teach children writing, we force them to absolute copyism,
and require absolute accuracy in the formation of the letters;
as they obtain command of the received modes of literal expression,
we cannot prevent their falling into such variations as ai-e con-
sistent with their feelings, their circumstances, or their characters.
So, wlien a boy is first taught Latin, an authority is required of
him for every e.xpression he uses; as he becomes master of the
language he may take a license, and feel hin riyht to do so without any
anthoriti/, and yet write better Latin tluin when he borrowed every sepa-
rate expression." In the same way, he goes on to observe, should
"our architects be taught;" and in such way, in fact, do they seem
to have been taught in former times, whereas now they are kept,
or else are content to remain in a state of schoolboyism all their
lives. Even those who may be supposed to have fully "mastered
the language" of their art, — who at any rate have credit with the
public for having done so, confine themselves to stereotype and
therefore hackneyed forms and expressions, without venturing to
show that it is in their power to vary them and impart freshness
to them. On the contrary, they are but too apt to make a posi-
tive merit of what accuses'tliem of want of artistic power, and of
spoutaneousness of thought and geniality of conception. So ex-
ceedingly humble is their ambition, that they are jiroud of showing
with what admirable precision they can copy features and details,
the pattern of which are taken — stolen is an ugly word — from other

buildings or representations of them. Admitting, however, for a
moment that mere copying gi>es us all that we now want or need
ask for, an exceedingly ticklish and awkward question presents
itself — namely, is it at all reasonable that mere copying — and what
is more, mere mechanical copying — should be paid for at the same
rate as original talent, or rather infinitely higher?— Q«« tendis} —
stop, stop in time, friend Candidas, and do not broach such an un-
comfortable question as that. Consider, in by-gone times Genius
was a fool, and exerted itself for fame; in our wiser and more
enlightened age, mere Talent works for money alone. The
substance, it seems, we cannot get, but at all events we pay
liberally enough for the shadow of it, and be that our consola-
tion.

VI. As in some other respects, Mr. Ruskin is not very consistent
with himself when — although he says that we do not so much re-
quire a new style as one that should be universally followed — he
recommends us to adopt for such universal purpose what would be
to us altogether new. "The choice" — that is, for a style to be
henceforth generally followed — "would lie, I think," he says, "be-
tween four styles: — 1, the Pisan Romanesque; 2, the Early Gothic
of tlie Western Italian Republics, advanced, as far and as fast as
our art would enable us, to the Gothic of Giotto; 3, the Venetian
Gotliic in its purest development; 4, the English Earliest Deco-
rated. The most natural, perliaps the safest, choice would be that
of the last, well fenced from the chance of again stiffening into
the Perpendicular." — Unlucky Perpendicular! how art thou flouted
at, and spoken of contumeliously by Ruskin — who, of most as-
sured certainty, will not find Charles Barry among the admirers of
what one reviewer has termed "a hook unique in our language."
Now, for a universal style, or rather for the foundation of one that
would be capable of being moulded to every one of the various
architectural purposes required at the present day, the three first
of those proposed by Mr. Iluskiu are decidedly out of the ques-
tion; and even the last is scarcely less so. It would. In fact, be
utterly impossible to shape out of it a style accommodated to gene-
ral usage, and which would conform to the conditions imposed by
actual purpose. Is it for a single moment to be thought of as
suitable for domestic and street architecture, or for secular build-
ings at all, in this nineteenth century? ''How can a style which is
fit only for ecclesiastical buildings — on which account, perhaps,
that and other mediaeval styles are now affected for that particular
class of structures, as markedly distinguishing them — he now con-
stituted a universal style ? We may adopt mediasvalism for our
churches, but we cannot possibly throw off modernism in our habi-
tations, in our houses and our street architecture. Consequently,
so long as we insist upon retaining the former, we shall never
arrive at — no, nor even take a single step towards that oneness of
style which Mr. Ruskin regards a sine-qiia-non for the healtliy
condition of architecture, — and not of architecture alone, but of
all the arts of design. For such desirable condition of art gene-
rally, among us, he asserts there is but one chance, "and that
chance rests on the bare possibility of obtaining the consent both
of architects and the public, to choose a style, and to use it uni-
versally." He himself, however, has, by what he recommends,
rendered "bare possibility" a bare impossibility. Rather ought
he to have said : Let us take up the system of building and con-
struction now generally employed by us, and endeavour to work it
up into one capable of answering worthily to all purposes and
occasions, no matter how opposite they may be. Such was the
course pursued by the modern Italian architects at the period of
the so-called Revival, or Renaissance. The style which they then
took up they employed for all purposes alike, — for both secular
and ecclesiastical buildings — for both public and private ones;
although not indeed with tliat judicious discrimination which they
might have done. Yet, notwithstanding that he is of opinion an
architect of talent can take up "any style that is going, the style
of his day," and mould it to his purpose, Mr. Ruskin recom-
mends us to endeavour to get an entirely new style, — one con-
stituted quite differently from any one now in use, by modelling
it upon that particular mediieval and ecclesiastical one which is
now generally teimed the Early Decorated English. Such being
his opinion, it was incumbent upon him to endeavour at least to
point out how far that style accords with existing conditions, and
our present actual requirements. As he has not done so, we may
reasonably question not only the propriety but the practicability
of what he recommends; and which, even if practicable at all,
would be no better than what ]\Ir. Cockerell has justly called
"disgraceful retrogression."

18-19.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

231

ON THE PADDLES OF STEAMERS.

On the Paddles of Steamers — their Figure^ Dip, ndckness, Mate-
rial, Number, SfC. By Thomas Ewbank, Esq., City of New York.
[From the Journal of the Franklin Institute.']
{Concluded from page 213.)

The foregoing experiments and remarks relate chiefly to the
figure and dip of paddles. Other traits next solicited investiga-
tion; and, though neither prominent, nor promising any adequate
i-eward for the requisite lahour, they were thought worth attending
to, since engineers will certainly he urged shortly to cast about
for every means of adding, though ever so little, to the speed of
steamers.

Buoyant or Displacing Paddles.

It had been imagined, that the resistance which fluids oppose to
the sinking of bulky bodies in them, might be employed as an ele-
ment of propulsion — that if close barrels, for example, were fas-
tened to the arms of a wheel, their ends would act as paddles, and
the force required to plunge them (equal to 62 lb. for each cubic
foot of water displaced), also react favourably on the boat. To
test this idea, eight square and tight boxes, 7 inches by 7, and

6 inches deep, were secured to the arms of one wheel, and set to
work against the eight blades, No. 1, (fig. 3), on the other. The
boxes required, very sensibly, more power to carry them round
than any other tried, and were miserably deficient in pushing the
vessel forward with it — certainly not equalling four of the com-
peting blades. They produced quite a commotion in the water,
carried large quantities over with them, and, could we have com-
municated sufficient velocity, would probably have formed a verti-
cal ring of it. These boxes were, and should be, considered simply
as unusually thick blades. All paddles are buoyant in proportion
to their thickness.

Thickness of Paddles.

But though worthless in one respect, they were valuable in
another, for they led us to the fact, or the law, that the propelling
1-irtue of blades expands and contracts with their thickness.
Thicken them till they touch each other, and they form a perfect
drum, which could exert no more propelling power than a revolv-
ing grindstone; — reduce them to the thinnest plates, consistent
with the strains they have to oppose, and in the same ratio that
property is augmented in them.

The boxes nere removed, and hoards, gths of an inch thick, and

7 inches square put in their places. These represented common
plank paddles, and were found sensibly inferior to their metalline
competitors, whose thickness was slightly less than xct'^ inch.
We next took away two of the latter, when no very obvious change
in the boat's direction occurred. When two moi-e were taken off,
the remaining four were unable to contend with the wooden ones.
These, it will be remembered, were |th the thickness of the boxes,
and consequently inherited that proportion of their defects.

It was also very observable how much more water was raised by
the boards than by the plates. It could not easily be cast oif their
blunt boundaries, but kept running over them, from one side to
another — a fact rendered more distinct in the boxes. Nothing
could declare plainer, that the sharper the dipping edges of paddles
are made, the more back-water they throw off at the point where
its departure is most beneficial: that is, when the re-action favours
the vessel's progress — and, consequently, less is carried higher
than the axis. A very little labour would impart this feature — in
other words, would make their section a wedge. The resulting
benefit would repay the expenditure a hundred-fold.

Compared to metal, wood approaches in its nature to sponge;
water clings to it; its pores are absorbing vessels, that suck it in,
and assist to retain it on the surface.

Here nature also confirms the positions arrived at. Extreme
tenuity of blade is stamped with perfection by her. Hence we see
it strengthened by reticulated bars in the wings of insects — by
radial, angular, and tapering ribs in the fins and tails of fishes.
An uniformly thick, and unsupported slab, like our paddles, is
nowhere met with. We cannot imagine natatory or soaring
organs, formed after such a pattern, without feeling the absurdity.

The caudal propellers of fishes are necessarily thick where they
join the bodies, but how rapidly is the substance diminished, and
to a mere film, at their extremities, so much so, that they are often
there torn and jagged, by accident or wear, as fishermen well know.
There must, therefore, be some powerful reason for withholding
the material — one that overbalances all inconveniences resulting
from its absence; and what can it be but the thinner the blade, the
more efficient as a proi)eller it is — the longer is its stroke, and the
more effectual is the power that wields it. The same law prevails

in the wings of birds; their outward boundaries are feathered off
to almost nothing.

The reflection is irresistable. With what nicety and care nature
perfects her propellers, and how clumsy and untinished are ours;
as if, forsooth, a vessel's progress did not depend upon them!

The last two experiments demonstrate, that the less water a
paddle displaces by its volume, the more efficient it is; that all ac-
cumulation of material behind its acting face, beyond what is ab-
solutely necessary to strengthen it, is injurious, and ought to he
avoided. But how does this accord with the current practice?
Oaken planks are universally employed, and I have heard more
than one engineer assert, that the thicker they are the better!
Because, said they, if their propelling property be not enhanced,
it is not diminished, and their additional weight is a positive ad-
vantage, since the heavier the wheels are, the easier they work —
the more uniform are their movements.

The Gorgon, an English steamer, had "large wheels and little
power," so she used oak or pine scantlings, 5 inches by 6, or 6 by
8, for paddles. Had her managers been aware of the true effect
of thick blades, they never would have adopted them with the
view of economising power.

Paddle planks vary in thickness from 1^ to 3 inches. No sea
steamers have them less than 2 inches. In the English vessels
they are 2-}; in others, as the Franklin, they are 2i; in some of
the largest class they are 3. The Atlantic and the Pacific, each of
3,000 tons, now building for the Collins' Line, are to have them
3 inches. The former is to have 28 blades; hence, united, they
will form a solid mass, seven feet thick, in each wheel— just one-
fifth of its diameter! They are to be 12i feet long, by 34 inclies;
those of both wheels will, therefore, contain nearly 500 cubic "feet
of timber, and must displace that enormous volume of water at
every revolution, by their submersion alone! — and, as we have
seen, not only uselessly, but with a serious retardation of the ves-
sel's headway, and waste of her motive power.

The wheels of the Pacific are to be 36 feet in diameter; each
will have 30 blades, 11 J feet, by 3 feet; the solid contents of her
paddles will, therefore, equal 517 cubic feet. Her loss from the
same source will, therefore, be greater. In every revolution of
each wheel, her paddles will lose 7* feet of effective stroke, and
those of the Athintic 7 feet! Those of the ocean steamer United
States are 2^ or 2J inches thick; they are 36 in number, but as
they are "split," and attached on both sides of the arms, there are
really 72. They certainly diminish the effective strokes of her
blades, from 10 to 15 feet, in every turn of her wheels, startling as
the assertion is.

Has the attention of engineers ever been turned this way? Or
have they forgotten, that a \olume of water equal to that of a
boat's paddles, and every inch of material submerged with them,
is neutralised as a resisting medium, as often as it is displaced by
their immersion; — that water is to them what steam is to pistons
— the more space the latter occupy in cylinders, the shorter be-
comes their stroke, because metal then takes the place of steam;
the object to be moved crowds out the mover. Thicken a piston
till it fills its cylinder, and the motive agent being wholly kept
out, all motion ceases.

It is much the same with the paddles of a wheel. Let them fill
up ^, ^, ir, or 4, of the circles they describe, and in those propor-
tions they lose their virtue, because in the same proportion they dis-
place, or push aside, the fluid agent on which their worth depends.

The Atlantic will lose seven feet stroke in every turn of her
wheels. I leave to mathematicians to determine, how many more
miles an hour she would make, if the loss were reduced to seven
inches, by using j-inch iron, in place of 3-inch plank.

There are several interesting questions about paddles that yet
require solutions, but as respects their thickness, there is no tnean
to seek; the thinnest is the best under all circumstances— thin,
were it possible, as a lamina of mica. The only question is,
AV^hat material will supply the thinnest sheets to resist the pres-
sure they are to oppose? Plates of steel, I opine, will yet be
adopted.

Number of Paddles.

The experiments of each day convinced us that, so far as pro-
pulsion is concerned, the fewer the paddles, the faster went the
boat, so long as one at each wheel, or an area equal to the face of
one, was kept in full play. A greater number in the water merely
cuts it into slices, throws them into commotion and diminishes the
resistance they should oppose to the blades. As a further elucida-
tion of this fact, we tried, at the suggestion of Mr. B., four blades,
7 X 11', against the eight test ones, 7x7. The smaller number
had a decided advantage over the greater, and the cause was visi-
ble: they had a fuU sweep, through an unbroken, undisturbed

832

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

QAl'GVST,

mass of fluid, and consequently produced, unabridged, their legiti-
mate effects; while those on the other wheel — unusually small
(', or ^) as their number was, compared to those on the wheels of
steamers — -following so quickly in the wake of one anotlier, tlirew
it into an u])roar, causing eddies, ivhirlpools, and counter currents,
and thus interfering with each other, necessarily produced inferior
results.

We thought 8 of fig. 4 would be equally valuable as 21 of fig. 3,
but the construction of our wheels prevented us from instituting a
series of similar comparisons.

The numl)er of paddles now employed is, generally, greater than
formerly. For large vessels, 28 are usual; some have 24, and
others 32. The English rule, said to be a good one, is adhered to
by many American engineers, except when circumstances require
a deviation. By it, there is a paddle for every foot of a wheel's
diameter, which makes them stand 3 feet apart; there are boats
in uhich tliey occur every 2 feet.

One object of their multiplication, is to equalise the jar of their
striking the water, by increasing the number of the blows. With
tiie same view, they are often split through the middle, lengthwise,
and the inner half — that next the shaft — removed to
the opposite side of the arm, as in the end view, fig.
26, thus doubling, in a manner, their number. All the
British steamers have their blades thus arranged.
The Hermann's 28 were thus made into 56; their
efficacy was found to be reduced about 9 per cent.
The value of their upper or inner halves has been
ascertained to be about the same, for, when wholly
removed, the lower portions have proved within 10
per cent, as effective as before. The blades of the
United States are split, and disposed as in the figure.
The ti-ue principle of breaking the jar of paddles
striking the water, seems to me to be indicated in
Fig. 20. the blades 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25.
Had the attention of engineers been led to it in the
early days of steaming, the popular jilan of avoiding the evil at
the expense of a greater, would not have been sanctioned ^o long.
I observed the blades of tlie last-named steamer, a week after
her recent return from Europe. Seven were submerged, or fourteen,
if those on both sides of the arms are counted. She sailed on the
4th inst., for New Orleans with 8 (or 16) under water. The Che-
rokee left on the 1st inst., for Savannah, with si.r of her undi\'ided
blades below the surface. The Washiiiyton came in on the 6th inst.,
from Bremen, with ^ii'e similar ones fully immersed on each side —
four full ones and the halves of two others. The largest of our
Sound and River boats have equal, if not greater numbers under.
Tlie l^undcrijllt, 1,200 tons, has^^ue, or ten halves, immersed in each
wheel, when lying at her dock, and without passengers on board.
The Isaac Newton, 1,200 tons, has similar wheels, and the same
number of blades under water at once.

As sea steamers have little occasion to go stern for-
wards, the backs of the acting faces are occasionally
di-essed off, as shown by the outline of fig. 27. As far as
the lower, or dipping, parts are concerned, this is an ad-
vantage; but, from the preceding experiments, it is seen
how much more beneficially such blades would act, were
those parts brought to a knife-edge, and their sections
Fig. 27. bounded by the dark part of the cut.

Arms of Wheels.
The practice of making the arms of paddle-wheels of uniform,
(0- nearly uniform, dimensions throughout, is also wrong. They
may, without diminution of strength, be reduced towards their ex-
tremities, and ought to to be, since every inch of surplus material
submerged in them, detracts from the work done by the blades.
They should taper outwards, as Nature tapers tlie radial ribs in
her propellers.

Coating Paddles with Materials that Repel Water.
If any substance can be found, durably to prevent ])addles from
being wetted, they would then carry over less water with them.
^Ve coated one set with grease (suet), and, while the water
streamed uniformly over the faces of others, it adliered only in
narrow streaks to these.

The lessons which the foregoing experiments teach us are: —
That, to render jiaddles oi^ steamers more effectual, they ought
to be fashioned, as far as circumstances sanction, after models fur-
nished by Nature, so as to conform to her general practice of con-
tracting surface when resistance is of little avail, and extending it
when the latter is greatest — to give the largest portions of blades
the longest strokes.

That the fewer the jiaddles on a wheel the better, provided one
be ahv.ays kept in full ]day; — and hence, that it would be more ad-f
vantageous to point, or fork them, as pro|)Osed, to evade the jar o
their striking on tlie surface, tlian so perniciously to split and mul-
tiply them, as the popular practice is.

That smooth and thin metallic plates should be substituted for
the usual massive, water-soaked planks. (At present, perhaps,
nothing better than boiler-plates, galvanised, could be adopted).
That holt-heads, nuts, cleats, straps, and every other projection,
upon, or about, them, should be provided against. That the arms
of wheels ought to be reduced at their outer extremities, and the
immersion of all superfluous material carefully avoided. That,
when wheels require balancing, or their momentum to he increased,
the weights to be attached to the arms above the surface of the
water.

To coat paddles, and parts that plunge with them, with varnish,
or other substance that repels water, that tlie fluid, instead of being
dragged up in volumes by them, may roll from them, as from the
backs of diving birds.

Some persons smile at the idea of machinists studying nature;
and such, on perusing the preceding suggestions, will deem it a
sufficient reply, to remind the proposer, that steamers are not
blackfish, nor paddles salmons' tails, nor petrels' feet.

But minds differently organised, think a glance into her work-
shops is never amiss, and that the longer the visit, the better for
the visitor, since there is no art or contrivance, (and it is certain
that, through eternity, there never can be one), which has not its
pi'ototype in her collections. If we find them not, it is because of
inattention, or of an imperfect acquaintance with her stores. Per-
haps we know not at which of her ateliers to inquire, or are not
prepared to appreciate specimens laid before us when we enter.

It would be wrong to close this paper, without acknowledging
many obligations to Mr. John Bell, of Harlem, by wliose assistance
the e.xperiments were conducted; a gentleman whose judgment on
general mechanics is not surjiassed; and to Mr. Mott, for the use
of a boat, and facilities for making the various paddles tested; to
Messrs. Morris and Cummings, also.

Mr. Bell has matured a subtitute, which he proposes for paddle-
wheels, consisting of two reciprocating arms on each side of a
vessel. At their extremities are folding blades, or vanes, which
open when sweeping in one direction, and close in tlie other. He
dispenses with the cumbrous paddle-boxes, and leaves the deck
nearly clear; — at the same time increases the sweep of the blades
beyond what is practicable with wheels, by simply ele\ating (on
framework resembling that of beam engines) the points of their
suspension.

A^ote. — Since the above paper was written, I have seen in the
Journal of the Franklin Institute for February, 1842, (3rd series,
vol. 3, p. 102), an extract from the Civil Engineer and Architect's
Journal, for October, 1841, by which it appears that Mr. Reniiie
was led. by his experiments, to substitute the diamond-shaped
paddle (fig. 8) for that of the ordinary form. It is there stated
that, "after a great variety of experiments, he found that a paddle-
wheel of one-half the width and weight, and with trapezium floats,
was as effective in propelling a vessel as a wheel of double the
width and weight, with tlie ordinary rectangular floats." This
agrees very well with my own results. Mr. Rennie states that
the Admiralty had permitted hini to fit H. M. ship African with
these wheels, "and he had perfect confidence in the success of the
experiment; but I have not been able to find any account of the
results of this trial upon a large scale.

Measures have been taken to secure by patent, the improvements
developed by the preceding experiments.

ON AVATER-WHEELS WITH VENTILATED BUCKETS.

On Water-Wheels with Ventilated Buckets. By Williaji Fair-
bairn, Esq. — (Paper read at the Institution of Civil Engineers.)

Since the time of Smeaton's experiments in 1759, little or no im-
provement has been made in the principle on which water-wheels
have been constructed. The substitution, however, of iron for
wood, as a material for their construction, has afforded oppoi'tuni-
ties for extensive changes in their forms, particularly in the shape
and arrangement of the buckets, and has given, altogether, a more
permanent and lighter character to the machine than had pre-
viously been attained with other materials. A curvilinear form of
bucket has been generally adopted, the sheet iron of whish it is
composed affording facility for being moulded or bent into the re-
quired shape.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

2.1.3

From a work entitled 'Mecaniques et Inventions approuvees par
I'AcacIcmie Royale des Sciences,' published at Paris in 1735, it ap-
pears, that previous to the commencement of the last century,
neither the breast nor tlie overshot water-wheels were much in use,
if at all known ; and at what period, and by wliom they were in-
troduced, is probably equally uncertain. The overshot wheel was
a ^reat improvement, and its introduction was an important step in
the perfecting of liydraulic machines; but the breast-wheel, as now
generally made, is a still fui-ther improvement, and is probably
better calculated for effective duty under the circumstances of a
variable supply of water, to which almost every description of
water-wheel is subjected. It is not the object of the present paper
to enter into the dates and nature of the improvements which have
taken place during the last and the present centuries. Suffice it to
observe, that the breast-wheel has taken precedence of the overshot
wheel, probably not so much from any advantage gained by an in-
crease of power, on a given fall, as from the increased facilities
which a wheel of this description, having a larger diameter than
the height of the fall, affoi'ds for the reception of the water into
the chamber of the bucket, and also for its final exit at the bottom.
Another advantage of the increased diameter is the comparative
ease with which the wheel overcomes the obstruction of back-
water. The breast-wheel is not only less injured from the effects
of floods, but the retarding force is overcome with greater ease,
and the wheel works for a longer time and to a much greater depth
in back-water.

The late Dr. Robison, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
University of Edinburgh, in treating of water-wheels, says, "There
frequently occurs a difficulty in the making of bucket-wheels, when
the half-taught millwright attempts to I'etain the water a long time
in the buckets. The water gets into them with a difficulty which
he cannot account for, and spills all about, even when the buckets
are not mo\ing away from the spout. This arises from the air,
which must find its way out to admit the water, but is obstructed
by the entering water, and occasions a great sputtering at the en-
try. This may be entirely prevented by making the s](out con-
siderably narrower than the wheel : it will leave room at the two
ends of the buckets for the escape of the air. This obstruction is
vastly greater than one would imagine; for the water drags along
with it a great quantity of air, as is evident in the water-blast, as
described by many authors." '

Such were the opinions of one of our first writers on mechanical
philosophy; but the evil has been subsequently much increased by
attempting to form a bucket which should carry the water down to
the lowest point of the fall. In these attempts, the openings be-
came so contracted as to prevent the free admission of the water
from the cistern into the buckets, and its free discharge at the bot-
tom of the wheel.

In the construction of wheels for high falls, the best proportion
of the opening of the bucket is found to be nearly as 5 to 24; that
is, the contents of the bucket being 24 cubic feet, the area of the
opening, or entrance for the water, would be 5 square feet. In
breast-wheels which receive the water at the height of 10° to 12°

above the horizontal cen-
tre, the ratio should be
nearly as 8 to 24, or as 1
to 3, as shown in fig. 5.
With these proportions,
the depth of the shroud-
ing is assumed to be about
three times the width of
the opening, or three times
the distance from the lip
to the back of the bucket,
as from A to B, fig. 1, the
opening being 5 inches,
and the depth of shroud
15 inches.

For lower falls, or in
those wheels which receive
the water below the hori-
zontal centre, a larger
opening becomes necessary
for the reception of a large
body of water, and for its
final discharge, as shown in
fig. 4.

In the construction of
water-wheels, it is requisite, in order to attain the maximum effect,
to have the opening of the bucket sufficiently large to allow an

X Bobison's ' MecbaDical Fhilosopliy/ vol. ii. p. 598.

easy entrance and an equally free escape for the water, as its re-
tention in the bucket must evidently be injui'ious, when carried
beyond the vertical centre.

br. Robison further observes, "There is another and very seri^
ous obstruction to the motion of an overshot, or bucketed wheel.
When it moves in back-water, it is not only resisted by the water
when it moves more slowly than the wheel, which is very frequently
the case, but it lifts a great deal in the rising buckets. In some
particular states of back-water, the descending bucket fills itself
completely with water, and in other cases it contains a very con-
siderable quantity, and air of common density; wliile in some rarer
cases it contains le-s water, with air in a condensed state. In the
first case, the rising bucket must come up filled with water, which
it cannot drop till its mouth gets out of the water. In the second
case, part of the water goes out before this; but the air rarefies,
and therefore there is still some water dragged or lifted up by the
wheel, by suction, as it is usually called. In the last case, there is
no such back-load on the rising side of the wheel, but (which is as
detrimental to its performance) the descending side is employed in
condensing air; and although this air aids the ascent of the rising
side, it does not aid it so much as it impedes the descending side,
being (by the form of the bucket) nearer to the vertical line drawn
thi'ough the axis."-

These were the difficulties under which the millwrights of Dr.
Robison's time laboured; and the remedy which they applied (and
which has since been more or less continued) was to bore holes in
what is technically called the 'start' of the bucket. This vvas the
only means adopted for removing the air from the buckets of over-
shot wheels, in order to facilitate the admission and emission of
the water. In lower falls, where wheels with oi)en buckets were
used, or straight float-boards radiating from the centre, large open-
ings were made in the sole-planking, exclusive of perforations in
each bucket, in order to relieve them from the condensed air. The
improved construction of the present time is widely different, the
buckets being of such a shape as to admit the water at the same
time that the air is making its escape.

During the early part of 1825, and the two succeeding years, two
iron water-wheels, each of 120-h()rse power, were constructed in
Manchester for Messrs. James Finlay and Co., of the Catrine
Works, under the auspices of the late Mr. Buchanan, and also for
the same company at Deanston, in Perthsliire, of which firm Mr.
James Smith (Deanston) was then the resident partner. Those
wheels are still in operation, and taking them in the aggregate,
they probably rank, even at the present day, as some of the most
powerful and the most complete hydraulic machines in the king-
dom. The construction of these wheels, and others for lower falls,
first directed the author's attention to the ingress and egress of the
water, and led to the improvements which have since been intro-
duced by him.

The object of these modifications may be generally stated to
have been, for the purpose of preventing the condensation of the
air, and for permitting its escape, during the filling of the bucket
with water, as also its re-admission during the discharge of the
water into the lower mill-race.

Shortly after the construction of the water-wheels for the Ca-
trine and Deanston Works, a breast-wheel was made and erected,
for Mr. Andrew Brown, of Linwood, near Paisley. In this it was
observed, when the wheel was loaded, and in flood-waters, that each
of the buckets acted as a water-blast, and forced the water and
spray to a height of 6 or 8 feet above
the orifice at which it entered. This
was complained of as a great defect, and
in order to remedy it, openings were cut
in the sole-plates, and small interior
buckets were attached to the inner sole,
as shown at b, //, b, fig. 2. The air in this
case made its escape through the open-
ings a, a, a, into the inner bucket, and
passed upwards, as is shown by tlie ar-
rows, through b, h, b, into the interior
of the wheel. By these means it will
be observed, that the buckets were ef-
fectually cleared of air whilst they were
filling, and that during the obstructions
of back-water, the same facilities were
afforded for its re-admission, and the
discharge of the water contained in the
rising buckets. The effect produced by
this alteration could scarcely be cre-

Fig. 2.

dited, as the wheel not only received and parted with the water

2 RobisoD's ' Mechanical Philosophy/ vol. ii. p. 599.

31

i34

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[ArcrsT,

freely, but an increase of nearly one-fourth of the power was ob-
tained, and the wheel, which still remains as then altered, con-
tinues, in all states of the river, to perform its duty satisfacto-
rily.

Tlie amount of power pained, and the beneficial effects pro-
duced upon IMr. Brown's wheel, induced a new and still greater
improvement in the principle of construction: the first wheel
erected on this, which has been called the 'ventilated' principle,
was one designed for Mr. Duckworth, at the Ilandfortli Print
^^'(U•ks, near Wilmslow, in Cheshire. This wlieel was started in
182^. The improvement of the breast-wheel, with the cliise sole
and ventilated buckets, as shown in fig. 5, followed immediately
thereon.

Close-bucketed wheels labour under great difficulties when re-
ceiving the water through the same orifice at which the air escapes,
and in some wheels the forms and construction of the buckets are
such as almost entirely to prevent the entrance of the water, and
to deprive tlie wheel of half its power. These defects may be
easily accounted for where the water is discharged upon the wheel
in a larger section than the opening between the buckets: under
such circumstances the air is suddenly condensed, and, re-acting
by its elastic force, throws liack the water upon the orifice of the
cistern, and thus allows tlie buckets to pass without tlieir being
more than half-filled. Several methods have been adopted for
relieving them of the air: the most common ))lan is, by cutting
hides, as before mentioned, in the sole-plates, close to the back of
the buckets, or else making the openings between them much
wider, in order to admit the water, and at the same time to allow
the air to escape. All these remedies have been more or less effec-
tive; but they labour under the objections of a great waste of
water and much incon\enience, by the water falling from the open-
ings, down upon the lower ]>art of the wheel, e.\clusive of the puff-
ing and blowing when the bucket is filling. Otlier remedies have
been applied, such as circular tubes and boxes attached to the sole-
plates, w liich, extending upwards, furnish openings into the interior
of the wheel for the air to escape; but these, like many other
plans, have been, to a certain extent, unsucessful, owing to the
complexity of their structure, and the inadequate manner in which
the objects contemplated were attained. In fact, in wheels of this
description it has been found more satisfactory to submit to ac-
knowledged defects, than to incur the trouble and inconvenience
of partial and imperfect remedies.

Tn the improvements made by the author, these objections are to
a great extent removed, and a thorough system of ventilation has
been effectually introduced. Before entering upon the description
of this new principle of ventilation, it is necessary to remark, tliat
in climates like Great Britain and Ireland, where the atmosphere
is charged with moisture for six or seven months in the year, it is
no uncommon occurrence for the rivers to be considerably swollen,
and the mills depending upon water are either impeded or entirely
stopped by back-water; while at other times a deficiency of rain
reduces the water-power below what is absolutely required to drive
the machinery. On occasions of this kind, much loss and incon-
venience is sustained, particularly in mills exclusively dependent
upon water as a motive power, and where a number of work-people
are employed.

On the outskirts of the manufacturing districts, where the mills
are more or less dependent upon water, these inconveniences are
severely felt; and in some situations these interruptions arise as
frequently from an excess of water as from a deficiency in the
supply. To remedy these evils, reservoirs have been formed, and
wheels have been constructed to work in floods; but although much
has been accomplished for diminishing these injurious effects, and
giving a more regular su]>ply in dry seasons, yet the system is still
imperfect, and much has yet to be done before water can be con-
sidered equal, as a motive power, to the steam-engine, which is
always available where the necessary fuel is at hand. It is there-
fore obvious, that any im))rovement in the construction of water-
wheels, whereby their forms and requirements may be the better
adapted to meet the exigencies of high and low waters, w ill con-
tribute much to the efficiency and value of mills situated upon
rivers subjected to the changes before alluded to.

Ventilated Water-Wheels as adapted to Low Falls.

The first wheel constructed upon the ventilated principle was
erected at Ilandforth, in Cheshire, in the summer of 1828; it
proved highly satisfactory to the proprietors, Messrs. Duckworth
and Co., and gave such important results as to induce its repeti-
tion, without variation, in cases where the fall did not exceed the
semi-diameter of the wheel.

In the earlier construction of iron suspension wheels by the late

Fig. 3.

Mr. J. C. Hewes, the arms and braces were fixed to the centres by
screws and nuts u])on tlieir ends, as shown
in fig. 3. The arms c, r ])assed thniugh
the rim ft, 6, and the braces e, c, w hicli tra-
verse the angle of the rim at /;_/", are, as
nearly as ])ossil)le, in the position and form
adopted by Mr. Hewes. This arrange-
ment, although convenient for tightening
up the arms and braces, was liable to
many objections, arising from the nuts
becoming loose, and the consequent diffi-
culty of keeping the wheels true to the
circle, and the arms and braces in an uni-
form state of tension: gibs and cotters
were therefore substituted for the nuts and
screws, and since their introduction into
the large wheels of the ( atrine M'orks,
Ayrshire, the objections have been re-
moved, and the arms and braces are now
not only perfectly secure, but the peri-
phery of the wheel is retained in its true
and correct form. It will not, therefore,
be necessary further to explain this part
of the structure, as the engravings are not
sufficiently explicit to give a correct idea
of all the parts.

Having noticed the obstructions offered
to the entrance of the water into buckets
of the usual form, and the consequent loss
which ensues from its retention upon the
wheel, after its powers of gravitation have ceased, it may be ne-
cessary to show the means whereby those defects were removed,
and also to exhibit the relation existing between the breast and
the undershot wheels. These terms have, however, become nearly
obsolete, as every description of water-wheel may now be properly
called a breast-wheel; and in every fall, however low, it is gene-
rally found advantageous for the water to act by gravitation, and
not by impulse, as during the earlier periods of the industrial ai'ts.
If the process of filling and emptying the buckets of the wheels
shown in figs. 4 and 5, be traced respectively in each, it will be
found, that in the event of a large body of water being discharged
into the bucket at D, fig. 4, it could not be filled if the opening at
g was closed, and the air was prevented from escaping in that di-
rection. Under these circumstances, the air would be compressed
and pent up in the bucket, and the water prevented from entering,
or be blown out, as already described. Now this is not the case
when they are properly ventilated, as a perfectly free passage is
constantly open for the escape of the air, in the direction of g, and
an equally free entrance is again afforded for the water at D ; the
passage for the escape of the air being re-
presented by the direction of the arrows
through the openings g, g, g, fig. 4, and also
the connection of the buckets with each
other by rivets and tubular blocks. When
a wheel of this descripticui is heavily loaded,
a small quantity of water will sometimes
escape along with the air, above the lip of
the outlet g, into the interior of the wheel;
but that is of little consequence, as it is
again received into the buckets as it falls
upon the wheel; and even this defect may
be removed by carrying the edge of the
plate higher upon the sole of the upper
bucket. For low falls, the length of the
tail side of the buckets will, however, be
found, in practice, quite sufficient, cither
as regards the economy or the distribution of the water.

Having treated of the entrance of the water into the buckets, it
is necessary to describe the facilities afforded by this construction,
for its dischai'ge. A quick and easy outlet for the water, when no
longer required upon the wheel, is as important as an expeditious
inlet; and it is evident that every drop of water which is carried
by the wheel beyond the vertical line of the centre, is so much use-
less absorption of its power: moreover, in the construction of the
bucket for the reception of the water, strict reference should also
be had to its free and uninterrupted discharge. Another main
point for consideration is the distance to which the water is carried
by its momentum, or centrifugal action, when leaving the wheel ;
aiid it will be found advantageous to effect the discharge of the
water as soon as the bucket passes the lower edge of the stone-
breast. This discharge being seldom accomplished in time, in the

ISIS"]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

235

old wheels, was a serious counterpoise to tlie power of tlie wheel,
as the ascending buckets carried with them portions of the water
to a considerable height, on the opposite side of the vertical cen-
tre. In the improved construction, this defect is obviated, as the
opening which allows the air to escape, during the filling of the
buclvets, re-admits it with the same facility during the discharge :
there cannot, consequently, be any formation of a partial vacuum,
and the wheel not only works easily, but to a much greater depth
in the back-water. It has also been found necessary, in order to
facilitate the escape of the water, to terminate the breast at a dis-
tance of about 10 inches from the vertical centre, and always to
have a depth of from 18 inches to '2 feet of water under the bottom
of the wheel.

These are considerations of some value, as the abrupt termina-
tion of the breast admits of a much quicker discharge of the water
from the buckets, and the increased depth of the tail-race gives
room for its escape, after it has passed from the wheel. In fact,
the benefits arising from this form of breast, and tail-race, are so
great, that they should be strictly enforced, where it is desirable to
have the full and eft'ective use of the fall. In the erection of water-
wheels, these principles should never be lost sight of; and instead
of a shallow tail-race, with the water running from the wheel at a
rate of from 6 to 8 feet per second, as is frequently the case with
the old wheels, the current should be scarcely perceptible, and the
water should always flow as steadily and as smooth as in a deep
canal.

It would, perhaps, be difficult to describe with accuracy the pro-
perties and proportions of these improvements, without a long
series of costly experiments upon a large scale; and in order to
make the comparison perfect, the new and old forms of water-
wheels should be placed in juxta-position, each having a propor-
tionate load, and %vorking, as nearly as possible, under the same
conditions, both as to the fall and the supply of water. Under
these circumstances, the great difference which exists between the
one kind and the other would become apparent, not only as re-
spects superior economy, but also the perfect ease with which the
ventilated wheel overcomes the resistance of the load, and the
obstructions of back-water to which wheels are subject in times of
floods.

On some future occasion an opportunity may present itself for
returning to this subject, when the superiority of water-wheels with
ventilated buckets may be confirmed by more detailed experiments,
and when the relative forms of wheels and buckets may be re-
spectively established. For the present, it will suffice to observe,
that the wheel already described will be found in practice exceed-
ingly effective, and probably the best adapted, with certain modifi-
cations, for falls not exceeding 10 feet in height.

Breast-Wheels, with Close Soles, and Ventilated Buckets.

The preceding statements have been principally confined to the
form of bucket, and description of water-wheel, adapted for low
falls. It will now be necessary to describe the best form of breast-
wheels for high falls, or those best calculated for attaining a maxi-
mum effect on falls varying from one-half to three-fourths of the
diameter of the wheel. This is a description of water-wheel in
common use, and is generally adopted for falls which do not exceed
' 18 feet in height, and, in most cases, is preferable to the overshot
wheel. It possesses many advantages over the undershot wlieel,
and its near approximation to the duty, or labouring force, of
wheels of the former description, renders it applicable in many
situations, especially where the fall does not exceed 18 or 20 feet,
and where the wheel is exposed to the obstructions of back-water.
In the latter case, wheels of larger diameter are best adapted; and
provided sufficient capacity is left in the buckets, such wlieels may
be forced through the back-water without diminution of speed.
Every wheel of this kind should have capacity in the buckets to
receive a sufficient quantity of water to force the wheel, at full
speed, through a depth of five or six feet of back-water; and if
these provisions are made, a steady uniform speed, under every
circumstance of freshes and flood-waters, may be attained.

A water-wheel of this kind, of 100-horse power, was constructed
for T. Ainsworth, Esq., of Cleator, near Whitehaven, about four
years back, for driving a flax-mill; it is 20 feet in diameter, 22 feet
wide inside the bucket, and 22 inches deep on the shroud. It has
a close-riveted sole, composed of No. 10 wire-gage iron plate, and
the buckets are ventilated from one to the other, as shown in the
engraving, fig. 5. The fall is 17 feet, and the water is discharged
upon the wheel by a circular shuttle, which is raised and lowered
by a governor, as circumstances require. By this arrangement
the whole height of the fall is rendered available, and the water,
in dry seasons, may be drawn down from three to four feet, in

order to afford time for the dam to fill, during the periods of rest,
either during the night, or at meal-times.
In this wheel, the power is taken from
each side by two pinions working into in-
ternal segments, and these again give mo-
tion to shafts and wlieels, whicli communi-
cate with the machinery of two different
mills, at some distance from each other.
The position of the pinion, or the point
where it 'gears' into the segments, is of
some importance in every water-wheel, but
more particularly in those constructed on
the suspension principle, which, upon in-
spection, will be found but indifferently
prepared to resist a torsive strain, when
the power is taken from the opposite side
of the loaded <trc of the wheel. Water-
wheels of this construction, with malleable
iron rods only 2 inches in diameter for
their support, could not resist the strain,
but would twist round upon the axle as a
fixed centre of motion. It therefore be-
comes necessary, on every occasion, to
take the power from the loaded side of
the wheel, and as near the circumference
as possible, in order to throw the weight
of the water upon the resistance of the
pinion, and that such resistance shall be F'e- s.

at the point of the greatest velocity.

In the old water-wheels, where the power was generally taken
from the axle, the whole of the force first passed through the arms
to the axle, and afterwards by a pit-wheel, or some other multiplier
of speed, to the machinery in the mill. Now, in the improved
wheels, this is not the case, as the arms, braces, and axle have only to
sustain the weight of the wheel, and to keep it in shape; and by'the
power being taken from the circumference, considerable complexity
in the transmission of the power is avoided: a great saving is also
effected when the speed re(|uired is greater than that of the wlieel.
It has already been shown that this description of wheel has a close
sole; and on reference to the figure it will be found that the tail-
ends of the buckets «, a, a, are turned up at a distance of 2
inches from the back of the sole-plate, and, running parallel
with that part, terminate within about 2 inches from the bend of
the upper bucket. The object of this construction is obvious, as
the water in passing through the openings between the buckets
drives the air before it, in the direction of the arrows at «, a, a,
into the bucket above, and so on in succession, till each bucket is
filled as it passes the aperture of the cistern from which the water
flows upon the wheel. Iriespective of the advantages of clearing
the buckets of air, additional benefit is obtained by the facility
with which the water is discharged, and the air again admitted, at
the bottom of the fall, during the period of the emptying of the
bucket into the tail-race. This is strikingly illustrated wliere tlie
wheels labour in back-water, as the ventilated buckets rise freely
above the surface, and the communication being open from one to
the other, tlie action is rendered perfectly free, at almost any
depth to which the wheel may be immersed.

In breast-wheels constructed for falls of 25 feet or upwards, the
stone-breast is not required, as the buckets are foi'med with narrow
openings, and the lip being extended nearer to the back of the fol-
lowing bucket, the water is retained much longer upon the wheel.
Under these circumstances, a stone-breast is of little or no value,
when attached to a wheel with close buckets, on a high fall.

The construction of the breast-wheels, as above described, is
almost exactly similar to that for tlie lower falls; malleable iron
arms and braces being common to both, as also the axle, shroud,
and segments. These, when duly proportioned and properly fitted
to each other, form one of the strongest, and probably the most
permanent structures, that can be attained in works of this de-
scription.

Common Breast-Wheel fuot ventilated), as constructed by Slessrs.
Fairbairn and Liltie, between the years 1825 and 182T.

These wheels were executed upon the plan of the overshot or
breast-wheel, taking the water at an elevation nearly equal to that
of its height. Four wheels of this description were constructed
for Messrs. James Finlay and Co., for a fall of 32 feet, at Deanston,
in Perthshire, and two others, for the same firm, at tlie C'atrine
AV^orks, in Ayrshire, on a fall of 48 feet. Taking into considera-
tion the height of the fall, the Cati-ine water-wheels, both as re-
gards their power and the solidity of their construction, are, even

31*

236

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

at tlie present day, probably among the best and most effective
structures of tlieir kind in existence. They have now been at
work upwards of twenty years, during wliicli time they have re-
<piired no rcjiairs, and tliey remain nearly as perfect as when they
were erected.

It was originally intended to have erected four of these wheels
at the Catrine Works, but only two have been constructed; pre-
parations were, however, made for receiving two others, in the
event of an enlargement of the reservoirs in the hilly districts,
and more power being required for the mills. This extension has
not yet been wanted, as these two wheels are equal to itO-horse
jiower, and are sufficiently powerful, e.xcept in very dry seasons, to
turn the whole of the mills. The water-wheels were so placed and
arranged as to connnunicate their motion to a series of connecting
cross-shafts, and by means of large spur-wheels and pinions, to
transmit the united power of tlie water-wheels through large hoi'i-
zontal shafts to a cotton-mill at a considerable distance, and also
by means of a pair of large be\el-wheels and shafts, to kee]) in
motion another mill of equal magnitude, in another direction.
These water-wheels are 50 feet in diameter, 10 ft. 6 in. wide inside
the bucket, and 13 inches deep on the shi-oud; the internal spur
segments are 48 ft. 6 in. diameter, 3j inches ]iitch, and 15 inches
broad on the cog; the large spur-wheels are 18 ft. 2g in. in diame-
ter, 3j inches in the pitch, and 16 inches wide on the cog; and the
|)inions are the same width and pitch, but are 5 ft. 6 in. in diame-
ter; the large bevel-wheels are 7 feet in diameter, Sg inches in the
jiitch, and 18 inches broad on the cog, their proportions being cal-
culated to convey the united power of all the four water-wheels,
should the original design ever be completed. The water for the
supply of the wheels is conveyed from the river Ayr in a canal
ami tunnel, and from thence, along the side of a rising bank, to
the wheel-house. From this point it is conveyed to the water-
wheels by a large sheet-iron trough, supported on iron columns.
'When viewed from the entrance, the two wheels already erected
have a very imposing effect, each of them being elevated upon
stone piers; and as the whole of the cisterns, sluices, winding ap-
paratus, galleries, &c., are considerably elevated, they are conveni-
ently approached in every part. Under the wheels is a capacious
tunnel, terminating at a considerable distance down the river.

The shuttle, and the method of regulating the water to obtain
uniform velocity, might also be noticed; but as these must vary
with the locality in which the water-wheels are established, it is
not necessary to enter minutely into a description of them.

Water-wheels on a principle introduced by M. Poncelet have
attained some considerable reputation on the continent; and as
the author has constructed one of them for Mr. De Bergue, it is
necessary to allude briefly to the peculiarities it possesses. The
buckets are of a curvilinear form, and are quite open at the back,
without any sole-plate; so that they are perfectly ventilated. The
water impinges upon them at nearly the lowest point of the wheel,
the shuttle being arranged to draw upwards; and as the water
enters, it follows the inside cavity of the bucket, rises and falls
over into the next in succession, and so on. By this system the
force of the water is expended on the wheel itself, instead of losing
much of its power in rushing along through the wheel-race, as
generally occurs in even well-made undershot wheels.

M. Poncelet has treated this subject at such length in his able
work on water-wheels, that it is not necessary here to enter into
further details; but it may be observed, that a practical improve-
ment might be effected by terminating the lower stone platform of
the race somewhat short of the vertical line of the ceiitre of the
wheel, as the escape of the water would be facilitated, and the as-
cending buckets would he more easily relieved of their contents:
this is a point of such importance for all wheels, that it must
equally apply to this form.

In this Pa])er, the turbine, with the improvements recently in-
troduced in it by Fourneyron, Zuppinger, Whitelaw, and others,
has been entirely omitted. There are many published statements
relative to these improvements; but its limited employment in
this country, up to the present time, scarcely renders it necessary to
refer to it. It is, however, asserted that as much as ninety to
ninety-two per cent, had been obtained from M. Fourneyron's'tur-
Iiine; but that gentleman, in a recent visit to this country, kiiuUy
furnished the author with data taken from several of his machines,
which reduce the duty to a mean of seventy-two per cent. M.
Zuppinger and Mr. Whitelaw do not claim a higher duty in their
machines, the average being from seventy to seventy-four per cent.
upon the theoretical value of the fall.

Remarlts made at the Meeting after the reading of the foregoing Paper.

Sir J. Re.nnie said, Mr. Fairliaini's experience in the construction of water-
wheels was so great, and the peueral remarks of tbe Paper were so accurate,
that little could he added, and he was grieved to disagree with any point in it ;
but he could not accord with the statement of few improvements having
heen introduced sinie the time of Smeaton. Sir J.Rennie must claim some
merit for his late lather, who had both studied the theory and practice of
water-wheels; and he would not permit Mr. Fairhairn to detract from his
own merit, as he was universally acknowledged to he at least one of the roost
successful constructors of these machines. The late Mr. Rennie introduced
the system of laying the water on to the wheel in a thin stream, not exceed-
ing 10 inches in depth. In addition to this, and for the purpose of-taking
the utmost advantage of the fall, he used the curved moveahle shuttle, and
at the same time tried various curves for the buckets. It apjieared that Mr.
Fairliairn had directeil his attention to nearly the same points, as there was
great similarity in the machines, he having apparently taken the subject up
where Mr. Rennie had left it, and the excellent result appeared in the state-
ments contained in the Paper. Poncelet's experiments on this subject
showed, that in some wheels constructed with curved huckets, but without
sole-plates, and receiving the water almost like undershot wheels, an advan-
tage of ten per cent, over the ordinary forms could he attained. The expe-
riments of the Franklin Institute, made upon large wheels, were perhaps the
most valuable. The greatest result obtained was, he believed, about sixty
per cent, with a velocity of about 8 feet per second. As the opinioD of
Professor Robison had been quoted, it might not he uninteresting to state,
that on one occasion be was consulted by his former pupil, the late Mr.
Rennie, as to the best form and dimensions of a water-wheel, and that the
result was a conaplete failure; proving that his practice was not as good as
his theory. Some time since, it was expected that the turbine would, in a
great measure, supersede water-wbeels; but, however well they might be
adapted for peculiar situations, they had not been generally introduced.
Fourneyron brought the idea from Germany, and materially improved upon
the construction, until, as he stated, about seventy-five per cent, of power
was obtained from them ; but he had never yet seen any turbine perform
that amount of duty. Whitelaw's wheel followed, and was stated to have
attained about the same power. These machines, however, were both difficult
of construction, and did not appear to make progress among engineers.

Mr. Fairbairn regretted that he bad not read an account of the improve-
ments of the late Mr. Rennie, both before he had constructed the wheels,
and when he wrote the Paper, as he could not have failed to benefit by fol-
lowing in the steps of so worthy a predecessor. The turbine bad been
noticed very cursorily in the Paper, because the subject had been nearly
exhausted in the excellent Paper by Mr. Lewis Gordon,' and because that
machine had really been but little employed in this country, although some-
what extensively on the continent, lie had constructed one for M. Four-
neyron, which had heen sent to Italy, and was stated to have done good
work. He had also erected one for Mr. Whitelaw in Yorkshire, for a fall of
120 feet. It was at first 2 feet in diameter, and made about 400 revolutions
per minute, at which speed about thirty per cent, of power was obtained :
it was then altered to 2 ft. 6 in. diameter, when about fifty per cent, was
arrived at ; and he believed that other alterations had still further improved
its action. Some practical difficulties alw.iys occurred, such, among others,
as the means of lubricating the main vertical spindle under water, which,
for ordinary cases, tended to induce a preference for good water-wheels.
Mr. Whitelaw had asserted, that with a good fall, as much as seventy or
seventy-five per cent, of power could he obtained but M. Fourneyron did
not anticipate more than seventy-two per cent. Mr. Fairbairn had seen
abroad a kind of turbine working horizontally, which received the water,
through pipes, from a very high fall, into curved buckets, upon the two op-
posite extremities of its diameter: the velocity was very considerable, and
the power gained was stated to be great.

Mr. Croker said, one of the most successful of M. Fourneyron's turbines
was erected at St. Blasieu, in the Black Forest, upon a fall of 350 feet. The
diameter was \2{ inches; and when the sluice was open about one-third of
an inch, the machine made 2,250 revolutions per minute, with an expendi-
ture of water not exceeding 60 cubic feet. The supply of water was de-
rived from streams amongst the surrounding hills, and being collected into
a reservoir, distant about three-quarters of a league from the turbine, was
thence conveyed to it in cast-iron pipes, 18 inches in diameter. The turbine
was used for driving a spinning factory, containing 8,000 water spindles,
with the roving-frames, carding-engines, and all other necessary machinery.
The duty of the machine was calculated, from experiment, to be equal to
seventy per cent, of the water expended.

Mr. Glynn said, bis custom in the construction of water-wheels had been
to obtain free egress for the air by simple openings through the sole-plate
into the interior of the wheel. The contrivance for conveying the air up-
wards, adopted in the wheels which had been described, was a decided im-
provement, and would tend materially to that regular filling and emptying of
the buckets, without which uniformity of motion could nut be insured ; and
for many of the fabrics manufactured by water-power that regularity was
essential. The ordinary velocity of the wheel was about 6 feet per second ;
and with respect to the per centage of power obtained, when the water fell
upon the wheel without impulse, and left it without velocity, he conceived

» See 'Journal,' Vol. V. 1842, page 268.

isig.i

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

237

that nfarly all the power was used. He admired the details of construction
of Mr. Fairhairn's wheels, particularly the arrangement for taking the lift on
the loaded sirie of the wheel, and thus making the axle only the means of
retaining the wheel in its place.

Mr. Fairbairn stated, in answer to Captain Moorsom, that he considered
tlie form of the hucket did conlrihute materially to the regidarity of motion.
It was important to carry the water down as near to the vertical centre as
possihle, so as to get the hest effect from it, and yet to begin to part with it
as soon as that line was ])assed. That form was also found to till better, and
waste less water in times of drought, whilst it worked very easily, and with-
out injury from hack-water in times of flood. The ventilating wheels were
not so essential for very hi^h falls; they would be more expensive, and the
measure of all benefit being the cost, he could not consider them of much
advantage for high falls.

Mr. Beardmoke thought that there was scarcely a situation in Cornwall
to which this kind of wheel was applicable, as all the falls were very high.
The wheels in that district were chiefly emj)loyed for working stampers, or
for pumping. In neither case was regularity of action at all necessary : for
pumping, an exertion of force was essential to raise the heavy plunger-rods,
and tlien the wheel might run at any velocity during the other portion of its
revolution ; and before the next stroke was made, power was accumulated,
by the extra filling of these particidar iiuckets,the others possibly not having
been more than half-filled : the njilUvright therefore gave plenty of bucket
room, and ventilation was alVorded at the extremities.

where it was important to obtain the utmost regularity of movement. He
had heard it remarked, that the yarn spun by water-power obtained a higher
price in the market than that produced by steam-power. Mr. Russell had
tried some experiments on water-wheels, and found the radial breast-wheels
give very good results, with a fall of about 14 feet, and the sluice and
water-course so arranged as to bring the water on with as little velocity a!
possible, filling the buckets properly — which, however, could only be accom-
plished up to a certain speed without a system of ventilation. In high falls,
this became even more essential, and, in fact, indispensable.

Mr. Fairbairn Mplained, that he had tried both methods of taking off
the power, and preferred taking it from one side only, as, in addition to the
other objections, when the gearing was fixed on both sides, the elasticity of
the wrought-iron tension arms tended to break the teeth of the pinions. It
could therefore only be done when the wheel was perfectly rigid. Mr. Strutt,
of Derby, and the late Mr. Hewes.of Manchester, bad made many important
improvements in v\ater-wheels, particularly those on the suspension principle,
which appeared now to be acknowledged as the most advantageous con-
struction.

Mr. De Bergue said he had obtained nearly seventy-eight per cent, of
power from a breast-wheel, with a good fall, when the periphery was travel-
ling at a velocity of 6 feet per second. He had erected several of Poncelet's
wheels, and thought well of them ; indeed, for certain situations he thought
thev were preferable to any other form, although M. Poncelet had never yet
been able to obtain very superior results from wheels erected under his own

Fig. C, — Water-wheel on Poncelet's system.

Mr. WicKSTEED considered the wheels in Cornwall and those in Lancashire
were so differently employed, that no useful comparison could be drawn
between them. He thought, however, that no doubt could exist as to the
advantages of Mr. Fairhairn's improvements, where steadiness of action, and
the economical use of water, were required. He apprehended that some
difBculty might occur in times of flood ; but the form of the buckets was
calculated to meet, to some extent, even that objection. Great attention ap-
peared to be deservedly given to the angle formed by the bucket with the
periphery, and he conceived that it was a question of importance, particularly
in relation to the amount of strain upon the axis. Mr. Wicksteed had
tried some experiments upon large-sized water-wheels, built both on Smea-
ton's and Rennie's systems, but had not obtained from them more than
fifty-six per cent, of power: the velocity was generally about 6 feet per
second.

Mr. Scott Russell had rarely seen better designed, or more ably executed
machines, than these ventilated water-wheels, and he thought the profession
was under obligation to Mr. Fairbairn for the improvement he had intro-
duced. He might instance, especially, one point of importance; this was,
the method of taking off the power, by inside gearing, from the loaded part
of tbe periphery, thus avoiding all risk of straining the wrought-iron tension
arms. Attempts had been made to improve upon the system, by taking off
the power from the two sides of the wheel ; but they had not been success-
ful, as the gearing on both sides did not work well together, and a tremulous
motion was communicated, which was very objectionable for spinning-mills,

superintendence. Mr. De Bergue then exhibited a drawing (fig. 6), and ex-
plained the construction of a wheel, on this principle, to be erected at the
Loubregat, near Montserrat, in Catalonia; one of the same kind having been
already erected by him at Gerona, between Barcelona and Bellegarde. The
diameter was IG ft. 8 in., and the width was 30 feet, which, with a fall of
6 ft. 6 in., passed 120,000 cubic feet of water per minute, when the periphery
travelled at a velocity of 11 to 12 feet per second. An ordinary breast-
wheel would require to be 90 feet wide, to use advantageously that quantity
of water. It was found that the velocity of the periphery should be about
fifty-five per cent, of that of the water flawing through the sluice ; and upon
these data the power of the wheel would be about 180-horse power. The
buckets were of a curved form, and made of wrought-iron J of an inch
thick ; and it would be observed that there was a larger number of buckets
than usual, and that the water came upon them at a tangent, through an
orifice of such a form and dimensions as to allow the buckets to fill easily,
at the rapid speed at which the periphery passed before the sluice. This
great primary velocity was very important, as it caused a considerable saving
in the gearing of the mill. The main shaft was formed by a hollow cylinder
of cast-iron, 4ft. Gin. diameter, in short lengths, bolted together; and the
arms were of wrought-iron, made very light, and of the same form as those
of a paddle-wheel of a steamer, and placed very close together. The strain
was brought entirely upon the main shaft, and the weight of the wheel was
thus reduced to about 30 tons, which was very little for so powerful a
machine. The sluice was formed of cast-iron plates, with planed joints,

238

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

bolted throush the flanches, to form one large shuttle, of the entire breadth
of the wheel, and its motion was regulateu by radial tie-rods, between the
stone apron and the back of the sluice, which could thus be rai^^ed with
great facility by racks and pinions, and be regulated by the ordinary gover-
nor, the weight of the sluice being in a great degree supported by the water
flowing beneath it, on to the wheel. It moved very accurately between the
side walls of the pen-trough, and cup-leathers at each side prevented any
waste of water. This kind of wheel was less affected by back-water than
any other form, and the water acted upon it with its full power of velocity,
without any impediment from the air in entering, as there was no sole-plate;
the buckets were, therefore, tilled and emptied with great facility. Mr. De
liergue was satisfied that this was the best kind of wheel for all falls under
8 feet in height; and though the principle differed essentially from that
generally taken as the basis of constructioo of water-wheels, he was inclined
to prefer it to any other system.

BUILDING MATERIALS IN PARIS.

On the Building Materiuls Employed in Paris and in the Valley of
the Lou-er Seine. By George Burnell, Esq. — (Paper read at the
Royal Institute of British Architects.)

At the present day, when the attention of the profession has
been so powerfully directed to what may be called the physiology
of the materials employed in the execution of the works committed
to their charge, it may be interesting to examine the practice of
the architects in the neighbouring capital. Such an e.xamination,
moreover, becomes more interesting from the comparatively supe-
rior attention paid by the French architects and engineers to the
study of the philosophy of the mechanical parts of their pursuits.
^I'ith the glorious exceptions of Rennie, Tredgold, Barlow, and
Hodgkinson, nearly all that we know of the chemical and mechani-
cal nature of the materials we have to employ, is derived from the
works of tlie French authors. The practical lessons they have
drawn from their researches become, therefore, of much more im-
mediate importance; and, although the geological nature of the
country in which they are applied differs so entirely from that of
our own, yet the mode of analysis adopted, and the conclusions
arrived at, are as applicable here as elsewhere.

Building materials may be separated, for the purposes of classi-
fication, into the following groups: — 1st, stone; 2nd, bricks; 3rd,
limes; 4th, woods; 5th, metals. Under the head of bricks are in-
cluded tiles, pottery, and artificial stones; under that of limes are
included plaster, cement, sand, stuccos, &c. These materials are
to be examined — firstly, as to the nature and qualities of tlieir con-
stituent parts; secondly, as to the manner of their use.

I. Stones. — The stones employed in building are grouped thus
— 1st, the argillaceous; 2nd, the calcareous; 3rd, the gypseous;
4th, the silicious; 3th, the volcanic and divers natures.

1st. The Argillaceous Stones. — These are comprised of a base of
alumina, generally combined witli silicates and the oxides and sul-
l)hurets of iron. They do not effervesce with the acids, and are
composed of successive layers, easily separated. The schists and
slates are of this class.

The slates used in Paris are extracted at Angers, in the depart-
ment of the Maine and Loire. The quarries are opened in a bed
of Silurian argillaceous schist of an enormous tliickness, which
outcroj)S for a length of 10 miles, between Avrille and Treluze,
jiassing under the town of Angers, where the Mayenne cuts the
direction of the formation at right angles. There are eight quar-
I'ies opened in a direction from east to west. Immediately under
tlie vegetable soil is found a bed of incoherent schist, named in
the country "cosse." This is followed by a bed difficult to cleave,
and, therefore, used locally as a rubble building stone; and lastly
occurs, about 14. or 15 feet from the surface, the useful slate. It
is worked in patches about 400 feet wide, leaving underneath an
unknown tliickness, though the depth quarried in many cases e.x-
tends to 3(I0 feet.

Tlie ([uarrics of Angers furnish a slate of a very fine grain, re-
markably thin and light; although the specific gravity of the slate
itself is very great. It is 3-000^ water being 1-000, or 188 lb. per
foot cube. Four sizes are worked for the Paris market — viz.: the
"grande carre forte," llf long hv ^\ wide, and ^ thick (0™.298
X 0"'.217 X 0"'.003); 2nd, the "graiule carre' fine," of the same
dimensions as to length and breadth, but of about half the thick-
ness; 3rd, the "cartelettes," 8^ long by (iM wide by i thick (0".217
X 0"i.l62 X O'".0O3; and 4th, the "cartelette fine, of about half
tlie thickness. According to the statistical returns of the In-
genieurs des Mines, the value of the slates e.xtracted at Angers in
the year 1845, was at the pit's mouth l,420,056f. (56,400/^); and
there were employed in the quarries 2,36G workmen.

The quarries of Charleville, in the department of the Ardennes,
are worked upon a larger scale for the supply of slates for the east
of France, Holland, and the Low Countries; but the e.xpensive
land carriage prevents them being employed in the capital. The
value of their |)roduce is about l,793,945f. (72,000/.); they employ
2,843 men. The slates are somewhat softer than those of Angers,
consequently they decayed rapidly in the damp countries where
they were usually emjiloyed. M. Vialet, Ingenieur des Ponts et
C'haussees, overcame this objection by roasting the slates until
they assumed a red tinge; their durability was doubled by this
process. In the neighbourhood of St. L6, in the department of
Calvados, are some slate quarries in the Cambrian strata, which are
used to a considerable extent in the neighbourhood, and which, if
the land carriage were not so ruinous, would doubtlessly be for-
midable rivals to those of Angers. The cathedral of Bayeux is
covered with the former; but even there, the price of the Angers
slate is so much inferior to that of St. L6, as to ensure the preference
for general use, in spite of the superiority of the latter. The
value of the slates extracted in the department of the Calvados in
1845 was 10,360f. (414/.)

The usual practice in Paris and in the departments of the
Lower Seine, is to nail the slates with two nails upon battens half
an inch thick, and from 4^ inches to 7 inches wide, that is to say,
either of deals cut in two, or of battens. Sometimes these
"voliges," as they are called, are of poplar or sycamore, but they
decay very rapidly. The slates lap over one another two-thirds of
their length, leaving a "pureau" of one-third, when the inclination
of the roof is not above 33°: at 45° the pureau is one-half of the
slate; at 60' two-thirds. The battens are rarely laid close, for the
slates are found to decay more rapidly if there be no circulation of
air. Tlie usual space between the battens is about Ig inch. Hips,
ridges, valleys, and gutters are executed as in England, with the
trifling exception, that step-metal flashings are unknown; the slates
are made good to the Pignon walls by merely covering the meeting
angle with plaster.

2nd. The Calcareous Stones. — The formations which furnish tlie
building stones of this class occur in the neighbourhood of Paris, and
of the basin of the Lower Seine, in vast deposits. The ease with
which they are extracted, and the proximity of the quarries to the
places in which tlie stone is to be used, render their employ almost
imperative; and it is to the use of these materials that the monu-
mental character of Paris is in a great measure to be attributed.

The nature of this class of stone is too generally known to ren-
der it worth while to dw ell upon it at present. Our geological ob-
servations will therefore be merely confined to an enumeration of
the great sources of supply. These are, for Paris itself, the vast
tertiary formation, which nearly covers the wliole of the depart-
ments of the Seine, Seine and Oise, Seine and Marne, I'Oise, and
extends into those immediately around. Rouen, and some of the
small towns above and below it, use large quantities of an indu-
rated chalk met with on the banks of the Seine, whilst Havre and
the intermediate towns derive their building stones principally
from the oolitic formations of the department of Calvados.

Nearly the whole of the department of the Seine in which Paris
is situated, may be considered as capable of furnishing calcareous
stones for building purposes. The excavations which have been,
and still continue to be made, in and around Paris, ai-e immense.
About one-sixth of the town is built over the abandoned quarries,
which are known under the name of the catacombs. Tlie quarters
St. Marcel, St. Jacques, St. Germain, and Chaillot, are in this con-
dition; and it is calculated that the mass of materials extracted
tliencefrom is not less than 385 million cubic feet. At present the
bulk of the superior stimes furnished by the department, comes
from the quarries of Arceuil, Bagneux, Montrouge, and St. Cloud,
tthich lie to the south-west of Paris.

The department of the Seine and Oise, is rich in quarries.
Amongst them may be cited those of Saillancourt and Conflans,
near Pontois, of Poissy, St. Nom, St. Maure, I'lle Adam, and
Cherence near Mantes, and upon the borders of the Chalk. The
department of the Oise furnishes the lias of Seiilis, and the
Vergelee of St. Leu. The Seine and Marne furnish the very beau-
tiful stone called the Chateau Laudon.

This stone of the Chateau Laudon is the hardest, densest, and,
consequently, heaviest, employed in Paris. It is nearly a pure
carbonate of lime, containing in 1,000 parts 18 only of magnesia,
and 18 of silicate of alumina. Its colour is a grey, slightly tinged
with yellow; it is subcrystalline, resists the action of the atmo-
sjihere, and bears a kind of polish. The quarries from w hich it is
extracted are about C3 miles from Paris; yet the great superiority
of the stone causes it to be ])referred wherever great solidity is
desired. It was first employed in the erection of the bridge of

1849.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

239

Nemours; sulisequently Rondelet used it for the paving of the
Pantheon. The Barriere de I'Etoile is faced witli it; tlie pedestals
of the Pont d'Jena, the large basins of the Chateau d'Eau, and of
the foundation of the Innocents, and the parapets of the terre-
plein of the Pont Neuf are executed of this stone, as are also the
steps, parapet walls, and balustrades of the church of St. Vincent
de Paul.

The specific gravity is 2'605; its weight about 163 lb. Eng. to a
foot cube; and it is able to resist a crushing weight of 332 kilo,
per centimetre square.

The lias, which was formerly extracted to the south of Paris,
was an excessively hard stone, but the quarries are nearly ex-
hausted. The name is still retained amongst the quarrymen, and
is by them applied indiscriminately to the liardest beds of calcaire
grossih-e, which rarely occur in any great depth. At Arceuil, Ba-
gneux, Montronge, &c., the lias is fine-grained and compact, but is
rarely raised in blocl<s of more than a foot thick. At Montereau
it is occasionally 2 feet thick. At St. Cloud, it is soft; at Maisons,
in the south-west of Paris, it takes a rose tint, and occurs in beds
of from 9 to 10 inches thick. The specific gravity of the lias is,
on the average, 2-+39; the foot cube weighs 15211).; the crushing
weight per centimetre square is even greater than that of the
Chateau Laudon; it is 4+5 kihig. It was doubtless for this rea-
son that it was chosen for the execution of the columns of the ex-
terior of the Madeleine and of the Bourse. The crown moulding
of the large pediment of the Louvre is executed in lias, extracted
at Mendon; it is of two pieces each 16 m. 24 c. long, by 2 m. 60 c.
wide, by 46 c. high (53 ft. 3 in. X 8 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 5 in.)

The "cliquart" extracted at Vangirard and Mendon is a species
of lias of a rather looser texture.

The stones called the "roches" are hard, of a coarse grain,
very shelly. They occur in beds varying in thickness from 1 ft.
4 in. to 2 ft. 2 in.; their specific gravity is between 2-415 and 2-305,
the heaviest being, as usual, the best. The foot cube weighs be-
tween 151 lb. and 141 lb.; the crushing weight 302 kilogs. and
283 k. p. c. square. The roche of St. Cloud is red and shelly, but
of a very superior quality; it occurs in beds from 18 inches to
2 feet thick, and has the peculiar quality of being able to be em-
ployed on the wrong way of the bed. The isolated columns of
the court of the Louvre and of the garden front of the Tuileries
<ire of this stone, and have stood well for upwards of 200 years.
We shall have occasion to revert to this apparent anomaly on
some future occasion. The basements of the Madeleine, St.
Vincent de Paul, Notre Dame de Lorette, of the Palais du Quai
d'Orcay, and of the Bourse, are executed in the "roche de Ba-
gneux."

The bridges of Neuilly, the Pont d'Jena, of Louis XVI., and
numerous similar constructions, are built of the "roche" of Saillan-
court. At Rouen large quantities of the roche of Cherence are
employed in woiks which require solidity: for instance, the stone
bridge and the basement of the Custom House. The rubble filling
of the bridge is, however, of the Vetheuil stone, one of the lowest
members of the tertiary formations. At Havre, the plinth of the
Museum is executed in the Cherence stone. The practice of the
French architects is never to employ the softer materials, such as
the Caen oolite, near the ground.

The "pierre franche" is a fine, close-grained stone, less dense
and hard than the "roche," but preferable for the decorative pur-
poses of architecture, on account of the superior homogenity of
its grain. Its specific gravity is about 2-130; the foot cube weighs
1331b. nearly; the crushing weight is about 126 kilogs. per centi-
metre. The lower parts of the Pantheon are of this stone, ex-
tracted at Arceuil. The angle stones of the facade of the same
building are executed in blocks from the banc royal of Conflans,
of the same nature; they were 10 feet square by about 6 ft. 6 in.
high, and weighed about 24 tons. The arches of the portico and
of the interior of the church and the dome, the entablature, and
the capitals of the exterior order, are of the same stone. The
Vergele'e and the St. Leu are of the same category, as is also the
stone of rile Adam; they are extensively used in Rouen and the
neighbouring cities, on the banks of the Seine and the Oise, in
those of the canal, and on the Northern Railway. The exterior
dome of the Pantheon is in Ver'gelee stone.

The lambourde is a soft stone of an even, coarse grain; it de-
composes when exposed to moisture, and is therefore only used in
positions in which the action of the atmosphere is the slightest.
The best stone of this description is extracted at St. ]Maur, where
it reaches 1 ft. 8 in. in thickness. Some beautiful stones for inter-
nal works are obtained in this series of Conflans and at St. Leu,
which attain 2 ft. 2 in. thickness. Tlie specific gravity varies be-
tween 1-897 and 1-709; the weight per foot cube is between 1131b.

and 107 lb.; the crushing weight is about 59 kilogs per cent,
square.

The chemical type of the building stones of Paris may be re-
garded to be that of the stones found near Marly; they are thus
composed —

Carbonate of lime 89

Magnesia 1

Silicate of ammonia 10

lll'J

Sometimes the magnesia disappears, and the quantity of clay and
flint diminishes considerably: thus it is —

Carboiiule of lime O'DMS

Silex and clay 0<il5

l-OtO

At Vernon, in the department de I'Eure, a species of indurated
chalk is largely quarried for local uses. The church of Vernon,
and that of Louviers, are executed in this kind of stone, as are
also those of Pont de I'Arche, and of les Andelys, When fresh
from the quarry these stones are soft, but they harden by exposure
to the atmosphere; so much so as to resist atmospheric action in a
very extraordinary manner. In the instances of the three first-
named churches, all the external ornamentation is of the most
elaborate character of the "flamboyante" architecture; and in all
cases where the water does not lodge, the details of the foliage,
and the arises of the mouldings are preserved in a very remark-
able manner. The blocks are sometimes 3 ft. 4 in. high, their spe-
cific gravity is 2-155; the foot cube weighs 135 lb. nearly, the
crushing weight is about 220 kilogs. per centimetre square.

The most correct chemical analysis of the chalk in the depart-
ment of the Lower Seine was made upon some extracted at St-
Catherine. It is more fissured than at Vernon, St. Etienne, or
Caumont, but may be regarded as of the same mineralogical type.
It contains —

Carbonate of lime C'S

Silicate of ammonia 12

.Sand ()

Oxitte of iron 2

Water 12

luo
A similar description of indurated chalk is extracted at Caumont,
in the Seine Inferieure, to the north-west of Rouen. This, or a
like stone from St. Etienne, nearer still to the town, was much em-
ployed in the middle ages in the buildings of Rouen. The cathe-
dral, St. Ouen, St. Maclou, the Archbishop's palace, may be cited
as instances.

The lateral elevations of the Madeleine are of the Pierre Franche
of rile Adam, the upper parts of St. Vincent de Paul, of N.D. de
Lorette, of Vergele'e de St. Leu; those of the Palais du Quai
d'Orcay, are a mixture of the pierres franches of Carrieres St.
Denis, Montesson, and Carrieres sous Bois, near St. Germain.
The fa.ades of the Bourse are in stone of I'lle Adam and of Conflans.
The restoration of the Palais de Justice, the completion of St.
Ouen, the upper parts of the Douane and of Entrepot des Sels, at
Rouen, are in Vergelee de St. Leu.

At Havre, and generally in the embouchure of the Seine, the
calcareous stone of the Calvados are used. An examination of
them would lead us into too many details at present; but they have
become so interesting to us, from the extensive use made of them
in England, that it is much to be desired that a more elaborate
examination be made than we have at pi-esent. The notices con-
tained in T/ie Builder, notwithstanding their undoubted merit,
present questionable points. The chemical analysis, firstly, I am
convinced, is not correct; inasmuch as the Caen stone is stated
only to contain a trace of magnesia, whilst it is notorious that the
lime it yields is thin, without being hydraulic, which would not
occur unless there were present a verj*considerable quantity of
magnesia. The use of the franc banc is justly objected to, but the
use of the stone from the quarries of la Maladrerie is much more
dangerous, and this, I observe, is sent over to London in very
large quantities. It is, if not asserted, at least given to be under-
stood, that no inconvenience would arise from the use of Caen
stone placed the wrong way of the bed; whereas all the most ac-
curate and scientific observers who have made any researches into
the subject — -namely, Rondelet, Soufflot, Peyi-onnet, Ganthey,
Sganzin, Reibel, and Vicat, — all agree in asserting that the re-
sistance of stones is much greater when they are employed upon
their natural bed. As to the action of the sea water upon the
Caen stone, it is universally received amongst the French practical
masons that the sea water destroys it very rapidly; and chemistiy
teaches us that the nmriates and sulphates of magnesia, present
in the sea water, enter into energetic combination with the salts
contained in the limestones, and produce rapid disintegration.

240

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[AvfilST,

Tlie calcareous stones when first extracted are certainly in a
very different state to that in which they appear after liisinij the
quarry damp, to use the expression of tlie quarrymen. 1 suspect
tliat they exist in tlie quarry only as a suh-carlmnate of lime; at
any rate, it is certain tliat they are hydro-carbonates. In cither
case the lime is, comparatively speaking, free to enter into new
i-unihinations. If sea water he introduced, the magnesia enters
into combination witli tlie lime, the more readily if carbonic acid
be present, giving rise to the formation of a niagnesian carbonate
of lime. The sulphuric acid gas also enters into combination with
the lime, giving rise to the formation of sulpliate o<' lime. These
combinations take place with the commencement of a confused
crystallization, tlie mass is disintegrated, and falls to powder.

Practically, at Paris, where from the nature of the subsoil it is
expensive to form cellars, and where the bulk of the houses are
huilt u))on the ground, without deep foundations, where the land
is all freehold, building leases are unknown, and consequently
where the interest of the (iroprietors is evidently to obtain the
greatest number of dwellings upon the least luissible surface, and
the houses, therefore, are generally from six to seven stories high,
the lower parts of the houses are built of the roche stone, towards
the street and up to the first floor; from thence two stories are
carried up in la pierre franche; and the remainder is executed in
lambourde. The party walls are mostly executed of moellon, or
small coursed stones, of similar natures to the corresponding parts
of the facade. The back walls and partitions are of wood, filled
in with light rubble, and plastered. Such construction is about as
had as can be: the front wall, built of cai-efully-squared ashlar,
sinks very little. The party walls, of rubble and plaster, not only
sink more than the front, hut, from the fact that the plaster in
setting expands, it becomes necessary to build these walls totally
independent of one another. The back walls, of wood framework,
shrink still more. It is therefore almost impossible, in the new
quarters of Paris, where this style prevails, to find a house which
is not disfigured in all directions with cracks and settlements of
every kind and size imaginable.

The mode of using the stone is, however, logical, and merits
imitation. The harder and less hygrometric stones are placed at
the bottom, as being the most fit to resist the crushing weight and
the capillary action of the stone upon the humidity of the soil.
The finer grained stones are employed at the heights destined !
usually to he ornamented; the lighter and more perishable stones ;
are used above, where they load the foundations less than the
others would do, and where they meet with the atmospheric condi-
tions the most adapted to their own preservation.

In Ilouen, the Chin-ence stone, or that of Vernon, are used in
the situations where the roche is used at Paris; the upper parts I
are of the softer stones. At Havre the same rule is observed: the
Cherence, Caumont, Ranville, or granite, are used in all cases
where there is danger to be feared from humidity; the Caen stone ,
is only used in the upper works. Wherever I have seen the Au- [
bigny stone used, it has decayed rapidly. Indeed, the French ar-
chitects do not much advocate its use externally.

The value of the building materials extracted in 1815 was, for
the departments before cited, as follows: —

SHne and Marne

Seine

Buildine Stones.

F. rt47.O00

2 4l;t 2VJ

Plaster.

. F. /riu.ooo

1.2H.=i,0f!7

100.59;i

Eiire

. . . 222 IfnS

18'2 784

8'Cf>r>i

Oise

;.uu,-ioo

148,350

besides the value of the slates, quoted previously.

3rd. IVie Gi/picons Sloneit. — These stones, from their soft and
friable nature, and the facility with which tliey decompose in the
atmosphere, are not allowed to be used as building materials in
Paris. Sometimes enclosure walls are built of them, employed as
moellon. Tlie principal use is in the fabrication of plaster.

The chemical nature of these stones as found at Montmartre,
Belleville, Charonne, Menilmontant, le Calvaire, Triel, and Meu-
lan, is, according to Fourcroy, 32 parts of oxide of calcium, 1-6
parts of sulphuric acid, and 22 parts of water. They differ from
the gypsums of other countries, in the large quantities of lime
they contain, which gives them greater powers of resistance to the
action of the moisture of the atmosphere. The operation of burn-
ing consists simply in driving off' the water of crystallisation. In
this state the plaster has a remarkable avidity for water, and im-
mediately that any is presented it absorbs it, and crystallises
around the bodies in its immediate vicinity. I noticed previously
the singular fact of the swelling of the plaster during this pro-
cess; it is one that requires great attention in the employ of the

material. Another fact worthy of notice is cited by Rondelet —
namely, that two bricks set together with plaster adhere with one-
tiiird more energy than briiks set with lime during the first month;
but that afterwards their adhesion diminishes, whereas that of the
bricks and mortar increases almost indefinitely.

4th and .5th. TIte SUiceonx Stoiif.s, ^r. — They comprehend the
gres, flint nodules, the meuleres, the granites, porphyries, and the
basalts.

The gres is a species of imperfect sandstone formation, at least
as it occurs near Paris, and in the department of the Lower Seine.
It is composed of a fine sand of a whitish tinge, cemented together
by a silicious cement. Generally s]>eaking it occurs in detached
nodules, named "rognons;" sometimes it occurs in layers of differ-
ent thicknesses. The quarrymen observe that the lower they de-
scend the softer the gres becomes, and that the harder nature of
stone is the most easy to quarry in regular forms. It has no defi-
nite planes of stratification or crystallization, and is tlierefore
easily worked into any shape I'cquired. The streets of nearly all
the towns between Paris and the sea-board are paved with these
tertiary gres, %vhich occur in isolated patches along the whole
course of the river. At Havre, of late, the red sandstone of JVIav,
near Caen, a member of the Cambrian system, has been employed
instead thereof, with remarkable success. The usual size of the
paving stones is 9 inches square; but some of the last works of
this kind have been executed with nai-rower stones, about 4 inches
wide.

The flint nodules are sometimes used for rough rubble masonry.
They occur in chalk and in the gravels overlying the tertiary for-
mations.

The meuliere is a species of quartzose concretion, with numerous
small holes. It is met with in two forms; one which occurs in
masses sufficiently large to form millstones of one piece; the other
in detached nodules scattered over the country. The principal
quarries of the first, for the supply of the Paris market, are at
Slontmirail (Marne) and la Ferte sous Jonarre (Seine et Alarne.)
The second sort are found nearer Paris, and in the department de
I'Eure.

As the meuliere is excessively hard, and resists all external
action in the highest degree, it is much used by engineers and ar-
chitects in situations where those qualities are required. The for-
tifications of Paris and of the detached forts are faced with it.
Many of the works of the Canaux St. Martin, St. Denis, and de
rOurc, the sewers of Paris, and the abattoirs also, are faced with
the meuliere; for all these works it is admirably adapted. One
species is, however, to be avoided, — "la caillasse;" its surfaces are
so perfectly even that they offer no key to the mortar.

The granites, a description of which would here be unnecessary,
are only used in Paris, and the other towns in the interior, as bor-
ders for the footpaths, and occasionally as flagging. That used
in Paris is mostly extracted at the island of Cbaussey, and is of a
nature closely resembling the best Devonshire granites. The
plinths of the columns of the Law Institution in Chancery-lane'^
are of this granite, and may give a correct idea of its nature.
The enormous cost of the granite, owing to the land carriage,
must at all times limit its use in the interior. At Havre, however,
and at Honfleur, it is much used in th^ different docks, and the
fortifications towards the river are entirely faced with it.

The porphyries are very little used, nor do they occur abun-
dantly in any position suitable to their being worked for the Paris
market. The basalts also are rare, at least for practical building
use. They are, however, occasionally used for flagging, as in the
Rues de la Paix, de Richelieu, &c.

II. Bricks and Tiles. — In Paris, the use of bricks is entirely
confined to carrying up the flues, and turning the trimmers to the
hearths. The best that are emjiloyed are the bricks made in the
department of TYoiine, known under the name of the "Briipie de
Bougogne;" it is 1 foot long, 4 inches wide, by rather more than
2 inches thick. It is burnt to a very high degree. The colour is
a pale rose, leaning towai'ds the violet. The thousand weigh
about 2^ tons. Rondelet found that the force necessary to crush
them varied between 73 lb. and HO lb. per centimetre square.

The bricks made at Montereau are very nearly as good as the
bricpies de Bourgogne; they are of the same size and colour;
resist nearly as well. The thousand only weighs 2 tons ^ cwt.

The composition of the Montereau clay is as follows: —

Siit-x, per tt'iit 0 ()44

Alumina U'24ti

Ala^ne^ii *.

Oxide ul il'Oll trace

Water 0 lOH

0-990

* That is to say, of the columos of the portico.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

241

The bricks of Sarcelles are those most used, but they are
extremely brittle: they are about 8 inches long by 4 inches by
2 inches; the thousand weigh nearly 1 ton 14cwt.

Some bricks are made of the clays which occur in the gypseous
formations immediately round Paris. They resemble those of
Montereau in quality, but differ a little in colour, being of a deeper
red, and they are rather thinner and narrower. The thousand
weighs 1 ton IScwt.

The composition of the St. Ouen and Pantin clays is as fol-
lows:—

St. Ouen. Fantin.

Silex, per cent 0-510 O'.'iCS

Alumina 01411 O-lC'5

Magnesia V\M 0 072

Oxidf of iron 0030 0057

Water 0-1S2 0 2li0

In the neighbourhood of Bonnieres, in the valley of the Seine,
a mass of clay occurred, from which the white bricks used on the
Paris and Rouen Railway were made. Generally, the bricks used
between Paris and Harfleur are, however, of a red colour, and
made of a ferruginous clay. At Harfleur and Havre they are
white, the clay being calcareous and impregnated with the marine
salts. The mode of burning usually employed is in kilns; but of
late, near Rouen, many brickmakers have begun to burn in clamps.
Their success hitherto has been very equivocal.

Of late years wooden floors have become general in Paris, but
the houses of the poor, and all the oSices, passages, and kitchens
of the best lodgings, are still paved with tiles; and it may, per-
haps, be owing to this custom that Paris is so comparatively free
from fires. The tiles are of four sorts for flooring purposes — viz.,
the large hexagon, of 6j inches over the angles; the bastard hexa-
gon, of 5^ inches over the angles; and the square tiles, 6j inches,
and 8^ths of a side: the thickness varies from xsths to -j-^ths.
The square tiles are used for the hearths, the hexagonal tiles for
flooring. The best are made at Montereau, but their price is so
high that the preference is generally given to the tiles made at
Massy, near Palaiseau. Almost all the brickmakers of the neigh-
bourhood of Paris, howe^'er, make tiles at the present day, both
for flooring and roofing purposes.

Many of the houses of Paris and the neighbourhood are covered
with tiles, though the use of this material is rapidly going out of
fashion. The best are made at Montereau, as is the case with
flooring tiles. They are of two sizes; for it is to be observed that
there is only one shape in general use — the pantile. Le grand
moule is about 1 foot long by 9 inches wide and | inches thick; the
part left uncovered is about 4g inches. Le petit moule is about
from 5k to 7i wide, by from 10 inches to II inches long. The
ridge tiles are 1 ft. 3 in. long by 1 ft. 1 in. development.

A very great number of glazed tiles and common pottery chim-
neys and stoves are used throughout France. The dearness of
combustibles renders the use of open fire-places too expensive for
the lower classes. Iron also is too dear to be employed for grates,
stoves, ranges, cheeks, and the thousand uses we make of it in
England.

The clay of Forges of la Seine Inferieure is composed of —

Forges. Vaiivies.

Silex, per cent 0-650 0-640

Alumina 0-240 0 2.50

Oxide of iron tii-ie c-oeo

Water 0110 O-.OO

Waguesia ■ lr;.ce

lOllO 0-900

The clay of Forges is used for pots for glass-making, and similar
purposes; that of V'anvres for kitchen-tiles.

The firebricks used in Paris are either made at Stourbridge, or
at Hayange, on the Belgian frontier; some few are made in Bur-
gundy, but they do not resist well.

One of the most ingenious uses made of pottery was in the con-
struction of the floors of some houses in a street recently erected
in the centre of tlie grounds of the ancient liotel Rougemont. At
the time of the erection of these houses, there was a strike amongst
the carpenters. The contractor adopted this manner of executing
the floors simultaneously with the walls, — that being the invariable
mode of proceeding adopted in Paris. These floors, however, cost
more than those executed in the usual mftuner, and, consequently,
have not been imitated. They were executed about 1845.

III. Limes and Cements. — All calcareous stones, when exposed
to a sufhcient heat, part with the carbonic acid gas which enters
into their combination; but the limes resulting from the calcina-
tion assume different appearances, according to the chemical com-
position of the stones. These appearances are four in number, —
at least of those sufficiently frequent in their recurrence to form
the basis of a commercial classification. They are: — Firstly, as

regards the manner of taking up water, divided into fat or thin
limes. The fat limes are those which, in slacking, augment at
least one-fourth in volume; the thin limes are those that remain
constant in their bulk. Secondly, as regards their setting proper-
ties, limes are divided into the hydraulics and non-hydraulics.
The hydraulic limes are invariably thin, — but all thin limes are
not hydraulic.

An examination of the elaborate discoveries and researches of
the French chemists and engineers into this still very little culti-
vated branch of the chemistry of building, would lead us into far
too long a discussion at present. Suffice it to say, that the prac-
tice of the best architects, and of all the engineers in France, is
to use hydraulic lime to the exclusion of others, unless almost in-
superable difficulties, owing to their price, occur. In so damp a
climate as our own, we should do well to imitate their example;
the more especially as we have at hand the means of procuring both
natural and artificial hydraulic limes in unlimited quantities.

The fat limes used in Paris are made at Senlis, Melun, Essone,
Champigny, Marly, Sevres, &c. The natural hydraulics are made
at Senonclies, and of late years at Meudon; the artificial hydrau-
lics are made wherever chalk is found in the proximity of clay, as
at Marly, Mantes, and in the neighbourhood of Rouen.

The Lower Seine, from the neighbourhood of Mantes at least,
runs through the chalk formation; the country, right and left, is
of the same geological character for a great distance. Natural
hydraulic limes do not occur until we reach Havre, and all the
local consumption is tlierefore supplied by the factories of artificial
hydraulic limes. The most important of these are at Rouen,
where they assume very great importance, from the chemical and
mechanical skill employed. The materials used are the chalk from
the Mount St. Catherine, and the argillaceous deposits of the
neighbourhood; the proportions of the different ingredients, and
the degree of burning, depending upon the rate of setting re-
quired.

At Havre, upon the outcrop of the chalk, or rrtther at the junc-
tion of the chalk and theWealden formations, abed of argillaceous
limestone is met with, which yields a very superior hydraulic lime.
In the valley of Harfleur a large establishment has lately been
formed for the making of artificial hydraulics; and all the immense
dock or fortification works executed at Havre have been con-
structed with either one or the other. Cement is only used for
pointing, or, on extraordinary occasions, for rendering works ex-
posed to the action of the sea immediately after being finished.

The cements used in Paris are principally made in Burgundy, at
Pouilly. They participate of the nature of our Roman cements;
but do not acquire so great a degree of hardness. The same ob-
jection is to be made to the Vassy cements; and to the artificial
cements made at Rouen with chalk and pounded bricks. The
French architects and engineers do not advocate the use of cement
to the same extent we do in England. Personally, I think they
are nearer the truth than we are. Materials which set so rapidly
may decay in the same manner. The processes of nature are
slow, at least where great duration is its object; and we ai-e most
likely to succeed by following the same course. The competition,
moreover, in the supply of cement is so great, that the article, as
usually sold, is little better than sand. Even the extreme rapidity
of the setting of cement is an objection to its use in many ordi-
nary cases, for it requires so much care in its manipulation as to
render it liable to be slighted where the interest, or even the care-
lessness of the workman, may oppose its receiving proper at-
tention.

Occasionally, in the neighbourhood of the large towns, the houses
are entirely built with rubble-stone, or of bricks, and covered with
a coat of piaster. Cement is never used for this purpose, nor does
there appear to be any necessity for its introduction; the climate
of France is sufficiently dry, and the plaster, as usually employed,
is sufficiently capable of resisting the atmospheric changes, to ren-
der the use of the more expensive material unnecessary. Precau-
tions require, however, to be taken iu the application of plaster.
The tops of cornices, and ail weatherings, require to be covered
with zinc; the parts of the houses near the ground must be ren-
dered with a less hygrometric material; but for all other positions
plaster succeeds remarkably well. Internally, it is the only mate-
rial used in any part of France within reasonable distance of water-
carriage from the gypsum quarries. Stuccos and imitations of
marbles are sometimes employed in public buildings, but very
rarely in private houses.

IV. M'^ooDs. — The practice of the French architects in the use
of wood differs little from our own. On the sea-board, and in the
large commercial towns, Swedish and Baltic fir is principally em-
ployed; in the interior oak is cheap enough to insure the prefer-

32

212

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

ence. The oak used in Paris comes principally from Champagne
and Burgundy; lately, however, the Prussian oak has heen im-
ported in consideralile (luantities. For large roofs, Dantzic and
other Prussian fir is used; but the architects pay such very low
prices that the best woods invariably are sent to England. Indeed,
tliere are few architects who seem to be able to distinguish the
Swedish from the Prussian timber, for in all cases I have noticed
that for roofing purposes the former is employed where the latter
is demanded by the specifications. Indeed, so small is the supply
of Baltic timber in France, that in I848, after tlie bridges over the
Seine had been burnt down by the mobs, it was impossible to find
.50,000 cubic feet in all tlie markets of Dieppe, Fecamp, Havre,
Rouen, and Paris.

Norway timber is used largely for purlins, and for partition stuff.
The deals and battens imported are of the second and third qua-
lity; but as all the better class of joiner's work is executed in
wainscot, this becomes of less moment. Some of the French oak
is very beautiful, and admirably adapted for joiner's work; hut its
gradually increasing price, owing to the clearance of the forests,
renders necessary the importation of the German, or, as we com-
monly call it, the Dutch wainscot. Mahogany is only imported
for cabinet-making: its use for joinery, or for ship-building, is
almost unknown. Rosewood and ebony are also imported for
cabinet-makers. American timber, e. g., pine, spruce, &c., rarely
enters France, e.xcept for the purpose of making masts and spars
of ships; teak is totally unknown, as are the whole tribe of African
or Australian woods.

France furnishes very beautiful poplar, ash, and beech timber,
which are much used in building. Almost all the slate battening
for provincial use is made of poplar; the ash serves for cart-
building and carriage- works; the beech is principally employed
for piles and gratings, &c., under water. The department of Cal-
vados furnishes some of the finest beech-trees I have ever seen.

In practice the French architects are much behind our own as
far as carpentry is concerned. Tliere are, certainly, exceptions.
Some of the roofs in Paris are light, elegant, and strong, the
thrusts well balanced, the resistances most skilfully calculated;
but, as a rule, the scantlings are far too heavy, the framing clumsy,
the affectation of mathematical construction too glaring. Little
or no ])recautions are taken to prevent the decay of the timber
from the moisture of the walls; the wood itself is often used full
of sap, and thoroughly wet — an objection, by the way, which may
be made to carpentry in London, for we often see the wood taken
from the river, cut up, and placed in buildings long before it can
have dried. It is, however, to be observed with reference to the
heavy scantlings used by the French architects, that the price of
woodwork is about 25 per cent, higher with them than with us.
Motives of economy serve as vast incentives to scientific investi-
gations in all countries.

V. Metals. — The metals used in building are iron (cast and
wrought), lead, copper, zinc, and some of their compounds.

1 (n). The greater part of the cast-iron used in the valley of
the Seine is derived either from the mines upon the Belgian fron-
tier, from the province of Berri, or from England; the importa-
tion from our own country being principally for the supply of the
markets of Rouen, Havre, and the nortli-west of France. The
wrought-iron comes from Berri and Flanders, and there are some
scra])-iron factories at Paris and Havre.

The great distance the iron has to be transported, and the dear-
ness of fuel, render its use in the prodigal manner we are accus-
tomed to, quite out of the question. At Paris cast-iron costs about
50 per cent, more than in London; at Havre it costs about 33 per
cent. more. Its use is therefore avoided as much as possible, the
more especially as wood and stone-work are so much cheaper than
with us. The French founders are, however, very skilful, and
some very remarkable works are to be met with in I'aris, executed
in cast-iron. The northern gate of tlie Madeleine, the fountains
and lamp-posts of the Place de la Concorde, may be cited as illus-
trations.

1 ('*). The best commercial wrought-iron is that from the pro-
vince of Berri; but it is very unequal in quality, sometimes as
tough as our best Welch iron, at others as short as tlie very com-
monest Staffordshire, owing to the bad manipulation in the facto-
ries. The very high price of iron, also, prevents so much atten-
tion being paid to the details of its production as is the case
where its economy renders its use a matter of every-day necessity.
Indeed, the state of the ironworks in France is a singular illustra-
tion of tlie evils of the protective system. The manufacturers
have a monopoly; they fear no competition, and make a bad iron.
The public pays dearly, and therefore uses as little iron as possible.
Since railways have been in fashion, however, the use of iron for

roofs has become more general, and there are in Paris certainly
some of the finest roofs in Europe. Amongst them may be cited
the roofs over the Entrepot reel des Marais, of the llalle aux
Bk's (in cast-iron), of the St. tiermains and Rouen Railway,
executed by M. Eugene Flachat.

The plate-iron box-girders are at ])resent unknown; corrugated
iron is but of very recent introduction, nor do the French archi-
tects appear to approve much of it.

Owing to the very high price of wrought-iron, the use of iron
wire for suspension bridges has been puslied to a very gi'eat extent
throughout France. There are upon tlie Seine many very remark-
able bridges executed witli this material, such as the bridges at
Triel, Gaillon, and Rouen. The iron wire is exposed to this in-
convenience, that with all possible care in the fabrication of the
chains, the separate threads cannot be drawn out to the full; the
chains, therefore, always stretch, and the platform of the bridge
necessarily sinks. Wire chains, however, bear a greater weight in
proportion to their sectional area tlian square bars, and are more
likely to be homogeneous in their strength. They avoid, more-
over, the necessity for the coupling-links, which, on the last sus-
pension bridges executed, augment the weight of the chain 31 per
cent, beyond that absolutely necessary, supposing the chain to be
of one piece. The surface of oxidation is greater for the wires
than for the bar-iron chains, nearly in the proportion of 40 to 1,
and this becomes one of the greatest practical objections, for not
only does it necessitate frequent painting, but it diminishes, in
time, the real strength of the wire cables. The practical strength
of these is found in fact, to be as 0~0 to I'OO of the theoretical
strength; after a few j'ears it falls to 0'66. The voids in the wire
cables, according to theory, should be to the solids as 0'1025 to
I'OOOO; in practice they are found to be 0'25 to TOO. On the sus-
pension bridges, the government engineers enforce a proof of
17 kilogs. per millimetre square of the sectional area of the iron
wire chains, to ensure a surplus of strength as a guarantee against
deterioration; on the bar-iron chains the proof is only 12 kilogs.

A very beautiful bridge was erected at Suresnes, by M. Flachat,,
of hoop-iron bands to form the main chains, which answered re-
markably well. This application attained a sort of medium re-
sult, both as to cost and strength, between the systems hitherto
employed.

'i'liere is a very beautiful adaptation of the use of the suspension
principle to roofing purposes in the Panorama in the Champs
Elysees, at Paris. The chains are of wrought-iron wire.

2. Lead. — For building purposes, the bulk of the lead used is
imported from England, Spain, and America. It is dearer than
with us, consequently its use is not so general, zinc being generally
substituted for it. 'fhe use and modes of fabrication, wherever it
is employed, are precisely the same as in England.

3. Copper. — France also draws the bulk of its copper from foreign
countries, at very considerable expense; its use is therefore very
much restrained in building. The only instance 1 know of its ap-
plication on a large scale is at the Halle aux Bles, which was
covered with copper in the year 1712, and I think at the Bourse.

4. Zinc. — The high price of the two last-noticed metals KsMf
given rise to the use of zinc upon a very large scale throughout
France. It is imported from Belgium and Germany in very large
quantities, to tlie extent of 13,000 tons, worth 280,000/. Except
upon the borders of the sea, it stands well in France; for the at-
mosphere does not contain (as in England, where so much coal is
consumed) the carbonic acid gases which destroy zinc. On the
contrary, in the interior, an oxidation of the external face of the
zinc takes place, which prevents its decay. The roof of the
palace on the Quai d'Orcay, the Northern, and some parts of the
Rouen Railway Station, the Orleans Station, and a crowd of other
buildings, are covered with zinc, to the perfect satisfaction of the
architects.

The sizes of the metals usually employed for roofing are as fol-
low:— Lead in sheets, 12 ft. 3 in. long, by 6 ft. liin. wide; the
thicknesses are either a full eighth, or a short 3-16th of an inch:
the first weighs 89 •rrrrrll'. per yard square; the second weighs
118 jjjf-lb. per yard square. The lap is generally made from 3
inches to 6 inches longitudinally.

The sheets of copper are made 3 ft. 6^ in. long by 3 ft. 3 in.; the
thicknesses are 0-0021236 and 0-002452G of a foot, the respective
weights 13-ili;lb. and 17-15 lb. troy per yard superficial.

'riie sheets of zinc are made 6 tt. 4 in. long by 3 ft. 2| in., the
thickness varying from a short ^':j to a very full -^; the weights
are respectively 17-15 lb.; 19-06 lb.; 20-80 lb. troy per yard super-
ficial. The sheets of less thickness than these are rarely used in
good buildings. Of late years, in the neighbourhood of Paris,
zinc tiles have been much used; they are made from 14 inches tu

18*9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

213

16 inches long, by 12 inches to 14 inches wide; nailed at top, and
fastened by hooks to the slates, which lie immediately beneath
them.

The compound metals used are brass, bronze, and the galvanised
iron. No difference exists in the mode of preparing these com-
pounds from that observed in England. The bronze is, however,
much more often employed than with us. For instance, the
columns of the Place Vendome, and of the Bastille; the gates of
the Madelaine and St. Vincent de Paul ; the fountains of La Place
Louvoise and the numerous statues which adorn all the quarters of
Paris are in this metal.

Painting and Glazing. — The modes of house-painting employed
in Paris are similar to those we employ, except that the oils are
better, but the colours and white-lead immeasurably worse. In-
deed, there is not the same necessity for excellence in the painter's
art, so far at least as mere flat tints and common graining are con-
cerned, in a country where oak is so universally employed for
joinery. For all objects of luxury, however, we are frightfully
behind our neighbours. The decorations of Noti-e Dame de Lo-
rette, the Madelaine, the former Chamber of Peers, the Louvre,
and the Sainte Chapelle, cease to be mere decorations, to pass into
the higher walks of art. St. Vincent de Paul, St. Germain
I'Auxerois, offer illustrations of polychromic decoration, which
contrast painfully with the attempts we see in London.

These two last-mentioned churches may also be cited as speci-
mens of the excellence our neighbours have attained in the art of
painting on glass. For drawing and colouring, the windows of St.
Vincent de Paul are superior to anything, either ancient or
modern, it has ever been my fortune to examine.

The decorations, painting, and glazing of the cafes and shops
might afford useful lessons to the architectural student. Great at-
tention is shown to the distribution of the light, and the general
tone of the colouring, so as to suit the goods exposed. Glass is
cheaper than in England, and in consequence is more prodigally
used. The window glass is, however, bad, both in colour and in
its powers of resistance; it is thin, green, and wavy.

Although the above notice of the building materials employed
in Paris, &c., has grown to a very great length, I have been forced
to pass over some of the most important and interesting subjects
the review suggests. The chemical process, called by the work-
men saltpetring, and its action upon stones when laid bedwise, or
against the bed; the manner in which stones are affected when ex-
posed to the various strains; the composition of mortars and ce-
ments, and all the phenomena which attend their use in the air, or
under water — salt or fresh ; the qualities of woods and metals —
have all glided before us; but from the limited time we can here
devote to them, these subjects have not met with the attention
they merit. Indeed, this remark holds good not only here but
elsewhere. Very little is known, comparatively speaking, of the
chemistry of our profession; what little we do know may princi-
pally be sought for amongst the French authors. Perhaps I may
not have occupied your attention in vain, if my remarks should
call attention to subjects so full of interest to us, but at present
so involved in obscurity.

DISCHARGE OF WATER FROM RESERVOIRS.

The Theory of the Contraction of the Movement of Water flowing
from Apertures in thin plates, in a Reservoir in which the Surface
of the Water is maintained at a constant altitude. By J. Bayer,
Lieutenant. (Translated from Crelle's '■Journal fiir die Bau-
kunst.' Baud 25.)

1.

When an aperture is made in a reservoir of water, the perpen-
dicular distance of the upper surface of the fluid from the orifice
is in general termed the altitude of pressure. Horizontal aper-
tures are distinguished from those which are vertical. The former
are made in the horizontal bottom of the reservoir, and at every
point have the same altitude of pressure. The vertical orifice is
made in the vertical side of the reservoir, and at every point in its
vertical section has a different altitude of pressure. This altitude
is distinguished according as it is taken at the upper edge, the
centre, or the lower edge of the reservoir. The velocity V of
water flowing under the altitude H, is the same as that which
a falling body acquires in descending the same distance, and
therefore V- = 4.(?H, where g is the distance fallen through in one
second of time. This equation, called the Torricellian law, was

first confirmed by the experiments of Michelotti, and neglects the
resistance of air.

The section of the issuing column of water is smaller after it
has left the orifice, than at the orifice itself. This phenomenon is
termed the Contraction. If, therefore, Q signify the quantity of
water which issues in a second of time, and a the section of the

orifice, and C be put = — , C is smaller than V. Let, therefore,

C = /cV; it follows that Q = a>lc\ = tak VC+ifH). When Q, a, and
H are found by observation, the constant /c, which is called the co-
efficient of contraction, may be determined from this equation.
Such experimental inquiries respecting the value of k have been
very numerous; but they all fail to give a sufficient explanation of
the phenomena of contraction; and it is tliis which will be at-
tempted in the following pages.

From the middle of the 17th century, when Torricelli (I6t4)
first determined the above relation — namely, that the velocity of
the issuing water is as the square of the altitude of pressure — the
learned have been much occupied with this subject of Contraction.
In the beginning of the last century, the experiments of Poleni
directed attention to the discharge which takes place under similar
circumstances, from cylindrical and conical discharge-pipes; and
endeavours have likewise been made to estimate the diameter of
the contracted column. Poleni himself gives it = 4i **f t'^^ dia-
meter of the orifice. Newton, by actual measurement, found it

= 45- Daniel Bernouilli made it by his experiments = — ; and

Bordu estimates it by direct admeasurement to be = 0'802. In
later times, Bossut, Langsdorf, Vince, Michelotti, Dubuat, Eytel-
wein, Hachette, Bidone, Smeaton, Brindley, Christian, Poncelet,
Lesbros, &c., have made experiments on the discharge of water.

Bidone, Rudberg, and Navier, have attempted, on different hy-
potheses, a theory of the contracted issue of the stream of water
through circular orifices. Their hypotheses do not always hold
good, and their results do not sufficiently agree with experiment.

When water issues from an orifice in the vertical side of a re-
servoir, it is observed that the particles of water in every part of
the reservoir — that is, to the right or left, above or below, the ori-
fice— move to the orifice with increasing velocity. Upon this ob-
servation the following hypothesis is founded : That the velocities of
the particles of water in the reservoir are inversely proportional to the
square of their distance from the centre of the orifice.

If, by help of this hypothesis, all the results observed in the
discharge of water be completely explained, so as to be capable of
computation, the hypothesis itself must be deemed true.

From this hypothesis, li e and e' be the distances of two particles
of water from the centre of the opening, and v, v their velocities
respectively, we have the proportion

(A) e- : e" = v' : v.
For e = e', v will equal v; that is, at equal distances from the cen-
tre of the opening the particles of water have the same velocities.

Let there be described within the reservoir a hemisphere with
radius e from the centre of the orifice : all the particles in the
surface of this hemisphere will have equal velocities

FiL.. I.

Fif. 2.

To render this observation 'clearer, it may be illustrated by a
figure. Let AB, fig. 1, be the projection of the vertical side of a
reservoir on the horizontal plane of the paper, which intersects the
centre c of ab the aperture; ab the horizontal diameter, and Fm
the horizontal axis, of the aperture. In order that nothing may
impede the free motion, it will be assumed that the edge of the

32*

344

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

orifice is at such a distance from the side-plates and bottom, that
little disturbinjj influence exists.

.'\1I the particles of water in the horizontal plane AFB sustain
the same pressure, since this plane is parallel with tlie surface of
the water in the reservoir. The direction of the motion of the
issuing particles heinjjf towards the centre of the openinj;, it follows
that the velocity of all points equally distant from the centre must
be ecjual, because the pressure with which the motion i)roceeds is
on all sides equal; or, in other words, all the particles in the cir-
cumference of the semicircle AFB must have the same velocity
towards the centre of the orifice.

Let the semicircle .'VFB be turned about its axis F;h until it be
in the vertical plane: then the pressure above Fm is smaller, and
beneath greater, than in Fm itself. Call H the altitude of pres-
sure at the centre of the orifice, or in Fm; +a the distance from
Fm for a lower, and —a the distance for a higher point: then
5 (H -ha -I- H — a) = H ; and since Fm bisects the semicircle, the
mean altitude of pressure in all points of the semicircle turned
through an angle of 90° or vertical, in like manner = H. This
remark holds good when the semicircle is turned through any other
angle than 90^'. Let, therefore, the semicircle make a complete
revolution al)out its axis, so as to describe the surface of the hemi-
sphere of which the centre is the centre of the aperture: the mean
value of the pressure which tlie particles of water in this surface
sustain, for the above reason, is the same which a point in the axis
Fm sustains — that is, = H.

Now, since the mean pressure of all the particles in the surface
of the hemisphere is equal to the pressure which at the centre of
the opening takes place in the direction of c, the mean motion of
all those particles will be equal to that which takes place in that
direction (provided that the opening be not very large); whence it
follows that all the particles in the surface of hemisphere AFB
have the same velocity.

The surfaces of the hemispheres diminish towards the orifice in
proportion to the square of their radii; the velocities must there-
fore be in the inverse proportion which the surfaces follow. Con-
sequently, as was above stated, the velocities of the concentric
shells of water are in the inverse proportion of the squai-es of their
distances from the orifice; and if e = Fc, and e =/'c, we have, as
above,

(Fc)-.v = (fcy.v.

The motion proceeds in this relation until the radius of the last
shell of water is equal to the radius of the orifice : then occurs an
alteration in the direction as well as the velocity. The particles
which proceed from B to b towards the centre c, at the instant of
reaching the orifice are acted on by pressure in the direction bk,
jiarallel with cf. They possess also already a certain velocity to-
wards the centre c, aiul" move therefore in the direction bp. Another
thread of water moving from G to g, is acted upon by pressure in
tlie direction gi ; and so on. In this manner, at the orifice, all the
particles in the surface of the hemisphere are suddenly acted upon
in a direction parallel to cf, and alter their velocity together; up
to the particle of water in/ which moves along the axis itself, and
as neither its direction nor velocity is altered, moves with the great-
est velocity, which according to Torricelli's theorem = /^{'\-gll).
Let the velocity which the altitude of pressure H produces be de-
signated by V; hence, V = V(*tfH). V is the greatest velocity
of discharge, and exceeds the velocity which takes place in the
plane of the aperture by a certain factor which is called the co-
efficient of contraction. Let the mean velocity in the orifice be C,
which is also the mean value of all the velocities with which all the
particles of water pass the orifice. In order to find this value, we
must ascertain, for the equal velocity of all the particles, their
mean distance from the axis ab in all the sections passing through
the axis. But the particles in the periphery of the circle a/v, and
in the surface of the generated hemisphere, have the same velo-
city: their distance in this periphery from tlie orifice will be there-
fore the perpendicular, as gi, — or what is the same thing;, it will be
the ordinate y in the equation to the circle y- =; 2rjc—x^, in which
lib is the axis of abscissse. This is the case for every position of
the semicircle turned about its axis.

The sum of all these ordinates is the area of the semicircle a/v,

or = jydx. Now, the mean value of y, which may be called y ,
may be put as a function of the same form and value, in which y is
invariable, and consequently we have for it y I dx; and when the

two expressiens are equated, we have y j dx =■ lydx; and, con-

Jydx
sequently, y = .

fdx

This integral between the limits x = 0, and x = 2r, gives

y — IriT;
and thence, according to the proportion (A),
(B) c : \ = {\r.Y : r"- ;
or, (C) c = {\^f = (1^)2 V(tflH) = O-r.17 VC^t/H).

The co-efliicient A' is therefore (i")" = 0'617

The experiments of Bossut give this co-efficient = 0'617

Evtelwein makes it := 0-6176

D'Aubuisson := 0'617

Other experiments =: 0'619

The agreement of theory with experiment is therefore so complete
as to leave nothing to be desired.

3.

For the velocity perpendicular to the axis c/'(fig. 1), the dis-
tance i?« above referred to is found; and if z designate the corre-
sponding velocity, we have by the proportion (A)

z:c = (gsy : {giy = 1 - (.^)= : Q^f ;
or, .= c{ay-l}.

And when these velocities are estimated by the Parallelogram of
Forces, we find for their direction

t^"T = ^= 0" -^'

which gives y = 31° 51' 6". Hence it follows that for the angle
which the tangent of the issuing column makes with the radius of
the orifice,

90° — 7 = 58° 8' 54.".

Poncelet and Lesbros (^^Experiences hydrau/ique siir les his de
recoulement de I'eua.' Paris, 1832; Table 5) have, by their experi-
ments at Metz, made, propably, a very accurate measurement of
the column issuing from a square orifice, and, as far as the drawing
indicates, find very nearly the same angle; which besides, as we
shall see further on, by the co-efficient, is, for the square orifice,
not quite equal to, but on the average must be found something
smaller than, that for a circular orifice.

4.

We have seen that the mean velocity with which the particles
pass the orifice is less than V. But as in the plane of the orifice
itself, all sustain the same pressure, H, which produces the velocity
V, they must be accelerated outside the orifice — and, indeed, up to
a point where they obtain their velocity which belongs to the alti-
tude of pressure H. Let this distance, therefore, be x: it follows,
by the proportion (B),

C : V = {Ir.y : ,t";

and when for C its value in § 2 is put, we find ,r = r : that is, all
the particles obtain outside the orifice the greatest velocity V, first
at the distance r from the orifice; whence it follows, tfint the point
of greatest contraction of the column of icater takes place at a distance
from the opening equal to its semi-diameter.

5.

In the proportion (B) § 2, (^^rir)- : r- is also the proportion of
the normal sections of the column of water; and thence it follows,
that when r is the radius of the orifice, -^jrit := p is tlie radius of the
column at the jioint of greatest contraction.

For the quantity of water issuing through the different sections
of the opening is always the same; aud if the sections correspond-
ing to the velocities c and V be designated a? and Wj, we have

a> , c

Q = wc = ""jV; and, therefore, Wj = -vr--
But til =: (.^n-; c = (j'')'V; consequently.

And, therefore, p = ^rir = r.0-785i.

Poleni's experiments ('iViwivi raccolta d' autori che trattano del
vioto dell' acque' — delle pascnje 111.; Parma, 176()) give p= r. 0-7884;
and Borda {^Mem. de Paris,' 17(j6) found by direct measurement,
!>= r . 0-S02.

ISiS."]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

245

6. Compc

rison of

'he results

in § 3 HI

rf § 4 with Ejcperiments.

Altitude

Diameter

Distance of the greatest

Diameter of the

of

of

of
Orifice.

contraction trora orifice

contracted column.

Experimenter

Observed

Computed

Observed.

Computed

Paris feet.

Paris Lines

Patis Lines

Paris Lines

Paris Lines

Paris Lines

BoS3ut

11-736

12

6i

6

94

9-43

11-736

24

m

12

\H

18-85

11-736

36

18

18

29i

28-27

9-ono

6

H

3

H

4-71

9-000

12

6i

6

9|

9-43

Venturi

2-708

18

11

9

14-3

14-14

Rhenish ft.

Rhen. t.in.

Rhen. Lin.

Rhen. Lin.

Rhen. Lin.

Rhen. Lin.

Eytelwein

3000

15

8

7-5

120

11-78

The e.xperiments of Michelotti give for the diameter of the
contracted column nearly the same results. The distance of the
greatest contraction from the orifice is estimated by him smaller,
so that it more nearly agrees with the radius of greatest contrac-
tion, than with the radius of the orifice. But it appears that the
exact measurement of these distances is subject to various difficul-
ties, and that the difference lies at least not wholly beyond the
limits of the uncertainty of measurement.

7. Remarks and Inferences.

1. The contraction, according to the above investigation, arises
from the sudden change of direction and velocity to which the
particles of water immediately in the plane of the orifice are sub-
jected. It depends (so far as the above experiments leave to be
safely inferred) only on the radius of the orifice; whence it fol-
lows, that the force of contraction is proportional to the radius of
the orifice.

2. For circular orifices, all the diametrical contractions will be
equal and opposite; whence it follows, that the sections of the con-
tracted stream will be similar.

3. When, on the other hand, the different diameters of the ori-
fice are unequal, the sections of the stream vary in form, while the
distance of the greatest contraction from the orifice will (1) be
jiroportional to the several diameters or secant lines, and therefore
will not be equally distant from the orifice, nor be in one plane;
which must be considered as the condition of the similar form of
section of the stream.

4. The above theory of contraction assumes that the reservoir is
large, the movement of the water free, and the orifice completely
isolated from the bottom and sides; also that the altitude of pres-
sure is so large, that the depression of tlie surface which takes
place above the orifice is inconsiderable. Without tliese condi-
tions, the regular effect of the contraction would be intermitted;
and in such cases, since the law of the irregularities is not yet
known, we must for the present be content with an approximate
computation.

5. The greatest mean velocity V determines the distance of pro-
jection of the stream, and takes place in the point of greatest con-
traction: we have, therefore,

(■» ^' = (i.'Jc^ = jFr

since Q = C. m (§5).

6. The accurate determination of tlie quantity of discharge from
the orifice, depends on the correct determination of the velocity V.
Usually this is obtained by means of the altitude of pressure above
the centre of the orifice, by the formula V ;= VC-l^H), which ne-
glects the influence of the height and figure of the orifice. This
influence is considerable, but is smaller as the altitude of pressure
increases, and for great altitudes may therefore be safely neglected.
For a general investigation of the question, a more accurate and
general computation of the velocity is however necessary.

7. The friction of the sides of the orifice, the difference between
the pressure of the air at the surface of the water in the reservoir
and the orifice, the resistance of the air against the issuing stream,
and tlie influence of temperature on the quantity of discharge,
must for the present remain unconsidered, as the foregoing experi-
ments are insuflicient to determine these small various effects.

The mean velocity of water discharged through orifices in thin plates.

In the tlieorem of Torricelli, the altitudes of pressure are the
abscibSBP, and the velocities generated by them the ordinates of a

parabola of which the parameter = ig. If, therefore, in the pa-
rabola (fig. 2), AB be the axis of abscissae, z- = p.r.

In the theorem of Torricelli, V- = ig)i ; and, therefore,
3 = V; /) = ig; and j; = H.

If the orifice be made in the bottom of a reservoir, and its sur-
face be horizontal, the depth of water above it, or its altitude of
pressure, is equal for every point in the orifice. Let, therefore, H
designate the altitude of pressure; the velocity of issue for a hori-
zontal orifice is found directly from the above equation — that is,
V = V(%H).

If, on the other hand, the orifice be vertical, as in one of the
sides of the vessel, every horizontal section of the orifice has a
different depth below tlie surface of the water; and then the mean
velocity of issue for all the different velocities in the vertical ex-
tension of tlie orifice has to be calculated.

If ACF (fig. 2) be the vertical plane through the centre of the
orifice, eV = v the diameter of height, Ae=H the altitude of
pressure at the upper edge, the velocity for the altitude Ae is
equal to erf, and the velocity for the altitude AF (at the lower
edge of the orifice) = Fe. The mean velocity between e and F,
in the vertical section of the orifice, is therefore the mean value of
the ordinates of the parabola between the limits ed and Fc, whicli
may be easily found, as^ in §2, — namely,

J'zdx V(%)jA-*

fd.

since z- ^= ig^-

Taking this integral between the limits x

dx

fdx

we find

II, and .r = II -f c,

(E)

. = v = IW%){^^)}--^}.

This expression gives the mean velocity in the vertical plane of
the orifice eF, under the altitude of pressure H.

9.

A column of water may be considered as made up of an indefi-
nite number of slices parallel to the vertical section; and every
slice again may be represented as a very large number of threads
of water. Give, now, to each thread a length equal to its velo-
city: and so a prismatic body is obtained of which the mean lengtli
or height gives the required velocity.

To estimate this length more closely, let the origin of co-ordi-
nates be transferred to e (fig. 2): for the length of every thread of
water, or what is the same thing, for its velocity, we ha\e the equa-
tion Z' = ig (H -|- ,r).

Let y designate the indeterminate ordinate of the orifice, of

which the area is therefore = I ydx, and the content of tiie

prismatic body z / ydx, or rather = / zydx, since z is variable

and a function of ,r. To find the mean length or height of this
prism, we must divide its content by the sum of the threads of

water, or by the area of the orifice — that is, by / ydx. In this

manner we obtain generally —

/ zydx
(F) ~=V = -^^ ;

Substitute for z the above value, and we have —
V{ig)J'ydx^{n^x)

(G) V =

/'

ydx

And this is the expression for the mean velocity with which
the water at any vertical orifice whatever in a thin plate is dis-
charged.

The velocity being known, the quantity of discharges at the
orifice is easily determined. Let the quantity of discharge = tj,

24G

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[AuorsT,

and k the co-efficient of contraction : we obtain —

Q = k\ I ydx.

And when for \ its value found above is substituted, it follows, that

(H) Q = k^{ig)J'ydx^{n + j).

If the orifice be situated iu the bottom of the reservoir, and be
horizontal, \ = /\/(l^H), we obtain

(I) (i = ky'{igl{)J'ydx.
(To le continued.J

THE PUBLIC WORKS OF ENGLAND.
No. II. — Caledonian Canal.

The whole progress of the Caledonian Canal is so entirely illus-
trative of the conduct of public works in this country, that a de-
tailed account of it would not be undesirable.

The act for the purpose, which passed on the 27th December,
1803, granted to the government the sum of 20,000/. for the un-
dertaking. The engineering and conduct of the canal was en-
trusted to Telford, but the commissioners appointed another emi-
nent engineer — Mr. Jessop — to survey the line and calculate the
cost. The estimate of these gentlemen for the whole work was
IT+jOOO/., exclusive of the price of land, which expense, they sup-
posed, would not be considerable — many proprietors having offered
their land gratuitously, and the general value of land in the
country through which the canal passed not being great. The
expense for the first year was calculated at 75,000/. Before the
close of the year docks on both seas were in a considerable state
of forwardness; they were set out at 400 yards in length and 70 in
breadth; 400 bolls of oatmeal (56,000 lb.) were lodged in store-
houses, and delivered to the workmen at prime cost; 150 persons
were set to work, besides persons making and repairing utensils —
a number in those days thought very great, thougli a railway en-
gineer would smile at it. The average wages to the workmen was
ISd. a-day. Fir was cut down on the spot or in the neighbour-
hood, costing from lOd. to 14rf. the cubic foot — imported timber
would have been twice as dear, and answered no better. Thus the
preparatory arrangements were begun with much forethought and
economy.

The salary of the engineer, Mr. Telford, was at the rate of
three guineas per diem, including travelling expenses, with some
allowances for the expenses of one or two lengthened journeys.
This sum would make Mr. Brunei stare. The salaries of the
superintendents were fixed at from 50 to 150 guineas per annum.
The valuation of the land was about 15,000/.

Great apprehensions were entertained that the nature of the
soil would interpose insuperable diflBculties. Mr. Jessop's report,
in the actual state of geological knowledge, is curious. "It seems
(he states) probable that in some early age of the world the im-
mense chasm, almost two-thirds of which is still occupied by
water, has been nearly (why did I not say quite) open from sea to
sea, and that the land which now separates the locks has been
formed from the decay of the adjoining mountains. This decay is
very apparent in Ben Nevis, which is evidently a part only of a
much greater mountain which seems to have included the present
one and two adjoining mountains of lesser height. Impressed
with this idea, I was very apprehensive, after the iirst trials of the
ground at Inverness, that many other parts would be found similar
to it. Tliat greatest part of the land there being composed of
gravel and sand, is so open that the water in the pits sunk and
rose with the tide. Fortunately, a place has been discovered where
a foundation on clay may be got at by surrounding the pit with a
cofferdam." It was found generally that the gravel and sand had
a sufficient admixture of earth to exclude water.

The width of tlie locks was calculated at 38 feet, length in the
chamber 152 feet: 23 locks were provided for, at an estimate of
171,327/., and as many bi-idges, at an approximate estimate of
34,000/. The common cutting of the canal was estimated at
142,000/., the depth being 20 feet, with a bottom of 50 feet— a
slope of IS inches to a foot, and 90 feet width at tlie surface. The
remainder of the estimate was for deepening rivers, cofferdams,
aqueducts, culverts, with a sum of 12,000/. fur steam-engines.
By the time a single year had passed, the usual fate attended

these estimates. It was found that the locks would be too small,
as frigates of 44 guns might be required to pass — the length was
extended to 185 feet and the breadth to 43, with an addition to
the estimate of 122,624/. Then side locks were required for small
vessels, to save the wear and tear of the large locks; these were
further estimated at 75,200/. Iron railways were constructed for
the purpose of conveying stone from the quarries opened in the
vicinity of the canal — one of them 11,000 yards, a great length in
tliose days for such a purpose. The number of labourers was in-
creased from 150 to 900. The greatest difficulty was encountered
in the erection of the sea locks, in the construction of which a
good deal of ingenuity was exhibited.

In addition to the increase of other estimates, the salaries, as
usual, were increased. Two resident inspectors were appointed,
and several other officer.s, at allowances of upwards of 200/. yearly
each. Far more trouble and expense than was anticipated oc-
curred in the valuation of land, which the proprietors did not
seem disposed to part with gratuitously, nor at other than a high
value.

A great improvement on the usual practice of canals was intro-
duced at the very commencement of the undertaking in the con-
struction of the bridges. On the Forth and Clyde Canal wooden
drawbridges had been used at first, raised by chains and timber
framings; as these wore out, cast-iron bridges were substituted,
raised hy a wheel and pinion; but the Caledonian bridges were of
iron, on the swivel principle, which had been already used in the
London Docks. One of the most important works in the early
stage of the canal was the altering the course of the rivers Ness
and Oich. The beds of both of these rivers were required for the
canal. The embanking necessary was very extensive.

In 1820 the first steamboat was constructed for the canal by Mr.
Henry Bell, the introducer of steam navigation into England, and
the person who established the well-known steamboats on the Forth
and Clyde.

On the 23rd of October, 1822, the canal was opened from sea to
sea with very great ceremony. The principal landlords along the
land fired salutes and gave entertainments on the occasion, and
the papers of the day describe the affair as one of great magnifi-
cence. The passage back, from west to east, was made in 13
hours. The depth of water was then only 12 feet, but dredging-
machines were in active operation for the purpose of deepening
the canal to 20 feet.

The entire term, from the commencement to the opening of the
canal, was 19 years. It was begun in October, 1803, and opened,
as we said, in October, 1822. The expenses to this time were
921,373/. — of this no less than 47,886/. was paid for land which
was to have been granted gratuitously; 612,770/. was paid for
labour and did vast good to the country. The steam machinery,
estimated at 10,000/., only cost 5,596/., but the whole machinery
cost upwards of 121,408/. The cost of management for the whole
time averaged under 1,500/. per annum. On the whole, and by
comparison with modern undertakings, this great enterprise was
conducted with extreme economy and great ability. At times
the persons employed on the canal ai one time amounted to above
9,000.

In the first year of the opening 307 vessels entered the canal, of
which 37 passed from sea to sea. This was tlien considered a fa-
vourable account. The tolls fixed were a farthing a ton per mile,
with an increase upon very short voyages.

From May 1822, to May 1824, 278 vessels passed through the
canal, but the expenses of maintaining the canal were considerable.
Nearly 200 workmen were employed on the works, and the tonnage
duty was consequently doubled. The canal dues, previous to the
increase, from the year qiioted above, amounted to 1,555/. Not-
withstanding the increase the profits of the canal were small —
more workmen were obliged to be employed. The increased ton-
nage drove the shipmasters to the circuitous passage of the Pent-
land Frith, though even now the duty on the whole passage was
but 2.5. Id. per ton. One of the reasons for increasing the duty
was the complaint of the proprietors of the Forth and Clyde Canal,
who complained that tlie Caledonian, constructed at the public
expense, entered into an unfair competition with them by low
terms.

Since that time no efforts have been able to make it a profitable
one, though the Caledonian Canal, taking the circumstances of
the time in whiili it was constructed into consideration, is a work
of whicli tlie nation may be justly proud.

The mounds, wliich guard the entrance of the canal at the
Beauley Fritli, were advanced from the high-water mark to 4
fathoms deep of water; at the end is the sea lock. These im-
mense works are 400 yards long, and took four years to construct.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

247

i;

The settliii": of the vast bottom of mud and earth took two years;
and the cradle of masonry which surrounds it, capabl" of receiving
the largest merchant ships, is 170 feet long, 40 feet wide, and 30
feet deep. The other works throughout the canal are on a similar
scale. At the entrance of the lakes, owing to tlie sponginess of
the ground, great difficulties were surmounted by the perseverance
of the engineer. The dredging necessary for excavation of such
an extent was constructed with immense ingenuity. Neptune's
Staircase, which we have already mentioned as connecting eight
locks in succession, contains 400 yards of solid masonry. A con-
struction of the kind had never been attempted before.

On the whole, few works show more vividly the untiring in-
genuity and perseverance of the country than the Caledonian
Canal.

No. III. — Lighthouses.

Before the invention of the mariner's compass, beacons and
coast signals were indispensable for the safety of the mariner.
The vessels whose safe voyaging depended upon their never losing
sight of land, trusted to the natural and artificial signs which en-
abled the pilot to determine his position; and this object was ac-
complished in many instances by beacon lights, which served for
guides during the darkness of night. Around the shores of the
Mediterranean we have reason to believe that these lights were
thickly studded — the Colossus of Rhodes and the Pharos of Alex-
andria being the most celebrated. Both of these beacons are sup-
posed to have been erected about 300 years before the Christian
era, and to have endured until long after its commencement.
Next to these in point of time was a light-tower near Corunna, on
the Spanish coast, built, it is said, to aid the Irish navigators in
their voyages to Spain — this, at least, is the supposition of Mr.
Moore, in his 'History of Ireland' — and which Humboldt states to
be evidently an erection of the Roman period. The light in all
these beacons was derived solely from the flame of wood or pitch
burnt in open braziers, and visible comparatively for small dis-
tances.

Turning to the lighthouses of modern days, we find that the
light-tower of Corduan, in the Bay of Biscay, is alike the first in
point of time, the chief in height and range, and the example for
all the improvements that have been successively made in the pro-
duction and transmission of the warning rays of light to perplexed
mariners. This tower was begun by Louis de Foix, in the reign of
Henry II. of France, a.d. 158i, and finished in 1610, under
Henry IV. It is situated at the mouth of the Garonne, about two
leagues from Bordeaux, and serves as a direction to all the coast
navigation of the Bay of Biscay, as well as to the large influx of
shipping attracted towards the embouchure of the celebrated Lan-
guedoc Canal, which leads into the Mediterranean. The Tour de
Corduan is 157 feet in height, and its light may be seen in a di-
rect line for 25 miles in clear weather. Even on the Isle of Bone,
38 miles distant, a spectator, looking from some elevated point,
may detect the blaze in the horizon; but the curvature of the
ocean hides the light from the seaman on deck. Its light is inter-
mitting, changing, at half-minute intervals, from white to red.
Even the red rays, whose penetrating powers are far inferior to
the white, are visible as far as 12 or 14 miles, except in hazy wea-
ther. From its erection down to 1780 the light of this tower was
derived from the flame of wood. In that year M. Senoir substi-
tuted oil-lamps, with metal reflectors; and in 1822 M. Fresnel ex-
tended the range of illumination to the extraordinary distances
we have mentioned above, by the addition of dioptric lenses, acting
upon lamps of an improved and more powerful construction. The
use of this and similar beacons upon that coast has been enormous.
In the era of its first erection one of the Breton counts, who, as
lord of the soil, possessed rights of trover and wreckage along the
coast, is said to have boasted to a jeweller that a single black rock
which stood in the tideway was more valuable to him than the best
diamond in his caskets.

In England, the earliest lights and beacons along the coast were
erected by individuals, to whom royal patents were granted, au-
thorising them to collect certain tolls from the passing vessels to
defray the cost of building and maintenance, 'f he right of con-
structing those sea signals, however, rested solely with the crown;
and, in fact, the far larger number were used only in times of war-
like expedition, and for cei'tain special purposes. The earliest
lighthouse which still remains in existence was that of Lowestoft,
built in IfiOO. Another at Hurstbarton Point, on the east coast,
was erected in 1665; and the light on the Scilly Isles dates its es-
tablishment from 1680. Besides these there were two light-towers
erected during this period at Dungeness and Orfurdness, under

patents gra, _ '„_, James I. to Sir R. Howard and SirVI'^. Erskine.
These establishmei^ts remained private property, paying only a
small quit-rent to tiie crown, until very recently, whe.i the Trinity
Board, under the act of 1836, purchased them both at a high price
from their owners, Mr. Coke and Lord Braybrooke.

The earliest of the above dates (1609) saw the final establish-
ment of that board under whose control all the English lighthouses,
and almost all the autliority over English commerce and naviga-
tion, was ultimately to pass — namely, the Brotherhood of the
Trinity-house. This institution first commenced in the time of
Henry VII., as a private confraternity of seamen and shippers.
In the sixth year of his successor, Henry VIII., the brotlierhood
received their first charter as a recognised "Guild," under the title
of the "Brotherhood of the Trinity-house of Deptford le Strand
and St. Clement." The charter commences with the curious decla-
ration, that "On account of the sincere and entire love, and like-
wise devotion, which we bear and have towards the most glorious
and undividable Trinity, and also St. Clement the Confessor," his
Majesty gives and grants licence for the establishment of a guild,
or perpetual fraternity, to certain individuals and their associates,
"as well men as women." Early in Elizabeth's reign this charter
was confirmed, and again in the 36th year of that sovereign, when,
for the first time, those powers were granted which have subse-
quently led to the authority of the Trinity Board over all light-
houses. In that year the Lord High Admiral of England, Charles
Howard of Effingliam, formally relinquished all claims on his part
and on the part of the crown in the rights, privileges, and emolu-
ments for "buoyage, ballastage, and beaconage," which were
thenceforth assigned to the Trinity Brotherhood. James II., ia
confirming this charter extended the powers of the fraternity, and
organised the board pretty much as it still exists. His first patent
appoints "Our trusty and well-beloved Samuel Pepys, Esq., secre-
tary of our Admiralty of England, to be the fii-st and present
Master of the said Guild, Fraternity, or Brotherhood." The char-
ter was again enrolled and confirmed by George II., and in the
6th and 7th session of William IV., the Trinity-house received
enlarged powers, under which the whole number of liglithouses on
the English coasts, many of which had up to tliat time remained
private property, under grants or leases, were re-purchased, and
amalgamated under a uniform administration. The only exemp-
tions to the rule of the Trinity Board are in the instances of
certain harbour lights, which still continue in the control of local
trustees.

The dates of the several patents granted to the Trinity-house
begin with 1680, when Charles II. authorised the erection of the
Scilly Light. Two other patents were issued by that monarch, for
the light beacons of Spurm and Tynemouth Castle. Anne granted
one patent to the Trinity-house for Milford Haven; George I.
granted four; George II., seven; George III., fifteen; George IV.,
seven; and William IV., five.

The year 1656 saw the foundation first laid for that celebrated
structure the Eddystone Lighthouse. Mr. Winstanley was the
architect, and the tower stood 60 feet high in a sea whose waves,
during heavy storms, dash to an altitude of nearly 100 feet above
the lantern. The light was first exhibited in 1698, and burnt
steadily for five years, when the whole edifice was swept away by
a furious gale in November, 1703, while Mr. Winstanley was him-
self within it. This lighthouse was formed of courses of stone,
bound together with timber, and its destruction is attributed to
the comparative lightness of its materials and the slight founda-
tion prepared for it on the rock.

A tradesman on Ludgate-hill. Mr. Rudyerd, then undertook the
construction of a tower, wholly of wood. The form was that of
a conical cask, 70 feet high, with its lower ranges stiff'ened and
strengthened with courses of masonry. But the chief improve-
ment in this tower was in the contrivance of its foundations. The
irregular and shelving surface of the rock was levelled into a
range of broad steps. Into these steps a number of holes were
drilled, in sets of three each, diverging slightly from above down-
wards; when tlie three being broken into one, left a cavity of a
conical form, widest at its lower end. A compound wedge of iron
being driven tight into this cavity, clamped together, and the in-
terstices filled with melted lead, formed an immovable basis
whereto the lower piles of timber or blocks of stone might be se-
cured. This contrivance, introduced by Mr. Rudyerd in the Ed-
dystone, has since been extensively employed in lighthouse and
submarine works. The wooden tower bore the brunt of the wea-
ther from 1708 until 1755, when it unfortunately caught fire, and,
after burning for several days, was totally consumed. Two years
later Mr. Smeaton was engaged in founding the present edifice.
On the 16th October, 1759, the lights were first shown, and hav«

248

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

fAl-GCST,

never since ceased to shine from sunset to sunrise. At first the
only source of illumination was derived from tallow candles,
which were continued long after the far better method of lighting
by means of Argand burners had been extensively used. In
1807, at the expiration of a long lease, the Trinity Board came
into possession of the Eddystone lighthouse, in which they at
once substituted the oil lamps as they at present exist. The light
is revolving, in a period of one minute, and is visible, in clear wea-
ther, for 13 miles.

The successive improvements in the mechanical operation of
lighting introduced during this period may be thus recapitulated.
V\> to 178+, open fires of coal, wood, or pitch, were generally used;
in some few instances a system of tallow candles, protected by
glass frames, being substituted. In that year M. Argand invented
the oil-lamp known by his name. JM. Borda, very shortly after-
wards, contrived to adapt the invention to lighthouses. The
Trinity Board were not insensible to the value of this discovery.
A deputation, consisting of the deputy-master and several of the
brethren, visited France to inspect the results, and reported so
favourably, that it was speedily adopted in this country, and ex-
tended to Scotland and Ireland. In 1789, the suggestion of Buffon
and Condorcet, for the manufacture of glass lenses of large diame-
ters, was adopted for a lighthouse in the Isle of Portland; but,
owing principally to the imperfect state of the glass manufacture,
was found impracticable. In 1811, Brewster invented the method
of building large lenses in segments or zones of separate pieces,
and recommended the adoption of these infracting or "dioptric"
glasses in lighthouses. Notliing was done, however, until Fresnel
set the example eleven years afterwards in France, where the ma-
jority of lights are now constructed upon that system. Only a
few, comparatively, of the British lighthouses have to the i)resent
day abandoned the use of the reflectors, or "catoptric" lights.
Yet the relative power of the dioptric lamps is two to one, and its
economy nearly three to one over the reflecting burners, and they
transmit no less than 360 times the light of an unassisted flame.
On the other hand, there is some additional cost in the first erec-
tion of the lenses. Some attempts have been made to employ the
still higher illuminating powers of coal gas; but hitherto the dif-
ficulties have not been surmounted. The diief obstacle is in the
danger of fire and the liability of disorder in the apparatus, which
has to be reduced to a small compass within the narrow limits of
the light-towers, and entrusted too often to the custody of men
who are incompetent to conduct the operation. Nevertheless, gas
was used in a lighthouse at San Salvore, on the coast of Istria, as
early as 1818, and found to give a better light than oil, with a saving
of !)00 florins a-year. It was also employed in the Dantzic tower,
which had formerly been lighted by an open fire of coal, consum-
ing three times as much as the gas apparatus. \V^ax candles were
afterwards employed in the same lighthouse, and 1080 lb. weight
burnt in a year. Oil flames urged with oxygen gas, and the bril- '
liant "Drummond" or lime liglit, were subsequently subjected to
experiments, with a view to their introduction as sea lights. But
the same mechanical difliculties and dangers stood in the way of
their adoption, and it was further discovered that a light from a
small luminous point, however brilliant, was not so appropriate as
that from the extensive surface of the Argand burners, of which
no less than 24 were sometimes used in a single lantern. Sir
David Brewster also proves that the ordinary quantum of light
from the oil lamp is quite sufficient for all maritime purj)oses in
clear weather. Yet the lime light, which casts a distinct shadow
at 18 miles distance, might be advantageously introduced as an
assistant in hazy weather. At present the obscurity of fogs is com-
pensated as far as possible by gongs, bells, and guns, which are
rung and fired at intervals from the beacon towers.

As the lighthouse stations multiplied, it became necessary to
contrive some distinguishing mark by which the pilot might deter-
mine the one he sought. Various forms and clianges of the light
H ere, therefore, introduced, accomplishing nine varieties — viz., the
fixed white, revolving white, revolving red and white, revolving
red and two whites, revolving white and two reds, flashing, inter-
mittent, double fixed white, double revolving white. As the red
rays penetrate little more than half as far as the white, no light
must consist of red alone, especially as even white will look red
through a dry haze. The other colours are less penetrating still,
aiul therefore wholly unfit. According to the rule laid down by
I\Ir. Stevenson, no two lighthouses within 100 miles of one another
should have the same characteristics. The catastrophe of tlie
Gnvf Britiiiii steamer is a sufficient evidence of the necessity of
observing this rule, as it arose solely from a misapprehension of
the light on tlie Calf of Man. Now that lighthouses are becoming
so thickly multiplied, even the nine variations we have mentioned

become insuflScient; and efforts are making to invent means for
making numeral figures visible at great distances when traced in
light. Already it is stated that the numbers can be distinguished
at a distance of 12 miles.

A parliamentary committee was appointed in 184.4, chiefly by the
perseverance of ^Ir. Hume, to investigate the condition and ad-
ministration of the British lighthouses, and published a volumi-
nous report as the result of their labours. As usual, great mis-
management was proved to exist, combined with an uncertainty
and inconsistency in the charges and tolls levied upon shipping,
which must have occasioned considerable injury to our commerce.
The worst results, however, were found to arise from the system
of private management which still existed, either under old grants
from the Crown, or in virtue of some very inconsiderate leases by
the Trinity Board. The private ovrners in all cases thought only
of making a large revenue from their monopoly, and in many in-
stances had omitted to adopt the improvements in lighting univer-
sally employed elsewhere, and had occasioned some severe losses of
shipping l)y their criminal negligence. There was one light-tower
in the Isle of Man, on the Scotch coast, which belonged to the
Duke of Portland, and so late as the year 1810 was lighted by the
primitive contrivance of an open coal fire. In that year, two fri-
gates of the royal navy, the Pal/as and the Juno, mistook for this
light the flame from a lime kiln on the shore of East Lothian, and
were lost in consequence. Several lives were sacrificed, besides
the two ships, which were worth 200,000/. The lighthouse has
since passed into the keeping of the commissioners of northern
lights, and is provided with tlie proper Argand and reflecting ap-
paratus. The purchase money paid to the duke, together with the
outlay requisite for the introduction of an improved system of il-
lumination, amounted to 70,452/. Proofs of inattention, less in
degree but equally unjustifiable, were discovered in other light-
houses under private management. It was proved also that wliile
the costs of ^maintenance were far less than in the navy lights
erected by the Trinity Board, the revenues collected were per
light somewhat superior, and the net income to the proprietors
and lessees 60,392/. per annum, drawn from the commerce of the
country.

Some curious anomalies were also exposed in the levying of tolls
on vessels, for the supposed advantage of tlie lights. Thus,
throughout England a duty of ^il. to \^d. per ton was levied on
every vessel passing a lighthouse, the rate varying with every
light, which had its distinct rules and system of collection. In
Scotland, on the other hand, a ship that passed one light paid a
certain rate per ton for the whole number, and no more, if it went
the entire circuit of the coast. In the voyage from Leith to Lon-
don, therefore, a vessel of 142 tons would pay 1/. 9.s. l^i. for the
Scottish lights, though it passed only one of them; and would
have 4/. 17.?. 3f/. charged for the 19 English lighthouses passed be-
tween Berwick and London. A Yarmouth vessel also, bound for
the Thames, but driven by stress of weather to the Frith of Forth,
would pay for the whole series of Scotch lights, though it had used
none, having only been driven into their waters. In Ireland, the
charge was made at certain rates on the tonnage of every ship en-
tering an Irish port, whether it had passed a lighthouse or not.

In consequence of the report of the committee in 1834, the act
6 and 7 William IV. was passed. Under this statute all the pri-
vate rights in lighthouses were extinguished, and bought up by
the Trinity-house at a cost of no less than 1,182,546/., such was
the presumed value of these indispensable monopolies. Of this
sum Mr. Coke had 20,900/. for Dungeness lighthouse, and Lord
Braybrooke 37,896/. for the one on Orford Point. Tlie Small's
light cost more than four times as much — 170,468/. But the
worst instance was that of the Skerries lighthouse in the Irish
C'hannel. Queen Anne had granted a patent, in 1715, to Sutton
French, Esq., to erect a ligiit-to«er oft' tlie coast of Anglesea, for
the benefit of tiie Irish sliippiiig, and levy a toll of \d. per ton on
all passing vessels, in recompense of the same. The ininieiise in-
crease in Irisli commerce had rendered this light incredibly pro-
fitable, as it was kept up at a cost, probably, of under 500/. per
annum, and the returns were over 20,000/. For a long time Mr.
Morgan Jones, the reiiresentative of the first possessor, resisted
all the efforts of the Trinity-house to make him surrender his
claim, or even furnisli any account of his receipts, alleging that
his patent was granted in perpetuity, and witliout rent or fee to
the Oown or other autliority. The stringency of the late act,
however, compelled a production of the accounts, and after much
litigation a jury assessed the compensation to Mr. Jones at
441,980/., being 22 years' purchase of 20,042/. annum revenue.
This transaction closed in 1842, and since then all the English
coast lights are under the management of the Trinity-house, and

I8t9. 1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

249

quite free from private claims. Some steps have also been taken
towards reducing tlie tolls which are a heavy burden on commerce,
and bein^ levied per voyage, fall with unjust severity on the coasting
and packet trade. 'When the debt for purchase has been extin-
guished, further remissions are promised.

In Scotland, the earliest lighthouse was that of Cambrae, on
Little Cambrae Island, built in 1756, and rebuilt in 1793. The
Leith light was established in 1780, and that on Cape Wrath,
completed in 1796, is visible for 26 miles, being the widest range
of any British light. The Bell Rock, finished in 1811, at a cost of
61,331/. and the Skerryvore Lighthouse in Argyleshire, completed
as lately as 184.4, for which the estimated cost was 31,500/., are the
works of most interest in an engineering point of view. Enor-
mous difficulties were overcome in the construction of these
edifices, and both remain triumphs of British skill and science.
Their details are, however, too well known by the memoirs of their
respective engineers, Alan and Robert Stevenson, to justify a re-
petition. The height of the Bell Rock tower is 100 feet, that of
the Skerryvore 138 ft. 5 in. In the lantern of the former there
were 2i parabolic reflectors, each 18 inclies across the tips, and
containing 21/. worth of silver on its polished surface. Ireland
first possessed a lighthouse in 1768 at Poalbeg, at the entrance of
the Dublin river. The Balbriggen light was erected in the fol-
lowing year; that on Clare Island in 1807, and is visible for 15
miles. Cape Clear and Arran lights were built in 1817. The
Scellig Rock Lighthouse was the most expensive of the Irish bea-
cons, costing 41,651/.

The Isle of Man has seven lights, that of the Calf being the
chief. Two beacons, one in Denby Haven, built in 1659, and
another in Castletown Harbour, built in 1765, are intended to aid
the herring fishery, and are lighted only during that season.

At present the British system of lighthouses remains under the
control of three boards — 1. The Trinity-house Brotherhood, con-
sisting of 31 members, 11 of whom are honorary, and the rest
more or less connected with commerce or shipping. Established
about 1553. — 2. The Commissioners of Northern Lights, holding
jurisdiction over the Scotch and Isle of Man lighthouses, consist-
ing of 25 members, being sheriffs and county magistrates. Estab-
lished 1786. — 3. The Dublin Harbour Corporation, otherwise
called the Ballast Board, to whom was committed, in 1810, the
custody of the Irish lights, consists of 20 members, chosen for
life among the chief merchants and bankers, together with the
mayor and the sheriffs of Dublin for the time being. One day in
each week the board sits for lighthouse purposes. — A number of
small lights remain under the control of local authorities and har-
bour trustees, &c.

The system of lights administered by the three boards above-
mentioned, comprised in the year 1841 — Trinity-house, 65 fixed
and 23 floating lights; Northern Commissioners, 32 fixed, 2 float-
ing; Dublin Board, 27 fixed, 4 floating; local and harbour lights
made up a grand total of 312 British lighthouses. The cost of
maintaining the public lights was, on the average, about 500/. per
annum for the fixed, and 1,200/. for the floating lights. The gross
sum collected by the three boards for 150 lights (local and harbour
being exclusive) was 349,475/. Of this 131,036/. vvas expended on
maintenance, and 15,814/. in charges of collection, leaving a sur-
plus of 196,631/. on the year's receipts. Tlie charge for collection
amounts to 4/. 5s. per cent., an exorbitant sum, when the Customs
duties are collected for 2/. 2s. 8rf., and the parish rates for Mary-
lebone at 1/. 6*. Sd. per cent. The tolls are now paid by a rate
per ton for every lighthouse passed in the ship's voyage. No
symmetry is, however, preserved by the different boards in the
rates levied. The Irish Corporation charges ^d. per ton for every
light without exception. Tlie English lighthouses vary their tolls
from grf. tofrf.; and the Scotch from jd. to Irf. per ton per light.
These are for English merchant vessels; foreigners pay double,
and Royal Navy ships nothing. Many complaints are urged
against the amount of these tolls, and of the injury they inflict on
trade. England is the only country, indeed, where the lightliouses
are not supported out of the general finances of the State, instead
of being made a source of revenue wrung from the shipowner and
trader.

Of the original cost of the early lighthouses no accurate account
has been kept Of course the local difficulties occasioned an enor-
mous difference in the necessary outlay on each. The most ex-
pensive seems to have been the Bell Rock, 61,331/. The Isle of
Man Beacon, exhibiting three lights, cost 20,823/.; the Cape
Wrath, 14,506/.; and the Barrhead 12,575/. The engineering im
provements of modern days have much diminished the expense of
their construction: 12 lighthouses erected by the Trinity Board
between 1820 and 1834, cost 47,124/., or, on the average, 3',918/. a-

piece. In the way of receipts, the Bideford Bar light stands
lowest; its annual return having been 350/., while the cost of main-
tenance was nearly 800/. It is the only losing concern in the
whole lighthouse system. Eddystone has four keepers regularly
employed; about 12 others, 2; and the rest 1. The consumption
of oil varies from 1,200 gallons per annum at Beachy Head to 64
at Pakefield.

France, in 1845, possessed 153 lighthouses — 77 in the Channel,
47 on the west coast, 24 in tlie Mediterranean, including Algiers,
and 5 in Corsica. No less than 93 of these were on the lens or
dioptric principle. By an ordninance of the Emperor, in 1806, the
lighthouses were placed under the control of the Minister of
Travaux Publiques and defrayed out of the Exchecjuer. The cost
vvas about 110/. annually per light.

America, at the same date, possessed 272 lights of various de-
scriptions on her seaboard. For the cost of them 83,333/. was
charged upon the public service of the year, amounting to a little
over 300/. for each establishment. — Daily News.

REGISTER OP NEW PATENTS.

MACHINERY FOR ROLLING IRON.

Wiix7AM Clay, of Clifton Lodge. Cumberland, engineer, for
^'■improvements in machinery for rolliug iron or other metals, parts of
which improvements are applicable to other machinery in which cylin-
ders or rollers are Jtserf."— Granted December 16, 1848 ; Enrolled
June 16, 1849. [Reported in the Patent Journal.']

The improvements relate to rolling certain forms of iron and
other metals which are wholly or partially taper, or conical. In
the ordinary methods of manufacturing such taper bars, the cen-
tres of the compressing rollers are maintained at the same distanc
apart during the whole of the process of rolling; the requisite
taper being given to the bar rolled by eccentricity of the grooves
or their depth below the surface of the rollers; thus, if the depth
of the grooves upon the rollers progress the same depth through-
out, the result will be parallel bars; but if the depth gradually
varies, then the result is a gradual taper bar.

rfi

Fig. 1. Fif.

The improvements are for producing taper bars from rollers,
although the grooves in them may be the same depth throughout.
This is to be effected by the gradual separation of the centres of
the two rollers; and, as the bottoms of the grooves are concentric
to the centres, it follows that their surfaces are also increasing
their distance apart, and thus allow the bar of metal which passes
between them during the time of this separation, to assume a
taper form; the amount of taper given corresponding to the pro-
portionate rate at which the rollers are separated from each other.

The patentee describes two modes of effecting the object in
question; the first by means of hydraulic apparatus; and the se
cond by means of an eccentric or heart-shaped cam.

The first method is shown in the annexed engravings, fig 1

33

250

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

£AcouaT,

being an end elevation of the rollers, the upper part representing
the liydraiilic apparatus, being in s-ectiun; and fig. 2, a vertical
section of the hydraulic apparatus and the framing, taken through
the centre line of tlie rollei's. A, the framing, constructed in the
manner usually adopted in ordinary rolling-mills; B, the bearings
of the lower roller, stationary upon the framing, as usual ; but tliose
E, of the upper roller C, are moveable, by sliding vertically in the
grooves D; and for the purpose of placing the bearings E, within
their respective grooves, portions of the frame A, in front of the
grooves, are made moveable, as sliown at a; and when tlie bearings
E, are placed within the grooves, these pieces a, are secured in
their places. Upon the upper part of the framing A, is placed the
head containing the liydraulic apparatus; and this consists of the
cylindrical chamber F, to contain the water or other fluid em-
ployed. Into this chamber passes the solid ram or piston II; the
rod I, of which passes downward loosely tlirough the screw K, to
the bearing E, of the upper roller, against the upper side of which
the end of it bears. The ram H, passes into the chamber E, in a
fluid-tight mannei-, by means of the paclving and the packing-ring
or plate L, which is secured by screw-bolts N. The regulating
valve, when opened, allows a stream of the fluid to pass from the
chamber E, to the discharge-pipe O, by which it is carried oif.
The quantity of the fluid discharged by this valve will depend
upon the extent to which it may be opened; and this can be regu-
lated to the greatest nicety by means of the screw and wheel-
handle P. The purpose of the valve is to regulate the flow of
fluid from the chamber E; and thereby, by allowing the upper
roller to recede from the lower one, to shape the bar passing be-
tween the rollers of the taper form required. As the smaller in
quantity the stream of fluid which flows from the chamber E, the
less will be the taper of the bar rolled; the taper being greater
when the flow is larger in quantity. As the fluid employed in the
chamber is water, or some other of practical incompressibilitj', the
rise of the piston H, into the chamber E, will depend upon the
quantity of fluid discharged, and consequently, the receding of
the upper roller from the lower. Q, is another valve, the exit
from which flows into the discharge-pipe O. This valve is re-
tained in its seat by means of a powerful spring, and is only in-
tended to act under great pressure, to prevent injury to the appa-
ratus;— it is, in fact, a safety-valve.

After a taper bar has been rolled, the upper roller again ap-
proaches the lower one, resuming its former situation; and to
allow the piston to descend with it, it is requisite a quantity of
water should be passed into the chamber, equal to the quantity ex-
pelled through the valve X; and this is accomplished through the
valve R, from the feed-pipe S. At the back of the valve N, is a
slight helical spring, for the purpose of closing the valve against
its seat — immediately upon the flow of fluid through it ceasing.
This takes place upon the rolled bar leaving the rollers; the valve
not being attached to the screw, allowing it. The use of the screw
will be explained hereafter.

In rolling taper bars by this apparatus, the workman regulates
the flow of fluid from the chamber F, by means of the valve and
screw, and which by a little experience, he is enabled to do with
facility and with great accuracy; the bars in passing between the
rollers assume the taper form, by reason of the upper roller re-
ceding from the lower one, the passing of the piston II, into the
chamber F, admitting of this elevation, and the extent of that
elevation being regulated by the discharge of fluid from it past
the valve N; the bar being rolled, it ])asses from between the
rollers, the upper roller again approaching the lower one to its
original situation. The flow of fluid'from the chamber F, is sus-
pended, the valve N, closes by means of the spring, and a supply
of fluid is adniitted to the chamber, by the valve R, pre])aratory to
another bar being ]>assed between the rollers. The rollers B, and
C, are of the ordinary construction. The patentee describes a
modification of the above-described mode of efi"ecting the same
object: in place of employing the hydraulic apparatus described,
he employs an eccentric, or heart-shaped cam, fixed upon a revolv-
ing horizontal shaft; to effect the rise of the upper roller, a rod
somewhat similar to the rod I, already described, bears against the
upper side of the bearing of tlie upper roller, and the other end
against the periphery of the cam — the movement of the cam al-
lowing the upper roller to rise. When it is required to roll a bar
whicli shall be taper for only a portion of its length, the remaining
portion being parallel, the screw K, is brought into operation,
whicli is to be screwed up or down, as required, until it assumes
such a situation that, by the time a length of the bar, equal to the
taper part requii-ed, shall have passed between the rollers, the
upper side of the bearing of the upper roller comes against the
under side of the screw; thus preventing all further separation of

the rollers. The remainder of the bar will consequently be parallel.

The patentee claims: First — The application to rolling ma-
chinery generally, of apparatus which will allow the bearings of
one of the compressing rollers to rise gradually in the framing
during the operation of rolling, and by this means admitting of
ta])er forms of bars being produced witli facility equal to parallel
bars.

Secondly — The arrangement, construction, and adaptation of the
hydraulic apparatus described to machinery, for rolling iron, or
other metals, l>y which the compressing rollers are caused to sepa-
rate gradually, for the purpose of rolling, and forming bars of
taper form, &c.

Thirdly — The modification of the apparatus consisting of an ec-
centric, or heart-shaped cam, which, levolving, is employed. to
regulate the gradual separation of the rollers described.

Foui'thly — The adjusting screws in connection with the other
apparatus, for the purpose of rolling and forcing the bars of met;il
taper for a portion of their length, and parallel for the remaining
portion.

CORRUGATED IRON BEAMS

John Henderson Pokter, of 2, Adelaide-place, London-bridge,
in the city of London, engineer, for '■'■an improved mode of apph/ing
corrugiited iron in the formtition of fire-proof floors^ roofs^ and other
like structures." — Granted December 2, 1848; Enrolled June 2,
1819.

This invention relates to the construction of fire-proof floors,
roofs, and similar structures, with two or more plates of corru-
gated iron, placed one over the other, — the corrugations of one
plate being so situated with reference to the corrugations of the
other, that, when the plates are riveted or bolted together, they
will form a series of united tubular ribs; which ribs are to be used
either in a horizontal, arched, or inclined position, as joists, beams,
ribs, rafters, or other like supports.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Figs. 1, and 2, represent end views of two difl^erent forms of
corrugated plates, which may be used for the purposes above-
mentioned, — the plates being united by rivets at «, a. The form
of corrugation may be varied; but that preferred by the patentee
is shown at fig.'S.

Fig. 3 represents a section of corrugated plates forming a united
series of tubular horizontal beams or joists, and applied to the for-
mation of a level boarded and ceiled floor. For this purpose, the
corrugations or grooves in tlie upper side of the top plate mav be
filled with concrete b; the flooring boards c, are nailed to fillets
of wood d, which are laid across the upper parts or ridges of
the corrugated plate, and secured at internals by bolts e, and nuts
/; and, in order to form the ceiling, fillets of wood g, are secured
by bolts /t, and nuts i, to the under side of the lower plate, at
suitaole intervals; and to these are nailed the laths /, which receive
the plaster Ic, in the ordinary way. Instead of bolts the plates
may be united by rivets.

BRIDGE GIRDERS

John G.\nnNEB, of Wokingham, Berkshire, engineer, for "/m-
pruvcmcnts in girders for bridges and other structures." — Granted
December 0, 1848; Enrolled June 9, 1819.

The improvement relates to girders, beams, bars, or bearings,
employed in engineering, building, and architectural structures,
for bridges, viaducts, aqueducts, railways, archways, dock-gates,
roofings, and floorings; and consists in making the same of cast-
iron, with a strengthening bar or bars of wrought-iron embodied
or dovetailed into the same.

Fig. 1 is a side view of part of a girder; fig. 2 shows the under
side of the same; fig. 3 is a section on the line a, b, of fig. 1 ; and

18i0.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

251

fig. 4 a section on the line c, n. a, is the cast-iron girder; b, b, the
bottom flanges; r, c, two wrought-iron bars inserted into the bot-
tom of the girder, at a small distance apart, and, at the centre of
each flange, they are slightly bevelled outwards on each side, so as
to be dovetailed, as it were, into the girder at those parts. The
wrought-iron bars are introduced in the process of casting the
girder; — such bars having been previously rolled into the required
sectional form, and well cleansed from oxide by heating them in a
furnace or otherwise. Fig. 5 is a cast-iron girder r/, strengthened
by a bar of wrought-iron e, whicli forms the bottom of the girder,

Jig. 4. Fig. 3. Fig. 1.

Fig. fi. Fig. 7.

and connected to the upper part by a central ridge, of a dovetail
form in its cross section, and of an undulating form in the longi-
tudinal direction. Other modifications in the form of tlie wrouglit-
iron bars may be adopted. Figs. 6, and 7, sliovv how this com-
pound mode of construction may be adapted to railway-b.ars and
bearings where these are (as is now ordinarily the case) of great
weight: — c, c, are the cast-iron parts; and w, w, are the wrought-
iron parts.

SILVERING OF GLASS.

Thomas Dkayton, of Regent-street, practical chemist, for "im-
provements in the sUi'ering of c/Zass and other surfaces." — Granted
December 4., 18i8; Enrolled" June 4, 1849.

The improvements relate to silvering glass, by precipitating
silver on the surface of glass, and causing it to adliere thereto,
without previously coating the sui'face with any kind of material,
in tiie following manner: — Take one ounce of hartshorn, or am-
monia, and add thereto, two ounces of nitrate of silver, three
ounces of water, and three ounces of spirit, preferring spirit of
wine for the purpose; mix the same together, and allow the mix-
ture to stand for three or four hours, and then iilter for use.
When the mixture is used, to one ounce of it add g^-ounce of
saccharine matter, previously dissolved in equal quantities of
water, and spirit of wine, say half a pint of each, preferring grape
sugar for the purpose, when it can be allowed two or three hours
to dissolve. This mixture is to be laid over the entire surface of
the glass, which is to be kept at a temperature of 160°. AVhen
the silver has become thoroughly dry, it is to be coated with
mastic varnish, which serves as a protection from friction. The
fluid is also well adapted for silvering the surface of metals.

TUBULAR BRIDGES.

An accovnt of the Construction of the Britannia and Conway Tubular
Bridges, with u complete history of their progress. By ^VII,LIAM
Faikbairn, C.E. London: Weale; Longman. 1849. Svo. pp.
291 ; 20 plates.

Disputes respecting priority of scientific discovery are seldom
terminated satisfactorily or conclusively. Of all the more import-
ant instruments and methods which have given man new powers in
the domains of art and science, there is scarcely one for the inven-
tion of which there are not many claims to this day unsettled.
The tempting nature of the prize offered, and the congruity of the
thoughts of men of learning at particular epochs, render the suits
which arise in the Chancery of science numerous and complicated ;
while from the difficulty of discerning the hidden processes of the
mind, and the subtlety of the distinctions between absolute origin-
ality of thought and its numerous counterfeits, the cases are
always difficult to adjudicate. We know that large books have
been written expressly to discuss the question of the invention of

the telescope. The antagonistic claims of Newton and Leibnitz
to the honour of devising the metliods of fluxions, gave rise to a
paper war which is not yet terminated. To come down to a period
within our immediate recollection — the ])rediction of the place and
motion of a new planet has raised to the highest scientific rank
two rival and independent discoverers.

The controvei-sy to which the experimental and theoretical in-
quiries respecting Tubular Bridges have given rise, is on many
accounts to be regretted. The subject was eminently one which
required concurrence and unity of purpose among the investiga-
tors. They themselves are men who have one and all done good
ser\ice for science, — men who have been honourably associated for
years in the mutual pursuit of science, — men whose attainments
have won for them public respect and confidence. We have not
yet the whole evidence of the case before us, and feel it premature
to decide upon an e,v-parte statement. jAVe, moreover, arc anxious
to avoid pai'ticipating in a contest in which too much of the gall
and bitterness of jealousy has been exhibited. But we have
enough evidence at least to he quite certain that the discussion
has throughout been too strongly marked by the absence of mu-
tual concessions, and has been caused solely and entirely by feel-
ings of distrust, and a jealous concealment or reserve, which seem
absolutely incompatible with a pure love of science.

They love science best, and are its most successful disciples,
who follow it for its own sake — not for the aggrandisement of
personal renown. We like not to see men too avaricious and
greedy over their scientific wealth, — hiding and hoarding every
morsel of truth which they can snatch unobserved. It is only the
miser who acts so. They who are really rich in intellectual trea-
sure, who possess the mines of exhaustless minds, are liberal
withal. The craven, who tremble for the little by which they are
richer than their neighbours, have but a pitiful store. There is
that scattereth and yet increascth; and there is that wittwUieth more
than is meet, but it tendeth to poverty.

The present work does not very distinctly set before us the
exact nature of the claims which Air. Fairbairn prefers ; but we
believe the following may be fairly stated to be the principal re-
sults which he asserts to have been the fruits of his inquiries —
1st, tlie preference of a rectangular to a circular tube; 2nd, the
abandoimient of the suspension chains originally contemplated;
3rd, the cellular structure of the top of the tube; Uh, the hydrau-
lic lifting app.aratus.

On the first question it seems unnecessary to enlarge, as it was
disposed of at a very early stage of the inquiry. It requires such
a very mild knowledge of mechanics to perceive, that of two uni-
form tubes of equal height and length, the rectangular must be
stronger than the circular for a given quantity of metal, that,
instead of assigning any merit for the settlement of the point, we
are rather disposed to wonder how it could have been ever doubted.

On the other questions raised by Mr. Fairbairn, we shall for the
present content ourselves almost entirely with a mere condensed
narrative, in which it is to be understood tliat in general the au-
thority for disputed facts is the work before us. It is probable
that counter-statements will hereafter appear; but, until then,
sufficient data will not have been furnished for a decisive opinion
on the general merits of the case.

The tubular Ijridges for the Conway and the Menai Straits ap-
pear to have been first proposed by Mr. Stephenson, about April
1845; and it is, happily, a point uncontroverted that the original
idea of substituting a rigid tube for bridges of the ordinary forms,
belongs exclusively to him. We are informed in the work before
us, that, at the time mentioned, a "consultation" with Mr. Fair-
bairn took place, at which Mr. Stephenson appeared to think that
"the tube should be either of a circular or egg-shaped sectional
form. He was sti'ongly impressed with the primary importance of
the use of chains, placing his reliance in them as the principal sup-
port of the bridge; and he never for a moment entertained the

idea of making the tube self-supporting In fact, for several

months afterwards, and even up to the time of the experiments on
the model tube, in December ] 840, he insisted, as will be seen from
the annexed correspondence, on the application of such chains."

Of course, we are quite unable to contradict any statement made
by Mr. Fairbairn, of what took place at the consultation in ques-
tion. But we are prepared to contradict the assertion, that for
several months afterwards Mr. Stephenson insisted on the applica-
tion of chains. On the contrary, we have incontrovertible proof
that in the month following this consultation, he distinctly and
strongly urged the practicability of dispensing with the chains
altogether.

From an authentic copy of the minutes of evidence of Mr. Ste-
phenson, on the 5th and 6th of May 1845, before the Committee

33*

252

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

of the House of Commons on the Chester and Holyhead Railway
(No. 1), we fxive verbatim the following extracts, which will pro-
bably be deemed conclusive : —

" I'erliaps I may at once explain to the Committee the idea I have adopted.
I conceive a iul>e — supposing a wrought-iron tube — to extend across the
straits ; that that ttihe to have, we will say to have 25 feet diameter, to hold
a line of railway, and the line of railway would run inside of it. In addi-
tion to that, we should have to erect a chain platform for the purpose of the
building. Then the question would arise, whether the chains would be al-
lowed to remain, or whether they would be tatten down. My own opinion is,
that a tube of wrouyht-iron would possess diffident strength to support a
railway. I am instituting a series of experiments with Mr. Fairbairn, of
Manchester. In fact, he is already in possession of experiments with respect
to iron ships which place the thing beyond a doubt, lie has ascertained that
a vessel of 250 feet in length, supported at the ends, will not yield with all
the machinery in the middle."

Here it appears that l\Ir. Stephenson not only thought, in May
IS 15, that the tube might be made sufficiently strong of itself, hut
that the experiments of yiv. Fairbairn removed all doubts on the
subject. Further on, the Minutes of Evidence are as follows : —

" It occurred to me that a rigid platform might be obtained by substituting
a tube in addition to the chains. Then, on going into the calculation of the
strength of the tube, I found that I did not require the chains themselves."

In anotlier place, the following questions and answers occur : —

" Q. You have not made up your miud as to the safety of dispensing with
the chains ?

yi. No, I have not.

Q. It would he impossible to do so until it is constructed, would it not ?

A. I would rather leave that, because I would make the design so that the
chains might either be taken away or left ; and during the construction we
should have ample opportunity of ascertaining whether we could safely take
away the chains or not.

Q. There would be no great advantage from taking away the chains?

A. No; only it would make it more costly if they remained : they would
be applicable to other purposes, and they would cost from thirty to forty
thousand pounds."

The opinion of Mr. Stephenson as to the expediency of remov-
ing the chains, is not expressed here quite so strongly as before, —
but distinctly enough to show that Mr. Fairbairn is mistalten in
supposing that Mr. Stephenson insisted, for several months after
March 18+5, on the application of chains. We readily believe that
Mr. Fairbairn has correctly stated the impression on his own miud;
and the apparent contradiction may be easily reconciled by sup-
posing that the subsequent experiments, and perhaps the opinions
expressed by Mr. Hodgkiuson and others, shook that faith in the
strength of the tube alone which Mr. Stephenson had when before
the Committee on the Chestfr and Holyhead Railway.

In the Report presented by him to the directors of that railway,
twelvemonths afterwards — (February 9, 184G) — lie treats the ques-
tion of the adoption of chains as still undecided: —

** The application of chains as an auxiliary has occupied much of my at-
tention ; and I am satisfied that the ordinary mode of applying them to
suspension bridges is wholly inadmissible in the present instance; if, there-
fore, it he hereafter found necessary or desirable to employ them in conjunc-
tion with the tube, another mode of applying them must be devised, as it is
absolutely essential to attach them in such a manner as to preclude the pos-
sibility of oscillation."

Throughout this paragraph Air. Stephenson expresses a doubt as
t'^ the expediency of using chains. It seems, therefore, a neces-
sary inference that his final determination to abandon those ad-
juncts must have been produced by subsequent information : and
we cannot see how Mr. Fairbairn could prove that the information
was derived from his experiments exclusively, and not from a
general review of all the experiments undertaken. We find, in-
deed, the following statement by him in a foot-note (p. 22) : —

" The drawings and designs for the Britannia and Conway Bridges were
made out, and the parts proportioned, without the aid of Mr. Hodgkinson's
formula; ; and the ab )ve, as well as other hollow girder bridges, have since
been constructed independently of that gentleman's assistance."

Rut surely so general a statement must be extremely injudicious,
unless supported by very distinct and specific proofs. As far, how-
ever, as we can perceive, there is not even an attempt to give evi-
dence of the alleged construction of the Britannia and other hollow
girder bridges independently of Mr. Hodgkinson's assistance. On
the contrary, a few pages furtlier on, we find Mr. Fairbairn stating
in his report to the directors of the Chester aud Holyhead Rail-
uay —

•' In the pursuit of the experiments on the rectangular, as wrll as other
description of tubes, I have been most ably assisted by my excellent friend,
Mr. llodgkinson ; his scientific and mathematical attainments render him
well qualified for such researches : and I feel myself indebted to him for the

I X

kind advice and valuable assistance which he has rendered in these and other
investigations."

— How does Mr. Fairbairn reconcile this last statement with the
previous assertion ?

With respect to the cellular structure of the top and bottom of
the tube, Mr. Fairbairn certainly a]>pears to have established his
claim more fully. This point is a very important one. It is un-
deniable that the peculiar, and altogether novel, form adopted for
these parts of the bridge, constitutes one of its most essential
features. The first notice or suggestion of this cellular structure
appears in a "private"* letter from Mr. Fairbairn to Mr. Stephen-
S(ui, dated Millwall, Sept. 20, 184'5. After noticing some experi-
ments on elliptical and other tubes, the letter proceeds : —

" The defective powers of resistance of all the tubes of this shape, have

suggested a new arrangement and distri-
bution of the metals ; it being evident
from the experiments that the tube viM
resolve itself into a huge hollow beam
or girder, leaving the two resisting forces
of compression and extension as wide
apart as possible. It is further conclu-
sive, that the sides must be made com-
paratively light, and considerable addi.
tional material introduced into the top
and bottom of the tulie. This will give
greatly-increased strength ; and a few
more experiments will determine which
of the two shall have the preponder-
ance. It is more than probable that
the bridge, in its full size, may take
something of the following sectional
shape."

Mr. Fairbairn calls the atten-
tion of his readers to the close
resemblance of the sectional form
indicated in the sketch to that
of the bridges actually constructed
for the Convi'ay and Menai Straits; and certainly lie'is fully justi-
fied in insisting on the very close similarity. The only ambiguity
of the above quotation is the phrase "The defective powersj &c.,
have suggested a new arrangement." To whom did that suggestion
occur? — Is the writer to lie understood as expressing his own
ideas only, or the collective deliberations of the several persons
present at the experiments described.''

The remaining question as to the invention of the methods of
raising the tube and some other points, we must leave for a subse-
quent paper. We cannot, however, conclude, without repeating
the expression of great regret at the circumstance, that the two
principal experimenters, Mr. Hodgkinson and Mr. Fairbairn, per-
formed their experiments independently of each other, and main-
tained strict reserve as to the results. How far better might it
have been for science, could they have worked together as hereto-
fore ! May we not hope that the day may come in which we may
again receive instruction from the associated labours of men who
have already worked together so well for the public benefit.'' Our
respect for Mr. Fairbairn must not induce us to conceal the
opinion that be has taken a very ill-advised step in attempting to
exalt himself at the expense of his colleagues. Had he contented
himself with a simple statement of his share of the transaction —
what experiments he made — what suggestions he offered — -wliat
labours of every kind, theoretical or practical, he undertook in aid
of the great result, — no blame could have attached to him. M'e
willingly allow that his labours were great and deserve great
praise — nay, we will confess that the perusal of the present work
has increased our admiration of his efforts considered by them-
selves. But surely others worked well and ably too. Ilehiniself
gives reiterated proof of the anxiety and toil which this under-
taking cost Rlr. Stejihenson. And we know that the investigations
of Mr. Hodgkinson were most laborimis, and confidently believe,
that wlien published, they will be esteemed among his most suc-
cessful researches.

We cannot tell with whom the system of distrust and jealousy
began; but to these feelings are to be attributed all the unfor-
tunate results that followed. Let us hope that these feelings will
be soon consigned to oblivion by a generous acknowledgement of
mutual mistakes, and be rephiced by a worthy emulation of "in
honour preferring one another."

A short time will probably suffice to put the public in possession
of further and independent information respecting the history of

* Mr. Fairb'iirii dues not a]>pear to st.ite anywhere that the ^'U 'plication of private let-
ters adjiesceti to him was auliiorisetl by the writer.

1849.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

253

the Tubular Bridges. But enough is before us to warrant us in
affirming that Mr. Fairbairn deals unfairly both with his own fame
and with that of his colleagues, in assuming a controversial tone —
unfairly towards them, by endeavouring to depreciate their merits,
— unfairly towards himself, because the attempt will re-act against
himself, in the minds of those who will estimate his labours by
personal, and not by purely scientific considerations.

BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE.

Sir — I have read in the June number of your excellent Journal, Sir John
Rennie's letter of the 17th May. As it contains nothing new, I would sim-
ply, in addition to the facts contained in my former letters, refer to the
Minutes of the Lighthouse Board of 6th June 1827, wherein there is a
Report of a Committee appointed to examine accounts connected with the
publication of Mr. Stevenson's work on the Bell Rock Lighthouse. That
Committee recommended the Board to express to Mr. Stevenson "their
sense of his merits as the engineer of the Cell Rock Lighthouse, and the
author of the history of its erection ;" and accordingly, Mr. Duff, in name
of the Commissioners, begged to return him "their thanks for the ability,
assiduity, and enterprise displayed by him in the completion of that great
useful public work, and of the clear and instructive narrative which he has
given of its erection in this publication."

I also embrace this opportunity of laying before your readers the accom-
panying letter which I have lately received from Mr. Cuningham, the re-
tired Secretary of the Northern Lights Board, — the gentleman whose name
Sir John Rennie has mentioned with deserved hut (in the eyes of all who
know him) supererogatory commendation, and who drew the very Minute on
which Sir John has attempted to raise his claim. — Again, with thanks,

I remain, &e.,

Edinburgh, Sth July, \Si9. • Alan Stevenson.

Co/>y of Letter J^rom Charles Cuvinnhnm, Esq., to Mr. Alan Stctejzson,
above referred to.

" My Dear Sir — I have your note of the 26th, and I presume that I am
indebted to you for a private copy from the Civil Engineer and Architect's
Journal of this month, of the correspondence between Sir John Rennie and
you relative to the Bell Rock Lighthouse, which I have perused with much
interest. A copy of your letter of the 26th December last to Sir John,
whicli was sent to me by my son, was the first intimation I ever ha'l, and I
received it not without surprise at Sir John Itennie having claimed for his
father the merit of having designed and built this Lighthouse.

"It so hajipened that among the first professional duties with which I was
intrusted was to act as clerk to the joint committees of Edinburgh and
Leith, who had the charge of the construction of the Leith Wet Docks.
This must have been in 1799 or 1800; and very shortly afterwards I was
conjoined with the late Mr. Gray, as Secretary to the Commissioners of
Northern Lighthouses ; and in both ca]iacities I had frequent opportunities
of being with Mr. Rennie during his periodical visits to Scotland. The Wet
Docks he planned and executed under the superintendence of a resident
engineer appointed by himself. The Bell Rock was planned by your father,
and after having been sanctioned hy Mr. Rennie, was executed entirely under
your father's personal superintendence ; and in all my communications with
Mr. Rennie, which were not unfrequent, I never heard him lay claim to tliis
work, nor am I aware of his having had anything to do with the execution
of it — unless, perhaps, your father may have seen fit to consult him in his
character of chief engineer.

"You ask me under what impression I framed the Minute of 3rd Decem-
ber 1S06; but at this distance of time it is not to be expected that I can
retain exact impressions. That Minute must have been framed under direc-
tions; but I have no hesitation in saying generally, that I conceive the Com-
missioners having obtained Mr. Rennie'sj?a/, thereby gave their sanction to
the building being of stone, as recommended by your father, the plan of
which bad long before been submitted to them. But surely the fact of the
Commissioners having placed your father's bust in the library of the Light-
bouse, conveys, in a manner not to be mistaken, their impression of the
party entitled to the merit of the work.

"I am, &c.

(Signer!)

Newholm, Dolphinton, Lanarkshire,
"29^/1 May, IS 19."

'Charles Cuningham.

Hnytar Granite. — The size of some of the stones quarried at the Dart,
moor Grnnite Woiks may be imagined from one wliich was blown out a few days Hgo by
Messrs. Filmer and Hoar. The length of the bloek was 30 feet-, hieadth, 2i feet; helRht,
24 feet, cubical coiit.jnts. 16,.'i60 feet ; and it weighed no less than 1.380 tons. Only
50 lb. of powder were used in blasting.

IMPORTANT RATING CASE.

Sir, — The rating of the property belonging to gas, water, and railway
companies, to the relief of the poor, being now so much in dispute, every
decision thereon is of importance.

On Friday, July 6th, an important decision was made, in the case of an
appeal of the Phoenix Gas Company, against the assessment of their property
to the poor-rate, in the parish of Greenwich, which assessment bad been in-
creased when the last rate was made, in April last, from the sum of 1680/. to
5671^. (both sums including the stations and mains), without any alterations
having been made by the company, to increase the value of their property in
that parish. The Phccnix Gas Company has very extensive buildings and
plant, the mains extending into twenty-three parishes, with large manufac-
turing stations at Vauxhall, Bankside, and Greenwich ; also store stations in
Kenoingtou-lane and Wellington-street. The parish ofBcers, by the advice of
their surveyor, Mr. Charles Penfold, of Cornhill, valued the property belong-
ing to the company, in the parish of Greenwich, as separate and distinct from
the rest of the company's works and mains (although the whole is most in-
timately connected, also managed by one board of directors, having one office
and only one set of clerks and officers) ; hy which scheme, the whole value
of the station and mains in Greenwich was assessed to the poor-rate of that
parish, as well as a portion of the value of the gas rental of the other pa-
rishes supplied with gas from the Greenwich station, — for the reason that the
gas used in those parishes passed through the mains laid in Greenwich parish.
They then proceeded to ascertain the net rateable value, by assuming that the
rent which a tenant would give, "from year to year," for the whole property
in Greenwich, with the right of supplying that and the other parishes now
supplied from the Greenwich station ; and this assumed rent was arrived at
by finding the power of production (not the quantity produced) of gas at the
station in Greenwich : the result was —

Net rateable value of the station .. £3,000

Ditto of the mains in Greenwich supplying gas in Greenwich only .. 2,924

Ditto of the mains iu Greenwich supplying Lewisham l.'>4

Ditto of the mains in Greenwich supplying other parts 393

Total net rateable valuable £5,0/1

The surveyor of the company, Mr. Lee, of Golden-square, contended, that
the whole of the property belonging to the company must be considered as
one concern, and taken as a whole, and so assessed to the poor-rate. Or, that
the rent which a tenant would give, "from year to year," for all the stations,
stores, and mains in the twenty-three parishes, must first be assumed ; that
the basis of this assumed rent should be the gas actually produced at the
three stations, and sold in the twenty. three parishes; and from the rent so
ascertained must be obtained the net rateable value of the whole property.

Then, that the net rateable values of all the stations and stores most be
assumed and deducted from the net rateable value of the whole property, the
balance being the net rateable value of all the mains in the twenty-three
parishes, and that this balance should be divided in proportion to the quan-
tity of mains in each parish. Or, that the stations and stores should be
rated in the parishes in which they may happen to be situate, in proportion
to their present value; and the net rateable value of all deducted from the
amount nf the net rateable value of the whole properly, including the stores
and stations; and that the remainder should be divided amongst the twenty-
three parishes, in proportion to the quantity of fixed apparatus situate in
each parish instrumental in earning gas-rent : the result would be —

Net rateable value of all the stations £5 438

Ditto ditto of all the mains 3,320

Total net rateable value of the whole property ^a,7orf

Net rateable value of Ihe Greenwich station ifl.Slt!

Ditto ditto 01 the street mains in Gieeuwich 314

Net rateable value of all the property in Gieenwlch . . .. jfl.tVO

The total present value of all the stations being £\7'6.'riS

Ditto ditto of all the street mains U>.),7»>1

Total present value of all the property £27t,'J\)^

The present value of the stations at Greenwich being .5^41.953

Ditto ditto of the street mains in Greenwich 1 1 U4d

Total value of the property in Greenwich ^£53,001

The Court decided that the assessment must first be made on the whole of
the property in the twenty-three parishes, as a whole, iu accordance with
"The Queen v. the Great Western Railway Company," and tliat it was to be
then divided as contended for by the company's surveyor ; that the net rate-
able value of the whole was to be 13,600/., and in Gi'eenwioh parish 2,o32/.
— viz. station, 2,045/.; mains, 487/. The ease was gone into at great length ;
it came on by special appointment, and occupied the Court from niue until
half-past seven o'clock.

The company have appealed against the assessment of their property, iu
various parishes, several times, for the purpose of having a principle decided,
but have not succeeded before this case.

I am, &c.

.\ Surveyor.

254

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Auocsi,

PROCEBDINGS OP SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

June 18. — T. Bellamy, V.P., in the Chair.

Mr. Fergdsson read a paper "On the History of the Pointed Arch."

Dismissing the usual theories invented to account for the mode in which
its form may have been suggested, and rejecting also (he narrow limits into
which the inquiry into its history had hitherto been confined, he commenced
dividing the subject into four sections or series of pointed arches ; — the two
earliest belonging to the East, the two others to Northern Europe. The
first series Mr. Fergusson defined as commencing with the earliest dawn of
architectural history, and extending downwards to the period of Roman
domination. He pointed to examples of tlie form as existing in the pyra-
mids of Gizeh and of MeriJe, and also as found in the Great Oasis at El
Kaigeh. This branch of the subject was further illustrated by examples
taken from the sepulchres and city walls of ancient Etruria, from similar re-
mains in ancient Greece — more especially at MycenK — and lastly from
Assos, and other places in Asia Minor, showing how universal the form was
at a very early period in all Pelasgic countries. lie then pointed out how
completely this form was lost under the all-pervading influence of the
Romans, who introduced everywhere their own favourite round arch ; but
proceeded to show how immediately on the decline of their influence the
])ointed arch re-appeared in all the countries of the East ; illustrating this
by examples drawn from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem —
now known as the Mosque of Omar — but which, he asserted, was the iden-
tical edifice raised by Constantine the Great on that spot. His other exam-
pies were taken from the Mosque at Diarbekr, a building in the same style
and of the same age as the Mosque at Jerusalem — the Palace of Khosroas
at Ctesiphon — the Aqueducts of Constantinople, and other edifices of that
period ; in all which the pointed form of arch is still found. He then
Eliowed how the Arabs who, as a nomadic race, had no architecture of their
own, adopted the pointed form of arch; using it as early as the twenty-first
year of the Hejira, and continuing the use of it almost universally from that
time to the present hour in all the countries of the East, and also in Sicily,
as well as in their oldest edifices in Spain. In the latter country, however,
it appeared that they most generally adopted the round or horse-shoe form
of arch; thus confirming the idea that the Arabs had no architecture of
their own, hut adopted the forms of the country which they occupied. — The
third series Mr. Fergusson called the Provenfale, and defined it as a style
existing to the south of the Loire, to the north of the Garonne, and as ex-
tending from the Gulf of Nice to the Bay of Biscay, The date he assigned
to this style was from the age of Charlemagne to about the end of the
eleventh century. He adduced instances of this early pointed arch style
from the Churches of Notre Dame d'Avignon, Churches at Vaison, the
Churches of Pernes and Carcassone, the Cathedral of Cahors, St. Front
Perigeux, the Abbeys of Souillac and Moissa;, and more especially of Locbes,
&c. All of these he maintained to be earUer than the round-arch style in
as far as their pointed peculiarities are concerned, and certainly as preceding
in every respect the true Gothic style with which they had little or no af-
finity.— The fourth and last division of the subject was the true Gothic
style; which arose in Northern Europe in the latter half of the twelfth cen-
tury, was perfected in the first part of the thirteenth, and continued to be
practised so generally till the Reformation.

With regard to the invention of the pointed arch, Mr. Fergusson showed
that the second style certainly arose from the first ; but mentioned that the
Western nations had no right to claim as an invention what had so long
been practised in the East, and which they certainly saw and knew long
before they adopted it. But though this may have suggested the form, he
maintained, with Dr. Whewell, that it was only its practical utility or neces-
sity that could have rendered it so universally prevalent ; and he pointed out
the manner by which, not only in the Provenfale, but also in the true Gothic
styles, the greatest constructive difticulties were solved by its adoption. Mr.
Fergusson concluded by distinguishing between the invention of the pointed
arch and of the Gothic style. The former he conceived to be an idea bor-
rowed from the East; the latter be maintained to be a thoroughly native
and original creation, owing all its beauty and perfection to the talents and
energy of the native architects of Europe, — who combined to elaborate it
out of the chaos of classical fragments which they had inherited.

Jit!:/ 2. — S. Smirke, V.P., in the Chair.

Among the donations were some models representing the actual state of
the Temples at /Vgrigentum, and executed in the native stone. They were
presented by J. St. Barbe, Esq.

Communications were read from the Chevalier Bunsen and Herr Stiilin,
of Berlin, recommending specimens of zinc castings of ciihimns, capitals,
bases, and figures, executed by Herr Geiss, — who attended, and offered
some further explanation of his mode of preparing and casting zinc.

A paper was read, written by Mr. Foster, British Consul to the Republic
of Nicaragua, describing the Cathedral of St. Peter, Leon, Nicaragua, and
the domestic architecture of that city.

A paper was read by C. R. Cockerell, E>q., Professor of Architecture in
the Royal Academy, "On Style in Arch';leoture." After alluding to that
latitude of style in architecture and the license in the choice of style which

unhappily at the present epoch are not only permitted but professed, the
author observed, that as intensity of character is commonly distinguished in
society by a peculiar aspect, habit, or bearing, so should the great national
works of a people be distinguished in the pages of time. The architect,
therefore, who limits his ambition to the reproduction of an antique model,
carries a lie in his right hand; — he shows himself to posterity as a renegade
to his country and his age ; — he is false to history, for his aim would seem
to he to deceive posterity and to perpetuate anachronisms ; — he confesses his
incapacity to delineate his own times, and shrinks from the exhibition of
them, as if knowing their unworthiness. As well might the popular writer
insist on the use of the style of Bede or Spenser, and the obsolete language
of Wicxliffe and Wykeham, as that the architect should absolutely reproduce
the form and character of taste in that period, — and if art means anything,
and we assume to read its language, the one proposition is certainly not
more ridiculous than the other. In speculating on the latent causes of the
vicious system of copying without any attempt at modification. Professor
Cockerell said, that although the mere fashion of pubhc opinion always
influences art, as it does everything else, yet he thought much of the evil
may he attributed to the want of an enlightened, searching, and generous
criticism, such as existed in the beginning and to the end of the last
century, from Boileau and Pope to Payne, Knight, Alison, and others.
He especially drew attention to the remarkable fact, that during the last
thirty years of devotional building, in which upwards of 1,400 cheap
churches of England have been erected by the zeal of churchmen, not one
of that learned body (as in the middle ages) has produced a critical work oa
style, as adapted to our Ritual, to guide architects. They have changed
their " building regulations" every five or six years, and have waived all
consistency ; and they seem to have been satisfied in raising " folds," in any
way for the wandering flock. The decline of the drama — that mirror in
which the state even of the Arts was wont to be reflected — has not been
without its effect ; and it is worthy of remark, said the Professor, that when
the drama has flourished, so have the sister Fine Arts, especially architec-
ture. One of the great faults committed by architects was their allowing
all logical consistency of feeling, all regularity, harmony, and conformity,
enjoined by the first principles of sound sense and artistic composition, to
be sacrificed to a pedantic display of our universal knowledge of historical
styles and dates, and the trivial conceit of a dramatic reproduction to the
very life (in the absence of the theatre itself) of the several periods they
represent. Again, we find them preferring the ornaments, the rhetoric, so
to speak, to the logic which is its only just foundation. This is mere pe-
dantry and affectation. Such a spirit will not do in the war of the camp or
of politics ; at the bar, or in engineering. Why, then, should it be tolerated
in the serious and responsible art of architecture ? Nature is never illogical,
— for her rhetoric is the mere appendage and the natural consequence of her
use and purpose. How often do we find the young architect, fired with the
beauty of the classic column and entablature, of the portico and the pedi-
ment, introducing them where their unfitness actually destroys the very
lieanty he is so anxious to display! It is from this false principle that we
have churches on a Roman Catholic plan adapted to a Protestant Ritual, —
buttressed walls with tie-beam roofs, belfry towers without bells, and all the
quackery of sedilia, piscina, &c., where they are without use or purpose.
The rigid adherence to Palladian or Italian example and dimensions in
designing masonic architecture, without the slightest allowance for the
growth of modern scantling — the glazing of windows in Elizabethan, or
"early domestic" buildings with yMarre glass, in bits of four inches square, in
preference to the splendid and cheap plates of the present day, each of
which would fill a window — all this results from that mania for imitation
which, far from showing progress in Art, is disgraceful retrogression. It is
in earnestness of purpose that we must look for what is called genius for
fitness, novelty, and beauty. Genius, so called, is but the more strenuous
attention to the means presented to our faculties by a closer criticism — by
greater diligence in the artist — by concurrent efforts, liberality, and patron-
age— and, above all, by a field to work in offered by the public. Until these
conditions are presented, we shall of course have imitation; that ready
evasion of the most diOicult and painful of all labour — the labour of thought.
If the prize and occasion be mean, the enterprising and the powerful mind
will take another career, leaving those pursuits to second and third-rate
minds. The wise architect, while he admits the whole power of association
in the efficts and influence of his art — while he sanctifies his work with
archaisms, and bends in some degree to fashions — still seeks to embody the
spirit of the actual times as well as that of antiquity, engrafting the useful
powers of growing science and the recent graces of convenience with a cer-
tain reserve ; and thus he fulfils the great purpose of his office, captivates all
observers by the production of things new and old, — remembering always
ths immortal words of Schiller —

Tlie artist is tlie child of his time;

Happy for him if he is not its pupil,

Happier still if not its favourite.

After some suggestions on the style to be employed in the several depart-
ments of architecture, devotional, monumental, or domestic — urging the ne-
cessity of conformity to the Ritual as regards the plans of our churches in
whatever style, and showing that the mediaeval architecture was not
applicable to our domestic buildings of the present day — Prof. Cockerell said,
in conclusion : — "Let us only be true to ourselves. Remember that we are
masters as well as servants to the public. Without dogma or pedantry, let
us investigate and disseminate good principles and exercise a wholesome dis-

1919.]

The civil engineer and architect's journal.

2S5

(erction. Let us for a moment consider the mighty influence for good on all
the technic and sesthetic Arts — those Arts that either occupy or captivate
half mankind — which our Ars regina, guided by this Institute, exercist-s
over not only her graphic sisters of Painting and Sculpture, but those of
Manufacture also, throughout this tuighty empire and her colonies, and
Indeed over every civilised country in the woild."

Jnly 16. — Earl De Gret, President, in the Chair.

Closirtff General Meeting of the Session. — Among the donations were
portraits of the Earl of Burlington and Sir Christopher Wren, by Sir God-
frey Kncller, — of Palladio, by Fradelle, after Biglioschi, — and of Cramante,
by the same, after Aless. d'Este. These were contributed by Mr. J. W.
Papworth.

The President distributed the medals and premiums awarded during the
session. In handing to Mr. Donaldson the royal gold medal to be forwarded
to the Chevalier Canina, his lordship mentioned that when the award of the
Council had been submitted for the approbation of Her Majesty, Prince
Albert had expressed his satisfaction at this evident mark of the impartiality
of the Institute, awarding to a foreigner so high a mark of distinction as
that of the royal gold medal. By encouraging merit abroad as well as at
home they showed their anxiety to do all in their power to advance their
art wherever it was practised. Mr. W. Papworth received he silver medal
of the Institute, for his Essay on 'The Peculiar Characteristics of the Pal-
ladian School of Architecture,' — and Mr. T. Hill, student, the annual premium
in books for the best series of Monthly Sketches.

The Hon. Secretary read a communication from Sir. G. Wilkinson, "On
the History and Origin of the Pointed Arch." After reccurring to his dis-
covery at Thebes of round arches built of crude bricks and lined with stucco,
proving their use as far back as the thirteenth century before our era, Sir
G. Wilkinson showed that in all probability the pointed arch was also
familiar to the ancient Egyptian. There is, however, no positive evidence of
this being the case. The pointed arch was commonly used by the Saracens
at a very early period. In the Mosque of Ahm ebn e'Tooluon, built a.d. 879,
all the arches are of that form. Other early examples also exist. The
author of the paper considers, however, that the Saracens did not invent
this form, hut copied it from the Christians; and in support of his theory
he mentions many instances of the pointed arch being used by the Christians
before the Arab Conquest. They were, however, of small span ; showing a
mistrust in the strength of that form, which was doubtless more fully
developed in countries ^^here the architecture is less interfered with by the
Arab conquests. The transition from the semicircular to the oval and
finally pointed form of arch in those early ages was shown by numerous
sketches of arches still existing — in some of which the round arch has been
changed into one of oval form by means of bricks and stucco. It is not im-
possible that the Christians of the Thebiiid, in their attempts to form a
pointed arch, may have imitated those of the same form which they saw in
the ancient monuments ; for although those were not constructed on the
real principle of the arch, but cut into horizontal courses of stones, still,
from their size being about the same as that of the arches at Thebes, there
is reason to believe that in them originated the idea of the pointed form as
found in the houses of the early Christians, — where it certainly first became
generally adopted, subsequently giving rise to a particular style of architec-
ture in the hands of the Saracens, and passing at the period of the Crusades
into the churches of Western Europe.

Earl De Grey read some account of the excavations now proceeding
under his direction at Fountains Abbey. The remains lately discovered are
situated towards the east front of the monastery, which until now has gene-
rally been considered the principal one. The building now brought to light
was doubtless the abbot's house, situated at the rear of the monastery, and
communicating with it by a passage or vestibule 15 feet in width, richly de-
corated on the north wall in the same style as the sides of the choir and the
Lady Chapel in the abbey itself. The whole of the house is built on arches
over the river, its level being about 6 feet above that of the cloister garden.
The passage leading from the monastery to the house had probably apart-
ments over it, for a fragment of the original wall still standing to a height
of 16 feet above the turf contains at the height of 11 feet a portion of a
fire-place. The foundations of the great hall are clearly to be made out,
extending through the whole building from north to south; and its size may
serve to shov? what importance must have been attached to the rank of
abbot. Its total length was 167 feet, and width 69 feet, — being divided into
three aisles by rows of columns. The private oratory, — the refectory placed
obliquely with regard to the grand hall, — the abbot's kitchen, &c., are all to
be easily traced among these remains. Among the most curious portions of
the ruins is a large stone grating, if so it may be called, which appears in the
top of one of the arches supporting the kitchen ; — the size of the aperture
(6 ft. 6 in. by 8 ft. 5 in.) precludes the supposition of its having been used for
any purpose of drainage. — A plan of the buildings, showing all the recent
discoveries, was exhibited in illustration, as well as plans of some of the
principal monastic ruins ; and attention was drawn to the similarity which
existed between most of them in the arrangement of the several parts, more
especially as regards those at Fountains and Durham.

NOTES OF THE IVIONTH.

A Large Tubular Iron Girder-Bridge has been constructed to cross the
Trent at Gainsborough on the line of the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lin-
colnshire Railway. It consists of two principal hollow girders which form
the parapets of the bridge, and the roadway is supported by transverse
wrought-iron hollow beams, or tubes, rectangular in section, suspended to
the side tubes. This bridge was designed lpy Mr. Fowler, and the tubes
have been constructed by Mr. Faiihairn, of Manchester. The stone-work
consists of a centre pier, and two elliptical arches of 50 feet span each, ter-
minated by the usual land abutments. The iron-work consists of two spans,
together 308 feet, which gives a total length to the bridge of 460 feet. The
principal girders are each 336 feet long, 12 feet high, and 3 ft. 1 in. wide,
having their tops formed of cells 18 inches wide, and 12 inches deep, to
resist compression, and the bottom of double riveted plates, to withstand
tension. They are fixed securely on the middle pier, thus covering both
spans ; and their ends are supported on the land abutments upon rollers,
resting on cast-iron plates embedded in the masonry, thus admitting of ex-
pansion and contraction. On the outside of the girders two curved lines of
angle-iron are riveted, which gives it the form of two arches, and adds much
to the symmetry of the structure. The two principal girders weigh 300
tons ; transverse beams, 4 feet asunder, 82 tons; cast iron 10 tons — making
a total of 392 tons. The girders were constructed on one of the embank-
ments, and hauled across into their positions on rollers — a feat of some dif.
ficulty, as one end of the girder would have no support for nearly half its
length before it reaches the asssistant resting-place of the centre pier.

On the Zincing of Iron. — There are, it is well known, two different me-
thods of coating metals with zinc; — one by immersing in the molten zinc
the articles required to be coated, and another by precipitating the zinc from
a solution by means of galvanism. The solution most commonly used for this
latter process is, a weak solution of oxide of zinc in potash ley. Numerous
experimfnts have been recenlly made by M. Kiepe, at the laboratory of the
Society of Encouragement, at Berlin, on the solution best adapted for this
purpose. The following is a summary of the results obtained ; — The com-
pounds of zinc employed by M. Riepe were — a solution of sulphate of zinc; a
solution of cyanide of zinc in cyanide of potassium ; a solution of the double
salt of chloride of zinc and sal ammonia (salt for welding) ; and a solution
of hyposulphate of oxide of zinc. The operation appeared to be most suc-
cessful with the solution of sulphate of zinc, and with the double salt,
above-mentioned ; but, to ensure success, the solution must he weak, and a
weak galvanic current must be employed, otherwise the zinc precipitated
will again separate from the iron in the form of thin scales ; if proper pre-
cautions be taken, the operation will succeed perfectly well, and the zinc
may, by that means, be laid on as thick as a sheet of paper. It is scarcely
necessary to remark, that the article to he coated must be well cleansed pre-
vious to performing the operation. With regard to the preparation of the
salts, the following remarks will be found requisite: — The sulphate of oxide
of zinc is prepared by dissolving in water saturated with sulphurous gas, as
much hydrate of carbonate of zinc, recently precipitated, as will completely ^
saturate the water. With respect to the ammoniacal chloride of oxide of
zinc, proceed as follows ; — Dissolve one part of zinc in hydrochloric acid,
and, to this solution, add one part of sal ammoniac; evaporate the liquor
and crystallise. The crystals are colourless six-sided prisms, translucid,
easily soluble in water, and very easily deliquescent. — M. le Docteur Eisner.

Reduction of Chloride of Silver. — M. Level gives the following simple
method of reducing chloride of silver. It is placed in a solution of caustic
potash, in which some sugar is dissolved, and the whole boiled. The silver is
quickly reduced by the sugar, carbonic acid gas being evolved. It is easily
washed, and obtained pure, and in the state of powder.

Restoration of Illegible Manuscript. — Mr. Murray gives the following
process for restoring illegible manuscript, which he tried with success on
some illegible fragments on vellum from the Record Ofiice. He succeeded
in restoring the manuscript by first steeping the vellum in a solution of
chlorate of potassa, and, when subsequently dried, immersing the fragments
in tincture of galls, or hydrocyatrate of potassa. The restored characters
were black in the former, and blue in the latter case.

Gntta Percha Tubing for Water Services. — A series of interesting ex-
periments has just been concluded at the Birmingham Waterworks, rela-
tive to the strength of gutta percha tubing, with a view to its applicability
for the conveyance of water. The experiments were made, under the direc-
tion of Mr. H. Rofe, engineer, upon tubes of J-inch diameter, and J-inch
thick of gutta percha. These were attached to the iron main, and subjected
for two mouths to a pressure of 200 feet head of water, without being in
the slightest degree deteriorated. In order to ascertain, if possible, the
maximum strength of the tubes, they were connected with the water com-
pany's hydraulic proofing pump, the regular load of which is 250 lb. on the
square inch. At this point they were unaft'ected, and the pump was worked
up to 337 lb. but, to the astonishment of every one, the tubes still remained
perfect. It was then proposed to work the pump up to 500 ; hut it was
found that the lever of the valve would bear no more weight. The utmost
power of the hydraulic pump could not burst the tubes. The gutta percha
being slightly elastic, allowed the tubes to become a little expanded hy the
extraordinary pressure which was applied, but on its witfadiawal they as-
suiued thtir former size.

256

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AN1> ARCHITECrS JOURNAL.

[Ave

Beacon on the Goodwin Sanrfs.— During the last few days several men,

under the direction of the Trinity Board, have been employed on the Goodwin, about
mid-sand. It appears the object Is to force, by raeaiia ol atmospheric prussure, several
lenRihs of cylindrical Iron tubes lolo the sand, until some solid material is nrrived at;
each lenyth of tube is about 10 feet long and 24 in diameter, but, althougli six lengths,
securely fastened, have been made to penetrate a depth of about (10 feet beneath the surface,
iiu fuundution bus yet beeu reached. It is in coDteniplation, as soon usa substratum suf-
ticiently firm is found, to place several tubes of siniibr dimensions at approximate dis-
tances, and to erect a beacon thereupon, ijbould the attempt succeed, and banpuine ex-
pectations ure entertained that it will, there exists little doubt of Ibe important effect of
H structure of this kind, in diminishing the amount of danger ts shipping, on a spot
proverbial (or its disasters, and fatal consequences to life and property.

Poisoned Water. — It is not generally known to the public that the car-
bonic acid, or fixed air in water, decomposaa lead pipes, and thereby imparts poisonous
properties to the water. Within the past few months Sir Haymoud Jarvis, of Ventnor,
bad occasion to repair the pumps which supplied his mansii>n, when, to 1ms amazement,
it was found that the !arg« leaden feeding pipe was nlmost entirely eaten away by the
wetter, and the interior covered xvith a white and poisonous crust. Sir Raymond has had
the whole replaced with gutta percha tubing, which, from its extraordinary alkali and
acid-proof qualities, will jireserve the water perfectly pure. It seems remarkable that,
at the moment when our sanitary movements have commenced with so much vigour,
j;uUa percha should have come to our aid, not only as a means of preserving the feet
from damp and wet, but also as a medium for supplying us with the best of liquids-
water, untainted by the deleterious properties which we have endured by the use of
leaden pipes.

LIST OF NEVr PATENTS.

GRANTEU IN ENGLAND FROM JCNE 7, TO JuLY 24, 1849.

Six Months allowed for Enrolmentt unless otherwise expressed,

.lames Steel, of Horton, York, and Benjamin EmmerHOD, of thesameplace. overlookers,
for improvements in power looms. — June 7.

Gustave Fnincois PIcault, of Rue Dauphin, Paris, cutler, for improvemeuts in appara-
tus for ojieuing oysters. — June 7.

Douglas Hebson, of Liverpool, engineer, for Improvemeuts in steam-engines. — June / .

Henry Knight, of Birmingham, mechanical engintrer, for certain improvements in ap-
paratus for printing, embo'^sing, pressing, and perforating. — June 7.

Stanhope Baynes Smith, of Birmingham, electro plater and gilder, for improvements In
ripposiiing metals and in obtaining motive power, partsof which improvements are appli-
cable to certaiu other similar useful purposes. — June 7.

Joseph Samuda. of Parliament-street, Westminster, gentleman, for improvements iu
obtainin;,' motive power, and the machinery or apparatus employed therein ; which ma-
chinery or anparalus may be used for raising liquids. (A communicHtion.) — June 9.

William Freddy, of Taunton, Somerset, watchmaker, for improvements in watch keys,
and other instruments for winding up watches and other time keepeis. — June \2.

Joseph Wade Denison, of New York, gentleman, for improvements in engiuee for rais-
ing or forcing liquids. (A communication.) — June 12.

Joseph Burtli, of Craig Work", Macclesfield, engineer, for improvements in printing on
cotton, woollen, silk, paper, and other fabrics and niHleriuls.— June 14.

Peter William Barlow, of Blackheath, civil engineer, for improvements in parts of the
permanent ways of railways. — June 14.

Rlichael John Haines, of John-street, Commercial-road East, leather pipe maker, for
improvementB in the manufadureof packing for steam-engines, cylinders, and other pur-
lioses; partsof which improvements ar« applicable to the manufacture of waterproof
iabrics and leather. — June 14.

Henry Wills Stowe, of Bermuda, niaster of the brig James, for Improvements in blocks
and sheaves.— June 20.

Alexander Francis Campbell, of Gre-.t Plumstead, Norfolk, for improvements in wheels
l)loughs, and harrows, steam-boilers, and machinery for propelling vessels.— Ju[ie 20.

William Combauld Jacob, of Bread-street, city of London, warehouseman, for im-
provements in Ihe manufacture of parasols and umbrellus. — June 21*; two months.

Richard Archibald Brooman, of the firm of Messrs. J. C. Robertson and Co., of Fleet-
street, city of London, for improvements in apparatus for transferring liquids from one
vessel to another, and for filllug bottles and other vessels with liquids. (A communica-
tion.)—June 20.

Charles James Coverley Griffin, of Southwark, hatter, for certain Improvements In
military accoutrements. — June 20.

Edward Lyon, Berthon, clerk, bachelor of arts, of Fareham, Southampton, for an in-
Btninient to show the velocity of a ship or other vessel propelled through the water, by
wind, steam, or other moving power. — June 20.

Samuel Cott. of Trafalgar-square, Middlesex, gentleman, for improvements in fire-
trms. — June 20,

Henry Besse:ner; of Baxter-house, St. Pancras, Middlesex, engineer, for improvements
in the methods, means, and machinery or apparatus employed for raising and forcing
wntpr and other fluids. — June 2.i.

Thomas Merchant, of Derby, civil engineer, and Robert Harland, of Derby, carriage
builder, for certain improvements in the conatvuction of railway carriages.- June 2o.

George Benjamin Thorneycroft, of Wolverhampton, iron-master, for improvemt-nts in
rannutactaring railway tyres, axles, and other iron where great btrengtii and durabdity are
required.- June 2G.

Thomas Wood Gray, of Llmehouse, brass-founder, for improvements In waterclosets,
pumps, cocks, lubricators, and deck-lights. — June 2G.

James Nusmyth, of Patricroff, near Manchester, engineer, for certain improvements in
the method of, and apparatus for, communicating and regulating tlie power for driving
or working machines employed in manutacturing, dyeing, printing, and finishing textile
tubricB. — June 2(J.

James Leadbetter.of Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland, brazier, for certain improvements
In the method of raising water and other fluids ; which improvements are also applicable
to the propulsion of machinery, pumping of mines, and other similar purposes. —June 2i>.

WaltiT Neilson, of Hyde Park-street, Glasgow, engineer, for an improvement or im-
provements in the application of steam for raising, lowering, moving or transporting heavy
boiiies.— June 2<i.

Christopher Nickels, of York-road, Lambeth, gentleman, for improvements in the ma-
nttfncture of woollen and other fabrics. — June 21).

William Wilson, jun., of Carapbellfield, Glasgow, for improvements In cutting plastic
tubes or tiles.— June 27.

John Thomas Forster, of Plymouth, a master in her Majesty's Navy, for improvements
in the building of ships, boats, and other vessels; also in tlie manufacture of boxes,
jjackuig-cases, roofs, and other stru.tures requiring to be waterproof. — June 27.

Edward Woods, of Liverpool, Lancashire, civil engineer, for certain improvemenia in
turn tables.— June 28.

Thomas Beale Brown, of Hampen, Gloucester, gentleman, for certitin improvementa lo
looms, and iu the manufacture of woven and tivlsted fabrics.— Jun«2y.

Bram Hertz, of Great Martborough-street, Middlesex, gentleman, (or Improvements In
and an addition to fiuntaln pens. — June 30.

Thomas Greenwood of Goodman's Fields, in the city of London, sugar refiner, and
Frederick ParkiT, of New Gravel-lane, Shadwell, animal charcoal mauufactuier, for im-
provements in tillering syrups, and other liquors. — July 4.

John Robiniion. of Fatterson-street, Stepney, Kfiddlesex, engineer, for improvements ia
machinery for moving and raising weights. — July 4.

John Grantham, of Liverpool, engineer, for improvements In sheathing ships and ves-
sels.— July 4.

Josiah Bowden, of Lisbeard, linen draper, and William Longraaid, of Beaumorit-
sqiiare, Middlesex, gentleman, for improvements in the manufacture of soap.— July 4.

Sir Francis Charles Knowles, of Lovell, Berkshire, hart., for improvements in the
manufacture of iron and steel.— July 4.

Richard Archibald Brooman, of London, Middlesex, for Improvements In steam gene-
riitors. (A communication.) — July 4.

James Widbery, of Parkersburgh, In Chester, Pennsylvania, In the United States of
America, machinist, for certaiu improvements in the slide-valves of steam-engines. —
July 4.

William Henry Wilding, of the New-lload, Middlesex, gentleman, for certain improve-
ments in engines, and in obtaining and applying motive power. — July 4.

Robert William Thomson, of Leicester square, Middlesex, civil engineer, for certain
Improvements in writing and drawing instrumeots. — July 4.

William Bush of Great Tower-street, in the city of London, civil engineer, for im-
provements in lamps and in lighting, (A communication.) — July 4.

John Combe, of Leeds, Yorkshire, civil engineer, for improvements in machinery for
heckling, carding, winding, dressing, and weaving, flax, cotton, silk, aud other fibrous
substances. —July 4.

William Henry Brown, of Ward's End Wheel, at Wadsley, of Ecclesfield, Yorkshire,
steel roller, for improvements in rolls, for rolling flat and lialf round tile and other iion
and steel. — July 4.

Pierre Augustus Chauffourler, of Regent's Qiiadranf, Middlesex, merchant, for im-
provements in castors. (A communication.)— July 4.

John Browne, of Great Portland-street, Portland-place, Middlesex, esq<itre> for Im-
provements in apparatus to assist combustion iu stoves or grates. — July 4.

Henry Bailey, of Wolverhampton, Stfilfordshire, chemist, for certain irHprovements fn
the cnnstruction of articles of wearing apparel } which improvements are also applicable
to fastenings for the same. — July 4.

Robert Weare, of Birkenhead, Cheshire, clock and watch maker, and William Peter
PiggoU, of Wardrobe-place, Docotr'a Commons, Middlesex, mathematical instrumeut
maker, for certain improvements in electric batteries; and in the production ot tight;
also a mode of transmitting or communicating intelligence, for the better protection of
life or property, parts of which improvements are applicable to like purposes.- July 4.

Richard Garrett, of Leiston Works, Suffolk, agricultural implement maker, for im-
provements in horse-shoes, pug-mills, drilling, and thrashing machiuery; and in steam-
engines, and boilers for agricullui\d purposes. — July 7.

Edward Ives Fuller, of Marijaret-sireet, Cavendish-square, carriage builder, and
George Tabernacle, of Mount-row, Weatminster-road, Surrey, coach ironfoundcr, for
certain improvements iu metallic springs for carriages. — July 7.

Thomas Sedgwick Summers, of Cornwall-terrace, Lee, Kent, lighterman, for certain
Improvements in fastenings tor the mouth of sacks and bags.— July !).

William Lfturie, of Carlton-place Glasgow, merchant, for improvements In means or
apparatus to be employecl for th* preservation of life and property, such improvements
or parts thereof, being applicable to various articles of furniture, dress, and travellibg ap-
paratus.—July y.

John Goodier, of Mode Wheel Rlills, near Manchester, miller, for certain improvemenia
in mills for grinding wheat and other grains. — July 9.

George Augustus Ri)binson, of Long Milford, Suffolk, gentleman, and Richard Egno
I^ee, of Glasgow, gentleman, tor certain improvpinents in the manufacture of bread, and
in the machinery and appaiatus to be used therein ; and also improvements in the regu-
lation of ovens and furnaces, part of which improvemeuts are also applicable to other
similar useful piirpitses.— July 10.

George Cottam and Edward Cotfam, of Winsley-street, Oxford-street, engineers, for
improvements in machinery for cutting straw, clover, and hay; for grinding, lor snwtug
wood; and in apparatus for ascertaining the power employed in working machines. —
July 12.

Evan Leigh, of Ashton-undsr-Lyne, cotton-spinoer, for certain improvements In steam-
engines; and also improvements iu communicating steam or other power for driving ma-
chinery.—July 18,

Reuben Plant, of Holly Hi'l Colliery, Dudley, Worcester, coal master, for Improve-
ments in making I ;ir or wrought iron.— July 18.

Thomas Walker, of Birmingham, stove-maimfacturer, for improvements in boots and
shoes, and in the manufacture of parts of boots, shoes, clogs, and goloshes. — July 18.

James Usher, of Edinburgh, gentleman, for improvemeuts in machinery for liliiug
land.— July 18.

Andrew Peddle How, of the United States, now residing in Basinghall-street, engineer,
for an instrument or Instruments for ascertaining the saltncss of water In boilers. —
July 18.

John Holland, of Larkhall Rise, Clapham, guntleman, for a new mode of making steel.
(A communication.) — July 18.

Samuel Cunliffe Lister, of Bradford, Yorkshire, esquire, and George Edmund Donis-
thorpe, of Lueds, nuuuifaclurer, for improvements in preparing, combing, and spinning
wool. (A communication.)— July 18,

William Brown, of St. James', Clerkenwell, Henry Mapple, of Childe-hill, Hendon,
electric engineer, and William Williams, the younger, of Birmingham, gentleman, lor
improvements in communicating intelligence by means of electricity; aud improvements
in electric clocks.— July 18.

Alexander Ferrier Rose, of Greenvale-place, Glasgow, gentleman, for a certain im-
provement or certain Improvements in the process or operation of printing, aud In the
reachinery or apparatus employed therein. — July 24.

John Holt, of Todmorden, Lancaster, manager, for Improvements in machinery or ap-
paratus for preparing cotton and other fibrous substances, parts of which improvements
are applicable to machinery used In weighing. — July 24,

Joseph Woods, of Barge-yard Chambers, Bucklersbury, for improvements In bleaching
certain organic substances, and In the manufacture of certain products therefrom. (A
communication.) — July 21.

NATIONAL BANK OF SCOTLAND, CLASCaw - JOHN GIBSON E8Q"AR0H'

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

2.-7

THE GLASGOW AND EDINBURGH NATIONAL BANK,
GLASGOW.
*■* John Gibson, Esq., Architect.

(With an Engraving, Plate XVII.)

A considerable change in architectural taste seems to have taken
place within the last few years, in Scotland. The modern public
buildings there have, till lately, been more remarkable for frigid
plainness, than for either general design or any study of detail.
That false sort of simplicity which consists in little more than the
absence of all other ornament than that arising from columns and
entablatures, has, for the greater part been their chief characteris-
tic; owing to which want of artistic physiognomy, it is not much
to be wondered at that they have never been represented architec-
turally by published elevations and sections of them. Among
recent structures, on the contrary, both at Edinburgh and Glas-
gow, a much more generous as well as ornate style has been ado])ted,
greater attention being now paid to the highly-important point of
carrying out design consistently, — extending it to every visible
side of a building, instead of confining it to a mere front, or
single elevation. Of that regard to completeness which has
hitherto been generally more or less, and in some instances so
grossly neglected, the building of whose east or street front we
this month give an elevation is a distinguished example ; for
besides being quite insulated, and iinished-up on each side, it
possesses the exceedingly rare advantage of being placed in a
locale expressly arranged and designed for it by its architect,
Mr. John Gibson, of London (the same who erected the Imperial
Insurance Office, in Threadneedle-street, an elevation of which
(J: was given in the Journal for July 1848, p. 193), whose plans for
the various buildings were selected from those sent in to the com-
petition, which took place in 1844.

In order to convey some idea of the general disposition of the
entire mass of buildings, we may stiite that they constitute three
sides of a quadrangular area on the east of Queen-street, measur-
ing ll.'Sfeet (towards the street) by 130 feet. The north and
south sides of this area present two uniform handsome elevations,
M'hose ground-floor is occupied by a series of shops, in whicli
regard has been had to architectural appearance, — while the west
side is occupied chiefly by the Stock Exchange, and a thoroughfare
passage at each end of it, leading to other buildings at its rear.
\Vithin the area thus formed the Bank is placed, in such manner
however as to be on a line with the street, its front ranging with
the ends (30 feet wide) of the shop buildings — so as to leave a
clear space of about 50 feet in width betveeen the Bank and the
Exchange, the former building being 80 feet in depth by 62 feet in
width.

Having thus shaped out the general plan of the collective build-
ings, so that any one may sketch it for himself upon paper, we
jjroceed to give a more particular notice of the Bank itself. As
the exterior, at least the principal front, requires no description
from us, it l*ing so infinitely better described by our Engraving
than it could be by words, we need only say that the whole of tlie
edifice is faced with Baring stone of a light grey tint; that the
two figures on the summit of the front, representing Commeice
and Plenty, are six feet high, and were executed by Mr. Thomas,
of London; and the entrance door is of a bronze-green colour,
and ornamented with bronze paterae and studs. The north and
south elevations of the front portion of the building are similar to
the street one, except that there are only tljree windows on a floor,
and the i)ilastei-s between tliem are coupled; but the remainder of
those sides, where there is a slight break in the plan, tlie ground-
floor only, witli its entablature, is continued, — tliat division form-
ing the exterior of the Banking Office or Telling Room, above
wbicli there are no other apartments. The west or back front
(59 feet), facing the Stock Exchange, is of course similar, although
witli a difference, there being a break in the centre (advancing
forward about 8 feet), formed by the loggia on that side witliin,
and ornamented by two pair of coupled engaged Ionic columns,
between wliich is another entrance door leading immediately into
tlie Banking Room. On each side of that projecting division of
the elevation is a single window, of tfce same design as all the
other ground-floor ones.

The public apartment of the Bank, or Telling Room, being in the
rear of the building, while the front portion of it is appropriated
to the committee-room, waiting-room, manager's-rocini, &c., — ^is
approached tlirough a handsome corridor, leading in a direct line
to it from the street entrance. Even this corridor announces the
superior style of embellishment adopted for the interior : its walls
are divided into compartments by arches and pilasters, to which

No. 144.— Vol. XII.— September, 1849.

well-contrasted colours give additional richness of effect; and its
architectural character is considerably enhanced by the beauty of
vaulting or ceiling, in which are three compartments, — one of them
forming a skylight, filled in with ornamental stained glass. Yet
this is only a note of worthy preparation to something worthier
still; for however high expectation may have been raised by the
approach to the Telling Room, it is more than fulfilled by the
coup d'ceil which there presents itself. Agreeable as it otherwise is,
here our task becomes an exceedingly difficult one, it being any-
thing but easy to give anything like a perfectly lucid and satisfac-
tory description. To say that, on first entering, the eye is bewil-
dered by the splendour and variety of colouring and enrichment,
would be wrong, and depriving the general design of one especial
claim to admiration; for although decoration has been studied for
every part of this interior — for floor as well as ceiling; for walls as
well as columns or entablatures; for impost and archivolt mould-
ings and spandrel panels, as well as plain surfaces; and not least of
all, for the glazing of the windows — neither the diversity of orna-
ment nor that of colours produces any confusion, but, on the con-
trary, an ensemble so harmoniously combined, that the eye compre-
hends almost at a glance what it afterwards pauses upon with
increasing satisfaction and delight.

This beautiful, and in some respects unique, apartment is by no
means remarkable for its size, it being not more than 55 feet in
length (from north to south) by 31 feet in width; which last, how-
ever, is increased in the centre of the plan to 50 feet, by two
distyle-in-antis recesses or loggias on its sides, within each of which
is an entrance — that on the east side being the one from the cor-
ridor. The vertical dimensions or heights are : 20 feet to the top
of the cornice of the order ; about 24 feet to the plafond, or flat
ceiling; and about 30 feet to the summit of the dome. All the
walls are beautifully executed to resemble Sienna, with a border of
black marble ne.xt the floor, corresponding with the plinths or sub-
bases of the columns and pilasters. Of both which last, the bases
and capitals are of white marble, and their shafts coloured to re-
semble porphyry. The entablature has more than its usual com-
plement of enrichment, its frieze being ornamented with an ara-
besque pattern in colour (blue), composed of the rose, shamrock,
and thistle. The cove and plafond are also tastefully decorated
with panelling and devices picked out in colours. The order being
continued in pilasters round the room, the rich porphyry colour of
their shafts, and those of the columns, is carried out uniformly;
and the walls are divided into compartments, each of which is filled
in with an arcade, — and the imposts, archivolts, and key-stones of
these arches contribute not a little to the general embellishment,
being all highly wrought, and heightened by colours. There are,
besides, spandrel panels over them, filled-in with ornament similar
in colour to the frieze, whereby that colour becomes pleasingly
distributed. Of these arcades there are ten in all — viz. three at
each end of the room, and one on each side of the two loggias; all
of which, excepting the two on the east side of the room, have
arched windows set witliin them, upon a ground of dove-coloured
marble. The windows themselves, again, contribute not a little
to the ensemble of decoration, owing to the ornamental pattern of
the glazing, which accords with that introduced in the dome, — of
which last-mentioned feature we have now to speak more particu-
larly. This dome, then, or skyliglit — and it shows what a truly
tasteful architectural feature what is merely a skylight in its pur-
pose may be made — is 23 feet in diameter at its opening in the
ceiling, and of flattish or segmental curvature, its vertical depth
being barely 6 feet. It is closed above or at its vertex, beneath
which the light is admitted through what may be called a cove,
divided into eight compartments by as many ornamental ribs. The
glazing of those open compartments consists of octagons and small
intersticial squares, the former of which are filled-in with figured
glass, wherein pale red and pale blue occur alternately, and pro-
duce something of the appearance of transparent coffering. We
have accordingly here an example which convinces us how ad-
mirably stained glass — which has hitherto been considered so
exclusively a property of the Gothic style, as to be totally unfit
for any other — may, by a difterent treatment of it, be made not
only to accord with but to enhance quite different modes of
design, and become an equally novel and tasteful resource in
interior decoration. The floor beneath the dome, where it is
confined to the space between the counters, extending across the
room from one loggia to tlie other, is a worthy accompaniment to
all the rest of the apartment, it being paved with variously-
coloured marbles, beautifully disposed, and forming in the centre
a large radiating star. It hardly requires to be observed that tlie
ornamental pavement is continued within the loggias. All tlie
fittings-up — the counters (of Spanish mahogany, enriched with

34

258

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Septembeb,

carving), the clerks' desks behind them, the candelabra or stands
for gas-burners — everything, in short, has been designed with a
most i)raiseworthy regard to artistic propriety and keeping in
every respect. There is nothing of that paltry meanness, or
downright slovenliness, with respect to lesser details and minutiae
which so frequently is permitted, even where embellishment is
aimed at upon the whole, to operate more or less as a decided
drawback upon the satisfaction which, but for such gross negligen-
ces and blemishes, might be experienced. To say the truth, if we
may judge by the Glasgow Bank, the Scotch seem to have got
greatly ahead of us in tasteful as well as liberal decoration of
places of public business; at all events, there is not yet one build-
ing of the class in all the metropolis which offers anything like the
same degree and completeness of embellishment.

The Stock Exchange, at Glasgow, we have as yet merely men-
tioned, but must reserve a description of it for some other oppor-
tunity,— when, perliaps, we shall be able to give an engraving of
that building also.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK,
FASCICULUS XCVII.

•* I must have liberty
Wlthul, as large a charter Q' the windB^
To blow on whom I please."

I. I ought, perhaps, now to desist from saying anything further
concerning Mr. Iluskin and his "remarkable book" — as it has not
untruly been called, — but the latter is so suggestive of remarks in
opposition to his own opinions that I cannot refrain from making
a few more observations. Those who have cried up the 'Seven
Lamps' as a literary phoenix and matchless production of its class,
will hardly be surprised at its obtaining a more than ordinary share
of notice; or if they do, they will not own it, although they may
feel sore at finding that their unqualified and hysterical admiration
liave provoked remarks of a very different tenour. Criticism is
now beginning to open a debtor side of its account with Mr. Rus-
kin, so that when the balance comes to be struck, it may prove to
be very much against him; more especially as the laudations have
proceeded chiefly from those who are evidently not much au fait
with the subject, and who, for fear of uttering anything to the
prejudice of the book, have not ventured even to protest against
the abominable hideousness of the Illustrations, — which are cal-
culated to give one a fit of the nightmare. Those who have
lauded Mr. Ruskin to the skies, appear to have done so chiefly
on account of his language, or, as they call it, his eloquence; yet in
some quarters his eloquence is now looked upon as little better
than verbiage and cant. "He would be thought," says the Me-
rhanici' Muguxbie, "a man of fine feelings and lively emotions;
but only plays the part of the Bombastes' of the stage, and the
Mawworms of the conventicle. The pith of his discourse lies in
exaggeration; in saying odd and absurd things in a fantastic
way!" so that, perhaps, after all, he may get the unenviable title
of either Bombastes Ruskin, or Mawworm Ruskih. The publica-
tion just quoted takes him to task for his unqualified reprobation
of "cast or machine wrought ornaments, in which he evidently
points to the large share which the admirable wood and stone
carving machinery of Mr. Jordan has had in the embellishment
of the New Palace of Westminster." If such really be the case,
Mr. Ruskin should have distinctly instanced that edifice as
strongly exemplifying the unsatisfactory result of machine-
carving, and of what he calls "deadly cut" work. For my own
](art, 1 must confess I do not see that it makes any difference
whether what is mere pattern-work in itself be produced by the
liand of the workman, or by either machinery or casting. The
former operation is more tedious and expensive, but just as me-
chanical as the latter, the workman having merely to follow an
express pattern, witliout being allowed to deviate from it in the
slightest degree. The carver himself is not required to have any
intelligence of design as regards the work he executes, but merely
such skill as will enable him "to turn it out," as it is called, in a
workmanlike manner, — that is, executed throughout with such
uniform precision, that it shall appear to have been produced by
a machine rather than hyhund. Were the designer and the carver
of architectural ornament the same individual — as seems to have
been not unfrequently the case in mediaeval building — then,
indeed, he might treat his work with freshness and spirit. At
present, on the contrary, the operative is a mere plodder, not even

so much as allowed to think for himself, or in any way exercise his
own discretion; consetjuently, what he does is just as "lifeless" as
if it were wrought by purely mechanical means; which being the
case, if machinery can be made to perform the same work, the
employment of manual labour becomes little better than wasteful
extravagance. According to the present practice, detail and orna-
ment require scarcely anything amounting to design even on the
part of the architect himself: however good it may be, his detail is
rarely ever the product of his own mind and invention, but merely
second-hand and borrowed. We may see the same columns and
entablatures Jhcsimilized over and over again indifferent buildings,
so that, except as they differ in dimensions, they might just as
well have been all cast in the same mould; and so is it, too, with
other members and features. Here, then, we have '■'■ tifelessness"
with a vengeance, — utter inertness of design, where design might
be made to exert itself most strikingly. And surely if we can
tolerate mechanical routine where there ought to be some evidence
of artistic mind and thinking, we have no right to scoff at ma-
chine-carving. Rather let us hope that we shall ere long get
machine-designing, we being even now in a very fair way towards
reaching such consummation.

II. On the subject of deception with regard to materials, Mr.
Ruskin is absolutely furious, denouncing it in the most unqualified
mann,er not only as unworthy artifice, but as downright immoral
falsehood and wickedness. Dishonesty and positive fraud it cer-
tainly would be, were an architect to make use of factitious ma-
terials and then charge his employer at the rate of the genuine
ones; whereas, the merely deceiving the eye is, if not a particu-
larly laudable, surely a very harmless species of imposition, not-
withstanding that in his overrighteousness Mr. Ruskin actually
foams against it in the genuine Mawworm style — as some one has
observed of him, — reprobating it as nothing less than iniquity.
The worst that can be said of all such artifices is, that they are un-
satisfactory, and show paltriness; yet if we are to believe our
Mawworm — Mr Ruskin, I mean, — the more exact the imitation —
the more difficult it is to detect any difference between the feigned
and the real material, the more unpardonable becomes the decep-
tion; the more clever the imposition, the more inexcusable does it
become, and all the greater is the sinfulness of it — which is, as-
suredly, very strange and unartistic doctrine. So determined is Mr.
Ruskin to reprobate imitation as to material, that he does so for
the most contradictory reasons: thus, immediately after condemn-
ing those parts in the staircase of the British Museum which are
painted to resemble grandite, as being "the more blameable be-
cause tolerably successful," he just as strongly condemns columns
and other architectural decorations '■'■daubed with motley colours"
to look like veined marble. In the latter case his censure is suf-
ficiently just; yet, according to his own doctrine, the paltry and
slovenly executed imitation to which he alludes carries with it its
own excuse, since the intended cheat is performed so bunglingly
as to impose upon no one; therefore, like "whitewash, is not to be
blamed as a falsity."

III. Imitation as to materials is neither to be absolutely ap-
proved, nor absolutely rejected. It may be perfectly satisfactory,
or quite the contrary, according to the judgment and taste exer-
cised in applying it. That it is generally the contrary of satisfac-
tory is not so much owing to its being imitation, as to its being
coarse and paltry imitation, and being also made to show exceed-
ingly paltry and vulgar taste. Because it is comparatively cheap,
decoration of the kind is apt to be grossly overdone, and to
become vulgar by being far too ostentatious, and thereby pro-
claiming its spuriousness; whereas, by discreet reserve, it might
perhaps pass for genuine. Assuredly, as far as design and artistic
effect are concerned, it makes little or no difference whether the
materials be genuine or fictitious, provided, of course, that they
produce exactly the same appearance; for in such case, if you are
not aware of the deception, you are cheated very agreeably into
unsuspicious admiration; and on the other hand, should you happen
to be informed of it, — why, then you admire the happiness and
success of the artifice — or, as Ruskin would call it, the lie. 1
myself have seen a room fitted up with very superior taste in the
Tudor-Gothic style, although all tlie architectural forms were no
more than what some wouUI denounce as sham; yet, most certainly
there was no appearance of trumpery about it. Of such appear-
ance, however, and of very trumpery taste, we frequently meet
with a good deal where the materials are all genuine, and in such
case their genuineness rather occasions regret than contributes to
satisfaction. There is, besides, very considerable difference in
artificial materials and modes of imitation, some being so good as
to be scarcely distinguishable from what is imitated — perhaps not
at all distinguishable by the eye alone; therefore the employment

18t9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

259

of them may very well pass for legitimate, notwithstanding' that
according to Mr. Ruskin's reasoning, the better the deception
the greater the dishonesty; and yet even he must own that if
there be no perceptible difference as to appearance, the mock
answers all the purposes of the genuine material; nay, possibly,
even better, for the latter may not be best of its kind, whereas
the other may and ought to be after the choicest specimens of the
real substance. There is a great deal of stone of so inferior a
quality now used, that in a short time it acquires a positively
squalid and trumpery look — not the venerable appearance of the
gradual decay wrought by years, but tliat of mere filtli and pre-
mature rottenness; yet, as the material answers to the name of
stone, the buildings constructed of it are spoken of as if they
were on that account entitled to more than ordinary respect, even
be they ever so poor or bad in point of design. That, on the
other hand, a building which is only coated with stucco may, both
by general beauty of appearance and the superior taste displayed
in it, quite put to shame many that are faced with stone, is proved
by the Travellers' Clubhouse, more especially by its front towards
Carlton Gardens. If, instead of inveighing in the outrageous
manner he does against imitation altogether, without tlie slightest
regard to its being well or ill executed, Mr. Ruskin had contented
himself with reprobating the introduction of it in churches and
other public edifices, which ought to be erected for durability
throughout, no one could have contradicted him; more especially
had he at the same time enjoined a very wholesome and necessary
caution — namely, that design should be worthy of the material,
•nd be such as greatly to enhance the value of the latter. But to
froth and foam, and to call what at the very worst amounts to no
more than trumperiness and paltriness, downright sinfulness and
lying, is, if not actual insanity, sheer extravagance. — One thing is
quite certain: John Ruskin may live to need a wig, but never will
be guilty of such a practical lie as to wear one which at all resem-
bles a natural head of hair.

IV. According to what has been reported of one of the recent
meetings of the Institute, an observation was made to the effect
that the greater part of architectural criticism proceeds from those
who are not architects themselves. Such is undoubtedly the case,
for a great deal of that sort of writing evidently betrays a very
superficial acquaintance with the art; — and gives us, if nothing
worse, very stale and second-hand opinions, furbished up to look
"better than new," by being tricked-out with tawdry flowers of
rhetoric, and all that brummagem sentiment which should be left
to our Lady Blarneys. Still the profession acquiesce in such
soi-disant criticism, inasmuch as they suffer it to be put forth with
perfect impunity, without so much as attempting to gainsay it, or
to substitute more wholesome criticism for it. If they are of
opinion that the public are misled by incompetent critics, it as-
suredly becomes their duty to set it right; or, at any rate, they
cannot reasonably complain of others doing what they themselves
do not care to do, although they may aU the while feel that they
could do it very much better. Just the same channels for promul-
gating opinions are open to them as to others, of which, if they
do not choose to avail themselves in order to correct what they
consider false and mistaken criticism, the fault is entirely their
own; and it is quite unreasonable in them to complain of mischief
— if mischief it be — which they themselves have the power of
checking. It is not enough that professional men put forth what
is or ought to be sound instruction, in books addressed to their
own class; for however valuable the information they contain, it
does not reach the public, who are precisely those who require to
be instructed — so far instructed, at least, as be able to take an in-
telligent interest in the Art — with which alone criticism concerns
itself; its office being not to make men architects, but to make them
competent judges of architecture, and to inspire them with a
genuine relish for it. If professional men are above condescending
to avail themselves of those ready means for addressing and in-
structing the public which are afforded by the popular form of jour-
nalism and periodical literature— a literature which finds its way
among every class of readers, — so it must be ; but to complain that
others who may be less qualified, presume to do what they them-
selves do not care to do, shows too much of the dog-in-the-manger
spirit. Far more to the purpose would it be to attack bad criti-
cism boldly, and drive it out of the field at once.

V. Although an article in a periodical does not come before the
public with the same dignity as a book, such productions have fre-
quently e.xcited far greater interest, and done much more for the
particular views they have advocated, than many big books. Be-
sides which, as it is not every one who has leisure to read books —
at least, would not think of applying to them for further informa-
tion on subjects to which his attention had not been previously

awakened by something that had interested him in a briefer form —
so neither is it every one who, however capable he may be of con-
tributing something towards the general stock of information, has
so much to say as would go any way towards forming a volume, or
even a pamphlet. Besides which, what may be called floating criti -
cism and opinion must be brought before the public in such manner
that they are sure to get it without having to hunt it out. Many
brilliant and shining articles on various topics, literary or other,
which have appeared in our Quarterlies, and have made a sensation,
would have probably fallen quite still-born from the press, had they
been issued in the form of separate pamphlets on the same subjects.
Many a one has read a paper of the kind when he had it actually
in his hands, who would never have thought of seeking out any-
thing of the kind. Such at least I know has been frequently tlie
case with myself, and I have casually acquired an interest in what,
but for its so coming before me, I should liardly have turned to, —
wherefore I suppose it is pretty much the same with many others.
Floating criticism does much for the ventilation of opinions, which,
if confined merely to formal treatises and books, are apt to become
musty and mouldy; and although of such criticism there may be a
great deal that deserves to be rejected either as mere empty froth, or
mere dregs and sediment, there will also be something worth pre-
serving, and of being afterwards incorporated in works of au-
thority and standard character. If professional men could
greatly improve tlie tone of architectural criticism, wliy do they
not do so.'' By merely censuring it, they also censure themselves
— their own indolence or apathy in permitting the public to be
misled by those who are merely ready-writers — in other words,
mere scribblers.

RENNIE'S PATENT TRAPEZIUM FLOAT WHEELS.

Sir — I have read with much interest in the Journal for July and
August last, an account of a series of 'Experiments on the Figure,
Dip, Thickness, Material, and Number of the Paddles of Steamers,
by Thomas Ewbank, Esq., of the City of New York, in the years
1845 and 1848,' extracted from the Journal of the Franklin Insti-
tute. As Mr. Ewbank has devoted much time to these pursuits,
and is the author of a valuable work on 'Hydraulic Machinery,"
his observations are entitled to attention.

The facts developed by his experiments may be briefly stated ;
they are as follow : —

1st. That with equal areas and equal dip, triangular blades may
be rendered twice as efl^ective as
ordinary rectangular ones; and this,
too, while the propelling surface of
the smaller number of floats was
only one-half that of the greater.

2nd. That as the propelling power
of a paddle is greater at its greater
or outer extremity, and diminishes
to nothing at the surface, so its face
should enlarge with the dip, and be
nothing above — in imitation of the
tails of fishes, the wings of birds, &c.

3rd. That the fewer the number
of paddles on a wheel, the better,
provided one be always kept in full
play ; and,

4th, That it would be more ad-
vantageous to point or fork them as
proposed, to evade the jar of their
striking the surface.

Mr. Ewbank concludes his paper
by referring to the experiments
made by me on H.M. steamer African, in the year 1841, but which
he had not been able to find, although similar experiments on
two other vessels were published in your Journal for January 1840,
and subsequently in the Nautical Magazine for 1841. As the sub-
ject is now more interesting, I no longer hesitate to communicate
the results.

In the year 1831,* my attention was attracted to this subject
during the investigations undertaken for the purpose of ascertaiii-
ng the laws of the friction and resistances of solids in motion in
fluids such as air and water, — when, on causing discs or plates of
metal to rotate round a fixed axle by means of weights descending
through given spaces and times, it was found that when a certain
portion (one-fourth) of a rectangular disc or fan was intercepted

Fig. 1. — Ordinary System.

* See • i'btlosophlcal TransactioQB* fjr IdSJ.

34*

200

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

from the interiiir ])art of tlie rectanj^le, so as to approximate to
the form of a diick's-foot, the rcsistani^e, wliether throiij^h air or
water, was the same — or, in other words, the resistance with llirrr
trUniyulnr or diirk-footed floats was as fjreat as j)revioiisly with
four rectaiif^iihir floats. Tliis apparent paradox \v^s, however, ac-
counted tor on the principle of the interior or detrimental jiortion
of the rectangular float being removed.

Fig. 2. — Moditications of Ordinary System.

A series of experiments on two other vessels was again made in
the years 18:?!), IHKI, and 1811, hy apjilyinf.;; different-shaped floats
to paddle-wheels of different diameters and widths, and on steam
vessels of different powers of from 6 to 90 horses; an abstract of
some of which was published in your Jmirmil for 1840.

The fcdlowiiifi; were the particulars of the African when tried in
1837, previous to her being tried in 1841 : —

ft. In.

Length between perpendiculars 109 11

Extreme breadth ... ... 24 10

Mean draught 9 4.J

Depth 10 0

Nominal power of engines (by Maudslays and Field) 45 horses,
or 90 horses together.

Number of strokes made by the engines per minute, 29 to 30.

Barometer gauge, 24 to 26^ inches.

Area of immersed miilship section, 1,50 square feet.

Mean diameter of the paddle-wheels, 14"7.

Area of the immersed rectangular floats, on thecydoidal or Gal-
loway system, twelve in number, 7 feet in length, and I ft. 9 in.
in breadth; thus presenting an .area of from .57 to 60 sq. ft.,
being a ratio of 1 foot of float to 2--^ midship section.

Fig. :i.

Improved Trupezliim System.

Fig. 4.— Improved Trapezium System,
With Wheels of smaller diameter and greater Velocity.

When this trial was made in 1837, at the measured mile in Long
Roach, her average speed of six trials each way was 9-174 statute
miles ]ier hour with her rectangular flo.ats. Subsequently, she was
employed for towing and other ])uri)oses, and had never undergone
any other repairs than in her engines, and had never been in dry
dock : her bottom was consequently toul, and covered with green
weeds, when tried with the trapezium floats in 1811.

Experiments on H.M. Stmnii-r '•African,' vitk Trapezium Floats.
First Trial, A/iri/ 14, 1841.

All the rectangular floats, twelve in number on each wheel, were
removed, and twelve trapezium floats were fl.xed to the interior
and middle rings of each wheel:

'J'hus making the area of the immersed floats, 34 square feet.

Nunil)er of revolutions made by engines, 23j per minute.

Mean speed of vessel in statute miles, U'l.

Mean diameter of wheels, 17 feet.

Fig. 5.- Improved'Trlangular System when the Vessel is Upright.

Secoml Trial, April 'iX, 1841.
Number of revolutions made by engines per minute, 23.
Speed in statute miles per hour (weather very windy), 8|.
Third Trial. — Area of floutx reduced one foot each, and reefed-up 4 in.
Number of revolutions made by engines per minute, 25-3.
Speed of vessel in statute miles per hour 9-022.

Fourth Trial, Jtine 8, 1841.
Number of revolutions made by engines per minute, 25.
Speed of vessel in miles per hour (weather windy), 8-8.

Fig. 6.— Improved Triangular System when the Vessel is Inclined.

Fifth Trial, June 9, 1841. — Ininiened float surface reduced to 29 sq.

feet area, atid reefed-up 1 1 inches; or reducing the diameter of the

wheel 22 inches.

Number of revolutions made by engines per minute, 27j.

Speed of vessel in statute miles ]ier hour 9-124.

The barometer stood at from 25 to 26 inches.
Which result was nearly eipial to her former speed (viz. 9-174) in
1837, with rectangular floats of more than double the immersed
area of the trapezium floats.

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

Experiments with Tou^ng, as per the accompanying Table.

201

In June 184.1, the African towed the Numa transport of 323 tons,
at the rate of 5i statute miles per hour.

In July following she towed H.M. steam-frigate Dee, of 70+ tons,

and 200-horse power, 5 statute miles per hour,— which was only 1-6
miles per hour less than her greatest speed when propelled by her
own engines, or 6-6 miles per hour.

Woolwich Yard, 1
July 9, 184-1. J

'African; Steam-Tug; Trials of her Towing Qualities with Mr. Rennie's Trapezium Wheels.

(Tonnage, 323 tons new measurement. Power, 2 x 45 horse engines = 90 horses' power.)

First Experiment— Towed the 'Numa' Transport from Deptford to Greenwich.

No. of

Draft of

Draft of

Duration

Distance

Rate

Revolu-

Date.

Ex-
perinient.

Water of
Tug.

Dip.

Vessel
Towed.

Where tried.

perinient.

Run.

per Hour.

tions.

ft. lo.

ft. in.

ft. m.

h. m.

Kuots.

June 24

1

r F. 9 01
1A.9 10/

3 0

r F.12 8\
lA. 14 1/

Woolwich

[ Deptford.
r Blackwall '

0 34

ii

7-4

274

f Without the Tow ; two patent
\ logs used.

r The iVMina in Tow ; light wind
\ ahead.

2

It

1 *° f

0 23

H

4-8

24

y Woolwich,
r Barking

r Pretty fresh hreeze ahead in
some of the Reaches, which ac-

"

3

»I

rt

fi

i. to
L Gravesend. .
r Gravesend

1 50

H

409

19 to 23

] counts for the difference of speed
(,of engines.

r But little wind ; returning with-
X out the Tow.

June 25

4

,j

—

J to ^

1 6

8

7-3

27

[ Woolwich. J

Second Experiment- 7oi«e<« the 'Dee' Steam-Frigate from Woolwich to Sheerness.

July 7

July 8

No. of
Ex-
periment.

Draft of

Water of

Tug.

JF.S 9J-I
tA.9 9 /

Dip.

ft. in.
2 10

Draft of
Vessel
Towed.

fF. 8 9\
1 A. 8 0 J

Where tried.

Barking I

to

Sea Reach J

' Sea Reach "1

to the I

Nore ; with I

2nd motion. J

^Lower part of]

Sea Reach I

to j

^ Barking. J

Duration
of Ex-
periment.

h. m.
2 25

2 0

3 15

Distance
Run.

Knots.
HA

22,

Rate

per Hwur.

4-4

4-42

6-8

Revolu-
tions.

23 to 24

34 to 38

27} to 28

Remarks.

r Wind W.S.W.; Deeintovi; mo-
\ derate breeze.

f Strong breeze right aft, which
I assisted the Tow materially ; steam
\ difficult to keep up at 38 revolu-
1 tions ; throttle valves half open ;
|^2nd motion in gear,
r Fresh breeze ahead and on the
J how throughout the run ; 2nd mo-
l^tion not in gear.

The official report only differs by half-a-mile between the towing
powers of the African with her rectangular floats in 1837, and the
trapezium floats in 1841; so that considering that the area of the
trapezium floats was merely adapted to propelling the African
simply as regarded speed, these trials could hardly be taken as the
criterion of their powers as applied to towing, when the areas
should have been increased expressly for that purpose. But, com-
paring the whole of the experiments when tried in still water under
the most favourable circumstances, and when tried in the African
under the unfavourable circumstances of foul-bottom and differ-
ence of the powers of the engines, the conclusion is in favour of

the trapezium floats. The truth of the principle is confirmed by
Mr. Ewbank, and by the laws which govern the forms of the tails
of fishes, the feet of aquatic birds, and the wings of birds and
insects, whereby the means are so admirably suited to the ends;
and the triangular form proposed by Mr. Ewbank for paddle-floats
entirely confirms the view 1 took of the subject in the years 1S.S9
and 1840.

I remain, &c.

George Rennib.

London, August 15, 1849.

DISCHARGE OF WATER FROM RESERVOIRS.

The Theory of the Contraction of the Movement of Water flowing
from Apertures in thin Plates, in a Reservoir in which the Stirjace
of the Water is maintained at a constant altitude. By J. Bayer,
Lieutenant. (Translated for this Journal from Crelle s 'Journal
fiir die Baukunst.' Band 25.)

{^Continued from page 246.)

10.
Discharge from Vertical, Elliptical, and Circular Orifices.
The equation between the co-ordinates x and y in an ellipse is—

4ft2

y^ = a2 C^a^ - X-).

Substitute this value of y in the equation (H § 9), and there
follows —

26 /*
a. q = k V(*») ■ -^y '^-'^ 1/ { (2a.f - «^) (H 4- .r) } .

; integration of this equation is practicable only in the case
H = 0, and the development by series has also difticulties,

The

where ^. , , . , ^ tt • re ■ .i

as no series can be found which for every value of H is sufhcientJy
convergent. For this reason, it is necessary to transform the ex-
pression. Before proceeding to do this, we may however deter-
mine the integral corresponding^'o the value H = 0. In this
case the equation (a) becomes

6.

Q = k\/Hg) .^ /^rd.v^{2a-

X).

s-dz =

Put V(2a — •'t) = X, then

fjcdx V(2a — x) — 'ips'dz — iah-a ^

Substitute for s its value, and take the integral between the
limits —

Firstly, .r = 0, and j; ^ 2a : then

J^ xdx V(2a-^) = (2a)5.2 (-—j = «' • j-5 v2.

202

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

^September,

» sya— 7

15

Secondly^ x =: 0, and x ■=■ a: then
f" xdx\f{'2a—x) = a7|l(2«— 1)— ?(25— I)) =2.a3
Thirdly, x ■=. a, and ^ = 2u : then .

Substitute these three values successively in equation (6), and we
have —

I. For the quantity of discharge through an elliptical orifice, of
which the higliest point lies in the surface of the water,

32

c. Q ^ /c ^"(4^0) .ah. - s/'2.

II. For the quantity of discharge when the orifice is a semi-
ellipse, its lowest edge being the horizontal axis, and the extremity
of the vertical axis 2a coinciding with the surface of the water,

4

d. Q = A;v'(*</o)-a*- 15 (8 V2— 7).

III. For the quantity of discharge by a semi-ellipse in the re-

\ ersed position, the horizontal edge being uppermost, and at a

depth a below the surface,

28
e. Q ^ A /s^{iga) . ah . -- .

Tlie sum of the equations {d and e) gives the equation c.

In order to find a more convenient function for the development
of the variable part of equation (a), by a series, let the origin of
co-ordinates be transferred to the centre of the orifice. We have
then the equation

jr = — (o— jr).

Let the altitude of pressure H' be put for H + a ; then the
equation (H § 9) becomes for these values

/. Q = /c V(4</) ^^Jdx y/ { (H' -H ,r)(a-^-^") | .

If, now, •j/(H' -f a?) be expanded in a series, we have

yrfari/{(H'-l-aO(a— .r=)j =

J ^ '' ». ^2 H' 2 4 H'- 2 4 6 H'» J

Integrating the several parts of this expression, and taking the
integral

1. Between limits j; = 0 and x := a,

/ rf.rV(a" — ar)= iCia^f) / xdx-/(cP—x-)= ia"

x-dx./{a'-x^)= l.\{\a*Tr) I x^dx ■J{a^-x''-)= J'- *a =

- D »/ 0

I x*dx./{a--x''-)=\.\.^{la^ir) I x''dxV(a--x-) = i . ^ .^a^

and

+ ''■(^J^+(4•}J)(^!)^y3+«•J■i•i•^i)(^i•^)^y.+ ■••■)

= a=VH'{Si}.

2. Between the limits x = 0 and x =: —a, and we have

y ''dx^({H' + x){a--x"-)\

= «-vn'{S,}.

The first value assumed for the integral in equation /, gives for
the quantity of discharge through an orifice (as 1 ),

g. Qz=Arv'(4irH').2ai{Si}.

The second value gives for the quantity of discharge through an
orifice (as 2),

A. q = k^^(igli').2ab{S,}-

The altitude of pressure H' here = ec.

By adding together equations (A and g) we have the quantity of
discharge for a complete ellipse —

i. Q = A^(4j,H') .2«a^ { ._(J. J)(4 4)^^_(j . J . ».i)(4. i-i)^^

This equation shows that the formula Q = A: /y/(4(?H'), when
applied in the ordinary way, is nearly accurate only in the case
where the sum of the series in the parenthesis is nearly equal to ^
— that is, when the altitude of pressure is so large that all the
terms with H' in the denominator disappear.

For H'=0, H — a. Putting these values in equation (j), we have
for the quantity of discharge, in the case where the highest point
of the orifice is in the surface of the water,

k. Q = fcV(4<;«)-2ai-{i-(i.i)(i.i)-(i.^S.|)(i.i.|)...}.

e sf
itior

^^v'2 = -(i-(4-i)U-i)-(M.t4)(i.|4)— -I.

But the same quantity of discharge has been already determined
by equation c. Put, therefore, the two equal to one another, and
we find

I.

15

(

i

Thus the sum of the series in the parenthesis ^ -— — = 0'48018.

15jr

Put in the equation (A) the altitude of pressure H' = a, and we
have the same quantity of discharge which the equation (d) has
already given. By the comparison of both we find

m. l(8v/2-7) = 2{S.}

=2|iT(4-(J-i)(i4)-(4.i-i.|)(i.*.i)-...-)-(i4 + (i.i-i)U-i)
+ (^}•M.7,)(i. !■?) + . ...)}.

Thus {SJ = ^5(8^2-7) = 0-5752.

Substitute for the first series in ()7i) the value in equation (/),
and we have

14-8V2

15

= i{i-(i

•}.3)-i + (i4-i-S-7o)(I-;) + .

■■}-

01790"

or, §(7-4y2) = J-(U.i).| + (J.}.g.f. A) (?•?)+....

Put now in the equation {y) the altitude of pressure H = o, and
compare it with ecjuation (e) : consequently,

^r2(Si}=2{4^(j-(j.j)(M)_(i.j.MXi-J-i)-----)

13

+ 4-i+a-i •i)(M) + a- J •i-f.fi>)U-M) + ••••}.

14

and therefore { Si } = t-;.

15

1849."I

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

263

But rf.

When in the equation (/) the altitude of pressure H' = 0 is
assumed, we find for the quantity of discharge through a semi-
elliptical orifice of which the upper horizontal edge coincides with
the surface of the water, —

w{.(aw)}=.<^.|.M5-i.i5-i.i.i::-..}.

And when the integral is taken between limits j? ^ 0 and j; = o, it
follows that

a

J^ </j;V{'<a=--^-)} =2a?{i-|.(i)-a,(j.i)-3^a.i.t)--- }

= a2 . 0-4793 ;
and, therefore, —

0. Q — k/>y{iga) . ba . 0-9586.

By comparing equations (o and d), we find for the proportion of
the quantities of dischai-ge through two orifices which are equal
semi-ellipses, but in inverted positions,

Q; : Qjj = 1-1504. : 0-9586; or, Q^ = 1-200 Q^,.*

Ordinarily, the quantity of discharge through these orifices is
computed by the formula

p. Q = 0-617 v'(+i'H')ai = c\/{igll') . a;

where a is the area of the orifice, and H' the altitude of pressure
above the centre. In order to exhibit the deviation of this formula
from the strict results of the Torricellian law, a small table is
given below of the co-efficients of the quantities of discharge
through circular orifices for difl^erent altitudes of pressure. For
this purpose the equation (j) is employed, and in order to adapt
it to the object in view, a is put := b ^ r, and for the altitude
of pressure above the top of the orifice, H =; )nr ; which gives
H' = ii + r=z {m + I) r.

This value being substituted in the equation mentioned, gives
?. Q=aT)^V(4i,H')r2^.2{4-a.i)(i.i)(».+ l)-2

-(i-i-H)(^-H)('«+ir* - (i•i•M-Tff■A)(M•l-l)('»-^l)-'' -••-•}.

When H = 0, the top of the orifice lies in the surface of the
water, and m = 0 and H' := r ; whence for this value of H', when
the last equation is compared with the preceding, —

Q = 0-5924, \/{igr)r-w, c — 0-5924.

Put successively for ?« the numbers i, i, |, 1 , and there will

be found for the consequent values of the co-efficients c the fol-
lowing : —

Values ofm 0 J j J 1 2 3 4

Altitude H' r ^r jr Jr 2r 3r 4r 5r ..(m + loir
Co-effi,;iente-5924 -6031 -6076 -6102 -6118 -6147 '6156 -6163 ... (iir)2...

The mere inspection of this short table shows that the co-
efficient c in the equation (/)) can be considered constant, and
= ii")- only when the altitude of pressure exceeds lOt: For cal-
culating the quantity of water for altitudes less than 10;-, the
general equation (7) must be employed. For altitudes above I Or
we may, however, put Q =: (|Tr)2^(4^H').j-^ir. In the equation (q)
the co-efficient for great and small altitudes remains = (jt)-'^ and
thence it follows that the contraction is independent of the velo-
city.

It must here be observed that the above values of c in the praxis
are capable of direct application only when the sinking of the level
of the reservoir is very small. In the preceding investigations,
the level in the reservoir was considered as constant ; without this
condition, the integration of equation (H § 9) would be much more
difficult. The experiments, on the contrary, show, with small alti-
tudes of pressure, a sinking of the level above the orifice — which
indeed is only small, but in strictness does not agree with the
theoretical suppositions. On these grounds, the formulie, when
applied for small altitudes measured immediately above the orifice,
require a correction depending on the sinking of the level. On
the other hand, for the altitude of pressure for constant water-

* The area of the seml-elllpse Is aiir, and a4=J{a4w) . -. Substitute this value of ai
Id equation (o), anti omit the area and the co-efflcient; and then the velocity becomes
V(, = ^(4ga) . —— . By a similar method are found the velocities for all other orifices.
When in all the formula, a=4 for the radius of the orilice, the quantities of discharge
and velocities furciicuUi uniices aiedetermiuec.

levels — that is, for altitudes in large reservoirs measuring 1 to li
yards above the orifice — the correction is inconsiderable. With
circular orifices, the sinking is probably much smaller than with
rectangular orifices ; for the upper edge of the orifice, when it
coincides with the surface of the water, has for the first form only
one point, — for the second form has its whole breadth, without any
pressure.

The older experiments give, it is true, in contradiction to the
above table, an increase of the co-efficient c for small altitudes ;
only it is very probable that the altitudes were measured imme-
diately above the orifices, and therefore were found too small from
the sinking of the water-level; and that, for the same reason, the
increase of the co-efficient is a single inference from a measure-
ment of the altitude too small from the sinking of the level.

The older experiments are in general but little adapted for in-
vestigation from theoretical inferences, as they partly were con-
ducted within too narrow limits, partly were not capable of being
compared together on account of the great diversity of the me-
thods of experiment, of the apparatus, and generally of all the
details.

It is, therefore, very possible, that notwithstanding such expe-
riments, which for small decreasing altitudes give increasing co-
efficients, the CO- efficients of circular orifices, however, diminish
with the altitude of pressure, and follow an analogous law with
that which we shall hereafter find for square orifices. These
doubts can only be removed by as accurate and general experi-
ments as Poncelet and Lesbros conducted for rectangular orifices.

11.

Discharge through Quadrilateral Orifices.

Let efcd be an orifice of the form of a trapezium, of which the
parallel sides are horizontal. Leta6 = H, ef—m, cd — l, bn=^b,
bo = .i, st=-y, bg — z. Then

J ef ■ og

St : e/=: og : bg ; and st = — - — ;

or,

y =

m{z — J?)

f\ —

E7

S^ — M

Vg

Whenx=-bii = b,i/ or st = cd:=l; and

- , '"(^ — *)

therefore I =: .

z

Obtain from this equation the value

of z, and put it in the above expression

for 3/, and it follows that

tub — inj; -t- Ix

y= b ■

Put this value of y in the equation
(H§9), and designate by k' the co-
efficient for orifices of quadrilateral and
like forms, and we have generally for
the quantity of discharge

pmb — mjc + l.v , ,,,, . ^ ,^
a. Q = // V( W 1 ''■^' VC H + ,r).*

Put j/ (H -I- a') = t(, BXiAludx = «. Then/yudjr = u-y — I dy.

/» /• -1 l~~nt

Bat /udx = dx j/ (H -h or) = i(H -|- xY ; and dy = -^ dx.

Therefore, Jydx ^/{n -\- x) - y.| (H +x)^ - §-^(ir(H +,.)*■

J^x{H + xy^ = liH + x)l

But

Hence, finally, substituting for y its value
Jydx{U+x) = 3 J ^^ (H+,r)T-

2 2 l~m
'3 ■ 5 b

(H-f-.,)*.

Take this integral between limits x =: 0 and x^=b, and the
equation (a) gives for the quantity of discharge

b. Q = fr' ^{ig) . UliH+b)^-mm +§(/-m)5^^"-^t^%-

* The numerical vulue of k' is constant only for the square and at eqnal altituHes <if
jjresBiire. It v.'ries, as we shall see herealier for other rectangular forms of the orifice,
aL-cordiiig tu a proportion depending ou the heights or vertical sides of these oribcta.

2(M

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Septembeb,

M'lion in tliis equation H = 0, tlie upper edfre in of tlie orifice is
ill Uie surfitce of the water, and we find liy reduction

Q =frV(*i'ft) -16 {/-'(/-'«)} •

^^'llen in equation (b) m = /, the trapezium becomes a rectangle,
and the quantity of discharge is

d. Q=/cV(*i')-l'{(H+6)5-H!}.

If liere II = 0, the upper edge of the orifice is in the surface of
tlie water, and

I'ut the height of tlie orifice for the breadth, and the breadtb for
the height; and we have

/. Q = /.-V(V)-3"'-

Now, for the two equations (eand/), it follows that f(u-e(iual
rectangles, when the upper side is in the surface of tlie water, the
quantity of discharge varies as the square root of the height of
tlie orifice.

If in the last equations i = /, the orifice is a square, and we have

g. q = ic^Ha).ii{(u>r/)'^-n'^}.

Divide this equation by /,-' x the area of the orifice, that is by lcl\
and we have for the velocity the same result as (E § 8).

fTo be conlinwd.J

BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE.

The preparations at the Menai Straits for performing the im-
jiortant and perilous operation of hoisting this enormous fabric to
its permanent position are on a scale of immense magnitude. This
will be the more readily understood when it is stated that the total
(lead weight to be lifted 100 feet above high- water mark is upwards
of 9,000 tons, or equivalent to the elevation to that height of up-
wards of 30,000 men. The stroke of the hydraulic presses em-
[iloyed for the purpose is six feet— that is to say, they are only
capable of raising six feet in one lift. The tube of 2,300 tons has
consequently to be sustained wiiile the presses are lowered and a
fresli hold obtained. This sustentation, owing to the immense
magnitude of the labour, will be effected by building up successive
layers of masonry, at every six-feet lift, under the tube to support
it securely in its ascent— during which, arrangements will be made
for another six-feet hoist, until the whole 100 feet are finislied.
^Vere it not for this process of building up, the oper.ation would
only occupy about a day; but as it is, it will take a fortnight. The
pre.'aution has been adopted by Mr. Stephenson and Mr. Clarke to
guard against the probability of casualty, seeing that should any
accident occur, the labour of years and the outlay of balf-a-million
would be inevitably sunk. To insure security, however, some con-
ti-i\ances are adopted by which the sup])ortiiig chains as they rise,
are continually to be followed up by wedges of wood, so that in
tlie event of any accident arising to the" lifting machinery, no
iiijiuy, it is expected, would happen to the tube.

'I'he mechanical contrivances for the purpose are the largest in
the world, and the most powerful ever constructed. Favoured by
Mr. Clarke, one of the able engineers of the works, we are enabled,
froin a close personal inspection and the advantage of that gentle-
niaii's explanations, to give a description of the vast apparatus for
hoisting t!ie huge burthen. The machine used to effect tliis is an
enormous hydraulic press; its construction is of the most simple
character, and consists only of an exceedingly thick and heavy
iniii cylinder, like a mortar. A strong piston o'r ]ilungcr, also o'f
iron, called the ram, works up and down within this cylinder, and
IS fitted with a leather collar at the shoulder, so as to render it
water-tight. A\'ater is forced into the cylinder by a force-pump,
tlirough a small orifice which may be compared to the touch-hole
of a gun; and this water gradually forces up the piston. The
whole secret of the immense power of these machines consists
simply in the prodigious force with which the water is driven into
tlieiu, and which, in the present instance, is so great that it would
throw the water to the heiglit of nearly 20,000 feet, which is nuu-e
than five times the heiglit of the neighbouring noble pinnacle of
f^uowdon, and 5.000 feet higher than the monarch mountains of
Alount IJlanc ! It, in fact, resembles the piston of a steam-engine,
but. instead of using steam at 30 lb. or 40 lb. pressure to the inch,
water is used at a pressure of bOO lb. or SOO lb. The cylinder, of

course, is of almost adamantine strength, to enable it to sustain
and withstand this pressure. The sides of the largest of these
presses used in raising the bridge are 1 1 inches thick. The weight
of the cylinder, which is of cast-iron in one piece, is 16 tons alone;
but the whole machine complete is 40 tons. The ram or piston
working within it is 20 inches in diameter, and if worked to its
utmost power, this press would alone be quite capable of raising
one of the tubes. The most marvellous thing above all is this,
that in spite of its proportions, its stupendous action is guided and
controlled with the most perfect ease and precision by one man.
This hydraulic giant was constructed by Messrs. Easton and Amos,
engineers, of Southwark. It stands on two beams, on a lofty kind
of eyrie, at the top of one of the towers, whence a grand and open
view is obtained of tlie Straits seaward, wliile its elevation above
the ravine is upwards of 200 feet. The i)ress is composed of
wrought-iron, rivetted together at the to)) of the side towers,
where, with its assistant machinery, it occupies a large chamber to
itself, about 29 feet above the level to which the bridge has to be
raised. The sensations experienced on looking down from this
lofty elevation over the rushing stream of the Straits, and the
great tubes and machineries strewn round about below are of a
peculiarly impressive character. In addition to this large press
there are two smaller presses, with rams 18 inches in diameter,
placed side by side at a similar level in the Britannia tower, and
which act in conjunction with the large press.

The chains, by which the power exerted by the presses in their
lofty position is communicated to the tubes at the base of the
tower, resembles the chains of an ordinary suspension bridge, and
are similar to those of the bridge at Hungerford. They are ma-
nufactured by the patent process of Messrs. Howard and Raven-
hill, of London, and consist of flat links, 7 inches long, 1 inch
thick, and 6 feet in length, with an eye at each end, and are bolted
together in sets of eight and nine links alternately. The weight
of these chains employed in lifting the 2,000 tons is about 100 tons,
far exceeding that of the well-known eque.striau statue of the Duke
of Wellington at Hyde-|)ark, which has hitherto been regarded as
one of the greatest "lifts" of the age. Tliese chains are attached
to the tube at two feet from the end, and in order to get sufficient
purchase at the part, three strongs frames of cast-iron are built
into each end of the tube. The innermost end only stiffens and
supports the sides while the tube is resting on its ends. The two
outer frames are the lifting frames; the chains are attached to
them by three sets of massive cast-iron beams, placed across the
inside of the tube, one above another, their ends fitting under deep
shoulders or notches in the lifting frames, where they are secured
by screw bolts. As an additional security, two very strong wrought
iron straps pass over the upper pair of beams, and descend into
the bottom cells beneath the frames, w here they are strongly keyed.
The weight of these lifting frames and cast-iron beams is 200 tons,
and it is a matter of wonder even among the engineers themselves
how machinery can be made strong enough to raise the ponderous
load. The way in which the chains are connected with the press
is by an exceedingly thick and heavy beam of cast-iron, strength-
ened bj' wrought-iron ties across the top. It rests like a yoke upon
the shoulder of the ram, and is called the cross-head of the press;
the two chains pass through square holes at either end of the cross
head, and are securely gripped at the top of it by an apparatus
called the clams, consisting of two strong cheeks of wrouglit-irun,
drawn together by screws like a blacksmith's vice. Tlie beams on
which the presses stand, the cross-heads, and all the parts that are
subjected to a very heavy strain, are either constructed of, or
strengthened by, wrought-iron, which is found to be less brittle and
more trustworthy than cast-iron. As the tube is 12 feet longer,
allowing a feet at each end, than the distance between the towers
in which the presses work, recesses or grooves are left in the face
of each of G ieet deep, in order to receive the additional length,
and of sufficient width to allow the end of the tube to slide up
easily within them. These recesses extend from the bottom of
the towers to nearly the height of the hydraulic macliines; it is in
the low end of these recesses, on a soft bed of timber, placed to
recei\'e it, that the great tube, since its successful floating, lias
been lying in state across the estuary of the Straits, until these
vast mechanical equipments for ballooning it to its permanent level
were completed.

Mr. Ste]iheiisoirs Report, of the 9tli ult., to the Chester and
Holyhead Kailway Company, on the jireseiit prospects of tiie Bri-
tannia Bridge, is given at page 287 of our present number.

18 10. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

2G5

SEA WALLS.

Account of the Effect of the Storm, of the 6th of December, 1847, on
four Sea Walts, or Biihcarks, of different forms, on the coast near
Edinburgh; as illnstratint) the principles of the construction of Sea
Befen^ses. By William John Macquobn Ranktne, A. Inst. C.E.
— (Paper read at the Institution of Civil Enj^ineers.)

There are few branches of engineering: with respect to which
greater uncertainty and difference of opinion exist, than that of
the construction of sea walls and breakwaters. The question has
been frequently before tlie Institution, and in its archives there is
much useful information on the subject. The valuable paper of
Lieutenant Colonel H. D. Jones, read in IS+S,' may be particu-
referred to, as its conclusions are to a certain extent verified by
the facts which have come under the author's observation. Con-
ceiving that every addition, however small, to the facts recorded
respecting the efficiency of such works, must tend to bring the
principles of their construction nearer to cei'tainty, the author
felt it to be his duty to lay before the Institution, transverse
sections of four sea walls, upon a portion of the coast of the Frith
of Forth, near Edinburgh, having an exposure towards the north
and north-east, and to give an account of the effect upon them of
one of the most violent storms on record in this climate, which
took place on the 6th of December, 1847.

Fig. 1. — Edinburgh and Dalkeith Eailway, Leith Branch. Sec-
tion of the Sea \\ all, original design by Messrs. Walker and
Surges. — A, Level of High Water Spring Tides.

Figs. 1, and 2, represent the sea wall of the
Leith branch of the Edinburgh and Dalkeith
'■^ railway, which was completed in the winter of

1837. Fig. 1 is the ti'ansverse section, as originally designed by
the consulting engineer, Mr. Walker. Fig. 2 is the transveTse
section, as the wall was actually built.

e

^o£

Scale of Feet, Figs. 1 and ■>.
Fig. 2.— Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railivay, Leith Branch. Section of the Sea Wall as
executed in 1837.— A, Level of High Watsr Spring Tides ; B, Ballast: C, C, C, Concrete;
U, Sand ; E, Dowel.

» See 'Journal,' lti41'. Vol V., p. 318.

The author was resident engineer of the railway whilst this wall
was e.xecuted, and it is the only one of the four walls the for-
mation of which he can describe from actual inspection during
the progress of the work; the other three sections are, therefore,
to be regarded rather as giving the external foi'm, and the general
style of building of the walls they refer to, than as affording
minutely accurate information respecting the details of their con-
struction.

The deviations from the original design and specification were
chiefly in matters of detail, and will be apparent on an examina-
tion of the two sections. The most important were the fol-
lowing:—

The hearting was composed of concrete, instead of rubble. The
parapet was omitted, as no bulwark of ordinary height could have
kept off the spray, which sometimes rises 20 feet above the wall.
A small wall was added at the landward side of the embankment,
so as to retain the sand in a sort of trough ; for, until this wan
done, it was found that the spray, collecting in pools on the
surface of the embankment, after a gale, washed away the material
in large quantities; but after the formation of tlie trougli, the
water subsided by filtration through the sand, without doing any
damage As boulder stones were abundant on a neiglibouring
part of the beach, they were used to form a nearly horizontal
pitching to secure the foundation against being undei'inined, in-
stead of using the sheet piling shown in the section, fig. 1.

It was found, from the effects of a violent gale which took place
during the progress of the work, that the coping stones, which
weighed about half-a-ton each, were liable to be lifted by the sea,
thus exposing to destruction the courses of smaller stones beneath
them. They were therefore connected together by cylindrical
cast-iron dowels, l| inches in diameter, and 12 inches long, placed
in the line of the centre of gravity of the stones, and penetrating
•6 inches deep into holes made to fit them, in each stone. This
mode of connection has answered its purpose perfectly, not a
single coping stone having been lifted by the most violent storms.
With the exception of the alterations and additions just men-
tioned, the wall was e.xeeuted almost exactly according to the
original design of the consulting engineer.

The total length of the wall is about 750 yards, and its height is
13g feet above the beach at the most exposed part, diminishing to
about 6 feet at the ends; this gives only 4 feet above the level of
high water of equinoctial spring tides. The least thickness is
5 feet, the greatest thickness is 10 feet; the back of the wall is
vertical; the face has a batter of about 5 inches in a foot, at the
lower part, and towards the upper part it becomes curved, and
overhangs slightly at the top.

The whole of the masonry is of white sandstone from Craigleith,
quarry. The foundation course is composed of large flat stones,
12 inches tliick, laid horizontally, at an average depth of 4 feet
below the surface of the beach. Tlie stratum on which it rests is
clean sea sand, with a slight mixture of fine gravel; firm when
the tide is low, but when saturated with water, it is so moveable
that the author has found stakes, which had been driven 2 feet
deep into the beach to mark the line, shifted during a stormy
night 3 feet from their former place, without losing their vertical
position, or rising out of the sand; yet the foundation of the wall
has never shown the slightest symptom of insecurity. Tliis is
one amongst many instances of the safety of a foundation on pure
sand when it has no outlet to escape laterally.

The face of the wall was built in courses, from 6 inches to
12 inches in thickness, of squared hammer-dressed stones, averag-
ing 2 feet in depth; the back was built of coursed rubble, averag-
ing about 18 inches in depth, and the interior was filled with con-
crete, composed of gravel from the beach, laid in courses 12 inches
in thickness, as the masonry was finished. There are two courses
of bond stones as shown in the section. The coping stones are
14 inches thick, and average 3 feet in length.

At first, the joints of the face were protected by scraping out
the mortar for a depth of 2 inches, and pointing them with
cement; but as it was found that the sea sometimes broke off and
extracted large pieces of the cement, even after it had set, it was
considered advisable to lay the remainder of the face stones in
cement, for a depth of 4 inches inwards, whilst building the wall.

In order to promote the accumulation of sand and gravel at the
base of the wall, several timber groynes, formed of planks set on
edge between a double row of piles, were placed at right angles
to it.

The whole of the masonry was constructed by workmen in the
employment of the company, under the immediate direction tf
Mv. Somerville, upon whom the style of execution reflects great
credit.

35

206

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[^Septembeb,

Tlie gross averafje cost of tlie wall was somewliat below twelve
shiHiiigx per enlAe yard.

Aliniist inmiediately after the completion of this work, the most
violent iioitli-east jfale occurred whicli had been known on that
part of the coast for twenty years; but the wall, though exposed
to the full force of tlie waves, did not sustain the slig^htest damage.
Ten yeai's afterwards, on tlie tith of December, 184^7, a more violent
storm occurred, which damaged or pai-tially destroyed almost
every other sea defense on the neighbouring coast; yet the sea
wall of the Leitli Branch Railway escaped without injury. The
horizontal pitching at the foot of the wall was alone damaged to
a slight extent, by some of the stones being lifted out of their
places by the waves; but they were generally deposited near their
original sites, so that the necessary repairs could be made at a
trifling cost.

Tlie sections (figs. .3, 4, and .5) represent sea defenses between
Newhaven and Granton, the foundations of which rest chiefly on
shale, or on sandstone, which strata crop out on that part of the
coast.

Fig. 3.

A, A, A. Level of Higlj Water Siiring Tides;
r, Hrcuch ; C. lij'iiiterlorl ; D, UuUoai of
Bieucb i 11, Huiidway.

Fig. 5.

Scale to Figs. 3, 4, and 5, Ifj to the Foot.

Fig. 3, represents the cross section of a much older sea wall
and bulwark, on the turnpike road between Newhaven and Trinity.
As this wall was not breached at any point by the storm of the
6th of December, the author is not able to give its thickness, nor
the dejith of its foundation. The face is nearly perpendicular,
and it is built entirely of rubble, laid in mortar, with a pointing
of cement in the joints of the lower courses. The roadway is
about 8 feet above high water of spring tides, and the parapet
rises 4 ft. 6 in. liigher. The foundation of this wall is protected
by a dry stone pitching, sloping at angles of from 30° to 40°. The
only effect of the storm was, that the upper part of the pitch-
ing, at several points, was carried away, to tlie extent siiown
in the section. Tlie vertical wall was not damaged, except at one
point, where a fishing-boat being thrown upon the road by the
waves, overturned an iron railing, which at that spot filled a small
opening in tlie jiarapet.

Fig. 4, is a section of the sea wall of a portion of the Edin-
burgh, Leith, Tind Granton Railway. This wall is 2 ft. 6 in. thick;
its section a])proaclies to tlie form of a hyperbola. Foi a depth of
about 7 feet below the base of the parapet, it is nearly perpen-
dicular, and has counterforts of the form shown in the sectitui.
Below the point marked />, it becomes a dry stone bulwark. The
effect of the storm of the 6th December upon this structure
was to form two long breaches, by wliich the building was en-
tirely demolished, with the exception of the lower portion of the
dry stone bulwark (marked by a darker colour in the section), and

several of the counterforts, which were left standing alone. This
result was obviously occasioned by undermining; the- stones be-
tween the point A and the bottom of the breach being extracted
by the waves, the upper part of tlie wall, having no independent
foundation, fell into the sea.

Fig. S represents the sea wall of the Edinburgh, Leith, and
Granton Railway, at and near Granton. This is a sloping bul-
wark of a nearly parabolic form. It is built dry, except the string-
course and parapet, and consists of stones, which are, as the sec-
tion shows, much larger and heavier than those employed in build-
ing any of the walls previously mentioned, most of those in the
lower part of the slope weighing full half-a-ton each. The stones
of the heavy string-course, on wliich the parapet rests, are con-
nected by means of a flat malleable iron bar, measuring 2| inches
by |-inch, laid along their upper surfaces, and attached to the
stones by iron spikes |-incli in diameter. The coping stones are
connected with eacli other, and with the dado of the parapet, by
T-shaped iron cramps. The damage done to this wall by the
storm, was comparatively trifling; it consisted in the overturn of
a few yards of the parapet and string-course, and of the dry
building immediately beneath; the iron connecting-bar being bent
and broken.

The efficiency of the surface of a wall to resist the action of the
waves, obviously depends on two circumstances; first, the power
with wliich the moving particles of the water act on the stones at
the surface; and secondly, the force with which those stones resist
removal. The object to be attained is to render the moving
power of the water as small as possible, and the resisting force of
the stones as great as possible, relatively to each other.

Without entering into the theory of waves, wliich involves the
highest branches of mathematical analysis, it is sufficiently obvious
to daily observation that the oscillation of each particle of water,
in a wave mo\ing freely, is partly vertical, and partly horizontal;
that when a sufficient depth of water exists in front of a wall, or a
line of cliffs, the mutual action of the direct and reflected waves,
produces a series of points of greatest agitation; and at those
points the horizontal oscillation is either null, or so small, as com-
pared with the vertical, that practically the motion of the particles
may be considered merely as an oscillation up and down. A ver-
tical surface is, therefore, that which offers the least possible
impediment to the natural motion of the particles of water, under
such circum.staiices, and upon which, consequently, they act with
the least power; and a horizontal surface, being perpendicular to
tlie motion of the particles, is that upon which they act with
greatest power.

It is also obvious, that when waves encounter a sloping bulwark,
or a sloping beach, the vertical part of the oscillation is gradually
converted, as the waves proceed, into an advancing and retreating
oscillation, parallel to the slope; that being the only direction in
which the particles can move, without destroying the surface of
the beach or bulwark; and this oscillation has a powerful tendency
to overturn and to remove any obstacle which projects above the
line of the slope. Hence it is, that large stones, extracted during
storms, from the seaward slopes of breakwatei-s, have frequently
been sviept entirely over to the landward side; and from the same
cause it also ai'ises, that the coping and upper portions of a curved
bulwark, such as that in fig. 5, are liable to be overthrown, by the
concussion of the body of water directed against them, by the
lo«er part of the slope.

The force with which a stone resists removal is composed of
three parts; the first arises from its own weight, and is obviously
greater the flatter the slope, and is greatest of all when the surface
is horizontal; — tlie second arises from the pressure of the super-
incumbent masonry; and this is as obviously greater the steeper
the slope, and greatest in a vertical wall; — the third is the adhesion
of the mortar, or cement; and as this depends, to a certain extent,
on the pressure from abo^■e, it also is greatest in a vertical wall.
These principles appear to be entirely in accordance with the facts
which have been narr.ated.

In such structures as the pitching at the foot of the walls in
figs. 2, 3, and 4, and the lower part of the slope of fig. 5, the
resistance to the action of the waves arises, almost altogether,
from the weight of the stones, and therefore increases as the slope
apjiroaches tlie horizontal; but as the moving power, exercised by
the particles of water, also increases, it is clear, that the stability
of bulwarks so constructed depends altogether on the use of suf-
ficiently large and heavy stones, such as those employed in fig. 5.
Hence, in figs. 2, 3, and 4, the stones of the pitching not being
sufficiently heavy, were partially displaced.

In fig. 4, the destruction of the slope occasioned the fall of the
wall which rested on it; but in figs. 2, and 3, where the pitcliing

[1849.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

267

was not used to support the wall, but merely to protect the foun-
dation, the wall suffered no injury in consequence of its removal.
In fig. 2, where the pitching was laid on the natural level of the
sand, the stones displaced were deposited near their original site;
but in fig. 3, where the slope was comparatively steep, they rolled
down with the receding oscillation.

The walls (figs. 2 and 3) being vertical, or nearly so, approach
the form of section which gives at once to the particles of water
the least amount of displacing power, and to the masonry the
greatest amount of the resistance, arising from the pressure of the
superincumbent materials, and the cohesion of cement and mortar;
and they afford an illustration of the stability which may be
attained with such a form of section, in a structure built of com-
paratively small stones.

Owing to the extremely small elevation of the wall (fig. 2)
above the surface of the water, it was necessary that the coping
should be sufficiently massive to resist, by its weight alone, any
force tending to displace it; but in fig. 3 such a coping was not
necessary, as the top of the wall was above the reach of tlie action
of the waves.

The author has endeavoured, in drawing general conclusions
respecting the construction of sea walls, to avoid going beyond
the limits warranted by the facts he has stated. His conclusions
may be received with caution, or with dissent; but he trusts that
the facts will be considered wortli recording.

Remarks made at the Meeting after the reading of the foregoing Paper,

Major-General Pasley referred to an opinion expressed by him at a
meeting of the Institution in 1842,- when he stated, that from •' his ob-
servations of the action of the sea upon various parts of the coast, he con-
ceived, that a perpendicular wall, constructed of large ashlar work, well
cemented, would assume the character of a rock, and all the prejudicial
action of the receding wave would be avoided." The correctness of this
opinion had been confirmed, in his mind, by the result of an examination he
had made of a sea wall, built by Mr. Brunei, along a portion of the South
Devon line, upon which he had reported, when he was Inspector-General of
Kailways. The wall to which he alluded was nearly vertical ; it was so
situated, that it was only exposed to any very violent action of the sea for
about three days at a time, during spring tides, and then only when a heavy
gale of wind blew at the same time. This however had once occurred, and it
was then reported that extensive damage had been done. He found, how-
ever, that although at the part within the estuary of the Exe a portion of
the parapet had been destroyed by a barge striking against it, the only
serious damage which had occurred was to the earthwork withinside the
wall, which had not been protected by masonry; the waves had been thrown
over in such masses, as to plough up the earth and to wash it away. That
portion of the sea wall which was constructed of ashlar work, was not
injured at all; but a part which was constiucted of dry stone masses, or
boulders, of considerable weight, was entirely destroyed. The damage was
soon repaired, by covering the earth slopes withinside the wall with stone
pitching, and substituting good sound ashlar work for the dry stone wall,
and since that time no injury had been sustained. His previous opinion,
in favour of vertical sea walls, was thus, he contended, fully confirmed.

Mr. Brunel confirmed General Pasley's account of the extent of injury
sustained by the sea walls on the South Devon line, on the occasion alluded
to, and begged to renew his thanks for the assistance afforded him by the
General, in refuting ej^/^ar/e and unjust statements, which had been made
at the time, and were calculated to produce prejudicial effects. With respect
to any comparison between vertical and sloping walls for sea defenses, he
must repeat his objections to drawing general conclusions from one class of
evidence, or to laying down general rules to suit all cases. In this particular
instance, upon the South Devon line, a nearly vertical wall was more ap-
plicable, from the position, the depth of the water, and the general circum-
stances. His intention had been to build the wall with a perfectly vertical
face; a slight hatter was however given to it; the coping, also, which pro-
jected from 2 feet to 2 ft. Gin., was found effectually to turn the wave down
again ; the recess of 6 feet, or 8 feet, caused by setting back the parapet
wall that distance from the face of the main wall, received the mass of the
wave, and the high parapet finally prevented any considerable quantity of
water being projected over the wall. The principal injury had, therefore,
been received by the slopes withinside the wall, and where no parapet was
built, as within the estuary of the Exe the waves had destroyed the slopes;
but no other damage was done. A.s it was always useful to give an account
of even comparative failures, he would state, that wiih respect to that part
of the work which was composed of dry stone, it had been formed of blocks
of a hard conglomerate, which were found in large quantities on the shore ;
the wall was about 25 feet high, by about 10 feet thick, and the blocks,
when used, were only roughly shaped, so as to give them a kind of bed, that
they might be laid together, without cement, like cyclopajan masonry. The
whole had been destroyed, as General Pasley had' described, while a wall
built close beside it, of small ashlar masonry set in mortar, resisted perfectly
the action of the same storm. Mr. Brunei ascribed the destruction of the

2 See ' Journal,' 1842, Vol. V., p. 319.

dry stone wall to the roughness of the surface, and the want of cement
between the blocks, allowing the sea to enter and to dislocate and destroy
the mass. It was necessary to have pitching at the base of sea walls, in
order to counteract the action of the receding waves, which was always
powerful where the water was only from 4 feet to 6 feet deep. On the
southern coast he had constructed bulwarks in advance of the wall, to act
as breakwaters, and as groynes, to collect the beach, in order to prevent the
scour, which so frequently undermined and destroyed walls, whose founda-
tions were even carried down to a considerable depth. A rock foundation
would not always save them, for he had seen the surface completely rubbed
away by the scour of the shingle, so as to render it necessary to underpin
the wall, and to build an apron upon the rock, to prevent the recurrence of
the same action.

Mr. Green said, that as a somewhat analogous instance, he might mention
the Dymchurch wall, to which so much damage was done by the sea in
the year 1803, that he was subsequently sent there, at the recommendation
of the late Mr. Rennie, to carry out improvements in that extensive era-
hankment, which protected from the sea a tract of not less than 50,030
acres of marsh land, lying between the town of Hythe and the port of Rye.
The wall, or embankment, was constructed entirely of earth ; the face next
the sea was defended by "arming," which eonsisti-d of a facing of coppice
wood, held down to the earthwork by oak stakes and laths, in a very in-
genious manner; but the front of the embankment had been laid at slopes
of different inclinations, and in very irregular longitudinal directions. la
some parts, the front slope formed nearly an angle of 45° with the horizon,
or at an inclination of 1 horizontal to 1 perpendicular, varying in other
parts between that slope and 3 horizontal to 1 perpendicular. The top
of the embankment was in many parts at least 30 feet wide, and 20 feet
above the level of extraordinary spring tides, and a great portion of it
formed the public road from Hythe to Dymchurch and New Rumuey. It
was customary to make large depots of brush and coppice wood, for the oc-
casional repairs of the embankment, on the top of the more elevated and
widest parts of it; but occasionally, the force of the sea was so great, at
those parts having the steepest slopes, that the waves broke over the top,
and carried the large stacks, of 200 wagnn loads of coppice wood, from the
top of the embankment down into the marshes behind it. In executing
the repairs and the reconstruction with which he was entrusted, Mr. Green's
first object was to make the line of the face of the embankment as nearly
as possible that of the general line of the shore, and to remove all sudden
projections into the sea ; and secondly, to bring the front slope of the em-
bankment to an uniform inclination of 7 horizontal to 1 perpendicular,
the top of the embankment being only 6 feet higher than the level of extra-
ordinary spring tides. The general inclination of the beach on the shore,
from high water downwards, was, in that part of the shore, about 8
horizontal to 1 perpendicular ; but the face of the slope was defended by
the coppice-wood arming, as before, as the expense of facing it with stone
would have been beyond the means of the proprietors of the lands. The
plan pursued was found to answer extremely well, as, in the greatest storms,
the surge of the sea never reached the top of the embankment. This and
other experience, convinced him of the propriety of so forming sea em-
bankments, as to offer the least possible resistance to the direct force of the
sea. He had since successfully constructed many other sea embankments,
on the same principle, and had been fully confirmed in his opinion.

Mr. BoRTHwicK said, that in the year 1833, Mr. Walker reported upon
the state of the Dymchurch wall, anil recommemled a general amendment
of its condition, which, he believed, was partly carried into effect, by the
construction of a sloping pitched bank, with a vertical wall at the top. Mr.
Elliott's paper, which was read at the Institution in the session of 1847,^
stated, that even that plan had been modified, and a general line had been
adopted, with a pitched slope, at an average incli[iation of about 8 hori-
zontal to 1 perpendicular.

Mr. Rendel knew the position where the walls described by Mr. Rankine
were situated, as well as those on the coast of Devonsliire, mentioned by
General Pasley and Mr. Brunei. In his opinion there could be no com-
parison between the two cases. The former were situated in an estuary,
sheltered by Incbkeith and the land of Fife, having, at the same time, a
long shallow foreshore; whilst the latter were placed in exposed positions,
with considerable depth of water, and heavy waves breaking upon them. A
substantial wall, built of proper proportions, of good smoth-faced material,
with strong hydraulic lime or cement, would stand well if it were nearly veiv
tical; and a slope would also stand, if well packed with dry stones. The sur-
face, however, must be such as to prevent the stones from offering such op-
position to the waves, as to permit them to be loosened and torn up. In
practice this was generally a question of relative cost, and in most cases a
nearly vertical wall, well built in mortar, was found to be the cheapest.
The great difficulty was to protect the toe of the wall, and to prevent it
from being undermined ; for even when the foundation was carried down to
the rock, the beach, which had previously accumulated to a considerable depth,
was not unfrequently carried away, and the surface of the rock was abraded
to such an extent, by the travelling of the shingle, as to loosen the lower
courses of the wall. In all such eases it was necessary, either to place a
paved apron, or to construct groynes, for the purpose of collecting the
shingle. The latter was perhaps the most effectual mode, if the litoral cur-
rents were well examined and taken advantage of, in settling the direction

3 See 'Jouiual,' 1S47, Vol.X.. p 261.

3S*

268

THE CIVJL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

fSEPTKMBF.R,

niifl pnsltion of tlie groynes. No conclusions, as to tlip hcst forms for
hrpakwaters, could be deduced from examples of walls built like these, four-
fifths up the shore. The cases were not in any degree similar, and it was
necessaiy to be very careful not to assume any similarity of action, or of
etTect, between the long heavy deep waves to which breakwaters were ex-
posed, and the comparatively shallow and hrokeu-up waves to whose action
the sea walls near Edinburgh were subjected.

Mr. Scott Russell contirmeil Mr. Rendel's view. The value of the ar-
rangements shown in the sections depended entirely upon the nature of the
foreshore, the depth of the water, the length of the reach for the sea to
rise upon, and the direction of the exposure. It appeared to him, that the
mass of masonry in the wall, (shown in figs. 1, and 2,) was so great, the
depth of the water was so small, and it was comparatively so little exposed
to the sea, that the form of the wall was of little importance, and the cir-
cumstance of its standing proved nothing. In the wall shown in fig. 3,
on the other hand, the perpendicular part was nothing more than a parapet,
being protected by a sloping wall, up to the level of high water. The thin-
ness of the wall in fig. 4, compared with that of fig. 2, rendered any com-
parison uninstructive, as it was manifestly insufficient, and the foimdation,
which was only a loose rubble wall, was evidently inadequate; there was
also a greater depth of water and more action of the waves, than in the case
of the wall in fig. 3. The wall shown in fig. 5, was precisely of the form to
endanger the stability of the parapet; and it bad given way, as might have
been expected. It was similar to that on the Dublin and Kingstown Kail-
way, of which a great part was thrown down by a storm, although it was
built of large blocks of granite. The general conclusions he was disposed
to draw from the facts stated, and from siniilar instances which bad come
under his own observations, were, that a vertical wall, if it was composed of
good masonry, united by strong hydraulic lime, or cement, not carried to a
height exceeding 30 feet, and not exposed to the action of a heavy Atlantic
swell ; but protected by a long foreshore, or shallow water, would answer
perfectly well, uidess the fonndalion gave way. lie might give as examples
the quay walls of Liverpool, which were all built nearly vertical; they were
also examples of excellent rubble work, which bad resisted perfectly all the
action to which they were subjected. In the case of exposure to a heavy
breaching sea, or deep water, with large waves, it was necessary to begin to
break the water as eaily as possible, and for this purpose a considerable
slope would be found safer, and eventually cheaper, especially with such
materials as were, usually, most conveniently to he found for such purposes.

Mr. J. ThojMson wished that Mr. Rendel had extended his observations,
and had told them for what positions he considered each kind of wall was
liest adapted ; for although he thought that the promulgation of any em-
jiirical rules must be prejudicial, yet there were conditions under which cer-
tain forms of construction had been proved in practice to be bad, and it was
very desirable to have such examples brought before the meetings. Mr.
Thomson thought that the foundation upon which the wall or the slope was
10 be placed was a principal consideration ; if it was bard and sound, a ver-
tical wall would, under ordinary circumstances, and with proper precautions,
most probably stand well but if it was soft and liable to be washed away,
.1 slope, wiib a long pitched foreshore, must be preferable. The situation,
also, must be eoiisidered. If a sea defense was required to be built on the
beach, near low-water mark, where the half tide would set upon it with all
its destructive force, a vertical wall was not desirable, however well the same
wall might succeed if it were placed out of the direct itrfluence of the half
tide. With respect to the material, Mr. Thomson had found that coursed
rrdrhle formed an excellent durable vertical sea wall, if laid in strong by.
diaulic mortar, or any cement, so that a smooth face could be given to the
masonry, atfirrding no salient points tor the jrower of the water to be
exerted upon ; and even in slopes, it was ntore desirable to attend to having
close joints, and smooth-faced stones, than to selecting those of large
dimensions.

Major-General Pasley thought that the depth of the water against the
foundation should be considered, as from the experience of the divers who
operated under his directions upon the wreck of the Royal Georr/e, it ap-
peared that at certain depths the water was comparatively still, when it was
niUi'b agitated at the surface. It might be received as a rule, that the waves
bad little or no force below the level of low water ; and even at a depth of
6 feet below the tide level, be thought that the force of the waves would be
innocuous.

■ Mr. Rendel, V.P., said, it was well known that at a depth of about 12
feet below low-water mark, there was no injurious action of the waves,
however deep the action of the tidal current might be.

Mr. Bateman agreed that the specific gravity of materials employed under
water should be considered ; yet be thought that their structure and qualities
were of more importance. Some stones tjecame softened, others readily
disintegrated, others were chipped away, or their surfaces worn away by the
travelling over them of sand and shingle and others again appeared to he
worn down by the action of the water alone. These were all to be avoided
for submarine constructions. He bad seen some sea walls built of basaltic
rock, which possessed great strength and solidity, standing well at an in-
clination of 3 to 1 ; hut the most remarkable example he recollected
was that of the Loch Foyle embankment, the face of which was pitched
with a clay slate stone. By the action of the waves, small laminated por-
lions were carried oft", and were forced like wedges into the interstices be-
tween the larger stones; the nbol^ face by this means became so smooth

i that not a crevice coirld be detected, and the waves rolled over the surface
innocuously, having nothing to lay hold of in their passage. In fact, this
material gave naturally, as perfect a surface as engineers endeavoured to ob-
tain artificially, by laying large dressed blocks of stone, at a considerable
expense.

Mr. Murray agreed to the preceding remarks as to the abrasion of ma-
terials ; it proceeded in some cases to such an extent, as to be a subject of
serious consideration to the engineer. The faces of several glacis, or sea
slopes, of 4, or 4 J to 1, which be bad constructed of hard limestone, had been
so worn down and scooped out by the action of the shingle when travelling
over it, that constant repairs became necessary. In the harbour of Walker,
there was a glacis faced with sandstone full 3 feet in thickness. During
the progress of the works, the small chippings of the stones formed a very
sharp shingle, which being carried by the waves over the finished portion,
wore it away, and injured it so extensively, that the sandstone pitcbtng was
obliged to be taken up and be replaced by wbinstone, and this, in spite of
men being employed to clear the shingle from the surface of the glacis. It
was of the utmost importance to the duration of masonry in such situations,
that the action of the sand and shingle, under the influence of the tides and
currents, should be carefully observed, as by the judicious erection of groynes,
it was practicable to accumulate masses of sand or shingle, which would act
etfectually as a protection for the works, or they might be made to deflect
the travelling material into the deep water. This principle had been adopted
with great success at the new harbour works at Sunderland, which he had
mentioned on a previous occasion.'' The coasts of Holland exhibited many
interesting examples of sea defenses of various kinds. There the groynes
were constructed of fascines, straw, and sand, and yet with these simple ma-
terials, which the Dutch engineers bad been compelled to use, from the
absence or great cost of more o'urahle substances, very effective structures
were raised, which protected the coast, and cost very little for repairs.^

Mr. Ranking wished to explain that he had not read Mr. Scott Russell's
paper on Sea Walls^ before he "had written the paper under discussion ; if
he had done so, he should have referred to some parts which were confirmed
by bis observations on the walls described. He begged it to be understood,
that in giving this description, be had not pretended to lay down universal
rules for the construction of breakwaters in deep water, from effects that
had been produced upon walls founded on the beach. He concurred in the
principle, that an eufc^ineer ought to be guided by circumstances in designing
works; but he conceived that cases sometimes occurred where the locality
permitted the engineer to create such circumstances as he required ; for in-
stance, at Cherbourg, the want of a natural beach, on which to found the
vertical f?ce of the seaward side of the breakwater, was supplied by the flat
summit of a stone embankment; it iiowever remained to be shown by ex-
perience, whether that artificial foreshore was sufliciently extensive for its
purpose. Mr. Rankine thought Mr. Scott Russell somewhat underrated the
power of the waves against the vertical wall at Trinity (fig. 3). The fact
that a fishing boat bad been thrown over and had been lodged upon the
road, which was 8 feet above the high water level of spring tides, showed
that the wares had acted on it throughout its whole height, and the ex-
posure had been still further increased at the points where the pitching bad
been carried away. He also pointed out that the vertical wall (fig. 3) was
not exposed to a less depth of water than the curved wall (fig. 4), but rather
to a greater depth, and an increased action of the waves.

Mr. C. H. Smith saiil it appeared to him that in almost all engineering
works, the specific gravity or weight of the stone was of the utmost im-
portance, especially for low buildings which were occasionally under sea
water, and where there was, perhaps, a rapid current, or in other situations
subji'ct to the influence of powerful waves; such circutnstances would re-
quire a heavy quality of stone to he used, because the weight of all bodies
when submerged was reduced by that of the bulk of water displaced. The
lightest stone he had ever found in massses sufficiently large for building
purposes, weighed only 1031b. per cubic foot; and if this was used in sea
water, its weight would be reduced about 06 lb., which was the weight of a
cubic foot of sea water, and therefore it wouhl be like building on land,
with a material weighing but 37 lb. per cubic foot. The heaviest building
stones that he had met with, were the dark grey varieties of sandstone from
the vicinity of Swansea, from Abercarne, from the Forest of Dean, and from
Duiitlee ; some of these were even hea\ier than granite, weighing upwards
of 170 lb. per cubic foot, and in bis opinion, they would be quite as durable.
There was also a remarkably heavy stone found in some of the western
islands of Srotland, jiarticularly in the island of Tiree ; it was composed of
carbonate of lime, with a large quantity of hornblende in small nodules.
He conceived that such stones were peculiarly adapted for the building of
docks, harbours, breakwaters, sea embankments, and indeed for all purposes
where the violent action of water was to be contended against. In situations
where the stone was constantly or alternately under sea water, sandstone was
preferable to limestone, because it was not so likely to be acted upon by the
SoA'icava ruf/osa, the Photaa, or any other boring mollusca;, which frequently
pierceil cali:areous stones to the depth of several inches, thus changing a
smooth face to an extremely rough one, and consequently, by increasing the
friction, rendering the stones more likely to be disturbed by the action of
the waves. The sea walls or embankments in the neighbourhood of Leith,
were constructed with Craigleitb stone, which was a very good material for

4 See 'Journal,' 1847, Vol. X., p. 1S9. s See • Jounial,' IS47, Vol. X., p. 83.

6 See • Jo.iriTal,' 1S47, Vol. X., p. 125.

1819."]

THE CIVIL EKGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

2C0

many purposes ; but he believed that some of the rocks in the neiijbbourbood
of Dundee would furnish a preferable kind of stone for such works, because
the Dundee stone weighed from 25 lb. to 30 lb. per cubic font more than the
Craigleith stone, and it could be procured in blocks of much greater size at
the same cost.

Mr J. R. M'Clean said that the Barrow and Piel sea embankments of
the Furness Railway, which were each about one mile in length, were some-
what peculiar in construction. The situation was generally well sheltered ;
but during the equinoctial gales, the banks were exposed to a heavy sea.
The embankments were formed of sand, faced with a thickness of 12 inches
of clay puddle, into which a thickness of about 4 inches of broken stone
was beaten, so as to form a clay concrete bed to receive the pitching, or
stone facing, which was 12 inches in depth. The portion of the embank-
ment above the level of the equinoctial tides, was faced on each side with
sods 6 inches in thickness, cut from the "salting." The grass, although on
a slope of one to one on the inner side, was very strong and luxuriant, and
the parapet thus forjned afforded a complete shelter for the railway. The
cost of the stone facing, including the puddle concrete, was Is. 6d. per
superficial yard, and that of the sodding was 3d. per superficial yard. This
form of embankment was, in his opinion, better adapted to the situation,
and was constructed at less cost than an upright wall would have been. He
agreed with the statement made by Mr. Green, that the greater the slope of
the face of the embankment, the less would be the disturbance to the fore-
shore; and he thought that the necessity for pitching and putting down
groynes to protect the foreshore, when an upright wall was built, proved,
in a great degree, the correctness of this principle ; more especially when
the foreshore was composed of alluvial deposit, or other matter of a light
description.

The Rev. the Dean of Westminster, directed the attention of engineers
to the shape of the Cob Wall, which formed the extremity of the pier at
Lyme Regis, Dorset. It was a nearly vertical wall, with a rounded end,
built of Portland stone, and the stones were fastened together with oak
dowels ; it projected about a furlong into the sea, at a depth of 10 feet at
low water, and was exposed to all the force of the Atlantic ; but it was
placed at such an angle to the run of the sea that it appeared to divide the
waves, deflecting one portion innocuously past, to expend itself gradually
upon the beach, leaving still water within the port, and turning aside the
other portion in such a manner along the flank of the wall, that the body of
water might interpose between the masonry and the succeeding wave, whose
force was thus in a great degree expended before reaching the wall. Thus
the greater the original wave, the gn ater was the resisting force of the mass
of water, forming as it were a cushion for receiving the succeeding wave ;
and though the shingle beach had sometimes been driven in during heavy
gales, no injury had ever been done to the masonry of the wall. There
might be local or engineering peculiarities in the construction of this pier,
which had, 'perhaps, escaped him; and he suggested that it would forma
good subject for a communication to the Institution.

Mr. Walker agreed in the impracticability of laying down abstract rules
for the forms of construction of sea defenses, suitable for all situations,
when so much depended upon the local position, the force acting upon them,
the direction of that force, and the quality and dimensions of the material
of which the defenses were constructed. The engineer must, in all cases,
after considering the whole of the circumstances, combine his plan in ac-
cordance with scientific laws and practical experience, without attempting to
fit an empirical formula to all cases, however dissimilar. In many instances,
nearly vertical walls cost less than long slopes, and this would be the case
when the materi^ds were expensive, from the distance they had to he con-
veyed. On the other hand, whenever the materials were close at hand, and
EO situated that an inexpensive kind of labour sufficed for placing them, long
slopes would be least expensive. Combinations of the two systems had fre-
quently been proposed, as in the original design for the Plymouth Break-
water, which was, that it should be composed of rough hewn blocks, thrown
down upon a base of 70 yards wide, in a depth of 5 fathoms, rising to a
width of 10 yards on the top, at 10 feet above the level of low water of
spring tides, up to which point the materials were supposed to form a slope
of about 3 to 1, and above it a nearly vertical wall of hewn stone was to have
been built. The action of the sea upon this work, in carrying a large quan-
tity of the stones from the seaward slope entirely over the breakwater, and
lodging them on the beach, showed that the inclination should he increased ;
accordingly, slopes of 3 to 1 for the land-side, and of 5 to 1 for the sea-side,
were adopted, and had been since adhered to in the subsequent works, a
long foreshore being at the same time formed. At the western extremity,
a buttress of hewn stone at a less inclination than the other parts had been
constructed under the directions of Mr. Walker; great pains were taken
with the construction, the whole being bounded vertically from the bottom
to the top, as well as horizontally, by dovetailing the stones and crossing the
joints in both directions, in order to render it nearly a monolylbic mass.
The result of this was, that it had perfectly resisted all the action of the
sea for the last six or seven years, when considerable injury had been re-
ceived by the other ports. At Dover, the part of the works now executing
for the commencement of the Harbour of Refuge, was a wall with an inclina-
tion of only i horizontal to 1 vertical, in order to enable vessels to load
and unload alongside it, and the main body of the work would be only at a
small slope. At the Channel Islands, where fine materials were clo.se at
hand, but labour was expensive, a long slope was intended to be adopted up

to the level of low water, and then a nearly vertical wall. At Harwich, all
the defenses were laid at a long slope, having respect to the cost of materials
and labour. Great discrepancy of opinion existed as to the rising of seas
ai^ainst nearly vertical walls. From lengthened observation, Mr. Walker was
induced to believe that in very deep water, where the direction of the wall
coincided with that of the prevailing wind, the waves would not rise high
upon it ; but when the face was ai a right angle to the sea, it would strike
heavily and rise high. This subject had been recently treated very ably by
Sir Howard Douglas,' and bis arguments in favour of long slopes were based
upon sound scientific reasoning, and practical examples, which eiititlcd tliem
to much respect. Mr. Walker must repeat, that in practice, engineers must
not expect to apply successfully any general rules in all cases ; but must act
from the dictates of their own reason, aud the experience of former works
under similar circumstanoes.

7 See ' Journal,' IS.)7, Vol. X., p. 21.'), 2-Jl, 281.

COALS FOR THE STEAM NAVY.

Second Report on the Cauls Suited to the Steam A^avy. By Sir
Henry De La Beche, C.B., F.Il.S., and Dr. Lyon Playfaie,
F.R.S.^

The manner of conducting tlie experiments is so fully described
in the last Report, that it would be unnecessary again to notice it
in detail. It may, however, be desirable to remark, that the in-
quiry has been conducted to the best of our abilit)', with the view
to its practical utility.

The main points to which attention has been directed are —
1. The evaporati\e value of the fuel: 2. Its mechanical structure:
3. The bulk or space which it occupies in stowage: and 4. The
chemical identiiieation of the coals operated upon. With regard
to tlie experimental determination of the evaporative value of the
coals, the same processes have been followed as described in our
first Report. Every attention has been been paid to the peculiar
characters of each fuel as exhibited during its burning.

It is well known that particular coals require special modifica-
tions of the grate, and even of the boiler, to obtain tlieir maximum
result. To acquire this knowledge, it would have been necessary
to try every different kind under such varying conditions; and it
would have been useless, unless a series of experiments had been
made, to ascertain the special circumstances most favourable to
the coal under examination. The expenditure of money and time
which such a course would have involved, rendered its realization
quite impracticable. It was, however, possible so to regulate the
draughts of air as to produce those most favourable to tlie pecu-
liar cliaracters of each coal.

To obtain these conditions, each coal was subjected to experi-
ment for three successive days, the draught being rtiiferently ar-
ranged for each day. Tliis course was also pursued in the experi-
ments for the first Report. It would have been eas}', and it might
have given the experiments a fictitious appearance of additionHl
value, to have performed all the work of the three days under the
same conditions, as the results would have been accordant. But
such agreements, while they confirmed the accuracy of the experi-
ments, would have been of no practical value, since they would
not Iiave furnished the data necessary to determine the evaporative
powers of the coals under varying circumstances of altered
draught. The experiments havej therefore, been tried with dif-
ferent draughts, either in the proportions of 4:5:8, or wlien cir-
cumstances rendered it advisable of 1:2:4. By experiments with
the varying draughts, it became easy to ascertain when the gases
escaping from the coals were most economically consumed. The
mean of the three days' trial gives, however, more correctly, tlie
average evaporative value in steam-vessels, where the exact
draught depends, to a certain extent, on circumstances over which
the engineer has little immediate control.

The coals most liable to be influenced by the different adjust-
ments for the admission of air, are those wliich, from their
bituminous characters, are most apt to generate a large quantity
of gaseous products on the first application of heat, sudi as the
coals from the Nortliumberland, Durham, and Lancashire coal-
fields: and it has therefore been found, tliat the experiments made
with them, under dift'erent areas for the admission of air, vary
much more considerably than with the less bituminous coals of the
South Wales coal-field. It has even been found necessary in the
highly gas-giving coals, such as the Cannel coal of Wigan, to
allow air to enter behind the fire-bridge, so as to complete the
combustion of the escaping gases.

Experiments were made at the suggestion of the late First Lord

* An abstract of llie first Report was given in tile C,E, Hi A. Jjiirnai, la-14. Vol. XI.,
p. 273.

270

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

QSeptember,

of the Aflmiralty, to ascertain how far mixtures of anthracite with
more l)ituiiiiiii>us coals were likely to prove advantageous in the
manufacture of artificial fuel. The apparatus used in the manu-
facture of the contract fuel for Her Alajesty's dockyard, under tlie
patent of Mr. ^^'^arlich, havinir been placed at our disposal, various
mixtures were made and tried under the boiler. It was, however,
ascertained, that the advantages of these additions were not such
as to recommend their adoption. The cementing- tar, tliough par-
tially carbonised by the heat of the coking ovens in which the pre-
pared fuels are heated, was so much more combustible than tlie
dense and difficultly burning anthracite, that the latter remained
after the combustion of the former, and it therefore either ac-
cumulated on the bars in the state of powder, obstructing the
draught, or, falling through the gi-ate, escaped combustion. If
thrown again on the fire, it choked the air-way, and impeded the
proper action of the fuel. The evaporative power of the fuels
thus prepared, was certainly found to increase according as the
proportion of fixed carbon was augmented; but this would appear
to arise from the fuel then assuming more of the characters of
the anthracite, or coke, from which it was made. The results of
the experiments pointed to the necessity of keeping an uniform
character in the fuel manufactured.

VV'ith these observations we would draw attention to the follow-
ing abstract of the coals examined: —

Table I. — Showing the Economic Values of the Coals.

o o 5

2

o

&

¥

A

b 1

a

L. b

a. ■ o

o

c •

9t

&

s

u S

Names of Coals

0

V

■2s

=1

= .3?

3

11

0.

"32

- J

J- >

1 S

employed in the Ex-
perimenta.

III

•as

3i

2^

c o

s§

^1

Ill

CO 3

CIS

:!i

^ 3

"5 S

= 1

HI as

■|3

O 5i

n,ac

Ifl

a o

Hi

-^

13

= •3

3 .y

u

o

1

9^f

0£ u

(u 5

si£

'3

." a

i E

'ss

a.

g-S3

'5

ssa

u

is

I^

a

a

w

s

fc

as

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F. G.

H.

I.

K.

WELSH COALS.

lb.

lb.

lb.

Mean.

Thomas's Rlerthyr

10-16

53-0

82-29

•644

.55 26

42-26 67-5

10^72

538^48 52u^8

Nixon's Merihyr.. ..

9'.;6

51-7

82-29; -1128

69^16

43-32,64-5

10^70

614 93'5I^4

Hill's Plyinoiilh Work

9-75

51-2

84-78

•6113

65-68

43-74 64-0

10^18 U'J9 20

531-6

Aberdare Co.'s Merihyr

9-73

49-3

81-73

•603

65-78

45-43 74-5

10-27 |479-ti8

489-5

Gadly Nine-feet Seam

9-56

54-8

83- 16

-658

61-76

40-87

76-0

U>46 1.523 88

517 3

Neath Abbey .. ..

9 as

59-3

83-57

-7U9

40 92

37-77

.■iO-o

9^65 j6.56^2<

646- 1

Gadly Four.fe8t Seam

9-29

51-6

82-79

-623

60-44

43-41

68-5

10-73 1479-36

400-0

Llynvi

9-19

63-3

80-35

■6iy

60^56

42 02

9-.^8 1 429-82

399 6

Rock Vawr

7-6i

650

80-21

■685

4.1.83

40-72

05-5

7-88

42240

397-0

LANCASHIRE COAL.

Balcarres Artey ., ..

8-83

50-5

78-17 -646

64-79

U-Sr, 76-0

9-09

445^91

4.54-1

Blackley Hurst ., ..

8-81

48-0

78-90, -HI'S

64-37

46-66 ' 66-0

9-00

422^86

500-8

Blatkbrook Little Delf

8-29

510

78-16 -652

53- i5

43-92

61-6

8-.55

422-79

440-4

Rushy Park Mine

8-08

47-1)

80-1)4

-687

7031

47-66

67-0

8-35

379-76

419-1

Blackbrook Rushy Park

8-02

66-3

80-15

•689

44^93

40-50

80-5

8-26

443-60

481-2

Johnson and Wirthing-

toii's Rushy Park . .

8-01

50-0

80-10

•624

60-20

44-80

69-0

8-16

400-50

464 6

Lattak Rushy Park . .

/-93

52-6

84-07

•625

.59 82

42-58

756

8^16

419-74

415 0

Balcarrea Haigh Yard .

7-90

50-8

80-10

•634

67-67

44 13

80-0

8-23

401-32

.198-3

Caunel i,VVigan) ..

7-70

48-3

7i:-80

•628

69-00

46-.-i7

'J5-0

8-06

371^91

.-(81-1

Batcarres Lindsay

744

61-1

78-61 -650

63-83

43-83

70-0

7-58

380 18

431-5

Balcarres Five-tuet ..

7-21

49-0

79-11

•619

61-44

45-71

44-5

7-35

353^29

489-5

Johnson and Wirthing-

ton's Sir John ,.

C-32

61-6

81-73

•631

38-39

43-41

82-0

6-62

326-11

362-7

NEWCASTLE COAL.

Andrew's House, Tanfld

9-39

52-1

78-86-660

51^36

42 99

9-80

48921

351-2

Nfwcastltf Hartley ..

8-23

50 .1

80-27 |-629

6H^96

44 35

78-6

8^65

416-61

30.S-0

Hcdley's Hartley., ..

8 16

52 0

81-79 -635

57-28

43-07

86-5

8^71

421 32

3008

Bate's West Hartley ..

8-04

60-8

78-17-649

63-87

44-13

69-5

8-26

408-43

406-8

Buddie's West HarUey

7-Si

60-6

77-11 i-656

62-39

44-09

80-0

8-01

395-69

413-3

Hasting's Hartley . ..

7-77

48-5

78-04 -"21

60-90

46-18

75-6

7-96

376 84

404-6

Can's Hartley .. ..

7 71

47-8

78-23 -611

03-66

46 8"

775

8^13

3B8 53

;i44-3

Davison's West Hartley

7-fil

47-7

78-36

•608

64 27

46-96

76^5

7-83

362-99

4029

North Percy Hartley ..

7-57

49-1

78-29

■627

69-46

45-02

60^0

7-72

371-68

423-6

HaswellCoaiConipany's

Steamboat Wallsend

7-48

49-5

79-36

.623

60 32

46-25

79-5

7-85

370 66

291-8

Oervventwater's Hartley

7-42

60-4

78-79

•ii:i9

56 32

44-44 163-5

7-66

373-96

461-1

Original Hartley .. ..

(;-82

49-1

77-98

•629

.58 81

45-62

80^0

6-98

334-86

428-4

Cowpen & Sidney ditto

6-79

47-9

78 67

608

64-23

46-76

74-0

7-02.

326 24

350-4

SCOTCH COALS.

Wellewood

8 24

52-(i

79-78

•659

63-57

42-58

80-0

8^39

43342

438-5

Eglintoo

7-37

52-0

79-84

•651

61-48

43-07

79^6

7^48

383-24

406-2

■St.iveley (Derbyshire). .

7-2fi

49-9

79-79

•6-25

5990

44-88 88-6

7-40

362-27

4662

Conception Bay (Chili)

5-72

80-54

6^96

426 0

iLyon's Patent Fuel

9'58

lil-l

74-73

•817

22-.30

.16-66 ..

9-77

685-33

409-1

The annexed abstract of the working tables will give a general
view of the relative value of the coals experimented upon. A
coal, for example, may appear by this table to possess a high
evaporative power, and yet it may burn so sluggishly, and require

so much attention from the stoker to procure its maximum result,
that the mere inspection of its evaporative value would give it a
higher rank than that to which it is entitled. It is impossible,
however, in an abstract to detail all the special characteristics of
a coal, and therefore such a table only gives a certain amount of
information, and does not render unnecessary a detailed descrip-
tion.

Table II.
Mean Composition of Average Samples of the Coals.

Tadi.e III.
Calorific Values,

^

3 J

IS

■0 "■«
1 mO

Names of Coals

•>

«

c

Hi

m

"■^Z.

ill

ISC'

employed in the Ex-

^

k

a

V 9

|-|o

D S .

perimtinta.

01

1

o

s

.o

Q.
-3

X

.c

111

11 ^s

en

u

S

2

m

0

<

0.

a

0

WKLSH COALS. A.

B.

c. 11)7

E.

F.

G.

H.

Thomas's Merthyr .. 130

90-12 4-33 11-00

0-85

202

1-68

80-63

32-96

2 56

Ni.Kon's JMerthyr.. ..[l-;U

90 27 4-12 0-63 1 20

2-53

1-25

79-11

3j-20

257

Hdl's Ply.iioulh Works l-y.'>

S8-49 4-00 lo-46

0-84

3-82

2 39

8J-25

34 06

264

Abenlare Co.'s Merthyr 1 ai

88 2814-24 '1-66

0-91

1-65

3-26

85 83

.-)4 12

265

Gadiy Nine feet beam

133

,H618!4'31 ll-ou

0-87

2-21

634

86 54

34-6

2-65

Nt-ath Abbey

1-31

8904

6-05 107

1-60

3-56

61^42

3; -20

2-42

(Jailly Fuur-feet Seam

\-A2

88 56

4-79 iO 88

1-21

,

4-88

88-23

34-24

2-66

Llynvi

1-28

87 18

506 0-86

1-33

2 53

3-04

72 94

32 24

2-60

Kock Vawr

1-29

77-98

4^39

0-67

0-96

8-55

7-66

62-50

28 92

2-24

LANCASHIRE COAL.

HaUarres Arley ..

1^26

83 64

5-24

0-98

1-05

5-87

3-32

62-89

29-40

2-28

Blackley HlUsI .. ..

\-M

8201

6-56

1-68

l-4;j

6-28

405

67-84

29-68

2-29

Blackbrot.k Little Dell

\-M

82-70

5 65

1-48

ro7

4 89

4-31

68^48

28 68

2-22

Rushy Park Mnie

1-28

77 76

5-23

^.•■.2

l-Q\

8^99

669

66-i;6

28-98

2-25

Blackbrook Rushy Park

1-27

81-16

5-99

1-35

162

7-20

2-68

5810

3J-36

2-35

Johnson and V\'ir hing-

ton's Bushy Park .,

1-28

79 50

5-15

1-21

271

9^24

2-19

57-52

2891)

2-24

Laffak Rushy Park ..

1-35

80-47

5-72

1-27

139

8-33

2-82

66-26

26 88

2^03

BaiC'irres Haigh Vard .

1-28

82-26

5-47

1-25

1^48

6^64

3-90

66 09

28-16

2^18

Caunel (Wigan) ..

1-23

79 23

6-08

1-18

1-43

7^24

4-84

6i-;i3

29 74

2-33

B.ilcaires Lindsay . ..

1-26

83-90

S 66

1-41

Vbi.

S^53

2-00

.i7-.84

26-20

2-15

Balcarres ¥ivv feet ..

1-26

74-21

5-03

0-77

2-W

8-69

9-21

.■i6-90

25 96

2-01

Johnson and Wirthing-

ton's Sir John

1-31

72-86

4-9J

107

Vbi

8-15

11-40

56- IS

23-80

1-84

NEWCASTLE COAL

Andrew'sHonse.Tanfld.

1-26

85-58 '5-31

1-26

1^.^2

4-39

2^14

65^ 13

31-06

2-41

Newcaste Hartley

P29

81-81

5-50

1-28

169

2-58

7^14

64-61

31^86

2-47

Hedley's Hartley.. ..

131

80-26

5 28

1-16

1^78

2-41

9 12

72-31

30 36

2-35

Bate's West Hartley ..

1-25

80 61

5-26

1-.52

1^85

651

4-25

28^92

2 24

Buddie's West Hartley

1-23

80 75

5-04

1-46

1-04

7-s6

3-85

29-54

2-29

Hastinii's Haftley

1-25

82-24 lS-42

1-61

1-35

6-44

2-94

3.5-60

28-56

2-21

Carr's Hartley .. ..

1-25

79-83

5-11

1-17

0-82

7-86

5-:;l

60^63

30-90

2-40

Ddvisou's West Hartley

125

83 20

5-.ll

1-72

1-38

2.50

5-84

59 49

.10-12

2 33

North Percy Hartley ..

1-25

80-03

5-08

0-98

0 78

9-91

3-22

57 18

29 10

2-25

UasivellCoalCompapy's

Steamtioat Wadsend

1-27

83-71

5-30

1-06

121

2-79

6-93

ev.ss

28-80

2-23

Dervventwater's Hartley

1-26

78^01

4-74 1-84

V37

10-31

3-73

64 83

2910

2^25

OriKiual Hartley ..

1-25

81-13

5 66 0-72

1-44

8-03

3-07

58-22

26-62

2^06

Con pen & Sidney ditto

1 26

82^20

5^10

1-69

0-71

7-97

2-33

68-69

28-66

2-22

SCOTCH COALS.

Weliewood

1-27

81-36

6^28 1^53

1-57

6-37

2-89

69-15

28-38

220

Eglintou

1-26

80 08

6-60

1-65

1-38

8-05

2-44

64-94

24-32

1^88

Staveley (Derbyshire)..

1-27

79-85

4-84

1-23

0-72

lr96

2-40

57-86

28-03

2-13

FOREIGN COALS.

Conception Bay (Chdi)

1-29

70-55

5-76

0-95

1-98

13-24

7-52

43-63

25-62

1-97

Sydney, N. S. W. ..

82-39

5^32 1-23

0-70

8^32

2-04

Poi'L Famine

64-18
38-.9d

5 33 '0 50
401 'o-,58

103
6^14

22^75
13^.-)8

6-21

36 91

••

••

••

Chirigue

Laredo May

58-67

5-62 0-71

1 14

17-33

16-63

,^

Sandy Bay, 1 (Patagonia

6.-25

6-116 iO-63

1-13

17.54

13 40

Sandy Bay, 2 ( Patagonia

59-63

5-68 0-64

0 96

17-45

15-64

Talcahiiano Bay . .

70-71
66-93

6-4411-08
5-32 1-02

0^94
2^20

13-96
8-70

6-92
15-83

Vancouver's Island ..

Colcurra Bay (Chili) ..

78-30

5-60 j 1-09

1^06

8-37

6-68

••

Lyon's Patent Fuel .,

1-13

86-36

4-56 1-06

129

2^07

4-66

••

31-38

243

With regard to the manner in which the fuels included in the
annexed tables were selected, for examination, the same plan was
followed as that adopted prior to the former Report. Careful in-
quiries were made at the different ports in the neighboui'hood of
tlie coal-fields, as to the kind of coal exported for steam purposes;
information from steam-shin companies, in the habit of using the
coals of that district was collected, and the local character of the
fuel was ascertained. Circulars were then forwarded to the owners
of such coals, explaining the object of the inquiry, and requesting
them to furnish two tons for experiment. In most instances these
were immediately responded to, and the requisite quantity was
sent; in a few cases tlie owners did not furnish the supply neces-
sary. It was not consistent with our instructions to make pur-
chases, as it is usual that the coal experimented on should be
delivered free of charge. It is, therefore, possible, that in the
coal-fields examined, excellent varieties of fuel may not be in-
cluded in our list, and tliis may have arisen either from the cir-
cumstance of the owners not responding to our request, or from

18«.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

271

deficient information furnished to us in our original inquiries.
AVe have constantly endeavoured to rectify any omissions of this
kind, when pointed out, and the investigation heing still in pro-
gress, the opportunities for so doing will receive every attention.
It is in accordance with this view that we have included in this
Report various coals from the South Wales coal-lield m hich ha\e
been sent to us since the publication of the first Report. The
examination has been made, as far as possible, by districts, and, in
accordance with this arrangement, the Lancashire and Newcastle
coal-fields have principally engaged attention in the present
Report.

The peculiar quality of the coals employed in the experiments is
ascertained by chemical analysis. The character of the economic
and chemical experiments differ essentially in one respect — viz.,
that while in the former many hundred weights are employed in
the experiments, in the latter only a few grains are required. It
is, therefore, essentially necessary to take precautions that these
few grains represent the average state of the coal. In order to
ensure this result, a large quantity of the coal is reduced to powder
and is well mixed, by passing through sieves of various sizes. The
larger fragments remaining on the wider meshes are reduced to
powder, so as to enable them to pass through the finer sieves, and
be completely mingled with the remainder. The quantity of coal
to be examined is taken from this carefully a\''eraged sample. It
is found by experiment, that perfectly accordant results are ob-
tained, when small quantities are operated upon, and that imper-
fect combustion, and therefore discordant numbers, always attend
the use of large quantities. These analytical results are placed in
Table II. In that table also will be found some valuable analyses
of coals from foreign stations, which have from time to time been
sent to us from the Admiralty.

Table IV. — Showing the Expansion of Water in the Boiler at different
Temperatures.

Tem-

Actual

Difference

Tem-

Actual

Difference

Jiera.

Ratio of

Weight

betrt-een

pera-

Ratio of

Wei gilt

between

ture

Apparent

of Water

Actual

ture

Apparent

of Water

Actual

of

to Keal

in Boiler

and

of

to lical

in Boiler

and

Water

Weight.

when tiDed

Apparent

Wnter

Weight.

when lillud

.Apparent

Fahr.

to Normal
Point.

Weight.

Fahr.

to Normal
Point.

Weight.

o

lb.

o

lb.

70

10000

47;!0'000

0-000

170

o-nwn

4701-1120

28-380

80

0 !);i!i6

4728-I08

1-8S)2

180

0-9;i23

4i!9:i-:i79

30-421

iW

0-aU02

4721) 21()

.S-784

190

0 9901

4i'S.-)-173

46-827

100

0-0[l87

472:f!).')0

6-050

200

0-9879

4li72-7li7

57-233

no

(I-Olis:!

4721-9i;o

8-040

202

0-9Hi;9

4 i;s-(i.-i7

01-963

lid

0 0!I79

47IH-OS7

10-003

204

0-9859

4(it;.i-.-',o7

0(i-0:!3

i:)0

o-u;i74

4717-705

12-205

206

0-9849

4ii5s 577

71-4 3

140

0'.''.l71

471.') 283

14-717

208

0-9839

4:5:1-847

76-153

150

o-:i!)S7

4714012

1.V988 .

210

0 9<<29

4040-117

8o■8^3

160

oaiij-t

4708-242

21-758

212,

0-9819

4044-387

85-013

Another more simple means of identification, which it is conve-
nient to record, is obtained by estimating what has been termed
the calorific value of the eoal. This depends upon the circum-
stance, tliat within certain limits of error, the calorific value of a
coal may be expi-essed by the quantity of oxygen required to con-
sume it. This amount is experimentally determined by the quan-
tity of lead which the coal reduces when heated with an excess of
litharge, that oxide yielding the amount of oxygen necessary for
the combustion of the coal. Properly considered, all combustible
matter should be viewed as adding its increment to the calorific
result, and as suc^h should be allowed its value; but as the amount
of sulphur in coals, although increasing the calorific unit, is objec-
tionable in many respects, it maybe considered advisable to correct
the table for the quantity of lead reduced by it. This correction
is not, but may, be very simply made for Table III. by the follow-

ing formula

L-(f X 0-77)

in which L is the quantity of grains of

lead reduced by 5 grains of coal, s, per centage of sulphur as shown
in column E. of Table II.

Tlie correction has not been made, as it is thought better to give
the actual result of experiment, and because tlie correction is
within the errors of repeated experiments. In most cases, the
error arising from iron pyrites is within 0-1 to 0-19 per cent, of t!ie
total lead found, and as this quantity is less tlian tlie difference
between three successive experiments, it obviously falls within tlie
limits of error, and may be safely rejected, so far as the practical
result is concerned.

It may be desirable to state that the next Report will include
the remainder of those coals which it is thouglit exjiedient to
examine. The investigation continues to be conducted in the
same manner as formerly, our own superintendence being freely

given as heretofore, and the actual practical experiments being
confided to Mr. J. Arthur Phillips. Mr. How conducted the che-
mical analyses, until liis removal to Edinburgh, after which they
were undertaken by Air. T. T. Philipps.

Table V.

Mean

Nuinber of

Number of

Specific

Unities of

Unities ol

Heat of

Latent heat of |

Air

Hrat

Air

Heat

Water

Specific

Vapour Si

tnrated to

Thermo

abandoned

Thermo-

contained

between

Heat of

the Temperature T. |

meter

by- one

meter

in One

0° and

Water

Centi.
grade.

Pound of
Water in

Fahren-
heit.

Pound of
Water at

T cent., or
between

from T to
■V + dT.

descen.ling

,j.O

32° and T

Cent!-

from T to 0°

Fah.

grade.

heit.

0

0-000

0
32

32-000

1 0000

606-5

1091-7

10

10-002

60

50-00 1

1-0002

1-0006

699-5

1079-1

20

20-1-10

68

68-1118

I -0006

1-0012

692-6

1066-7

30

30-026

86

80-046

1-0009

1-0020

685-7

1064-2

40

40-061

104

104-0!ll

1 0013

1-0030

678-7

1041-6

50

50-087

122

12J-I.W

1-0017

1-0042

571-6

1028-9

60

60-137

140

140-246

1-0023

1-0O56

664-7

1016-4

70

70-210

i:.8

158-381

10. 130

1-0072

567 6

1003-7

80

80-282

176

176-507

1-0036

1-00,89

660-6

990-1

90

90-381

194

194 685

1-0042

I-01I19

643-6

978-3

U'O

100-500

212

212 900

1-0050

1-0130

636 6

965-7

110

110-641

230

2;il-153

1-00.58

1-0163

6-29-4

962-9

120

120-806

248

•2411-450

1 0067

1-0O7

622-3

940-1

130

130-997

266

■207-794

1-0076

1 0204

616-1

927-2

140

141-215

284

286-187

1-0087

1-0232

608-0

914-4

150

161-462

302

304ii32

1-0097

1-0262

600-7

901-2

160

lCl-741

320

323- 133

1 0109

1 0294

493-6

888-5

170

172-062

338

341 (i93

1-0121

1-0328

486-2

876-1

180

182-398

356

360316

1-0133

1-0:64

479-0

862-2

190

l',l2-779

574

379 0.i2

1-0146

1-0401

471-6

84S-9

200

203-200

,392

397-760

1 0160

1-0440

464-3

835-7

210

213-660

410

416-588

1 0174

1-0481

4.56-8

822-2

220

224-162

428

436-480

1-0189

1-0524

449-4

808-9

230

234-708

446

454-474

1-0204

1-0568

441-9

795-4

Table VI. — Correction for Erpar,sion and Contraction of Water in the
Tanks, taking 70° as the Normal Temperature.

Tempera

Actual Weight

Tempera-

Actual Weight

Tempera-

Actual Weight

ture

ot an Unity

ture

of an Unity

ture

of an Unity
of Water.

Fah.

of Water.

Fah.

of Water.

Fah.

o
40

1-001464

0

54

1-001196

68

1-1100178

42

1-001461

56

1-001094

70

1-00' <UO0

44

1-0014.-19

68

1-00O992

72

■999703

46

1-0014-26

60

1 -000890

74

-99:i527

48

1-001414

62

1-0007.2

76

-999290

60

1-0014 1

64

1-000534

78

-999054

52

1-001294

66

l-000:-66

80

-998818

In acknowledging the kind and liberal support which has been
extended to us by those desii-ous of promoting this inquiry, we
would wish more especially to call attention to the disinterested
and important aid afforded by Mr. Samuel Hocking, to whose
gi-eat knowledge of Cornish boilers we are indebted for much
valuable information, and for having personally superintended the
setting of the boiler employed in these researches.

REViEiars.

A Report on Indian River Navigation ; addressed to the Committee of
Gentlemen formed for the estal/linhment of Improved Steam Naviga-
tion upon the Rivers of India. By John Boubne, C.E. London -
Allen. 1849.

Mr. Bourne went out to India with Mr. Macdonald Stephenson
as one of the engineers of the East Indian Railway, and had thus
the opportunity of examining the Lower Ganges. This has led
him to devote his attention to the subject of Indian river naviga-
tion, the drawing up of a plan for that purpose, and the publica-
tion of the present pamphlet. Certainly the subject is one of very
great importance, and which has been very much neglected, as we
have heretofore shown; and it speaks but ill for the Indian govern-
ment that steam navigation should be at its present low ebb. For
the non-extension of railways they have an excuse, that the pre-
liminary trials are not yet made; but steamboats have long been
tried, and have been found successful. As yet, there are only
steamboats on the Ganges, though it is known they will run oil
the Indus, and on the Assam river or Buri-ampooter.

The true answer to any objections is, that no proper facilities
are given for private enterprise in India. It is worse off than
here; and instead of the steamboat being used in India, as in

272

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

North America, for a great instrument in the spread of civilization
and population on the jrreat rivers, it barely supplies the wants of
a small part of the teeniinii population. We say this is the true
(•ause, and not the natural difficulties; for if there were anytliiug-
lilce fair-play for steam enterprise, steamhoats would already be
])lyinj; in every deep reach of the Indian rivers, leavins;- the bars
and shallows for future treatment. The Ganfjes and the Indus, at
any rate, are not much worse off for navigation, if not indeed
much better, than many European and American rivers. There
is already a ^reat boat navigation, — and tlierefore there is ti'affic,
the great feeder of steam navigation.

AV^e must not, however, forget, as Mr. Bourne seems almost to
have done, that steam navigation is in progress on the Ganges, —
that improved boats ai-e introduced, and the time of transit very
much reduced. Tlie great complaint is, that more is not done,
and tliat no new company can have any assurance of facilities and
encouragement from the government. It must work its way alone,
as the other companies have done, — no great harm if left entirely
free.

Mr. Bourne gives some very interesting information as to the
condition of the Indian rivers, — partly from liis own researclies
among the geographical manuscripts in the India House, and
which, as here arranged, is most acceptable to the public.

There is hardly a considerable river in India, which is not, as
j\Ir. Bourne shows, capable of navigation; and the illustrations,
marked on his map of India, most powerfully demonstrate the
necessity and utility of steam navigation, which would supply
arterial communications throughout India. The Ganges is but
the beginning; and there is sufficient encouragement and justifica-
tion for an energetic government to give every aid for tlie exten-
sion of steam communication, for it would be eminently heneticia],
in a political, social, and financial point of view. We think it is
to be regretted the autlior has not included the Burrampooter
among his illustrations. The Assam Tea Company kept a steamer
upon it for some time.

Besides the main stream of the Ganges and Jumna, as far as
Dellii, some of the branches can be made available for navigation,
as the Gunduck, the Soane, the Gogra, tlie Goomty, the Upper
Ganges, and the Chumbul. The Chumbul can be navigated by
low-draft steamers past Gwalior to Kotah, during all seasons of
the year; and during the rains boats can get up to the foot of the
Vindhya mountains, near the north bank of the Nerbudda.

Upon the subject of the Ganges, we may observe the traffic is
great, and the rates remunerative, as is shown by Mr. Macdonald
Stephenson's Reports, the 'Practical and Theoretical Considera-
tions on the Management of Railways in India,' by Mr. Hyde
Clarke, and in the present work. It' is not, as on the western
rivers of North America, to create a traffic, but to profit by traffic
already existing. Steamers only are wanted We must however
observe, that the great traffic at present is goods traffic, the prices
for passenger traffic in the present depressed financial rates of
India being too high for the bulk of the population. This, how-
ever, is an evil which the progress of steam navigation will
remedy; and one great result of extended communication will be
a rise in prices and wages throughout India.

Of the Godavery, the account here given is long and interest-
ing; and the more so to English readers, as it appears extraordi-
nary how such a fine river can remain unnavigated tvhere English
rule prevails. In August 1810, the Secretary of the Madras go-
vernment proposed to put a steamer on it, to facilicate the trans-
port of troops; but the general and home governments have as yet
done nothing.

The Nerliudda account is likewise interesting, as showing the
want of precise information and of engineering enterprise in
India. Mr. Bourne says —

" The Nerbudda river, falling into the sea near Broach, to the north of
Bombay, constitutes the northern boundary of the I'Kccan.and runs through
a country which, though naturally productive, has been hut little opened to
comtuerce. The Tapty, wliich pursues a course parallel to that of the Ner-
budda, falls into the sea at Surat, nearer Bombay. The districts of Broach
and Surat are both known to furnish cotton of a superior quality ; and by
the ebtablisbnient of an efiicient system of navigation upon the rivers, the
production of cotton would be largely increased. The navigation of the
Nerbudda, however, is rendered diflicult by rocks and falls, which obstruct
the channel, and also by the strength of the current : but the magnitude of
these dilliculties appears to have been much exaggerated by loose and
groundless generalizations; and although the evidence upon the subject is
conflicting, it appears that the river could, at a small expense, be rendered
navigable from near Jidjbulpore to the sea — a diatanue of between 40U and
500 miles in a direct line — by boats of considerable burden. In a le(ter
from the Honourable Court of Directors of the East- India Company (Marine
Department), dated March 8, 1810, it is stated, 'Un referuuce to Capt.

Ouseley's report, we find it asserted that, with the exception of the Dahree
falls, there is no place from Bharagurha, near Jubbulpore, to the mouth
that might not be rendered passal)le for such boats as are now used, — 30 to
40 feet long, and S to 10 feet wide. All rapids could, with trifling expense,
he rendered navigable. Sir J. Malcolm cites Matthews' opinion in farour of
the same object between llernphal and Mokree; and we think that, whilst
the native surveyor's opinion remains substantially uncontradicted, it ought
to be further investigated.'

The Dahree falls are 40 feet high; and they could only he surmounted by
an inclined plane, or by locks. An inclined plane of timber would be an in-
expensive structure, as the finest teak timber grows in abundance upon the
river banks.

From the sea to 11 miles above TuUuckwarra, a distance of 110 miles,
there is no impediment to the navigation. There the Mokree falls, which
are 6 feet high, occur, but they can be avoided by a side channel. The
river, however, is obstructed by occasional roeks and rapids ; but, by an in-
considerable amount of blasting, these impediments could be speedily re-
moved. At the llernphal or Deer's Leap, the channel is contracted to a
width of 40 yards, and the current is very rapid. At the Sarsa Darah falls
there is a side channel available, by which the falls may be avoided. The
Dahree falls of 40 feet, and perhaps, also, the Mnndhar falls, of 10 feet high,
would have to be overcome by inclined planes, up which the vessels would
ascend, after the fashion of a patent slip, or in the manner followed on some
of the American canals.

It will be obvious from this recital that the Nerbudda presents difficulties
in the navigation, such as do not exist in the Godavery or the Ganges, arising
mainly from the rocky nature of its bed; but this very peculiarity makes the
Nerbudda an improveable river, inasmuch as any amelioration consequent
upon the removal of rucks, or the deepening or widening of the channel,
would be permanent and decisive. Of the importance of opening the Ner-
budda to navigation no doubt can exist; and the practicability of accom-
plishing the necessary improvements at a moderate expenditure appears,
from the reports of various engineer officers who have surveyed or sailed
down the river, to he equally certain. To what point a steamer of adequate
power could ascend the river in its present condition appears doubtful ; Ijut
the most judicious course would probably be for the steamer to ascend the
river as far as is practicable with safety, and for the obstructions to be
cleared away progresssively, from the mouth of the river upwards, the
steamer ascending higher every successive trip, in proportion as the obstruc-
tions were removed. The lower part of the Tapty is freer from impediments
than the lower part of the Nerbudda; and a steamer of the kind proposed
could ascend toTalneir, in longitude 75°, — the minimum depth of water up
to that point being 2 feet over the fords."

Of the availability of the Indus there can be no doubt, as during
the late wars steamers have got up as high as Laliore. Mr. Bourne
calculates upon an eflcctive velocity of ten miles an hour in getting
up the stream; but we are very strongly inclined to believe he has
rated the speed of his steamers too high.

For the supply of coal India has great advantages; whereas the
Mississippi steamers are obliged to be satisfied with wood, some-
times green. Our author says —

" The supply of coal for the steamers established upon the various rivers of
India forms an important part of the general question ; but the point is
fortunately one which is easily disposed of, as coal has been found near the
sources of the several rivers which it is proposed to navigate j and the
stations on the upper portions of the rivers can consequently be supplied
from local sources — the coal being floated down in the rains, and stored in
appropriate situations. At the mouths of the several rivers supplies of
English coal would be available; and it would be desirable to use English
coal as far as possible, since its quality is better ascertained than that of the
local deposits. The Burdwan coal sells in Calcutta for 21s. per ton ; but
the English coal is dearer, being seldom lower than 26*. or 2Ss. per ton.
For the supply of the stations on the upper parts of the Ganges and Jumna
the coal found in the vicinity of Hurdwar could be used, and the coal found
on the Soane, and other localities contiguous to the river, could also be used
for the intermediate stations. For the upper stations of the Godavery and
the Wurdah river the coal-fields of Beitool and Seuni could be rendered
available; and on the Nerbudda, near Hossungabad, and also near Jubbul-
pore, coal of excellent quality is abundantly found. In the range of hills,
denominated the *' Salt Range," stretching across the Punjaub from Attock
toward Seharunpore, coal, it is said, is abundantly found ; and these deposits
would, in all probability, be available for the supply of steamers on the
several rivers of the Punjaub. In Cutch also, near the mouth of the Indus,
coal has been discovered; but it would be preferable, in the outset at least,
to use English coal for the purpose of asccndincj the rivers, although the
coal procured from native sources were used during the descent. The lower
parts of the several rivers having in general a slow current and the aid nf
ascending tides, offer but few difficulties to the ascent of coal-boats for a
moderate distance, by tracking or by sails; so that the whole of the lower
stations upon the several rivers could be supplied with English coal at a
moderate rate of charge, while the upper stations, to which access from the
sea is difficult, would be supplied from local sources, which the researches of
the Coal Coinuiittee at Calcutta show to be available in the several localities
of which mention has been made."

A supplement gives the authorities on which the text of Mr.

IS+Q.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

273

Bourne is founded, as to the capabilities of the Indian rivers; and
they will be perused with interest, as showing the labour he has
taken in the investigation of his subject. A postscript likewise
proposes an English colony in Cashmere; an undertaking which
will not be carried out by the government — but why not ?

Mr. Bourne's plan is thus stated : —

" Since my return to England I have proceeded to mature the conception
which suggested itself to me upon the spot ; ami I find, that whereas the most
suitable of the present Ganges boats carry only a cargo of about 60 tons
upon a draft of about 3 feet of water, and realise a speed of only 6 or 7
miles an hour, while they are unable to surmount or get off banks in the
river by any prompt or effectual process, it is practicable to construct a ves-
sel under other arrangements which shall carry 230 tons of cargo upon 12
inches draft of water, with a speed of 15 miles an hour, and which at
the same time shall be capable of running over the shoals on appropriate
wheels provided for that purpose. Messrs. Boulton and Watt's letter, offer-
ing to construct a vessel upon this plan which shall realise all my anticipa-
tions, is appended hereto."

Upon this we may observe, that Mr. Bourne has not explained
his boats and engines; and we have nothing on which to judge of
their capabilities, but his simple assertion and the letter of Messrs.
Boulton and Watt, which does not enable us to form an opinion:
but this does not affect the gist of the pamphlet, which is the
practicability of steam navigation on the Indian rivers, — about
which there can be no doubt.

As to the company for working the plan, in case the government
does not take it up — which it is to be hoped they will not, as they
will spoil it — Mr. Bourne says, —

" There would not be much difiiculty, I imagine, in the successful institution
of an efficient Company for carrying forward inland Steam Navigation in
India, provided the government granted it a charter for the exclusive use of
the improved vessels in India for a specified term, and agreed to surrender
to it, at a valuation, the government steamers upon the Ganges, with the
business attaching thereto."

We consider this claiming rather too much, for we cannot con-
ceive what specific right Mr. Bourne's company could have to get
the business of the government steamers. There are two compa-
nies on the Ganges, which have done much good, and who would
have the natural title to a pre-emption of the government busi-
ness. Mr. Bourne has omitted, too, that these companies have
called on the government to give up all interference in the com-
merce of the Ganges, as it virtually promised to do on the intro-
duction of steam navigation on that river. Nothing could be more
unfair than to perpetuate the government competition, which
would be the effect of Mr. Bourne's proposition. Indeed, from
the way in which he has mentioned it, and from the general tenour
of the pamphlet, which, although it alludes to, does not describe
the steamboat enterprise of the Ganges, the English public might
think there was no commercial steam navigation on the Ganges,
and that a new company can start without rivalry. A little care
in the future editions will set this matter straight.

Illustrations of the New Palace of Westminster. First Series, 4to.
Loudon: Warrington and Son. 1819.

After some stoppage, this work is now brought to a close at its
Sixth Part, and as much of it as has appeared may be bound up as
the First Series, — which '■first" is almost of assured certainty the
"last" also, there being barely enough to form a volume, and very
little indeed of Mr. Barry's edifice has as yet been illustrated.
That the work has failed as a speculation there can be no doubt,
for, contrary to what was reasonably enough to he expected, it
has excited no interest. Its ill-success may be attributed partly
to its not being placed in the hands of a regular publisher, and
partly to injudicious management as regards the work itself, which
seems to have been undertaken without any sort of foresight or
forethought. System in it there is none whatever, nor is so much
as any one portion of the building shown so as to he suflSciently
intelligible; while, owing to a singularly perverse choice of sub-
jects, very much less is shown than might have been in the same
number of plates, for no fewer than five out of the seventeen, or
nearly one-third of them, are devoted to one and the same subject
— namely, the Victoria Porch, of which we have, first, an external
elevation on its west side, then an interior view, which lets us see
little more than a repetition of what was previously seen through
the open arch of the exterior; then, again, a second interior of
the north side of the porch, which is very little more than a repe-
tition of the other, they being perfectly alike as to general com-
position and design, and without other difference than what arises

from the carriage entrance into the Royal Court in the one, and
the door forming the Royal Entrance in the other. At all events,
by taking the view in a somewhat diagonal direction, both sides
might have been shown in the same plate just as well, or even
better, inasmuch as the combination would have been more picto-
rial. Besides having two plates where one would have sufficed,
there are two others inflicted upon the purchasers that might very
well have been spared, for although they reckon as subjects, they
are in a manner merely duplicate ones, since they represent no
more than some of the figures in the niches over the afore-men-
tioned entrances, — therefore afford no further information with
regard to the structure itself, as might have been done by giving
two plates of architectural details of the Royal Porch. Had those
figures any particular merit, there would have been something like
reason for occupying two plates by exhibiting them separately;
but either they are greatly libelled by incorrect drawing and very
insipid engraving, or they are in themselves exceedingly so-so
performances, — such, perhaps, ;'.s may pass well enough as mere
architectural embellishment and fiUing-up, hut utterly unworthy
as works of art. Poor St. George seems to have been modelled
from a coalheaver, dressed-up for the occasion, and who felt him-
self particularly awkward in his unwonted toggery.

Great promise-makers are generally great promise-breakers ;
and such is the case here, for performance has fallen very far
short indeed of what was at first promised. The Introduction
said — and what is an awkward circumstance, still says — "It is pro-
posed not only to give copious illustrations and embellishments,
but to omit no descripticm, historical or architectural, which may
be interesting or useful." Nevertheless, in flat contradiction to
such declaration, illustration is so far from being copious, as to be,
on the contrary, exceedingly scanty and defective. First, as re-
gards the plan of the edifice, no information whatever is afforded
— not even so much as by verbal description — relative to any other
floor than the principal one; whereas, in a work professing to ex-
plain fully (or copiously) so very complicated a structure, there
ought most assuredly to have been a plan of each floor; and not
only that, but also one or two special detailed ])lans, on a larger
scale, of some of the more important parts of the principal floor
itself, — such, for instance, as the Peers' Lobby and the House of
Peers, and its side corridors, — of the Royal Entrance, Staircase,
and Gallery, — and so on.

In the next place, notwithstanding the promise of "copious il-
lustration," there is not a single section through any part of the
building, although a dozen drawings of the kind would have been
barely sufficient. Shall we then say that they have been omitted as
coming under the category of neither "useful" nor "interesting"?
— or are they reserved as delicacies that are kept back for tlie next
course or Series — what we have already got being intended merely
as a sort of "stay-stomach" and whet to our appetites? A sfay-
stomach it ought to be, for we shall have to stay a good while
before the next Series is served up.

The old proverb about the devil and cooks holds good here, and
is here fully exemplified, for the meat furnished by Mi'. Barry —
that is, the New Palace of Westminster — has been awfully badly
cooked, and served-up very slovenly; no doubt to his great morti-
fication, unless he be gifted with more philosophy than we our-
selves could exercise in a similar case. A publication of tho
kind, it may very naturally be presumed, is not intended exclu-
sively for home consumption; yet what must foreign architects
think of Mr. Barry's edifice as it is here shown? It must surely
strike them that it shows very little in proportion to its enormous
cost. The publishers seem to have set about the work very in-
considerately— without the least sort of properly-devised scheme
for it. ^Vhether it was to be divided into separate series or not,
and whether the Illustrations were to he copious or otherwise,
methodical arrangement and sequence ought to have been observed
for them. The edifice should first have been described structurally
by plans, elevations, and sections, so as to convey, if not exactly a
complete, a tolerably clear conception of it as a whole; then, moi e
in detail, by drawings of some of the principal features, and ar-
chitectural and sculptural ornaments on a larger scale. Sucli
indispensable technical illustration being gone through, that might
properly enough have been made to form a distinct series; leaving
pictorial illustration, or perspective views of different parts of tho
exterior and interior, for another series : or even did no such se-
cond one ever appear, what had been given would still have been
complete and satisfactory in itself. Now, on the contrary, even
supposing it should be carried on any further, the %vork will always
be a confused jumble of subjects. One reason for our fancying that
it is stopped altogether is, that had not such been the case, the
publishers would have cautioned their subscribers not to bind up

3Q

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

QSeftembeb,

tliis First Series unti) tlie whole had been completed, in order that
tlie pliites niifiht he ultimately arranged in proper sequence.

Another very serious defect, to whicli we have not yet adverted,
is tliat there is no greneral architectural description of Mr. Barry's
edifice — not so mudi as any attempt at one ; and tlie particular
descri|)tions accompanying the plates are for the most part so
exceedinifly meagre, that they explain nothing, and amount to
just nothing; which, if not mortifying to the architect himself, is
assuredly highly unsatisfactory to architectural readers.

PUBLIC AND SCIENTIFIC MBItABIES.

1. De la Nfcessit': de crcer des Bihiiotheques Scientifiques-Industriellcs.
Par M. Mathias. Paris: 1818.

2. The Sritixh Museum and the Nntionul GalJery. By James Feb-
GussoN, Architect. London: VV^eale, 1849.

On a late visit to Paris, M. Mathias, the eminent engineering
puhlisher, put into our hands a small work of his on special libra-
ries for the mechanical classes of France; and it has therefore
seemed to us a good occasion to resume our remarks on the want
of libraries in England. The circumstances of France and Eng-
land are very different, though each labours under great wants.
In France, each town of the standing of what would be called a
borough-town here, has a free public library — sometimes very con-
siderable for the unimportance of the town. This library, made
up from the spoils of suppressed convents, colleges, and castles,
contains works more antiquated than modern, and which, however
valuable to the student of philosophy or humanity, has little or
nothing useful to the practical man. New books, where grants
are made for such, are as commonly works of amusement as of
information, but very rarely technical. In England, these town
libraries are wanting; but the greater wealth of the population
and the spirit of association supply other resources, for there is
hardly a small town without its literary or mech.anics' institution,
and perhaps with both. These libraries are much smaller than in
France, much less useful to the scholar, but much more available
for the instruction of the working classes, as they contain many
late and practical works. The establishment of a philosophical
class, with a special library, has a tendency to increase the number
of practical works. The price of admission to these institutions,
rarely above a jiound a-year, and sometimes as low as sixpence or
a shilling a-quarter, places them within the means of the indus-
trious classes. Some institutions, with subscriptions of a shilling
a-quarter, have four or five thousand volumes. The libraries be-
longing to churches, cha]iels, schools, book clubs, and agricultural
societies, extend the literary resources of the population; while
the number of small private libraries is great, and embraces most
members of the working classes. The poor women who work at
brusli-making have their book as they sit at work.

In our larger towns are to be found the special libraries of
various societies; and there are likewise the larger collections of
the wealthy students of particular arts. On the whole, we believe
the library accommodation of England to be more available to the
body of the population than is tbe case in France; but the provi-
sion for literary purposes is less, and there is not that completeness
or extension of lilirary accommodation which is to be desired.
Above all, we consider special mechanical libraries are deficient.

Although it is perfectly true the price of subscription is low,
still it is an undesirable deduction from the resources of those who
are provident, and it deters the less energetic from beginning and
prosecuting a course of study. Sometimes it happens an indus-
trious man is thrown out of work: then is the time when he can
read more, but when he is obliged to give up his subscription.
Sometimes he may wish to refer to works in another library in the
town, but can only afford one subscription. It is true it is held by
some that nothing is valued unless it is paid for — a doctrine the
career of the public museums fully denies; but it is further question-
able whether it is sound policy to place any restraint on the means
of instruction, and even a subscription of four shillings a-year
may be that restraint to the apprentice, or distressed workman.

On every ground it is desirable to have free public libraries, and
it is much less diHicult to create them than is imagined. Indeed,
if is the want of facilities on the part of the law which prevents
them from being formed. All the resources are available, if they
can but be made use of. As it is now, the libraries of institutions
are precarious in their duration : an institution decays — it is
abandoned, and its library, the accumulation of years, is dispersed.

There wants, first, a power of mortmain for books devoted to

public uses: once so devoted, they should never be allowed to re-
lapse to private use; and by a provision for that end,' a constant
accumulation of literary stores would be ensured. There should,
therefore, be every facility for the establishment of inalienable
public libraries. It might be desiral>le to give the privilege of in-
alienability to existing institutional libraries, in consideration of
their giving limited facilities of admission for free- reading stu-
dents. Thus, the library of the City of London Institution, with
its ten thousand volumes, or of the London Mechanics' Institution,
miglit be made inalienaljle on their admitting the public into a
reading-room between the hours of twelve and four: such readers
not being allowed books purchased within two years. This would
not interfere with the privileges of subscribers, but would be a
boon to many of the public, and would extend library accommoda-
tion.

There are many who would freely give or bequeath books to
libraries, if they had but this guarantee of inalienability; and we
feel assured, that were a legal provision made, no market-town
would be long without its public library.

After books, the next thing is a room in which to hold them;
and there is no parish which cannot give them housing, either in a
town-hall, school, workhouse, or vestry-room; to which the public
could have access the greater part of the day or evening, the
room being only occasionally required for the discharge of other
business.

The shelves and other fittings would be given by the tradesmen
and mechanics of the town, who would not be behiiidhand in
doing their share of a common deed. Such a work once set going,
all would bear a hand,— some would give books, some labour, some
materials, some money.

A further step is a catalogue; and this could very well be made
by the willing labour of the young men.

A librarian comes next. If such officer were chosen by the
town council, vestry, or inhabitants, his salary would not be
grudged; but for a small evening library, the work might be done
by some of tbe readers in turn.

A subscription might be charged for the privilege of taking
books out of the library; or the privilege should be made a con-
dition of serving in turn, for a limited time, as librarian, secretary,
or catalogue-maker.

Thus, by a simple organization, free public libraries may be es-
tablished throughout the country; and a very short act of parlia-
ment suffices. A plan of this kind was put into the hands of Mr.
VV'yld, M.P., and by him brought before the tlommittee on Public
Libraries in the last session; but the consideration of it was got rid
of by Mr. Ewart, tbe chairman of the committee, who did not
seem to wish any independent memljer should have the chance of
investigating the question of public libraries. It is to be hoped
Mr. ^Vyld, Mr. Hamilton, or some other member, will bring in a
bill for public libraries next session.

So far as to general public libraries. Like remarks will apply
to special public libraries. In many towns there are medical libra-
ries or book clubs, but no provision for their inalienability. In all
towns there should be such a library, for it is desirable even the
youngest and poorest practitioner should have access to the latest
discoveries in medicine, and the best information. Medical periodi-
cals do much for tlie spread of knowledge, as is^hownbythe rapid
extension of the use of ether, chloroform, glycerine, and the Fallo-
pian process. Periodicals, however, and other standiird books, must
be put within the reach of all; and if acknowledged public medical
libraries were set up, many besides medical men would be the con-
tributors to them, for all have as deep an interest in tbe preserva-
tion of health and life. In a large town, the library could be kept
in the hospital, by the house surgeon; in a small town, in the union
workhouse, under the care of the master.

There are likewise law libraries in some towns, — so should there
be in all; and no attorney or magistrate would decline to subscribe
if he had full assurance of the perpetual preservation of such an
establishment. A good collection of reports year after year is of
the greatest value to the lawyer.

These two are libraries which must be of general extension; but
special libraries suited to the mechanics and workmen of each town
will vary. The Potteries ought surely to have a library of English
and foreign works on the objects of their manufacture. Birming-
ham, Wolverhampton, and Walsall, want books on machinery.
All manufacturing towns, moreover, want books giving them in-
formation as to the exertions of their foreign rivals, and as to the
state of the markets throughout tbe world. Indeed, hardly any
measure better adapted for the promotion of our trade could be
devised than the establishment of special libraries. In large towns
they might be devoted to particular trades. Thus the Clock-

[1819.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

273

makers' Company of London have a fine library of English and
foreign books on clock and watch making.

Wherever common schools, or schools of design, hospitals, or
literary institutions, have been set up, a large amount of public
support has been given to them; and there can lie no doubt that
libraries would share in English liberality and munificence. Let
the example be set, and we shall not want a Soane, a Vernon,
a Grenville, or a Hope.

To return to France, IM. Mathias is urging, and we hope with
success, the adoption of his suggestions as a means of promoting
the interests of our rivals in trade; and it behoves us to take
similar measures. At present, Paris does not seem so well pro\'ided
as London. M. Mathias cites three special scientific libraries.
That of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers is, he says, tlie only
one which has practical works suited to mechanics. It is open
free — but with a degree of illiberality which is it seems not pecu-
liar to England — in the day time only, so that the working classes
have not full facilities. The library of the Societe d'Encourage-
raent pour I'lndustrie Nationale is a subscription library, like that
of our Society of Arts. The collection is a good one. He names,
further, as a special library, that of the Royal Society of Agricul-
ture, but omits the medical libraries.

In London, we can easily number the following: — The library of
the Society of Arts, that of tlie Institution of Civil Engineers, of
the Institute of British Architects, of the United Service Institu-
tion, of the Clockmakers' Company ; besides those of Sir John
Soane, the Royal Agricultural Society, the College of Chemistry,
the Chemical Society, and those of the Colleges, and of the
Literary and Mechanics' Institutions. The Royal, tlie London, the
City of London, the London Mechanics', the Westminster, the
Western, and the City of London Mechanics' Institutions, have,
among others, considerable collections of books suitable to prac-
tical men.

We cannot, however, speak of libraries in London without
thinking of one of the national blots — the British Museum, which
is a libel on this great industrial nation. Since Mr. Fergusson's
expose, there is no excuse for the non-execution of a catalogue,
and the non-provision of an evening reading-room. A supply of
useful English and foreign boolcs suitable to practical men we shall
be content to wait for, as we have little hope of seeing the library
complete in those respects. We can only bear testimony from our
own experience, and the inconvenience to which we have been sub-
jected in attempting to get information for this Jonrnid, as to the
incompleteness of the libraiy as a national library in essential
books on engineering, architecture, and the allied subjects. We
can speak quite as strongly as Mr. Fergusson on this head. AVe
must be content, too, to wait for some more liberal ordeal than the
caprice of Sir Henry Ellis for the admission of respectable men
into the Museum library. We know of many gross cases of the
refusal of competent parties.

M. Mathias, as an earnest of the practicability of his sug-
gestions, has appended to liis work a priced catalogue of a select
special library, classified under eacli head. This catalogue will be
found very useful to those of our readers who may wish to obtain
the latest French work under each head. The estimate of M.
Mathias for an adequate scientific industrial library, is 1.3+0/., in-
cluding 1,035 distinct works, and 3,165 volumes, of which, two-
thirds are in octavo. A larger library for 1,600/. would include
some of the old works. He proposes for a town of 100,000 people,
a library of 850 volumes, costing 760/.; and so he gives estimates
for each class of library.

We do not expect the government to give money, but we do
urge that no time should be lost in giving legislative facilities
for the establishment of inalienable public libraries; so that the
liberality of individuals and corporations, of masters and work-
men, may have free scope for its exercise.

Rules and Regulations of the Architectural Lending Library, 22,
Brompton Crescent, Brompton. Established 1819. Librarian,
J. Matthias Dodd, Architect.

aiuch as we are disposed to favour the scheme, a library of the
kind being at present a great desideratum, we cannot refrain from
remarking that the locality chosen for it almost cuts oif all reason-
able hope of success. The exceedingly great inconvenience at-
tending the situation must, we think, strike every one; for, in
fact, the situation is such, that it does not give the'experiment at
all a fair chance, so that should — as is intimated — tlie Library be
closed at the end of a twelvemonth for want of a sufficient number
of subscribers, the failure of the undertaking will be attributed to

there being very little disposition on the part of the profession
and students to support an establishment of the sort; whereas, it
will be more likely to have been occasioned by the difl5culties
thrown in the way of their making use of it.

Not only should the establishment be within town, and in some
tolerably central situation, but the Library itself should be more
than a repository for the books, it being highly desirable that there
should be adequate accommodation for consulting them on the
spot. It would frequently happen that a person wanted merely
to refer to a single subject or so, in a large work of engravings; or
else, if, as very likely, unacquainted with a work, want to look
it over before borrowing it, in order to ascertain wliether it would
be worth his while to have it sent him. The mere carriage of
large folios backward and forward will, in the course of a year,
make a considerable addition to the subscription money; where-
fore it would be particularly unsatisfactory to subscribers to find
themselves quite disappointed in a book of the kind, after they
had ordered it from the Library merely in consequence of the pro-
mise made bv its title. ^Ve fear, therefore, that owing to his not
having provided the requisite facilities for his Library being made
use of, the proprietor has engiiged in a scheme whose success,
though possible, is by no means probable, wliile its failure is likely
to prevent any other attempt of the kind being made,— at least,
for a long while to come.

LAW OF PATENTS.

From the Report of the Committee, on the Signet and Privy Seal
Offices, appointed by the Lords of the Treasury to inquire into the
circumstances connected with the offices of the Clerks of the Signet and
of the Lord Privy Seal.

Patents of Invention.— The Treasury Minute constituting our
committee directs our attention only to the practice of the Signet
and Privy Seal Offices. But in considering the subject of passing
letters patent through those offices, it was very difficult, if not
impossible, to exclude altogether from consideration the other
stages tlirough which they had to pass, inasmuch as the several
successive stages are intimately connected with each other, and
form links in a continuous chain; and in deciding upon the ex-
pediency of reforming any office, whose functions are connected
with those of other offices, it is necessary to see what the functions
of those offices are before any decision can be safely made. In the
evidence, therefore, annexed to this Report, it will be found that
we have extended our inquiry into the general process of passing
patents of invention, and though we do not desire to exceed the
limits of the duty with which we are intrusted, we think it right
to oft'er some general observations on the subject.

Origin and Nature.— U is impossible to ascertain with certainty
when grants of letters patent for the sole use of inventions were
first made in this country, but there is reason to believe that this
prerogative of the crown is very ancient. The crown derives this
prerogative from the common law, and not from any statute. It
is vested in tlie crown as the depository of the supreme executive
power of the state, to be exercised on the behalf and for the
benefit of the pulilic. No statute is to be found relating to grants
for the sole use of inventions prior to the statute of 21 Jas. I. c. R,
called the Statute of Monopolies. That statute was passed for the
purpose of restraining the crown from making extravagant and
illegal grants of monopolies. It declared all monopolies whatso-
ever to be contrary to law and void, excepting "letters patent and
grants of privilege of the sole working or making of any new
manufacture to the first inventor thereof." The only other public
acts relating generally to patents are the 5 and 6 AVill. IV. c. 83,
2 and 3 Vic. c. 67, and 7 and 8 Vic. c. 69, which provide remedies
for deficiencies in the old law.

Mode of Granting.— The grants of the crown must be made by
charters or letters patent under the Great Seal; and the command
given to the lord chancellor to make a patent for an invention is
always by means of a writ, or bill, sealed with the privy seal,
because the Queen cannot herself make her letters patent except
by means of her ministers, who act according to her legal commands,
and therefore when the patent is written, the words by " AV rit ot
Privy Seal" are inscribed, to show by what authority the lord
chancellor seals the grant.

The present practice in regard to the granting of patents for
inventions is, that in the first instance, a petition to the Queen is
left at the office of the secretary of state for the home department.
Tlie secretary of state refers that petition to the attorney or

36*

27rt

TIIK CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

Kiilicitnr-penpra] to consider and report thereon, in order tliat tljc
cnmii in:iy ''<■ advised res[iortin>; the lefjality <>f tlie fjraiit soiiffht
I'or, and the expedienry "' firaiitiiif; it. Upon the petition heinf; left
at tlie rhainliers of the attorney or solieitor-treneral, tlie title of the
invention inserted in the petition is roiripared with tlie descriptions
whirh are ecnitained in all tin? snlisistinff caveats in the ollice. If
the invention he not ad'ected hy any of those caveats, the patent
is allowed to proceed; hut if the title appears to relate to an in-
vention whieli comes within the freneral description contained in
any of the caveats, notice of the petition is sent to each party who
has entered sncli a caveat.

A caveat af;ainst a jiatent is, in substance, a request in writin/j;
that a patent for a specilied purpose he not (^ranted without notice
to the party who enters the caveat. Caveats may he entered at
the chamhers of the attorney or solicitor-peneral, at the Patent
Hill Oflii'e, iit the Si{,^net Office, at the I'rivy Seal Office, and at the
Patent Office of the Oreat Seal.

'i'he followinfT are the |)roceedin(fs on a caveat before the attor-
nev or solicit(n'-j,a>neral at the report, or first stafje: —

riie parties to whom noli(^e has been sent are allowed seven
days, within which they must enter their opposition, if they
intend to oppose the patent. If ini oppositi(ni take place within
that time, the patent proceeds, as ol course. If the jiatent be
iluly opjiosed, the proceedinffs are arrestcil, ami the applicant for
the patent nnist obtain an appointment for a hearing before the
attorm'y or solicitor-general, and a summons is served upon the
opposing ))arty.

After liearing the parties separately, if the attorney or solicitor-
freneral he of opinion that the t^ueen (night to he advised to grant
tin? prayer ol' the pelitiini, he rejiorts in favcnir of the (letitioner,
and the report is left at the llome Office in <u-der to obtain the
t,|iiei'n's warrant. If the opposition be successful, no report is
made, and the application drops.

'I'he Queen's warrant cinitaiiis her Majesty's authority to the at-
torney or solicitor-general to jirepare a bill fin- tlit- intended p.-itent.
\Vhen completed, it is taken to the Patent Hill Office, which is an
olhce of the attorney and solicitm'-general, where all bills for
patents to ]iass the (ireat Seal are prejiared. Upon the receipt
of a warrant for a hill, the engrossing clerk will prei).ire the hill
as a matter of course, according to the established form, if no
caveat have been entered against it in that office.

Any person may oppose a patent at this stage, whether he have
opposed at the previous stage or not; but as a necessary pre-
liminary, he is required to de|)0sit the sum of .'{(•/. as a security for
the costs, which his m-glect to o)q)ose earlier causes the a|i]ilicant
for a patent to incur. The hearing at this stage is conducted in
precisely the same ni;niner as at the report. If the (([ijiosition be
successful, all further proceedings are stayed; if not, the bill is
jiassed and siihuiitted to the Queeti for signature.

'i'he bill, thus completed, is the Queen's Hill, and is passed to
the Signet Ollice, where it is filed, as the warrant to the clerk of
the signet for issuing the Signet JJill to the Lord Privy Seal.

The Signet ISill is in like manner filed at the Privy Seal Office,
as till! lord privy seal's w/irrant for bis proceedings. 'riiougli
laveats may be entered both at the Sigiu't and I'rivy Seal Offices,
oppiisitiini is now never nnide at either of these stages of a patent.
Friday is the only public sealing day at the Privy Seal Office; but
a hill may be sealed, at a private seal, or any other day on pay-
ment of an additional fee of 21.

After the delivery of the Privy Seal Bill, the proceedings for
obtaining a jpatent take ]>lace on tlie comnuni law side of the ('ourt
of Chancery, where there are several officers whose duty it is to
prepare, seal, and enrol, letters ]iatent.

'I'he grant of a jiatent may be again opposed before the lord
chancellor. In that case the applicant for the patent nnist prejiare
a petition stating all the facts and procee<lings, and ])raying that
letters patent may be niadi? and sealed in pursuance of tiie writ of
l'ri\y Seal. The material allegations of this jietition must be sup-
ported by affidavit, to be sworn before a master in chancery, and
I lie petitioner's o|i))onent nuist be served with a cojiy of the
lietition and of the lord chancellor's answer to it. Upon .•ipi)lication
lor that imrjiose, a day is fixed for a hearing befin-e the lord chan-
cellin-, who generally refers the matters of the petition and iqipo-
silion to the attorney or solicitor-general for a speiual report.
The jiarljes are then again heard by the attorney or solicitor-
general upon this reference, and if they are satisfied with liis
report, the li rd chancellor makes an order in accordam'e there-
with. But if either party be dissatisfied with the report, be nnist
prepare a petition to the lord chancellor stating his exceptimis to
the rejiort, and the lord chancellor will then, after again hearing
the jiartios, dispose of the jietitions as he may tiiink just.

If a Jiatent be not o]iposed at the Patent Office of the Great
Seal, it is sealed in jiursuance of the writ of Privy Seal. If the
patent be o])posed and the lord chancellor decides on granting it,
it will be sealed as soon as bis bndship's order for the ))ur]iose has
been drawn np. A recepi is first written in the margin of the
I'ri\y Seal Bill, stating the day when the lord cbancelhn- received
the bill. The clerk of the i)atents then engrosses the patent,
cojiying it verbatim from the i'rivy Seal Bill. He also |irej)ares a
docket for the lord chancellor's signature, containing the name of
the party to whom the jiatent is granted, tlie title of the invention,
the extent and duration of the grant, the time allowed for specifi-
cation, and the date of the grant. The recepi and docket are
signed by the lord chancellor; the latter instrument being the
warrant to the sigillator or sealer, who affixes the (ireat Seal to
the ]iatent after satisfying himself that it corrcsjionds with the
docket. The jiatent having been sealed, all the documents are
taken back to the Patent Oliice, where the patent is put into a
box and delivered to the patentee.

Kvery patent for a new invention contains a proviso that the
patentee sh.ill describe his iinention by an instrinnent in writing,
under his hand and seal, termed a specification, and this specifica-
timi nnist be enrolled in cham:ery within a given time after the
date of the jjatent. In default of which the patent heciunes void.

Up to the 1st of January last there were three offices in which
specifi<:ations might be enndled, viz.: — The Enrolment OtBce, the
Petty Bag Office, and the Rolls ( hapel Office.

The patents themselves, together with the Privy Seal Bills and
dockets, are enrolled at the Kiindment Office, where the rolls are
kejit for two years and then sent to the Petty Bag Office, whence,
after the lapse of a certain number of years, the Patent Rolls and
Privy Seal IJills are finally sent to the Rolls Chapel.

By an act passed in tlie last session of parlianu'nt, 11 and 12
Vic. c. 9t, it is enacted, that from and after the 1st of January,
IHtO, all sjiecifications shall be enrolled in the Enrolment Office.
Since that period, therefore, the necessity for enrolling specifica-
tions in the other two offices no longer exists.

Iimi)itmciiilatio)is rcx/icctiiig I'dloits nf Invention. — After consider-
ing the evidence, we have come to the conclusion that the number
of successive stages through which (as will be seen from the fore-
going detail), a patent for a new invention must jiass before its
final completion, is prodiicti\e of great trouble, delay, and expense
to the party seeking the grant, without any corresjionding benefit
to the iiuhlic. The fullest dpportunity should, no doubt, be af-
forded to all persons w hose interests may be aft'ecte<l by the grant
of an exclusive privilege to nniiiufacture some particular article,
to show that good grounds exist why the privilege should not be
granted U> the party applying for a ])atent.

The object of granting a patent for an invention is, not merely
to secure to an invent<u- the fair reward of his labour and inge-
nuity, but also to benefit the jiublic by encouraging such inven-
tions, and it is essential that the crown should have some tribunal
to refer to for advice before making such grants. With these
objects in view, it has not ajipeared to us that any better course
can be devised than a reference to the attorney or solicitor-general,
to inquire into the merits of the circumstances set forth in the
l>etiti(Mi, and rejiort thereon to the crown.

The iiHiuiry would ajipear for the most part, to involve con-
siderations rather of a legal than of a scientific nature. But
should (juestions arise, on an ojqiosed jietition, where a more than
ordinary familiarity with scientific subjects might seem requisite
An' the due cinn]neliensi(ni of the matter under investigatimi, the
attorney or soliiutor-general would always have the power, which
they now jiossess and exercise, of calling in sonic man of pr.ictical
science, nm'oiinected with the parties before him, and unprejudiced
in the matter in dispute, to aid him in coming to a just decision.
W'c think, however, that amjile oiiportunity having been given for
making o|ipositi<ni at this stage of the proceedings, no adequate
advantage is derived from a second opposition at the Patent Bill
Office. It seems, nuireover, that oppositions at that stage are of
unfrequent occurrence. If this <qiiiiion should he adopted, .and
the jiroceedings of the Patent Bill Office be dispensed with, we
would then reconiniend that some public notice, by advertisement
in the (liizrttc or otherwise, should he given that a ]iatent for a
particular object has been applied for, not naming the ajijilicant, or
giving nmre than a very general description of the (diject of the in-
\'entioii; and that a suiricieut nuniher of days should be allowed from
the date of the ad\ertisenieiit before ]iroceeding with the petition,
in order that a fair opportunity for oppositiiin may be aft'orded to
j)arties desirous of o])p(isiiig the grant simgbt for.

We would also recommend that an outline description, such as
ia now required to be deposited with the attorney or solicitor-

IS to.]

THE CIVIL EXGINEER ANP ARCrHTECT'S JOUUNAL.

277

ffener.il in cases of opposed patents, should be required to bo
lodged, under seal, with every petition on its first presentation
at the Home Office. It is not proposed that this outline descrip-
tion or specification should supersede the specification now required
to be enrolled in chancery, nor that it should be required to enter
into the details of the invention; but that it should be considered
binding as to the principles of it.

WUh these provisos we are of opinion th;it a patent when
p-anted might take its d.ate from the day on which the petition is
presented; instead of, as at present, from the day on which the
patent is sealed.

We would further suggest for consideration, whether, after the
report of the attorney or solicitor-general recommending the grant
of the patent, a Queen's Bill, carrying the recommendation into
eifect, might not be prepared at the Home Office, and submitted by
the secretary of state for her Majesty's signature. We see no
reason why it should be engrossed on parchment; we think, on the
contrary, it would be far more convenient if it were pi ipared after
the manner of an ordinary sign mainial warrant.

We are of opinion that the Queen's Bill,. when duly signed,
should be passed at oiu'e to the lord privy seal, withcuit the inter-
vention of the Signet Office; that the Privy Seal should be affixed
to that instrument upon the authority of an instruction to that
effect from the secretary of state; and that the two transcripts
prepared in the Patent Bill Office, which now form the Signet and
Privy Seal Bills, should be dispensed with.

V\ e, at the same time, recommend that the public seal days, in
tlie Privy Seal Office should be extended to two days in the week.

If the proceedings in the Patent Bill Office and in the Signet
Office be entirely dispensed with, the fees now payable at those
offices must of course cease to be levied. It becomes, therefore,
necessary to revise the charges to whiidi letters patent are liable in
passing through their several stages previously to their arrival at
the (ireat Seal.

In the case of patents for inventions, the confining the opposi-
tion before the attorney and solicitin-gcneral to oiu; stage only,
will probably render necessary a more rigid investigation at that
stage than is required under the present system, and will throw
increased responsibility upon the rejiorts of those officers. W'e
consider that, under these circumstances, the attorney ami solicitor-
general would have a fair claim to a higher fee for the single hearing
and report than is allowed them at present. We recommend,
therefore, that one fee of 10 guineas should be allowed to the at-
torney or solicitor-general for the hearing and rei)ort together
(including the fees to their clerks), instead of the separate fees
they now receive, amounting to 3/. is. for the hearing, and il. U.
for the rejjort.

We further recommend that, in lieu of requiring successive pay-
ments of fees and stamp duties at the several pul)lic offices, a
stamp should be affixed to the Queen's Bill in the department
in which it is prepared. In the case of patents of ap|)(iintment to
office, the amount of this stamp might be a small per centage on
the salary of the office. In the case of patents for inventions, wo
would recommend a stamp of uniform value, witliout reference to
the nundjer of names included in the grant. Shouhl it be de-
termined to extend the power of gr.inting ])atents under the (ireat
Seal of the United Kingdom to Ireland and Scotland, we are dis-
posed to reconnnend that, for a j)atent extending over the United
Kingdom, the Channel Islands, and the colonies, a stamp of fifty
pounds should be re({uired.

But, if it should be thought inexpedient to debar inventors from
taking out patents for England alone, in that case we reconnnend
that a stamp of thirty ])ounds should be imposed on patents for
England, with the C'hainiel Islands and colonies; with an addition
of twenty pounds for Scotland and Ireland, or of ten poumis for
either Scotland or Ireland separately. We are inclined to believe
that such an arrangement would afford satisfaction to patentees,
and would, at the same time, compensate the revenue for the loss
which it would sustain by the adoption of the courso we have
recommended. We do not feel ourselves authorised to nuike any
suggestions in regard to the proceedings before the lord chaticellor.
We have, however, had our attention called to the subject of the
specifications and their mode of enrolment, which is intended to be
for the information of the public.

It is of great importance to a pai-ty applying to take out a
patent for an invention, to ascertain what patents in relation to
the same object have been previously taken out; otherwise, after
he has incurred considerable expense in perfecting his inventitni
and obtaining a grant, some previous patent may be discovered
which may vitiate his patent by destroying its originality. For
this, and other reasons, it would seem very desirable that specifica-

tions should be made more available to the public than they are at
present.

It has already been stated that specifications have been hitherto
enndled in three different ollices, searches in «ll of which nuist
frequently be m.ide before a party seeking to obtain a jiatent for a
new invention can satisfy himself tliat no similar patent h;is at any
time previously been granted; and, from the aliscuce of indices or
proper classificati<m, these searches nnist always he attended with
great rnicertainty, ami often with groat expense. The difficulties
of such a search are eidunu:ed by the specifications being copied on
rolls in an engrossing han<l.

We are of opinicni that these sjiecifications slunild be entered in
book-form in a connnon hand, and that proper indices should be
made of them. They would then become very.valuable references
for the public.

Another point to which we have had our attention very much
directed is the necessity of a patent going through three distinct
;ind separate processes in order to be made availalile for the three
kingdoms. By the 2ith article of the Act for tlie Union of the
two kingdoms of England and Scotlaml, 5 and (i Anne, c. H, it is
enacted, "Tliat a seal in Scotland alter tbe Unicoi be always kept
and made use of in all things relating to private rights or grants,
which have usually passed tlie tireat Seal of Scotland, ami which
only concern offices, grants, commissions, and private rights within
that kingdom."

By article H, sec. 3, of the Act of Union with Ireland, .S9 and 10
Geo! III., c. 67, it is enacted, "That the (ireat Seal of Ireland
may, if his Majesty shall so think fit, after the Union, be used in
like manner as belore the Union, except where it is otlierwise |m-o-
vided by the foregoing articles, within that part of the United
Kingdom called Ireland."

These enactments preclude the lord chancidlor, tlnmgli keeper
of tlie Great Seal of the United Kingdom of (Jreat liritain and
Ireland, from granting a patent which can extend to Scotland or
Ireland. An inventor, thcrcl'ore, in oiiler to secure to himself the
full benefit of his invention, must, in many cases, take out a, jiatent
under each of the three Great Seals of England, Ireland, and
Scotlaml ; thereby, in addition to the increased trouble and delay,
very considerably raising the expenses of his patent.

The fees and other charges incurred in taking out a patent for
England, tbe Channel Islands, and the colonies amount, mi an
average, to about 1.50/. B'lt in order to secure a iiatent for tbe three
kingdoms, a patentee must incur an expenditure of probably three
times that amount.

The f(dlowing is the course pursued with regard to patents in
Ireland and Scotlaml : —

In Ireland. — 1st. Petition to the Queen or to the lord lieute-
nant of Ireland. If to the Queen, it is referred to tbe lord lieu-
tenant. In eitlier case the jietition is referred by tlie hu-d licu-
ten.int to the attorney-general for Ireland for report.^ — '^nd. On
the receipt of the attorney-general's re))ort ;i draft of a Queen's
letter is |M-cpared and forwarded to the Ilome-ollice in London. —
3r(l The Queen's letter, which contains the authority for the grant,
is signed by her Majesty, cmintersigned by the secretary of state,
entered at tlie Signet t)ffice, and sealed with the Signet, and re-
turned to the lord lieutenant. — Itb. On the receijit of the Queen's
letter, a warrant is prepared for the lord lieutenant's signature,
directed to tbe attorney or solicitcn- general, authorising him to
draw up a liant containing a grant from tlie Queen to tho_ parties
applying. — 5th. The fiant is submitted for his excellency's signa-
ture, and the Privy Seal is affixed. — Gth. It is forwarded to the
clerk of the crown, who prepares the necessary document thereon,
to be passed under the Great Seal of Ireland.

Caveats against grants of patents may be lodged with the .attor-
ney or solicitor general for Ireland; hut previously to a hearing,
the oiqiosing party is required to lodge 50/. to cover the expenses
of tbe in(|uiry.

In Scolland. — 1st. Petition to the Queen, which is left at the
Ilome-oflice in Londmi. — 2nd. Reference of petition to lord advo-
cate of Scotland for rep(n-t. — .'ird. Report of lord advocate. — Ith
Queen's warrant, prepared at the Home Olhce, directing prepara-
tion of the patent.— ."ith. 'I'he p.itent is prepared in the office of
the directcn- of Chancei-y, and carried at once to the office of the
keeper of the Great Seal, to have the seal affixed.

Tbe same pi-oceedings in regard to oiiposition take place before
the lord advocate as before the attorney or solicitor general at the
first stage in England.

It appears that previously to the passing of the Acts of Union,
patents extemling over the three kingdoms were sometimes passed
under the Great Seal of England alone, and we see no real practi-

2:s

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

fSfiPTEMBEB,

oal inconvenience which would arise from permitting such a course
to be pursued at the present time. AV'e would suggest that all
patents fur new inventions might be granted as of course for the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and that the pro-
c:eedings for obtaining a patent should take place in this kingdom
only. The speciiication in that case should be required to be en-
rolled in each of the three capitals.

'l"he proceedings for a patent, whether in England, in Scotland,
or in Ii-eland, must originate by petition to the crown; and it
would seem that Scotch and Irish inventors almost invariably take
out patents in England, if not previously to, at all events imme-
diately after, taking out their Scotch or Irish patent. The advan-
tage therefore, that would arise from the course recommended, in
the saving of fees »nd other charges, and of time and trouble,
would be at least as great to the Scotch and Irish patentee as to
the English. Cases, however, may occur in which it might be ad-
visable to have the opinion of the crown lawyers in Ireland or in
Scotland previously to her Majesty being advised to grant her let-
ters patent.

We would therefore suggest, that if it should be determined to
give the power of granting patents under the single Great Seal of
the United Kingdom, which should have effect in the three king-
doms equally, a discretionary power should be given to the secre-
tary of state, enabling him, should he see fit so to do, to refer the
petition to either the attorney or solicitor-general for England,
the attorney-general for Ireland, or the lord advocate of Scotland.

If the views which we have formed with regard to the abolition
of patents in some cases, and the simplification in all of tlie pro-
cess of passing them, shall be approved of, the retention of the
Signet Office as a distinct brancli of the department of tlie secre-
tary of state will become unnecessary.

Abolition of Signet Office recommended. — We therefore recommend
that the Signet ()ffice be abolished, and whatever business may re-
main to be transacted connected with the Signet be transferred to
the Home-office, together with such of the records, &c., now depo-
sited in the Signet Office as may be necessary for the purposes of
official reference. The remainder might be consigned to the cus-
tody of the Master of the Rolls, or to tlie State Paper Office.
The amount of business thus transferred to tlie Home-office could
not be very considerable.

Recommendation respecting Privy Seal Office. — It would still be
necessary to retain an establishment for the office of the Lord
Privy Seal, though the duties of that office would be much re-
duced, and would not occupy the time of more than one clerk The
business of the Signet and Privy Seal Offices is at present con-
ducted in the same house in Abingdon-street, for which a rent is
paid by the public. The abolition of the Signet Office would
render the retention of this house unnecessary. If apartments
could be provided for the future accommodation of the Loi'd Privy
Seal's department in some one of the public buildings in White-
hall, it would be a great convenience in the transaction of the busi-
ness of tliat office.

We think it desirable to refer to the Act of 1 Vic, c. 73, by
which the Queen is enabled to confer certain powers and immuni-
ties on trading or otlier companies by means of letters patent.
The operation of that act will not be in any way aiFected by the
changes proposed in this Report, which have reference only to the
mode of passing lettei's patent.

In concluding our Report, we beg leave to express a hope that
the interests of individuals who may be affected by our recommen-
dations and suggestions may be duly considered, and that compen-
sation may be awarded to those whose tenure of office gives them
» title to claim it.

MiNTO.

G. CoBNEWALL LeWIS.

H. Rich.

On the Manufacture of Enamelled Copper at Canton. — When the copper
has been shaped into the desired form, it ia to be cleansed, but not scoureJ,
and afterwards wetted with water, and sprinkled with the enamelling com-
position intended to form the ground, which may be either white or co-
loured. The article is then put in a muffle heated by means of dry Nankeen
coal (this is found to be the best fuel). When the ground has been produced,
the article is withdrawn from the muffle, and covered with an iron bell, in
Older that it may cool shortly j the ground may be then ornamnnted in the
same manner as porcelain, and again passed lhri)nj;h the ninffle. Seveial
specimens of enamel, and colours npon enamel, have 'teen deposited at the
Royal manufactory at Sevres, in order that the manufacturers in France may
he made acquainted with the art.

IMPROVED LOCOMOTIVE BOILER.

On an Improved Locomotive Boiler. By Mr. Raihsbottom, of
Manchester. — (Paper read at the Institution of Mechanical En-
gineers, Birmingham, July 25th, Charles Beyer, Esq., V.P., in the
Chair.

Without discussing the merits of the various arrangements and
dispositions of the working jiarts of locomotive engines, the author
of the present paper proposes to make a few observations respect-
ing the most vital part of these machines, that upon which 'the
satisfactory performance of all the details must necessarily depend
— namely, the Boiler.

Before proceeding to the immediate subject of this paper, it is
proposed to point out one or two objections to locomotive boilers
as at present constructed, which experience has brought under the
author's notice; and then to describe a form of boiler which ap-
pears to him in some degree calculated to remedy the defects which
will be referred to.

It is scarcely necessary to observe that the absolute power of a
locomotive, or any other steam-engine, is strictly projiortioneJ to
the quantity of steam which the boiler of such engine can produce
in a given time; and chemists are generally agreed that tlie quan-
tity of atmosplieric air required (or oxygen which is the supporter
of combustion), as well as the quantity of fuel, is in direct propor-
tion to the quantity of water evaporated; or in other words, to
produce mi>re steam, it is not only necessary to supply more fuel,
but also more atmospheric air in proportion to the quantity of
steam produced.

It is well known that some of the locomotive engines built at
the present day have from two to three times as much heating sur-
face as those built about eight or ten years ago, and consequently
when performing a proportionately increased amount of duty, they
require from two to three times the quantity of air forcing through
the fire in the same time.

The working parts of these engines have also been increased in
dimensions; the cylinders from 12 inches to 15 and 16 inches
diameter, the stroke from 16 inches to 20 and 24 inches, and the
driving-wheels from i ft. 6 in. to 6 feet diameter, and in many cases
even more.

Notwithstanding all these enlargements and imjirovements,
there are however two elements which have been but slightly
changed— namely, the diameter of the blast-pipe, and the diameter
of the cylindrical part of the boiler; and as the whole of the steam
(after having performed its office in the cylinders) is driven in a
forcible jet up the chimney for tiie purpose of producing the ne-
cessary draught through the fire, and as the power required to
produce this jet is so much taken from the gross power of the en-
gine, it follows that the smaller the blast-pipe is in proportion to
the total heating surface of the boiler, the greater will be the re-
sistance to the action of the piston, and the greater the loss of
power on this account.

From observations made upon engines under the author's imme-
diate superintendence, it appears that whilst the heating surface of
locomotive boilers has been increased from 400 square feet (in the
year 1842) to 987 square feet (in the year 1846), the blast-pipe has
not been in the slightest degree enlarged, but on the contrary in
the latter case has been reduced in area in the proportion of 12.j
to ^\ square inches. So that upon dividing the total heating sur-
face or area (f production, as it may be termed, by the size of tlie
blast-pipe, or area of eduction (assumed as unity), the following
very instructive results are obtained : —

-. , r, I ,.rL u -1. Area of Heatin?

No. of EnglDe. When built. b,^^j p^p^ g^„.^J

24 1842 1 4';0»

2(1 1M42 1 6044

25 1S45 1 7'Jill

m is4ii 1 l2aiio

In the last case, then, it appears that the heating surface has
been increased nearly three-fold in proportion to the size of the
blast-pipe, as compared with Engine No. 24; and the reason will
be obvious wlien it is stated that the Engine No. 30 is only of the
same diameter as the first-named (No. 24), and consequently tliat
the flue-room (which as a general rule will be as the square of the
diameter of the lioiler), has been but slightly increased, the extra
heating surface having been mainly obtained by enlarging the fire-
box, by putting in a mid-feather, and by increasing the length
rather than the number of tubes.

It is not necessary to inquire how far the diameter of the cylin-
ders may affect tlie size of tlie blast-pipe, nor to ascertain the
amount of ])Ower whidi the blast-pipe absorbs, though it may be
stated that experience proves it to range from 10 to 20 per cent, of
the gross power of the engine, according to the number, diameter,

1849.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

119

and length of tubes, and also the speed of the engine. It may be
remarked, however, that on tlie average a degree of exhaustion is
required in the fire-box under ordinary circumstances equal to a
column of water •!■ inches in height, and the degree of exhaustion
in the smoke-box must of course be greater tlian this l)y the re-
sistance offered by tlie tubes to the passage of the heated gases
from the fire-box to the smoke-box.

From experiments made about 94 years ago upon an engine
with a total heating surface of 987 feet, carrying 1+7 tubes of l|-
inch external diameter and 13 ft. 10 in. long, the author found that
the latter force was at all velocities three times as great as the
former; or in other words, that 66 per cent, of tlie total foixe of
the blast was required to overcome the resistance offered by the
tubes to the passage of the heated gases, leaving 33 per cent, only
to operate upon the fuel; and it is this evil which results from the
comparatively limited flue area of the boilers as at present con-
structed, to which attention is now more particularly called, and
which it is projjosed to remedy in the manner now to be explained^

From what has been said it will readily be inferred that there is
some difficulty in materially increasing the power of locomotive
engines, as the necessary amount of heating surface cannot be ob-
tained without increasing the diameter or the length of the boiler,
or making it oval, to all of which plans there are some objections:
but by the method now proposed it will be easy to enlarge botli the
fire-box and tube surface from 35 to 40 per cent., without increas-
ing either the diameter of the boiler or its length, as will he now
shown.

It is proposed to construct the copper fire-box with an arched
roof, the top of which shall be nearly as high as the top of the
cylindrical part of the boiler This box may of course be made
any length without sensibly reducing the strength of the roof, and
will require none of the stay-bars which are so essential to the
security of the flat-roofed box, and which for a moderate sized
engine weigh not less tlian 400 lb.

With such a box the whole of the cylindrical part of the boiler
can be filled with tubes, and of course the whole of the longitu-
dinal stays be removed; and in the present instance there are 225
tubes of 2 inches external diameter, the shell of the boiler being
3 ft. 8 in. diameter and 10 feet long; the total heating sui-face of
the fire-box is 80 feet, and of the tubes 1,177 feet, making a total
heating surface of 1,257 feet. Such an arrangement involves the
necessity of keeping the boiler full of water, and it is therefore
requisite that a separate steam-chamber should be provided. This
consists of a cylinder which is 13 feet long and 20 inches diameter,
fixed over and parallel to the cylindrical part of the boiler, or, as it
may now be termed, the generator. This tube, which has a cubic
capacity of 28^ feet, is connected at each end with the generator.
It is proposed that tlie water shall occupy about one-fourth of tlie
capacity of this tube, leaving a clear space of say 21 cubic feet for
steam; this is rather more steam-room tlian most modern boilers
possess, and for reasons which are afterwards mentioned, tlie
author thinks it will be sufficient, although it may readily be in-
creased by slightly enlarging the diameter of the steam-chamber,
which as at present shown, is not so high as the ordinary steam
dome by about 12 inches.

It has been proved experimentally by Mr. Robert Stephenson
that the generative power of the copper fire-box is three times as
great per unit of surface as that of the tubes; and independent of
this authority, locomotive engineers are generally agreed that
the great bulk of the steam generated in a locomotive boiler is
formed upon the surface of the copper fire-box, and the first 18 or
20 inches length of the tubes. As the whole of the steam has to
rise through the body of the water with which it is for the time
mechanically mixed, and as the specific gravity of these mixed
fluids will be much less than the comparatively ?(??mixed water at
the smoke-box end of the boiler, it follows that there will be a brisk
circulation through the generator and steam-chamber. The mixed
steam and water will be driven into the upper vessel, and will
there be effectually separated; the former passing off to the cylin-
ders by the longitudinal pipe, which has a number of small holes
upon its upper surface, and the latter running again into the
generator through the vertical connection at the front end, and
thus keeping up the circulation.

That the specific gravity of the mixed steam and water at the
fire-box end is often reduced to at least one-half that of water
alone, is proved by the fact that the water-gauge will frequently
show a downward current through the glass tube, even thougli
the circulating fluids be one-half water and one-half steam, show-
ing as it does that the column of the mixed fluids in the boiler
is specifically lighter than the column in the glass gauge; and
from this fact it is also evident that this great expansion is con-

fined to the water in the vicinity of the fire-box, since if it ex-
tended to the whole mass, the boiler would not contain the requisite
quantity.

From the circumstance that no bubble of steam can rise into
the steam-chamber between the points marked A and B, it is
concluded that this boiler will not be so liable to prime as the
common one, and therefore that the steam-chamber as shown is
sufficiently hirge. As to the water surface, which in this boiler it
may be objected is smaller than in others, it is conceived tliat the
great facilities this boiler will give to the engineer for raising
steam, will leave him comparatively at liberty to put in water
wlien and where he chooses, and consequently that but little diffi-
culty need be apprehended on this point. It is evident however
that the objection may be fully met by constructing the outer fire-
box with a pyramidal roof in the way so common.

In conclusion, the author would express his conviction that this
boiler, comliining as it does a great increase of heating surface, and
correspnnding increase (if flue area, with a relative diminution of bulk
and weight, and great simplicity of construction, is calculated to
remove some of the difficulties experienced by locomotive en-
gineers, and to promote the best interests of the railway world in
general.

Remarks made at the Meeting after the reading of the foregoing Paper.

1 he Chairman said, that in the unavoidable absence of Mr. Ramshottom,
he won d observe that his object in the toregoing paper was to obtain a con-
sideiahly larger arfa of flue- room than in the present locomotive boilers, and
to make a boiler of a large lieating-surface with less weight.

Mr. Slate was of opinion that for the weight the engine carried, it would
lia\e a considerably greater effective heating-sutface than any previous form
of boiler ; hut he thought the boiler would have as great a tendeucy to prime
as any other.

Mr. CowpEB was also of opinion there would he a great tendency to prime
in the proposed boiler; the surface from wliich the steam had to rise was the
entire surface of the fire-box and tubes, and all the steam had to pass
through the two openings into the steam-chamber, and it appeared to him
the water would be carried up there in a complete state of froth.

Mr. McCoNNELL, while agreeing to a certain extent as to the liability of
the boiler to piime, thought it might he obviated by having a more continu-
ous communication between the generator and the steam-chaniher; perhaps
the steam-chamber could be fixed close upon the top of the generator, and
a continuous longitudinal opening be made, communicating between them
throughout their entire length. He thought the proposition of Mr. Rams-
hottom was a very good one, as it was a received opinion that the proportion
of the flue-room to the fire-grate surface could not be too large, supposing
that full advantage was taken of the flue surface before the heated air
reached the chimney. Whether long tubes or short tubes as applied to lo-
comotives were most advantageous, was a question not yet decided, and he
thought they had scarcely data enough to determine as to the advantage of
long tubes on the ground of economy. It was a very important matter to
licti'mrine what length of tubes was most advantageous fur use in proportion
to the area of the fire-grate.

Mr. C. CowPER was not aware whether there was any authority respecting
the proportionate heating power of the tubes and the fire-box, besides the
experiment of Mr. Stephenson alluded to in the paper.

Mr. McCoNNELL remarked, that it appeared from experiments made by
Mr. Stephenson and Mr. Beyer, that a very considerable heat was lost in the
sinnke-hox even at the end of the longest tubes that mere used; and he
thought that the air in the centre of the tubes might have a considerably
higher temperature than the air at the sides of the tubes, and that much of
the heat might he carried through by a stream of air like a solid bar in the
centre of each tube, without ever coming in contact with the sides of the
tube, and consequently without being communicated to the water of the
boiler. He had been informed that it was found to he a useful practice in
marine and stationary boilers, to create a disturbance in the currents of air
passing tlirough the flues, for the purpose of mixing up the particles as
much as possible; and a similar advantage might probably be obtained by
mixing the air in the tubes of locomotive uoileis.

Mr. GiBDONS said, he had observed a similar advantage fron". mixing the
particles of air in beating the air for his blast furnaces near Dudley ; the
pipes through which the air was passed for the purpose of heating it were
bent like a syphon, so as to cause all the particles of air to come in contact
with the sides of the pipes, and the air was found to be heated much more
efiiciently by these bent pipes than by straight pipes.

Mr. Allan said, he had tried an engine with a J-inch iron rod fixed in the
centre of each tube; the rods were as long as the tubes and supported at
intervals by short projecting pins to hold them in the centre of the tubes.
The engine had been worked with them for some time between Birmingham
and Liverpool, but no difference was found in the working and consumption
of coke, as compared with the same engine doing the same work without
the rods in the tubes ; the result was found to be exactly the same in
both cases.

Mr. C. CowPER remarked that the rods in the tubes would bare the effect

280

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Septejibeb,

of contracting considerably the flue area, and increasing proportionately the
amount of power requisite to draw the air through the tulies, and conse-
quently tlie rods in the tubes would cause a loss of power to the engine
from the increased resistance to the blast. lie thought therefore the rods
must have caused an equal amount of gain to neutralise this loss, by bring-
ing the air into more effective contact with the sides of the tubes, as the
result showed no loss on the whole.

Mr. McCoNNELL thought it was certain at least that the use of the rods
did no harm; and it must either be considered that tliere was no advantage
in a large flue area, or that there was considerable advantage in mixing the
air in passing through the tubes.

Mr. Slate was of opinion that even on the ground of economy a large
number of tubes was advisable, because with the violent and frequent action
of the pieces of coke the tubes were soon worn out; whereas by increasing
the number of tubes the velocity of the draught would be diminished, and
the tubes would be less worn and would last longer.

The Chairman remarked that the larger the area of the flue, the better
it was for the engine, as it must offer less resistance to the blast-pipe ; but
he was not certain what this resistance actually amounted to.

Mr. CowPER said that Mr. Daniel Gooch had found from his indicator
cards, that the resistance of the blast-pipe amounted to 11 or 12 lb. per
square inch, at a moderate velocity of about 30 miles an hour.

Mr. McCoNNELL observed that as a certain quantity of heated air had to
be conveyed from the fire-box to tlie chimney, and a certain area of heating
surface was also required, there would be an important reduction effected in
the resistance of the blast-pipe by increasing the number of tubes, so as to
increase the area of passage and reduce the length of the tubes, diminishing
proportionately the resistance of the air passing through the tubes.

The Chairman said he was present when the experiments were tried that
were mentioned by Mr. Ramsbottom, to ascertain the difference between the
degree of exhaustion in the smoke-box and in the fire-box ; the experiments
were tried with a long-boiler engine, and a glass water-gauge was fitted into
the smoke-box and another into the fire-box. The degree of exhaustion in
the smoke-box averaged three times as great as that in the fire-box, and this
proportion was found to be nearly the same at all velocities ; the greatest
amount of exhaustion observed in the smoke-box supported a column of
water 13 inches high. He thought that the whole resistance of the blast-
pipe and the back pressure in the cylinder, did not amount to more than 15
per cent, of the power of the engine.

Mr. Slate remarked that assuming it to be 15 per cent., it followed that
10 per cent, of the whole power of the engine was absorbed by the friction
of the air in passing through the tubes, as the exhaustion in the smoke-box
was three times as great as in the fire-box ; or one-third only of the pressure
of the blast was efl'ectively acting in the fire-box.

Mr. McCoNNELL thought it was an important subject for investigation, to
ascertain the actual power lost by the resistance of blast-pipes of different
sizes, and under the different circumstances of size and number of tubes.
In his own practice he had found that small tubes and many of them pro-
duced the best efl"ect ; the limit in reducing the size of the tubes was their
stopping up with pieces of coke whilst working.

The Chairman said he thought there was some advantage in the form of
boiler proposed by Mr. Ramsbottom, and that amongst the various modifica-
tions that had been proposed of the locomotive boiler there was not one
that was so likely to be useful.

REGISTER OF NE'W PATENTS.

CASTING PIPES.

David Yoolow Stewart, of Montrose, Scotland, ironmaster, for

^^improvements in the manufacture of moulds and cores for casting
iron and other substances." — Granted January 1; Enrolled July 4.,
IS 19. [Reported in the Patent Journal.']

This invention has reference: First — To the formation of the
moulds for casting pipes, or other similar articles, of a uniform, or
nearly uniform, shape throuj^hout.

Secondly — To the construction of moulds, and parts connected
therewith, so that they may be readily moved into and out of the
drying stoves.

Thirdly — To a mode of constructing cores; and also to the
moving or starting cores (when of a large size) out of the cast-
ings.

In casting pipes, if of ordinary sizes, the patentee arranges to
cast them in sets of six, in one ilask or box, which is placed on
end, as represented in the annexed engraving. a,a, is a pit, formed
in the ground, with a metal lining i, b, to maintain tlie relative
positions of the working parts. A screw c, is sustained in a verti-
cal position in the centre of the pit, and fitted into a step </, at the
bottom, so as to admit of a rotary motion. This screw c, is fitted
with a nut e, wliich supports, and is fixed to, a plate /, sliding up

and down on guides g, g, on the sides of the pit; this up-and-down
motion being caused by the rotation of the screw c. To the bot-
tom end of the screw, a spur-wheel h, is affixed, gearing with the
pinion ), fixed on a shaft fr, ap.d
worked by means of a wrench-
handle from the top. The plate
f, sustains six rods /, /, /, four
only being seen in the engrav-
ing, that representation being
a vertical section; these rods
are arranged in a circle around
the screw c, taking it as a cen-
tre, in which order they pass
through, and are sustained by,
the top plate m, through which
they pass. The rods /, are sur-
mounted by what he terms the
patterns n, n, fitted to the rods
/, so as to rest on a shoulder,
and rise with the rods, and at
the same time admit of being
readily removed from the ends.

The flask or mould-box o, is
constructed of four separate
lengths, each in two halves, and
hinged on the bolt p; this is
mounted on a bed plate q. fur-
nished with holes, correspond-
ing in diameter with the pat-
terns H, and so disposed as to
come immediately over them;
the box is so fitted as to travel
on rails over, and be sustained
in its position, so that the pat-
tern, on being elevated by the
rods /, will enter the holes in
the bottom of the flask. When
the lieight of the pattern pieces
n, is such as to be nearly all
within the flask (the lower piece
being the only one on the bed
plate), the workman then raises
the sand in the flask, so as to
surround the patterns, which,
when nearly covered, are ele-
vated still higher, by the same
means, and an additional length
of the flask or box applied to
the top. When raising, the
sand proceeds as before, till the
top of the centre piece r, is
covered, when a gate piece *, is
placed on it, having six gates
(one to each pipe), communi-
cating with a centre channel, in which a gate pin t, is fitted, which
is drawn up as the sand is filled into the box, so as to maintain a
free gate up to the top of the mould, by w hich the metal is intro-
duced; this pin t, being drawn up as the filling progresses. The
patterns h, having attained the height represented by the dotted
lines, moulds or passages will have been formed up the sand, cor-
responding in diameter with the exterior of the pattern; these
being the moulds for the parallel part of the pipes. Faucet-pieces
are tlien placed on the top of the rods /, and the sand moulded
round them; the faucet -pieces and patterns are then removed, and
a socket-piece placed on the rod /, having a socket both ways, one
taking on to the rod, the other being presented upwards, for the
reception of the cores, which are then lowered down into the
mould by reversing the action of the screw c, when the moulds
will be complete. Metal is poured in at the central gate, diverg-
ing when half-way down into the several moulds, as explained.

Althougli the pipes are here shown as cast in sets of six, this
method will of course be equally applicable for other numbers, by
ada])ting the several arrangements of the apparatus; or where the
pipes are large, the moulds may be similarly constructed for one.

The second improvement is in the construction of boxes or flasks,
and moulds, whereby they may be more readily handled than the
ordinary mould boxes, which consists simply in fitting wheels to
them, on which they may be wheeled about, instead of lifting them,
as usual; and to facilitate the transport of such, he lays down
rails suitable for the purpose, in and about the foundry, in such
positions as required, and into the drying stoves.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

281

The third improvement is in the construction of cores, which he
forms of a hollow fluted cylinder, instead of wrapping wisps of
straw round a rod, as usual. Round this cylinder he applies peat
or vegetable substance, sufficient to cover the flutes; this having
been dried, is drawn through a tube lined with sand, suitable for
the core; this adheres, and forms a thin coating on the peat, which
is then dried in the stove, when it will be fit for use, as an ordinary
core.

The improvement in moving cores out of castings consists in
eff'ecting that object by the aid of hydraulic pressure. A press for
this purpose differs only from the ordinary hydraulic press in hav-
ing double sets of rods or pillars on each side of the i-am, and
having a portion of the centre of the head-piece removed,.to allow
the passage upwards of the core, when the ram is brought to bear
on the lower end.

The patentee does not confine himself to the precise details, so
long as the peculiar character of his invention be retained, and
claims : First — The making sevenil moulds at a time, or a single
mould, by using patterns capable of being moved progressively
into the mould-box.

Secondly — The mode of manufacturing and drying moulds,
whereby they are mo^ed on trucks into the stoves.

Thirdly — Tlie mode of constructing cores; and also the modes
of moving large core-bars out of castings.

AVINDOW BACK ENCLOSURES.

John Tutton, of 20, South Audley-street, mechanist, for " cer-
tain improvements in the construction and arrangement of certain parts
of buildings." — Granted December 9, 1848; Enrolled June 9, 1849.

The improvements relate to constructing projecting windows of
buildings, that safety and other closets may be more conveniently
made under such windows ; and it consists of using slate and cast-
iron, as hereafter explained, when constructing such descriptions
of windows.

Fig. I.

Fig. 2.

1

a

o o

A

1

n

^^

\L

^

Fig. 1 shows an interior view of a projecting window, having
under it a closet which, if of iron, may be fire-proof. The arr.nnge-
ment of the interior may be varied in respect to shelves and
drawers, and such parts form no part of the invention.

Fig. 2 shows an external view of the projecting window shown
at fig. 1. The architectural character given to the exterior may
be varied to suit the character of the building, or the taste of the
parties for whom the work is to be done.

In constructing the projecting windows, in order that there
should be as little projection as possible, for obtaining a given size
or depth of closet the whole of the projecting parts are of slate, or
in place of using slate, cast-iron may be used, which will give great
strength, when comparatively thin material is employed ; in either
case the recess formed within by the projection may be fitted up as
a safety or other closet by using fire-proof materials, such as slate
or iron. In all cases the glazed sash-frame alone should be of
wood or of metal, all the boxings or frames to receive the sashes
being of cast-iron ; or they may be of slate when metal sashes are
used, and in place of using all slate or all iron, the use of these two
materials may be combined in making a projecting window and a
closet therein. In the drawings comparatively small projections
beyond the exterior of the building are shown, and yet a closet of
considerable dimensions may be obtained. The extent of projec-
tion of a window may however be varied to suit the circumstances
of each particular case.

PUMPING ENGINES.

Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, city of London, civil en-
gineer, for '■'■improvements in engines and apparatus principally de-
signed for pumping water." — Granted February 12; Enrolled
August 11, 1849. [Reported in the Patent Journal.']

Tlie improvements relate to the formation of the valves of
pumping engines and pumps, whereby a more certain means may
be obtained for working the valves of the engine; and also to im-
provements in the valves of pumps; the whole of which improve-
ments are principally applicable to pumping water from mines, and
other such situations where the speed of the engine is varied ac-
cording to the quantity of water to be lifted. In pumping engines,
the patentee observes, it is well understood that the movement of
the slide-valve of the engine is dependent on the momentum of
the moving parts, and in some cases the force of a spring is
resorted to, in order to complete the movement valve, for the pur-
pose of admitting the steam on the opposite side of the piston,
both of which modes have hitherto been defective; in one case,
from the fact that when the speed of the engine is slow, the mo-
mentum of the moving part is sometimes insufficient to complete
the stroke of the valve, and allowing it to remain, so as to cover both
ports, when, of a consequence, the engine stops, — and in case of
the spring being used as an auxiliary, the force at one point vary-
ing so much from other points of its tension. Now, according to
this invention, the patentee proposes to relieve the pump piston
from the pressure of the water at that part of the stroke where
the movement of the valve takes place, thereby allowing the engine
piston to complete the stroke, and also the stroke of the valve,
from the expansion of the steam already in the cylinder, or that
steam which has produced the previous pai-t of the stroke.

The first improvement in the pumps consists of a peculiar for-
mation of the water passage of the pump, whereby the pressure of
the water is in equilibrium on both sides of the pump piston, at
the end of each stroke.

The wood engraving represents a vertical section of a horizontal
pumping engine, arid double-acting pump, constructed according
to this invention, in which the steam-cylinder piston and the pum])
piston are attached to the same piston-rod; A, being the pump-
barrel, and B, the steam-cylinder. C, C, are the water passages to
the pump, which (it will be observed) are divided into two
branches, opening into the pump-barrel, at a distance from each
other rather greater than the thickness of the pump-bucket or

37

282

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

[September,

]>iston; so tli;it on the piston approaching either, or when it has
nearly coni|ileted either stroke, it becomes suddenly relieved from
the pressure of the water it is forcing, by the free communication
formed by the double passage C, when the pump piston is in the
jiosition shown. The steam piston, thus relieved from its load, is
free to be carried through the remainder of its stroke by the ex-
jiansion of steam in the cylinder; its further admission having
been cut off by the partial movement of the slide-valve D. The
expansion of the steam thus completes the stroke of the piston,
together with the complete movement of the valve D, and this at
however slow a speed the engine may be working.

The second improvement in pumps consists of an arrangement
of the valves, which are placed immediately above the pump, in a
circular chamber or cylinder, in which a centre-piece is fixed, con-
sisting of four radial partitions, with valve openings, on which are
iitted the valves E, E, which are the induction, and F, F, the
eduction valves, communicating with either end of the pump.
These valves are hinged or pivotted on one side, while their move-
ment is confined by suitable stops, which confine them to such a
position as to insure their fall on the inclined valve faces or jiar-
titions, immediately on the cessation of the flow of water. The
supply-pipe, or source from whence the water is drawn, is placed
in connection with the passage M, the pipe N being the eduction
passage, or that through which the water is transmitted.

The third part has reference to an improved valve, applicable to
pumping engines of the construction represented in the engraving,
by which the valve-rod may be worked directly from the piston-rod
of the steam-engine. In the ordinary slide-valve, instead of work-
ing it directly from the piston-rod, it is necessary to employ the
intervention of a lever, or some other contrivance by which the
direction or motion may be reversed: as when it is required that
steam should be admitted below the piston, the valve moves
towards the top, in order to uncover the top, and vice versa;
whereas by the construction of the valve D, its motion is in the
same direction as that of the piston. This valve D, he denomi-
nates a "B valve," from the two hollows g, g, in the face; the oflSee
of one of these hollows being to pass steam to and from one end
of the cylinder, and the other to the opposite end. It will be seen
that in the face of the cylinder, besides the ordinary ports, there
are two hollows //, h, which are alternately partially covered, and
wholly uncovered at each stroke of the valve, the hollow g^. as
shown in the engra\'ing, partially covering the hollow h\ and at
the same time the steam passage to the bottom of the cylinder;
and the hollow g, at the same time covering the steam passage and
the eduction port for the escape of the steam from the top of the
cylinder; the position of the valve being the result of the down
stroke of the piston. On the piston arriving at the other end of
the cylinder, the arm, or tappet on the piston-rod, will come in
contact with the collar /, when the position of the valve will be re-
versed, and steam opened into the top of the cylinder.

With reference to the equilibrium ])assages in the pump, he
mentions several other modes by which it may be effected, such as
a number of grooves in the pump-bairel, of the length required,
or by connecting the two ends of the pump by a pipe, in which a
valve is opened at the proper time to effect that object; but he
jirefers the method shown in the engraving, and in conclusion
remarks that he does not confine himself to the precise detail, so
long as the peculiar character of the invention be retained, as the
same object may be effected by the other arrangements con-
templated; but that what he claims as new is, removing or reducing
the resistance on the pump pistons at the proper time of each
stroke, in order to allow the momentum of the moving parts of
the expansion of the steam already within the cylinder, to ac-
celerate the motion of the parts as explained, so as to throw the
slide-valve across the ports with certainty, whether at high or low
speeds; and this he claims, in either of the arrangements men-
tioned, or any other substantially the same, by which this accelera-
tion of speed of the piston at the end of the stroke may be pro-
duced.

Secondly — He claims the arrangements of valves in which the
seats radiate from one common centre substantially, as herein de-
scribed.

On the Preservation of Water, by M. Perinet. — M. Perinet, ex-Professor
of the Hopital Mihtaire d'Instruction, has succeeded in preserving water in
a sweet state, by placing 1} kilogramme of black oxide of manganese in
rach cask of water containing 260 litres. He has kept this water for seven
\ear8 in the same barrels, and exposed them to various temperatures;
at the end of that time he found it as limpid, free from smell, and of as
gond a quality, as at the beginning of the e.\i)eriment. The above is equal
to C^ II). 10 a butt of 103 gaUoiis.

THE EXPOSITION OF 1849 AT PARIS.

The constant struggle in which our manufacturers are engaged
with their foreign rivals, makes it of great importance they should
be well acquainted with the steps taken by these latter. It is not
enough that we seem to be doing well here; we must be quite safe
that we are doing better than others. The mere fact that we have
a large market in a foreign country for our cottons, our iron, or
our machinery, is an inducement to the manufacturers of that and
other countries to wrest the market from us. Knowing, therefore,
the interest that attaches to the progress of foreign industry, we
felt it our duty to attend the Exposition lately open at Paris; and
it seems a fitting time that the whole subject of these expositions
or shows should be gone into, as they daily attract more attention.

The Exposition is one of those measures, having their beginning
in the first great French revolution, which were taken to promote
the welfare of the people,— and which down to our time, notwith-
standing the hostility of kings and the apathy of governments,
continue to kee\> alive the great principles that the end of society
is not to make the happiness of the few, but of the many. The
English have been the great apostles of these truths, and have
given the best exemplifications of them; but it so happens, that
for many institutions, and the Exposition is one of them, nothing
has been done here It was a great thought, amid the din of war
and the suffering of a fearful revolution, to give new life to trade
by drawing together the products of manufactures, — strengthen-
ing public hopes by showing what resources France possessed, —
awakening the skill of the man of learning and ability by showing
what she still wanted — wherein she was behindhand; where the
field needed no further tilling — where it was waste and could yield
a good crop. The first experiment was a short one. It took place
in 1798, now fifty years ago, and a building was raised at Paris
called the Temple of Industry, in which, for three days, the infant
Exposition was opened. At that time there were only 110 contri-
butors.

From that time, under the influence of the great patron of
French trade. Napoleon, in that as in everything the friend of his
country, the Exposition was frequently held, — though it has been
said the honours shown to the manufacturers and engineers in
1806, drew down the jealousy of the military party. The great
war caused it to languish, and it was not until 1819 that this insti-
tution, suspicious to the Bourbons for its birth in the days of revo-
lutionary freedom, was allowed to revive. From that time, an
Exposition has been held every four or five years. It is called the
National Exposition of the Pi-oductions of Agricultural and Ma-
nufacturing Industry, but agriculture holds only a subordinate
place.

This great show is commonly held in a building set up for the
time in one of the great open places in Paris. The first was in the
Champ de Mars; those of 1801, 1802, 1819, 1823, and 1827, in the
palace of the Louvre; that of 1806 on the Esplanade of the Inva-
lides; the one of 1831 on the Place de la Concorde; of 1839, 1844,
and 1819, in the Champs-Elysees. The length of the show was at
first three days; afterwards, six and seven; in 1806, twenty-four
days; in 1819, thirty-five; in 1823, fifty; and since then, sixty
days.

The following will show the progress made: —

Year of Shou*. Extijbitora. Rewards.

1798 110 23

1801 229 SO

1802 540 254

1S06 1,422 610

1819 1,662 869

1823 1,642 1,091

1827 1,695 1,254

1834 2,447 1,785

1839 3,281 2,305

18J4 3,960 3,255

1849 4,532

The rewards are medals of gold, silver, and bronze, an honourable
mention, and a favourable citation. To the name of each exhi-
bitor is appended, in the official catalogue, a list of the rewards
gained at the Expositions. Thus, Derosne and Call, the great ma-
chinists, are named as having gold medals in 1827, 1834, 1839, and
1844, showing how long have been their exertions. Japy, brothers,
hardware manufacturers, are named as having gold medals iu 1806,
1823, 1827, 1834, 1839, and 1844.

Besides these medals and certificates, the cross of the legion of
honour is .ilways given to some of the most meritorious exhibitors.
Napcdeon took a great interest in the Exposition. Louis Philippe,
however great a tyrant, certainly a friend to the arts of peace,
spared no pains in promoting the three great Expositions of his

18t9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

28<<t

reign. In 1844, he spent a long time each Monday in the show,
talking with the manufacturers, and the leading men among them
were likewise made welcome at the palace. The influence of a
man of enlightenment could not have been otherwise than favour-
able; and it is very likely, as said, that Louis Philippe often gave
good practical suggestions to the manufacturers with whom he
talked. Thej', too, had the opportunity of showing the legislative
evils under which they laboured, and of impressing a powerful
protector of industrial interests, as they are understood in France
— that is to say, of industrial monopoly. Louis Napoleon, in whom
the love of patronage is strong, likewise spends his Mondays at
the Exposition.

The admission is wholly free, all but Thursdays, when there is a
charge of one franc; but that is given to charities. Thus the
great feeling is kept up, that this is an institution for the benefit
of all, and that all have an interest in the national industry and
national welfare.

For the Exposition of 1849, a grant of 24,000/. was made to the
Minister of Agriculture and Trade. In each department or shire
of France, a committee was named by the Prefect to settle the
claims of exhibitors. This committee, or jury, as it is likewise
named, was on this occasion specially authorised to point out, in a
written report, "the services rendered to agriculture or industry
by masters, foremen, or workmen." From the head town of each
department the objects exhibited were carried, at the cost of the
government, to Paris, and were so sent back. A "central jury"
was named by the Minister to judge to whom rewards should be
given. Their report was sent to the Minister, and by him to the
President of the Commonwealth, by whom the rewards were be-
stowed.

On the Central Jury we find the following names : — Arago,
Blanqui, Michel Chevalier, Charles Dupin, Dumas, Mathieu,
Payen, VVolowski, and other men of science; LeOn Feuchere and
Fontaine, architects, and Firmin Didot. About half the members
are men of science. As so many leading manufacturers are exhi-
bitors, of course they are thereby excluded from the Central
Jury.

The department of the Seine, in which Paris is situated, natu-
rally sends by far the greater proportion. Of 4,352 exhibitors,
2,856 are from that department. From the Orne, 222; the Lower
Seine (Rouen), 117; the North (Lille and the cotton districts),
119; and the Rhone (Lyon), 100. None others come near these
numbers. Most of the departments send very few articles. The
difficulties of carriage are a great hindrance in France, which
would not be felt in England ; indeed, no part of this island, or
the neighbouring one, would be without its representative at an
exposition.

That this institution has a favourable effect on French industry,
no one who sees it can doubt. It makes the manufacturers fully
aware, so far as France is concerned, of what they can do. Some
can see in what they are behindhand, and why; and to all there is
the moti\'e of exertion. Public fame is awarded to those who do
well; nor does fame end with a medal or a sheet of paper, — but the
well-deserving manufacturer, becoming better known, has an im-
mediate reward in the demand for his productions. Many new
articles of manufacture have thus been prominently brought for-
ward, and obtained a publicity %vhich would otherwise have been
long in coming. Many clever mechanics have found their interests
advanced by having the opportunity of showing their inventions
before the eyes of the manufacturers and capitalists of all France.
Indeed, the very encouragement of genius, which we here sigh for,
is there found, and honour and wealth become more surely the lot
of the meritoi'ious.

If France, notwithstanding such an institution, does not go
beyond us, and if we, with tlie want of it, are still flourishing, it
does not arise from this one circumstance. The inborn energy of
Englishmen, exerted during hundreds of years, has created an
enterprising and independent people, whom bad government has
not been able to depress. The want of true freedom in France
has created a people, listless — whom no public reward can fully
encourage, because vicious legislation fetters and trammels them
at every step. In England, a bad government does not do its duty
in encouraging and upholding merit: in France, a bad government
goes beyond the proper sphere of government by interfering with
the personal action of individuals. In both cases the error is great
and threatening — here it is an error of omission, there of conmiis-
sion. The fruits are different, because an Englishman is still free
to work for himself, and because a Frenchman is tranmielled by a
vicious police, which deprives him of energy of action and inde-
pendence of character. Thus these characteristics so common in
England are rare in France.

We shall now transcribe a few notes as to the career of some of
the exhibitors; not taking those who have begun as capitalists,
but rather those who have devoted themselves to mechanics.

M. Gustave Hallet, machinist, at Paris, left in 1835, the School
of the Industrial Arts at Paris, in which he had studied; and hav-
ing been employed as a clerk and assistant in factories, set up in
1840 on his own account, as a meclianical engineer and millwright.
He now exhibits, for the first time, a high-pressure engine, of
3-horse power, with some ingenious modifications.

M. Farcot was a pupil of M. Achille Collas, and was afterwards
brought up with Jecker, brothers, manufacturers of marine instru-
ments. He was afterwards in M. Perrier's engineering works, at
Chaillot, with Mr. Edwards, the elder, hut being discharged, was
employed by M. Albony, a locksmith. Thence he became the first
workman of M. Christian, at that time Director of the Conserva-
toire des Arts et Metiers, By him, Farcot was employed in the
establishment of machine works in the Hospice des Quinze Vingts,
at Paris, and at Argenteuil, and constructed a number of machines
for the colonies. In 1823, he left M. Christian, and with his own
savings and his wife's money set up a factory as a millwright.
Besides other machinery, he constructed, in 1827, a great bakerj'.
At each Exposition froni 1834, he has been an e.xhibitor, and from
a yearly manufacture of engines of 36-horse power, he has reached
a yearly supply of 240-horse power.

In 1813, there was no dyery at Roubaix. M. Descat-Crouzet
set up one on a small scale for cotton yarn and piece goods, and by
1815 he had gained some reputation in the department of the
North. His eldest son, Theodore, a lad of fifteen, powerfully
helped him ; he was successively workman, foreman, and clerk,
and afterwards became head of the house, in which his brotliers
were partners. In 1825, English goods were driving French goods
out of the market, as our manufacturers had discovered new pro-
cesses. It was important to learn them, and M. Theodore Descat
effected this, to the great satisfaction of the manufacturers of the
department ; and by successive experiments and journeys, by
money and by skill, he has kept up his fame. In 1832, he set up
a large dye-work at the bridge of Broency. On him the progress
and prosperity of the town of Roubaix has depended, and the
Departmental Jury express themselves in the strongest terms of
gratitude towards him. His dye-works Iiave steam-engines of
80-horse power, and all the necessary machinery; and a large vil-
lage has sprung up around. He employs 850 workmen, and his
transactions are 80,000/. yearly.

M. Tesse Petit was foreman of a cotton-spinning factory at
Paris, the head of which gained a prize at the Exposition of 1819.
In 1820, he set up a small factory of 1,290 spindles. In 1834, he
gained a silver medal. He had then only 90 work-people. In
1839, he set up a steam-engine. He has liow 160 work-people in
the factory, and 80 out of doors, and 15,800 spindles.

These examples will show how men get on in France, and tlie
danger in which we are from such rivals. An account of. some of
the French establishments will still further illustrate the state of
French industry.

Messrs. Charles Derosne and Cail are great engineers. They
employ altogether 2,600 men, and turn out locomotives and railway
plant and sugar machinery for France and the colonies, besides
steam-engines, mill-work, and coining apparatus. They ship to
Java, Brazil, Mexico, Surinam, Egypt, Spain, Cuba, Bourbon,
Guadaloupe, Martinique, Russia, and Austria. They have made
160 locomotives. The firm have establishments at Paris, Grenelle,
Denain in the North, Brussels, Amsterdam, and Guadaloupe. The
motive power is 45-horse power at Paris, J 5 at Grenelle, 60 at
Denain, and 15 at Brussels. Among the plant is, at Paris and
Grenelle, 107 forges, 278 lathes, planing, and boring machines, and
three foundry furnaces ; at Denain, 114 forges, 45 lathes, &c. ; at
Brussels, 42 ftirges, 36 lathes, &c. Charles Derosne, the founder
of the firm, died in 1846, in consequence of his repeated visits to
the West Indies.

Messrs. Petin and Gaudet, of Rive de Gier, set up their factory
in 1839, and were the first in France to use the steam-hammer for
forging. At that time, wrought-iron boiler plates for marine en-
gines were only to be had in England, and the price was very high.
Paddle-wheel shafts cost 6/. per cwt., and now they are delivered
at 2/., and the firm supply most of the leading houses of France.

The factory at Gratfenstaden, on the Lower Rhine, belongs to a
societe anonyme, and was set up in 1838. It has 82 lathes, 60 forges,
3 foundry furnaces, and employs, when at full work, 700 or 800
men, using 1,100 tons of metal, and 1,600 tons of coal annually.
It turns out machine tools, tenders, wagons, railway wheels, &c.

The Societe Anonyme des Forges d' J udincourt has 5 charcoal iron-
smelting furnaces, 2 foundries, and 20 refining hearths. It uses

37*

284

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL.

^Septembeb,

Yearly .50,000 cubic yards of charcoal, and turns eut 8,000 tons of
iron ill a piud year. Japy, brothers are the directors.

The Jletallurjfic Society of V'ierzon is another company ; has
engines of 300-horse power, 9 high furnaces, 11 puililliiig lioarths,
12 balling wires, 30 refinery fires, 1 reverberating oven, 1 steam-
hammer +,000lb. weight, and 5 rolling presses.

The cotton-mills of Messrs. Seilliere, at Senones, in the Vosges,
were set up in 1801, and then employed 8,500 spindles. They have
now several establishments, and employ 516 people in the spinning
department, 550 in the power-loom department, 8C in the bleachery,
altogether 1,007. They use as moving power, 0 water-wheels of
14.2-horse power, 3 steam-engines, 1 turbine of 50-horse power,
and 1 of 30-horse power. They have 20,500 spindles, and 600
looms, and work up yearly 650,000 lb. of cotton into yarn. This
factory does not seem to have had the success anticipated, as for a
long time it suffered from want of jiower, the water-power being
at first only 50-horse power; but they have now greater resources.
Tlie spinner, who in 1830 earned only 1 franc a-day, now earns
from 2 to 8^ frances per day.

The firm of Nicholas Schlumberger, at Guebwiller, in the High
Rhine, is that of one of the great cotton lords of France. The
mill was founded in ISIO. The firm spin cotton, linen, hemp,
i-iimbed wool, and silk waste, and have likewise a factory for
making spinning machinery. They have above 2,000 work-people,
with 55,000 spindles, and work up 800,0001b. of cotton yearly into
yarn, and 550 tons of metal, besides 1,000 tons of coal.

The firm of ilahieu-Delangre have cotton-mills at Armentieres,
in the North, and employ 1,342 work-people.

The firm of Scrive, brothers, of Lille, spin and weave flax.
They employ 550 people. M. Scrive Labbe introduced the flax-
weaving machinery into France.

Messrs. Cohin and Co, at Rallepot-les-Fi-event, have a flax-mill
with 600 work-people, and 10,330 spindles.

M. Lemaitre-Demeestere has a flax-mill at Ilalluin, in the North,
and em])Ioys 000 or 700 people.

'I'he firm of Messrs Berte'ohe, Chesnon, and Co. dates from 1806,
and has establishments at Sedan and Paris, for cloths, cassimeres,
t^c. They turn over above 300,000/. yearly, and ship to the United
States, Peru, Chili, Brazil, Mexico, Spain, Belgium, Russia, and
even England.

These will give some idea of the large French establishments of
various kinds, and although we may pride ourselves on having
larger ones, we cannot help seeing we have powerful rivals.

M''e were very much pleased with the show. It does the greatest
credit to the manufacturers of France, and gives the most gratify-
ing ])roofs of their progress. It may be most usefully studied by
Englishmen. In every article of taste the French are beyond us,
though we are making way upon them; and it is likely that if we
liad a show ourselves, a higher class of productions %vould be
brought forward, and would receive greater encouragement. The
metal manufticturers exhibit many creditable works — not models,
but working h)comotives, stationary engines, and tool machines.
We do not consider the French go beyond us, or come up to us,
but they show an earnest rivalry, and are certainly getting ahead.
Even Englishmen are at first struck by this truly great show; but
a careful examination modifies the first opinion of exclusive excel-
lence, and afl"ordsthe strongest ground for believing that a London
Exposition would far surpass that at Paris.

To the establishment of a show of English productions our at-
tention was long since turned; and we are the more convinced of
its necessity, and of the propriety of taking some immediate step.
AV'e have, however, no faith in the scheme put forward by the
Society of Arts, because we think that society is wholly unable to
carry it out, and an abortive attempt would ha\ e the most mis-
chievous results. We consider that an Exposition should originate
with the manufacturers, and be managed by them.

An Exposition, in all its attributions, is well calculated to en-
courage industry. The reports of the shire-committees on the
state of trade, and of those who have done the most service to
trade and agriculture, would have very good results. In France,
most establishments exhibiting state how many men they employ,
the extent of their works, and the value of their produce. These
are not things that can be kept secret in England; the statistics of
each iron-work or cotton-mill are accessible to rivals, though they
are not well known by the public. The opportunity that is pre-
sented of ascertaining the comparative condition of each branch
of industry is invaluable, and many would be greatly stimulated
were their existence or capabilities fully known.

In France, a classified catalogue shows the number of exhibitors
in each department, and some of them we will enumerate. There
are 22 exhibitors of steel, 81 of iron, 518 of machines, 152 of

apparatus for heating, distilling, and drying, 120 of watchmaking,
133 of husbandry implements, 138 of what are called instruments
of precision, and 123 of tools. Other exhibitors to be noticed are,
6 of slates, 11 of bitumen, 2 of anthracite, 13 of geograjdiical ar-
ticles, 73 of colours and varnishes, 3 of razor strops, 20 of daguer-
reotyping, 7 of ink, 5 of goffering, 3 of gutta percha, 15 of water-
proofing, 183 of musical instruments, 12 of letters in relief, 23 of
marbles, 15 of mosaics and incrustations, 114 of paper-works, 10 of
pasteboard-works, 15 of i)aper-hanging, 33 of stays, 35 of per-
fumery, IS of wooden shoes. These will show the varied character
of the exhibition, and what a speciatit-J there is for some articles
looked upon as inconsiderable.

( To h? continued)

THE PUBLIC WORKS OF ENGLAND.

No. IV. — Docks.

Necessilas mater artuim. These most useful establishments were, ia
many iastances, the last adopted iu the most important commercial towns.
The reason is that the most important towns were established in favoured
situations where the absolute necessity for docks was the latest felt. Dry
docks, for the mere purpose of constructing vessels, are, of course, of very
ancient date, and are to he found everywhere ; but wet docks, for the pur-
pose of giving vessels when arrived at their destination a safe receptacle and
easy means of loading and unloading, are of singularly recent date. The
Mediterranean, in its tideless waters, stood in comparatively little need of
such convenience. Thus when Venice, Genoa, Leghorn, Marseilles, were
totally without docks, some of the towns on the Baltic, of much less com-
mercial importance, possessed docks of excellent construction. Ou the
same principle in our own country, London was anticipated by many second-
rate seaports. Liverpool, at a time when it bore a very low rank amongst
our commercial towns, first established the dock system in Great Britain.
In those days no one could ever have dreamt of the North American trade.
Liverpool owed nothing to its near position. The advantage of its pro.'simity
to America was an after-accident. The energy probably of a few private in-
dividuals, instituted a scheme which totally altered the commercial balance
of the empire. To some accidents of private conduct is due in like manner
the arrangement and position of most of our great emporiums, for whatever
celebrated — whether for art, industry, commerce, or education.

The shifting of the sands in the .Mersey, however, and other disadvantages
of the harbour, rendered docks more necessary at Liverpool than in most
other places. Tlie first Act for this purpose in Liverpool was obtained in
1708. The management was invested in the Corporation for a term of 21
years. That body gave 4 acres of land, and were authorised to borrow 6000/.
The old dock was thus constructed, covering an area of somewhat morethaa
3i acres. In 1717 the term was extended hy 16 years, and the Corporalioa
empowered to borrow an additional 4000/. In 1737 a new Act gave a fur.
ther prolongation of the term, an additional dock permitted to be con-
structed, and a new power given of borrowing GOOD/. By 1761 another dock
was wanted, and 25,000/. more was permitted to be borrowed. In 1784
tno more docks were granted, and the power of borrowing 70,000/. In
1799 two more docks and a further loan of 120,000/. were authorised. The
Corporation contributed the necessary ground. The aggregate sums thus
authorised amount to 231,000/. for seven docks. The dock dues, which in
1724 amounted to 810/. lis. Crf., reached above 10,000/. in 1790, and above
100,000/. in 1818. The number of vessels, which in 1760 was 1245, reached
10,000 in 1824.

The area covered by these docks varies, from the first, or " old" dock,
which, as we have stated, occupies 3J acres to the Queen's Dock, which
covers about 11 acres. Besides the docks, there are six basins, covering
from 2 to 4 acres each. The construction of most of the docks, especially
that called the Prince's Dock, is of the most solid description. The offices
are splendid, cast-iron sheds are built round it, and a spacious parade runs
along one side.

More recently the Brunswick and Birkenhead Docks have been built. Of
the latter the fortunes are not yet developed ; the vicissitudes of this under-
taking have hitherto been considerable. They are designed upon the most
magnificent scale, and may probably have to wait some years until the
inevitable expansion of British commerce under an increasing population,
and the blessings of free trade, may call into use the vast area and superb
appliances which they otfcr to the merchant and the shipmaster.

The next in order of time were the Hull Old Docks, which were com-
menced in 1774, on the site of the old fortifications. The area of dock,
quay, &c., is above 30 acres ; that of the dock itself, 10 acres. Rennie, the
engineer, had many difficulties to encounter in the loose nature of the soil.
The first di edging machine ever employed in England was constructed by
him for the use of these docks. This was one of the most profitable un-
dertakings of the kind in the hands of shareholders, the docks at Liverpool,
like those at Bristol, being the property of the Corporation. The original
numher of shares was 120 ; that number has since been increased to nearly
200. In 1803, previous to the increase, the dividend was no less than

184.9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

285

72/. 15s. \0d. per sbare, but it sensibly diminished afterwards. Hull New
Docks were built in 1807. The area is about 7J acres.

Up to the beginning of the present century, tlie city of London had no
docks at all. In fact, several interests were in the way — the proprietors of
the various wharfs above and below the bridge were against any scheme of
dock building, and various projects for the improvement both of the legal
quays and the sufferance wharfs were proposed in opposition. The legal
quays were, however, only 1464 feet long altogether, and occupied precisely
tJie same positions that they did at the time of the great fire of London,
while the imports from the port had, from the year 1700 to 1792, increased
from 4,785,538/. to 12,072,674/., and the exports from 5,387,787/. to
14,742,516/.

In the year 1793, apian was first projected of making wet docks at
Wapping, the Isle of Dogs, or Rotherhithe, the preference being given in the
first instance to Wapping, on account of its proximity to the city. This first
plan contains the germ of almost all that has been carried out since. In
1794, a general meeting of merchants took place, when a committee was
appointed to examine the matter, and a report was drawn up, recommending
the construction of docks at Wapping. In conseqence, a well-known
engineer, Mr. Daniel Alexander, who had been previously employed about
the river, was directed to make a survey, and to prepare plans and estimates
for constructing the proposed Wapping docks, with a cut and canal leading
to them along the site of the present East and West India Docks. The
plans and estimates were prepared accordingly and laid before another general
meeting of merchants on December 22, 1795, when a subscription of
800,000/. was filled in a few hours, for the purpose of carrying the plan into
execution. In fact, projects of this kind were at this time eagerly hstened
to. It was the great year for canal schemes. A petition was presented
to the House of Commons, who appointed a select committee " to inquire
into the best mode of providing sufficient accommodation for the increased
trade and shipping of the port of London." In this committee a variety of
objections were raised, and plans proposed for constructing docks in all sorts
of places. It took two or three years to overcome these difBculties, and the
final petition to the House was not presented till December, 1798. A few
days afterwards a petition was presented by the Corporation with similar ob-
jects, and with the additional plan of cutting a navigable canal from Black-
wall to Limehouse, and constructing wet docks in the Isle of Dogs, for the
West India Shipping. The West India merchants had, however, apart from
the Corporation, already projected a competing plan to that of the last pro-
position. The Corporation and the companies united at last, and all diffi-
culties were overcome. The Act for the West India Docks was passed in
1779— that for the London Docks in the next year — and the Act for the
East India Docks in 1803. All these projects arose out of the original
scheme for the London Docks, which scheme was carried out simultaneously
in all its fulness, though under the management of three separate companies,
and appearing as three distinct undertakings.

The London Docks were constructed under Rennie's superintendence.
The Act allowed seven years for its completion ; it was opened in five, but
was not completely finished for some time afterwards. A capital of 300,000/.
was authorised, five per cent, interest guaranteed, and ten per cent, fixed as
a maximum. Proprietors of 500/. to 1000/. have one note ; of 1000/. to
5000/., two votes ; of 5000/. to 10,000/., three votes, and proprietors of
more than 10,000/. have four votes, which is the maximum. The dock-rates
were fixed by the Act at per ton : — For vessels trading between the ports of
Great Britain (including the Scottish isles) Is. For traders to Ireland, the
Channel islands, France, from Ushant to Dunkirk, Flanders, Germany, and
Denmark, to Elsineur, Is. 3d. North of Elsineur and the Baltic, Is 6rf.
South of Europe to Cape St. Vincent, Africa, America, South Seas, 2s.
Eastern Asia, 2s. 6d. All vessels arriving with more than 20 pipes of wine
or brandy are obliged to enter the docks. Six weeks are allowed for un-
lading, beyond which a charge of id. per ton is made for the first two
weeks, and ^d. per ton afterwards. All vessels, except those devoted to
the East and West India trades, are allowed to enter the docks, without dis-
tinction of nation. Wine, spirits, and tobacco, form the principal cargoes de-
livered at the docks. Ranges of warehouses have been erected for the re-
ception of these articles — those for tobacco are of very fine construction.
The superficies occupied by the warehouses in general amounts to 120,000
square yards. The dock itself is 420 yards long, 276 broad, and 29 feet
deep. It occupies a surface of 25 acres, and the basin 2i acres. The whole
premises, including warehouses and quays, contain a superficies of 110 acres.
It is estimated to hold about 230 ships of 300 tons. The tobacco warehouse,
underneath which are wine cellars, covers five acres — the greatest exteot of
any one roof in the world, unless we except the Great Pyramid.

The West India Docks, the most magnificent in the world, were begun in
July 1800, and opened for the reception of vessels in September 1802, in
the short space of 27 months. Mr. William Jessop was the engineer. The
prosperity of these docks in former days was prodigious. The original
capital was 500,000/., afterwards raised to 1,200,000/. The revenues of the
company in 1809 amounted to 330,623/., and in 1813 they reached their
climax, amounting to 449,421/. Since that time the depreciation of the
West India trade has caused a sad decline in this magnificent income. Up
to 1818, the company, besides paying the maximum dividend of 10 per cent.,
had accumulated 800,000/. as a reserve fund, but they were obliged to de-
vote a part of this sum to dividend very soon afterwards. The annual ex-
penses alone of the establishment amounted in 1819, to 151,644/., of nhich
above 50,000/. went to workmen, above 40,000/. to, building and improve-

ments, and 13,320/ to taxes, an enormous impost. The cooperage materials
are set down at 16,766/. in addition. The management of the company is
in the hands of 21 directors, eight of whom must belong to the City Cor-
poration. Four directors go out in each year, except the fifth, when five go
out of office. Only shareholders holding above 500/. are entitled to vote.
The nature of West Indian produce has rendered necessary the construction
of the sheds and warehouses on the most careful principle. The pillars of
the whole, and the framework of the roof of some of the sheds, are of cast
iron, most ingeniously constructed. The great difliculty is to guard against
contraction or dilatation by cold or heat. To remedy this, the iron beams
which run from one pillar to another, are not actually in contact, and a longi-
tudinal play is thus allowed to the structure, which prevents any mischief
from the alteration of temperature. The pavement is partly of iron and
partly of granite, and the mechanical contrivances are of the most excellent
kind. The docks are in two divisions, the export and the import. The im-
port dock is 2600 feet long, and 500 feet broad, and estimated to hold 204
vessels of 300 tons each. The export dock is of the same length, and 400
feet broad ; it holds 195 vessels. There have been deposited in the sheds
and warehouses at the same time 148,563 casks of sugar, 70,875 barrels and
433.048 bags of coffee, 35,158 pipes of rum and Madeira, 14,021 logs of
mahogany, and 21,350 tons of logwood. The reader may conceive the
economy of room necessary for the reception of such a mass.

The City Canal enables vessels to enter the docks without making the cir-
cuit of the Isle of Dogs, but in most instances the captains save the charge
and go round the bend. The canal seives asa receptacle for ships laid up in
ordinary ; its long range of a mile presents a magnificent spectacle of masts
and shipping, when viewed from the river. The depth of water in the docks
at high tide is 24 feet. The area of the import dock is above 30 acres ; that
of the export about 25 acres. The docks, basins, and locks, altogether, in-
clude an area of 68 acres, and the total superficies, if we include quays and
warehouses, amounts to 140 acres. The 68 acres of excavation form a work
in its way unrivalled by any in existence.

The East India Docks were not commenced until 1805, though their Act
passed in 1803. The first ship entered them in August, 1806, 17 months
after their commencement. Their capital, originally 200,000/., was subse-
quently doubled. The number of directors is 13, who must each hold 20
shares in the stock of the company, and four of them must be directors of
the East India Company. This forms almost the only connectionwhich the
East India Company has with the docks. The possession of five shares gives
a right of voting. The immense value of East Indian produce, and of ihe
cargoes of the vessels engaged in the trade, causes a different arrangement
in these docks from either the London or West Indian. The docks, in the
first place, are much smaller ; as fewer vessels are engaged in the oriental
commerce, and as they are much longer on the voyage, they will be in dock
a proportionately shorter time to the period they spend at sea. Then, the
value of the property prevents its being allowed to remain on the spot.
The warehouses are four miles off, and the cargoes are immediately de-
livered to the merchants. The company subscribed 10,000/. to the Com-
mercialroad, which was originally constructed as a thoroughfare from the
docks to the city. There is, Ukewise, niuih greater restriction in the admis-
sion of visitors to these docks than to any of the others. Business com-
mences later in the day, and tlie doors are punctually closed at three in the
winter, and four in the summer months. The depth of the East India
Docks is greater than that of the rest, on account of the size of the vessels
in the trade, which draw more water than any merchant vessels. The depth
accordingly, is never less than 23 feet, or, as measured from the surface of
the quays,'is 27 feet. The superficies of the export dock is 10 acres, of the
import dock 19 acres, which, with 3 acres for the basin, makes a total sur.
face of 32 acres. The carriages used to convey the merchandise from the
docks are of a peculiar construction. They look something like a gipsy
caravan ; the door is behind, and secured, besides its lock, by bats of iron.
Long before the construction of the East India Docks, an old dock, called
Perry's Dock, stood on the site ; it was a private affair, but of gre.it use to
merchants. Greenland Dock, on the other side, was likewise an old private
dock.

It was estimated that, before the construction of the great docks just de-
scribed, the loss by robberies alone exceeded the hundredth part of the whole
importation of wines, tea, indigo, cocoa, &c. ; the fiftieth of the sugar, and
the fortieth of the rum. The value of the loss during the years 1799, 1800.
and 1801, was estimated to amount to 1,214,500/. The estimate of the
saving to the present increased commerce of the country would be quite
enormous. — Daily News.

Irish Boffs.—A letter in the Times, from Mr. H. J. Baylee, county Clare,
states that "bog" land can be reclaimed, and brought into hearing at a cost
of 7/. an acre; some which he had himself reclaimed yielded for the first
crop 10/. an acre, the second for potatoes 40/. per acre (although, in ordinary
years, only 20/.), the third 6/., and it appears there is now growing on the
bog a crop of potatoes worth 20/. per acre — thus, for an outlay of it., all
expended in labour, a return of ten times the amount has been made in the
short space of four years. This instance should afford sufficient encourage-
ment to the landholder and capitalist, as well as to the government, to adopt
the system so successfully carried out, and nhich must be so conducive to
the benefit of the sister country.

286

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Septemdeb,

ZINC-WHITE A SUBSTITUTE FOR WHITE-LEAD.

It has been proved that zinc-white may be employed, with great advantage,
as a substitute for white-lead, for painting and oilier purposes forKliich that
substance is ordinarily employed ; as the former substance is free from the
disadvantages possessed by the latter, which is not only liable to turn black
by the action of the air, hut also produces the painters' cholic, and other
disorders, which are often fatal. Zinc-white is, moreover, found to be
unchangeable ; this fact has been proved, beyond dispute, by numerous well-
verified experiments ; but the principal obstacle to its employment has been
the difficulty of working with that material. This arises mainly from the
fact, that workmen, who are accustomed to a certain routine practice, are at
fault when a new substance is set before them ; and, after attempting to use
it according to the method with which they are acquainted, and not finding
it succeed, they immediately condemn it as useless. Although persuaded
of the beneficial results which would accrue from the use of zinc-white, the
masters will not take the trouble to look into the matter themselves, but rely
upon their workmen , and thus the public are persuaded that the application
is impracticable. Now, it is the object of the present paper to obviate this
difficulty, by pointing out the method of employing zinc-while with success
and economy.

The first thing to be done is, to procure oil as nearly white as possible;
this is essential if a bright colour be required, for, as the zinc-white pos-
sesses less body than white-lead, coloured oil imparts a colour to it which
tarnishes its brightness j if, however, a yellow colour be leqiiired, there is
no occasion to be so particular about the whiteness of tlie oil. The most
•uitable oil, and which is generally sufficiently white, is the oil of the black
ji ippy, which may be procured from Flanders and Alsace, where it is in
common use; — in default of obtaining this, any other siccative oil, provided
it be white, will answer the purpose, although it may, perhaps, smell a
little stronger.

The zinc-white is to be ground, while dry, into powder, with a mullar; it
riust then be scraped, with a painter's knife, into a heap, in the middle of
which a hollow is to be made, to receive a small quantity of oil; the whole
is then to be mixed with a knife, so as to hiing it to the consistency of very
thick mortar or paste, and rather dry than otherwise, — as this substance
becom es more liquid the more it is ground. This paste is then placed on a
separate palette, from which a small quantity is taken and put under the
iLullar, and triturated ; and, as the colour escapes, it is scraped up with the
knife, and placed in heaps on a clear space on the stone, where it is again
ground, — the mullar being carefully placed in the centre of the heaps : when,
by this means, the colour is spread over the whole surface of the stone,
three or four turns from one end to the other will finish the grinding ; the
whole must then be scraped off with a knile. This operation, which
appears, at first sight, tedious and troublesome, soon becomes easy of per-
formance,— as zinc-wbite has a fine and easily-separated grain, which, conse-
quently, requires but little grinding. Care must be l.iken that the colour is
of sufficient consistence to belaid on a flat surface without showing through ;
and, consequently, if it be too liquid, it will be necessary to add a sufficient
quantity of powder to give it the required consistency, and again grind it ; it
is then to be put in a clean vessel containing clear water. In this state it
may be mixed with any of the ordinary colours, and will be found to make
up with any of the colours usually combined with white-lead, producing a
fresher tint than when the latter substance is used.

The natural colour of zinc-white is a milk-white, less bright than that of
white-lead of the best quality, which inclines to blue, but much superior to
that of common white-lead or ceruse; and, therefore, zinc-white may be
said to be the medium quality between " kremnitz" and the common white-
lead or ceruse generally employed for painting the interior of apartments.
Zinc-white may therefore be considered as an efficient substitute for white-
lead, without possessing any of its disadvantages.

faints h.iving zinc-white as their base, do not dry so quickly as lead
colours, hut they will set more quickly than ochre : the dift'erencc in time,
as compaied with while-lead, is about 2 to 5 ; and, if it be ground up with
oil which is rather old, and not very oleaginous, it will ilrj as quickly as
white-lead.* When mixed with substances that do not dry easily, it will
only be necessary to add, as a siccative, a little white copperas (sulphate of
zini) ; care being taken not to use the oil piejMred with lead, usually
employed by painters, as it would not only turn the while yellow, but would
impart to it the deleterious qualities sought to be avoided by its use; if,
however, it is found necessary to use this oil for black or other colours
which will not dry, it must he used With caution.

When large surfaces are to be painted, the brushes used must be very soft
and not too close, in order that the colour may be laid equally ; and, if the
first coat be properly laid on, the laying of the second will be unattended
with difficulty.

Experience has shown, that about 2J ounces of zinc-white are sufficient to
cover a square yard ; while from 4 J to 5 ounces of white-lead, of second
quality, are required lor this purpose ; at the same time, supposing it to be
more expensive, this is amply compensated by the certainty that it will not
prove injurious, either to those employed in jiainting, or persons inhabiting
apartments painted with it. — Translated for A^ew Ion's London Journal.

* By the addition ot siccative oil, colours, made wilh ziuc-wUitc, will dry as ciuickly as
ceruse.

HARDENING LIMESTONES.

On the Formation of Hi/draulic Limestones, Cements, and other Minerals,
in the Moist Way. By Professor Kuhlmann.

The author had some time ago observed that all limestones contain small
quantities of alkalies; and be has recently found that, in hydraulic limestones
in particular, a very considerable amount of potash occurs. — From this ha
concluded that the silicate of potash must exercise an essential influence
upon the proiluction of cements; and he succeeded in producing artificially
hydraulic limestone in the muist way, by mixing lime with silica or alumina
dissolved in water containing some potash. When powdered chalk ii em-
ployed fur this purpose, the pasty mass obtained gradually hardens in the
air, and attains equal hardness wilh the very best hydraulic cements. If, on
the other hand, chalk in pieces or porous limestone is dipped into a solution
of silicate of potash, they acquire, after several days' exposure to the air,
such a degree of hardness at the surface that they scratch limestone ; they
admit of being polished, hut it is only with porous stones that the hardening
penetrates through the entire mass. This property may be usefully era-
ployed in the manufacture of ornaments, as, by judicious treatment, the
surface experiences no alteration. The silification may even be employed
for obtaining lithographic stones from chalk.

Gypsum is likewise hardened in the same manner, and its decomposition
by alkaline silicates takes place far more rapidly and more completely.
Crystallised gypsum is only superficially acted upon by it; but when ground
and mixed with silicate of potash, it acquires a hard and shining surface.
If, too, concentrated solutions are employed, the decomposition is too rapid,
and the surface exfoliates after several days' exposure to the air. Oxide of
manganese and potash may be employed with the same eftect as the silicate
of potash. The author ascertained, by experiments, that lime has the pro-
perty of precipitating metallic oxides dissolved in alkalies; as, for instance,
oxide of copper from its solution in ammonia. He observes, on this subject,
that in general, every insoluble salt in contact with a saline solution, the
acid of which forms with the base of the insoluble salt a still more in-
soluble combination, produces a decomposition of the salt in solution,
which, however, in most cases, is incomplete. Thus white lead precipi-
tates a considerable qurntity of chromate of lead from a cold solution of
chromate of potash ; silicate of potash and chromate of lime yield some
silicate of lime, &c.

The author is inclined to suppose that the crystallised silicic acid in the
limestone rocks, as also flints, agates, &c., owe their origin to this cause ;
that they have consi quently been formed by the decomposition of the silicate
of potash by carbonic acid. In fact, be found, in examining these minerals,
that, after ignition and pulverization, they communicated a decidedly alkaline
reaction to water. In these siliceous deposits, the two following causes
have been principally active : —

1. Decomposition of the earthy carbonates by alkaline silicates, producing
earthy silicates, which are decomposed under certain circumstances by water
containing carbonic acid, and part with the eaiths.

2. Direct deposition of silicic acid by decomposition by carbonic acid of
the alkaline silicate held in solution in water.

The author finds a confirmation of his view in the circumstance that, he-
sides the minerals previously mentioned, manganese, dolomite, talc, asbestos,
emerald, corundum, sulphuret of antimony, &c., contain small quantities of
alkalies. — Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.

NOTZS OF THE IffiONTH.

Patent Decorative Glass, or Vitrified Lace-Pattern Glass. — The company
state that the process and effect produced are perfectly novel, and perfect
representations of net or muslin curtains with embroidered borders, correct
in every detail, and every description of lace pattern, can be undertaken.
The material used for the matt or ground-work is different to that usually
employed for the same purpose — is luore even in surface, will retain its
colour, and cannot in any way be affected by exposure to the atmosphere,
and has a semi-transparent appearance, not found in work of a similar cha-
racter. They consider that for internal decorations, the patent glass pos-
sesses a decided advantage over every other description of white ornamented
glass, has the same appearance from both sides, does not require the aid of a
light behind to show the design ; and the ornament stands out in strong
relief when viewed by lamp-fight. The material can be had as low as \s.id.
per 16 oz.

Cleansing Buildings. — The dingy appearance of buildings in the metropolis
is far from creditable, hut the expense of cleaning is a great obstacle to im-
provement. 'I'he supposed necessity of scaffolding entails the greater part of
the outlay. Lately, Wren's chuich of St. Michael's, Bassishaw, has been
cleansed by Mr. Oldis, builder, of Basinghall-street, at a cost of 30i. only,
including colouring inside and out from the tower to the ground, and paint-
ing doors, &c. Had scaffolding been set up, the cost would have been
double ; whereas, the cleansing was effected by a running stage worked by a
derrick on the roof, with a fall and tackle. It is much to be desired that
Bunnett and Corpe's iron shutters were more used, so as to allow the fronts
of buildings to be washed down with fire-engines, as the Bank of England
is. Part of Mercers' Hall front has just been cleansed by washing. We
consider that a good business might be done in cleansing buildings on
reasonable terms, as an exclusive employment.

1819.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

287

Britannia Bridge. — At the meeting of the Chester and Holyhead Railway
Company, held on the 9th ult., Mr. Robert Stephenson made the following
report; — " The masonry of this contract is completed as far as practicable,
prior to the floating of the tubes ; awaiting that operation, the progress of
the remainder will depend upon the lifting. In this latter proceeding there
has been some delay, owing to an unsoundness in one of the large castings
of the new hydraulic press in the Anglesea Tower, which occasioned so
much leakage, as threatened at one time to render a new casting necessary,
which would have delayed for several weeks the process of lifting the tube,
which has been, as you are aware, floated into its position for being raised.
I have, however, the satisfaction of reporting that the leakage has been suc-
cessfully stopped, and that the operation of lifting is progressing, and might
by this time have been completed ; but I have deemed it prudent to lift by
short stages only, and to build up step by step underneath with brickwork,
in order ett'ectually to guard against the serious consequences which might
aiise from any failure or derangement of the hydraulic presses, whilst the
tube was suspended from them. Such an accident 1 believe to be very im-
probable ; but, after the fracture that took place in one of the cross-heads
during the lifting of the Conway tubes (which was fortunately discovered in
time to prevent a very serious disaster), I do not feel that I should be justi-
fied in omitting in the case of the Britannia tube (where a mishap would, in
all probability, interfere permanently with the navigation of the Straits) any
one expedient which caution can suggest. With these feelings, therefore, I
have, with your sanction, resolved to follow the course alluded to, notwith-
standing it will protract the time of lifting in each tube a fortnight or three
weeks beyond the period originally contemplated. The arrangements for
floating the next tube (which, with that already being lifted, will enable us
to complete one line of rails across the straits) are in a very forward state,
and will certainly be ready by the 24th inst,, with a view of taking advan-
tage of the spring tides of the 7th and 10th of September, if it should be
deemed expedient to do so. Upon this point I am hardly able to decide
positively at this moment, for if any delay should take place from some un-
foreseen contingency, it may be advisable not to float the next tube until the
following spring tides. No great loss of time would ultimately arise out of
this postponement, as the interval would be occupied in removing the presses
from their present positions into those for lifting the second tube ; and some
advantage would be gained by lessening the time during which the principal
channel for navigation would be interfered with. On the other hand, I think
it very desirable not to allow the season to advance further than absolutely
necessary before the next floating takes place. This latter consideratiou ap-
pears to me so important that we shall not fail to avail ourselves of the
spring tides from the 7th to the 10th of September, if consistent with the
further consideration of the circumstances 1 have mentioned as atfecting the
question. The present arrangements will, I believe, admit of one line of
railway being completed in the course of November. This conclusion is
arrived at from the results of our recent experience, and cannot far mislead ;
but I am bound to add, that the operations are so dependent upon casualties
which man cannot control, that the most careful calculations as to time may
not be exactly verified. I do not, however, see any reasonable grounds for
doubting that one line will be finished throughout by the abovemcutioned
date, or, at the latest, before the end of the year."

Accident at the Britannia Bridge. — The raising of the monster tube of
this stupendous bridge to its final resting place is delayed for a month or six
weeks, in consequence of the lower part of the cylinder of the huge hy-
drauhc press on the Anglesea side bursting, on the 17th ult., with a tremen-
dous explosion, and in its descent on to the tube, a height of about 81 feet,
fell with a terrific crash. The press was at work at the time, and had raised
the tube about 3 feet during the lift this day ; and had it uot been for the
urgent and very precautionary means adopted, by packing and bricking under
with cement as the tube was being raised, the most dreadful consequences
were inevitable. One of the workmen was precipitated from a rope ladder
running from the top of the tube to the recess in which the hydraulic ma-
chine was fixed ; he was struck by the huge mass of iron in its ilesceut, and
now lies in a dreadfully crushed state. This most disastrous affair is to be
attributed entirely to a defective casting of the cylinder, and the raising of
the tube will, consequently, be delayed some time until the completion and
fixing of the new one in its place. The tube is now raised about 21 feet
above the water.

High Level Bridge at Newcastle. — The high level bridge over the Tyne at
Newcastle was opened for the passage of trains on the 2'2nd ult., the morn-
ing mail train south being the first that passed. There is only one line of
the permanent rails laid, hut the other is in a forward state, the carriage-
way is also just approaching completion, and in a few months it is expected
the entire structure will be made available for public use. The general
character of both mason and metal work of this magnificent structure is of
the most solid and substantial kind. The masonwork was let by contract to
Messrs. Rush and Lawton, the firm having been extensive contractors on
various lines where the works had required strength and solidity in the
masonwork, despatch in the execution, and a careful superintendence. Tliese
requisites have not been neglected with regard to this noble structure. The
contract for the metal and iron work was let to Messrs. Hawks, Crawshay,
and Co., in which they were assisted by the firms of Messrs. Losh, Wilson,
and Bell, and J. Abbott and Co. The bridge consists of six arches, each
having a span of 125 feet, with two curved approaches of about 69 feet in
length, formed of cast-iron pillars and bearers, from the design of Mr. R.

Stephenson. Messrs. Losh and Co. executed the castings for the approaches,
and Messrs. Abbott and Co. the arches. The stipulated price was about
120,000^. The arches are circular and made of cast-iron, the whole weight
of which is above 6,000 tons. The railway is carried over the backs of the
arches in the usual manner; and below this is formed, by suspension, a car-
riage and foot road for the convenience of vehicles and foot passengers.
This portion of the bridge, however, will not be completed in less than
another month, the workmen being busily engaged in laying down the wood
pavement.

Pesth Suspension Bridge. — The Mining Journal observes : " This splendid
bridge is generally supposed to have been completely demolished during the
recent events of the war operations between the Hungarians and Austriaris ;
but, up to the present time, w^are glad to learn, from a correspondent on
the spot, no serious damage has oeen done to the structure. In the first re-
treat the Austrian army was obliged to make from Peslh, the general gave
orders for the destruction of the bridge, and 60 cwt. of powder were placed
on it, 30 cwt. on each side, or under the chains, with the view of breaking
them. Both charges were fired at the same time; the person who superin-
tended the arrangements and fired the charges, was literally dashed in pieces.
The eflfect it produced on the bridge was the breaking down of the road,
which consists of transverse cast-iron bearers, to a considerable extent. The
vibration of the chains was. very great, and continued for some length of
time ; but after the retreat of the Austrians the bridge was again repaired.
The Hungarians, however, were obliged again to retreat over the bridge,
when Derabinski gave orders for its destruction. Mr. Clark, at Pesth, weni
to Dcmhinski, and remonstrated with him, and told him that it would be
nothing to his credit, as a general, to destroy so fine a structure. The ge-
neral told Mr. Clark that his orders were peremptory, but after a great deal
of negociation, he consented that some of the bearers should be taken down,
and put into boats, and taken down to the Island of Schutt, the boats to be
scuttled, and sunk in deep water ; this was done. Then came the Russian
and Austrian armies, when the bearers were taken up, and the bridge again
repaired."

Lighthouse. Lamps and Reflectors. — Avery interesting experimental trial
of the powers of several lighthouse reflectors took place on the evening of
Friday the 17th ult., at Woolwich, under the direction of the Trinity House,
and, we believe, at the request of the Boanl of Admiralty. The lamps and
reflectors tried were those in ordinary use by the Trinity House, and two
others on plans of the invention of Mr. A. Gordon. The Trinity House
lights, manufactured by Messrs. Wilkins, of Long Acre, are used in nearly
all the lighthouses of the kingdom ; the reflector is parabolic in form, and
the one tried was 22 inches in diameter, and 9 inches in depth ; the lamp of
tlie Argand construction, at 3} focal distance. One of Mr. Gordon's appa-
ratus consisted of a reflector of the hyperbola form, 22 inches in depth, and
19 in diameter, with Argand lamp at IJ focal distance; and the other of
Mr. Gordon's lights has, in addition, four annular glass refractors. The
lamps were lighted at half-past eight, on the upper story of the Royal
Marine Barracks, and the power of the lights directed to the village of
Rainhara, in Essex, a distance of about 6J miles, at which place, the gentle-
men to whom was confided the task of reporting on the efficiency of the
respective apparatus, were assembled. It a|)peared to be the almost unani-
mous opinion of the witnesses of the experiments that the Trinity House
light was the best on the whole: for although Mr. Gordon's lem apparatus
was certaitdy equal to the other when seen in a direct line, it was inferior
when tried at an angle of 7 degrees of divergence from the line of observation ;
and that, without the lens, was not equal in any point of view to the ordinary
reflectors. The cost, also, we are informed, would be in favour of the para-
bolic reflector.

Lighthouse, Cape Pine, Newfoundland. — There was lately exhibited at the
premises of Messrs. De Ville, and Co., 367 Strand, the lantern and lighting
apparatus for the lighthouse about to be constructed at Cape Pine, in New-
foundland. The dense fogs and sudden changes of temperature to which
that coast i.« liable, make it a matter of great importance, not only that such
a work should he erected, but that it should be of the most eflScient charac-
ter. Accordingly, the present apparatus has been prepared by the authority
of the Admiralty, under the direction of Mr. Alexander Gordon, whose
talent in this respect has already been thoroughly established by the light-
houses erected by him at Jamaica, Bermuda, Point de Galle, Ceylon, and
elsewhere. In the present lanterns, Mr. Gordon has introduced an important
alteration— viz., that of making the reflector more concave, securing thereby
a more powerful light. The tower is to be of cast-iron, and, with everything
connected with it, has been constructed in this country. Although the order
for the work was not given till the 23rd of April last, the whole will be ex-
hibited, 320 feet above the sea, on the headland of Cape Pine, during the
autumn. This despatch is the more extraordinary, considering the diflBculty
of access to the site of the lighthouse, there being neither road nor harbour,
and the surrounding district being uninhabited except by a few wreckers.
Mr. Gordon has united with the revolving light of the tower a new and in-
geniously constructed screaming apparatus, the invention of, and patented
by .Mr. George Wells, to act as a fog signal, instead of by guns, bells, and
gongs, which have hitherto been used for that purpose, but the sound of
which too nearly resembles that of the waves on a stormy coast to render
them really serviceable.

The Northern Artesian Well, near Southampton, has now been bored to
353 feet in depth. The progress has been impeded by a stone 22 inches
thick, and the supply of water has decreased through decay of the rods.

288

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[SEPTEaiBEB,

The Pacific Steam-Navigation Company. — A magnifirent iron steam-sbip
the ' Bolivia,' has been launched from Mr. Napier's building yards at Govnn. She has
been built for the Pacific Steam-Navigation Company, to ply between Valparaiso and
Puuama. She is 'JOO feet in length, and 27 feet beam, and nieasurea 773 tons burden.
She 19 on the paddle wheel principle, and will be propelled by side-lever engines of 3(JU-
horse power. There are some peculiarities in the construction worth mentitninK. There
is a full poop CO feet long; between the paddle-boxes there is a hurrlcane-iieck, and In
front a top. gallant forecastle. These three detks are 7 ft. 6 in. abovo the main-deck, and
are connected together by gangways. Ample promenading room ia thus aflorded on the
main-deck, sheltered from storms or oppressive heats.

Steam Screv) Apparatus. — The General Screw Steam Shipping Company's
• new ship.tlie ' Bosphonjs,' fitted with engines by Messrs. Maudslay and Field, lately
made a trial of her speed. The result was considered as the most satisfactory that has
ev»r yet been known under similar circumstances. The following are the particulars : —
The dimensions of the ship are— Length, \7^> feet- breadth 2.'> feet; measuring in tons,
S.il leet; horse power, 8i>; diameter of cylinder, Sf^iches : stroke, LM inches; diameter
01 screw, lu ft. 6 in. ; pitch, It* ft. 6 in. ; mean revolutions, 62*2 i length of engine-room,
3'> 'eet, which Includes a space for the stowage of loO tons of coals ; draught of water on
trial, forward, (J ft. 8 in., aft 9 ft. f5 in., the screw propeller being 14 inches out of the
water. The trials of the measured knot were—

First Knot h min. 10 sec., equal to 10 286

Second ditto (> „ 21 „ „ yj48

Third ditto 6 „ 4 „ „ &-8D0

Fourth ditto 6 ,, 9 „ „ 0756

Fifth ditto t; „ 54 „ „ 8-695

giving a mean speed of ship, In knots, 9-67D; speed of screiT, 11;!48 ; slip in knots,
\-ur>p; or 147 per cent. The * Bosphorus' left BlackwuU about 1 p.m., and proceeded In
capital style down the river, the wind at the time blowing hard from tha south-west.

English-built War-Steamers for the Austrian Government. — It is stated
that some time ago, the Austrian government or lercd the building of three large and
powerful steam men-of-war at Bristol. The contract for the structure of these vessels
was taken by Messrs. Patt^son and Co., ship-builders of that port, who immediate y pro-
ceeded to the execution of their engagement. The greatest despatch was used in the
construction of the lirst steamer, which was launched a *w days ago ; her equipment for
Bea ia now progressing rapidly. The two other vessels, which are of large tunnage and
power, are building in the yard of the contractors, near the Princes-sireet bridge.

Self-Heating Shot for War Purposes. — " We saw, the other day," says
the 'Glasgow Chronicle,* "in the establishment of Mr. Field, tin-plate worker. ArgylU
Btreei, a peculiar and apparently most valuabls mode of obtaining red-hot shot for large
K'uis. It is the invention of Mr. Scoulier, the lorema-i in Mr. Field's workshop, and con-
sists in the tilling the hollow shot with a highly-combustible powder, the composition of
which we are not yet at liberty to make public. Two or three fuse-holes are marie in the
shot, so that, when lired from the piece, ignition takes place, and t'le shot is made red-
hoi before it arrives at its destination. In the trial we saw, the shot, which was about 2^
inches diameter, was simply laid on the ground, and the composition was ignited by a
llgiil applied to the fuse-hole. Violent combustion immediately eosutd— liquid tire ap-
pt-ared to stream from its three fuse-holes, and the material becain« quite red- hot in a
few seconds. The inventor states that, when tired from a gun, a reil heat will be allained
in less than 20 seconds from its leaving its mouth. Tiie composiuon will burn under
water. It is easily made, and there is little doubt as to its eHiciency for war purposes, in
place of the present expensive and troublesome system of heating, the shot being put
into a gun in a cold state, ua with ordinary soiid balls.

Liquid Glue. — Messrs. Neuber and Watkins have invented an improved
liquid glue, which has the advantage of being strorger than the ordinary glue, end Is
ft. ways ready. It will unite almost every description of material, whether it be wood, iron,
or plaster.

Improved Method of Temperiyig Edge Tools.— T\\q. ' Scientific American*
gives the following process for haating axes or oihsr similar articles : — '* A heating furnace
is constructed in the form of a vertical cylinder, the exterior made of sheet-iron, lined
with fire brick, 4 ft. S in. diameter, or of such 4mtside diameter as to give it an inside one
of 4 feet and 3 feet hiph. In the interior of this cylinder, several fire chambers are
formed— usually four. The Inner wall of each fi-e chamber is 18 inches long, 4 inches
from front to back, and about 4 inches in depth— forming, in the whole, a circle of
3 ft. 4 in. diameter. Under each there are grate-bars, and air is supplied through a pipe
cennected with a blowing apparatus. A circular table of cast-iron, 3 ft. 4 in. diameter,
is made to revolve slowly on the level wiih the upper part of the said chamber. This
chamber is sustained on n central sb»fi, which pas-es down through the furnace, and has
its bearing in a step below it; a pulley keyed on to it serves to communicate rotatory
motion to the table. When the axes or other articles are to be heated, they are placed
upon the table, with their bits or steeled parts projecting so far over its edge as to bring
them directly over the centre of the tirt*. and fhe table is kept slowly revolving during the
whole time of heating, When duly heated, they are ready for the process of hardening.
Tlie hardening biith consists of a circular vat of salt water; within the tub or vat, a little
above the surface of the liquid, is a wheel, mounted horiiontally with a number of hooks
around the periphery, upon which the axes or other articles are suspended. The height
of the hooks from the surface of the liquid is such as to allow the steeled part only to be
immersed. As soon as the hardening is etfected, the articles are removed from the hooks,
and cooled by dipping In cold water. W'ith the best cast steel, a temperature of 5l0^
Fahr. has been found to produce a good result, in hardening in about 4^') minutes."

Evaporation. — The Bombay Times of the 25th of April, contains a report

of the monthly meeting of the Gt'ugraphicul Society of Bombay. The secretary. Dr. G.
Buist, made an interesting communication on a method adopted by him for ascertaining
the heat of, and evuporation from, the soil. The objects and details of the experiment
are stated to be as follows :— "As the ev.iporation from a shallow dish of water exposed
t() the sun, and liable to be raised to a temperature of 1()U° or 12u-', gives no idea wbut-
e^'er of the amoutit of evaporation from the surface of the sea, large pools, or lakes, which
vary but little in tempe ature, he was anxious to determine the amount of evaporation
from the surface of wet earth compared with that from the surfiice of a considerable mass
ot water. With this view, two zinc cylinders were prepared, .'1 feet in h-ngih and 4 inches.
in diameter, and secured by a strong brass ring at the top and boilom, carefully turned.
These contained fiftees pounds, or a gallon and a half of water each, temperatnre 82*^, or
nineteen pounds of the loose red earth to be found associated with trap rock When
filled with earth well shaken down they were able to take In six and a half pounds of water
to overflowing. Each was provided ivith a glass tube i-inch bore, connected with the
bottom ot the cylinder, and running parallel with it to the top: this was intended to
show how hi«h the water stood inside. The tubes were provided with scales divided into
inches and tenths from top to bottom. On filling one of them with earth, and then
adding water till it flowed over, thnt in the tube of course decreased rapidly by evapoia-
lion— but, strange to tell, after continuing to descend from noon till daybreak, it com-
menced immediately to rise again till II a.m., remaining motionless till 1 p.m., when it
began to sink, and so continued descending till about an hour alter sunrise, when it com-
menced Immediately to rise, and so continued till the same hour as during the preceding
day. This had gone on regularly for four days:- each day it sank from 2 to a inches, and
only rose half as much; the fluctuation was in all respects most perfectly regular and
symmetrical.'*— The importance of an inquiry of this kind extended over several years
and wide districts is great; and the simplicity of this arrangement appears to recommend
it to the attention of all who are in any way interested iu solving the problems that con-
nect themselves with meteorological phenomena."

Painting without Smell. — A bottle of sweet oil of tarpentine has been

sent to us for our Inspection. It appears to possesB the merits, when used with white
lead, of being free from smell; and at the satne time, the colour, when mixed with it, is
improved 1h appearance.

Stucco Colouring and Whitewash. — The following recipe is used for pre-
paring the celebrated stucco whitewash, used in the United States on the east end of the
President's house, at Washington. Take half-a bushel of good unslacked lime, slack it
with boiling water, covering it during the process to keep in the steam. Strain the liquor
through a fine sieve or strainer, and add to it a peck of clean salt, previously dissolved in
warm water, three pounds of good rice, ground to a thin paste, and stirred wliile boiling
hot; half-a. pound of powdered Spanish whiting, and a pound of clean glue, which has
been previously tiis^olved by first soaking it well, and then hanging It over a slow fire in
a small kettle, within a large one filled with water. Add five gellona of hot water to the
whole mixture; stir it well, and let It stand a few days, covered from dirt. It should be
put on quite hot ; for this purpose it can be kept io a kettle on a portable furnace. It is
said that about one pint of this mixture will cover a square yard upon the outside of a
house, if properly applied. Brushes more or less small may be used, according to the
neatness of the job required. It retains its brilliancy for many years. There is nothing
of the kind that will compare with it, either for inside or outside walls. Any required
tinge can be (^Ivea to the preparation, by the addition of colouring matter.

LIST OF NEW PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM JULY 24, TO AuGUST 23, 1849.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment^ unless otherwise expressed*

George Fellowes Harrington, of Plymouth, dentist, for Improvements in the manufac-
tu'-e of artificial teeth, and the beds and [mlates for teeth. — Sealttd August 1.

Florentin Joseph Ue CavaMlon, of Paris, chemist, for certain improvements in obtain-
ing carburetted hydrogen gas, and in applying tlie products therefrom to various useful
purposes — August 1.

Jerome Andre Dries, of Manchester, machinist, for certain improvements in the manu-
facture of ivearing apparel, and in the machinery or apparatus connected therewith.—
August 1.

Thomas Potts, of Birmingham, Warwick, manufacturer, for improvements in appara.
tus bsed with curtains, blinds, maps, and plans. — Augnst 1.

Benjamin Thompsou. of Newcastle-upon Tyne civil engineer, for improvements in the
manufacture of iron, — August 1.

William Gf-eves, of Biittle-bridge, saw-mill proprietor, for improvements in the manu-
facture of boxes for iratches, and other purposes. — August 1.

Julian Edward Oisbro^ve Rodgers, of High-street, Pimlico, Middlesex, professor of
cheniisiry, for improvements in the manufacture of white lead. — August 1.

David Harcourt, of Biimingham, for improvements in vices, and in the manufacture of

hinges ; and also in apparatus for dressing and finishing articles matte of metal.— Aug. 1.

Adam Vule, of Dundee, master mariner, and John Chanter, of Lloyds, gentleman, for

improvements in the preparation of materials for coating ships and other vessels. —

August 1.

Richard Kemsley Day, of Stratford, Essex, hydrofuse manufacturer, for improvements
in the manufacture of emery paper, emerv cloth, and other scouring fabrics. — August 1.

John Shaw, of Glossop, musical instrument maker, for certain improvements ic air-
guns.— August 1.

Augustus Roelm, of Paris, gentleman, for Improvements in making roads and ways;
and in covering the flo ts of ci»urt-yards, buildings and other similar places. — August 1.

James Murdoch, of Staples'-inn, mechanical draughtsman, for certain improvements
in converting sea-water into fresh, and In ventilating ships and other vessels; applicable
also to the evaporation of li(iuids, and to the concentration and crystallization of syrups
and saline solutions. (A communication.) — August 1.

John Parkinson, of Bury, Lancaster, brass founder, for improvements in machinery or
apparatus for measuring and registering the flow of liquids. — August 1.

Benj:imin Aingworth, of Birmingham, button-maker, for improve;nentsin ornamenting
iron and other metals, for use in the manufacture of gun-barrels, and ail other articles to
which the same ornamented metals may be applied.— August 1 .

David Clovis Knab, of Leicester- place, civil engineer, for an improved apparatus for
distilling fatty and oily matters. — August 1.

William Thomas, of Cheapside, merchant, and John Marsh, foreman to the said Wil-
liam Thomas, for improvements in the manufacture of looped fabrics, stays, and other
parts of dress; also in apparatus for measurinc. — August ih

Arthur Howe Holdsworth, of the Beacon, Dartmouth, esquire, for improvements in
the construction of marine boilers, and funnels of steamboats and vessels. — August 9.

William Furness, of Lawton-street, Liverpool, builder, for improvements in machinery
for cutting, planeing, moulding, dovetailing, boring, morticing, tongueing, grooving, and
sawing wood ; also for sliarpening and grinding tools, or surfaces; uud also in welding
steel to cast inm.— August K.

John Knowlys, of Heysham Tower, near Lancaster, esquire, for improvements in the
application and combination of mineral and vegetable products ; also in obtaining pro-
ducts from mineral and vegetable substances, and in the generation and application of
heat.— August 1).

Alfred Vincent Ne\vton, of Chancery lane, mechanical draughtsman, for improvements
in derricks for raising heavy bodies. (A communication, ) — August 9.

John Rutliven, of Edinburgh, civil engineer, for improvements In propelling and navi-
gating- ships, vessels, or boats, by steam and other powers. (A communication.)—
August 10,

Arthur Dunn, of Worcester, soap maker, for improvements in making soap. — August 16.
Frederick William Bodmer. of Paris, civil engineer, for certain improvements in ma-
chinery or apparatus for letter press printing.— August ItJ.

Richard Archibald Brooman. of Fleet-street, London, for improvements in machinery,
apparatus, and processes for extracting, depurating, forming, drying, and evaporating
substances. — August \6.

Jonathan Blake, of Mount Pleasant, Eaton, Norwich, surgeon, for certain improve-
ments in lamps.- August 1(>.

James Young, of Manchester, manufacturing chemist, for Improvements in the treat-
ment of certain ores and other matters containiug metals, and in obtaining products
therefrom. — August IH.

Louis Lemaiire, late of Paris, in the Republic of France, but now of the Hotel de
rUniv^-rs, Blackfriars, engineer, for improvements In the manufacture of ferules, for
fixing the tubes of locomotive and other boilers. — August l*i.

Charles Cowper, of Soutliampton-buildings, Middlesex, for improvements in machinery
for raising and lowering weights and persons in mines ; and in the arrangement and con-
struction of steam-engines employed to put in motion such machinery, parts of which im-
provements are applicable to steam-engines generally. (A communication.)- August 23.
Frederick Chamier, of Warwick. street. IVIiddlesex, commander in the Royal Navy, for
improvements in the manufacture of ships' blocks. (A communicetlon.) — August '23.

William Edward Newton, of London, civil engineer, tor certain improvements in steam
boilers. (A communication.) — August '2'6.

Alfred Vincent Newton, of London, mechanical draughtsman, for improvements In
manufacturing and refining sugar. (A communication.) — August 23.

ISIS."]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

289

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK,
FASCICULUS XCVIIL

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the winds.
To blow on whom I please.'*

I. Much mischief has been done by attempting — futile as such
attempt in itself is — to lay down express rules for almost every-
thing: in architectural design. Were mere rules all-sufficient, the
art would be converted into mere handicraft, and there would be
no occasion for architects at all, but only for builders and their
operatives. There has been by far too much of what, though it
may at first sight look very sagacious and profound in the specu-
lations or the reasonings of architectural writers, is very little
better than arrant quackery in point of practice, or mere verbose
vapouring in point of doctrine. He who trusts implicitly to rules,
or who adheres to them merely because he knows not how or when
they may be deviated from not only excusably but successfully,
can never be more than second-rate in Art, let the particular art
to which he applies himself be what it may. But the idol set up
for our worship at the present day is Precedent; and to that archi-
tects bow down and surrender up, if not always voluntarily yet
at the bidding of their task-masters, all energy of mind and all
inventive power, — rendering themselves little better than mere
automata which are moved by the clockwork of precedent and
rules. Vain is it to look for originality and imagination so long as
they continue to be tabooed and prohibited, if not formally and
expressly yet virtually, by a superstitious reverence for Prece-
dent.

II. At a banquet lately given at the Mansion-House, some one —
I will not say who — observed that an architect ought to possess
universal talent in his art, he being one day called upon to design
a palace, and perhaps the next to erect a hovel! ^Ve all know
that after-dinner speechifving is sure to produce a good deal of
twaddle and nonsense, but my Lord Mayor's wine must have been
unusually potent to produce such an eflFusion as that. Now, it is
fairly to be presumed that those who build hovels are never
applied to when a palace or palatial edifice is required: indeed, it
may be questioned whether an architect is ever employed at all when
no more than a hovel is wanted. Whether it would not have been
more satisfactory to those who pay for palaces — at any rate for
royal ones — had the architects engaged been building hovels in-
stead, is another matter. — With regard to the sapient speech here
commented upon, it would be just as sensible to say that a poet
must be equally prepared to produce an epic or an epigram, just as
the one or the other may be demanded of him, — to produce, one
day, lofty Miltonic strains, and on another an advertisement in
rhyme for the Moses of the Minories. Surely, too, there are
different walks in architecture as well as in all other arts, in any
one of which he who follows that one in particular may excel, al-
though he might fail in others; for it is not every one who, like
Sir Robert Smirke, is equally great in all subjects alike, be they

Post-Offices or British Aluseums but I will leave my readers

to guess what it might not be exactly becoming to say of so
great an architect, and moreover a living one, although I pre-
sume now quite defunct — professionally. And at that I weep
not, but leave those to weep who can, and who have tears at
command— perhaps a thumb-phial would contain them all.

III. It has been well said by Ruskin, that the young architect
should learn to think in shadow, — to which I add: and to think in
perspective also, and should study how to bring in piquant effects
arising out of it. Instead of which, study of that kind seems to
be quite neglected — or rather never thought of. I do not say that
architects are ignorant of perspective; — most of them, it may be
presumed, are fully capable of making perspective drawings from
their own designs; yet that is a very different matter from con-
sulting and providing for ultimate perspective appearance while
making the designs themselves. If there be any happy effect of
the kind, it comes of its own accord, unsought and unsolicited.
No wonder, therefore, that there is generally so much tameness
and insipidity in what, when looked at as mere "elevations" upon
paper, and with regard to their details and mere pattern-work, may
have promised well enough, yet afterwards fall very far short of
such promise. I would advise the young architect to think first of
all of his general composition — secure character and effect there;
and then, and not till then, begin to think of dressing it by work-
ing it up in detail; — whereas now, detail, and that alone, so as to
answer to some foregone if not bygone style, appears to be chiefly

No. 145.— Vol. XII.— October, 1849.

thought of. Here, to the seniors in the profession I would say:
my good Sirs, put on your spectacles; but to the juniors: open,
your eyes, and avail yourselves, while you can and as far as you
can, of the blessing of unimpaired vision — vision which is or
ought to be unobstructed, ought not to be blindfolded by routinier
methods, which tend to exclude all freshness of ideas, and to
prevent all diligent and well-considered study of the actual sub-
ject,

IV. At the time of the competition for the Army and Navy
Clubhouse, it was remarked in one publication that the opportuni-
ties afforded by buildings of that class for introducing piquant
effects and combinations of plan, and ingeniously varied forms of
rooms, were not turned to account. Nor is it to be denied that
such is the case; for among those in all our clubhouses there is not
one circular, octagon, or hexagonal apartment to be found, much
less one which exhibits any of the countless variations which may
be obtained by those forms partially in combination with others.
However spacious and lofty the rooms may be, .they betray, in
point of architectural contrivance and design, only tlie most quo-
tidian, not to say humdrum, ideas. A couple of columns m antis
at the ends of a long room, with perhaps some pilasters on its
sides, are made the ne plus ultra of their architecture; and even
that is merely borrowed from the standard Orders, instead of being
made to display some well-devised difference of treatment between
orders so applied and those employed externally. As to mere
decoration and costly furniture, — as to gilding and painting, win-
dow draperies, mirrors, chandeliers, and candelabra, there may be
enough, and perhaps a great deal to spare also; yet, such parapher-
nalia, alias toggery, may, provided people choose to pay for it, be
bestowed on any large room — even a mere barn. "What do you
think of these hangings?" was a question once put to one who
replied: "Before you hung this room you should have hanged
your architect." — Professional men, that is architects, are apt to
turn up their noses at decorators and upholsterers, somewhat un-
graciously and ungratefully too, since, as matters now go, it is they
wlio clothe and cover the nakedness of an architect's ideas for his
interior. Were it not for such allies to architects, we should get
nothing more than four bare walls for each room, — quite enough in
ordinary houses, but infinitely too little in palatial mansions and
palatial clubhouses.

V. It was but yesterday that I heard the entrance doors of the
British Museum compared to those of a gin-palace, with no other
difference than that of being magnified, — a very different matter,
by-the-bye, from being made magnificent; and in like manner, I
should say, that as far as interior architecture is concerned, many
of our clubliouses are no better than amplified and magnified
taverns. So far from showing anything like contrivance, or even
ordinary attention to the requirements of mere convenience, some
of them manifest the most unpardonable carelessness of plan.
There is, for instance, the "Athensum," nearly one-half of whose
PaU-Mall front is, on the ground-floor, devoted to that most un-
savoury of goddesses, Cloacina — in plain English, is given up to
water-closets! The "Union" is both Smirkish and sulky within and
without; the "Arthur" is most wretchedly planned; and the "Army
and Navy" will be humdrum in the extreme. From a published
plan of it may be seen, that instead of corresponding in its width
with the loggia, the vestibule takes in only the door and the window
on one side of it; the other window serving to light what, though
only a closet, 7 feet by 10, and which we at first supposed to be in-
tended for the porter, is dignified by the pompous name of the
Reception-room! Yet, although there is only a door and window
on that side of the vestibule by which we enter, the opposite one
is divided into three arches, ih such manner tliat the door is in a
line with one of the piers! Beyond those three openings is the
Inner Hall, in which is the staircase, placed not at its further end
so as to be seen directly in front on entering, but turned sideways,
whereby the first flight not only cuts up the space, but leaves no
more than barely room to pass by it. On the opposite side is the
door leading into the Coffee-room; but which, instead of directly
facing the first flight of the staircase, is put just a little on one
side, so as to be also out of the axis or centre of that wall. Nor
can that offensive architectural blunder be a mere error in the
drawing, because in tlie Coffee-room itself that door comes in a
line with one of the chimney-pieces on the opposite side of tha
room. Taken altogether, the plan is excessively poor; but such
exceedingly gross blundering as that just pointed out would be
unpardonable even in a Pecksniff.

38

200

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

QOCTOBEB,

THE BRITISH MDSEUM.

Whether the British Museum he altogetlier so defective in point
of accommodation as j\lr. Ferjrusson represents it, or not, certain
it is, that any further increase of accommodation — and it is already
hef^inninjr to be required— is rendered impracticable, in conse-
(|uence of so much space that niifrht have been rendered available
being now so disposed of that it cannot be built upon at all. It is
somewhat extraordinary that the great advantage, both archi-
tecturally and otherwise, that might have been derived from bring-
ing the principal portico and general line of front nearly up to the
street, so as to be in advance of the main body of the edifice, which
being completely shut out from view, might then have been
wholly, as it is now partially, of brick, — it is extraordinary, we
say, that it sliould not have struck if not Sir Robert Smirke him-
self, at least some one or other among those to whom he submitted
his designs.

It was not too late even when the present facade was about to
l)e commenced, to adopt such plan, for it would not at all have
interfered witli the general plan as now executed, although it
would greatly have enlarged and otherwise improved it; and gal-
leries and rooms which are now complained of as being imperfectly
lighted owing to there being colonnades before them, would have
been relieved from such obstructions. Unluckily, however, it was
then deemed advisable by many-headed wisdom not to comply with
the demand for the model of the intended facade being exhibited to
the public; although, however impertinent the demand itself was,
the refusal was infinitely more ungracious, if nothing worse. The
Trustees were sulky — were determined to stave off criticism as
long as they possibly could, and by such manoeuvring have now
got a very sulky-looking though would-be-classical structure,
which criticism treats very unceremoniously, and not without
reason.

Some time ago, an idea was shown in thi^ Journal — not very
satisfactorily, indeed — for imparting greater variety and dignity to
the colonnaded facade, by making the central octastyle of the
Corinthian order, and carrying it up higher than the rest. Yet,
as it happens, it is perhaps better that Smirke's design was ad-
hered to, unless alteration had been extended a great deal further.
To make anything consistently grand and of uniformly classical
character with the dwelling-houses which he has planted out as
wings — and in which the donkey-ears of Cockneyism stick out
from the lion's hide of Hellenic lonicism, at once ludicrously and
lamentably, — would have been impossible. If the present facade
he not a wretchedly bad composition, it can be only because it is
no composition at all, but a mere jumbling together of archi-
tectural incoherences, and some of them of an exceedingly prosy
and prosaic kind. It will, perhaps, be said, that its poetry is to
come, for we are told that the pediment is to be filled-in with
sculpture, and will have statues placed upon it as acroteria. And
when that shall have been done, all the rest will look poorer and
more insipid than it does now, and the general composition — so to
call it — will show of more patchwork character than ever. Hardly
will a sculptured pediment serve to reconcile us better than at
jiresent to the architectural sluttishness of letting a brick carcase
and sundry little excrescences that are anything but decorative or
dignified, come into sight along with the facade. In all the views
which have been published of the Museum, those offensive eyesores
have of course been kept out of sight; and not they alone, but
also what ought to have been — and what perhaps, the architect
himself takes, or rather took to be, sufficiently worthy features in
the ensemble — viz., the official residences, which even considered in
themselves are so exceedingly jejune in point of design, that
should, as is by no means unlikely, the opposite houses be in course
of time rebuilt with any aim at architectural display, those wing*
will look more insignificant than ever.

Let it not be thought that we merely abnse, and that perhaps
somewhat spitefully, the fafade of the Britiuh Museum: condemn
it we certainly do, and most decidedly toti, but not without point-
ing out its serious and now irremediable defect* and short-
comings, which, most unluckily, ig all that can now be done, and
which ought to be done, in order to prevent another fine oppor-
tunity— though one equally fine is not likely to present itself for
a long time to come — from being thrown away in a similar manner.
And even the Museum will, all unsatisfactory as it is, be instruc-
tive, if we profit by the errors and mistakes there committed.

Mr. Fergusson has said: "1 never found fanlt without satisfying
myself that I could do better;" and we proceed also to justify our
heavy censure of the fa9ade of the Museum by submitting to our
readers an idea of our own, which we surrender up to their criti-
cism.— The general line of the fayade should have been brought up

to the street — that is, within a few feet of the foot pavement, or
as far as the extreme wings now are; and have been made to form
a nearly continuous range of building, 570 feet in extent, com-
posed of two wings running east and west, and leaving a space of
about 200 feet wide between them, where the centre of the com-
position would have retired about 50 feet backwarder, and would
have presented a magnificent Corinthian octastyle connected with
the wings by curved screen colonnades of the Ionic order, which
would have been that of the wings, exhibited in two tetrastyle
porticoes directly facing each other, consequently at right angles
to the principal one, whereby the three pediments so disposed
would have combined and contrasted with each other in an e(iually
novel and picturesque manner, and would have produced a happy
play of perspective. We would have given 50 feet* to the height
of the Corinthian columns, and made that also the entire height of
the secondary, or Ionic order; so that the diameter of the columns
in both orders would have been alike — viz., 5 feet; and the inter-
columns also equal througliout. Some — we might say many — per-
haps, will object to the associating two distinct orders together in
the same composition; yet, those who can tolerate an Ionic and
Corinthian order combined together by the latter being placed
over the former instead of by the side of it, or who do not feel
scandalised by the licentiousness of the Greeks, who made no
scruple of placing Ionic columns behind Doric ones, cannot pos-
sibly with any consistency object to the marrying together two
different orders; or if they require a positive precedent for it,
they may find one — such as it is, in the Ecolede Mediciue at Paris,
where a Corinthian and Ionic order — such as they are — are inter-
mingled with each other, yet by no means very happily, altliough
that piece of architecture is one of considerable reputation — the
Ionic columns being continued within the prostyle, notwithstand-
ing that they are not much above half the diameter of the Co-
rinthian ones which come immediately before them. Besides
which, not only is the prostyle itself so exceedingly shallow, that
it is scarcely entitled to be called one, but both character and
effect are greatly injured, if not destroyed, by the addition of an
upper story whose cornice is in continuation of that of the larger
order, and whose windows, disproportionably large in themselves,
rise considerably higher than the architrave of the Corinthian en-
tablature, in consequence of which, the hexastyle beneath the
pediment has the look of being depressed; whereas, had that upper
story been a low attic one, carried up only to the level of the tops
of the capitals of the larger order, the latter would have acquired
that nobleness and energy of expression which, though aimed at
for it, have been missed.

Should the immediately preceding remarks be thought both an
ill-timed digression and valueless in themselves, we leave them to
be set down as impertinent without pleading for their excusation;
and proceed further to explain our very visionary scheme, alia^
dream of what might have been.

The treatment here suggested would, we conceive, have secured
for the central octastyle of the Museum an unusual degree, not
only of positive loftiness, but of relative loftiness also. The whole
would have been upon a dignified scale, the columns of the lesser
or Ionic order being 40 feet high, which, though about 5 feet
lower than those of the present facade, would have been of the
same diameter — somewhat less lanky of course, yet, as to height,
rather above than at all below the average. Into many and various
particulars of detail and decoration we are unable to enter, bo-
cause they would be scarcely understood unless exhibited in a
drawing, therefore must leave it to be judged whether, indepen-
dently of the great advantage gained by leaving space behind
the wingst for additional buildings, should they be required,—
such a general arangement, presenting a decided architectural
focus, with both richness of columniation, and diversity of it, and
with three porticoes grouped together in the manner described,
would not have been decidedly superior to what we have now got.
■Whatever may be alleged against it. It must be ;illowed that it
would be stamped by consistency of design, by largeness of man-

• Smc-Ii diineiisioas may be appreciated by comparisoD with the fullowing : —

liiigo JoaeB* Corinthian portico at Old St. Paul's 46 feet.

Portico ot the Assize Courts, Liverpool 46 „

Portico o£ the Koyal Exchange 45 „

Portico of the Hritisl) Museum 45 „

The columns of our Ionic ortler would have been 5 feet less than those of the present
building; yet for those of a secondary order that height would he do luconsideruble
on«.

t By the portico being advanced, a spacious entrance hall would be obtained between
that and the main body of tlie Museum ; and beyond that, — provided the worlis bad not
been at the time too tar advanced to admit of such alteration being made— the principal
staircase might have been i)iaced,and the space now occupied by the staircase would
have formerl au additional gallery lighted from its north side. It may be further observed
that our side colonuades would have formed a communication between the three porti>
coei, whereas those of the present facade are in the predicament of " passages that lead
to Dothiug."

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

£91

ner, and by grandiosity carried on throughout. The composition
itself also would be strikingly novel, — at least, we know of no
similar one among all the numerous buildings or designs with
which we are acquainted.

To look now to ourselves, it will probably be said that our idea,
containing as it does a central portico, with columns 50 feet high,
— or about three more than those of the Pantheon at Rome, — •
is, to say nothing of the panels of reliefs for the wings, some-
what extravagant. In our opinion, far greater extravagance, with
nothing at all adequate to show for it, has now been committed.
In the first place, an inner court, which might just as well have
been, like the body of the edifice, entirely of plain brick-work,
has been faced with stone, to the extent altogether of upwards of
1,100 feet; and there also are hidden no fewer than 16 engaged
columns and 12 antse, which, with the columns and pUasters of
the fafade, and the pilasters between the windows of the houses or
external wings, make altogether no fewer than one hundred and
twenty-sij; columns, antse, and pilasters; whereas our design would
require no more than forty-four. Again, as to length of ashlar
wall, there is now altogether, the inner court included, about
2,400 feet, and in ours not more than 1,000, or thereabouts. Still,
taking into account the greater degree of richness and finish be-
stowed upon it, we do not suppose that there would have been any
saving at all as to mere cost, but we may safely assert that there
would have been infinitely more to show for the money; which is
infinitely more than can be said of the present structure, for, con-
sidering what the occasion demanded and the opportunity afforded,
it is upon the whole the most prosaic and soulless production of
modern times, with the single exception, perhaps, of that minikin
mass of mesyz/inene bight Buckingham Palace. O, England! put
not thy confidence in princes — at least, not in matters of taste;
and beware of trusting in future to the sapience and the taste of
Trustees.

C.

DISCHARGE OF WATER FROM RESERVOIRS.

The Theory of the Cojitraction of the Movement of Water flowing
from Apertures in thin Plates, in a Reservoir in which the Surface
of the Water is maintained at a constant altitude. By J. Baver,
Lieutenant. (Translated for this Journal from Crelle's ^Journal
fUr die Baukunst.' Band 25.)

{Continued from page 264.)

When H = 0, the upper edge of these orifices is on the surface
of the water, and

h. Q = k's/{igl) . I P.

Expand in the equation (rf) the power (H -|- J)i in a series, and we
have

i{(H-l-ft)?-H3} = h[iih 4-

h

4H4

24Hi

+

64H3'

= 6(V(H + Ji) _-iL + _il-;_ )

^ 96Ht 128H3 '

Neglecting the other terms, we have approximately —

Q = t'6/V(45) V^CH-fiJ).

This is the formula commonly adopted : it gives, however the
quantity of discharge generally too large, and is applicable only
when the values of b and H are so related that the neglected
terms disappear; in practice, however, this occurs when the value
of H is not very small.

When in equation (4) m = 0, the orifice is a triangle (fig. 1), of
^•hich the height b = arf, and the base 1= ef; and in this case we
have for the quantity of discharge

k Q = AV(45)-|/UH-f i)?-l-

|(H-

Hi?-(H + 6)t|

When H = 0, the vertex of the triangle is in the surface of the
water, and

/. q = k- v(ipi) I . I w.

From equations (; and e), it follows that the quantity of dis-
charge through a triangle is f as large as that through a rectangle
which has a base and altitude equal to those of the triangle, when

the vertex of the triangle and the upper side of the rectangle are
in the surface of the water.

. <7

\n-

d f

rl f

s

If in equation (Jt) / =: 0, the orifice will also be a triangle, but in
an inverted position (fig. 2). The altitude is the same, i, which
here ^ a!'d", and the base m = op. The quantity of discharge is

m. Q = kW^ig) ■

(H+ip-Hi

-m

When H = 0,
have

the base ?« is in the surface of the water, and we

Q = A-',s/(*iri)

\ mh.

Compare this expression with equation (/) on the hypothesis that
m = /, and it follows that the quantities of discharge through both
triangles are to one another as 3 to 2.

Make in figs. 1 and 2, (f:= op, or /= m, and add the equations
(Jc) and (m): then for the quantities of discharge through a paral-
lelogram of which tlie heiglit =^ b, and the base =: m, we have

0. Q = kW{iy) . I m {{H + i)3 - Hi I .

Compare equations {d and o) : it follows that the quantities of dis-
charge through a rectangle is equal to that through a parallelo-
gram of equal area and base.

Increase in equation (»() the altitude of pressure H hy b ; so
that instead of H, the value H -\- b is substituted. Then for the
quantity of discharge through an orifice as ef'g (fig. 3), —

;,. Q = /fV(4s)f»»{^[(H + 26)l-(n-K6)5]-(H + t)§}

Add now the equation {k) to equation (p), and put l=:m : it will
be thus found that for the quantity of discharge through a paral-
lelogram in which one diagonal is vertical and zz::2b = d, and the
other diagonal horizontal and equal m,

q. Q = IWi^a) A f { (H + <i)5 _ 2(H -1- ^df + Hj I .

In this equation \i d=: m, the orifice is a square, in which one
diagonal equal m is vertical, and we have for the quantity of dis-
charge,

r. q = kW{*0) -^l (H + "0^ - 2(H + i m)i + H^}.

When here H = 0, the summit of the square orifice is in the
surface of the water, and the quantity of discharge is

s. Q

: ftV(4^m)

^{4-V2}.

If the side of the square equal I, m'=i2P.

Put this value of / in the foregoing equation, and we have for
the quantity of discharge from the sides of the square when the
diagonal is vertical,

t. (i = kW{igi).i-.-^'v2{i-V^}.

From equations {g and )•), (A and t), the proportion of the quan-
tities of discharge through the same square is found, when in one
case the side, in the other case the diagonal, is vertical or horizon-
tal.

If the altitudes of pressure be measured from the surface of
the water to the under edges of the orifices, we have only to put

38*

292

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrs JOURNAL.

[OCTOBEB,

11 -\- b or II + / or II + m = PI. The equ.ition (r), for example,
gives in this case —

Q = k\'{ig)^{ H'^ - 2(ir- im)i + (11- m)?} .

13.

e

/:

Co-efficient of Contraction of Square Orifices.

In order to estimate the quantity of discharge from a square
orifice, the value of co-efficient k' must still be found. As the
magnitude of the contraction by § 7 is dependent on the mag-iii-
tude of the diagonal or central width of the orifice, the co-efficient
for different forms of the orifice must vary in proportion to these
widths or secant lines. The co-efficient for a square orifice must,
therefore, be considerably different from that for a circular orifice;
it may however be estimated as soon as the mean value of all the
secant lines of a square is known.

First, then, the co-efficients for a square and a circular orifice
under otherwise similar circumstances, must be in the inverse pro-
portion of their contracting forces.
e. T /T Ti Now these forces, by § 7, are pro-

portional to the radii or secant-
lines, and conseqently are as the
radius of the circle to the mean se-
cant of the square. By the mean
secant is here meant the mean value
of all the secants, as ci, which can
lie between cd and ce.

In order to find these values, the
method in § 2 for estimating y will
be adopted.

Let di::=x, ic=y, cd^=h!—ieb; then

y = v{(iSO'-' + -r'}; and, /^(;u?=/rf^V{(iO'+.^°}

Take this integral between the limits x = 0 and x=: ^l ; then,
' "ydj! = iil)- { i V2 + i log (1 -}- v^2) } .

Divide now hy/dj; = J/, and we find lor the mean secant,

a. »' = i/{V2 + log(l+V2)}.

The sqjiare, however, of which the side =/ has an area equal to
that of tlie circle of which the radius =r; whence r-ir = P, and
/ =:: r^ir. Substitute this value in the above expression, and we
find

6. J/' = irv/7r{v2 + log(l-hV2)}-

Call now the contracting force in the circular orifice /„, and in
the square orifice /,; then, fo '■ f'= r : y; and

/, _ r _ 4

/, y VT{V2 + log(I + v/2)}*

We have seen in § 10, respecting circular orifices, that the co-
efficient of contraction, by adopting the true velocities, is constant
for all altitudes of pressure and ^ (i "■)*. By comparison of square
orifices with circular this, however, is no longer the case, while the
velocities in botli orifices at the same depth below the surface are
neither equal nor for different altitudes related by a constant
proportion. Hence it follows that the relation of these co-effici-
ents to one another, depends not merely on the contracting forces
but also on the velocities. As these velocities, however, for dif-
ferent positions of the orifices give results differing from one
another, the comparison ultimately consists in finding points which
with respect to the velocities are to one another in constant relation.
When such points ai-e found, the velocities which tal<e place at
them, will serve for a nearer computation of the co-efficient. Of
all points which can here come into consideration, those may be
considered most proper in which the pressures sustained by the
water towards the orifice are in equilibrium, or the centres of pres-
sure.

The next step is to determine the relation of the co-efficients of
square and circular orifices to their velocities. Let the expression
Q = /cFV be taken, in which the quantity Q is the product of the
co-efficient Ar, the area of the orifice F, and the velocity V: then,
wh en Q remains invariable, the product k\ must be constant; and i

k must increase in the same proportion in which V decreases, and
conversely. Hence it follows that the co-efficients are in inverse
proportion to the velocities; they are also in inverse proportion to
the contracting forces. Put, therefore, V^ and V, for the veloci-
ties at the points of comparison or centres of pressure, and k, k',
the co-efficients of contraction of circular and square orifices:
then k : Ic — /,V, :/uV„; and therefore for the co-efficients of
square orifices.

Designate, for circular and square orifices, the distance of the
centre of pressure below the surface of the water by H^ and H, ;
the altitudes at the upper edges of the orifices by Ag and /», ; the
radius of the circle by r; and the side of the square by /. Then
we know that

«° = '^o + '- + i(Af^'- "^ = '^' + i'+I5(£H0-

Until now nothing is determined respecting the relative positions
of the orifices; they must however be assumed so that the mutual
relation of the velocities to one another may not be neglected.
This object will be attained when the under edges are at the same
depth, and then it follows that

A„ -1- 2r = A, -I- ;; or, A^ -1- 2r — / = A,.

Substituting this value in the above expression for H^,

H, = Ao + 2r - y + '"

12(Ao 4- 2;- - iO'
When both orifices are of equal magnitude, r'vz^P^ or rz=

Substitute this value of r, and put A^ ^ ml, we find
. H„^[..+ ;L+|4..(„.+ -L)|--],

^'"+f,-4+{'^-('"+J,-0}"'>
Vq designate the velocities at the centres of
and as ^ =; (ii^)'* we have by equation (c).

/.

H,

=

WTien

Vo

and ^

pressure

Vo

H
- H

A ■

kr

~ y

V'^{2-t-log(l-Hv^2)}

= 0-6064.

Substitute this value in equation (rf), and we find for the general
expression for the co-efficients for square orifices,

g. i'=-60';4-[ni + -5M190+

4ir(m+-5641S0;

}*{

m + •628379 +r

1J(»1+ 620379) J

For m = 0, the altitude of pressure = 0, and we find k' = -5836.
For m — a very large value, the expressions in the brackets are
together nearly equal to unity, and i'= -eoei. For m = 1000, the
altitude of pressure H= 1000 1, and k' =; •60638. In the following
table the co-efficients for square orifices for different values of m,
from 0 to 1000 are collected.

Table I.

Values

Coefficient

Values

Co-efficient

Values

Co-efficieot

Values

Co-efficient

of m.

k'.

of m.

*'.

of m.

*'.

of m.

k'.

•1

•5836

1-4

•5968

10

•6046

30

•6058

•2

•5849

1-6

•5977

11

•6047

40

•6059

•3

•5862

1-8

•5984

12

•6048

50

•6060

•4

•5877

20

•5990

13

•6049

60

■6061

•5

•5890

25

•6001

14

•6050

70

■6061

•6

•5903

3

•6010

15

■6051

80

■6062

•7

•5913

4

•6022

16

■6052

90

■6062

•8

■5923

5

•6029

17

•6053

100

■C062

•9

•5932

6

•6034

18

■6053

200

•6063

10

•5939

7

•6038

19

■60.-.4

300

•6063

11

•5946

8

•6041

20

•6035

500

•6064

1-2

•5959

9

•6044

25

•6056

1000

■6064

The sinking of the level (§ 10) vertically above the orifice of

IT

the reservoir is observable for values of to = -y = 5, and has con-
siderable influence only when m is less than 5. We will therefore
call those altitudes of pressure for which m is greater than 5, for
which also the sinking of the level may be neglected without sen-
sible error, greater altitudes; and those for wkich m is less than 5,

lSt9.]

THE CIVIL EXGINEER ANP ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

293

for which the sinking must be taken into consideration, less alti-
tudes.

The estimate of the quantity of discharge for greater altitudes
may be effected in the following manner : — When H signifies the
altitude of pressure above the upper edge of the orifice, and / the

TT

sides of the square, seek first for m = - . For this value of m,

find in Table I. the corresponding value of the co-eflScient k', and
then the quantity of discharge niiiy be estimated by equations (g)
or (?) §. 11. For practical purposes equation (i) suffices; and the
altitude will be the whole perpendicular distance measured above
the orifice, and designated by H".

When H'' = 1-2U8; Z=-2meter;
equation (i),

logV(H" + JO =

I

= m = -eOSi; and by

]ogP

log ^/ (_ig) =

log: k' =

•05943
•60206—2
•64633
•78061 — 1

logQ
or 122-580 liter.
1 22-659 liter.

= •08843—1 or Q = •12258 cubic meter.
The experimental result (Tab. III. No. 4) gives

Table II.

Comparison of the Co-efficients for Greater Altitudes, with experiments

with Quadrilateral Orifices.

Name of

Side of the

Co-efficient

Kxptrlmenter.

Orifice /.

Altitude H.

Ratio m.

found by
experiiiieui K'.

Ponceiet

0-2 metr.

11250

5-625

•6024

,j

1-2150

C075

•6040

13323

6-661

•6030

1-3720

6 860

•0028

Michelotti

2 Par. Zoll.

6F. 9"10"'-lPar.

40-915

•6033

^j

21 8 10-7

130-442

•6056

6 8 11-2

80-933

•6086

r*

>»

11 9 8-0

141-666

•6061

w

»»

21 9 88

261^733

•6047

Compare the co-efficients here found by experiment by means of
the ratio m with those computed in Table I., and it will be found
that the greatest error does not exceed J per cent.

(To be conlinued.J

REVIS'WS.

An Algebra of Batios, founded on simple and general Definitions; with
a Theory of Exponents extended to Incommensurable Ratios, and
the Propositions of the Fifth Book of Euclid easily and symbolically
deduced. By Henry B. Beownino, Architect, Stamford. Cam-
bridge: Macmillan, 1849; 8vo. pp. xiv + 133.
In the olden time many of our great architects were also pro-
found geometers: — yet, not many of oicr architects, but many of
the continental ones. Indeed, with the solitary exception of the
builder of St. Paul's, we look in vain for anything approaching to
even moderate acquaintance with the principles of geometry
amongst English architects. The "riile-of-thumb" is the univer-
sal guide; and mere taste is considered infinitely more valuable
than any amount of science, Far be it, however, from us to
undervalue taste: though much that is obtruded on the public as
the very testhetic of architectural taste, is only the wild arabesque
of a prurient imagination. We give honour where honour is due
for all developed conceptions that are worthy of the name of
"tasteful:" but we shall continue, as our pages will prove we have
hitlierto done, to censure with the utmost freedom those unculti-
vated vagrancies of fancy that are so often obtruded upon us as
the emanations of superior genius.

Though many architects have been able goofiieters, th«r atten-
tion has been for the most part (indeed almost wholly) confined to
those forms of it that had a more or less direct bearing on archi-
tectural problems — that is, to "Descriptive Geometry," or to the
statical conditions which were essential to the safety of a struc-
ture. Few of them wandered into the regions of pure abstraction
—into the philosophy upoa which geometiical evidence is based.

To do this bespeaks a still higher order of logical intellect than has
been evinced in the cases of De I'Orme, Jousse, Derande, Lan-
dau, Frezier, or even by the great Buonarotti, or the universal Da
Vinci. Uesargues, indeed, is the only marked exception — one of
tlie most marked exceptions even in mathematical history. He,
from wliom Pascal acknowledged that he learnt almost all he
knew, whom one of the most original writers of the age has called
"the Monge of his centurj'," and whose researches have in some
important matters anticipated discoveries of our own age, — such a
man is an honour to the profession, independently of any profes-
sional works he executed in his native city of Lyons.

We confess that to find an architect publishing a work on such
an abstract subject as that of Euclid's fifth book, notwithstanding
the single precedent of Desargues, came upon us by surprise; and
from what we happen to know of the geometrical character of
English architectural writers and professors, it was not without
some misgivings that we opened it — fearing to encounter a heap of
crude conundrums, that would confer little honour on the class to
which Mr. Browning belongs. A slight glance, however, over its
pages, w ith a pause here and there, sufficed not only to remove our
apprehensions, but to convince us that it deserved a more deliberate
and systematic examination. Such an examination we have made;
and though we take exception to an important step of his investi-
gation, and remit the subject back to his consideration, we yet form
an exceedingly high opinion of the skill and address of several
detailed parts of his subsequent investigations. Let him remove
this one objection (fatal to his whole system as it at present stands),
and we shall gladly acknowledge that he has conferred a gieat
boon on mathematical science. As it is, he has made a step in
advance: but till his foundations are better laid, he has but an
insecure footing.

As a great deal of misapprehension on the subject of proportion
exists, even in "high places," we have thought it desirable, for the
sake of clearing away a little of this, to enter into some account
of the real character and difficulties of the subject, at greater
length than we usually devote to a review.

We have little doubt that the geometry of a succeeding and not
distant age will wear a different face from its present one ; and no
one branch of it will be more changed in its physiognomy than the
doctrine of proportion. The gioniHrie rccente of the French is
finding its way even into the higher class of our elementary books:
but any reference to this would be foreign to our present purpose.
We only purpose to point out what are the difficulties, and the
present degree of success attained in dealing with them, that
attach to the one specific subject — that of Ratio.

All men of even common observation without pretension to sci-
ence, have a rude notion of proportion: but it is rude indeed with
the greater part of them, if we accept their language as an index
of their conceptions. We hear them talk of the "proportion
between two" things, or of "one thing to another;" or one thing
being "so many more times as large" as another. These are really
neither more or less than illiterate vulgarisms of phraseology;
whilst at the same time they point to an imperfectly expressed
conception of what constitutes ratio. Let them be slightly modi-
fied, and we get Euclid's definition {lib. v. def. 4) of ratio — viz.
"Ratio is the relation of one magnitude to another of the same
kind, with respect to quantuplicity" — that is, how often (how many
times, parts of a time, or times and parts of a time) one magni-
tude contains another of the same kind. This, we say, is the rude
idea; and were all magnitudes commensurable (that is, such that
every two of the same species had any finite common measure,
however small) it would be adequate to all the purposes of geome-
trical science : — as, for instance, did one magnitude contain the
other 10, 25^, lOOfg^, etc. times (as these have the common mea-
sure 1, ■^, Tffu, etc.\ the entire doctrine of proportion could be
established with respect to such magnitudes with simplicity and
facility, as will be shown presently. When, however, we come
(to take a familiar instance) to compare the side of a square
with its diagonal, the latter is /v2 times the former — that is,

412136 figures ad infinitum ,. , „ xt .

1 J- ^ .. •- times the former. Now, view

lo''''- how we will, ^ cannot be a finite number; and hence all
10^"

the reasonings which involve an expression of the relation infinite

terms, must be nugatory in respect to such a ratio as that of the

side of a square to its diagonal. This method, though the earliest

and most obvious, is clearly an insufficient one on which to build a

universal system of such relations. It nevertheless suggests an

idea — and that is much.

2:m

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[OcTOBEn,

'Ilio iil(jebraist vievrs tlie PxprossiDn rnlin ns a fraclioii,' and to
liiiri, tlicreforp, it has a certain (l('f!;ree of intellitfiliility, tlioiiifli it
ninst of necostiity be somewhat confused and very iti(oni|dete.
He seldom cares, however, for this: )iis iiiacliine is in f;('ar, and )ie
can (rririd out results at liiw own jdeasure — tliouj,"^!! his intellect
have as little to do with the process as the heart of a Tartar has
»ith the pravers and clianns wliirh he puts into his little windmill,
to perform alike his <levotions and his jiliysical cure.

'I'he ireometer takes a different course. A ratio, like a fraction,
in itself and alone, is a mere conception of the mind, and, taken
«/«;ic, without the least use. His ohject is not to (ijid or express
the relation of one magnitude to anotlier, hut to ilc/cniiiiic the. lawn
liy which sevenil mapnitudefi, havin;? a s|iecified set of relations,
flre connected tofjether in respect to some other set of relations.
To effect this, as far as propcjrtion is concerned in the task, he
t'oni|)ares the ratio of two magnitudes with the ratio of two
others; and the e.\|)ression of tlie sameness of these ratios it is,
which III' calls ^^iinipiirtimi." Uiidiu' tliis aspect, projporti(ui becomes
intellifjihle. Still this assumption furnishes no criterion which
determines wljether f(mr inafjnitudes, ijirrii hi/ lunj ntlirr miiditinii.s^-
are proportionals or not; and we xccm to have made little way —
thouf^h, indeed, the step was a. wiile one.

In coni|parin;^ any ratios capalde of numerical exjiression in
finite terms (that is, comrnensurahh^ (piantities), it would readily
be discovered "such eipii-multiples of the first and third and such
t'qui-multiples of tlie second ami fourth" coulil 1)0 taken, that the
multiple so taken of the first shiinld lir ecpial to that of the second,
and that the multiple of the thinl wintlil hi; thru eipial to that of
the fourth. 'I'he result is obtained by cross-multiples. It would
naturally occur to iiupiire what would take nlace between the
niiiltiplea of the third and fourth if the multiple of the first
should be taken bo as to be /Greater or to be less than that of tliu
Hecoiid: and the third and fourth liavinjjf in these cases universally
the same relation as to f!;reater, equal, less, this relation was proved
to be a priipcrli/ iif pnijiurliona/s, as long as they were coinnicnsur-
ahle.

"But are those properties confined to commensurable propor-
tionals alone?" would be a natural (|uestion. 'I'he primary one,
respecting the e(piality of the multiples, it would ho clear at once
could never he more than approximately fulfilled by finite cross-
multipliers:'' but during that a]iproximation, however closely
pushed, the other two iriteria were invariably fiil/lUed — as, for
instance, in the case of the siiles and diagonals of two S(|uares.
It would also be seen and rea<lily proved that in all coinmen-
surable magnitudes, those other two criteria being made the hy-
pothesis (or the definition of propiirti(uiality), the princi])al con-
dition of "ecpial-eipial" could he shown to follow as a conse-
(jiience; — so that, in reality, those two conditions ("greater-
greater" and "less-less") were ade(iuateto form a ilefining criterion
of propiu'tional magnitudes, as long as they were c(unineiisui'able.
The "etpial-equar' criterion was ;i conseipience of conimensura-
liility only; and the other two lieitig capable of existence in-
dependently of commensurability, were not of necessity bound
by that peculiar relation.

Kucliil, then, hail good reason for choosing the "complicated"
criterion of |)roportion which constitutes his fifth definition, and
(if iioii-proportionality which forms his seventh. The tests of
greater and less, completely and without other aid defined the
])roi)orti(Miality of commensurahles; and they were eipially appli-
cable and definitive when the magnitudes were iiicoiiiiueiisurable,

I Not ratius null/. It liiti, ulti-r tin- t'niicy of Kniii^nU, Am|l^rc, iiiiil lliifuiiicy,
becDiiii^ u fniiliton iit (^iinibrldKe lu fUiiHliIi-r an intiflu an a rutin, ami a ratio a» a Irac.
tlon. One conlil alinoMt think that the merry p'renchlnen meant to "hoax (he jill-
ferliiR .lohntunii," by ijlvhig them a bait that wunld render them rldlculuuii tu all men and
throu^'h all time,

'i When four mnpnltude* nr« fflven by^flctual «ihlbUlon, witbout any speclQed connec-
tion or dependence, of efmrse It li only hy a nerles of cxperlnienta upon the multiple!
thtit w»t can brln^ the dellnlthni to hear upiin the proof of propurthiinility or diHi)ropor-
tionidlty. Hut tn Kenmetrleal liiij.lrleif are ihev ever so «lven > —There U nUvayn given a
relation amoai/itt t/ii'm : and ntibjcct to thin relation It la that they are to be proved to
be proportional or not.

8uub a remark would he alinont too trivial to make, were It not that we bave observed
It to escape the notice ol sturlentu Mo often aH to create yrcat va^ueuesa In their mlinla, of
the olijecta and coridUlonH of proportionality. " How am 1 to aasure tnyHelf that the
four lines drawn here are proportionala } Must I make experhnents with (he inuUipleH
tin I am satlNlled > And bow, liuleed, can 1 be satltilied idiiudntely and loKicidly, froiii ii
limited nundler of expi-rlMieuts, such as I can iimke, that the conditions will be unlvera
nlly fulUlled ?" — QocHtloiis sncli as these from InteiilKent'stodents show that this note Is
not superflnoiit. We have many a time heard them asked— and In no captious spirit.

I* The approximation may be made by narrowUiK the limit of diOerencu between tbe
eipilniultlpleH to luiy ylvun Unite extent. 'I'hu problem is, manifestly — "Two magnitudes
ol the same knid bciiiK given to lind multiples of them that shall <lltrer hy a nuk^nltnde
less than nily Klven ina)^iiVLude." The process would be that Kivcn iiy ICuelid tor rnullii<
the common measure of tvvo inaitnitudeH lu book\x. prop. 7, till we obtained a remulndwr
less than tbe (tlven miV({nUude. These operations are aiitlimelically represented )ty a
continued fractitm, which, reduced to u comtuon fraction, baa Us nuiucrutor uud denoiui-
nutor lur the required uiultipllcrH.

where the "equal-ctiual" test could not be applied, hut, indeed,
where it was not at all required. This definition, then, beini<
alike applicable to commensurable and to incommensurable magni-
tudes, is fully justified in principle, and contains all the ipialitiea
of a philosophically constructed definition. The only olijectioa
urg(!d against it is its "(WH/y/cr;///"; but there is to be urged
against all others which essentially differ from it — their incomplete
iii'xx, (imltiijidtii, or iniiiiiilii'iihili/i/.

'I'hose who are accustomed to look into Simson's "notes" on his
edition of Kuclid, will see how often he has made changes in the
text; and, in fa(^t, of all editions, as I'eyrard has remarked, this is
the farthest removed from the whole of the existing texts, or of
books jirinted from those texts. We can hardly, therefore, refer
to Simson to ascertain the views of Euclid upon disputed points,
and especially upon points of great delicacy of thinking. Simson's
labours on this book ;ire indeed exceedingly valuable; and he him-
self in (uie of his notes expresses that to be his own opinion. His
very expanded expression of the fifth definition, however, has more
of the verbosity of the lawyer th.in of the neat discrimination of
the philosophical geometer. Williamson translates the Greek
literally as follows : —

"Magnitudes are said to be in the satne ratio; the first to the second, and
the tliird tu the fourth; when tlic equi-inultiplea of the first and third, ac-
cordini; to any iimlti[)lication, are at the same time less, or at the same time
equal, or at the same time greater, than each af the equi-iuultiples of tbe
second and fourth, compared with one anotlier."

If, therefore, the texts of Euclid could be depended on (which
they certainly cannot) as genuine and uncorrui)te(l, wo should
think that Euclid had committed a grave oversight by introducing
as a ])art of a general definition a circumstance that was only
accidental and confined to a limited class of cases — the introduc-
tion of the "e(|ual-e(piar' test as an essential one. The two are
universal and sufficient: the other is accidental and casual — in-
capable of being generally made to exist, — and even when so made
in any particular case, adding no force to the ])roof.'

'I'his we hold to be a ([uestion of paramount importance in the
doctrine of proportion; and more esjiecially as it has done much
towards not only creating confused views of proportion, hut given
rise to numberless visionary books and the loss of much valuable
time both of writers and readers. Men of mediocre minds do not
select such topics as this for their crude speculations; and it is
unfortunate that able men should be led the dance of years after
an ii/iiii.1 /'atitiix.'' There has indeetl been a race of jiersons who
have "reformed" proportion, — so also has there been who manu-
f.ictiired "geometry without axioms," — and another still, who
"s(juared the circle ' and "trisected an angle." It is not, however,
of these cognate races that we speak: but of men of truly ])hilo-
sophic minds, who have been led by the admission as genuine of a
phrase occurring in a probably corrupted text, or by an accident-
ally suiierfluous jphraso of Euclid himself, to establish the necessary
co-existence of the three tests instead of two.

That one great obstacle to the reception of Euclid's method of
proportion arises from the cumbrous language in which it is
delivered, there can be no doubt. The tautology in the expression
of the conditions of the text, and enunciation of the conclusions
deduced by them, is so wearisome to the eye and ear, as to operate
like an opium-]iill or the "passes" of the mesmerist — to prodnt^e a
catalepsy of mind, if not a idiysical catalepsy. The (ireeks, how-
ever, had nothing that could bo called "pure arithmetic " (their
nearest ai)iiroach to it being the doctrine of numbers as delivered
in Kucliil's 7th, Hth, !)th, and partly the 10th books), and of course
their language respecting its most elementary truths is necessarily
im|)erf'e(^t. This is one cause, indeed the chief one, of thi'.funii of
the fifth book. For instance (to use the language of De .Morgan),
"V. ] , 2, 3, .5, (i. These are simple propositions of c(uicrete arith-
metic covered in langu.ago which makes them unintelligible to
modern ears. The first, for instance, states no more than that

^ It Is very probable that Ruclld gave (supposlnt; he gave it at all) tbe ** e(iual-equol"
test as an Incidentally occurring variation of form of the test depending on the Other
two conditlonsi and which. In the cases where It might occur, would of itself be suf-
bcleiit. We caimot, however, bring ourselves to think that he gave It as u part and
parcel of the fundamental drliidlion. We do not need the testimony of Simson to the
corniptlon of Kuclid by "unskilful commentators;" for almost every page ctmtalns In-
ternal evidence of the ' Klements' not being lu liielr original condition. The present
hioica li ke a scboliuiu or corollary concentrated into the text. Poor Tbeou I be bus much
to answer for.

* We may Instance here o circumstance that has been often, and Indeed generally,
misappreliendetl— vti. the Props. 7, S, 11, In. of Kuclld's lifth book. It is very natural to
say that " if ratio be the relatlcm lietwcen two maftnitndes with respect to ijii'intiti/, then
equal magnitudes have tlie sjiine relatUm as to i/nantity to any third magnitude of the
same species, and fience the same ratio." Ail this is very true, and so are corresponding
objections to the other three: but it was incumbent on Kuclid to show that this result
also flowud as a cmaetpience/ro/tt his dejiltition. These propositions formed u practical
test of the correspondence ot bis system with our common notions, wliere they could be
brought into comparison. Kxtreme cases are the severest tests of every system, fiu-
clld'a bears it riguruusly.

1819.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

295

Um acres and ten roods mnke ten times ns much lis one acre and one
rood." — VV^e want more of iiritlimetical aii<l liMf,'-iial reform in tlie
iiftli book of Kuclid, than reform (or reconstruction, or novelty)
»kf iirf::ument. Tlie essence of Euclid's reasoriiiiir is pure.

In all the editions of Euclid, the ma^^iiitudes are reiiresented hy
lini'x — never by any other species of lif^ure, as anj^les, circles, poly-
fliins, polyhedra, cones, or spheres. Vet tlie reiisiuiiii^ itself, as
well as the lani;iiaf;e in whicli it is couched, is perfectly general —
is appliciihle to all classes of mai;nitudes (as niinihers, time, or
force), as well lis to (j;eometrical entities. A C(Mitined view of the
Application of proportion is thus .i!ii/(/exteil; and as no vvariiinf.f is
^{iven, the suffnesti(ui too often taUes the pliice of a positive and
wiforced limitation of the doctrine to linear maijiiitmles. That
tliis is no imafjinary case is plain from this — that many able and
Hceomplislied mathematicians, who were no mean thiiiUers neither,
have «.v.v»»/(:(Z this limitation in their variations of Euclid's proofs.
For instance, in the demonstration of r. IK, it has been proposed
over and over apiin by Eucli<rs coniinentatwrs, even down to the
])resent day, to interchaiifie the secoiul and third miifjiiitiides as
the ])reliminary to an abridfjed proof! If, then, ttie musters in
gt>ometry can thus delil)erately enunitiate such a liiiiitation, wo
CJinnot wonder that the ine.\i)erieuced student should be led to
form it from the sufrfjestions of the )i!.;urcs. Of course the cure is
obvious: make, in all cases where the hypothesis does not imply
all beinfi; of the same species, the third and fourth matrnitudes (d"
different species from the first and seconil. Let, for instance, the
first pair be lines, and the second angles— the Hrst be aiifjles and
the second rectangles, circles, pidybedra, or cones, 'i'he only ciui-
ditiou that is essential is that the two members of each [lair shall
bo of the siiiiie sjieeies — no matter what that species be. It is not
even necessary that the members of either pair shall bo of the
mime form; for it is uot form but magnitude which is the relation
under discussion.

This last remark is an answer to objections wliich have been
made to the use of any other figures but lines; namely, tliat as far
8S we know at this stage of our learniiiij, wo cannot make multi-
jiles «( any other figures of the siime/orm (or, at least, of all otlier
figures), so as to fulfil the conditions. Docs Euclid prescribe
nutiieiiexs (if form as a condition amongst the eiiui-multiples? or
even that the multiple shall constitute one figure (in the ordinary
sense of the word figure) similar to that of which it is the multi-
ple.'' Every child knows that the twenty equal bits of clay which
he has rolled up into "marbles," if made into a single one, would
be twenty times as large as one of the small (a suli- multiple) mar-
bles; and this child would admit, the terms being made intelligible
to him, that the twenty small marbles formed as truly (or even
more truly) a multiple of one of them as the large ball' into which
they were all combined, did. It is left as a discovery to be made
by fastidious geometers, that the reverse is the case! — or at least
to found an objection to any argument upon such an assumption!

We have spoken of iiroportion mainly in reference to geometry;
but neither the fundamental idea nor the laws (d" proporlimi are
jiiH-uliar to magnitude, jiroperly so called — though doubtless ori-
ginally suggested by them. It is even rendered familiar to early
hoyhood in its cxtensioUfhy the (piestions which we solve in arith-
metic, under the heads of the "rule-of-three, direct and inverse,"
tlie "rule-of-five," etc. We have, indeed, brmiglit (rudely and
im])erfectly laid down, it is true, hut still brought) under our
notice four temis, which are, generally, in pairs of different spe-
cie.s, even as to form;" as money and the goods the money will
purchase: ami always different in reajiect to concrete signillcatiim;
H^ principal and interest, length and breadth, etc. Wa have,
tliexefore, much elementary training to introduce the conception
of sameness of ratio, where the pairi* of magnitudes or entities of
aiiy kind are of different species, the first pair from the second.
Yet, withal this, writers enforco the total forgetfulness or abstrac-
tion (if all concrete considerations when we come to general in-
quiries concerning proportion; and teach us to view it in reference
to numbers or the symbols of number only, and to consider the
ratio as only a numeriual fraction arising from the division of the
first term by the second or the second by the first. This carries
the research back to its first rude and imperfect conception: but
the dilficulties of that conception are got over by considering all

• It U »lm.ige what on Influtncs curly.formed hoblts have upon ns throuKh llff.-n
niuulfrstiitlon ot which Is .Imost universal In respect to "statlnK a rule-of.tlirec sum."
. "^ "'7'<"V*'' "f'*'; l'"^ celebrnu-d Krancls Wulklnghuine, to make the llrat and third
Urnis of the same kind. In occorduucs ivllh the vencrnl.le precepts irodltlunally descended
from Iho early Italian merchants, and as rellt;lou»ly iidhcrcd to by our " school-arithmetic "
mannfacturers as ihough It were " a aavluR article ol their Inlth." No elementary author,
wo bellev.. belore Uounycastle, ventured to depart Irom this mode of statement • and. as
far OS we know, his heresy has been almost left to die with him. We most confess that
for ourselves, even alter the llflh decade of our life has been completed, we have some-
times detected ourselves unconnclously returning to tlie old worship, and grsvely perform-
ing the old rllM In solving a queatluii In the '• rulj.of.thrcc I "

functions of all numbers, whether expressible in finite terms or
not, as niinibcrs — tliiis including (not very logically, indeed, but
with a logic that suits and satisfies most algeliraists) the iiicum-
mensurablcs as well as cominciisiiraldes.' I'roiiortion is then
expressed as an eipiation botwi'en two siiidi ratios; and all the
properties of projioitiouals are then obtained liy ordinary algebraic
transformation. We do not say that such a process is altogether
inconclusive with resjicct to iiruiuirtidniil nnnilnrs: but we do say
that the "otl'-liand way" in which it is usually developed, is so far
wanting in precision ami completeness, as to render the logic of it
very dilficult to discover. It is slwrt enough; and the facts ar«
visibly tabulated — which, to too many minds, are the great deside-
rata of mathematical learning. The indolence of niaiikiud will
always render "shtu't cuts" in si'iencc matters of high estimation;
and we fear, too, that the system of t'oUegiate and I'niversity
examination, involving so much "book-work," and enforcing so
much "writing out," has a tendency to periictuate this stenogra-
]diic system of de\elo[)ing science. Nevertheless, we feel con-
fident of this — that an algebraic system of proportion, (•onijilcfe
in all its jiarts and written out intelligibly, would be but little
less expanded a treatise than one founded on the most general
views and carried out to the same extent. Nay, more, — we think
it would be extremely dilUciilt to devise a cinirso of reasoning
upon algebraic ratio, Hhicb can be considered perfectly legitimate,
but which does not iuvoh e principles that are far more geiieriil than
those of simple algebra — indeed, the most general jiriiiciples <d'
ratio. This is taiitaiiiount to saying (and we mean it to be) that
all denionstrati<uis of proportion which confine the idea of ratio
to arithmetic in its most generalised forms, is little less than a
mathematical farce; — either on the one hand giving us mere le-
gerdemain under the title of demonstration, — or, on the other,
representing the principles which are oonimou to all ratio as pecu-
liar to mere aritliiuctic.

The structure of Eiiclids 'Elements' (including the books omit-
ted by Simson), leads us to the ciniclusion, that the illustrious
(ireek had in view to include arithmetic and geometry in his
demonstrations — the abstract and concrete. In truth, the idea
of yijrcc, as we view it, does not appear to have ever been mooted
as a conceivable a]ii>lication of tlii" exact methods of research in
the Schoid of I'lalo; and lime is no otherwise an clement of the
ap|died mathematics, even now, than in connection with force.
Contrary, indeed, to modern practice, the (jreeks treated number
in subordination to, and by means id', geometry; instead of treat-
ing geometry as subordinate to, and by means of, number, as is
the modern fashion. His reasoning, too, reaches both views; and
as he did not conceive any other entities cmild come under the
shelter of exact science, he straineil after no greater generaliza-
tion either of idea or language. He saw arithmetic (the pro-
])erties of numbers) only as a subordinate branch of geometry — or
at least as entirely dependent upon geometry for all its evidence;
and he gave, thcrcl'ore, to his doctrine of ratio a form which ren-
ders this de|ieiidence obvious and (as he thought) real. We can
not lieri>, however, enter into the instructive iinpiiry which the
circumstance just ijuoted suggests: we may perhaps find an
op))ort unity hereafter.

Many writers have attemjited to give the fifth book of Euclid
in general terms and symbids, unrestricted by the references to
figures:" but, in general, both their language and their jirofessed
intention have besptdien their treating it as a branch of geometry
only. Of all these writers, I'layfair is perbajis the most successful;
and did we know less of the details of his work than we do, we
shtuild I'eel great confidence in this editor's quick logical [lercep-
tioiis having prevented him from making any change that would
vitiate the reasoning. Yet (our readers must believe us, unlikely
as the statement may appear), we have heard not only good geo-
metrical investigators and teachers of mathematics of high repute

T It may be worth the rendur's while to deulODBtrat«, after Euclid's manner, the tniili
of such a proportion as thlK: —

2 ; .v/2 :: ^/ri ; 2,
or Indeed any other Involvlne radicals or tratiHCeinlcntals. It eqnullynpplles to all forms.
lint Itft him keep In mind that only /'/ift'^tTinimhers sre admlttsalile as multipliers, \\ he-
tUt}r /unctions o/ Htiinlirrft can fwr be rendered uvallable a» muUipiitrs, ainl the leidlU
uia( y of the procuss rendered unassailable, we offer no optniuu : It bus uot yet been done
at all events.

8 The assumption of n tetter of the atp/tatiet to dcHlgnate nny magnllude or (luantUy,
has been considered by many persons to constitute the research rlependant on Unit as-
Stmiptl.in ay an algcbralinl process. They would not say that Ihe process was alKcbraical
(even Ihonyh it may be) If the whole were written out In " Kn^-llsb. Dictionary words."
The mode of writing has no more to do with the ()nestloii than Tentcrden steeple with
Goodwin Sands. 'I he fact Is, the magnitude or tpninlity Is labelled with tlnit letter ss a
condition for more brief cxpreHsion, — It becomes the name of the (luanllty, not a iiMioeii.
cai represenlnlion of its t'tttue. In algebra it Is solely the name of a nnmtier, not of a
concrete (/uantitt/. Kven in tliose very Imaginative places, a government olllce oi a nier.
chant's counltUK-honse. he most he n " dull fellow" who supposed that "Form A" or
" Ledger B " designated the number of llgures, words, or letters In the one, or the actual
amount of the "Cr. balance," In the other. Yet the ciuies are analogous.

296

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[OcTOBEB,

call this very book of Playfair's edition, an algeliraiml treatise .'
The confusion of idea we so frequently meet with amongst mathe-
maticians of no mean fame, with respect to the relations or analo-
fj;ies of arithmetic and geometry, is most extraordinary. Who that
really understood the grn\indx of his science, could for one moment
confound an abl)reviated mode of writing (which is all the essen-
tial cliaiige made by Playfair of Simson's edition of the fifth
book) with the abstractions of arithmetic ?

It will he generally conceded that nothing could come from the
]>en of Professor De Morgan which did not bear the impress of
profound and independent thinking. He is no imitator. We may
differ from him : but we can never fail to admire tlie earnest spirit
in which he writes, nor to wonder at the extraordinary resources
of his intellect. Of course, then, when (a dozen years ago) he
l)ublished his tract on the 'Connection of Number and Magni-
tude,' we were prepared to expect that the doctrine of ratio would
l>e placed in a new and more philosopliical light than before. The
great object of the work, however, turned out to be — an attempt
to bring intelligent pupils into a position to philosophise on this
subject for tliemselves. In this the author has been eminently
successful; and his illustrations are admirably adapted to prevent
the student from resting with those vague and misty notions, with
which too many even of matured geometers are so supinely satis-
fied.

Mr. De Morgan starts with "an extension of the arithmetical
notion of ratio, to magnitudes in general and especially to
space-magnitudes." Perhaps, au fond, his view is not diiferent
from that which we have taken some pains in the earlier part of
this review to enforce; although we view the arithmetical idea as
a mere suggestion of the general one, whilst Mr. De Morgan con-
siders the general one as an extension of the arithmetical one.
'l"he difference may, possibly, be only verbal ; but we think we see
sonietliing more in it. Our views, as well as his, are now before
the reader — whether they wholly agree or partially differ, we sliall
not here further stop to inquire, for it is time to say a word or two
respecting Mr. Browning's work itself.

Mr. Browning "takes the bull by the horns," and at once starts
with the consideration of "concrete quantities."^ The theorems
respecting the limits of variable concrete quantities are both neat
in form, and we think, witli the author, tliat they are new in man-
ner. These are brought in for ulterior purposes.

We have quoted Euclid's fifth definition litei-ally translated from
the Greek : we now give Mr. Browning's. "The ratio of A to B
is a relation of magnitude, which is determined by comparison of
A with the several fractions of B in regard to equality, excess, or
defect : so that C has to D the same ratio which A has to B, when
C is equal to, or greater than, or less than any fraction of D, ac-
cording as A is equal to, greater than, or less than the same frac-
tion of B." (p. 11.) The neatness of the Euclidean definition is
here replaced by a too close imitation of the manner of Simson's
version. Setting this aside, the marked difference between it and
Euclid's is, — that the first and third terms are here compared re-
spectively with fraet ions of the second and fourth; whereas, Eu-
clid compares eqni-multiples lyi the first and third with etjui-niii/ti]i!es
of the second and fourth. This difference is not an essential one,
except it shall prove that an essentially different mode of subse-
quent demonstration can be built u])on it.

Mr. Browning asstanes as an axiom that when three terms of a
proportion are fixed upon, a fourth exists. There is nothing in the
details or the spirit of the ancient geometry analogous to this
assumption. Euclid never assumes the existence of anything
which he does not first show how to actually find; and most
(though not all) modern geometers of any authority have fol-
lowed his example in this respect. Still, we will not quarrel with
tlie assumption, though we could wish the author had been able to
dispense with it.

If the proportional quantities be commensurable, Mr. Brown-
ing's fractions will amongst their varieties express the ratio of any
<iuantity whatever to its fellovv. The test "equal-equal" amongst
Euclid's eijui-multiples are there formed by the multiplication of
the terms by tlie denominator of the fraction. So far, then, we
run nearly parallel with Euclid's argument, however different our
routes may seem to be. Nothing lost and nothing gained, then,
by the change, thus far.

There is one point of view under which exception will be taken

9 We wish the term " quantity," or Homething analogous, were by common consent
adopted instead ut " magnitude." The " magnitude 01 a force " is indeed a common but
an aivltvvard expression , and it has led to much quibbling and inconsecutive reasoning in
I tie elements of mechanical science. But the " magnitude of a period of duration" in-
volves an absurdity loo gross eveu for tlie '* magnates " of sclentilic license in language
and demonstration. Yet we tvant the phrase " magnitude of the time," in order to per.
tect generality, if we must be compelled to use the term magnitude iu these researches.
Evea Mr. Broivnlng is not uuiformly consistent on this point.

by many to Mr. Browning's definition: — that the cases are very
few in which we can exhiint the arbitrary fractions of any one of the
quantities concerned; either in the same form as the original,
which we hold to be a superfluous condition, — or in any form
whatever, which is a more weighty consideration. We only indi-
cate it here — not discuss it.

If algebra be considered, as many writers of the present day
consider it, the "act of combining symbols according to given
laws," there will be as many algebras as there can be formed
laws of combination — that is, innumerable ones. Mr. Browninjy
says of such algebras, tliat each "should have Rules limited by its
Definitions; and that an extension of the Definitions is the only
license for an extension of the Rules." Considering the "Defini-
tions" to signify the laws of combination, and the "Rules" to sig-
nify the resulting formulas, we quite concur in his statement. We
must guard ourselves, however, by saying that the interpretation of
those resulting formuliB, and of everything obtained by means of
them, must also be consistent with the ideas upon which the laws
of operation were founded. W^e can introduce into the interpre-
tation nothing different from, nor even more special than, what we
introduced amongst the original conditions. Nothing can be e.x-
plicitly got out of an equation that was not implicitly put into it.
The extrication is all that we can do.

This is a view which, obvious though it be, is often forgotten in
the course of a general system of reasoning. We so often find
assumptions which are not contained in the "definitions" in such
reasonings, that we habitually look out for them ; and though, by
some modification or other, some of these may be removed or other-
wise deduced, yet it veiy often happens that the whole force of the
reasoning as reasoning is rendered nugatory. It appears to us that
Mr. Browning has a little to do in the way of amendment here, —
though we cannot suggest h->w it is to be done.

His definition of proportion (p. 11) is tantamount to this: that if

A = I . B, then C = | . D;
A > ? . B, then C > ^ . D;

A Z

B, then C Z

D;

for all values of y and z expressible in finite terms. In this if y and
z be not numerical symbols, we apprehend that the term "fraction"
will be deemed inappropriate ; and not only so, but that the defini-
tion itself is without distinct meaning. We have viewed them,
then, as "numerical symbols " On the next page, however, they are
for the present deprived of tlielr arithmetical character, and are
directed to be understood as " symbols of ratio" only. This seems
to us to invalidate the definition itself; and we apprehend that, to
render this consistent, a new definition of ratio which does not
involve any numerical considerations whatever, ought to be given.
We remit this to Mr. Browning's consideration.

Again, what idea can we form of adding, substracting, multiply-
ing, and dividing ratios, when the ratio itself is deprived of all
defined meaning.? Symbols of number they are not allowed to be,
— and symbols of magnitude (or of any kind of quantity) it would
be preposterous to suppose Mr. Browning meant them to be. This
however is the pivot upon which Mr. Browning's escape from the
difficulty of incommensurables entirely turns. How it happened
that the very terms " factor" and " quotient" occurring in his in-
vestigations respecting his symbols of ratio, did not enforce upon
his mind that he was really conducting an arithmetical inquiry, he
himself, by looking back at the history of his own mind during the
research, will be best able to tell. Such lapses are, however, to be
expected in all attempts at logical generalization founded on mere
generalizations or changes of definition. Definition is a two-edged
sword ; and few persons in wielding it escape a cut or two from the
back-edge.

Till this fundamental diiBculty is removed it would be useless to
pursue the mere consequences. It is sufficient to say generally
that the work itself manifests great ingenuity and much real skill
in dealing with very abstract and difficult topics. There are many
instances of consummate address in dealing with the details of his
reasoning ; and we tliiiik tliat when a more intelligible basis is laid
for the superstructure, the greater part of his materials will be
found to be of a- long-enduring character. It is by these that we
were led in an earlier page to say that Mr. Browning has " made a
step in advance;" and with the caution we have given, we strongly
recommend bis book to the careful reading of all who take interest
in this recondite inquiry.

PNEUMATIC LIFT

PLATE XVMI,

1849.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

297

ON A PNEUMATIC LIFT.

On a Pneumatic Lift. By IMr. Benjamin Gibbons, of Shut-
End House, near Dudley. — (Paper read at the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Birmingham.)

{With Engravings, Plate XVIII.)

The Pneumatic Lift described in the present paper is employed
to raise the ore, coal, and limestone for charging; four smelting fur-
naces at Corbyn's Hall New Furnaces, near Dudley. In some dis-
tricts the levels of the ground admit of the furnaces being ciiarged
by wheeling the materials on a level platform from higher ground
to the top of the furnaces, but in general tliese have to be raised
by machinery to the level of the top of tlie furnaces, the heigiit
raised being' about 40 to 50 feet. The usual plan of raising the
materials is by an inclined plane, which rises from the ground to
the top of the furnaces at an angle of about 30°; there are two
lines of railway upon it, and a travelling platform on each line,
drawn up by a steam-engine by means of a chain passing over a
nulley at the top of the inclined plane. The two platforms ba-
lance one another, one of them descending while the other ascends,
and the top of each platform is made horizontal and works level
with the ground at the bottom and with the stage at the top of
the furnaces, so that the barrows of materials are readily wheeled
on and off the platforms; several barrows are carried by each plat-
form. A rack is fixed on the inclined plane along the centre of
each line of railway, and a catch is fixed on the moving platform
which falls into the teeth of the rack in ascending, for the purpose
of stopping the platform and preventing an accident in the case of
the chain breaking; but the use of this catch is found to be incon-
venient in practice, and is generally omitted. Tliere is a difliculty
in stopping the platform at the required level, and the inclined
plane is olijectionable from the space which it occupies and the
expense of its construction.

Where the inclined plane cannot be employed, the power of the
steam-engine is not employed directly to draw up the materials
vertically by a chain, because of the difficulty in working it con-
veniently and safely, to stop the platform at the correct level for
wheeling the barrows on and off', and prevent the risk of serious
accident by the chain breaking, particularly in the night work. At
some iron works an endless chain is used for this purpose, with a
series of buckets fixed upon it, which are filled with tlie materials
at the bottom, and empty themselves into the furnace by turning
over at the top. This lift is not suitable for su)i]ilying more than
one furnace; and when tliere are more than one furnace it is most
advantageous to employ a lift that will take up tlie materials in
the barrows, ready for wheeling at the top to tlie different fur-
naces.

Another plan for lifting vertically is by means of a water-
balance; the platform on which the barrows of materials are raised
is suspended by a chain passing over a pulley at the top, and a
bucket is attached to the other end of the chain ; the jilatform in
descending draws up the empty bucket, and when the platform is
loaded the bucket is filled with water until it overbalances the
loaded platform and draws it up. There is an important objection
to this plan, that the bucket descends with an accelerated velocity,
and a friction break has to be used to check the velocity to prevent
a violent concussion on stopping its momentum at the end of the
descent; this causes a risk of accident from breakage of the chains,
and the friction break is also liable to derangement and extensive
repairs.

At the Level Iron Works near Dudley an instance occurred
where a vertical lift had to be introduced in consequence of the
furnaces being raised 16 feet in height; there were two furnaces,
originally 3+ feet high and raised to 50 feet, and at the original
height the materials were wheeled on the level to the top of the
furnaces. When the height of the furnaces was increased, the
materials were required to be raised 16 feet, and a vertical lift was
necessary in consequence of the situation being so much confined
by a canal as to prevent the adojition of an inclined plane. For
this purpose the author of the present paper constructed a pneu-
matic lift, worked by the pressure of the air from the blowing-
engine that supplied the blast for the furnaces. This lift was
designed with the object of avoiding the objections to the plans of
vertical lifting previously in use, and obtaining a safer and more
economical application of power.

This Pneumatic Lift consisted of a heavy cast-iron cylinder,
4 ft. 4 in. diameter inside, closed at the top, and inverted in a well
filled with water, in which it was free to slide up and down like a
gasometer; this cylinder was suspended from the top by a chain
fastened to the circumference of a pulley which was fixed on a

horizontal shaft above the level of the top of the furnaces. A
pipe from the air-main was carried down the well and turned up
inside the cylinder, rising above the surface of the water, and when
the blast was let into the cylinder through this pipe the cylinder
was raised in the water by the pressure of the compressed air
against the top; this pressure was about 2 lb. per square inch. A
platform for raising the barrows of materials was suspended by a
chain from another pulley on the same shaft as the former pulley,
and the platform was guided in its ascent by vertical framing.
The cvlinder was heavy enough to draw up the platform with the
load upon it by descending into the water when the blast was
withdrawn; anil the empty platform was lowered by admitting the
blast into the cylinder and thus raising it. The cylinder was
lowered again by opening a valve which let out the compressed
air, and its velocity of descent was regulated by opening this valve
more or less. The velocity of the platform both in rising and fall-
ing was completely under command, by regulating the opening ot
the valves for admitting or letting out the compressed air, and the
velocity was gradually checked towards the end of each stroke
with certainty and ease, so as always to stop the platform without
concussion. The height to which the cylinder was raised was only
5 feet, and the two pulleys were made of different diameters so as
to raise the platform 16 'feet; the load raised upon the platform
was about half-a-ton.

This pneumatic lift has now been in constant work for thirty-
nine years, and has worked quite satisfactorily during the whole
time; it has not re(iuired any repairs except renewal of the chains
and repair of the rubbing parts. An accident happened once by
the chain breaking whilst lifting, and the platform fell about five
feet, causing a shock to the man going up with it, but no injury
was done to the machinery.

An improvement on this pneumatic lift was made by the author
of the present paper, in constructing a lift on a considerably larger
scale at the Corbyn's Hall New Furnaces; this is shown in the
accompanying engraving, and was constructed at the time of
building the furnaces. The height to which the materials have to
be raised is 41 ft. 6 in., and the present plan was designed to pre-
vent the risk of an accident occurring through the breaking of a
chain. There are four furnaces supplied by this lift, which is fixed
between two of them, and the four furnaces are connected on the
same level by the staging at the top, on which the barrows of
materials are wheeled from the platform of the lift.

In this lift the platform for raising the barrows of materials is
fixed on the top of the air-cylinder, and it is raised by the pressure
of the blast, the action being the reverse of the former plan. In
Plate XVIII. the lift is shown at the highest position in fig. 1,
and at the lowest position in fig. 2. A, is the air-cylinder, which
is 5 ft. 6 in. diameter, and 51 ft. 6 in long, constructed of riveted
wrought-iron plates averaging ;^-in. thick, the plates being -j^-in.
thick'in the lower part and -nr'"- >" t'^^ upper part; the cylinder
is closed at the top and open at the bottom, and has a throttle-
valve B, 8 inches diameter, in the centre of the top, which is
opened I)y pressing down the foot lever C, fixed upon the plat-
form.

D, is the platform on which the materials are raised; it consists
of planking carried on timber bearers, which rests upon the edge
of the cylinder top, and upon four wrought-iron brackets E, E,
carried out di;.!goiially from the cylinder to steady the platform,
and fixed to two hoops passing round the cylinder.

F, F, are four timber guides placed at the corners of the plat-
form, and connected at top to the level stage G, G, upon which the
barrows of materials are wheeled to the mouth of the furnace H.
These guides are faced with angle-iron on the inner edge, and a
corresponding angle-iron is fixed in a notch at each corner of the
platform D, to slide easily up the guides; the height that the plat-
form rises is 44 ft. 6 in.

Four cast-iron balance-weights I, I, are suspended outside the
guides F, F, by chains which pass over the pulleys K, K, in the top
framing, and are attached to the four corners of the platform D.
These four balance-weights weigh about 6^ tons, and the air-
cylinder and platform together weigh about 7 tons; leaving an un-
balanced weight of about ^-ton to bring down the air- cylinder and
empty the platform.

The air-cylinder A, descends into a well L, L, which is filled
with water to the level M; and it is guided by four rollers N, N,
6 inches long and 7 inches diameter, each of which works against
a strip of bar-iron riveted on the cylinder, 4 inches wide and tiie
whole length of the cylinder. At the bottom of the well a foun-
dation of timber O, is fixed, to form a stop for the cylinder in
descending, and the cylinder rests upon the timber when at the
lowest position by a ring of angle-iron riveted round the bottom

39

298

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

fOcTOBEB,

eilee. The cylinder is stopped on risini; to the top by a wood
bhick fi.xed on each of the four guide-posts F, I", wliicli stop the
platform at the level of the top stajre Ci, G.

P, is a cast-iron pipe 7 inches inside diameter, which conveys
the compressed air from the air-main, and the pipe Q, of tlie same
size, carries it into the cylinder, passin;; down to the bottom of the
well between the cylinder and the side of the well, and rising up
the centre of the cylinder; the end of the pipe at R, is open and
stands above the level of the water.

The valve S, regulates the admission of the compressed air into
the cylinder when the platform is raised, and also lets out the air
from the cylinder when it is lowered. This valve consists of a
jilug or deep piston, sliding in a vertical bored cylinder of the
same diameter as the air-pipe, which is closed at the top and open
at the bottom. When the plug is in the lowest position, as shown
in fig. 1, it closes the bottom of the cylinder, and the communica-
tion is opened between the pipes V and Q, and the compressed air
passes into the air-cylinder A, and raises it, with the platform D,
by the pressure of the air upon the top of the cylinder and upon
the surface of the water; the pressure of the compressed air is
2^j lb. per square inch, and the water is depressed inside the cylin-
der to T, and raised toU outside the cylinder, making a difference
of level of 5 ft. 4 in. \V'hen the platform is requii-ed to be low-
ered, the plug-valve S, is drawn up to the top, as shown in fig. 2,
closing the pipe P, that admitted the compressed air, and leaving
the pipe Q, open to the external air to discharge the compressed
air from the cylinder A; this discharge is accelerated by opening
the escape- valve B, at the top of the air-cylinder by means of the
foot-lever C.

The total pressure of the compressed air against the top of the
air-cylinder is 3J tons; and deducting the unbalanced weight of
the cylinder and platform (i-ton), this gives an available lifting
power of 3 tons. The load of materials raised varies according to
the working of the furnaces, and the average load of materials
raised each time is l^tons, exclusive of the barrows and men, or
about 2 tons gross weight. The lift is raised 10 times per hour
during 20 hours in each day of Si hours, or once in 3^ minutes;
and the totsJ weight of materials raised each day is about 500 tons.
The time of raising the platform from opening the inlet valve to
reaching the top is from 50 to 70 seconds, according to the load in
regular work ; and the time of lowering the platform is from 30 to
50 seconds, according to the degree of opening of the escape valve
on the top of the air cylinder; the empty platform can be raised
in 45 seconds, and lowered in 25 seconds, with the present size of
apertures.

In raising the platform the inlet- valve is kept full open nntll
the platform arrives at 14 inches distance from the top, when it
catches a lever which gradually draws up the plug of tlie inlet-
valve, so far as nearly to close the pipe leading to the air-cylinder;
this checks the moving power and causes the velocity of the plat-
form to be so much retarded by the time it arrives at the top, that
the platform stops dead against the wood blocks without any con-
cussion being felt. The platform is held firmly up to these stops
by the pressure of the air as long as may be required, without any
recoil, nJid without requiring any catches to hold the platform, as
it cannot descend in the least unless the air is allowed to escape
from the cylinder, and the supply from the air-pipe keeps it full
in tlie case of any leakage taking place. 'W^hen the platform is
raised empty, a wood block turning on a pivot is slipped by the
foot under tlie lever that closes the inlet-valve, so as to begin
closing the valve sooner; this is adjusted according to the velocity
of the ascent of the platform, and regulates the lifting power so
as to prevent any concussion on stopping at the top of the ascent.

AVhen the platform arrives at the top, the men who go up with
the barrows wheel them off to discharge the materials into the
several furnaces; and as soon as the empty barrows are brought
back, the platform is lowered by drawing up the plug of the inlet-
valve to the top, which shuts off entirely the supply of compresned
air, and opens the exit below the plug for the air in the cylinder to
escape. This is done by the men on the platform at the top by
means of a ro<l from the valve cari-iod up the framing; and the
escape-valve on the top of the cylinder is then opened, and kept
open till the platform is near the bottom, when it is closed, and
the velocity of the platform is so much checked before stopping,
that scarcely any concussion is felt at 8toj)j)iug; it can e;isily be
stopped without any concussion.

Tlie velocity of the platform is also gradually checked in de-
scending by the gradual immersion of the cylinder in the water,
which reduces the unbalanced weight of the cylinder. The total
loss of weight of the cylinder when at its greatest immersion in
the water is i-ton, which reduces the effective unbalanced weight

of the cylinder and platform from ^^-ton to nothing; but the
weight of' the four chains, amounting to f|-ton, is added to the
balance-weights at the beginning of the descent, and is transferred
to the platform at the end of the descent, and the result is that
the moving power causing the descent of the platform is reduced
j-ton during the descent, being about f-ton at starting and g-ton
at stopping; this moving power can be altered as required, by
altering the balance-weights.

This lift was originally constructed to work only two furnaces,
and the air pipe was only 5 inches inside diameter, and the time of
raising the platform was usually 140 seconds; when the other two
furnaces were added it became necessary to add a second air pipe
of the same size, for the purpose of working the lift twice as fast;
one pipe only is shown in the accompanying drawing, equal in area
to the two actually employed. AV'hen the lift was constructed it
was found that the well could not be made sufficiently water-tight,
on account of a slight disturbance in the strata from the getting of
the neighbouring mine, and an outer cylinder of similar construc-
tion to the air-cylinder, was consequently sunk into the well ; this
outer cylinder having a close bottom, and holds the water in which
the air-cylinder works, like the tank of a gasometer.

The quantity of air blown into the cylinder each time of raising
it is 1,128 cubic feet, and the total quantity per day of 24 hours is
300,900 cubic feet, or about 12 tons weight of air; the total quan-
tity of air blown by the blast engines is 16,185 cubic feet per
minute, and 23,300,400 cubic feet, or about 780 tons weight of air
per day of 24 hours. The proportion of the total blast that is
used by the lift is therefore as 12 tons to 780 tons, or ^ of the
whole, and consequent ^V part of the total power of the hlowing
engines is employed in working the lift; there are two blowing
engines employed The pressure of the blast is 2j lb. per square
inch, and the total engine |iower is consequently 165-horse power;
and the air consumed by the lift being ^^ of the total blast, it
follows that -irs of 105, or 2i-horse power, is the power that is
actually employed in working the lift; this power being a con-
stant power acting during the whole day instead of acting merely
at the times when the lift is rising. The actual power required to
elevate the lift, with the average gross load of 2 tons on the plat-
form, or 2j tons total weight, including the average unbalanced
weight of the cylinder and platform, raised 44 ft. 6 in. in 70
seconds, is 6-horse power; the greatest power employed being
3J tons raised that height in 70 seconds, which amounts to 9-horse
power, and the least is 5-ton raised in 45 seconds, amounting to
1-horse power. Thus it appears that the work of 6-horse power
occurring at intervals, is performed by a power of 2J-horse powej
constantly acting.

The total consumption of coal-slack by the blowing engines is
about 13 tons per day of 24 hours, consequently the expense of
working the lift is -^ part of this, or 4 cwt. of coal-slack per day,
costing about 5rf. per day; and as this lift raises 500 tons of ma-
terials per day, it follows that 100 tons are raised 44 ft. 6 in. high
for Id., or 4,450 tons are raised 1 foot high for Id. The quantity
of air required to fill the cylinder of the lift is 1,129 cubic feet,
and the total contents of the blowing cylinders for one double
stroke is 1,058 cubic feet; consequently, an increase in the rate of
the engines of one stroke per minute is sufficient to raise the lift
in 70 seconds, without diminishing the supply of air for the blast
of the furnaces.

These two circumstances cause an important economy in work-
ing this pneumatic lift; a small power constantly acting is sufficient
todo the work, and the sudden application of this power concen-
trated into a short time causes but a small increase in the rate of
the engine. The total cost of this lift was about 500/.; and the
cost of an inclined plane lift, including the engine for working it,
would be about double that amount.

This pneumatic lift has been in constant work for the last nine
years, and no accident or stoppage has occurred with it, except
that the chain of one of the balance-weights broke once; the plat-
form stopped with a very trifling fall, and was held in its position
by the pressure of the air; no damage was caused, and the lift was
got to work again within an hour's time. The only repairs that
have been required since it commenced working, are the renewal
of the chains of the balance-weights and repair of the pulley-
bearings: the set of chains can be taken off and replaced whilst
the lift is standing during the dinner hour, without causing any
delay to the work. This is an important advantage, as it is essen-
tial to ensure a continued supply of materials to the furnaces,
and to avoid any risk of stoppage for repair of the lifting ma-
chinery.

The platform in this pneumatic lift cannot fall quicker than the
1 time in which the whole body of air can escape, amounting to

1819.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

290

1,128 cubic feet; and the greatest leakage that can arise from an
injury of the cylinder cannot let it down so rapidly as to cause any
damage. The load is supported by an air cushion during the
whole time of its ascent, instead of depending on chains or racks,
which prevents any risk of its falling. The complete control over
the motion of the platform that is given by the air-valve which
regulates the entrance and exit of the air, gives the means of
checking, stopping, or reversing the motion at any part of the
stroke; and it prevents any concussion at the ends of the stroke,
although the lift has a quick action, and is stopped dead at each
end of the stroke at the exact leveUrequired. The friction of the
lift is very small, as the cylinder works through a water joint; and
in consequence of the low pressure at which it is worked the loss
at any leak is very small, and the strain upon the joints is much
diminished.

This pneumatic lift is of course applied most economically and
conveniently in the case of blast-furnaces, where the compressed
air can be obtained very economically and without additional ma-
chinery; but it is pi-obable that its application may be extended
advantageously to several other cases, such as raising railway
wagons, or even railway trains, discharging vessels at quays, and
various other purposes, and it possesses several advantages which
make it deserving of consideration. The low pressure at which it
is worked causes great simplicity and economy in the construction
and working, the loss at leaks being reduced, and the joints easier
kept in order; and the friction is very small as the cylinder works
through a water-joint. Where the lift is not required to be always
working, but only to be worked at intervals, a further economy
could probably be eifected by employing a reservoir for the com-
pressed-air, to accumulate power during the time that the lift is
not required to work, and thus reduce the size of engine requisite
for the work; a large capacity of reservoir could be constructed
at a moderate expense, on account of the low pressure upon it.
It may be mentioned that at the Corbyn's Hall New Furnaces the
reservoir of compressed-air contains 5,000 cubic feet, at the pres-
sure of the blast 2^ lb. per square inch, and consists of four
wrought-iron cylinders from 6 to 8 feet diameter, constructed of
riveted plates from § to ^inch thick; and the cost would be
about 3/. per 100 cubic feet for air reservoii-s of this construction.

Semarhs made at the Meeting after the reading of the foregoing Paper,

Mr. Buckle observed that he had frequently seen this lift at the works of
Mr. Gibbons, and could bear testimony to its smooth and exact working
and its uniform motion. He was of opinion it might be usefully applied to
a variety of purposes, as it was undoubtedly the best description of lift that
he was acquainted with for its present purpose.

Mr. Beyer said it appeared to him to be a very simple and efficient
mode of raising the materials.

Mr. Cochrane observed that a similar lift was employed at his iron
works, for which he had been indebted to Mr. Gibbons; it had proved en-
tirely satisfactory, and there had never been any accident with it.

Mr. Gibbons remarked that his object in bringing the lift before the In-
stitution, was to render it more generally useful j for in his opinion it might
be advantageously applied to a great variety of purposes, more especially at
railway stations and in the docks. It would be a great convenience for
raising and lowering trucks, and for loading or discharging vessels ; as the
platform could be quickly raised or lowered to any exact level, and could be
stopped at any point at pleasure without concussion, and held quite firm in
the position without any danger of falling, as long as might be required.

Mr. Slatb thought it was applicable to lifting railway wagons; and con-
sidered that a small blowing engine might be advantageously employed for
the purpose, working at a much quicker rate than usual, even 700 feet per
minute, like the pistons of locomotive engines; the leakage of the pistou
would then be of much less consequence.

M. CowPER suggested that steam might be available for the purpose of
raising the lift where there was not a blowing engine at work ; for although
there would be a loss of steam by condensation on the surface of the water,
that loss would be very small compared to the whole quantity of steam em-
ployed, as the surface of the water would become quickly heated by the
steam, but the heat would only extend very slowly downwards in the water.

Mr. Gibbons remarked that he considered there would be a difficulty in
applying steam, from the difficulty of keeping the joints steam-tight.

M. McCoNNELL referred to the use of hydraulic cranes which had been
introduced at some railway stations and other places ; and observed that it
appeared to involve the question of the relative cost and advantage of air
and water as the means for communicating the power.

Mr. Gibbons observed that the pistons necessarily used in hydraulic
cranes were liable to get out of order, and were a source of expense and
trouble, and there was also considerable loss of power from friction, which
was not the ease in the pneumatic lift. He thought that by the latter plan
a whole railway train might be raised a considerable height, without the
motion being felt by the passengers.

REGISTER OF NSVT FAT2NTS.

SAWING AND CUTTING WOOD.

Henry Francis, of Chelsea, Middlesex, engineer, for " improve-
ments in sau-inq and cutting wood." — Granted January 4; En-
rolled July 4, 18 i9.

The improvements relate, firstly, to the construction and use of
saws so as to improve and facilitate their cutting wood. Saws have
hitherto usually consisted each of a series of teeth, and the teetli
of a saw have each been alike, and they have been bent in alternate
directions. Tlie consequence of this construction has been, that
the wood cut thereby has had larger or smaller saw-cuts on the
surfaces, according to the teeth used ; these observations apply to
saws generally, both straight and circular. Now according to this
part of the invention, the teeth are combined with cutters, and the
cutters are made to alternate with the teeth, so tliat a tooth follows
a cutter in regular succession, though this arrangement may be
varied. The teeth are to be of any of the ordinary constructions,
according to the class of saw which is to be made, and the cutters
preferred are " fleur teeth," that is, they are not hooked or under-
cut, but incline both ways, and are bent alternately on either sides,
as the teeth of saws have lut!)erto been bent ; but the teeth are left
unbent, by whicli means the cutters make a cut on eitlier side, and
the teeth remove the wood between the cuts. It is of great import-
ance that the cutters on either side should follow one another with
accuracy, in order that the cut made on either side may be smooth
and true, and that the two cuts should be parallel, — for which pur-
pose a file is iixed in a flat block, the tile being at one edge, and at
a distance below the surface of the block equal to that to wliich
the cutters of a saw are bent, sucli block being eight or ten inches
long and three or four inches wide ; by which means the projecting
cutters on either side are made correct, so as to follow each other
in the same line. The flat block when used rests on the surface of
the saw, and is to be moved to and fro so that the file will come
against the cutters, and thus the cutters be filed away at the outer
sides of the points till they are all sharp, and range correctly one
after the other. This block will also be found useful when sharp-
ening saws of the ordinary construction, and forms part of the
invention. In using these saws in saw-mills, in place of causing
them to move up and down vertically, or at right angles to the sur-
face of the wood as heretofore, a better cut may be made and with
less power by having the saw-gate so arranged as to move in an
inclined position, generally at an inclination of about 67° to the
surface of the wood. In cutting off thin slices of wood with the
impro\ed saws, it is preferred to employ a smooth metal plate or
table, with a transverse slit or opening, the metal on the sides of
the opening being formed to an inclination. The wood is moved
longitudinally on this plate, and the saw used (which is to be
straight) is inclined, so as to be parallel with tlie opening through
the plate, and the edge of the saw protrudes a distance (in a direc-
tion to meet the moving wood), according to the thickness of wood
to be cut off; a quick reciprocating motion is given to the saw as
the wood moves forward on the bed-plate, and the portion cut off
descends through the plate as a shaving in a plane.

The second part of the invention relates to improvements in
mounting saw-gates, which are preferred to be inclined in place of
vertical, and consists of employing springs ; and the springs are
formed of such strength, tliat they will lift the saw-gate, by which
means the working is improved.

The third part of the invention is applicable to the sawing of
wood into planks and boards from timber of irregular sides, to avoid
shaping the timber first before it is fixed in a mill, — and consists of
guiding each saw, so as to ensure the several saws stretched in a
saw-gate to cut parallel boards or planks, in place of depending on
the great tension now resorted to for preventing the saws being led
away by knots or inequalities of the wood. In carrying out this
part of the invention, a plate of wood is fixed to the irregular sur-
face of a log of wood, the outer surface of the fixed piece being
true, and moved against a guide-piece in the mill, so as to cause
the log to pass through the mill truly, notwithstanding the irregu-
larity of its sides ; and thus the boards or planks cut off will be
parallel, in order to ensure which a bar of hard wood is fixed across
the saw-mill, having slits cut in it at tlie intervals apart at wliich
the boards are to be cut, and this bar is so fixed that the backs of
the several saws shall enter the cuts and move up and down in
them, and are guided truly by them.

39*

300

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[OcTOBEB,

RAILWAY WHEELS.

M^Li.iAM Edwakd Newton, of Chancery-lane, iMiddlesex, civil
enffiiieer, for "a certain inipmvement or bnproveiuents in the constrnc-
tiuii nf v^lieelx." (A cumniunication.) — Granted January 11; En-
rolled July II, 1819.

This invention of improvements in the construction of wheels re-
lates to a new or imiiro\ed method of constructing railroad-wheels,
applicahle to locomotive engines, tenders, and the truck-wheels of
railroad cars, and for other purposes; and consists in constructing
the wlieel of three ])rincipal pieces — namely, the nave, the central
part (which consists of plates of iron of a dislied shape), and the
rim; these three parts are connected and secured together in a pe-
culiar manner, so as to form a strong, and at the same time, cheap
wheel.

Fig. 1 shows the improved wheel in a side elevation; fig. 2 is a
transverse section of the same, talcen in the line x, x, fig. 1, show-
ing the mode of holding the several ]iarts together hy small screw-
holts near the axle; and fig. 3 is a cross-section in the same line,
showing another mode of holding and forcing the central plates
together, so as to tighten contact with the rim — in this case the
object is effected by a collar and screw u])on the axle, and a differ-
ent mode of attaching the plates to the rim by small bolts or rivets
near the rim. Fig. 4 is a cross section, on an enlarged scale, show-
ing the attachment of the side-plates to tlie rim, by the dovetail-
mode; and figs. 5, and 0, are side and edge views of a cast-iron
)iiece, to thicken and support the eye of tlie plates when made of
sheet-metal.

Fi^. 1.

Fig. 3.

Fig. A.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

The two circular side-plates, which act as the spokes of the
wheel, are made with plain surfaces, or corrugated in concentric or
radiating lines; and, whether plain or corrugated, have a convexity
outward, so that they may be forced against the rim, which will
embrace their exterior edges or periplieries. The best mode of
attaching these side-plates to the rim is to turn a groove, com-
mencing at the inner side and edge of the rim, cutting the same
outwards towards its largest circumference in deptli; the thickness
of the plate forming a seat for the same to rest upon, and ter-
minating the groove, in its outward direction, with the largest
diameter of cut inside, and the lesser outside, in the form of a
dove-tail. The edges of the plates are then turned and fitted to
correspond, excepting that the diameter of the plates is greater by
about -^ of an inch than the groove which has been turned in the
rim. The rim is then sufficiently expanded by heat to admit of
tlie greater diameter of the plates entering into the groove pre-
pared for them in the rim; and, on the rim cooling, it will be
made to shrink itself upon the edges of the plates. The side-
plates are further secured in their places by screw-bolts near the
axle; which bolts are intended to compress and draw together the
convex parts of the plates at or near their centres, by which their
peripheries are forced to expand until they come into close contact
and form a tight joint with the rim. By means also of these bolts
or screws the plates may be tightened upon tlie rim at any subse-
quent pei'iod, when, from use or wear, their contact becomes im-
paired, or they become loose in the groove. The inventor prefers
to construct this wheel of wrought-iron, with the exception of tlie
cast-iron pieces represented at figs. 5, and 6. The rim may, how-
ever, be of cast-iron (in which case its thickness sliould be con-

siderably increased), either with or without a chilled running sur-
face; or it may be made of wrought-iron, plated with steel, or
made wholly of steel; and the side-plates may be of cast-iron, or
other metal, or composition of metal.

In the drawings, a represents the rim-piece; B, are the side-
plates; c, is the axle; D, are cast-iron pieces, to support the plate
at the eye, when the same is made of sheet-iron, which pieces are
firmly riveted to the plates. To make a wheel wholly of wrought-
iron, the rim a, is rolled into proper shaped bars, in any convenient
manner in common use, and is made 5 inches wide by 1 inch thick,
with a flange raised Ig-inch higher than the bar at one side; it is
then bent into a circle and welded, and is heated and placed upon
a suitable mandril, and made perfectly round; after which, it is
chucked in a lathe, and the male part of the dovetail groove, as
seen at a, a, fig. !•, is formed at each inner side and corner. The
side-plates u, are made from plate or sheet-iron, of ^ of an inch
thick, a little more or less. They ai-e first cut into a circle, and
afterwards swaged, and made convex with a suitable press and
swaging dies; or the press and dies may be constructed in such a
manner as to cut the circle outside the eye at the centre and raise
the convexity at the same operation.. The plate is then chucked
in a lathe, and the edge turned tapering and outwardly towards
the convex side, to form the female part of the dovetail joint,
when the plates and rim are put together. The largest diameter
of the tapering edge of the jilate is made from g to -^ of an inch
larger than the smallest inside circumference of the groove. The
cast piece (figs. 5, and 6), is then drilled and tap-screwed, and
well riveted upon the concave side of the plate, when the principal
parts of the wheel are ready for putting together. The rim is
then heated, and allowed to shrink itself upon the edges of the
plates, which by this means are held in the dovetailed grooves
formed in the rim, — the convex sides of the plates being outwards:
four tap-bolts e, c, made of g round iron, are screwed into and hold
the centre of the plates together, and serve to compress the con-
vexity of the plates, expanding their peripheries in such a manner
as to tighten up contact at their edges upon the rim, if from any
cause they shall at any time afterwards get loose. The above is
the best mode; — these side-plates a, may however be joined to the
rim by turning their edges square and sinking a recess the depth
of the thickness of the plate at the inner side and eilge of the
rim, to fit and correspond with the edges of the plates; when, with-
out expanding the rim, the plates are placed therein, and secured
by screw-bolts or rivets, as shown at ft, 6. The centres of these
side-plates may be held and forced inwards towards each other by
means of a collar e, and screw-nuts rf, d. on the axle.

The patentee claims the forming of a wheel of three principal
parts — a rim-piece a, and nave, with two side-plates b, b, made
with plain or corrugated surfaces, and formed more or less convex
outwardly; the whole constructed, put together, fastened, and
having tightening-screws, as described; and this he claims, whe-
ther these principal parts are put together by means of dovetailing
the side-plates into the rim-piece, as shown at a, a, a, (figs. 2, and
4), or whether they are attached by means of screw-bolts or rivets
passing through the plates near the rim, as shown at 6, 6, (fig. 3),
or whether the plates are tightened upon the rim by means of
screw-bolts placed near the axle, as shown at c, c, c, (figs. 2, and
6), or by a screw-nut and collar upon the axle, as shown at rf, </,
and f, (fig. 3), or whether by any other analogous means by which
the outward convexity of the plates may be forced inwards or
towards eacli other at or near their centres, thereby causing their
peripheries to expand and come into full contact with the rim.

SCREW PROPELLERS.

Wakefield Pim, of Kingston-upon-Hull, engine and boiler-
maker and builder of iron steam-ships, for ^Hmpriwements in pro-
pcMing ships or vessels." — Granted January 25; Enrolled July 25,
1849.

The improvements relate to the propulsion of vessels by a screw
propeller, placed at the stem or fore part of the vessel, in addition
to, and in combination with, a propeller at the stern or hind part
of the vessel. The projiellers work in recesses formed to receive
them in the stem and in the dead wood of the vessel, and are fixed
upon the same shaft extending from one end of the vessel to the
other, parallel with the keel; or they may be fixed upon two dis-
tinct shafts, connected by gearing, so that both will rotate in the
same direction and act, the one to impel, and the other to draw
forwai'd, the vessel.

i

isig."]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

301

WHITE-LEAD PAINT.

Hugh Lee Pattinson, of Washington-house, Gateshead, clie-
mical manufacturer, for '■'■ improvements hi miuiiifricturhiy a certain
compound or certain compounds of lead, and the application of a cer-
tain compound or certain compounds of lead to various useful purposes."
— Granted February U, 1849; Enrolled August 1+," 1849. [Re-
ported in Newton's London Journal.']

The patentee commences his specification by stating that he has
discovered that when half an equivalent or thereabouts of lime,
soda, potash, ammonia, or barytes, is added to one equivalent of
chloride of lead, both in solution, the whole of the lead is precipi-
tated as a definite compound of one atom of chloride of lead and
one atom of hydrated oxide of lead, which, when dried at 21*2°
Fahr., or under, hag the composition just stated or PbCl -j-PbO'HO,
but when dried at a temperature varying from 212^ to 350^ it loses
more or less of the atom of water and becomes or approaches to
PbCl + PbO. If less than half an equivalent of the alkaline pre-
cipitant is employed, the same definite oxichloride of lead is pre-
cipitated, but some of the chloride of lead remains in solution.
The oxichloride of lead, thus produced, possesses a brilliant white
colour and great "body" qualities, which render it an excellent
pigment and useful for most purposes to which white-lead is ap-
plicable.

The invention consists in the manufacture and application of
this oxichloride of lead, or sucli other compounds of oxide of lead
and chloride of lead as shall result from the following mode of
manufacture: — The patentee states that lime will answer as well
for the purposes of this invention as any other of the alkaline pre-
cipitants above-named; and he prefers to use it on account of its
cheapness. He first makes a saturated lime water, by throwing
an excess of slacked lime into a tub, filling the tub with water, and
allowing it to stand until it becomes clear: the clear liquor will
contain in from 770 to 780 parts, 1 part of lime; and therefore
1 cubic foot of it will contain 567 or 568 grains of lime. A solu-
tion of chloride of lead is then made by dissolving it in boiling
water, in the proportion of 1 lb. of pure chloride of lead to 1 cubic
foot and a fifth of water: as some water contains earthy salts
(sulphates or carbonates, or both) which precipitate lead, the
patentee prefers to use such an excess of chloride of lead, as will
compensate for this loss. The solution is prepared by introducing
the chloride of lead and boiling water into a wooden barrel, pro-
vided with a revolving agitator; and then it is run into cisterns to
settle. The clear solution of the chloride of lead is mixed, while
Btill warm (because if allowed to become cool it would deposit
some of the chloride of lead), with an equal bulk of tlie lime water;
on this taking place, the insoluble oxichloride of lead is imme-
diately formed and speedily settles to the bottom of the cistern,
leaving a clear supernatant liquor (a weak solution of chloride of
calcium); and, after this liquor is drawn oif, the precipitate is col-
lected and dried.

As the operation of mixing the lime water and the solution of
chloride of lead requires to be performed in an instantaneous
manner, the patentee prefers to employ for this purpose two
tumbling boxes, of about 16 cubic feet capacity, which are charged
with the two liquids and simultaneously upset into a cistern, in
which the oxichloride of lead is instantaneously formed, and from
which the mixture flows into other cisterns where the oxichloride
subsides.

The patentee states that although he has only mentioned pure
crystallised chloride of lead in the description of the process, yet
it is not absolutely necessary that it should be in this form; for a
rough chloride, made from lead ore and its equivalent of muriatic
acid, boiled to dryness, will answer, provided it be well washed, to
free it from chlorides of iron, manganese, or other bodies likely to
injure the colour of the oxichloride. The exact proportion of
pure chloride contained in the rough chloride should be ascertained
previous to use, in order that the proper quantity may be mixed
with the lime-water. If, however, a solution of chloride of lead
of uncertain strength is obtained, or lime-water not quite satu-
rated, they can be used with but little disadvantage; for it is only
necessary to be careful not to add an excess of lime {i.e., not more
than half the equivalent), which can be easily ascertained after a
few trials, by filling the lime or lead tumbling-box more or less
with its respective solution, as the trials may direct.

The patentee says that it wiU not be necessary to describe any
particular mode of proceeding with soda, potash, ammonia, or
barytes; for if ever it should happen that these bodies could be
used in preference to lime, it would be merely necessary to make
s solution of each of known strength, and to use it with chloride
of lead in the same manner as the lime-water.

The patentee claims the manufacture of oxichloride of lead,
having the composition of one atom of chloride of lead and one
atom of oxide of lead, with or without an atom of water (or an
oxichloride of lead as near this comjtosition as the nature of the
manufacturing operations may admit), by the use of chloride of
lead and lime, soda, potash, ammonia, or barytes. And he claims
the application and use of this oxichloride of lead as a white paint,
as a base for coloured pigments, as an adhesive cement for joints,
and for many other purposes to which white-lead is commonly ap-
plied.

WALLING.

John Taylor, of 22, Parliament-street, Westminster, architect,
for "«« improved mode of constructing and fencing walls."* — Granted
February 8; Enrolled August 8, 1849.

This invention relates to the construction of brick and other
walls witli a facing or ashlaring of stone, artificial stone, tiles,
bricks, cement, earthenware, glass, or other

suitable material The facing is made into _ — i?— -^-ir

blocks of such form that each block may [_ j;__JL

be suspended on the brick or other main a f \ ^1

work of the wall below, by a shoulder, and L™„^ — ,.^ ._ij

weighted by the brick or other work above,
without bearing on the bed or under sur-
face of tlie facing-block, so that it cannot
be injured by the settling of the brick-
work, as sliown in the annexed figure, a, is
the brickwork, three or more courses of r

wliich are first carried up, and the mortar- ai. ,_

bed laid; then the facing-block 6, is sus- T

pended thereon by the shoulder c; and, j^

when the shoulder is weighted by the '

brickwork above, the bonding is complete. As a general rule, the
height of the facing-blocks is to be such as to leave their weight

L.

1

JL

suspended on the brickwork by the shoulder c, without the blocks
bearing on the bed or lower surface d,

* By a disclaimer, dated April 9, lH49, the patentee has struck oul the words 'and
fencing' from tlie title uf his patent, uliicli uow leads thus: — ' for an improved mode of
coDStructiug walls.*

PAPER-HANGINGS.

John Ebwood, of Hoxton, Middlesex, paper-hanging manufac-
turer, {or '■'■ improvements in the manufacture (f paper-hangings." —
Granted February 15 ; Enrolled August 15, 1849.

These improvements relate to that class of paper-hangings
known as coloured marble and granite papers, and such as are use<l
for covering walls in houses and other buildings. In using the
term " coloured marble papers," it is to be understood to mean all
coloured marble papers, with the exception of those manufactured
in imitation of white marbles.

In manufacturing marble and granite papers, two modes of
operation are pursued in the application of the colour to paper to
give the desired effect ; one is by means of blocks having engraved
surfaces, by which the colour is printed or transferred on to the
paper ; the other mode is by applying the colours by hand, by
means of brushes and crayons, the veining and other effects required
being executed according to the taste and skill of the workman.
These modes of proceeding being well known, it is unnecessary to
describe them further, the present improvements having reference
to the hand-made marble and granite papers, or those in which the
colour is applied with brushes and crayons by hand. To coloured
marble or granite paper-hangings it has been usual to apply a coat-
ing of varnish after they have been hung or pasted to walls, to give
them the glossy or polished appearance of the materials of which
they are an imitation, but the colours used in the manufacture pro-
duce only a dull representation of the efl^ect desired ; whereas, by
the patentee's improvements, the coloui's are so prepared and ap-
plied to the paper, as to be capable of receiving the desired polish
in the ordinai-y manner of glossing or polishing papers known as
" satin" papers ; by which the necessity of varnishing the paper
after it is hung is entirely obviated, the paper when so finished
presenting a glossed or polished appearance, presented by the sub-
sequent operation of varnishing.

In conducting this new manufacture of coloured marble papers,
the patentee proceeds in a somewhat similar manner to the ordi-
nary mode of manufacturing hand-made papers. The papenis pre-
viously prepared with a coating of colour as a groundwork, the

302

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

[OCTOBEB,

colour nsed l)cinff suitaWe fur the colour of the groiind of the paper.
The paper so treated having been properly dried, is laid on a board
with the coloured surface uppermost, and the workman ]>roceeds
to g-ive it a coating of the matter known in the trade as " satin
white," or it may be satin white mixed with a colour; this isapi>lied
to the whole surface of the paper, by means of brushes; he tlien
])roreeds to delineate the marl)le on the moist or wet siirface of the
pajier, produced by the ajiplication of the satin white, and, by
preference, putting on what is called the veining first, which is
])erformed with the ordin;iry crayons, the colours of which are
suitable to ]iroduce the veining required for the diaracter of the
marble. The veining is ne.xt softened off by the ordinary softening
brush, in order to blend the colour of the veining slightly with the
groundwork or coating of satin white, so as to break the harsh-
ness of the outline; the colours are then applied, while the satin
white is still in a moist or damp state, introducing them with
brushes, in imitation of the kind of marble or porphyry to be re-
]>resented; these colours are then smoothed down, or subdued and
blended with tlie ground or coating of satin white. Thus it will
be seen, the whole of the colours, with the exception of the pre-
paratory coating mentioned, are introduced while the satin wiiite
is still wet, after which it will be complete, as far as regards the
effect to be produced by the colouring matter, when it may be
dried in the ordinary manner. The colouring matters used are
the same as those employed in ordinary in the production of
marble papers; hut instead of being prepared simply as water
Colours, used in the ordinary manufacture of hand marble papers,
they are prepared with a proportion of satin white, that the colour
shall also present a surface capable of receiving the polish or gloss
to be imparted to it.

In manufacturing granite papers according to this invention,
tlie patentee also employs paper previously prepared with a coat-
ing of colour, as a groundwork, which, while in a dry state,
receives a coating of satin white, coloured or otherwise, it being
laid out on a board, as before described with reference to mai'ble
l)aper, while this coating of satin white is yet in a moist or damp
state; the colouring matter is then applied in imitation of granite,
by s|)lashing or otherwise causing the colour to adhere in spots to
the satin white. Tliis operation being common in tlie manufacture
of granite papers, further description of the process will be un-
necessary.

The colours used in splashing in imitation of granite are also
prepared with a proportion of satin white, in order to render tlie
colours of tlie constituent proportions necessary to produce the
de.sired effect, by rubbing or polishing. It is not necessary that
tlie colour used as the preparatory coating should contain any
satin white, either for the marble or granite papers. Marble and
granite papers, when prepared in this manner, after having been
thoroughly dried, are then subjected to the process known as
"rubbing,' for the purpose of imparting the desired gloss or
polish; the machine known as a "rubbing machine" is employed
for this purpose, and which consists of a cylindrical brush, of a
sufficient length to operate upon the whole width of the paper.
This brush is caused to rotate rapidly, and during such rotation,
to bear against a surface or table, between which and the brush
the ]iaper is passed, having the marbled side of the paper next the
brush, which marbled surface is previously dusted or rubbed with
French chalk, in a state of powder, as a polishing material. The
end of the paper having been introduced between the brush and
the table, the rotary motion of the former draws in the paper
from the roll, which is supported so as to unroll freely, yet taking
c-'ire that a sufficient amount of friction is exerted on the paper as
it passes over the table, to prevent its too rapid jiassage under the
brusli. The paper, as delivered from the machine, is in a finished
state, presenting the glossed or polished appearance required on
the marble or granite surface.

Enamels for Iron. — This invention, patented in America by Charles
Stumer, consists in providing an enamel for iron and other metals which
will retain its adhesion to the metal, and particularly it is not capable of
being crumbled or broken off by blows or by heat, this possessing the quality
of comparatively co-mingling with the surface of the metal. Thus it is far
superior to any known enamelling for metals, and may be modified so as to
render it in all the shades of colours, in full variety. — Composition A:
IG oz. of gravel sand, 10 oz. of silver glass (silver gilt or silver gilding),
2 oz. of white clay, |-oz. of saltpetre. — Composition B: 1 oz. of glass
(common white glass), 4 oz. of gravel sand, 8 oz. of zean reanocks (or oxide
of tin), 6 oz. of borax, 1{ oz. of soda, 3 oz. of saltpetre, Ij^-oz. of white-
clay, 1 oz. of magnesia, ^-oz. of white chalk, ^-oz. of oyster shells — this should
be pulverised, like Composition A., and then mixed with the gum water.

TUB FLEXURE OF POSTS.

lipmarks on the, Resi-itance of Posts to Fh.xure. By H. Iloupr,
C.E. — [From the American Journal of the Franklin lH>ititute.'\

The ordinary formula for the stiffness of beams, supported at
the ends and loaded in the middle, is

UP

in which (w) represents the weight which produces a given de-
llection; b r= breadth in inclies; d = depth in inches, and I =
length in feet; c is a constant, to be determined by substituting
the values of the other quantities in the equation.

In making experiments to determine the constant from this
formula, it is necessary to observe very accurately both the
weights and the deflections produced by them, and then, by means
of a proportion, find the value of (w), which will produce the de-
flection required to be substituted in the formula.

In reflecting upon the circumstances connected with the flexure
of beams, the writer conceived the idea of deducing an expression
for the weight which a post would support from the ordinary
formula for the stiffness of a horizontal beam, by the following
considerations: — If a beam is bent by an applied weight, there
will be a tendency, from the elasticity of the material, to recover
its form when the weight is removed; but if the ends are fastened
by being placed between resisting points, so that tlie piece cannot
recover its shape, there must be a horizontal force caused by the
reaction of the material, and this force is such, that if the beam
were placed in a vertical position and loaded with a weight equal
to it, the deflection should be the same as that of the horizontal
beam, and consequently the extreme limit of the resistance of the
post to flexure would be determined.

To ascertain the force which is exerted by the reaction of a
bent beam in the direction of the chord of the arc.

Let AB represent a beam, supported at the ends and loaded
with a weight (w) applied at the middle point.
d =: deflection caused by the applied weight.

BC = tangent of curve at B.

If the weight be removed, the reaction of the beam will cause
it to regain its original figure if not resisted by a pressure at the
ends. Tlie force of this reaction will be propoi-tional to the de-
gree to which the fibres are strained, and as the strain upon the
fibres is nothing at the ends A and B, and inci-eases uniformly to
the middle point, the force of reaction will be in the same propor-
tion, and the point of application of the resultant of the whole of
the reacting forces will correspond to the centre of gravity of a
triangle whose base is B/; it will consequently be at a distance
from B = I B/.

The effect of this resultant acting at a distance g B/, must be

the same as the weight ( ^^ I acting at a distance Tif, and must con-

w
sequently be in proportion to — as 3 : 2. The value of the result-

. , ,- 3 IV
ant is therefore — .

4'

The line of direction of the pressure at B being the tangent
BC, the force of reaction at It may be considered as applied at the
point k of its line of direction, and as k h B and Cy" B are similar

triangles, C/:/B
5 "' 21/ ~ 16^'

; f Ml : horizontal pressure at B :

•? f^

^w %•'-—,=

Vc

B =

Representing this force by P, we have

3wl
i6~d'

As the deflection of a beam within the elastic limits is always in
proportion to the weight, if («/) = the weight that will produce a
deflection equal to unity, the deflection (rf) will require a weight =
(rfu)'), and by substituting this value in the equation, we find

1819."!

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

333

In this expression (d), which represents the deflection, has dis-
appeared, and as {w') is a constant quantity for the same beam,
representing the weight that produces a deflection equal to the
unit of measure, it follows that P is the same with every weight
and every degree of deflection within the elastic limits.

This result seems at first view to be contrary to fact; it would
appear that if the weight is increased, the horizontal strain should
be increased in the same proportion; but when it is remembered
that the deflection increases with the weight, and that the former
diminishes the value of P in precisely the same proportion that
the latter increases it, the difliculty vanislies, and the reason why
P should be constant for the same beam becomes obvious.

The practical importance of this result is very great, as it fur-
nishes the means of obtaining a formula which will give at once
the extreme limit of the resistance to flexure, or the weight which,
applied to a post, will cause it to yield by bending.

As the formulas used by Tredgold are calculated for a deflection
of ^th of an inch to 1 foot, or ^^th of the lengtli, the weight

which would cause a deflection of 1 would hew 1 1 -r- 77,- ) =: - — ; — >

\ 480/ i

and by substituting this value for m' in the equation P := -^ w'l,
we find P — SO w — A.

But from the ordinary formula for the stifi'ness of a beam sup-
ported at tlie ends we have

w = —,. Therefore P — — rr- = B.

d' cl-

The expression P =: 90 ro shows that the extreme limit of the

Btrength of any post whatever, of any length, breadth, or depth,

oi' of any kind of material, is 90 times tlie weight which Ciiuses

a deflection of -j j^th of the length.

90 hd^
The second expression, P = — tj— , will give the value of P

directly, without first knowing the weight required to cause a
given deflection in a horizontally-supported beam. In this expres-
sion, b :=:; breadth in inches, d =: deptli or least dimension in
inches, / = length in feet, and c = a constant to be determined
by experiment for each species of material.
The value of c for white pine is -01. By substituting this value,

9000 bd'^ ^

we find P = ji — , a remarkably simple formula, which give

the extreme limit of the resistance to flexure of a white pine post.

The same expression may be used to determine the constant

used in the ordinary formula for the stifl^ness of beams. For tliis

90 bd''
purpose let the equation P = — -3— be transposed, which wil

d-

give e

Find P by applying a string to a flexible strip o

90b(P

"W

the material to be experimented upon, in the manner of a chord to
an arc, and ascertain the tension on the chord with an accurate
spring balance. It will be found that, whether the strip be bent
much or little, the tension on the chord, as shown by the spring
balance, will be constant; and this tension, in pounds, substituted
for P, will give the value of c without requiring, as is necessary
with other formula?, an observation of the deflection.

Experiments made upon these principles with strips of white
pine, yellow pine, and white oak, 5 feet long, 1^ inch wide, and
^-incli deep, give the following results: —

The observed tensions were —

AVhite Pine, 7+ lb. value of c
Yellow Pine, 6| lb. "

A\lute Oak, 6| lb. "

As the stifi'ness is inversely as their constants, it follows that
wliite pine is stiffer than yellow pine or oak. The experiments of
Tredgold give similar results.

•0097
•0108
•OlO-l.

New Kind of Gutta-Percha. — It is stated in a recent number of the
Amsterdam's Handelsblad, that there is every reason to believe that at
Palembang, in the eastern possessions of the Dutch, in the interior of the
country, gutta-percha, or getah perija, will be collected in great abundance.
It would appear also that another substance has been discoven-d, called
getah-malah-buay, which is also obtaiued in great abundance, by merely
bleeding the trees; and which, although not susceptible of the same ex-
tended applications as gutta-percha, may, nevertheless, when mixed with
this latter, prove of very great utility.

DRY ROT.

An accnunt of an extraordinary instance of the Rapid Dccnij of
Timber from Dry Rut, jvhich occurred in the Church of the Holy
Trinity, at Cork. By Sir Thomas Deanb. — (Paper read at the
Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland.)

The parish Church of the Holy Trinity in Cork, in the year
1827, having been found to be in a bad state of repair, and quite
deformed from bad and unequal foundations, the parishioners
resolved on building a new church; but, through want of funds,
not being able to carry their design into execution, an extensive
repair was decided on. The tower was taken down, and one side
wall, and the end of the church was rebuilt.

This church is 100 feet long, by 50 feet wide, divided into a nave
and aisles by double tiers of columns, the lower tier being of solid
timber, supporting galleries, and resting upon rude rubble stone
piers, in the vaults below, the upper tier being of built timber
columns supporting the roof. It is necessary to describe the
building, in order to show that from retaining a part of the old
timber work, the evil of dry rot emanated.

For years there had not been anything intervening between a
great ])art of the body of the old church and the burial vaults
beneath, except a timber floor, and though the interior was spa-
cious, and even handsome, this abomination long continued.

Immediately under the floor of the church, and open to the
vaults, longitudinal beams of Irish oak, of from 13 to It inches
square, had been placed, resting on piers, and forming supports
for the joists. Though these oak beams were decayed for an inch
deep at their surfaces, suflicient of the timber (as it was thought)
remained sound, and it was decided that neither they, nor tlie
piers upon which they rested, should be removed. The vaults were
arched over, memel joists, 6 inches by 4 inches, were placed on the
vaulting, and connected with the old oak beams which rested on
the piers; tlie floors were removed, the old pews replaced, new
columns, coated with scagliola, were erected over the galleries, the
old ones in the lower tier retained; and the whole repairs having
been thus completed, the diurch was re-opened for divine serx'ice,
in April, 1829.

In November, 1830 (but eighteen months afterwards), the con-
gregation was annoyed by an unpleasant smell, which, on ex-
amination, was found to proceed from dry rot of the most alarm-
ing nature.

On opening the floors under the pews, a most extraordinary
appearance presented itself. There were flat fungi of immense
size and thickness, some so large as almost to occupy a space equal
to the size of a pew, and from 1 to 3 inches thick. In other places
fungi appeared growing with the ordinary dry rot, some of an
unusual shape, in form like a convolvulus, with stems of from a
5 to ;i an inch in diameter. AV'hen first exposed, tlie whole was
of a beautiful bufl' colour, and emitted the usual smell of the dry
rot fungus.

^Vhatexer may have been the surprise at the rapid growth of
the plant, its action on the best memel timber was a source of
greater astonishment. I took up, with nearly as much ease as I
would a walking cane, that which, eighteen months before, was a
sound piece of timber (one of the joists), from 12 to l* feet
long, 6 inches by l inches scantling; the form of the timber re-
mained as it came from the saw, but its strength and weight were
gone. The timber of the joists and floor over the new brick vault-
ing was completely affected by the dry rot, which was rapidly
spreading to tiie lower part of the columns under the galleries, so
that at the rate the infection proceeded, the total destruction of
the building would soon have been efl'ected.

During a great part of the time occupied in the repairs of the
church, the weather was very rainy. The arches of the vaults
having been turned before the roof was slated, the rain water
saturated the partly decayed oak beams, before described. The
flooring and joists, composed of fresh timber, were liud on the
vaulting before it was dry, coming in contact at the same time
with the old oak timber, which was abundantly supplied with the
seeds of decay, stimulated by moisture, the bad atmosphere of an
ill-contrived burial place, and afterwards by heat from the stoves
constantly in use. All these circumstances account satisfactorily
to my mind, for the extraordinary and rapid growth of the fungi.

The large sum of 4,000/. having been so lately expended on the
church, caused gi-eat anxiety to the parishioners. The opinions of
the most experienced professional men were taken, and all agreed
that the first effort should be to cut oif the communication with
the galleries, the disease having already extended 3 feet up\vards
on tlie lower C(dumus.

The new brick vaulting was found penetrated by the fungi, im-

304

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

))osinof the necessity of Iiavinf? the vaulting, as well as all the
liintier wm-k in the lower ]iart of the church, entirely and care-
fully rciMiiveil. Xew and tliicker vjiultiiiy was then substituted f(ir
that which wiis taken down, and the whole of the floor over it was
laid with Yorkshire and Shannon flan;s set in Roman cement. New
]iews were erected, restinj^ on iron chairs let into the flag-ffinfr; the
flooring of all tlie jiews was constructed so as to be occasionally
removed for inspection; Roman cement was internally used next
to, and at the bottom of the walls; and iron columns were substi-
tuted for those of tind)er in the lower tier.

Here I must notice the clever plan of my friend, Richard
]$eamish, Esq., C.E., who caused a screw to be placed in the head
of each iron column, which was screwed up so as to take the load
I)efore the temporary supjjorts were removed, thereby avoiding the
fracture consecpient on m-dinary wedging, so that all was effected
witlioiit any disturbance or sinking of the galleries, and the
columns wliich supported the roof, &c., the screws in each column
being accurately adjusted so as to meet the i)ressure from above.

The expense incurred by these i-epairs was very considerable;
but it is satisfactory to state, that there has not been a re-
appearance of the dry rot since that time, now a period of sixteen
years.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Nineteenth 3Iecti)ig, — held at Binninc/hiim, September, 1849.

{From our own Correspondent.)

Mechanical Section.

President — fi. Stephenson, Esq. M.P. F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents— Uesivs. W.Blake, W.Fairbairn, F.Osler, T. Webster.

Secretaries — Messrs. \V. P. Marshall, C. Mandy.
Committee— y[ti%v%. J. G. Appolrt, W. Baker, R. Ddvison, C. Fox, J. Hender-
son, E. Hodgkinson, Rev. S. King, Messrs. J. G. M'Cunnell, R. Martineau,
G. Nasiiiyth, R. S. Newall, R.Roberts, J.Taylor, F. Whishaw.

1. On n Method of Supplying the Boilers of Steam-Ennines with
Water. By Mr. \V. S. M'ar'd.

Mr. \Fard proposes to use a small supplementary pumping en-
gine, having a working cylinder with valves so arranged that the
])iston may be put in motion by either steam or water passing
through it, to be supplied with 'steam, by a steam-pipe, the en-
trance to which is somewhat narrow, and inserted in the boiler to
he sujiplied a little above the level at which it is desired to main-
tain the water therein. Such aperture should also be about the
centre of a marine boiler. The working cylinder should be at-
tached to a pump of sucli size as to be easily worked by the pres-
sure of the steam. The exit-pipe of the steam-cylinder must
communicate with tlie inlet-pipe of the pump, so that if the cylin-
der be actuated by steam, the steam will be condensed, and its
heat communicated to the water to be supplied to the boiler; or if
the working cylinder be worked by water proceeding from the
boiler, a considerable part of such liot water will be returned by
the pump. The mode of operation of such apparatus will be, that
whenever there is a working pressure of steam in the boiler, the
apparatus will be in action; but if the level of the water be below
the aperture of the small steam-pipe, the action will be moderately
rajiid, and a supply of water be pumped into the boiler; and when
the water in the boiler rises to the aperture, this being small, will
be as though choked by the water, which will be forced through
the working cylinder, moving-the ])iston and pump very slowly; a
l)ortion of the water thus escajjing from the boiler will be returned
by the pump. Such last-mentioned action cannot continue long,
inasmuch as the level of the water must be reduced; therefore the
average level of the water in the boiler will be, with slight oscilla-
tions, maintained at the height of the sui)plyiiipe.

Remarks. — Mr. Roberts slated that the priMciple had heeji applied more
than thirty years, and he considered that many plans in ute, especially that
wherehy the principle of gravity was made available, was sufficient for the
purposf.

I lie President observed that at a certain point the pipe leading to the
cylinder «ould adndt water mixed with tlie steam. This was an insuperahle
ohjection, inasmuch as tlie admission of such a mixture into the working
))aits of an engine led to breakage. When the water got between the clack
and the hucket it was almost inipossihle to work the pump. This was mani-
tebt in the difficulty experienced in supplying locomotives. In some of the
eailier engines it was customary to fill the boilers as full as tlicy could hold,
run them as long as possible, and stop to take in a new supply of hot nater
directly into the boiler. His father, the late George Stephenson, obviated
this difficulty by introducing a cock between the bucket and clack, which,

from its office of humouring the action of the machinery, was called the
"pet tap." He was afraid that the suggestiou of Mr. Ward was not practi-
cally useful.

3. On a Chain Pipe far Sub-Aqueous Telegraphs. By Mr. F.
Whisiiaw.

Tlie pipe is formed of iron tubing in lengths of from 1 to 3 feet,
and from 1 to 2i inches diameter, and connected together by ball-
and-socket joints; the length of the link is regulated according
to the sinuosity of the river. The joints are not made water-
tij^ht, it being unnecessary, as the pipes form a jacket only to the
wires, which are protected by a coating of gutta percha. The
tubes are pinned down to the bed of the river, and are merely used
as a protection to prevent abrasion of the wires. A similar chain
has been in use for some time in conveying the wires across the
rivers of Prussia and Germany: the longest length is 1,200 feet,
for conveying the wires of the electric telegraph across the Rhine.

3. On Correct Sizing of Toothed Wheels and Pinions. By Mr.
Richard Roberts, of Manchester.

Although much has been written on this subject, and on the best
form of teeth, there is still mucli difference of opinion on both points;
which difference is not confined to individuals, as it embraces the
members of the trade or profession to which they belong. For
instance, engineers, millwrights, and machinists in general, adopt
the plan of extending the teeth of the pinion and wheel to the
same distance beyond the pitch-line. A majority of them are
agreed as to the best form of teeth — namely, the cycloid for wheels
to work in straight racks, and the epicycloid for wheels to work
in other wheels, or in jjinions. But they are not so well agreed
respecting the length of the teeth, as the makers of watches,
clocks, and chronometers do not extend the teeth of the pinion
beyond the pitch-line more than one-half as far as they do the
teeth of the wheel; hence the preference given by those trades to
the "bay-leaf" form for the teeth of the pinion, as no other form
would pitch, with their sizing.

Mr. Roberts obser\'es that various rules are given in works on
horology for sizing wheels and pinions, but he believes "movement
makers" generally, English and foreign, use an instrument called
a "sector" (resembling a "two-feet rule"), which is divided into
equal parts throughout its length, commencing about half a division
from the centre of the joint. The numbers up to 10, or 12, on the
sector are usually subdivided, for the use of artists «ho may
prefer pinions a little larger than the corresponding number on
the sector would give.

Knowing it to be essential to the correct performance of any
machine where wheels and pinions are employed that they should
be properly sized, Mr. Roberts thought it might be useful to
parties whose experience on the subject has been more limited
than his own, of whom there might possibly be some present, to be
informed respecting the plan which he has adopted for more than
30 years for sizing toothed wheels. — With this object in view, he
has constructed an instrument which represents on a large scale
the sector used by clock and watch makei's; excepting that in their
sector the divisions are marked on the inner side of the limbs,
whilst in his sector the divisions commence at the centre of the
joint, and are continued in a straight line to within about |-inch
of the outer side of the limbs at the other extremity.

It has long been the practise in Manchester to make those
wheels which come under the denoiuination of "clock-work," with
some definite number of teeth to the inch diameter, taken at the
pitch-line, and to distinguish the pitch accordingly. Mr. Roberts
has done this, and has adopted the same plan in respect to mill-
gear; substituting the foot for the inch in designating the pitch,
instead of naming it by the distance from the centre of one tooth
to the centre of the next, which is, he believes the universal
practice.

Before explaining the way in which his instrument is used, he
mentioned that in the year 181 6, he had a set of change-wheels
made by a "factory clockmaker," which wheels were so much out
of pitch as to direct his attention to the cause of the defect; and
having found that the error bad arisen from the defective principle
of the sector, he immediately contrived his sector, which differs
from the clockmakers' sector principally in the joint being ad-
justable like that of the projiortionable compasses. The use of
this kind of joint was to enable parties to pitch wheels correctly,
and to suit themselves as to tlie depth of the teeth.

After he had sold a number of sectors of this kind, he found
that, for all ordinary pur])oses, a fixed joint would answer equally
well, provided the centre of the joint was equal to two of the
divisions of the sector below zero. This circumstance led him
to make sectors (bars of brass serrated on the edge) which are
cheaper, whilst they are better suited for the workshop.

184.9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

305

This kind of sector, w; he believes is in.i(le by his firm only,
has the tenth number at .e twelfth division from the starting
point; the two divisions being added for the depth of tooth beyond
the pitch-line. There are two scales on each of these sectors, one
on each edge; which scales are marked according to the number
of teeth to the inch diameter (pitch-line) they are adapted for.
They are made in sets ranging from 3 to 30 in the inch. t)ne set
of tiiese sectors is used for sizing working-wheels, and another set
for sizing pattern-wheels; the latter is one per cent, coarser than
the former, to compensate for contraction of the metal in cooling.

4. Sheet-Metal 3IoiMinri-machine. By Mr. Richard Roberts, of
Manchester. — {JVith an Engraving, Plate XIX.)

This machine is furnished with two shafts, B, and B', which pro-
ject beyond one of the side frames in which the lower shaft B,
turns; the upper shaft B, is mounted in a balanced swing-frame,
and is connected by spur gear with the lower shaft in such a way
that the distance betwixt the shafts may be adjusted to any re-
quired extent without altering the depth of the wheels in gear.

On the projecting ends of these shafts the rollers D, E, are put,
with which the mouldings are to he formed; the lower roller is in
one piece only; but the upper roller is made in one or more parts
transverselj>, as may be best adapted to form the required mould-
ings, as shown in the enlarged figure; the wliich parts, when more
than one, are made to approach each other by being slid along the
shaft B', whicli is hollow, by means of a screw F, that acts within
on the back part of the top roller D, by means of a cotter, which
passes through the shaft and the screw, and on the front part by a
nut/, which is screwed from time to time by hand. Tlie advantage
of making the rollers in two or more parts is, that it allows the
met.-il to be gradually compressed sideways as well as vertically,
and avoids puckering.

The curved mouldings, shown in the engraving, were made on
the first machine of the kind that was constructed; and the
straight mouldings on a similar machine subsequently made. Al-
most any degree of curvature may be given to the moiilding by
means of the third roller H, which, with its shaft and sliding bear-
ings J, is lowered, by the gearing h (fig. 1) in front of the pair of
rollers, to produce the requirM curvature.

The engravings A (fig. ]) and A' (fig. 4) are representations of
two pairs of rollers for forming simultaneously the cap-mould of
each of the two brass domes for locomotive engines; the rollers A,
fig. 4, being for the purpose of creasing the metal, and the rollers
A', fig. I, for finishing the two cap-moulds, which may after-
wards be divided in the middle by a lathe or with a saw. Two
mouldings are in this case made together, owing to the peculiar
form of the moulding rendering it more facile to do so than to
make one separately.

Fig. 5 shows three pairs of rollers for forming the "astragal," to
which the ui)per and lovver plates of the chimney of the locomotive
are rivetted; tliese rollers B, B', B-, are used in the order the
drawings are lettered.

Fig. 6 shows a pair of rollers for forming the "base mould," and
fig. 7, rollers for forming the body of the l)rass dome of the loco-
motive engine; one pair of rollers only being used in both these
last-mentioned cases.

5. A Centrifugal Pump for Draining Marshes. By Mr. J. G.
Appold.

The pump consists of a disc with two side-plates, hollow between
and an opening in the centre; between the two plates are spiral
fans or vanes as shown in the anne.xed diagram. The disc is

^~-<;a

/T

mounted on a shaft, and turned by the aid of multiplying wheels,
for the purpose of getting up a great velocity. The'water flows
into the disc through the centre opening, and by the rapid velocity
with which the disc is turned, and its centrifugal force, the water

passes out from the outer edge of the disc, and is elevated to a
height according to the size of the disc and its velocity. — The
model of a pump capable of discharging ten gallons of water per
minute was exliibited. The disc was only 1 inch in diameter.
One the same shape, and \i inclies diameter, will discharge at the
same speed of the outside circumference, or one-twelfth the num-
ber of revolutions, 1,440 gallons per minute, which is according to
the square of the diameter, and not according to the cubic con-
tents. Mr. Appold considered that one 10 feet diameter, of the
best shape, will puni)) 140,000 gallons per minute, and so on in pro-
portion.

6. The late Accident at the Britannia Bridge, Menai Straits.

Mr. Stephenson, at the request of the meeting, explained the
cause of the accident which lately occurred in lifting the tube at
the Britannia works. He first explained the macliinery adopted
for raising the tubes, vvhich it is unnecessary for us now to report;
and stated that the plan originally proposed was by lifting tlie
tube to the height of (i feet at a time, and then allowing it to be
suspended by chains to the cross-head during the time the m.a-
sonry below was carried up: but this plan was abandoned, fearing
that if an accident should take place, either by the bursting
of the press or the breaking of a link of tlie chain, the tube
would be totally destroyed if it fell through such a heiglit as
6 feet, or even of G inches. He then considered that the only way
to proceed was by packing in timbers, inch by incli, under the
tube as it was being lifted; so that in case an accident did
take place, the tube would not have to fall through a greater
space than an inch,— and this was the plan adopted at the time
of the accident. To show how necessary it was thus to proceed,
Mr. Stephenson explained that although the tube fell through
the space of only an inch, it broke down iron beams each sufficient
to bear 500 tons weight. It will be seen that by this process the
tube was never allowed to be suspended in the air; and as a far-
ther precaution, he intended in future, when the raising was
again in progress, to pack in
underneath the cross-head of
the press, by driving in iron
wedges as the tube is raised,
as well as under the tube;
thus, if the press were to
break down, neither the
cross-head nor the tube
could fall through a greater
space than an inch. — He
then proceeded to describe
the nature of the fracture,
which he showed by a sketch
as per annexed figure. The
press was 20 inches diameter,
and the thickness of the me-
tal 10 inches.

It was very curious to find that the fracture took place at that
part of the press which was the strongest, for it broke through
the angle of the bottom at F; and when it fell out, tlic piece
formed the frustrum of a cone. At the time the presses were at
work there was nut one ton pressure to the square inch, the area
of the fracture being l,31fi square inches, and the weight sus-
pended on the press 1,000 tons. The press was calculated to be;ir
3i tons, a pressure to which hydraulic presses are frequently sub-
jected for manufacturing purposes. The ram at the time ot tlie
accident dropped 2 ft. 6 in.; if it had been wedged up, as now
proposed, the accident might not have occurred.

Fi^. 1.

Fig. 3. Fig. 2.

When lifting the Conway tubes, they commenced by lifting both

40

SOR

THE CIVIL EXGIXEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[OcTOBBB,

ends simultanodusly; 'tut vilien the enf;ines had been at work for
a short period, it wiiij observed the tuhe had got into a tremuk)us
motion like a wave. In consequence, this operation was stopped
iind a consultation held, when it was considered that it was oc-
casioned by working the pumps at each end of the tube simul-
taneously, and it was decided to work the engines at each end al-
ternately: by uilopting this mode, the motion was got rid of. — Mr.
Stephenson believed the fracture took place in consequence of the
unequal cooling of the iron at the angle of the press at F; he has
therefore decided upon having two cylinders cast in some other
form, — one, as shown at iig. 2, with a spherical bottom, the same
thickness as the cylindrical part; and the other, as shown in iig. 3,
with an open bottom, and a plate made to close the opening: but
it is intended to use one of them only. Mr. Stephenson said some
strong comments had been made because he allowed a faulty cylin-
der to be used — this was not the case; the original fault was a leak
which aj)peared in the neck of the cylinder, where an accident
could not take place. This leak was easily stopped, and did not
in any way cause the accident: the part that gave way was at the
bottom of the cylinder, and the other at the top.

Remarks. — Mr. Roberts observed, the way to prevent the oscillation or
tremulous motion in the tuhe was to work the engine as irregularly as possi-
ble. He considered the shape of the press was bad for casting, and that the
best mode of casting had not been adopted. It would greatly improve the
strength of such work if spiral casting were adopted — that is, to pass the
molten fluid into the mould in a tpiral direction.

Some interesting observations were made by Dr. Robinson, Professor
Willis, and Mr. Webster, on the cause of the oscillation and the severe trial
it caused to the presses ; they considered the accident might have been oc-
casioned throigh pulsation of the press, arising from the oscillating motion,
however small, of the tube.

7. Oil the Siijirriority of Macadamised Roads for Streets of Large
Towns. By J. I'icott Smith, Surveyor to the Commissioners of
the Birmingham Street Act.

There is a very prevalent and very natural feeling against the
employment of broken-stone roads for streets, because, as they are
usually managed, they are the cause of very great inconvenience
to householders and others by the great dust and dirt they occa-
sion, and also because their maintenance and repairs are very
expensive, while the draught of vehicles upon them is very heavy.

The object of the present paper is to prove, from long-continued
experience on a large scale, that those objections do not necessarily
accompany the use of such roads, and to show how the inconveni-
ences may be most completely and economically avoided.

This subject has been a matter of careful study to me for many
years, during which I have had under my immediate charge 107
miles lineal of street-road, being an area of about a quarter of a
million of square yards of macadamised surface, and also the
general superintendence of a considerable extent of turnpike
roads. The result of this extensive and continued experience
has been to convince me that broken-stone roads, if properly con-
structed and managed, and well cleansed and watered, are the best
adapted for the streets of a large town of any description of road
yet tried.

Of whatever nature the surface of a road is to be, it is essential
that its foundation should be of firm material, well consolidated
and perfectly drained; if not, the crust becomes loosened and
destroyed, the road is rough and uneven, and wears into holes
and ruts.

Having obtained a good foundation, the next point ia to cover
it with a hard compact crust, impervious to water, and laid to a
proper cross-section. The stones must he broken to one regular
size, well raked-iu, and fixed there by a binding composed of the
grit collected in wet weather by the sweeping-machines, and pre-
served for this purpose. This binding must be laid on regularly,
aiid watered until the new material is firmly set, which it will do
very quickly, and with the regularity of a well-laid pavement:
the sharp angles of the stones are preserved, and there is both
great saving of material and a firmer crust formed than by the
common method of leaving the material to work into its place
without the use of binding, — in which case, the angles of the
stones are worn off and reduced to powder, and at least one-third
of the material wasted in forming a binding in which the stones
may set. By the improved method the binding is formed of ma-
terial that would otherwise be uselesa.

A practical illustration of the principle 13 evidenced in the street
leading from the railway station in this town (Birmingham), which,
from the great wear and tear to which it is subject, I found neces-
sary to summer coat. This was done on the 28th of August ult.;
on the 29th the binding was laid on; and on the 1st of September,
it was well washed and cleansed by the machine, ajad presented a

surface well consolidated, firm, and level: thus in five days was
accomplislied what under the old method would have required
three months.

In the common method, not only is there great waste of mate-
rial, but the loose stones occasion delay by their resistance, great
fatigue to the horses, and danger to their feet, while the noise
produced by their grinding together is annoying to the inhabit-
ants. Upon tlie improved method, the inconveniences of road
repair are incomparably less than those of pavement: both re-
coating and repairs may be made without stopping the traffic.

Under no circumstances must any imperfection of surface be
allowed, — if a hollow be not immediately stopped it very quickly
extends over the surface; and all loose stones carefully picked, as
every loose stone passed over by heavily-laden carriages, if not
ground to powder, breaks the crust of the road; and if water be
permitted to lodge on the surface, it will cause great mischief. It
is the neglect of these essential precautions that has led many to
consider macadamised roads very expensive: they are expensive if
neglected. On a well-made road heavy showers do good, by
cleansing them; so also does artificial watering, if the road be
clean or swept quickly after it is watered. A road which is per-
fectly dry loses its tenacity and the surface grinds into dust;
whence the economy of judicious watering in hot weather, which
preserves the road as well as prevents the annoyance of dust.
The practice so common in London and elsewhere, of heavy wa-
tering a dirty road without cleansing it, is very injurious to the
road, and merely changes one nuisance into another — dust into
mud.

A great source of waste both to those who use and those who
repair a road, is to allow it to be dirty. The draught upon a dirty
road is twice as hea\y as on a clean one — that is, a horse must
exert double force to draw his load with the same speed. The
cost, however, of employing double force is so great that the ex-
pedient of diminishing the speed is generally adopted, as a horse
can exert greater pulling force at a slower pace, less power being
required to carry his own body. It often happens that the extra
resistance occasioned by dirt diminishes the speed one-fifth or one-
fourth. The effect of the dirt, therefore, is to increase the work
by 20 or 25 per cent. It will easily be believed that such a waste
far exceeds the cost of the most perfect cleansing. This is the
case when cleansing is done by scrapers (the greatest enemy a
macadamised road has to contend against); by their use the stones
are dragged from their places, and the adhesive dirt is not effec-
tually taken away. Sweeping is the only mode of cleansing that
should be allowed either on streets or turnpike roads. Sweeping
by the wide brooms of the machine is preferable to all other modes
of cleansing yet tried.

It must be evident that these wide brooms, sweeping longitudi-
nally, with a pressure that can be adjusted according to circum-
stances, tends powerfully to preserve the road, and to consolidate
its surface: they press most upon the ridges, and least upon the
ludlows, thus tending to reduce the former and fill up the latter.
When the dirt is stiff, and adheres firmly to the stones, it should
first be well watered, when it may be completely removed by the
machine without disturbing the crust, leaving the surface firm and
com])act. The use of water for this purpose has been objected to
by high authorities, on the ground that it does remove the useful
grit: but the contrary has been proved by ample experience.

I have found that the use of the sweeping-machines, with the
proper employment of water, has reduced the amount of material
required for the repair of roads in Birmingham, one-third — viz.,
from about 20,000 to 13,000 cubic yards. The first-named amount
is the average for seven years preceding the introduction of the
macliines; the latter, of the three years subsequent.

Tlie entii-e cost of cleansing and watering Birmingham is about
5,000/. per ainium, or less than one penny per week for each of its
inhabitants.

8. On the Manufacture of the Finer Irons and Steels, as applied to
Gun Barrels, Swords, and liailway Aaks. By Mr. W. Gkeeneb, of
Birmingham.

No manufacture has tended more to advance the improvement
of the finer qualities of irons than that of gun-barrels, which has

Eroceeded from the old stub-twist barrel of former days to the
iminated steel of the present time, and has been attended with
the advantages of increased security and greater projectile power
of the gun. It might be naturally inquired why the principle, if
so advantageous, has not been applied to other manufactures where
even greater security to life and limb is required than in a gun-
barrel. The first innovation on the old principle of manufacturing
gun-barrels, or tliat of making them entirely from old horse-nail

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.307

stubs, is due to the late Mr. Adnms, of AVednesbury, who, twenty
years ago, introduced what is yet termed Damascus iron, which is
constructed of alternate layers of steel and iron, fan;goted, drawn
down into rods, .and then twisted; and when welded into barrels,
forms the beautiful Damascene barrel. The success of this expe-
riment, not only in point of beauty but of strength, was so great
as to he under-estimated at an increase of 50 per cent, compared
with the strength of stub-twist iron.

The next improvement was to blend more intimately steel with
the horse-nail stubs, in the proportion of one to two of the latter.
This was effected by cutting scrap-steel into pieces, assimilating
with the stubs very carefully, cleaning them, and then welding into
a bloom, and rolling. The fibrous system seemed in this case to be
more perfect, for though possessing less steel in its composition,
yet it was quite equal in tenacity. The difficulty in obtaining old
stubs of quality sufficiently good, arising from deterioration in the
original iron, has rendered the manufacture of this variety nearly
obsolete, or, in cases where it is yet produced, the quality is so
inferior as scarcely to rank third in quality.

The next and most important improvement in metals is the ma-
nufacture of gun-barrels from scrap-steel entirely, and for this
purpose old coach-springs are generally in request. By clipping
these into pieces, perfectly cleansing them, and then welding in an
air-furnace, a metal is produced which surpasses in tenacity, te-
nuity, and density, any fibrous metal before produced. The tena-
city of it when subjected to tension in a chain-testing machine is
as 8 to 24 over that of the old stub-twist mixture. The perfect
safety of barrels produced from it is astonishing. No gunpowder
yet tried has power to burst them when properly manufactured.

The progressive value attached to these various metals has in-
duced Mr. Greener to try experiments on a more extended scale.
To effect this he takes ingots of cast-steel, from the mildest made
to No. 3 in the scale of carbonization; these after being roUed into
flat bars, are to be clipped into small pieces, intimately mixed, and
welded, as before, in an air-furnace; drawn dovin in tlie rolls, re-
faggotted, again drawn down, and then converted into gun-barrels,
either with or without spirally twisting them to form the Damascene
figure. Barrels made from this (which he terms laminated steel)
are in reality perfectly safe. To ascertain this, breeches were
screwed into both ends of a gun-barrel more than ordinarily light;
eight drachms of gunpowder (or three ordinary charges) were then
introduced; the breech was screwed in again, and the powder fired
through an orifice the size usually found in gun-nipples. The
density and tenacity of the metal are sufficiently great effectually
to resist the enormous force of this great charge of powder, the
exploding fluid passing through the nipple like steam from a safety-
valve. The principle here developed is the perfection of the
fibrous system with increased density of metal. The dissimilar
carbonization of the metals forms dissimilar fibres when thus enor-
mously extended, with a complete absence of any crystalline struc-
ture in the metal, — the existence of which in any material, either
gun-barrels or any other manufacture which become subject to
violent concussions, explosions, or blows, may safely be set down as
of the negative kind.

Swords are another manufacture to which this improvement es-
pecially applies. i\Ir. Greener observed tliat all his investigations
go to fully satisfy him that it is in a similar way the Arabs produce
their finely-tempered Damascus swords — namely, using two steels
of different carbonization, mi.xing them in the most intimate man-
ner, and twisting them many fantastic ways, but observing method
in that fancy. He is led to think that they do not temper by
heating, and immersing the blades in a cooling liquid, as practised
by us at the present day. If we subject a Damascus blade to the
action of acid, the laminated structure is perfectly visible: if the
blade be heated and immersed, crystallization takes place, and the
lamina disappears for ever. He was not then going to discuss the
merits of our mode of tempering swords, but would merely allude
to the fact that no European weapon had ever yet been produced
equal in tenacity to those of Damascus.

The government inspector of small arms gave in evidence before
a committee of the House of Commons in May last, "that the
swords manufactured in Birmingham were not fit to be issued to
the army." If so, this question becomes of vital importance not
only to that district, but to the whole empire. Mr. Greener's in-
vestigations satisfied him that tempering by crystallising the steel
(i.e. tempering in the ordinary way) is fer from the wisest course.
He has found by experiment that the Damascus blade in its fibrous
state, or hammer-hardened, is more difficult to break by 100 per
cent, than the best English-made blade: but temper it in the same
way, and it shows no greater tenacity than our own. The Damas-
cene figure is destroyed by the carbon becoming equally diffuse;

nor will acid develope it — it is entirely gone. But oTiserve it witli
a glass attentively, and what is now a mere mass of crystal was
previously a fibrous system of the most minute and beautiful ar-
rangement. The tendency of all crystalline structures to lose
tenuity, and separate by repeated actions of the waves of vibration,
is evident to all scientific men. From these facts we may draw the
conclusion, that swords constructed of dissimilar steels, tempered
by condensation of its fibres, either by repeated rollings, hammer-
ing, or many other processes which our perfect machinery give us
the opportunity of doing. Thus we may hope to see ever)' soldier
of the empire armed with a weapon as good, if not so costly, as the
highly-prized Damascene.

Lastly, tlibugh not of least importance at the present day, is the
construction of railway axles. If experience shows that the addi-
tion of one-third steel to two of iron doubles the strength of a
mass so constructed, why not adopt this improvement in railway
axles and other parts of machinery on which the safety of hundreds
sometimes depend ? A few months previously to the death of the
late George Stephenson, Mr. Greener consulted him on the possi-
bility of improving this essential material, and at his instigation
proceeded to make a considerable number of experiments. It ap-
peared to him a settled fact, that from the affinity iron evinces for
the various gradations of electricity, to galvanic electricity maybe
traced the rapid crystallization which takes place in railway axles,
after having travelled over a given number of thousand miles. It
is well known to all acquainted with engineering, that axles con-
structed of the most fibrous homogeneous iron, are changed into a
crystalline state of the most perfect kind, extending some inches
from the journal. This, it may be assumed, is effected by the gal-
vanic electricity generated by the bearings and the journal while
in rapid motion. To this also, he apprehends, m.iy be attributed
the great tendency of axles to heat. To ascertain this fact, Mr.
Greener subjected wire of various metals, from the ordinary iron
wire to wire constructed of his laminated steel, to a strong and
lengthened current of electricity, for a period of two hours, which
effectually changed the fibre of the inferior irons to a crystalline
state, — their tenacity was entirely destroyed, and breaking with
the brittleness of glass. The highly fibrous state of both the mix-
tures of steel and iron, and the fibrous steel, was not affected in
the like ratio — not even after enduring the passage of the current
for double the period. Hence he inferred that mixtures of steel
and iron in axles woiild not only add to their durability and safety,
but materially lessen the consumption of the lubricating material.
This result will also be materially advanced by the adoption of a
hollow axle, — not hollow axles, which require increased diameter or
surface, but an a.xle of precisely the present dimensions, with a
perforation not exceeding ^-inch in diameter : but this is a question
of importance enough to demand a paper exclusively devoted to it.

To the adoption of mixed steel and iron is attributed the suc-
cessful use of the gun-harpoon; for many years no iron could be
found which would effectually resist the rapid motion given to it by
gunpowder. It is a fact beyond dispute, that all gun-barrels will
only stand a cei'tain number of explosions: an ordinary iron barrel
will seldom stand a repetition of four pi-oofs, — and be their quality
even the best, a certain number of years' use changes their nature,
and they become unsafe. So it is with railw'ky axles, and, in short,
all structures of this metal, which, after a given time, part with
every quality that renders them valuable. And thus arises a ques-
tion whether the construction of horizontal bridges of iron is cal-
culated to endure the many years their projectors hope. The
waves of vibration, from the rapid passage of the locomotive, par-
takes much of the nature of concussion, and as such, is peculiarly
liable to be classed as one of those injured by excessive vibration.

Remarks. — The President (Mr. Steplienson) remarked on the danger of
assuming facts and reasoning from that assumption. With respect to the
iufluence of vibration on the structure of iron, he considered there was good
room to doubt that the bearing force or pressure upon metals caused crys-
tallization. It was by no means proved that railway axles were subject to
the passage of currents of electricity, and therefore granting the assumption
that the passage of the electric current clianged the character of the iron,
there was a link wanting in the chain of reasoning, inasmuch as it was not
proved that axles were subject to this electrical influence. Moreover he was
inclined to doubt whether if a piece of iron was at first perfectly fibrous,
vibration would ever change the structure of the metal. The beams of
Cornish engines, for example, were subject to vast pressure ; they never
became crystallised ; the connecting-rod of a locomotive was subject to
great vibration, strain, and pressure, vibrating eight times a second when
the velocity is 40 miles an hour : he had watched the wear of a rod for
three years, and no change was perceptible in the structure of the iron. He
doubted, therefore, the correctness of the assumption made by Mr. Greener.
— After a few words from Mr. Roberts in support of this opinion, the dis-
cussion terminated.

40*

308

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

[October,

9. 0/1 ihe cdiap.i and mean/! of prevention of the Oscillation of the
ll'/ieelx of jMcomotire Engines. By Mr. Hkaton.

IMi. Heaton exhibited a machine representiiifj a hicomntive en-
gine, to jirrive the cause and prevention of their oscilhition on
railways. He first showed tlie machine simply with the piston,
rod, and connecting-rod attaclied to the wheel. ^Vllen the ma-
chine was set in motion slowly, it remained steady on the table;
but by increasing- the velocity of the wheels, it began to oscillate
and jump about, although each wheel had a balance-weight in it,
equal to the weight of tlie erank-])in and the connecting-rod. He
then showed tlie machine with weights jilaced in the wheels equal
to the weight of the pistons and gearing, or all that moves in a
horizontal line. When the wheels of the machine were set in
motion with great velocity, the machine did not oscillate, but it
jumped perpendicularly up and down.

iMr. Heaton then attached to the machine his improvements, for
the ])urpose of showing the importance of ])lacing moving weights
in opposite directions to each other at high velocities. He ob-
served that when an engine of 20-inch stroke with 6-feet driving-
wheels goes 15 strokes per minute, or 3 miles per hour, it required
one-tenth of the weight moving horizontally (that is, the piston
and gearing) to stop it and turn it again; at 35 strokes per
minute, one-half its weight; at 74 strokes per minute, once-and-
a-half its weight; and at 100 strokes per minute, four times its
own weight.

A

Reference to jtarts preventing

Oseillation.
Auriliarv Cnnilf fi led an crank pin B.
Criukliin to ditto.

Weiitlit to balance crank-pin in Wheel.
Connecting \\i\f\.

II -Uer or liala-ice- weight travelling iuan
opiiosile (liifftinn to piston E.

li'ference to parts causing
Oscittation.

A. Drivinij-wheel of a Locomotive Engine.

B. Crunk |tin in ivlieel.

C. C ilinectifig rod.
1). SliileGear.

1*. Pis'on and Rod.

F. Steam t;ylinder. G. Pail.

If a weight (6), with connecting-rod (4), and an auxiliary crank
(1), be attached to the head of the crank-])in (1), equal to the
weight of the piston (F) and its gearing, so as to make the weight
run to the left hand at the same instant the piston goes to the
right, the blow to stop the piston and make it return will be
received in the auxiliary crank (1), instead of in the wheel, pro-
ducing thereliy a neutral point in the centre and steadiness of
motion; for when the blow is received in the vvlieels, the cranks
being at riglit angles, it is communicated through the axle, and
gives a twisting motion to the whole framing of the engine: this
oscilliition is found to be greatest when tlie engine is running most
regular for speed, and flie piston going the same way with tlie os-
cillation of the carriage.

Mr. Heaton then set in motion the machine with his improve-
ments, as shown in the annexed engraving, when there was not the
slightest oscillation or jumping to be seen.

10. On a machine for Ventilating Coal Mines. By Mr. AVilliam
Bhunton, of Newport, Monmouthshire.

Mr. Brunton stated that he proposed to describe the ordinary
means used to etfect rarefaction of the air in coal mines, so as to
ventilate the works; to make some practical observations on the
amount of power generated by these means, and the effects of the
ordinary application of them; to point out what appears to be the
inherent defects of the principle of heat as a ventilator to a coal
mine; and, lastl)', to describe the apparatus invented and erected
for 'j'homas Powell, Esq., of the Gaer, near Newport, and which
lie would recommend as a mechanical substitute for tlie furnace,
possessing much greater power of rarefaction, and in many respects
better atlapted to the varj'ing circumstances of coal mines gene-
rally.

Mr. Brunton stated that the ease and facility with which atmo-
spheric air moves upon its receiving an increase of temperature is
the principle upon which the ordinary method of ventilation is
conducted. In sinking * shaft, the heat communicated to the air
ill descending, and its contact with the bodies of the men, is

usually sufficient to create an ascending and descending current
for the supply of fresh air; and this is greatly promoted by a par-
tition dividing the shaft into two compartments, the downcast on
one side, the upcast on the other. The same thing is accom|ilished
by sinking two contiguous shafts. But little progress can be made
in working a colliery till a more effectual means of ventilation is
applied. For this purpose, a furnace, or large open grate, is con-
structed near to the upcast-shaft, upon which a constant fire is
maintained, over which the air passes, and is rarefied in its pro-
gress from the workings of the colliery to the upcast-shaft, when
its buoyancy creates a draught through tlie ramifications of the
mine back to the downcast-shaft.

In order tojudge of this mode of rarefaction, Mr. Brunton con-
structed a Table fNo. 1.) of easy application, showing the expan-
sion and weight of air at every 10° of heat from freezing to 252°;
also a plain way of ajiplying it to any particular case.

Table No. 1.

Table No. II. 1

Effect of Heat on the Expansion and

Pressure of Aerial Currents, and

Weight of Atmospheric Air.

Force expended.

Weight or a

Velocity in

Pressure in

Pressure per

Degrees of

cubic foot in

Volume.

feet per

pounds per

minute in

haat.

grains.

second.

square toot.

pounds falling
1 foot.

Freezing 32

550

100

10

•0023

0^13

42

541)

102

20

•0'92

110

62

52i)

104

A

•0206

3^70

62

818

lOU

4

•03o5

864

72

SOB

109

6

•0570

171

»2

4:i5

111

6

•0822

29-5

'S2

487

113

7

•1120

47-0

102

479

116

8

•1465

70 0

112

470

117

9

•1^.50

99 9

122

4lil

119

10

•2280

136-8

132

453

121

11

•2770

178-2

142

446

123

12

•329

2.-i6-2

1.=.2

4;i9

125

13

•385

300 3

l(i2

432

127

14

•447

375-4

172

42S

129

15

•513

461-7

182

420

131

16

■583

659-6

192

413

l.i3

17

■661

6742

202

407

135

18

•740

799-2

212

401

137

19

•825

94(1-5

222

394

139

20

•936

1122-0

222

386

142

22

Ml

1465 2

242

381

144

24

^32

1790-8

252

376

146

2J

1-49

2255-0

It must be evident that the ascension of air in the upcast is
owing to its being volume for volume lighter than the air in the
downcast, and that lightness is obtained by heating, and that the
expansion consequent on heat is the true measure of its levity or
tendency to rise.

Let the figures A, and B, represent two shafts of equal depth of
900 feet; A. the downcast, B, the upcast. Let us suppose the air
in A, 62°, and the average heat in B, 182°. It will be sufficient for
all practical jiiirposes to carry out the calculation in perpendicular
feet of 1 foot area, tlien we have (see Table I.) —

grains. grains.
A 90(1 cuiiic feet. 62° at 518 = 466.200
B, UOO „ \sl'^ at J20 = 378,000 -t- 618 = 730

88,200 grains.

Showing that 900 feet at 182° is balanced by 730 feet at 62°, as
in the diagram, leaving 170 feet at 518 = 88,200 grains, or about
12"5 lb. on the stpiare foot, as a gravitating power to propel the air
upward in the shaft B.

Mr. Brunton was aware of various rules that have been laid
down for calculating the velocity and force with which the air
ascends the upcast-shaft; but he has never found them to tally
with experience, but often imposing a notion of security where
danger ought rather to have been a|iprehended. This induced
him to investigate the subject, admitted to be on all hands an in-
tricate one, and to submit the following hypothesis, which, if cor-
rect, may prevent the furnace as a jiower of rarefaction being rated
beyond its capability, as it has been many times, to the fearful
destruction of human life.

The principle ujion which Mr. Brunton thinks the velocity of
the air in two shafts A, and 15, acting alone and unconnected
with the working of the cidliery, should be calculated, is analogous
to two weights A, B, suspended by a line passing over a pulley
(su])posed without friction), and the length of the line may re-
present the depth of the shafts. ^V'hilst the weights A, and B,
are equal, there can be no motion, for they neutralise each other;
but if a weight (C) is added to one of the weights A, or B, then
motion will take place, but the added weight C, will not descend
as it would if it descended alone freely, for it cannot move without

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER ANU ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

309

communicating an equal motion to the two weights A, and B; an
equal force must therefore be distributed throuffh the three weights
A, B, and C, and that force can only come from the gravitating
force of the latter (C), this force being that with which it would
actually descend if left to itself. If A, and B, he each 10, and C =r
1, then the mass through which the force is diffused will be equal
to 21 times the weight of C. The force actually existing in each
portion of the mass is therefore the 21th part of what it was in
each portion of the added weight C, and will in this combination
descend witli the 21th part of the velocity that it would do if it
descended freel)', tliat is, the 21th part of the ordinary effect of
gravity. Having thus endeavoured to explain the principle upon
which tlie furnace rarefaction proceeds, let us now further illus-
trate it.

Fig. 1. — Sectional Elevation,

Fig. 2.- Plan.

Suppose 900 feet in B, and 730 in A, represent the weights A,
and B, balancing each other, and 170 the weight C, with a fall
of 900 feet, the velocity acquired thereby when falling freely
is theoretically 240 feet per second; but 170 is the lO'tith part of
1800 (the sum of 900, 730, and 170), consequently 210 divided by
10-6 gives us 22-7 feet per second for the real velocity in the
upcast-shaft.

Thus we have an approximation at least to the velocity of the
air in the two shafts; but which is after all of little practical use
or application; for, the direct opening between the shaft being
closed, the weight C, 170 (which in the supposed case is equal to
12-5 lb. upon the square foot) immediately becomes a gravitating
force descending with more or less velocity as it is enabled to
propel the air through the workings of the colliery; and, taking
12-5 as the first mover or cause, we may look for 9 as the mechani-
cal effect in moving the air through all the air-courses of the col-
liery, and ultimately discharging it through the upcast-shaft into
tlie atmosphere; and though it is impracticable to balance the

account by estimating the actual weight of air in the colliery, the
different velocities with which it is propelled, together with the
amount of retardations, whicli if obtained would accurately express
the force applied, yet the aggregate may be satisfactorily ascer-
tained by the application of the water-gauge to any single partition
or door which stops the direct passage of the air between the
shafts, and constrains it to take the circuit of the colliery work-
ings; that is, wliere the downcast and upcast shafts are contiguous,
and one side of the door is directly and freely connected with the
influent current from the bottom of the downcast, and the other
side similarly connected with the effluent current as it enters the
iipcast, the difference of the height of the water in tlie tubes of
the gauge will expi'ess the force applied to maintain the current
between the bottom of the t« o shafts passing through the work-
ings of the colliery anali>gous to the amount of force required to
draw a long rope through a winding passage.

Mr. Brunton next described the mechanical means of the ven-
tilator he has erected for Thomas Powell, Esq., of the Gaer, near
Newport, Monmouthshire, upon one of his collieries, and the par-
ticular advantages it possesses over the furnace as a ventilator.
Over or near to the upcast shaft is constructed a hollow drum, with
curvilinear compartments, thi-ough which the air is discharged
with that degree of force due to the velocity with which the drum
revolves upon its axis. The diagrams figs. 1, and 2, represent a
plan and elevation of the ventilator. A, is a drum, 22 feet e.xterior
diameter, with curvilinear compartments B, IG feet mean dia-
meter; C, is a steam-engine to give motion to the ventilator, the
centrifugal force of wliich at 120 revolutions per minute will be
39-23, wliich, multiplied by the weight of 6 cubic feet of air =
4^ of a pound, will give a pressuie'of 17-5 pounds on the square
foot, as the amount of rarefaction produced in the interior of the
drum, and consequently in the upcast shaft with which it is con-
nected (by D, the air culvert), which is much beyond what can be
obtained by the furnace, yet greatly within the limits of the capa-
bility of this machine, as shown below. The amount of rarefac-
tion is governed by the speed of the engine, and is also under con-
stant and visible inspection by a water or mercurial gauge: thus
when the drum revolves

CO times per minute the rarefaction Is 4-3 lb. on squart foot.
ao „ „ » 7 „

l-'O „ „ 17-3 „

1-50 „ „ 2r-o „

IHO „ „ 3'.)0 „

210 „ „ 630 „

In order better to understand the peculiar self-adaptation of
this apparatus to all the circumstances that present themselves in
the ventilation of collieries, let us suppose it altogether uncon-
nected with any length of air-course, the air from the atmosphere
having free access to the centre, and space for free discharge from
the circumference, and a velocity given to it of 150 revolutions
per minute, creating a rarefaction of 27 lb. ])er square foot in the
middle of the drum; then the velocity of tlie air through the
machine would be 108 feet per second, and the aggregate amount-
ing to 8+24. cubic feet per second, or 505'440 per minute.

Then let us suppose a state the very reverse of the above — viz.,
that no air be permitted to enter the drum at the centre part, of
course none can be discharged at the circumference; therefore,
there being no resistance to the motion of the drum from discharge
of air through the curvilinear compartments, but the power of the
engine continuing the same, is consequently expended in increasing
the velocity of the drum, and thereby the rarefaction. In the
former case the effect is exhibited in the discharge of air; in the
latter by the degree of rarefaction maintained in the middl* of the
drum.

From consideration of these two cases, it is manifest that the
power required to work the machine will be as the quantity of air
ascending the upcast-shaft, and the amount of rarefaction required
to draw i"t through the colliery; and such is the principle of self-
adjustment of this apparatus, that if from any cause a less quantity
of air is passed through the colliery at one time than anotlier, the
engine (always exerting the same power) will of its own accord
accelerate the velocity of the drum and increase tlie rarefaction,
for, the power applied being the same, the effect will be commen-
surate in tlie quantity of air discharged, the amount of rarefaction
attained, or both combined.

The machine is an entirely new modification of the fan. Its
construction is of tlie most simple integral character; it has no
valves or separate moving parts; has no attrition, and all the
friction is resolved into a foot pivot moving in oil; when at rest
offers no impediment to air ascending from the shaft, is very inex-
pensive, and liable to no deranaement; in short, it is a simple me-
chanical implement, whereby any degree of rarefaction necessary

310

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

fOcTODF.a,

to ventilation is rendered certain and reg^iilar, being subject to the
l.iH- of cejitral forces, whiib is as fixed and determinate as that by
which a stone falls to the earth.

In imitation of our Cornish method of estimating the lifting of
water from the mines, Mr. Brunton has, in Tal)le No. II., denomi-
nated the power necessary to propel the air by pounds falling
1 foot per minute; but in the use of this table it must be borne in
mind that the ]iressure per square foot is that due to the velocity,
and, to produce this current, an increase of 25 or 30 per cent, must
be made, as in ordinary mechanical operations, where 100 may re-
present the power or cause and 72 the eifect.

II. The Desiccating Process for Drying and Seasoning Wood and
other materials. By Mr R. Davison, C E.

Air. Davison stated that all other methods consisted in generat-
ing heat by simple radiation, or throwing off heat from a heated
surface, whether the surface be bi-ick flues, cockles, steam or hot-
water pipes. Heat is easily attainable in this way, and to almost
any grade of temperature; but heat is not the only essential re-
<iuired for drying, or why does the bleacher or laundress hang out
their articles to dry on a cold March morning. It is true that heat
facilitates the evaporation of tlio watery particles; but a current is
likewise necessary, otherwise all the water which is thus converted
into vapour will only tend to charge tlie chamber with steam; and
it is not until this steam has arrived at a certain excess, or pres-
sure, that it will make its escape, and the O])eration of drying
really commence.

The amount of current obtainable in this way is proportioned to
the rarefaction, and quantity of air admitted and allowed to come
in contact with the heated medium: if little is admitted, there is
little current, an increased temperature, and likewise an increased
lohime of vapour, — or, vice versa, if a larger amount of atmospheric
air is admitted, thei-e will be a corresponding increased current, a
lessened temperature, and much less vapour. The ordinary cur-
rent obtainable in this way may be taken at 3 or 4. feet per second.

To subject any article to a slow current of heat in a compara-
tively close chamber, or where there is an exceedinglj' small aper-
ture for the escape of vapour, whereby that article (whatever it
may be) is enveloped in an atmosphere of its own steam, is (to give
it its proper name) not drying, but stewing. If there is next to no
escape at all, as in the case of an oven, it is in reality baking.

Mr. Davison stated that it is not only a moving but a rapid cur-
rent which is the great desideratum for all drying purposes; and
that it is the impulsion of atmospheric air, at tlie velocity of the
hurricane, or upwards of 100 miles per hour (or any other speed),
combined with the element of heat under perfect control, which in
fact constitutes the desiccating process.

Mr. Davison next proceeded to describe the means by which the
two operations of current and heat are created and kept up; and
some applications whicli have been made of the process, together
with the practical results. — The drying apparatus, consisting of a
series of cast-iron pi])es, so united together as to form one con-
tinuous pipe bent vertically into an arch form, and set in a casing
of brickwork, with a common furnace, surrounded on the sides and
top by the pipes, comprehends at once the heating medium. The
cnirrent of air is created by a common blowing-fan, which can of
course be driven at any required speed either by hand or a steam-
engine. For all ordinary drying pui'poses, every thousand cubic
feet of space of the drying chamber requires 28 superficial feet of
heating surface in the pipes forming the furnace.

So far as regards the construction of the apjjaratus, and the mode
of conve5'ing the heated air into, and the escape from, the cliamber
or stove, the same plan is carried out in all cases where mere dry-
ing is required, whether it be for wood, yarns, fabrics of all kinds,
starch, sugar, leather, paper, or indeed any article whatever which
simply requires moisture evaporated from it. The arrangement is
as follows — viz. one, two, or more, channels or ])ipes being laid in
or upon the floor of a building, whose sectional area corresponds
in the aggregate witli the heated outlet of the apparatus; the cur-
rents of air being driven into these by a fan, is allowed to escape
through small perforations made on the top or sides of the chan-
nels or pipes as the case may be, these perforations corresponding
again in amount of superficial area with the heated outlet : in this
way a uniform amount of current as well as temperature is distri-
buted throughout the chamber, and rises towards the regulating
orifices provided in the roof or sides of the building for the escape
of moisture.

Air. Davison then proceeded to explain the application of the
desiccating process to the purifying of brewers' casks, which had
been adopted at some of the leading breweries in England and Ire-
land; at the brewery of Messrs. Guinness, of Dublin, upwards of

one million casks in four years had undergone the process. He
then explained the application of the process to the drying or se4t-
soning of wood.

The advantages of this process for drying wood are that it is a
true imitator of those elements which are said to be the best sea-
soners of wood, viz. the March wind with a summer heat, with this
addition — tliat a current of air exceeding by far that of any ordi-
nary wind, and a heat beyond that of any ordinary summer, ia
instantly and constantly at command, and kept up until every
grain of moisture is expelled. The greener the wood, the easier
and more perfect is the expulsion of moisture, and at the same
time the native strength of the fibre is secured by the immediate
evaporation of all vegetable juices or moisture likely to ferment
and carry on decomposition. The gums, instead of being removed,
are coagulated and hardened, and the texture of the wood gene-
rally (having been brought into its most complete state of aggre-
gation and density) is much less liable to imbibe atmospheric mois-
ture, and altogether less prone to decay. The colour of mahogany
and other fancy woods is not only preserved but improved, thus
avoiding everything approaching to a stain, as is too frequently
the case according to the ordinary method of seasoning such woods.
Shrinking is entirely obviated. The cost of desiccating is inex-
pensive— not exceeding the interest of money sunk in laying-up
wood to season in the ordinary way. — The process has been adopted
at the Tower of London for tlie seasoning of gun stocks; >and by
Messrs. Hall and Co., ship-builders, of Aberdeen, who have ap-
plied the process to seasoning wood for vessels, particularly the
decks of vessels; and also by numerous builders in London.

The annexed Table will show the comparative strength and
deflection of desiccated specimens, and their duplicates after four
months' seasoning in the ordinary way.

Desiccated

Brok-e Willi

Increase in

Average

or

Dimension.

Pounds'

Deflection.

Strengtii

Increase.

otherwiw.

\^eii;ht.

by Desiccation

Sq. Feel.

lbs.

Inches.

Per. Cent.

Fer Cent.

Yellow Pine.

Desiccated

Not ..

1
1

45i
4U4

6
11

1 11-3

Desiccated

Not ..

n

li

138

107

6
4i

\ 22-5

J

• 17-6

Desiccated

3

884

31

1 19-1

Not ..

3

716

4J

-

Hf'f/a Pine.

Desiccated

Not ..

3
3

996
793

3f

4*

1 20'4

20-4

Mahogany.

Desiccated

Not ..

1

1

70i
62i

8f

1 11-4

Desiccated

Not ..

li

n

185^
156

6J

j 16-0

• 124

Desiccated

Not ..

2
2

436
394

Si-
5i

1 10-0

Desiccated

Not ..

3
3

lolt
1318

4J
5f

1 12-3

.

Englinh Oak.

Desiccated

Not ..

1
1

545
47i

9J

\\ 14-0

Desiccated

2

385

4i

Not ..

2

327

4i

NO'i'E. — Tile above experiments, so far as ttiey relate to strenptii, are not otfereii as
])ositively accurate, owing tn the npi-cimens being preparetl more witli a view of asier-
taininif tiie rate of seasoning Ity llie desiccating meliiod compare 1 ivltli natural seasoning.
For this purpc'se, tiie speciu'ens were in some instances piiined or pared, so as to liring
botlj to Itie same weijrtit. Tiie specimens, however, of which lliere was a (ionl)f., having
been left out of the Table, the above resialta may be considered sulficiently correct lor aU
piaclical purposeH.

Before closing these brief remarks on this portion of the sub-
ject, it ought to be mentioned in reference to impregnating timber
with any preservative mixture, that timber which has thus been so
completely exhausted of all aqueous particles is in the best possible
condition to receive ingredients of any kind, but more especially
if timber instead of being allowed to cool after it is removed from
the desiccating chamber, is immediately plunged into a cold anti-
septic : it will be clear that a very considerable charging of the
pores must inevitably take place. A variety of fencing, railway
sleepers, keys, &c. having been treated in this way, and the very
best results having so far been observed, the plan is with confidence
recommended as one which ought to be more closely followed up.
In most cases, immersion, it is believed, will be quite unnecessary,
for if the desiccation of the timber is only complete, all that can
be wanted will be a thorough coating of some oleaginous fluid to
close the external pores.

1819. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

311

For calico printing the process is most advantageously adapted ;
it enables the operator, with the mere turning of the hand, to re-
gulate the heat and current so as to suit the style of goods which
are being thrown off from the machines. One heating apparatus
can be rendered available for one, eight, or more machines, each
printing perhaps a different kind of fabric, as well as a different
amount of colour; and when it is borne in mind that these ma-
chines are known to print from 4,000 to 6,000 yards per day, it
cannot be a trifling consideration to have a command of drying
power, as thus described.

12. On a Patent Water-Meier. By Mr. Paekinsov.

This instrument is constructed for measuring water as supplied
from the water-mains in the streets to private houses, factories,
and other places. Mr. Parkinson stated that it was simple in con-
struction, uniform in motion, nearly fi-ee from friction, and not
subject to derangement; it takes an accurate account of the water
passing through it, whether it enters under several hundred feet
elevation, or the smallest stream under half-an-inch ])ressure. The
measuring-wheel or drum is a modification of Crosley's gas-meter
drum; the water under pressure enters at the back, where a self-
acting apparatus reduces the pressure to that only which is neces-
sary to pass it into the measuring-drum. The quantity is recorded
on an index, similar to the gas in gas-meters. From the measur-
ing-drum it falls into a small cistern, which, in filling, shuts off
tlie supply to the meter by means of a ball-tap valve; from tliis
cistern the water is drawn off as required, the act of which draws
down the float and sets the meter to work, and supplies the quan-
tity drawn off, to be ready for farther demand. As the cistern is
only a small one, it is indispensable that the pressure from the
works should be always on, to be ready to enter the meter; but if
the supply be intermittent, as is now generally the case, a large
cistern, to hold a day or two's supply, must be provided. And it
would require a meter large enough to fill the cistern in the
allotted period allowed by the company for this purpose; but it is
expected now that companies can get paid for all they sell, that it
will be to their interest to keep tlie pressure always on.

It is calculated that a meter to supply a twelve-roomed house,
will not cost more than 30*., and be able to supply water to the
extent of 50 gallons per hour. In fitting-up new houses, the cost
of the meter will be much less than the cost of a cistern on the
old principle; besides the advantages of a constant supply, no
annoyance from stoppages from frosts, &c., as the meter and pipes
may be all internal.

[From some remarks that were made after the paper was read, it was
elioited that the pressure of the mains was reduced by allowing the water to
flow into a small regulator or cistera attached to the apparatus into which
the water 6rst enters before it passes through the drum to record the quan-
tity; and that when the small cistern was full, the water was shut ofif by a
ball-cock until it had discharged its contents. When this was done, the ball-
cock was again opened by a contrivance in a second reservoir, below the
first.]

13. On the Present State of Telegraphic Communication in England
Prussia, and America. By Mr. F. VV'hisuaw.

Mr. AV^hishaw first described the extent of telegraphic commu-
nication in England, and its direction. The whole length is about
2,000 miles, the course of the wires invariably following that of
railways. Not so in Prussia and America. In the former country
there were 1,700 miles of wire, in the latter about 10,000. In
both places it was not considered necessary to follow the course of
railways. In Prussia the wire sometimes skirted the highway, and
crossed the Rhine. In America the vast prairies and agricultural
districts were linked together in one chain of communication. In
Prussia the system recommended by Mr. Whishaw, of coating or
insulating the galvanised wire with gutta-percha, and burying it
underground, was partly adopted. He strongly recommended this
system, for besides the expense of posts, there were several disad-
vantages attending the present practice; they were liable to be
damaged by trains getting off the rail, the electrical action was
frequently disturbed by the state of the atmosphere, and the wires
were often damaged by malicious persons. This was more particu-
larly the case on the continent, where political inquietude often
assumes a formidable shape. It has been found after considerable
experience that gutta-percha so buried was as perfect when it was
dug up as the day it was put down. He had recommended this
system to the East India Company, who were preparing to lay
down no less than 10,000 miles of wire. Morse's telegraph was
the one principally in use in Prussia, and it was worked with the
greatest ease and facility by mere boys.

The expense of laying down a mile of wire in these countries
varied considerably. In England it was about 150/., in America

20/., in Prussia 40/. In the two latter places a single wire was
used. The charges in America and England differed considerably,
and considering that in the former place a dividend of 6 per cent.
is paid, he could not help coming to the conclusion that the eco-
nomical system of cliarges is by tar the most profitable. 'The dif-
ference is the following: —

American Scale of Charges.
From WashlnglOB Dlstame. 20 Words. 50 Words. 100 \VorJs.

to s. d. 8. d. 8. rt.

Alexandria .. 10 miles ..11 2 4 4 5

Fredericksburg.. 60 miles .. 1 3i 2 6J 7 /j-

Raliegh .. 292 miles ..2 8 5 2 9 4

Columbia .. 509 miles ..4 0 7 9 14 0

Macon ..1,107 miles ..7 9 15 3 27 9

Columbus ,.1,200 miles .. 8 GJ 16 9i 30 6-i

Mobile ..1,523 miles .. 10 3^ 20 z\ 36 11

New Orleans ..1,716 miles .. 12 6 25 0 45 10

Electric Telegraph Compang*s Charges.
Distance. 20 Words. 50 Words. 100 Words.

s. d. • B. d. B. d.

10 miles ..2 6 9 OJ 20 0

60 miles ..4 7 12 7| 26 1

100 miles ..6 3 15 71 31 3

200 miles ..8 4 2U 10 41 8

South-Eastern Raihoay Charges.
From London Distance. 20 Words. 60 Words. 100 Words,

to 8. d. E. d. 8. d

Mcrstham

19 miles

5

0

12

6

25

0

Ash ford

68 miles

8

6

21

3

42

6

Dover

.. 88 miles

.. 11

0

27

6

55

0

14. On the Copying Electric Telegragh, and other Improvements in
Telegraphic Communicutl-n. By Mr. Fkedebick C. Bakewell.

In the copying telegraph the corresponding instruments are
made as exactly alike as possible, so as to impart equal and steady
movements to a cylinder on each instrimient. Motion is given to
the cylinders by weights, accelerated velocity being prevented by
rapidly-revolving fans. Parallel to the cylinders are screws which
turn with tlie cylinders, and carry traversing nuts. To those nuts
ivory arms are attached, at the end of each of which there is a
binding screw to hold a metal point tliat presses on the cylinder,
and is carried by the revolution of the screw from one end to the
other. Upon the cylinder of one of the instruments, the message
to be transmitted is written on tin-foil with a pen dipped in spirit
varnish, which is quite sufficient to obstruct the passage of the
electric current. On to the cylinder of the corresponding instru-
ment the paper to receive the message is applied; it is moistened
thoroughly with a solution which electricity will readily decompose,
so that a mark may be made on the paper whenever the electric
current is completed. The solution used consists of a mixture of
muriatic acid and prussiate of potass; the marking point being
steel wire. The metal points which press on the cylinders are
connected with the poles of a voltaic battery, and are insulated
from the other parts of the instrument by the ivory arms. The
cylinders are also placed in the electric circuit, which is completed
by the electricity passing from the point to the cylinder of each
instrument. By this arrangement, when the point of the trans-
mitting instrument is pressing on the exposed tin-foil, the electric
circuit is completed through the moistened paper of the receiving
instrument, and a mark is made; but when the point of the trans-
mitting instrument is pressing on the varnish writing, the marking
ceases. In this manner, as the cylinders rotate, and the points are
moved gradually along by the traversing screw nuts, spiral lines
very close together are made on the paper, excepting in those
places where the electric current is interrupted by the varnish;
and if both cylinders rotate exactly together, the point of the
transmitting instrument, by passing several times over different
parts of each letter, will cause the marking point to produce forms
of the letters on the paper, as in the specimens shown. By this ar-
rangement, copies of writing may be made at any distance to
which an electric current can be conveyed, provided the two in-
struments are moving exactly together. ' To obtain synchronous
movements in the two separate rapidly-revohing instruments,
there is attached to each cylinder an electro-magnet, to the keeper
of which there is a detent, which catches against projections on a
wheel fixed to the euber of the cylindei-, the projections on both
wheels being placed at exactly equal distances. The electro-
magnets are brought into action at regular intervals, by means of
half-second pendulums, actuated by clockwork. These pendulums
are connected with separate voltaic batteries, in such manner that
at each connection they make and break connection, and put the
magnet into and throw it out of action: thus affording the means
of regvilating the cylinders every half-second.

312

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[OcTOBEB,

15. The EccKntric Sheet Metal and Wire Gage.
Roberts, of Manchester.

By Mr. Ricuabd

The g.ige is thus constructed: — A plate of brass, about if inches
diameter and i-inch thick, is recessed on the upper side to the
de]ith of g-inch and l inches diameter, leaving a margin -nT-i'ich
broad. In the centre of tlie recess is a hole into whicli is fitted a
steel pivot wliose upper end is rivetted into a steel disc 3-S inches
diameter and -Jj-inch thick; the pivot is eccentric to the disc -J^th
of an inch, and conseciuently one point in the periphery of the disc
touches the inner edge of the brass margin, with which the top of
the disc is level. To the under side of the brass plate a small slide
is fitted, to the outer end of which a piece of steel is attaclied (by
screws), that passes up through a notch in the brass margin about
i-inch, and forms the inner or sliding jaw of the gage : the outer
jaw is formed of a similar, piece of steel also passed through the

notch in the brass margin, and is secured to the brass plate by
screws. The inner edge of the sliding jaw is rounded to a radius
of ^inch, and is kept in contact with the periphery of the eccen-
tric disc by a spring (under the disc), which acts against a stud in
the slide projecting through the brass plate. The margin of the
brass plate is divided through one-fourth of its circumference, com-
mencing at the centre of the sliding jaw, into 75 equal parts, which
are numliered decimally. The extremity of the disc is then set at
zero on the scale, and the jaws accurately adjusted to touch each
other, after whicli the extremity of the disc is turned to the fifth
division, and a line is made on the disc to corresi)ond with zero on
the scale, at which point the jaws will be opened a little. The
disc is turned to the required gage number by means of a milled
button, or by two studs, and is fixed there by a milled nut on the
end of the pivot below.

It mav be convenient to have the mimhers extended from 75 on
a fourth of the circumference, and to 100 on a third, but the law
of increase in the figures beyond 70 would be reversed. It will be
obvious that gages having different numbers and dimensions may be
more suitable for certain descriptions of work, and likewise that
the eccentric principle may be applied to gages in many various
ways.

This gage possesses the following properties : —

l.st. A corresponding gage may be made without expensive tools
from a written description of the means employed to make the
original.

2nd. It admits of accurate construction and easy re-adjustment.

3rd. Eacli succeeding number being larger than the preceding in
a progressively increasing ratio, adapts the gage equally well for
high and low numbers.

1 6. On Hosmer's Self-Acting House Cistern.

Mr. Wood read this paper, and exhibited a model of the appa-
ratus. It consists of two separate divisions (A, B), in the same
cistern, the larger division being for domestic purposes, the other
for cleansing the drains and sewers. There is a two-way inlet-

Fig. I.— Self-Discharying House Cistern.

cock C, with b.nll and lever, one aperture opening into the small,
the other into the larire division. The water from the main being
turned on, the small divisi(m B, of tlie cistern becoming first filled,
flows over into the other A; the water rising in A, lifts the ball
and lever, until stopped by the pressure of the fluid column upon
a valve at the bottom of the small division B, with which it is con-
nected by a chain. The water continuing to rise, the ball becomes
nearly immersed, when its superior buoyancy overcoming the pres-
sure upon the valve, lifts the latter suddenly to such a height as to
allow of a free flow through a large syphon-trapped pii)e into the
drain. The larger division of the cistern becoming filled, is re-
tained for domestic purposes.

Fi'-', 2.- Self. Discharging Slreet Tank.
The above taaks are In use in the City of London, by order of the Court of Sewers.

1849."1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

313

By Mr. Ricbabd Roberts,

17. Patent Tide-winding Apparatus.
of Manchester.

This apparatus is for the purpose of rendering tidal power avail-
able for raising heavy bodies, or for winding clocks. Figures 1, 2,
and 3, are diagrams to explain the machinery. C, is a weight
twice raised by every tide, in the following manner. M, and N,
are chain-wheels, placed loose on the shaft K, and provided with
studs on their peripheries, to prevent the chain fr, from slipping; P,
is a pulley placed on a stud in the framing, under which pulley the
chain /r, also passes; A, is a hollow weight which ascends and
descends with the tide, and B, is a counter-weight, heavy enough
to hoist the weight C, and and preserve the tension of the chain
k, whilst the tide is rising, the hollow weight A, being sufficiently
heavy to hoist the weights B, and C, during the ebbing of the tide.
Whilst the hollow weight A, is rising with the tide in the tank R,

Fig. 1.

are being put together. The endless chain /, /, passes over the
pulleys G, and H, and is kept in close contact with them by the
weight C, and counter-weight suspended from it by the pulleys
c, and d. During the ebbing of the tide and consequent descent
of the hollow weight A, the weights B, and C, are made to ascend
and the counter-weight D, to descend in a corresponding ratio.
During both changes of the tide, the weight C, descends and
maintains by its gi-avitation the motion of the clockwork or other
mechanism to which it is connected, until the influx or efflux of
the tide rewinds it as before described. As the endless chain /,
cannot slip upon the pulley G, the rotation of the shaft L, will be
maintained continuously in the same direction. The effect of the
weight C, upon the clockwork or other machinery is rendered
equi-motive by the chain /', which is attached at its extremities to
the weight C, and the counter-weight D, and extends downwards
lower than the weight C, consequently as the weight C, ascends or

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

the pulley N, which is loose upon the shaft K, rotates in the direc-
tion of the arrow in fig. 3, and carries with it ratchet clicks over
the teeth of the wheel P, whilst the chain k, passing from the
hollow weight A, over the pulley N, under the pulley P, and over
the pulley M, to the weight B, allows the weight B, to descend ;
and the clicks placed upon the pulley M, by operating upon a
ratchet-wheel O, effect the rotation of the shaft K, in the direc-
tion of the arrow in fig. 2. The weight C, operates upon the shaft
L, which IS in connection with the clockwork or other mechanism,
in the following manner. G, is a pulley made fast upon the shaft
L, and furnished with suitable projections on its periphery for
preventing the endless chain /, from slipping; H, is a pulley which
IS also provided with projections similar to those on the pulley G;
and I, IS a ratchet-wheel, fixed with the wheel H, on the shaft K.
Ihe ratchet-wheel I, with its click, are only used when the works

descends, the weight of chainis diminished as much at one end
of the weight as it is increased at the other.

On the ebbing of the tide, the hollow weight A, descends; and
tlie clicks ?i, H, acting upon the ratchet-wheel p, effect the rotation
of the shaft K, in the direction of the arrow in fig. 3.

The advantages of this arrangement are, that whether the hoUow
weight A, is ascending or descending, the rotation of the shaft K,
is invariably in the same direction.

As the levels of high and low water will vary tonsiderably at
difi'erent seasons, it is evident that some limitation of the height
to which spring tides would raise the hollow weight A, in the tank
R, must be effected, inasmuch as unless this were done, the ebbing
of these tides would cause the weight C, suspended from the end-
less chain I, to be overwound. This limitation may be effected in
various ways.

41

314

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

18. On an Oil Test. By Mr. G. Nxsm-TH.

The test consists of a metal inclinert-plane with six grooves, as
shown ill the annexed fijjures 1, and 'i. At tlie top is a small cup
C, to contain tlie oil; the oil is allowed to flow out and trickle
down the inclined j)lane AB; and after a space of thi-ee or four
days, it is noticed the distance eacli description of oil has tra-
veiled. That which has passed over tlie longest length is con-
sidered the best oil.

Remarks. — Mr. Roberts remarked that no test could be satisfactory unless
the conilitions in wliich oils would be when used were present. Again, some
tliin oils might preserve tlicir fluidity, but tliey were not necessarily good
lubricators. An oil good for light weights was perfectly useless for heavy
ones. For instance, neat's-foot oil is good for clockwork, but bad for rail-
way purposes. He had long ago invented a machine whereby the practical
value of the oils was tested i>y the material being subjected to an action
equivalent to that it would sustain in actual use. That was the only reliable
test. He also observed that there was a very cominon but erroneous idea,
that smaller the pivot the less the friction.

Mr. Stephenson remarked that oils sometimes changed their character
by the operation of the atmosphere.

19. On a New Rotary Engine. By Professor McGauley.

A mode was exhibited by which it appeared that the peculiarity
of this engine is that the cylinder and working parts form the fly-
wheel also. Tlie whole of the machinery revolves by the action of
gravitation; that is to say, side weights are attached to the cross-
head of the piston. — when that rises the weights overbalance the
parts, and the cylinder rotates; the return of the piston throws
the weight in the opposite direction, and so maintains the rotary
action. — This engine appears to he similar in principle to one de-
scribed in a patent by Wittv, of Hull, in 1810-11.

20. On Neudstadt and Burnett's Patent Calculating Machine. By
Mr. Knight.

This machine is the invention of M. Slowmiski, a native of
Poland. The addition and subtraction tables consist of a thin
plate of metal moulded on a box. In this plate are perforated
holes, around which are engraved the several digits from 0 to 9.
By a peculiar arrangement the wlieels inside the openings, when
turned by a stile, exhibit the results required, either in addition or
subtraction. The operation of multiplication is performed by a
larger instrument. As no detailed explanation of the machine
was given, we cannot enter into its principle.

21. On a Plan fur Ventilating Cual-Mines. By Mr. Nicholson.
This plan consists of liaving the furnace for the rarefaction of

the air at the top instead of the bottom of the shaft. — The plan,
it was stated by some members, was not new; it had been in use
nearly a century.

THE EXHIBITION AT BIRMINGHAM.

To those tolerably acquainted with the resources of English
manufacturing skill, the Exhibition at Birmingham, held during
the meeting of the British Association, presents little that is novel
or remarkable; but taken in another point of view, this Exhibition
has considerable interest. It is to us small, but it shows suflScient
development of power to enable us to institute a comparison with
the great Exposition at Paris, and to form an estimate of the pro-
bable success of a National Exhibition here.

In France, the Exposition held once in four or five years is a
rarity, which is pai'ticularly striking to the visitors; and the ex-
periment being once made, it could not fail to become a permanent
institution. Here it seems wonderful that a great manufacturing
country should have no National Exhibition; but, inasmuch as it
is a great manufacturing country, is it in truth less wonderful that
such a want should be felt? The English are a travelling people,
and are famiHar with illustrations of mechanical skill. In the
nietro])olis, there are always one or more polytechnic galleries
open, besides the special engineering sights, — the mint, the dock-
yards and arsenals at Woolwich and Deptford, the bank weighing-
machines, the breweries. Bishop and Pell's distillery, the saw-mills,
marble-works, carving- works, Apsley Pellatt's glass-house, the
shipyards, Broadwoods pianoforte-works, the silversmiths', besides

the numberless works of a great manufacturing and trading town,
famed for the skill of its handicraftsmen. In travelling, the
sight-seeing is not in picture galleries, hut in mines, cotton-mills,
docks, ironworks, and potteries. There is a carte dii jxiys for
these things; and thei'e are few Englislimen who have not seen
many of these sights and brought home porcelain from Worcester,
cutlery from Sheflield, and cotton prints from Manchester. The
Londoner goes to these things; when they are brought within his
ken, he will think less of them than the Parisian, who is home-
tied. We say this, not in depreciation of an exhibition, hut as
explanatory of its non-existence. It is because we are rich in
private libraries that we feel less the want of public ones; it is
because we travel we feel less the want of having mechanical
sights gathered together in our own neighbourlioods.

This, too, is the reason we say the Birmingham Exhibition has
little that is novel to the sight-seeing public; though a foreigner
would look with admiration on productions, of which he has here»
tofore seen no example. In most cases, it is not allowed parva
componere magnis; but here we can fairly compare little things
with great, for quality, as in a national gallery of the great mas-
ters, is of more importance than quantity ; and in quality, the
Birmingham Exhibition, in many important articles, goes beyond
the Paris Exposition; and in many others in which the French
have a high reputation, it does not yield to them.

In porcelain, glass, papier-mache, plate, electro-plate, and brass
fittings, there is no need to he ashamed of competition with the
French; and yet there are articles requiring much taste and ar-
tistic skill in their manufacture, beyond the mechanical manipu-
lation.

Parian statuettes and gutta-percha, are almost peculiarly English.
The bronzes are good, and there are many good specimens of
mixed materials, metal, glass, and porcelain.

Saws, files, and rough tools are expected to be found at Bir
mingham, of the highest class; and so too the higher productions
of locks and stoves. INIany of the large wrought pieces and cast
ings were of the soundest character. In ornamental casting there
were, however, few great works. The largest was a bracket, the
mathematical instruments in quality far surpass those of the
French.

In buttons and toywork of all kinds, Birmingham is able to heat
the world.

The Exhibition committee having charge of the arrangements
consisted of manufacturers of universal reputation; such men as
Messrs. Chance, Osier, Westly Richards, Elkington, Gillott, Win-
field, Jennens, Messenger, and Minton, who have establishments
of colossal magnitude, and whose works and wares are sent
througliout the world.

The Coalbrook Dale company had some ornamental castings in
iron, of a common character — the old Warwick vase, and so forth.
There were likewise various smaller articles of interest.

Some cannons were shown by Messrs. Thomson and Astbury, of
Smethwick.

Tlie illustrations of the process of stamping metal, looking com-
mon enough in an ironmongery or a kitchen, were here interesting,
as showing the results of a peculiar process; and one could look
with complacency on copper jelly moulds, teapot bodies, iron fun-
nels, extinguishers, nozzles for candlesticks, and egg-cups; in the
production of each of which considerable mechanical power is
brought to bear.

Of guns there were several exhibitors, and the productions
were of a very high order.

In wood carvings and machine carving we seem to go beyond
the French; whether we should beat the Flemings or High
Dutch is another matter. Mr. W. H. Rogers, of Soho, London,
sent carved brackets, bread-plates, paper-knives, and so forth.

The cabinet-sawing of Messrs. Prosser and Iladley, of London,
was very good, and included brackets, trusses, bannisters, panels
for ))ianoforte makers, and ventilating plates. Messrs. 1 aylor,
Williams, and Jordan, of London, had very good machine carv-
ings.

The stoves, as we have already hinted, were highly praise-
worthy. There were some by Messrs. Brettel and Roberts, of
N(u-thampton; and Mapplebeck and Lowe, of Birmingham.

Buttons and buckles were shown by Messrs. Smith and Kemp,
Chntwin and Son, Hardman and Ilift'e, and John Aston.

Messrs. Allen and Moore exhibited various specimens of orna-
mental stamping, as medals, taper-bo.xes, snuff-boxes, whist-
markers, picture-frames, pen-cleaners, egg-cups, and labels.

Tlie show of iron pens was a good proof how a small object may
become an important manufacture.

Mr. Grainger, of Worcester, showed what he called semi-porce-

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

315

lain. A set of twelve dessert plates, celeste ground and gold,
with coloured convolvulus border, was beautifully drawn and
painted.

Messrs. ^V'edgevvood had a few specimens of art in porcelain of a
high character.

The stained glass exhibition we do not consider to possess merit
deserving of special remark.

A curious series was a set of cotton stockings, manufactured
severally in 1700, 1716,1816, and 1817, shown by Messrs. Allen
and Solly, of Nnttingham, and bearing out the great progress of
the manufacture through Arkwright's exertions.

Messrs. Newton and Son, of London, had a pair of thirty-inch
globes, a class of work for which the metropolis holds a very high
rank.

The mathematical instruments we have before named. A glass
lens, 18 inches diameter; showed the resources of the glass-workers,
and the brass-finishing was of the highest quality. The lens was
by JNIessrs. Chance.

Messrs. Chamberlain, of Worcester, had a choice display of por
celain, fully beai-ing out their established reputation.

Messrs. Minton and Co. had likewise a large collection of equally
meritorious works in porcelain and parian, including above a hun-
dred articles.

The glass collection of Messi-s. Richardson, of Wordsley, was
equally large. We may observe, that the glass collections showed
the great progress lately made in this manufacture. The shapes
of some of the vases and claret jugs had much taste; and the
colours and compositions in the Venetian and Bohemian styles
were equal to the best foreign works.

The lamps, candelabra, and gas-fittings, by Messrs. Potts and
Winfield, were very good.

JMessrs. G. R. Collis and Co. had an exhibition of their own, in-
cluding a great variety of articles in many branches of art, illus-
trating the resources of their celebrated establishment.

The specimens of crystal glass, by Messrs. F. and C. Osier, in-
cluded a magnificent candelabrum, of the height of seventy feet,
and which was one of the wonders of the exhibition, realising the
fairy tales of the East, glittering, as it seemed, with gems and
colours.

Messrs. Copeland displayed their accustomed merit in a choice
collection of objects in parian, porcelain, and earthenware.

The silver, bronze, electro-plate, and or-molu of Messrs. Elking-
ton formed an exhibition, which merited and obtained the honour
of a separate catalogue. The presentation silver goods were mag-
nificent, both in design and workmanship.

Messrs. Ilardman had a large show of church furniture and
fittings.

The papier mache was by Messrs. Jennens and Bettridge, Ri-
chard Turley, M'Callum and Hodson, Frederick Walton, Thomas
Farmer, showing all the resources of Birmingham and Wolver-
hampton in this great manufacture.

The cut glass by Messrs. Bacchus and Son, of Birmingham, and
the pressed glass, was in great quantity, and of high merit. Mr.
Rice Harris, of Birmingham, had another large collebtion, which
included some rich ruby tints.

The collections of Messrs. John Rose and^Co., and of the Cut
Glass Company, showed no less beauty. Messrs. Lloyd and Sum-
merfield, of Birmingham, were also aiflong the meritorious exhi-
bitors of glass.

Mr. Lane, of Birmingham, showed enamel, pearl, glass, and
papier mache.

The bronzes of Messrs. Messenger were numerous and good.

Nottingham and Coventry sent many specimens of their manu-
factures.

Saddlery and saddlers' ironmongery being local trades, were
fully represented.

There was a considerable collection of models and machines of
much interest to scientific men and the public. Messrs. Roberts,
of Manchester, were large contributors.

Metal rolling and tubing are important arts, and were well illus-
trated.

The glass water-pipes of Messrs. Coathupe and Co., of Nailsea,
were exhibited.

The embossed horn buttons, by Ingram, are worthy of the high-
est commendation. It is wonderful to see the perfection to which
such articles are brought.

On the whole, we can say this was an exhibition of very high
character; and although we have named many conti-ibutors, we
regret we ha^'e left out many of great merit.

THE EXPANSIVE ACTION OF STEAM.

On the Expansive Action of Steam, and a New Construction of Ex-
pansion Valves for Condensing Steam-Engines. By Mr. Fairbairn,
of Manchester. — (Paper read at the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Birmingham.

The innumerable attempts that have been made to improve the
principle of the condensing steam-engine since the days of its cele-
brated inventor, A\'att, have almost all of them proved failures,
and have added little if anything to tlie claims, next to perfection,
of that ereat man's ideas. It would be idle to speculate upon the
various "forms and constructious from that time to the present,
which have been brought forward in aid of the original discovery
of condensation in a separate vessel. All that has been done is
neither more nor less than a confirmation of the sound views and
enlarged conceptions of the talented author of a machine which
has eiiected more revolutions and greater changes in the social
system than probably all the victories and all the conquests that
have been achieved since the first dawn of science upon civilised
life.

It would be endless to trace the history of the successful and
the unsuccessful attempts at improvement, which for the last half
century have presented themselves for public approval; suffice it
to observe, that no improvement has been made upon the simple
principle of the steam-engine as left by Watt, and but few upon
its mechanism. Among t!ie latter may be enumerated the im-
provements in the construction and mode of working the valves;
and of these the D-valve by the late Mr. Murdock, and the use of
tappets, as applied to the "conical valves, appear the most promi-
nent and the most deserving of attention.

In the construction of the parallel motion, the application pf
the crank, the governor, and the sun-and-planet motions, all of
which ha\e risen spontaneously from the mind of AVatt. there is
no improvement. Tlie ])rinciples upon which all of them are
founded have been rL'])eatedly verified beyonil the possibility of
doubt, and their mechanism is at once so exceedingly simple and
so ingeniously coatri\'ed as to limit every attempt at improvement
in those jiarts of the steam-engine. What appears to be the most
extraordinary part of Mr. M'att's engine is its perfect simplicity,
and the little he has left to be accomplished by his successors.

It will be in the recollection of most persons conversant with
the steam-engine, that the hand gear for working the valves by
the air-pump or plug-rod, gave a self-acting and continuous
motion to tlie machine; and the facility which these means af-
forded for moving the engine in any direction and at any required
velocity, gave it a degree of docility and power beyond the expec-
tations of its most sanguine admirers.

For a considerable length of time the hand gear was the best
and most eiiective mode' of applying the motion of the stean^-
engine to the valves; subsequently the oscillating and revolving
tappets, fixed upon a shaft and driven by wheels or an eccentric,
came into use, and by means of vertical rods communicated motion
to the valves, and thus a similar effect was produced as by the
hand gear; next came Mr. Murdock's U-valve and eccentric
motion, which for simplicitv Inis never yet been equalled. The D-
vahe, and the flat-plate \'al\e, are nearly synonymous— with this
difference only, that the D-valve presses with less force upon the
face, and consequently works easier than the flat-valve, which in
every case is exposed to the full pressure of steam. It is true
that 'means have been adopted to obviate this objection in large
engines, by a preparation on the back of the valve, which is made
steam-tiglit, and by a connnunication with the condenser, a vacuum
is formed over a proportionate area of surface, sufficient to equalise
the pressure and admit an easy motion of the valve.

The expansive principle upon wliich steam-engines are now
worked, and the economy which this system has introduced in the
expenditure of fuel, has effected considerable changes in the work-
ing of the valves, and has rendered the D and plate valves almost
inadmissable for such a purpose. To the skill, ingenuity, and
careful attention of the Cornish engineers, we are indebted for
many of the improvements connected with the use and application
of expansive steam; and taking into account the high price of
coals, and the urgent necessity of economy in those districts,
which combined witli a system of registry and encouragement held
out by premiums as described by Mr. John Taylor, we may reason-
ably conclude that other parts of the kingdom have been greatly
benefitted by the excellent examples set before them by the Cornish
miners and engineers.

For a great number of years, and up to a recent period, tne
economy of steam and the'working of the steam-engine expan-
siiely, were but imperfectly understood in the manufacturing dis-

41*

316

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

fOcTOBEB,

tricts; and although the Cornish miner set an excellent example
and exhibited a saving of more than one-half the fuel, there were
nevertheless few if any attempts made to reduce what is now con-
sidered an extravagant expenditure in most if not the whole of
our manufactories. But in fact the subject was never brought
fairly home to the millowners and steam navigation companies,
until an equalization or reduction of profits directed attention to
the saving attainable by a different system of operation.

Ten years ago the average or mean expenditure of coal per in-
dicated horse-power was computed at from 8 to 10 lb. per horse-
power per hour, but now it is under 5 lb. per horse-power per
hour in engines that are worked expansively, and even then they
are far below the duty of a well-regulated Cornish engine, which
averages from 2j to 5 lb. per horse-power per hour.

This difference in the consumption of coal may be attributed to
two causes; first, the conditions under which the duty of the two
engines (that of the Cornish miner and tlie manufacturer) are
respectively performed. The first being chiefly employed in
pumping water, has the benefit of alternate action in overcoming
the inertia of a large mass of matter, which when once in motion
is easier continued, for a definite time, than a continuous power of
resistance, such as exhibited in corn and cotton mills. Another
cause is the greater care and attention which the Cornish man
pays to his boilers, steam-pipes, &c.; they are never left exposed,
but are carefully wrapped up in warm jackets and well clothed, to
prevent the escape of heat. Even at the present day, it is lament-
able to see (in the coal and iron districts) the great and extrava-
gant waste that is continually going on, for want of a little con-
siderate attention in this respect: the only excuse is the cheapness
of the fuel — but that is not an excuse, for if one-half can be saved,
and coal could be got at 1*. per ton, it is certainly desirable to
save sixpence out of the shilling, when that can be accomplished
at a trifling expense. But one of the chief, if not one of the most
important reasons for the exercise of economy in fuel, is the re-
duction of profits on articles manufactured by power; under these
circumstance, a saving in coal becomes a consideration of some
importance, and to these reductions alone may be traced the
powerful stimulus which of late years has been prevalent in that
direction. The low rate of profit in manufacturing operations,
and a desire to economise and reduce the cost of production to a
minimum, has been of great value in its tendency to improvement
in the economy and efficient use of fuel, and also to the use of
high-pressure steam and its expansive action when applied to the
steam-engine. In France and most other parts of the continent
this system has been long in use, and although its effects as well as
its economy have been long known in this country, it was only
within the last few years that the benefits arising from it were ap-
preciated. For a great number of years a strong prejudice existed
against the use of high-pressure steam, and it required more than
ordinary care in effecting the changes which have been introduced:
it had to be done cautiously, almost insidiously, before it could be
introduced. The author of this paper believes he was amongst
the first in the manufacturing districts who pointed out the ad-
vantages of high-pressure steam, when worked expansively,* and
for many years he had to contend with the fears and the pi'ejudices
of the manufacturers, before the present system of economical
working was adopted.

The first attempt was by improvement in the construction of
boiIers,t and subsequently in the valves of the steam-engine,
adapted to either low or high pressure steam when worked expan-
sively; the latter of which it is the principal object of the present
paper to develope.

The expansive action of steam has been variously estimated by
different writers, but all seem to agree in opinion that a consider-
able saving is effected by that process. It therefore becomes a
question of importance in a connnunity whose very existence
almost depends upon the steam-engine, how to work it advan-
tageously and at the least possible cost. The great variety of
schemes and forms which have been adopted for the attainment of
these objects have been exceedingly various, ingenious, and inter-
esting; and the investigation of tlie different theories aiul applica-
tions that have been submitted for public ajiproval, would form an
exceedingly attractive if not a useful history of the various dis-
coveries to which we are in a great measure indebted for the
present improved construction of the steam-engine.

The elastic force and expansive action of steam were well known
to Mr. Watt, and some of his immediate contemporaries and suc-
cessors, such as Smeaton, Cartwright, Woolf, Trevithick, and

* .^ee Paper rend before the Geuiogiciil Society of Manchester in the year 18-10, on the
EL'unomy uf Fuel.

t See Report on the Prevention of Smolie ani Economy of Fuel. — TraLsactions of the
British Association, IH-U.

others: but the fears entertained of explosion at that early period,
and the difficulty of constructing vessels strong enough to contain
high-pressure steam, were probably the greatest drawbacks to its
introduction. Woolf and Trevithick were probably among the
first to grapple with this dangerous element; and the former, in
order to economise fuel, introduced the double-cylinder engine,
whereby a great saving was effected by increasing the pressure of
steam in the boiler, and allowing it to pass from one cylinder to
another of three or four times the capacity, by which its volume
was expanded, and by these means a saving was effected and an
extra duty performed. If, for example, taking a double-cylinder
engine, the high-pressure cylinder being one-fourth of the capacity
of the cylinder from which the steam is condensed, there will be for
one cylinder full of steam an expansion of four times its volume,
— this of course with a diminished pressure in the ratio of tlie
capacities of the two cylinders. Comparing this with a similar
process in a single cylinder equal in capacity to the two cylinders,
and fitted with a well-constructed apparatus, regulated so that
only one-fifth of the contents of the cylinder (equal in capacity
to the small cylinder on Woolf's plan) is filled with steam of equal
density, and the remaining four-fifths (equal in capacity to the
larger cylinder) is allowed for expansion, it is evident that the
communication being thus suddenly cut off from the boiler after
the piston has been urged through only one-fifth of the length of
the stroke, the expansive force is then used in completing the re-
maining four- fifths of the stroke, and the result must be nearly
the same as that obtained with the two cylinders on Woolf's plan.
The advocates of Woolf's system, however, insist upon its su-
periority, not from the actual force given out (which is rather in
favour of the single cylinder than the double, in consequence of
increased condensation in the steam-passage between the two
cylinders), but from the superior action and greater regularity of
motion which in the former case is produced. To some extent this
is the case, but not to any appreciable amount provided the fly-
wheel is well-proportioned to the pressure and power at which the
engine is worked. In the double engines which are now in com-
mon use, that is, when two single engines are coupled together
with the cranks at right angles to one another, there is less
occasion for a heavy fly-wheel, as the effect of a large expansion is
less felt, if not effectually neutralised. The results, therefore, of
the double-cylinder engine and the single engine working at equal
rates of expansion, are virtually the same as regards power and
economy of fuel, if the comparison be not in favour of the single
engine.

Having come to the conclusion that the same duty can be per-
formed by the single as by the compound engine, and considering
the important advantage of simplicity in mechanical construction,
in opposition to complexity however ingeniously contrived, it
becomes a question how to obtain an effective as well as a simple
process for the attainment of that object.

The first attempt was by revolving tappets, which had been long
in use; these being formed and regulated in such a manner as to
cut oft' the steam at such a point of the stroke, as to give the exact
quantity of expansion required. These tappets, to say tlie least,
were from various reasons objectionable, as the weight of the
vertical rods and slowness of motion prevented them from produc-
ing the desired effed^. The steam valves could however be fixed
so as to cut off the steaiH at the required point of the piston-
passage in the cylinder, but the motion is not effected with the
velocity essential to an eflScient process of expansive action.
Other processes have been tried for working steam-engines expan-
sively besides those already noticed; amongst them may be noticed
the equilibrium valve, worked by double cams from the crank-
shaft. This method is generally used and adapted to the marine
and old engines, but its application is seldom of much value unless
the engines and boilers are capable of bearing a pressure of 15 lb.
to 20 lb. on the square inch.

Another fault to which this description of valves is subject is
their distance from the steam-ports into the cylinder, and the large
quantity of steam which occupies the space between the cut-off
valve and tlie working cylinder of the engine. To remedy these
defects, and to apfily a better system of expansion to the common
coiulensing engines, the following apparatus and mode of working
the valves was introduced.

In giving a description of this effective and simple apparatus, it
is but fair to state that the first idea of this invention was sug-
gested by Robert Biownhill, — at first imperfectly constructed, but
since greatly modified and perfected by the author of the present
paper.

Tlie annexed engraving represents a section of the valves. It
will be observed that the cylinder A, the steam-chests C, D, and

1819. 1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

317

the side-pipes F G, are common to every engine of this description;
the internal construction of the steam-chests, valves, and the mode
of worlving, arepeculiar and constitute the chief merit of the in-
vention.

In the construction of a steam-engine, two important considera-
tions present themselves, the attainment of a maximum of force,
and the minimum in the consumption of fuel; to acquire the first
it is requisite to form such an arrangement of the working parts,
as to obtain the closest approximation to a perfect vacuum under
and above the piston, and the other is accom])lished by having as
small an expenditure of steam as possible. These desiderata are
to a great degree attained by the principle upon which these valves
are constructed, and the way in which they are worked. Referring
to the engraving, which is a section of one set of valves, it will be
seen that each set contains two double-beat valves S, T, also the
shut-oif valve R, and the throttle- valve Q; these valves constitute
the whole of the openings by which the steam is admitted and re-
turned from the cylinder; the valves S, next to the steam-pipe E,
are the valves by which the steam is admitted to the cylinder; and
the valves T, are the exhaust, or the valves by which the steam
escapes from the cylinder to the condenser. All the four valves
are of the same area and dimensions, but the steam-valves are
not lifted up so high as the exhaust-valves, for the reasons
which are afterwards given. The direction of the arrows ex-
hibit the passage of the steam in its ingress to the cylinder, and
its ultimate escape to the condensei-. The double-beat valves
of this construction have certain proportionate areas, the upper
portion being larger than the bottom, in the ratio of 1*158 to I'OOO.
The object of this enlargement of the upper part of the valve being
to give a preponderance to the pressure of the steam on the top
side, in order to overcome the pressure of the packing in the
stuffing-box which embraces the spindle, and to assist the gravi-
tating force of the valve in its descent when liberated from the
cams P.

The mode of working the valves is by the shafts I, and wheels;
they derive their motion from the crank-shaft and revolve at
the same speed; the vertical spindle I, upon which the two
circular discs P, are fixed, passes through the steam-chests C,
and by its rotary motion the cams which are fixed uyon the
discs P, raise the valves as they pass under the rollers N, N,
which are connected to the valve-spindles by the cross-heads M,
M, *d by these means the valves are raised and retained open or
shut for any definite period. The rollers N, N, are steadied by
the cross-heads M, M, sliding upon the vertical guide-rods O, O,
at their outer ends, and sliding at their inner ends in vertical
grooves in the centre boss U, which is supported by the guide-
arms O, O.

To work this engine economically much depends upon the pres-
sure of the steam and the amount of expansion given to the valves;
the usual practice is to work with steam at 15 lb. on the square
inch, and cut off at one-half the stroke, and expand the other
half; but in other cases, when the engines and boilers are calcu-
lated to bear a high pressure of steam, say from 30 to 40 lb. on the
inch, the cams are formed so as to cut off the steam at one-third
or one-fourth of the stroke. As is shown at P, there are

generally three and sometimes four cams upon each of the
discs, so as to cut off the steam at one-half, one-third, or one-
fourth, or at any other point corresponding with the force of the
steam and the load respectively.

To obtain this range of expansion the rollers N, N, which work
the steam-valves, are movealde, by brass strips which slide in the
grooves in the cross-heads iM, M, so as to bring the roller over
any one of the cams that may he required; and the fixed pointers
V, show by a graduated scale on each brass slide, the exact
point of the cylinder at which the steam is cut off, and by these
means the extent of expansion is regulated and brought under the
eve of the engineer.

' It has already been stated that the steam-valves are not lifted
so high as the exhaust-valves, and the reason of this is, that as the
e.xhaust-valves are not variable in their action, and always require
full openings into the condenser, it is desiralile to retain them open
throughout the whole length of the stroke. This process is ef-
fected with a greater degree of certainty than by any other
description of valve; the exhaust-valves are raised suddenly by
the short inclined planes of the cams, and having allowed time for
the escape of the steam from the cylinder through a wide passage
into the condenser, they suddenly fall by gravitation, and thus a
more complete vacuum is formed under the piston than is probably
attained by any other process.

The working of these valves is effected with a degi-ee of cer-
tainty and simplicity which renders them very satisfactory both as
regards their efficiency in conducing to the economy of steam, and
the perfect ease with which they are worked.

Remarks made at the Meeting after tlie reading of the foregoingPaper.

The Chairman observed that the principal part of the improvement
described in the paper, appeared to consist in the arrangement for effecting
the expansion action by cams revolving horizontally.

Mr. W. Smith said he had seen several engines working with this expan-
sion gear, and could testify as to the superiority of their action ; the expansion
gear was very simple and worked exceedingly well ; he had taken indicator
diagrams from the engines. He was not acquainted with any cases where
this plan had been at work for a long time, and be had some doubts as to
the lasting of the parts.

Mr. McCoNNELL remarked that was a matter on which they could scarcely
express an opinion unless furnished with accurate data respecting the work-
ing. The Cornish engine reports were very complete as to the performance
of the eneines and the consumption of fuel; and if they had such informa-
tion with "reference to the working of the invention in question, it would be
highly important as regards the improvement of the engine and in economi-
cal results.

Mr. CowpER suggested the desirability of making a collection of indicator
diagrams in the Institution, and expressed his willingness to co-operate with
other members in supplying some.

Mr. W. Smith said it was his intention at an early meeting to lay before
the Institution several hundred indicator diagrams which he had taken fruru
engines in Staffordshire and the surrounding district.

Mr. McCoNNELL observed that the meetings of the Institution would
afford parties connected with large manufacturing establishments an excellent
opportunity for comparing the working results of engines in full action, not
only in Staffordshire, but in Lancashire and other districts; and it was desir-
able that this class of information should be as perfect as possible.

Mr. Slate thought the diagrams referred to would read an important
lesson to the parties employing steam-engines, and induce them to look after
tlieir own interests and not waste their power. He had seen a number of
Mr. Smith's indicator diagrams, and the results of them would surprise
many ; most of them showed a very inferior action, and some showed only
5 lb. per inch of vacuum with 13 lb. per inch of steam ; but there were a,
few good diagrams amongst them.

Mr. Gibbons remarked that one important thing they would have to at-
tend to was the description of fuel used, which varied so greatly in Stafford-
shire as to render it a matter of great difficulty to collect accurate data.

Mr. W. Smith thought it very desirable to know the description of fuel and
thg consumption, wherever it was practicable; but all that he proposed at
present was to lay before the Institution diagrams exhibiting the economy of
the engine, and not the consumption of fuel.

Mr. McCoNNELL suggested that they should not confine themselves to
the relative economy of the different constructions of engines, hut they
should also take into consideration the different constructions of boilers and
the relative consumption of fuel for the power produced, as well as the kind
of fuel employed. He saw no reason why the reports of engine performance
should be confined to Cornwall, for it would be highly important to have
them for the various other districts, more especially Staffordshire, Lancashire,
and Newcastle.

Mr. Gibbons remarked that this would be extremely difficult to obtain iu
Staffordshire, because the quality of fuel varied to an extraordinary extent.
In that district they had a considerable boiler surface, and in many cases
ustd only coal-slack for fuel, which was good for nothing else; but in Corn-

318

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[OclOBEB,

wall tlie qualify of fuel was tolerably uniform, and the best qualities of coals
were used.

Mr. Slate proponed to omit the consideration of the consumption of fuel,
as tlie fuel was not bought in the coal districts, but merely taken from the
hiap as required ; and it would not be practicable in most cases to obtain
any accurate return of the consumption.

Mr. W. Smith said the question of fuel could not be included in the iron
districts because it was cubtouiary in many cases to generate the stoam l>y
the waste heat of the puddling furnaces, and in consequence those cases
would show no consumption of fuel ; but on the contrary, in other eases the
consumption was greatly above the usual proportion, either from the inferior
quality of fuel used, or from the engines being often worked much below
their boiler power, and wasting from the boilers even more steam than was
used.

Mr. C. Beyer observed that it took a great deal at first to induce the
proprietor of a steam-engine to look well after its working, but in Man-
chester considerable attention was now paid to the subject. There were
many works wliere the consumption was as low as 4 lb. per horse-power per
hour, but he should say that the average of Lancashire engines was twice
that amount of consumption, if not more.

Mr. McCoNNELL thouglit that was a strong argument for taking up the
question in the broad view; for without considering any particular district,
it was very important for a manufacturer or other proprietor of a steam-
engine to know what his engine was doing as compared with the engines of
otlier parties. Those engines in the same tov\'n or district could be fairly
compared, and any particular causes for exception could be stated in the
return.

Mr. Slate observed that there were a few pumping engines in Stafford-
shire which v\ere worked by contract, and their fuel was all measured, so
that the consumption could be correctly ascertained; but those engines
were an exception in the district.

REVICWS.

Weale's Rudimentary Treatises. — The Elements of Plane TrUjono-
metry. By James Hann, Mathematical Master of King's Col-
lege School, London.

This is one of the hest of Mr. AV^eale's series, and a very cheap
book. It is a subject which can be vvell treated in an elernentary
form, and Professor Hann has evidently taken very great pains to
produce a volume which shall be worthy of his reputation.

The Drainaqe of Towns and Buildings. By G. Dysdale Dempsey,

C.E. London: Weale, 1849.

This is another of Mr. Weale's cheap issue; it contains a collec-
tion of useful data connected with the subject of drainage. We
conceive that Mr. AV^eale will injure the usefulness of his project
if he allow authors to occupy the preface in making public their
schemes. In the present instance it would have been as well both
for Mr. Weale and for Mr. Dempaey had the preface and the map
of London been omitted; but as Mr. Dempsey has thought proper
to make public his sclieme for the drainage of London, we must
pronounce our opinion that it is as bad as bad can be. He pro-
poses to drain the metropolis by 200 pumping stations, planted at
nearly equal distances in all parts of London, each having tanks
for collecting the refuse of the sewers, and to contain three days'
sewage; — but liow this sewage refuse is to be distributed from these
200 pest-houses, Mr. Dempsey does not tell us. One of these es-
tablishments is shown in the map close to the house of His Grace
Field-Marshal the Duke of Wellington, and another at or near to
Northumberland House. Fortunately for Mr. \V'eale, his premises
will be midway between two of the stations — was this studied.!"

We hope next monthto be able to offer some remarks on drainage
of towns, and to expose some of the errors that are now being
adopted in what is called the modern and cheap system of drain-
age. «

Tables for Setting out Curves for Railways, c\c. By Abchibald
Kennedy and R. W. Hackwood, civil engineers. London:
Weale, 1849.

These tables are published in a .small book which may be carried
in the waistcoat pocket; consequently, will be useful to those em-
ployed in tlie field operations. They vary from a radius of five
chains to three miles. AVe cannot see that they are more useful
than the tables we published in this Journal as' far back as 1810,
(Vol. III.), by which curves varying from five chains to eight
miles radius may be set up.

Form and Sound: can their Beauty be dependent on the same Physical
Laws? By Thomas Puruie. Edinburgh: Adam and Charles
Black, J849.

The pressure of other subjects upon our time and space, has
caused a delay in noticing tliis work, which is one of considerable
interest and importance to the architectural profession. It is de-
voted to an investigation of the principles of beauty in form as
affecting architecture and decoration, and in direct antagonism to
the theory projiosed by Mr. D. R. Hay, which has been lately so
favourably received. We now give only this acknowledgment of
tlie work, intending to discuss it at some length hereafter.

A Treatise on the Coal Field of South Wales. By Frbuekick Moses,

C.E. London: Simpkins, 1849.

This is a work on a local and theoretical point in geology of
considerable importance, in which the author lays down a new
theory of the position of the coal measures in the Soutli Wales
field, and demonstrates the subsidences lying between Llynvi and
Penllergaer. He likewise enters on the subject of cosmogony
generally. It will be read with interest by those engineers con-
nected with coal mining.

Geology of the Lake District. By John Rookb, of Akehead.

This is a sketch, by a well-informed local observer, of the geo-
logy of Westmoreland and Cumberland, with special reference to
the author's views of the scheme of geological formations.

ll'yld's Map of London and the Environs.
•Mr. Wyld, the eminent geographer, has brought out a very
laborious map of London and the metropolitan districts, and which
has the further advantage of having the levels marked, as supplied
by the Commissioners of Sewers.

The Auckland Islands. By Charles Endebbv, I^.R.S. London :

Pelham Richardson, 1849.
Proposal for re-establishing the British Southern Whale Fishery.

By Cbarf.es Enderby, F.R.S. London: Etfingham Wilson.

These relate to a subject of importance, but wliich is not tech-
nical enough for our discussion, though we cannot but feel an in-
terest in the colonization of the Auckland Lslands, as likely to
open a new field for engineering employment; and this, it is to be
observed, has been much extended of late by tlie [irogress of colo-
nial enterprise.

Oft the Construction of Public Buildings and Private Dwelling^
Houses, on. a Firc-pronf principle, without Increase of Cost.
London: Mudie and Sons, 1849.

This pamplilet is by Messrs. Fox and Barrett, and its title suffi-
ciently shows the purpose to which it is devoted. Any attempt to
extend fire-proof constructions is worthy of attention.

NEW ARMAMENT OF THE FRENCH FLEET.

(From the Nautical Standard.)

Seven first.ratcs, to carry 112 guns — viz., four 80-pounder howitzers (u) ;
six howitzers (4) ; six 50-pounders (c) ; twenty-two 30-ppunders (rf) ;
twenty-eight 30-pounders (e) ; thirty-four 30-pounders (/) ; twelve 30-
pounders (g).

Twelv^ second rates, to carry 90 guns — four 80-pounder howitzers (a);
six howitzers (i) ; six SOpounders (e) ; twenty-two 30 pounders (rf) ; iwenty-
eight 30-pounders (e) ; twenty-eight 30-pounders (/).

Eleven third-rates (new model), to cairy 82 guns — four 80-pounder howit-
zers (ff); six bowiizers («) ; six SO-poun'ders (c) ; twenty 30-pounders (rf);
twenty-six 30-poundcrs (e) ; twenty 30-pounders (/).

Five third-rates (old model), to cany 80 guns — four SO-pounder howit-
zers (a) ; four howitzers (4) ; twenty-six 30-pounders (d) ; twenty eight 30-
pounders (e); figbteen 30. pounders ((/).

Four fourth-rates (new model), to carry 74 gun-s — four 80 pounder howit-
zers (n) ; four howitzers (i) ; four 50-pouniIer guns (c) ; twenty 30-pounder3
(rf) ; twenty-six 30-pounMers (e) ; sixteen 30-pounders (/).

Eight fourth-rate ships (old model), to carry 70 guns — four 80 pounder
howitzers (a); twelve 30-pounders (p) ; twenty-fuur 36-poundcrs; thirty
ISpounders.

Frigates.

Sixteen 50-gun frigates, to carry two 80-pounder howitzers; two 50-
pounder guns ; tweniy-eiglit 30-pounder3 (rf) ; eighteen 30-pounders (/).

1S4.9. I

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

319

Twenty-three second-class, to carry 46 guns— two howitzers (4); two 50-
pounder guns ; two 30-pounders (d) ; twenty-four 30pounders (e) ; sixteen
30-pounders (ji).

Eighteen third-class, to carry 38 guns— two howitzers (4); two 50-
pounder guns ; four 30-pounders (rf) ; twenty-four 40-pounders (e) ; two
SO-pounders (j().

CorvetUs.

Eighteen corvettes, to carry 29 guns — two howitzers (i) ; two 30-pounders
(rf) ; two 30-pounders (f) ; fourteen 30-pouiiders (/).

Eight secnnd-class, to carry 16 guns — two 30-pounders (e) ; fourteen 30-
pounders (/).

Twelve third-class, to carry 16 guns — two 12-poundi;rs, fourteen 18-
pounder carronades.

Brii/s.

Twenty-seven hrigs. to carry 12 guns, 30-pounders (g).
Twenty-seven brigs, to carry 10 guns — two 12 pounder carronades ; eight
ISpuunder carronades.

Schooners.
Twelve schooners, to carry eight 18pounder carronades. •

Gun-Brigs.
Nine gun-brigs, carrying four 30-pounder howitzers.

Transports.
Fourteen transports, from 600 to 800 tons, to carry two 30-pounder
howitzers.

The rest of the fleet are to remain armed as they are at present.

(a) Howitier, 80-pounder, 8§-inch bore, 8 ft. 9 in. length, 72^ ewt.
(h) Howitier, 80 pouHLler, f!i| inch bore, 7 ft. 5 in. length, 5o3 cwt.

''^ fs'-'dulo'" I' Jg-li 'h }""■'• 2 ■■>■ '-8..., m cwt.

^"SS |;;^l}8ft.0h,.,e„gtU,.0c.t.

'^''IdSo ^■;^,t'h}«"-2--'-gth,503cwt.

<''^:S l^:^:k}?n-4in..e„gth..2i™t.

'""' 4lSI"o Inglish I « "• '•'■>• '™Sth. 70i cwt.

(i) 18-ditto 8 ft. 2in. length, 403 cwt.

(j) Howitzer, 30-pounder, 8 ft. 10 in. leng-h, SOJ cwt.

(k) Canonade, 18- pounder. 2ft. 8 in. lenRth, G^ cwt.

(1) 12- pounder gun, 6 ft. 10 in. length, 2'2'i cwt.

A French 80-pounder would be equal to an English 8D-pounder did it exist.

THE NORTH-WESTERN RAILWAY STATION.

The new station of the London and North-Western Railway Company, in
Waterloo-road, which is reached from Edge-hill hy the recently-constructed
Victoria tunnel, contains five acres of land, the entire of which is either oc-
cupied liy warehouses or covered with zinc shedding. The span of this shed
is 183 feet, covering seven lines of rails — the whole cotton quay — from
which can be loaded 20,000 bales of cotton daily. The principal entrances
to this station are from Waterloo-road on the one side, and from Great
Howard-street on the other, and these two thoroughfares form its eastern
and western boundaries; Stewart-street stands on the north, and a block of
warehouses on the south. This is the largest goods station in England. It
has eight lines of rails, with a space of 8 feet between each line, to allow
horses and men to pass with safety. The warehouses erected here are the
finest, perhaps, in the kingdom. They are far larger than any other ware-
houses in Liverpool, and are constructed on the best principles. The rooms
are each 102 feet by 90, containing an area close upon 1,000 square yards.
All the work will be done on these premises by steam-power, and an engine
of 50-horse powei is here erected; but, fearing this amount of power may
not be suliicient, the engine-house has been built large enough to allow a
second engine, of the same power, to be put up. The warehouses and all
the premises are recently wliitewashed, and the appearance it wears is clean
and lightsome.

In connection with the warehouses are two admirably-designed offices,
which overhang the rails, and are supported hy iron beams ; these offices
communicate with the warehouses, and the men engaged here will be en-
abled to superintend the business of the warehouses. In each of the rooms
there are two water-plugs, which, in case of fire, can be at once turned, and
a plentiful supply of water obtained.

To form this station, upwards of 120 separate properties, consisting of
more than 150 dwelling-houses, warehouses, sheds, yards, &o., had to be
purchased and pulled down.

At the top end of Stewart-street, adjoining Great Howard street, is a
vacant plot of land, on which the general offices of the company will be
built. These offices will be of great extent and magnificence. Passing up-
wards from the Waterloo Station, yon find that the station extends under
Great Howard-street, which is supported by a neat iron girder-bridge, of
116 feet span, erected by R. Daglisb, jun., St. Helen's; and, a little further
on, the station passes under the gigantic brick arches which support the
Lancashire and Yorkshire goods station at such an altitude over Great
Howard-street. This arch is, we believe, the largest of the kind in England.

It has a span of 100 feet, and contains upwards of 5J millions of bricks.
Here the Irish pig traffic will for the future be taken, the pigs being made to
walk into the trucks by a very simple arrangement ; cattle will continue as
usual to be got into the wagons at Edi(e-hill, where the company's cattle
station contains 102 pens, capable of holding 1,200 head of cattle.

The station accommodates the Liverpool market, and takes you to the
mouth of the tunnel, the dimensions of which are as follow : — Dock to
tunnel, 500 yards; tunnel to Byrora-street, 854 yards ; Byrom-street, under
69 yards; tunnel from Byrom-street to Edge-hill, 2,717 yards; total,
4,140 yards. The wire rope for this tunnel is 3 miles long. The whole
inland business of Liverpool may be done at this station; when complete,
5,000 tons of goods at least may be easily despatched to all parts of the
kingdom. Trains ara drawn up the new tunnel by means of four separate
engines of 100-borse power each. — Liverjiool Standard,

SEA-WALLS.

Sir — In reprinting in your number for September a portion of proceed-
ings of the Institution of Civil Engineers containing my paper on Sea- Walls,
I observe that you have introduced some lettering, in order to simplify the
diagrams. It is desirable that it should be explained, that in fig. 4, the
letter A, denotes the point below which the stones were liiiilt dry ; and not,
as in the other figures, the level of high water of equinoctial spring tides.

I am, &c.,

\T. J. Macquorn Rankine,

NOT£S OF THE MOITTH.

The Chlorides of Gold. — Great diflicully has hitherto occurred in prepar-
ing the chloride of gold, of the yellow and red colours, perfectly soluble in
water, and without suflTering reduction. The following processes are recom-
mended for this purpose : — lu order to prepare the yellow salt of gold, take
aqua regia prepared with three parts of hydrochloric acid, one part of nitric
acid, and one of distilled water. Then put one part of pure gold into a
porcelain capsule with a plate of glass, and heat it in a salt-water bath, the
iieat being continued till red vapours cease ; the covei is then to be removed,
and if the gold is not entirely dissolved, some aqua regia is to be added to
it, the capsule being again covered, the heat is to be continued till vapours
cease to appear ; the glass plate must then be removed and replaced by folds
of blotting paper, the heat being continued in the bath until a glass rod,
upon being immersed in the capsule, becomes covered with yellow solid
chloride of gold. The capsule is then to be removed from the salt. water
bath, and the chloride of gold soon crystalises in small prismatic crystals, of
a fine yellow colour, with an orange tint. The chloride thus obtained is
perfectly soluble in water without reduction ; it is successfully employed in
daguerreotype and other operations. The red chloride of gold (res-chloride)
is prepared in the same manner, except that the aqua regia employed is pre-
pared with two parts of hydrochloric, arid one part of nitric acid. The
operation is commenced by acting upon gold with excess of aqua regia on a
sand bath, the salt-water bath not being used until the gold is entirely dis-
solved ; the remainder of the operation is conducted in the same manner as
that for the yellow chloride.

Shot. — In America a new method of making shot has been patented by
David Smith, of New York. The plan is to use an iron tube of 50 feet in
height, in place of the ordinary towers of 150 feet. By the old process,
great height was necessary to enable them to make all sizes of shot, for the
reason that the shot must be cooled to a certain point before entering the
water receiver below, and it could only be so cooled by contact with the
necessary amount of air to which to impart its heat while falling. In the
process of Mr. Smith, a current of air is made to ascend the tube by means
of an ordinary fan, the amount of air used being in proportion to the size of
the shot. By this method the elevation of lead for the largest sizes is
reduced 100 feet, the cost of immense towers is dispensed with, and a
common sheet-iron tube of about 18 inches diameter made to answer its
purpose.

Iron Buildings for California. — The absence of anything like human shelter
in the valley of the Sacramento, and the absolute want of lodging room for
the^accommodation of emigrants to San Francisco, has developed a new
source of industry in this country — that of the erection of portable iron
houses, of various dimensions, to be shipped for California, and which can
be completely put up within four days after arriving at the destined spot,
and taken to pieces in 24 hours. Several of moderate size have been built in
London, and one is just completed in Liverpool, 110 feet long, 30 feet wide,
and 20 feet high, which has taken but one month in construction. The
framing and foundation are of wood — the covering and roof- being of cor-
rugated iron, which gives it a pleasing appearance. At Manchester, some
iron cottages are also being constructed for shipment ; they are 20 feet long,
10 feet wide, with an arched roof, also of corrugated iron, giving a clear
height of 9 feet, and divided into two rooms. Every arrangement is made
for light, security, ventilation, and warmth, with a portable cooking appa-
ratus. The iron contained in one of those cottages is about 2J tons, and
the cost is about 60/,; if lined with wood, 10/. extra is charged.

320

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[OCTOBEB,

Engineers* College, Putney. — Mr. Clegg, jun. has lieen appointed Professor

of Engineering at this Coilege, and gave his Inaugurnl lecture on the 23rd ult.

New Survey of England. — Government not being satisfied with the tri-
angulation of the Ordnance Survey of England, have decided upon meaeuring the angles
again. For this purpose, a party of Sappers aud Jlinera are now engaged on Salisbury
Plain in measuring the hase line.

Screw Steamers. — The best proportion for the screw propeller has been
found by experiment to be— the pitch to be the same length as the diameter of the screw,
and that the vane or blade should not exceed one-sixth the length of the worm.

Drainage of the Haarlem Lake — The difficult operation of draining the
sea or lake of Haarlem is being carried on with the greatest activity. The woriis are not
even suspended on Sundays or fete days; nay, they are sometimes continued during the
night. During the month of August, the waters of this immense lake were lowered to
the extent of '27'i inches, Dutch measure. It is hoped aod expected that they will be en-
tirely drained off before the month of March, IHOO.

Novel Suspension Bridge at Chester. — As the bridge which has lately been
constructed by Messrs. Mc Kean and Co., of Liverpool, at Curzon-park, in this city, has
excited conaiderable attention and discussion, a description of so novel an example of
engineeiing skill may not be uninteresting. The situation in which this bridge was re-
quired rendered it expedient to do away with piers and suspensioo-bara projecting above
the level of the road ; and the ravine to be crossed, from the Grosvenor-road to the park,
being upwards of liiO feet span, while it was doubtful whether a proper foundation could
be oijtained for the erection of heavy stone piers capable of sustaining so great a strain,
the present self-adjusting principle was adopted, and has been found in practice to
answer admirably. This principlu is cap.ible of being carried out to a much greater extent
in point of strength aud durability, as well as in appearance; but the sum allotted for
the erection of the Curzon park bridge being limited to a small nraount, these improve-
ments could nut there be adopted. The chain rods are made of the best^ths round iron, in
lengths of \ft feet each, with secure lock-joints placed alternately, across which are fitted
flat bars, above and belou-', at about »> feet apart, and upon which the wooden planks
forming the platform, of 7 feet wide, are firmly secured by T-headed bolts and nuts,
screwed up from beneath. The chain-rods are secured at one end of a massive stone
]iier, by stone cramp-plates and bars, built in from the toundiition on Lord Westminster's
embanitment, on the Grosvenor side; and the stone pier at the Curzon-park end of the
bridge is formed into a pit, upon the top of which, resting on cast-iron girder-beams and
pedestals, is placed a very strong grooved barrel, around which euch of the chains (in
these parts formed of short links), takes one turn, rlescenriing to antt being fixed in a
strong cast-iron plate, suspended near the bottom of the pit, at a depth of 30 feet, upon
■which is built a mass of masonry, forming a weight sufficient to counter-balance the
whole, keeping the chain bars in a proper state of tension, as well as providing for every
degree of contraction or expansion. The bridge is also further secured by back stay-rods
at each end, running to a considerable distance from the piars to a great depth under
ground, and bolted to heavy blocks of oak ; having thus a resisting force of many hundred
tons of earth, exclusive of the massive stone piers on which the bridge rests. A light
iron trellis diamond fence is carried along the platform ou each side between double
standari's, and arched facia plates are fixed underneath, iriving a fiuish to the bridge,
which has altogether a lifht and neat appearance, remaik;d)ly well adapted for the situa-
tion in which it is placed ; while the nany thousands of ptrrsims who have already pat^sed
«ver it form a very fair test of its stability, aud the aounduess of the principle on which
it is constructed.

Iron Roofing, — At the Liverpool Polytechnic Socipty, Mr. R. Turner, of
Dublin, furnished the foUi-wing interesting particulars of a new galvanised iron roofing
and other works of a railwtiy station at Livi-rpool, whicli he is now constructing. The
loof covers an area of f>,Uu square yards, being about 3(iU feet in length, and \>>'6 Jt 6 in.
in widtii. There are no intermediate co'.umus; but this great space is spaimed over by
one stupendous arch, rising in a segment of a circle to a central height of yU feet .'rom
the spring, or chord The roof consists of 17 curved girders ol wruugbt-iron, resting at
one side upon the walls of the offices, and at the other upon cast-iron columns of the
Doric order, connected by ornamental arches in perforated iron. These girders are
trussed vertically by a series of rudiating struts, acted on by tie-bars, connected with the
extremities of the girders; and they are trussed horizontally by a series of purlins and
diagonal rods— thus formim^ one rigid piece of framing from end to end. Upon th s
framing will be laid plates of galvanised corrugated iron, and three ranges of plate glass,
in sheets about 12 f'. f»in. in length, nnd of great tliickness, extending the whole length
of the roof. In consequence of the great extent of surface exposed to the variations of
temperature, provision has been made for expansion and contraction of the iron without
injury to its bearings. The roof, when finished, will weigh about 700 tons. The whole
of the work, with the exception of the cast-iron columns and ornamental arches, is of
wrought iron. The iron columns upon which the roof rests, on tlie south side of the
ywrd, are :; It. 3iD. in diameter at their bases. Six of the girders are fixed ; and having
struck the ci^ntres under three of these girders, it was found that in not one of them was
there the least perceptible detli-ction. Mr. Turner produced specimens of the various
parts of the ironwork employed in the roof in question, and explained the manner in
which they were npplied. so as to m-4ke a perfect whole. Though thest- samples are very
massive, it xvaa stated that the huge roof, though of great strength, would appear to the
eye as light as a cobweb.

Ivory as an Article of Manufacture. — At the meeting of the West-Riding
Geological and Polytechnic Society, Mr. Dalton read a paper on this subject. He said
there were several sorts of ivory, differing from each other In regard to cnmposition, du-
rability and externid appearance, and also in value. The principal sources from wlience
ivory wns derived iveie from the Hesiem coast of Africa nnd Hindostan. Camaroo was
generally considered the best, on lucuuni *<\ its colour and transparency. In some of the
best tusks the transparency could be discovered even at the outside of the tusks Gen-
tlemen were apt to be deceived with regard to transparency because the manufacturer
could mislead them by making it transparent by a process of his own. But the finder of
time wuuld soon indicate the decepti m. It was as well not to insist on havii.g the most
trail sp.^^t'nt kind ; fnr if they got the genuine article, lhou^ h somewhat brown at first, it
would eventually become white. The AfriLan was the kind tif which the best cutlery was
made; and though its degree of transparency was not so great as the Camaroo, it was
sufficiently beautiful in its colour and fineness of grain as to render it suitable for the best
kind of cutlery. But there was a third description, called the Egyptian, which had lately
bewn biought into this country, which was 1.^ per cent. lower than the Indian, but was
very wasteful in working. Mr. Uallun next gave a description of the specific gravity of
the diflerent kinds of ivoi-y he had referred to. He had been furnished with an analysis
to show the relative amount of animal matter in the three princir'al varieties of ivory.
The African showed a proportion or animal over earthy matter ot 101 to lUO; the Indian
7'» to 100; and the Egyptian "0 to 100. Thus, though the composition was much alike,
yet there were those differences between the animal and earthy matter. He also shuived
the difference as to the quantity of dust used in the manufacture of gelatine. With re-
spect to the iu'jrease in the manulacture of ivory, he said that It was now within the
memory of man tlint there were not more than 15 per cent, workers of ivory in Sheffield ;
l)ut now they were upwards of 40 per cent. Forty years ago there was only one dealer of
ivory in Sheffield ; at present there were five or six. The value vl the annual consump-
tion in Sheffield was about ;^O.tiOO/., and about r)00 persons were employed in working it
up for trade. The number of tusks tn make up the weight consumed in Sheffield, about
180 tons, was 46,000, the average wfight id each being only Ulb. Many weighed from (!0
to loo lb., so that some must be vtry fruiall indeed. According to this the number of ele-
phants killed every year was 22,501) ; but supjjosing that some tusks were cast and ; ome
animals died, it might be (airly estimated that 18.000 were killed for the purpose. This
was a matter which was not generally known, it being a prevalent opinion that the tusks
used for ivory were such as were cast by the elephants when alive.

Steam Factory in Sweden.— The largest mechanical work in Sweden, is
the Motala Factory on the Gotha Canal, It is said to be fitted-up with pood steam ma-
cninery, and ot late has been greatly improved. It builds steamboats and marine engines,
among other works, ai.d has turned out the steamers " Svithiod," *■ and Guuthiod." as
well us the "Laubeck," which runs on the East Sea.

I*IST OP WE^V PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM AuGUST 23, TO SEPTEMBER 20, 1849.

SijT Months allowed for Eurolmeiit, unless otherwise expressed.

Malcolm Macfarlane, of Thistle-street, Glasgow, coppersmith, for certain improre-
ments in machinery or apparatus for the drying and finishing of woven fabrics.— Sealed
August ;io.

Thomas Symes Prideaux, of Southampton, gentleman, for improvements in puddling
and other furnaces, and in steam-boilers. — August 'Ai).

James Robinson, of HuddersfiehJ, orchil and cudbear manufacturer, for improvements
in preparing or manufacturing orchil and cudbear.— August 30.

Isidore Bertrand, of France, engineer, for an improvement in protecting persona and
property from accident in carriages.— August 30.

Onesiphore Pecquer, of Paris, civil engineer, for certain improvements in the manufac-
turing of fishing and other nets. — August 30.

A grant of an extension for the term of five years from the 23rd of October, 1.S49, of a
patent to George Baxter, of Chirterhouse-square, Middlesex, engraver, for his invention
of improvements in producing coloured steel-plate, copper-plate, and other impressions.

Charles Morey, of the United States, now residing at Manchester, gentleman, for cer-
tain improvements in machinery or apparatus for sewing embroidery, and uniting or or-
namenting, by stitches, various descriptions of textile fabrics.— August 30.

Alexander Haig, of Smith-street, Stepney, engineer, for an improved apparatus for ex-
hausting and driving atmospheric air and other gases, and for giving motion to other ma-
chinery.— September tJ.

Alexander Robert Terry, of Manchester-street, Manchester-square, engineer, for im-
provements in the manufacture or preparation of firewood. — September 6.

Josiah Marshall Heath, of Hanwell» Middlesex, gentleman, for improvements in the
manufacture of steel. — September fl.

Sir John Macneill, Knight, of Dublin, and Thomas Barry, of Lyons, near Dublin, me-
chanic, for improvements n locomotive engines, and in the couatructiou of railways. —
September tJ.

John Hosking, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, engineer, for an improved pavement. — Sep -
tembertJ.

Richard Ari?hibald Brooman, of Pie t-street, patent agent, for certain improvements in
draught-horse saddlery, harness, and saddle-trees. (A communication.)— September 13.
David Stephens Brown, of the Old Kent-road, gentleman, for certain improvements in
apparatus or instrumeuts fur the fumigation ol plants.- September 13.

Henry Atwood, of Goodman's-fields, Middlesex, engineer, and John Renton, of Brom-
ley, in the same county, engineer, for certain improvements in the manufacture of starch
ar.d other like articles of commerce, from fiirinaceous and leguminous substances. —
September 13.

Edme Augustin Chameroy, of Rue du Faubourg St. Martin, Paris, for a new system of
railway (denominated Helicoide), heliacal railway, and a circular chariot. — September l.'l.

Napoleon Pierre Preterre, of Havre, in France, for improvements in the cons ruction of
coflee and tea pots, and in ajjparatus for cooking; also iu apparatus for grinding aud
roasting coffee.- September 13.

Edwin Heywood, of Glosburn, Yorkshir-e, designer, for improvements In plain and or-
namental weaving. — September 13.

Robert Griffiths, of Havre, engineer, for Improvements in steam-engines, and in pro-
pelling vessels.— September 13.

Thomas Mars "en, of Salford, Lancaster, machine-maker, for improvements in ma-
chinery lor liackling, combing, or dressing flax, wool, and other fibrous substances. —
September 13.

Benjamin f.'oodfe'low. of Hyde park, Chester, engineer, for certain improvements in
steam-engines.— September 13.

James Potter, of Manchester, mechanist, for certain improvements in spinning and
doubling machinery. — September 13.

Charles Marsden, of Kinc;sland.road, for improvements in traps to be applied to closets,
drains, sewers, and cesspools. — September 20.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for certain improvements in
pumps, and in machinery and apparatus for wnrkinp the same, which latter iniprovementa
are also applicable for working other macliinery. (A communication). — September 20.

William Handley. of Chiswell-street, Fi sbury, confectioner, George Duncm, of Batter-
sea, engineer, and Alexander Mc (ilashan, of Lung acre, engineer, for improvements in
the construction of railway breaks. — September 20.

Henry Bessemer, of Baxter-house, Old-street, St. Pancras-rond, engineer, for improve-
ments in the preparation of fuel, aud in apparatus for supplying the same to furnaces.—
September 20.

Elijah Galloway, of Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, engineer, for improvements
in furnaces.— September 20.

Joseph Rocke Cooper, of Birmingham, gun and pistol maker, for improvements in fire
arms. — September 2().

Edward Staite, of Lombard-street, gentleman, and William Petrle, of King-street, gen-
tleman, for improvemeuts in electric and galvanic instruments and apparatus, and in
their application to lighting and motive purposes.— September 20.

Willi m Pearce, of Haigh, near Wigan, Lancaster, and Edward Evans, of Wigan, en-
gineers, for improvements in steam-engines and in pumps. — September 20.

Josiah Lorkin, of Ivy. lane, merchant, for an improved instrument or apparatus for
beutnig or triturating viscous or gelatinous substances.— September 20.

Benjamin Wren, of Yarm, Yorkshire, miller, for an improvement in cleaning and treat-
iu'- certain descriptions of wheat — September 20.

David Owen Edward, of Sydney-place, Brompton, surgeon, for improvements in the
application of gas for producing and radiating heat.— September 20.

Juhn Baplisie Vauldy, of Mile-end, dyer, for improvements in giving a gloss to dyed
silU, in skeins or hanks.— September 20.

'I'homas Griffiths, of Islington row, Birmingham, for improvements in the manufacture
of tea and other pots and vessels, and other articles made of stamped metal. — Septem-
ber 20.

PLATE. XX,

DANUBE

1S49."|

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

3.'l

THE IMPROVEMENTS IN THE DANUBE RIVER, FOR
THE STEAM NAVIGATION, APPLICABLE TO THE
INDIAN RIVERS. "

By G. Shepherd, C.E.

{With an Engraving, Plate XX.)

I have read with pleasure in the Journal a notice of Mr. Bourne's
work on the 'Navigation of the Indian Rivers,' in which he has
detailed the great advantages which would be derived by suitable
steam-vessels on those waters, and it is to me hififhly gratifying to
find some attention being directed by this country towards so de-
sirable an object as the improvement of the internal communica-
tion of our vast Indian territories. I know of no subject more
interesting, nor could there be a more profitable speculation carried
out than the establishment of a sufficient number of such vessels
for carrying purposes, both merchandise and passengers. But
there would be much to be done. We have not in England rivers
whose banks have for ages been neglected, and their waters divided
into numerous insignificant channels — where every flood causes
further devastations in every part of the country through which
the stream flows. Similar to the Danube, in Europe, of which I
have had much experience, in India fresh channels are continually
forming, ami the d.bris deposited in other parts of the rivers in the
shape of shoals, sandbanks, and quicksands, in places which fre-
quently, previous to the flood, contained from 15 to 20 feet of
water. These subjects are but little understood in England, from
the absence of experience on similar rivers here ; and Mr. Bourne
appears to think that it is impossible to improve these streams by
the concentration of the water into one channel; but formidable as
these obstructions may appear, with your permission I shall en-
deavour to show to your readers that they may be so far overcome,
as no longer to prove obstacles to the navigation of rivers of this
shoaling character, and this at a very trifling cost. Mr. Bourne's
proposal, as I can attest, is no visionary scheme, nor is there any-
thing new in constructing iron steamboats of 200 tons burden, of
120-horse power, drawing from 14 to 18 inches of water, going at
the rate of 10 miles an hour against the stream, and 18 miles per
hour with it.

In bringing this subject before your numerous readers, I must
allude to the state of the Danube, its traffic, and the boats used in
navigating that river, previous to English skill and perseverance
being brought into action. The introduction of steamboats upon
this splendid river is due to Mr. Joseph Pritchard, formerly a ship-
wright in the Woolwich dockyard. Numerous attempts had been
previously made by German engineers and others, but each attempt
proved a signal failure.

The first attempt to navigate the Danube river by steam was
attended with great difficulty, in consequence of the numerous
sandbanks, quicksands, and shoals which then existed in many
parts of the river. These were continually shifting from one place
to another. The channels which, previous to a flood, had been
navigable for steamboats drawing 20 feet of water, after the water
had fallen were found to be entirely blocked up; and in a great
many instances, these before deep places, might be walked over. In
some cases the current would take a difl^erent direction, or else
become so divided that scarcely any one stream could be found
containing sufficient water to float a vessel drawing 12 inches, so
that for several years the steamboats were continually getting
*■ aground. So treaclierous, indeed, were these obstacles, that some-
times the steamers got aground during the floods, or just as the
waters began to subside; and before assistance could be procured,
these vessels so stranded have been left high and dry on tlie sand-
banks, and have only been floated again by the aid of two or more
steamers, together «ith the united eft"orts of from forty to fifty
oxen and horses, which have been shipped from one island to
another for this purpose. It is obvious that these obstacles were
found very expensive to the steamboat company.

I trust that the Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal is not so
strictly devoted to science, as to preclude me from making a few
political observations, %vhich will no doubt be found of general
interest, and more especially at the present moment. During
"Metternich's rule," the Austrian government had permitted no
scientific progress whatever to he made in Hungary; and so jealous
was this statesman of Hungary, that it really appeared his desire
to entirely isolate the Hungarians from the rest of the Em])ire.
The police commissioners in Vienna were instructed to use every
species of insolence to scientific persons applying for a passport to
Hungary, — in one woi-d, the conduct of this statesman (who was
BO deservedly kicked out of his own country) was most base and
tyrannical towards that then loyal people, and the late disasters
must eventually recoil upon his own family.

No. 146.— Vol. XTI— N'ovEjuBtR, 1849.

The oppressions thus unceasingly heaped upon the Hungarians
at length found an opposer in the noble and iiulefatigalile patriot.
Count Szechenyi, who saw that unless the feelings of the nation
could be aroused, his unliappy country was doomed to remain in
absidute ignorance. This nobleman having made several tours
through Europe, at once commenced a crusade against the Aus-
trian government. The following were the objects or base of his
political creed.

"The favourite olijects of their desires were, — after strengthening the
nationality of Hungary, — •freeiioio of commerce, and an improved commer-
cial code; the navigation of the Danube, and the improvement of internal
coninmnication; increased freetlom and education of tiie peasantry; the re-
peal of laws preventing the free purchase and sale of landed property; per-
feet equality of all religions, and the freedom of the press. Fur the greater
part of these objects they are still struggling." — Paget's Hungary and Tran-
sylvania, vol. i., p. 162.

After undergoing a series of persecutions from the Austrian
government, which served but to increase the flame now kindled,
this public leader was, with the view of keeping him quiet, made
His Excellency Count Szechenyi, Minister of Public Works in
Hungary; but this title, rather than abating the zeal of so anxious
a patriot, gave him free toleration to harrass the government until
he obtained permission to improve the state of the Danube river,
in order to give every facility to the steam navigation. Ultimately
the government agreed to advance an annual sum of 100,000 florins
(10,000/.) to improve the river in Austria; and the Hungarian
Diet also granted a small sum annually for the improvement of the
river in Hungary. Operations were at once commenced under the
control of the Count.

The engraving, Plate XX. fig. 1, shovvs the state of the river,
taken from a sur\ey between Presburgh and Comorn, before the
improvements; and fig. 2 the state of the river a short time after
the operations were commenced, the numerous shoals and sand-
banks shown in fig. 1 being now to a great extent removed. The
following description will explain the principles that were adopted.

The sandy districts were the first places where the operation-*
commenced. Tlie water, as will he observed in the engraving, fig. 1,
branched out into numerous channels, while the central stream was
nearly blocked up with sandbanks and shoals. On each side of
the river were stationed a number of men; some were employed in
cutting ami binding faggots on shore; and others in constructing
spurs (as shown in fig. 2), placed at right angles with the stream.
The spurs were constructed as shown in elevation and plan of the
spur, figs. 3 and i. In tlie diagrams it will be observed that the
series a and b of the brushwood is bound or woven together so as
to form one continuous line throughout the entire length of the
spur; each row is well secured to the ground with short piles or
stakes, and the space between each row is fiUed-in with earth such
as is found upon the spot. The transverse bundles of faggots c, c,
are made to the required length, laid on the others, and secured in
the same manner, with this exception — the ends toward the stream
are left open or in the bushy state.* These rough ends are then
covered with earth rf, d; the operations being carried on when the
water is very low in the river. When the main spurs are com-
pleted, the arms of the river are dammed-off in the same manner.

Tlie rapidity with which the spurs are made is truly surprising;
and it will be observed from their construction that they ofi'er but
little resistance to the water in the first instance, but as soon a-;
the sandbanks begin to move, the dibris is deposited between and
in the spurs, vvhicli renders them immoveable; the current at the
same time is thrown into one channel, which has the eflfect of en-
tirely scouring the river of the sandbanks previously dejiosited.

In carrying out this operation, care should he taken to keep the
ends of the spurs in a line with each other, and the stream in a
straight line — that is, to such given distances as might be deter-
mined upon, as shown in the engraving; and great care should also
be taken to make the spurs very strong in every place where it is
liable to be exposed by any bend in the stream.

The brushwood is generally laid in the rivers in its green state,
there to take root and grow again ; consequently, after a few years,
each of the spurs forms a thick massive hedge, which prevents the
stream from making further ravages on its banks, and confines the
stream to one central channel; scouring out to a width and depth
sufficient for all purposes of navigation.

This system of embanking with faggots has been the means of
rescuing thousands of acres of land fnun the flood, at a cost of
not Is. per acre. By following up this system, in the course of a

* Any person who may have matie the following experiment, wi'l be able to form some
idea of the system for river regulating, for instance. Let a small bratich of a tree or
bush, with several arms i)r"jecting from it. and the branched end be buiie'J under from
3 to 4 feet of earth; and see what amoiml of power it will late at the stem to extricate
the branch.

42

;5J2

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

[November,

few years tlie sandbanks to a Rreat extent ceased to exist, and the
obstructions to tlie navigation were less frequent. These improve-
ments luivin^f been effected in tlie most danfj-erous parts of the
river, together with the systematic arrangements vvliich have been
made in the pilotage, the' immense traffic of the Danube is now
carried on almost uninterruptedly; for it is a rare occurrence to
hear of any of the steamers getting aground.

Having brought this subject before the English public, I have
no hesitation in saying, if the same means are resorted to in the
Indian rivers, that, in a very few years, the impossibility repre-
sented by Mr. Bourne will cease to exist, and the rivers be made
navigable at a remunerative profit. Certainly, if such people as
the i)oor Hungarians can afford to spend sufficient per annum for
regulating the rivers in that country, L consider that 100,000/. per
anrnmi might be spent by the Indian (Jovernment for the same
object, lea\ing the navigation of the rivers to private enterprise:
and with 100,000/. per annum, for a few years, thousands of acres
of land would be rescued from tlie rivers; swamps, in a great mea-
sure, would cease to exist; the banks would be converted into
healthy and fertile districts, giving employment to thousands in
agricultural pursuits.

It is my intention to resume this subject, and to explain some
other improvements connected with the Danube and Hungary.

G. S.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK,
FASCICULUS XCIX.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as Urge a charter ai the wiudg.
To blotv on whom 1 please."

I. To return to my remarks on the Army and Navy Clubhouse:
— besides being disfigured by such gross negligences as those
jiointed out, and being totally devoid of anything like contrivance
or study in its arrangement, the plan is such that it has not even
convenience to recommend it ; on the contrary, is so decidedly
inconvenient in that respect, that it is astonishing how the pro-
fessional gentleman who assisted the committee at the second com-
petition could have passed over so many positive defects without
pointing them out to those to whom he acted in the capacity of
adviser, and urging the necessity for their being corrected if that
design was to be adopted. Infinitely greater contrivance was dis-
lilayed in some of the plans sent in at the first competition, for
they provided not merely commodious, but handsome corridors or
other approaches to the further rooms: instead of which, the
Strangers' Coffee-room and House Dining-room can now be reached
only through a long and most inconveniently-narrow passage —
barely wide enough to allow of two persons passing each other
without jostling. That passage, too, takes a very awkward bend
just where — in consequence of such bend — there is no light, and
where there are several doors — those of back-stairs, servants'
places, and waterclosets,— immediately close by all which gentle-
men will have to pass. In the Strangers' Coffee-room, the windows
which are at one end of it, look into a mere area, only 7 feet
wide, with the prospect, however, of three other windows — those
of back staircases and passages immediately facing them:— strange,
yet perhaps therefore characteristic disposition, of plan, the room
being intended for strangers. Unless there be some sort of sky-
light besides (though none is indicated in the plan) the room must
be an exceedingly gloomy one; and if, on the other hand, there
be a skylight or lantern, there was no occasion at all for other
windows, unless it was for the sake of the prospect just mentioned.
In one respect, indeed, convenience has been attended to, although
not very delicately, nor is it so well managed as it might have been
— a door opening into a watercloset being placed immediately next,
and at a right angle to, that of the House Dining-room. Of the
upper floor plan, I have no means of judging; but guessing at it
from the arrangement of the lower one, I take it to be at the very
best, exceedingly commonplace.

n. I have not yet quite done with the Army and Navy Club-
house: let us now consider the exterior. In the first place, it now
appears that what looks like a separate entresol or mezzanine over
the lower floor, is not such in reality, those small openings forming
internally a second series of windows over the others. By means
of this arrangement, the ground-floor rooms are made to appear
externally much lower than they really are; and the basement is
Kiit up into two stories, when it mi^ht as well have been made to

show itself as a single lofty one, — and even much better, since
there is assuredly no beauty whatever in the design of its present
windows — either the upper or lower ones; and as assuredly, too,
that part of the building being an express copy from Sansovino is
rather an aggravation than an excuse, copying being in itself a
confession of inability to invent or produce; and the copying what
is at variance with actual circumstances showing, in addition to
such inability, strange perverseness of judgment also. As it has
been managed, it is one exceedingly disagreeable defect in the
composition, that the small windows alluded to, rise up higher
than the arches of the loggia of the east front, instead of ranging
with them. Why were not arches, similar to those of the loggia,
continued througliout the whole basement, and tilled-in with win-
dows, either continuously from bottom to top, or divided into two
openings by a transom corresponding with the impost, — which
might then have been enlarged and enriched, and the upper
semicircular openings made to form lunettes in a cove in the
rooms within.' Even had there been an actual entresol, that might
have been done; and greater consistency and nobleness of design
would have resulted from it. The balconies before the principal-
floor windows are, at the best, in rather coarse and uncouth taste,
and by projecting forwards and resting immediately upon the cor-
nice of the basement, they occasion a most awkward and ungainly
efl'ect, and seem to clog up and encumber that part of the front.
As to the windows themselves, on that floor, though they are in-
tended to present the appearance of being lofty arched ones, the
openings themselves, do not even rise so high as the imposts
of the arches, being square-headed, and the remainder fiUed-up
with brick-work. Deception of that kind would have been allow-
able enough, had it been resorted to to make a single window look
like all the others in the same range, although in reality different
from them; but to perpetrate deception of the kind quite gra-
tuituously and by wholesale, accuses the architect most strongly
of either ignorance or disregard of logical design, and of inability
to accommodate design to the requirements of the particular
case. In tliis case, tlie deception practised is so far from being
at all ingenious, or exhibiting any contrivance, as to be on the
contrary a very clumsy one. It will be no very agreeable sur-
prise to .persons when they first enter the upper rooms to find that
the lofty arched windows^ and corresponding loftiness in other
respects promised by outside appearances, have quite vanished.
The trick must also be betrayed externally, by the absence of
window draperies in the heads of the windows; and more strongly
still when the rooms are lit-up of an evening — while all is light
and brilliant within and below, the upper part of the windows will
be all in darkness. If tlie "Army and Navy" want a motto for
their building, let them take

Fbonti Nulla Fides.
A more appropriate and significant one they cannot possibly find. —
It would not at all surprise me to hear that they already begin to
damn Sansovino, and one or two other people besides, — Count
D'Orsay included, for his cajoling them into a precious bad bargain
with his "most beautiful palace in Europe."

III. The windows of the principal floor of the "Army and
Navy"have probably been made to appear large arched apertures for
no other reason than of rivalry to the Carlton Clubhouse, except
it be that such stratagem was resorted to as being the easiest way
of getting over some diflficulty, and of avoiding the heresy of com-
mitting anything like a fresh idea in design. The arches might
have been retained as necessary for decorating and filling-up the
space above the windows; but had logical design been attended to,
the apertures would have been made to show themselves as they
really are — square-hetided; and in the tympanums of the arches
semicireular niches might have been introduced, for the reception
of busts of military and naval heroes — at some future time, at least,
if not at first: and surely such decoration would have been an
equally appropriate and striking, as well as honourable, distinction
to that clubhouse.

IV. Although I did not intend to say anything further concern-
ing Mr. Kuskin, having already said so much, 1 am induced to do
so in consequence of having just met with a long critique upon
'The Seven Lamps,' which shows very strongly that I am not the
only one who thinks that Mr. Iluskin has been prodigiously over-
rated as a critic on Art — at least, upon Architecture. Even the
Art-Journal, too, albeit not addicted to censure, and notwithstand-
ing that it gives him credit for "magical language, lofty poetry,
warm generosity," and a good deal besides, takes him to task rather
severely for the barbarous doctrine involved in the following
maxim: — "Not to decorate things belonging to purposes of active
and occupied life." To say the truth, such doctrine strikes so
directly at the root of all that is now being done with the view oi

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

32S

advancing manufactures by means of Art, and thereby giving to
Art itself a positive "mercantile value," that it is rather a wonder
the book was not laid under interdict in that quarter, and its writer
pronounced a tasteless ignoramus, and shallow pretender in mat-
ters of art. Sharpe's Magazine, too, has called in question many
of Mr. Ruskin's peculiar opinions and tastes, and reproaches him
pretty sharply for ignoring or depreciating such glorious achieve-
ments of the present age as steam navigation, railroad communi-
cation, &c., and for repudiating the active and intelligent spirit of
our own times, and inculcating the duty and wisdom of returning
to that of the middle ages. The reviewer quotes his tirade against
railways, but has not pointed out — perliaps because he thought
that every one must detect it — the notable piece of sophistry and
paralogy which assures us that "we have just spent a hundred
and fifty millions, with which we have paid men for digging ground
from one place and depositing it in another"! He who could
write such nonsensical stuff, would say — that is, were he con-
sistent— farmers pay men for walking up and down a field aU day
long after a plough; and builders pay them for buttering bricks
with mortar,

V. It is not, however, from either of the above-named publica-
tions, but from a rather recently-established periodical, with the
title of the RaynUer, that, in its number for last July, the author
of 'The Seven Lamps' has got what is vulgarly called "a com-
plete set-down." A^'hen it is known that the Rambler is a "Catho-
lic Journal and Review," the hostile tone of the article is fully ac-
counted for: nevertheless, it says a very great deal which, unpalat-
able as it must be to Mr. Ruskin's admirers and applauders, as well
as to himself, they would find it an exceedingly difficult matter
to gainsay. Greatly must those be scandalised who have extolled
Mr. Ruskin's eloquence and "magical language," when they find
the Rambler assuring us that "his ignorance is as egregious as
his dogmatism is offensive; and he has adopted a peculiar style of
writing, which frequently verges on the unintelligible through the
excessive awkwardness of its construction, and Ms utter want of per-
ception of the true genius of the English language." As "set-down"
the first, that is a tolerably strong one, for it knocks down at a
blow what others have cried i(p as a '■'■very remarkable" and distin-
guishing excellence in 'The Seven L;ftiips,' and claps an extin-
guisher upon it. Further on, the writer in the Rambler says:
"There is something so transcendently ludicrous in the notion that
the Church of Rome is idolatrous, and yet that the early mediaeval
architecture was the result of the purest Christian faith and feel-
ing, that we can only suppose that Mr. Ruskin believes that
Cranmer, Luther, and Henry VIII., flourished some 700 years
ago, and that Salisbury Cathedral was built in the reign of Eliza-
beth. The simplicity which can identify the creed and practices
of the thirteenth century with those of English Protestantism is
so delicious, that whatever else be Mr. Ruskin's deserts, he may lay
claim to the invention of something unquestionably 7iew." That
is a palpable hit; and it might have been added, that it is anything
but consistent in one who contends for the direct influence of
religion in matters of taste and art, to extol the mediaeval styles of
Papal Italy in preference to our own; to say nothing of his
unqualified and wholesale reprobation of "our detestable Perpen-
dicular," notwithstanding that it is— as he ought to be able plainly
to perceive — the only mode of Gothic wliich is at all capable of
being applied to general purposes, and which contains within itself
the elements of further development for such purposes at the
present day. One very just accusation which the reviewer makes
against Mr. Ruskin is, that he does not at all expound the princi-
ples of architecture. Upon them his "Lamps" shed no light at all.
In fact, there is no sort of system of the aesthetics of architecture
in his book; what is intended to look like system, and may pass
for such with readers in general, being no more than a perfectly
arbitrary and whimsical division of the subject. The critic in the
Rambler goes even so far as to hint that Mr. Ruskin is a fool — at
least, is one-half a fool, though in the other he may be a genius;
and certainly he has uttered some exceedingly gross absurdities.
There is also a good deal of sarcastic quizzing — some will say, in
lack of argument — fired at Ruskin, in the Rambler, especially as
regards his abhorrence of railways and railway-travelling; which
perhaps has had some share — the only slmre IVIr. Ruskin holds in
railways — in causing the present depreciation of railway shares and
property. "Henceforth, ' it is said in the Rambler, "we shall never
see a person on the Great Western, or Birmingham, or any other
line, huddled-up in a corner of a carriage, dark, sour, and misan-
thropic in visage, and resenting the suggestions of any agreeable
thoughts as a cruel mockery of an inward and unknown sorrow, with-
out thinking of the author of 'The Seven Lamps' rejoicing in his
woes, and oppressed with the mingled consciousness that he is tra-

velling at thirty miles an hour, and that that wicked Paj)ist, the
Earl of Arundel and Surrey, is a member of the Commons House of
Parliament." Ruskin is also taken-up, or rather set-down, by his
reviewer for his extravagantly fanciful, even nonsensical, notions
on the subject of beauty in architecture, which must of necessity
be altogether different from that of natural objects. According to
Mr. Ruskin's reascming, doors, vvindows, &c., must be little better
than so many unnatural deformities, they being in the unhappy pre-
dicament of letters (i.e. the characters used in writing or painting),
to which he objects that they are like nothing in nature. It would
therefore seem that he is incapable of discriminating between what
belongs to Nature and what to Art; between the mental pleasure
afforded by the contemplation of the one, and that afforded by
similar contemplation of the works produced by the other. In a
word, Mr. Ruskin is a decided Natural; 'and as such I will now
leave him, and also leave those who feel any curiosity to learn
what farther is said in the Rambler on the subject of 'The Seven
Lamps,' to get the publication and read the entire article, which
will well repay them for the eighteenpence so bestowed.

VI. In a paper 'On Style in Architecture,' read by him a short
time ago at the Institute, Professor Cockerell very properly depre-
cated pedantic imitation of the antique orders, and the illogical
application of them; and as to the former fault, he has endeavoured
to correct it in his own practice, by daring, in some of the build-
ings which he has erected, to deviate considerably from what is
considered the standard of the Doric order ; elongating his
columns, and substituting a fret for the characteristic triglyphs
and metopes of the frieze, — with the view, no doubt, of thereby
imparting to it greater delicacy, and mitigating its original stern-
ness. But he surely applies it illogically and quite contrary to its
nature, when he introduces it — as he he has done — as mere deco-
ration in fenestrated fronts, consequently essentially different in
their general physiognomy from anything in ancient Greek archi-
tecture; and that order is so exceedingly severe and inflexible, so
rigid and untractable, as to be fitted for scarcely aught more than
a mere portico or colonnade; therefore, to convert it into en ap-
plique decoration is, if not to violate, to do violence to its charac-
ter,— an indignity which it stubbornly and violently resists. In
itself, however, the attempt to break through the frigid formalism
established for the treatment of the orders, is a laudable one
rather than not, but one which requires in him who makes it more
than ordinary artistic skill and power. It is not for every one to
make it; non cuivis adire Corinthum : yet surely there are, for there
ought to be, some capable of making it successfully, — capable of
variously modifving according to circumstances, and in accordance
with the particular character required by the actual occasion, the
types of columnar and trabeated architecture furnished us by the
remains of antiquity. If it be asked, what is to guide them in
doing so, the reply is: artistic instinct and feeling, some portion
of which, it is to be presumed, architects — at least, some of them,
are gifted with, unless architecture be now in the unhappy con-
dition of a Fine Art, without artists for its followers, — one which
leaves them nothing else to do than to re-combine, or rather merely
put together, hackneyed forms and features, — as is not unfre-
quently done either in utter ignorance or utter disregard of every
principle of artistic composition.

VII. Professor Cockerell himself has more than once given us
combinations more singular than consistent or tasteful, — studied
with regard to aim at novelty, yet anything but carefully consi-
dered. His Branch Bank of England, at Liverpool, is a compound
of strangely discordant elements and conflicting styles, which,
though mixed up together, are not amalgamated, but left to show
themselves in harsh contrast to each other. Even were there no
other inconsistency in the matter, what he has there done is quite
at variance with his own e.r cathedra opinions and advice. "How
often," he said in his paper on 'Style,' above referred to, "do we
find the young architect, fired with the beauty of the classic
column and entablature, of the portico and the pediment, intro-
ducing them where their unfitness actually destroys the very
beauty he is so anxious to display." Nevertheless, in his building
at Liverpool, he himself— "fired," perhaps, "with their beauty," —
has forcedly introduced a Greek-l)oric order (considerably modified,
it is true), whose columns are mere ornamental expletives in the
structure — architectural rhetoric without architectural logic; for
being attached to the wall, they not only serve no real purpose,
but lose the greater part of the effect that would else attend them,
and are reduced to mere embellishment, — for which the character
of that particular order most especially unfits it; whereas, the
portico, loggia, or other colonnade, carries with it the appearance,
at least, of utility, and as far as the order itself which is em-
ployed is concerned, exhibits it in conformity with its original

42*

32t

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JNOVEMBEB,

intention, and is sure to pniiliice a certain dep:ree of effect, thoug-h
it may be no more than that of liprht and shade, and of what arises
from perspective appearance, owing- to the columns beinff in a
plane considerably advanced before that of the wall beliind them.
In the buildiuff here spoken of, not only are the Doric columns
ciuidyfil, but the intercoliinnis contain tii'O series of windows, which
are besides anytliintf but Doric, or rather quite anti-Doric, in
design; and, as if for the ex])ress purpose of rendering- them more
so than they else would have been, those of the upper or first-floor
liave very light metal-work balconies, which have hardly the look
of affording sufficient security, the hand-rail being supported only
at its extremities. As if for the direct purpose of presenting a
strong contrast to those balconies, and also the order itself, the
entablature of the latter is surmounted by an Itdlhin balustrade —
or rather by an uninte»rupted line of balusters; for, by way, per-
ha])s, of originality or novelty, the balusters are continued from
end to end, without any ])edestals between them over the columns,
or even at their terminatiiuis! I might go on to point out many
other eccentricities, but w ith my characteristic good iititiire, refrain
fiom doing so, — being quite sure that Professor Cockerell, if no
one else, will thank me for abridging my criticism.

ON ARCHITECTURAL CRITICISM.

.\rchitects appear to entertain so strong a dislike of criticism,
that it amounts almost to antipathy, ill-disguised by professed
contempt. If not illiberal, such dislike towards, and deprecation
of, criticism is at least impolitic, and inconsistent too. It par-
takes of illiberality, inasmuch as it seems to say that critics are all
alike mere smatterers, very ill-qualified, if not totally unqualified,
for the office they assume; it shows impolicy, for to silence criti-
cism would not be the very best way of promoting the study of
their art; and it shows inconsistency also, — for if they are of
opinion that those who are not professional and practical men,
either say nothing to the purpose, or else do actual mischief by
misleading others, why then do not they themselves, instead of
merely complaining of it, endeavour to remedy the evil by in-
structing the public better, and by exposing the erroneous opinions
or absurdities, and perhaps injustice too, of those who now set
themselves up for critics.'' There are now sufficient facilities for
doing so in the promptest and most direct manner, and if archi-
tects do not choose to avail themselves of them, so it must be; but
then, do not let them complain of a state of things which they
themselves encourage by their own silence and supineness. Were
they to give the puldic sound, intelligent, and really artistic criti-
cism, the latter would no longer be duped or misled by that of mere
jiretenders — of shallow, one-sided, purblind praters and writers, —
iiecause they would no longer tolerate it.

Even the profession themselves are not free from error; for they
commit a mistake attended with serious ill consequence to the in-
terests of architecture itself, when, though they would have it looked
u])on as a Fine Art, they in a manner claim for it immunity from
criticism, as being one which can be properly appreciated by tliose
alone who actually practise it, and who are acquainted with con-
struction and all its processes. — Strange doctrine, and surely as
unfortunate and short-sighted as it is strange. Instead of invit-
ing people to study the artistic branch of architecture, it deters
them from even attempting it; telling them, in fact, though not in
direct words, that it is one by far too exclusively technical to be
liiastered by any one who does not apply himself to it ]>rofession-
ally; whereas, could the profession themselves see an inch beyond
their noses — which they do not appear to do at present, they would
perceive how much it would be to the advantage of themselves as
a body, and to that of their art also, were they to break down the
barriers with which they have hemmed it in, and to popularise the
study of it to the utmost of their power. I)irect proof is afforded
of this, by the great, and we may call it rapid, advance which has
of late years been made in one style — namely, the mediaeval; and
rather in spite of the ])rofession themselves, it urging them on in
a direction which else they might never have taken — at least, not
to the same extent. The impulse came from without: it was given
by antiquaries and archieologists — in other words, by mere anm-
iKum, but earnest ones, who, by means of various and numerous
publications, have greatly facilitated the study of that style, and
created a widely-diffused interest for it. And amateurs of that par-
ticular class now form so numerous atul also so influential a body,
that the profession dare not open their lips against them; on the
contrary, are glad to accept them as patrons. 'I'hat as far as the
various styles of Gothic are concerned much good has been af-

fected by the real of non-professional students and writers is not
to be denied, it being thev who have in a manner forced the pro-
fession to render themselves practically conversant with those
styles. At the same time, it must be confessed that what hag so
far been done for good, falls greatly short of what it niight, and
what — let us hope so — it will be. The interest so created at pre-
sent extends to very little nmre than a single style of architecture
and a single class of buildings; and not only that, but the predi-
lection for Gothic which has been thus fostererl, is too over-
weening and exclusive, and apt to be aceomjianied with prejudice
against, and contempt for, <ither styles which have at least this in
their favour, that they acciunmodate themselves infinitely better
to our purposes and ]iractice generally at the present day; conse-
quently must be retained by us, whatever modifications they may
henceforth undergo. Again, the impulse given to the study of
meditpval architecture ha\ing proceeded chiefly from those addicted
to antiquarianism, they have given to the study itself a bias much
stronger towards the archse<ilogical and historical, than the a;sthetic
and artistic. It is familiarity with dates, and the distinctions be-
tween one style and another, and similar matters, that is displayed,
ratlier than any power of critical investigation and judgment.
All is yr'iiit that comes to the archaeologist's mill: everything is
treasured-up as a specimen, every specimen venerated as a relique;
all the more precious, perhaps, on account of its singularity —
namely, its singular ugliness. Thei-e is by far too much of the
"chronicling small-beer" — and some very flat and stale too — in
what emanates from architectural writers and teachers of the
historical class; and it very rarely happens that a drop of the wine
of genuine and generous criticism is mingled with their "small-
beer" stuff'.

Generous Critich-m ! iSIany readers w ill, no doubt, here protest
that the expression is a dowurijiht contradiction in terms, — which
it certainly is according to the sense vulgarly attached to the word
Criticism. Of criticism, as of most other things, there are two
sorts — the bad and the good; and of the former there are again
two other sorts, of which it is impossible to say which is the worst
— that which consists of rancorous and reckless abuse, or that
which deals only in equally reckless and base puff:

*' Like biin wbii just to get a iliiiner,
AVoulfl mnkt; n saint of any sinner;
Or else in blHekest eoloiirs puint
'1 he worthiest man or meekest saint."

Such, h'o-wever, is not criticism, but the prostitution of it. What,
then, is true criticism .'' The answer is not very difficult : it is
that which, founded upon a diligent study of Art, is ever loyal to
the real interests of Art; which ever remains unbribed and incor-
rupt; and which

■ Nobly dares to show

Fattits in a friend, or merits in a foe."

Whether it commends or condemns, criticism should show itself to
he honest, and that the opinions which it delivers are the results of
imjiartial and discriminating examination. Mere vague general
praise or censure may be uttered by any one; and so long as stuff
of that sort will pass for criticism, it may truly enough be said
that "Critics all are ready-made," and that criticism is very easy
work. But the criticism worth having, that w hich instructs both
the public and the followers of Art themselves, nnist be first learnt
by an apprenticeship to it of study and reflection. Of such criti-
cism the ]iraise is worth having, because it is not bestowed indis-
criminately u])on every one; whereas some are so la\ish of that
article, that, becoming as common as gold in California, it ceases
to be jirecious. "My good Madam," said Dr. Johnson once to a
lady who was complimenting him in very fulsome style, "before
you are so prodigal of your praise, do for a moment consider how
much it is worth." The same might be said to the dealers in Puff'.
Still, it may be thought that how ever proper it may be for criticism
to bestow praise with some degree of reserve, and only where it
can be shown to be merited, there is no occasion for its administer-
ing censure: where it cannot commend, it can at any rate be
silent; — yes, arul so holil out impunity to Pecksniffs, and allow
pu!)lic taste to be corrupted by Art-brummagem of all sorts.

Were architectural criticism — for we confine ourselves to that —
fully exercised in the way which it ought to he, it would be influen-
tial for good in more ways than one. While it encouraged talent
and merit, it would check mere empty pretension; and, instructed
by sound criticism, the public would in time learn to distinguish
clearly betw een the one and the other, instead of trusting, as they
now do, to the voice of report, or being guided by the <'e/at attend-
ing mere vogue. Professional men would then perceive the neces-
sity of attending to the demands of criticism- — as they may, in
fact, be said to have done already in the case of Gothic architec-
ture. Criticism — that is, honest and sterling criticism — is a real

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

3J5

friend to arcliitects, though it may he a stern one. Were its les-
Bons attended to, it would elevnte them to the rank of artists; not
the mere nominal rank, as at present, where the term artist is hut
a conventional one, bestowed hy courtesy on almost any one who
carries on business comnie ilfaiit, without beinj; guilty of the horrid
vulgarity of keeping a shop; but to the real rank of truthful and
earnest followers of their art, — faithful and devoted to it, rejoicing
in its advance and successes even when they did not participate in
them personally.

When criticism is erroneous, let its errors be fairly exposed;
when it is unjust, let its injustice he shown and reprimanded with
all the severity the case merits; — but to declaim against, or ratlier
sneer at, criticism as something that is uniformly mischievously
officious and impertinent — as architects appear to be disposed to do
— is both illiberal and unwise. If — as some of them all but di-
rectly saj' — it is themselves alone who can be competent judges of
architecture, and that they alone are properly capable of directing
public taste in regard to it, they are surely guilty of a very gross
dereliction of duty in suffering spurious criticism to be dissemi-
nated, while they, indifferent to the ill consequences arising to
their art from such pseudo-criticism, withhold the genuine. Their
own words condemn those in the profession who represent architec-
tural criticism to be, almost without exception — for they make no
exceptions — the reverse of what it ought to be; since tliey plainly
intimate that there is very great need for better criticism — for such
as they alone are capable of producing, yet instead of doing so,
preserve an obstinate silence; leaving the public to be misled, by
various shallow and erroneous opinions, merely because they them-
selves are too indolent to contradict them, — for to question their
ability to do so would be deemed the height of presumption.

It is, perhaps, owing to their antipathy to criticism and every-
thing connected with it, that, when they do chance to take up the
pen, professional men very seldom care to display any particular
critical power, by speaking of works of architecture as woi-ks of
art, and by deliberately pausing upon, and intelligently explaining
their respective beauties or defects. Hence a certain degree of
dogmatism, or the appearance of it, in their writings; for however
just they may be in themselves, remarks which amount to no more
than the brief and bare enunciation of opinion, or of its verdicts,
must almost inevitably partake of dogmatism in their tone. We
are in a manner authoritatively commanded to admire or dis-
approve upon the mere ipse dixit <Tf the writer, without argument
of any sort being employed for the purpose of convincing us. Far
— very far are we from wishing to insinuate that it is pi-ofessional
men alone who deal only in assertion when they should give us
something like adequate reasons and proofs. But they have surely
little right to complain of architectural criticism being for the
most part so feeble and unsatisfactory as it is, if they allow it to
continue what it is, by not even so much as endeavouring to im-
prove it. If they think that by merely sneering at, and affecting
to despise bad criticism — which all the while they leave to cor-
rupt public taste — they can put it down, they are greatly mis-
taken.

DISCHARGE OF WATER FROM RESERVOIRS.

The Thinnj of the Contrdction of the Movement of Water flowing
from Apertures in thin Plates, in a Reservoir in which the Surface
of the 11'aler is maintained at a constant altitude. By J. Bayer,
Lieutenant. (Translated for this Journal from Crelle's '•Journal
fiir die Baukunst.' Band 25.)

{Concluded from page 203.)

For computing the quantity of discharge for less altitudes of
pressure, the sinking of the level, as already mentioned, must be
taken into consideration. It can be easily ascertained that in
Table I., for m = 5, the co-efficient k'^ '6029 remains invariable,
as the altitude of pressure of tlie mean value of the water level
before and after sinking is assumed, and equation (</)§]! applies.
Take therefore H for the altitude before, H" after, the sinking.
Then for the "less altitudes,"

Q = •6029V(4i,).i;|[5(H + H") + /]f-['(II + H")]e|.

As for greater altitudes, as soon as the sinking of the level no
longer takes place, H = H", and this equation becomes the equa-
ti"" (i/i § 11) above; and ensures general accuracy when it is
employed for greater altitudes, with the modification" that the co-
efficient corresponding to the quantity m be taken from Table I.

In order to make a more extended application of the equation
(A), there are here given the computations from twenty-four expe-
riments with square orifices (the side of the square being •2mtr.)
Tliese experiments are given by Poncelet in Table iV. of his
work.

Table IIL

Altituds of Pressure

The

The quantity of

No.

Co-elBcient

Discharge

of i-.xpe-

of the level

of the lev«l

H

correspond-

Error.

riment.

Hfter

belore

"'=7

ing to m

by Experi-

by

sinking (H'O

sinking (H).

in Table I.,

ment.

Theory.

mtr.

mtr.

liter.

liter.

liter.

•g

1

1-,W1»

i-;tr20

6-sno

-6037

120-5-27

129-736

- 209

1

2

:i

4

1-3321

1-3323

li-eiUl

-6037

127 475 1

I28-158/

127-974

-■499

+ •184

«-

1-2148

1-2150

6-075

-6034

122 6,59

122-566

+ 104

5

1 1-248

1 1250

5-625

-6032

117-006-1
1 18240 /

118-243

- 337

s

t)

—

—

5OU0

•6020

+ •006

o

7

-8.122

•8.'.25

_

104-6421

+ 259

«

—

—

104-081 I

104-183

-•102

9

—

104 870 J

+ 606

10

•46811

-4(i;io

—

811 580,
80-631

+ •133

U

—

—

+ -175

1

12
13

—

—

—

—

80 294 !
80-170 f

80-436

--162

--286

s

14

—

—

—

80-373

si-o.vJ

--083

^

15

—

—

—

+ •601

la

16

-2099

•.11105

07 289

67 306

- 107

n

17

■1407

-1420

—

61-9241

--164

.^

18

■1407

-1420

61-882 .

52 088

--206

19

—

—

—

—

81-862 J

--236

BO

•o.-^e?

■C600

—

41 6.-i9

41 737

--008

21

■11136

■11220

—

—

35 658-

+ -312

■22

-0136

•0220

—

—

38-475

35 346

+ -129

I'.t

35'372 ■

+ ■026

24

~*

—

—

~"

35-d78.

+ -032

The mean error above is -274 liter. The probable error is -185 liter.

The measurement of the altitude in relation to the surface of
the water before sinking has various difficulties: so tliat for prac-
tical apiilication it is necessary to be able to compute the quantity
of discharge by the altitude of pressure for the level after sinking,
the measurement being taken immediately above the orifice. When
the equation (i), § 11, is applied to this purpose, and the corre-
sponding co-efficient designated by c, we have

Q = <-/-V{+i/(n" + J/)}.

The co-efficient c may now be found. This is easily obtained by
Table I. hy putting ni + l, instead of m. For instance, when

H"=-0136, — - = -068 = m, and m + l = 1-038; and for this ratio

Table I. gives the value of c = -5950. To show the agreement of
this method with the experiments in Table III., the following
table gives, side by side, tlie co-efficients determined from experi-
ment and calculated by the above method.

The greatest discrepancy from experiment does not exceed ^ per
cent. For greater altitudes equation ()) is directly applicable. It
therefore extends to all practical cases for all altitudes, if for the
less altitudes tlie co-efficients corresponding to m + 1, and for
greater altitudes that corresponding to ni, be taken.

AVhen the quantity of discharge Q has been found in equation
(i), it can be substituted in (A) to find H, the altitude of pressure
of the water-level before sinking.

13.

77(6 Co-effcient of Contraction for Rectanyalar Orifices.

When W signifies the co-efficient for rectangular, k as before for
square, orifices, we have as in equation {d) of the foregoing para-
graph

a:/:,v„ k[i

y =

yrV,

A-/^ /H,

7r V H,

:V2(i

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[NdVEMBEn,

As, however, any rertani^le of which the base /
h=z)iq, may he considered part of the
square npoi described on tlie same
base, the contracting forces in rect-
jinpuhir and sijiiare orifices must be
equal to one another; so tliat the co-
efficients for rectanfrular orifices may
he comprrted as the co-efiicients for
s(|uare oritices, merely by tlie posi-
tion of the orifice with respect to
the surface of the water in the re-
servoir. From these considerations
we have

: rip.

;iiid lu'is'lit

'■ = v;i;-

\V'hen, first of all, the altitude
above the upper ed^e is equal for
both orifices, and equal hr, we find
tor the centre of pressure,

1.

2.

II, = hr + II +

r-

Hr

h + ij +

12(Ar+.iO

12(Ar + ^i)"

In the preceding paragraph, however, by comparing the co-
efficients, the centre of the orifices at the same depth may be
found. We have, therefore, when the altitude of pressure above
the square = A, = erf (in the figure), the following equation be-
tween h,^ ha and A,,

(lb + pq = erf -f- op ; or, A, + i = /( , -f /; :.h,=^ h^ -\- I — h.

Tut tliis value of hr in the above expressions (1. and 2.), and we
have generally for the co-efficients of rectangular orifices,

H, the altitude of pressure above the upper edges

of the square and rectangle, and n = r expresses the proportion of

the base to the height. For w = 2 the base is double, for « = 4
four times as great, as the height, &c. In the following table the
co-efficients for six different rectangular orifices, are given by
computation from equation b.

Table IV.

we have designated these limits by a value of m = 5, which corre-
.jMiiids to the altitude of pressure 11 = 5/. For rectangular orifices

0. r = i'|('n+S)n-l +

Where ml

Altitude of

Co.tffident h".

Pressure

m=j.

n = 2.

7; = 4.

71 = 6.

7i = 8.

n = 10.

»i = 20.

0

•6f87

•69fi4

•70S4

•7066

•7083

•7117

1

■6:f.'>2

■6513

•am

•6583

•6597

•66 .'3

•i

•(■.2.'i.'i

■6;i6U

■6404

•6421

•6430

•6451

»

•62117

•62M

•6321

•6.'i:i5

•6343

•6359

4

■fil?8

•6249

•6272

•6283

•6'289

■6303

S

•si.'ia

■6219

•6:'38

•6247

•6253

•6'26B

e,

•t;i45

•6197

•6214

•62.'2

•(i227

■6237

7

•oiari

•6180

•6195

•6203

■6207

•6216

8

•6127

■616H

•6181

■6187

•6191

•6U19

a

•6121

•61.^

•6169

•6175

■6179

•6186

10

•CUB

•6149

•6160

•6165

•6169

•6175

20

•61191

•6109

■6115

•6117

•6119

■6123

so

•mjK2

•6094

■6098

•6100

■6102

•6104

40

■60/8

■6087

•61190

•6092

■6092

■6094

60

•C075

6082

■6085

■60,-fi

•6l'87

•6088

60

•6073

•C079

■6082

•6083

•6083

•6084

70

•6072

■6077

•6079

•6080

•6080

•61182

no

•Bli71

•6076

■6077

•6078

■6078

•6079

so

■6070

•6174

•oorfi

•6076

•6077

•6078

100

•61170

•6073

•6076

■6075

•6077

•6076

200

•6U67

•6069

•6069

•6070

•6070

•6070

10(10

•6064

•6065

•6066

•6065

•6066

•6065

■6064

•6064

•6064

•6li64

•6064

•6064

It must here be remarked that I signifies the great, and h the
small, side of the rectangle. When also the smaller side is hori-
xontal, / will be the greater verticil.

In computing the quantity of discharge from rectangular aper-
tures, distinction must be made between greater and less altitudes
of pressure, of which the limits must never be such that the sink-
ing of the level may have considerable influence. For the square,

we find tlie limits by the altitude 1I = '16-|- /, which expression for
i=:/ gives the same as before.

4-f-n

H i4-t-/ , I

As m^^-j =■ ■ — J — , when " = ,

and b is the height of the orifice, m =^ ■

For the correspond-

ing values of m and n, it is seen by the Table IV. that the co-
efficients for smaller altitudes are, as in the case of the s(|uare
orifices, invariable, F^or greater altitudes the co-efficients vary,

and are found by Table IV. for the ratios m = — and n = ,-.

lb

The general equation for computing the quantity of discharge
by rectangular orifices is by (§ 12, A),

c. q = k" i ^/{ig) . l[l^{n+n") + hf - [4(H+H")]5}.

Th.s expression applies for all altitudes of pressure, and requires
only tlie value of the co-efficient, which, as we have just said,
varies for greater altitudes, and remains constant between the

■ . Put in the last expression for m.

n '

n.=2; then ?)! = 3; for )i=6|, m = 1'6; for ?i= 10, ra= T-l; &c.
For these different values Table IV. gives the respective co-effi-
cients (/c") = -6207; ■6369; -eWO; 6530. By the value of m, we
have the altitude H = m/ in the measure by which / is measured.
For instance, if /^■2metr. and m^3, H^^ti metr.

In the following table the experiments which Poncelet has given
in his work (Tables V. VI. VII. VIII. and IX.), are collected and
compared with the above equation (c).

Experiments of Poncelet and Leshros with rectangular orifices oj
equal horizontal base I, but of different heights b. I was throughout
= '2 metr.

limits m = 0 and m:

I

Orifice of \Q centimetr, height = b; « =

i--

c

Altitude of Pressure
ftbove tlie upper edges,

Ratio

Coefficients
computed

by
Tabl« IV.

A".

Quantity of Disiharge,

niffer-

I. i,

S E

before sink-
iDg o> the

iifter sinlt-
iiip of tht*

H'

7,1=-.

by
enperiiiient

by
theory.

ences.

1-

level, H.

level, H".

Metr.

Metr.

2

1-5064

)-5ii.',3

7-5-27

■6131

67510

67^730

--220

2

•9572

•9571

4-786

■6163

64-691

64 784

--093

3

•4318

•4315

-6207

37-951

38^142

- 191

2

■0640

•0622

18- 185

18.1,15

--1.50

2

■0130

•1)025

..

13-174

12^715

-f-359

II. Orifice of b centimetr. height ; n =

4.

1

V6551

1-66506

8-323

-6164

35-596

36^493

+ -103

1

l-oiiso

1-66496

8-325

■6:64

.S6-.533

36 491

-f -042

1

1^6646

1-664 '■«

8-3:'3

-61114

35-5;i0

35^479

+ 061

1

li;614

1-6111.-16

8-307

■6166

35-636

35-457

+ 077

■J

1-WaS

1-05574

6-279

■6213

28-7n0

28-608

+ -172

6

•45'^0

■4519

2-260

-6.149

19-214

19-413

--204

6

■1875

■1S70

■6369

12-8117

12 989

--122

3

•0808

■0788

.,

9-l'.58

9-110

-•052

3

■0216

■0186

6-897

6-909

-•012

2

•0113

•0060

..

6-138

6-040

-(-•098

III. Orifice of 3 centimelr. height : n =

= 6f.

2

l-?.r,RO

1-36596

6-a'iO

■6200

19-461

19-363

+ •0,88

•J

1-O790

1-07894

6.396

•6230

17-4-13

17-316

+ -V27

2

•4615

-41:14

2-307

•6379

ll-.'i82

11701

--1I9

0

•4.5111

-46(10

2-250

•63H.1

11-415

1P672

--156

'2

■1925

•1912

■6460

7-6.VH

7-815 •

--1.57

4

•0417

•0393

..

..

4-04.'!

4-032

+ -013

IV. Orifice of 2 centimelr. height ; n =

10.

1

) •.'?902

1-3901

6 961

■6208

13-0.'3

ia-24,-»

--210

1

1-31:41

1 -3640

6820

•6211

12 986

12-S98

+ -087

1

l-34'26

1-3424

6-712

•6213

12 866

12 799

+ -077

3

•9752

-97507

4^875

' -6257

11 140

ll^003

+ -137

2

■.18^.>0

•.■1819

1-910

-6445

;-127

7-148

--021

2

•11114

•1103

•6630

3-871

3851

+ -020

2

•0103

•0060

..

16-7

1-838

+ •129

V. Orifice of 2 centimelr. height / n=

20.

1

l'a970

1-39697

6-985

•6216

6 -.507

6-520

-■013

2

1-3213

1-32126

6-606

•6229

6-316

6-.-155

-•1:39

2

•9879

98785

4-939

-62116

6.562

5-629

+ •033

.1

-4929

•49280

2-464

•6409

4017

4-006

+ •011

2

•1900

-18975

..

•6689

2-.55':

2.557

--021

4

•0540

•06264

..

1-454

1-409

+ -046

3

•0124

■011961

■•

•813

-736

+ •078

ILe Ivvei in reservoir Lefuie sinkiutf »a& o'b uieir. ubuve the orifice.

1819."]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

327

As tlie measurement of the level before sinkin;? may som?times be
difficult, we may in ordinary cases apply the equation (2) § 11, with
sufficient accuracy in such a manner, that the altitude of pressure
H" of the level after sinking may appear in the formula. We have
then

q = h"bl^''(-i.g{W + ih)).

The Co-efficient /(" will be obtained from Table IV. for the ratios

II" I

m = , and n = , .

It.

Rrrtiuiijuliir Orifices ojien on their upper Side-i.
By equ:ition (</) § 1'2,

It is found in the same way as for h^ and/j,; i.e. when the altitudes
of pressure above the upper edges of circular and square orifices
were zero, that for the centre of pressure

k' =

= -GOSi

/Ho
V H''

6.

d.

II„ =1 it + y — ?^/. Consequently,

H

!i{'-'-+''-

-! +

i{l-r + 2r~l).

2r — / is the difference of the height of the two orifices, or the dif-
ference of the depths of water when it reaches to the upper edges
of the orifices. Let, therefore, the upper edges of both orifices be
in one plane. Then the difference in respect to the altitude of
pressure = 0; consequently, 2 r — ^ = 0, and we have when both
orifices are full,

H° = 2iv~'"^i{r^)}-

Let now for the assigned position of the orifices the water depth
sink to / in both. The depth of water in the square orifice is
then zero; in the circular orifice, on the contrary, it is still =2r — /.
Put, therefore, the value of equation («) in (a), and we have the
co-efficient V = k' (in Table I. for m = 0) when the outlet is full,
or for a depth of water / in the square orifice. Put, on the con-
trary, the value of equation (d) in (or), and we have the co-efficient
k'" for a water depth 0 in the orifice. For all remaining depths,
consequently, the values of the co-efficients lie between these
limits, and their computation is only arrived at by giving the
expression 2r — I in equation (rf) in such a form that for a water-
depth / in the orifice it may be zero, and when the water-depth is
zero may have its full value. Let the variable water-depth be-
tween the limits 0 and I be designated generally by It; then the

function (Sr— /) [l — -) satisfies the conditions; A, however, must

never exceed /. When h=^l^=^ the breadth of the orifice, this
expression is zero, as required; and when A = 0, the expression

--ir — l.

Put therefore, as before, , = n,

then 1

h

= 1

ir„

Multiply, therefore, 2r — / in (i/) by this factor, and put m

li ^

equation (a); and we have, when for ;■ its value = — — is written,

V IT '

t'le general expression for rectangular orifices open on their upper
sides, for altitudes of pressure equal to or less than the breadtii of
the orifice, as follows : —

C. = -7427 I •4Ml8+-128;'t/l-'|^)f Urr4V)18+-128:v(l-'-)~| ) '• .

The co-efficients i-" are computed by these equations for differ-
ent values of T = n, and given in the following table.

Table V.

Ratio n.

Co-effitient k'".

Ratio n.

Co-efficient h"'.

1

'5S;l()

3

•IJOW!

11

•5o;i

4

•uuo

12

•689;t

b

•dl.'il

l:t

•.'iU23

6

•fil63

1-1

•.■111-14

7

•U175

].■)

■6LI02

8

■CI 82

iti

■.'iiira

9

■6188

17

-.■jiiiia

10

■Hl'M

!■!(

•CujG

12

■82U0

l'»

•6(U«

20

•«U28

CO

■6275

[File s-nallest co-efflcient occura when the water-d-ptli is equal to the breadth of the

k
oritice. When the water-depth is greater than the breadth of the orifice, -: must be put

equal to ?(.]

The computation of the quantity of discharge by a rectangular
orifice, where the base is greater than the height, can be effected
by equation (e) § 11, when for b is put the value h here correspond-
ing and the correct co-efficients: we have then
/.. Qz=U"'hW{igli).

The co-efficient k'" will be either computed by equation (</), or

I
given by Table V. above for n = -.

The sinking of the level in the reservoir which takes place in
and about the orifice, has not hitherto been considered; A, there-
fore, always refers to the unsunken level.

On the hypothesis that the sinking of the surface is proportional
to the velocities — that is, to the square of the depth of water, we
have

V'/i' : ^h = h'—h" : h—h";

and when all the quantities are e.Kpressed in parts of the base /,

h'-h" h-h"

I

I

1 :

V'; =

•083J

Consequently, when the sinking of the level is found by experi-
ment for h' := /, it may be computed thus for all other depths.

In the first experiment in the following table A' ^-2079; /='2;
A'— /t"=-0167. Put this value in the above proportion, and take

^ = 1, which is approximately correct, and we have

h-h",

I

and hence it follows that tlie sinking of the level for the water-
depth A is

;. A— A" = -0835 VC'O-

This expression is valid of course only for the value of A, nearly
equal to or less than /, and requires moreover that the water in the
reservoir be at rest and have not already acquired a considerable
velocity.

Table VI.
Comparison of the experiments of Poncelet with the foregoing Formula.

Water depth nhove

F

xperimeot

Compatation

tlie lower edge

Value of

of the level

ofthelevel

Quantity

Co-

Sinking of

Co-effi-
cient by
iin,iatioii a

Sinking bv

before

after

of

efTicient,

levrl.

equation i.

sinking, A.

sinlfing.A"

Discbarge

%!■.'"

h-h".

h-h".

Jfetr.

lM.-tr.

11 er.

Metr.

■2079

■1912

326 3

•3888

•0167

•3900

•0167

1^0395*

■1631

■1470

22-929

•:i9:'.o

■01. -13

•3933

■0160

1-2258

■1029

•0909

ll-5^^8

■3943

•0120

■4012

■0120

r04.'l«

■0';o:>

■0ril4

^■263

•40113

•0091

. ^4071

■0092

S^.-iO.'iS

■04411

■0.iH8

.'(■:i82

■40.'J3

■0078

•4093

•0079

4-4843

•oaas

•0176

1'324

•4149

•0059

•4l:!5

•0057

9-0213

* Here h is grenter than ?, and therefore by the note to Table V.. -. must be put = /#.

15.

Different Forms of the Stream of Water.

The contracting force by § 7 is proportional to the diameter <if
the orifii e. Hence it follows that the contraction in a square orifice

3i8

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCIIITECrs JOURNAL.

QNoVElIBEB,

'\

/^

\i/

h

V

/iX

\.

V

-'\

(A) is least in the sections Ar/i and./V, and greatest in the sections ae
and dh. As the contraction may Filt. i

he considered as a force acting f

perpendicularly to the axis of the a. ^^ ^-^ ft

stream, it follows that the parti-
cles of wiiter in a^\i^t\d, are moved
hy a greater force, and more
nearly ap])roach the centre than
the particles /; A, 7, A, on which
smaller force acts; these must
therefore he deflected from the
centre to a certain point while
the others approach the centre.
Hence arise by degrees different
fcn-ms of the column, as Poncelet
and others have described, and as
the section is represented in fig.
(H). When the points /, A, (. A-,
have extended to their maximum,
they again approach the centre;
and when, finally, these recurring
undulations aro gradually de-
stroyed, the column approaches
the circular form (C), when the
acceleration of gravity and the
resistance of the air separate the
particles of water, and render the
precise form indeterminable.

For similar reasons, the column from a rectangular orifice of
which the greatest side is horizontal, at different distances from
the orifice will have the form of section represented in fig. 2.
A^hen the greater side is vertical, the sections are as in fig. 3.
The section for an elliptical orifice will also he elliptical, as re-
presented in figs, t and 5, These forms are given in the experi-
ments of Weisbach.*

Berlin, August 1846.

* * Experiments upon the Dischirne of Water,' &c. Versiiche (ll)er der AuB flusa des
Wassera durch Schrcber, Hahtie, Klappen unci Ventile. Leipsig, lb42.

Substitute for the Crank. — Professor Frazer lately exhibited at the Frank-
lin Institute, a model of a contrivance hy Mr. G. W. Risdon, intended as a
substitute for the crank in converting rectilinear into rotary motion. The
model consisted of two cylinders, the pistons of which were connected by a
cross-head, to which were attached two vertical racks, passing one on each
side of tlie first axis of the machinery, upon which is placed a toothed semi-
circle, so adjusted that during the descent of the pi!,tuns it is driven by one
rack, and during the ascent by the other; the circular motion is tims con-
tinually preserved. A shifting catch at one exteniity of the toothed segment
allows the motion to be reversed with rapidity and ease.

The First Three Books of Euelid's '■Elements of Geometry^' from the

text of Dr. Robert Simson, together with various useful Theorem:!

and Prohtems, as Geometrical E.rerei.s-es on each Book. By Thomas

Tate, &c. &c. &c. London: Longmans, 18t9. 12mo.

Mr. Tate is a genuine Proteus! It was only /«.«< year that
Mr. Tate most heroically denounced the 'Elements' of Euclid, as
altogether unfitted for the purposes of education. He then spoke
of the work as, the "artificial verbiage of a technical logic" — as, full
of the "tedious verbiage of rigorous demonstration" — as, having
"defects as an initiatory system too apparent to admit of even an
apology." These statements were, of course, believed by Mr. Tate
true then: hut why has one short year made them false now? Is sci-
entific truth so mutable as this implies it to be.'' If it be not, why is it
that Mr. Tate conies forward now with an edition of that very book
which he last year consigned to the "tomb of the Capulets"? We
should at least have expected, were it only for the sake of his
reputation, that he would have offered some kind of apology
for this strange inconsistency; either by attempting to explain
away the harsh language he had applied to Euclid's work; by a
candid acknowledgment of having become more enlightened on
the merits of that book; or, at least, to show that in his present
undertaking nothing of mercantile purpose was the moving
cause. Mr. Tate, however, can "blow hot and cold," according as
his hands are too cold or his broth too hot, with sufficient nonchal-
ance to astonish the Educational satyrs of Battersea and the Com-
mittee of Council — to say nothing of those still more plastic
satyrs, "the schoolmasters who may be desirous of obtaining a
Government certificate."

This last quotation is from Mr. Tate's new preface; but we will
give tliat manifesto entire, as it is but a single sentence:—

"This edition of Euclid has been published in a cheap form, with the hope
that it may tend to advance the mathematical education of this country, and
with an especial reference to the instruction of schoolmasters who uiuy l>e
desirous of obtaining a Goveinment certificate."

"Least said — soonest mended." Mr. Tate has left off writing
dissertational prefaces, which in a man whose opinions on science
vary with the development of the understanding of the Committee
of Council, is, to say the least, very prudent. He, however, adopted
this "canny" course too late: his preface to the 'Principles of
Geometry' should never have been written — or at least never pub-
lished. His present book would have come before the world with
a better grace, did it not always remind us of the menial, time-
serving, and purpose-serving spirit in which he so evidently writes.
It is utterly impossible that .Mr. Tate's real opinions on these sub-
jects can have honestly veered round to the opposite point of the
compass since last year. He must think, in the main, as he thought
then; antl we cannot but ask how any man, to serve a temporary
purpose, can become accessory to the enforcement of a system of
education diametrically opposed to his own honest convictions?
The "Sir Archy Mac Sycophants" may enforce constant "boo-ing
to the great mon"; but it is very degrading to the man of science
to "boo" his scientific convictions to the caprices of an ofticiiJ
Board — of a Board, too, which from its composition must be to-
tally incompetent to form a trustworthy opinion upon any subject
connected with the practice of popular education. Indeed, it
appears that the introduction of anvthing having the name of
Euclid attached to it, into the Council's list of books, was rather in
compliance with the urgent representations of the press, than from
any conviction on the minds of the Committee that Euclid was the
only proper work for the purpose. What should we s.iy of the
physician or the divine who wrote books on medicine or theology
in subservience to the views entertained by a medical or theolo-
gical Committee of the Privy Council.-" — condemning a nostrum or
a dogma last year with the severest vituperations, and this yeat
coming fcnnv.ird with a patent to vend the self-same nostrum, and
to profit by the sole right of preaching the self-same dogma.'' The
physician would be branded as a quack and a charlatan — the divine
as a hypocrite and impostor. \Vill Mr. Tate tell us wherein his
case differs from these suppositious ones.''

Short as the preface to Mr. Tate's Euclid is, he could not help
compromising himself, in stating that the cause of his publishing it
"in a cheap form" was "the hope that it may tend to advance the
mathematical education of this country." The "mathematical edu-
cation of this country" can he "advanced" by a book which has
so recently been described hy Mr. Tate as "a highly artificial
system, which can only be read, thoroughly, hy a person who is
already a mathematician, and who can enter into its metaphysical
Bubtilties and operose demonstrations"! Who can fail to see

1849. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

329

the gross inconsistency of the proposal to "advance the ma-
tliematioal educiition of the country' by means of such a book as j
Mr. Tate describes Euclid to be? — but perhaps the "cheapness"
of this edition removed all other defects from it.? Whatever be
the provocative to this publication, it would be calling Mr. Tate
a complete noodle to suppose that the real one is that which
he professes in the preface. What it is, he knows himself: — and
it is not difficult for others to conjecture.

A word or two here on the principle adopted by the Committee of
Council, in respect to their dealings with authors and publishers.
Instead of asking Parliament for an adequate sum of money to
purchase, at a remunerating price, the works they require for
their operations, they (with sham economy) "beat down" tlie author
or publisher in his prices; so as to make every transaction a
certain pecuniary loss to him with whom they thus "chaft'er" about
the odd tenth-of-a-farthing per copy. Had Napoleon lived now,
and seen the manner in which some of our Public Boards are
conducted, he would have improved his description by calling us a
"nation of shopkeepers with a government of pedlars."

This is not all. It is well known tliat books can be sold the
cheaper as the sale is more rapid: for then, and only then, can
large editions be printed from the same types. Elementary books
are always printed in large numbers at once; for if tlie sale will
not be rapid enough to justify this, the publication becomes "a
dead loss." The money lying dead in paper, tlie expenses of
warehousing, commission, and other business items, absorb more of
the income from the book than is covered by the nominal profit
upon the publication. If, then, the Committee of Council would
engage to take a certain number of copies, to receive them and
pay for them at once upon their being printed, some little amende
would be made for the hard terms they enforce. But no — they
will only take them as they want them: some works it may be
(especially such as the Committee really patronise) by the hun-
dred; some others (those they only permit to be on tlieir "list" for
the sake of public decency) by the dozen, the half-dozen, and we
have heard, by the single copy at a time !

This is the way in which a Board of the Privy Council "en-
courages education"! — namely, by devising every obstacle to its
progress, and rigidly discouraging the production of the hooks neces-
sary for educating well. Men of eminence and ability in science
and literature are sure to keep aloof from such a Board as that of
Whitehall; and, except in very rare cases, the competition must
be left to those who are scrambling for a little notoriety, or pos-
sibly for bread and existence. As the Committee sow, so they
reap: they pay "beggarly prices," and get the articles at their
true worth.

The effect of this system of cheapening books and brow-beating
authors (as though they were "cheating-hucksters"), is very per-
nicious as far as education is concerned. The best teacher require^
a good text-book, and the want of it increases his labours ten-fold:
and even the worst will do something, if he only keep liis pupils
steadily at work from a good one. The Government, however, by
its treatment of authors, and the mode which it adopts of briliing
schools and schoolmasters by the cheapness of certain books wliich
it vends to them, has decided that the best books shall not be
used. The public money is virtually employed in tlie arrest,
instead of the promotion, of education: it is a scheme vvorthy
of a Rodin, or of the founder of his order, the far-famed Loyola
himself.

We would here offer one or two remarks upon the tendency of
the "centralising system" of education. It had its origin under
the most arbitrary governments of the continent, and is still em-
ployed by them in enslaving the popular mind. It has been said
that "a people can only be governed by fraud or by force;" and
that since an onward tendency has been given to the human mind,
the only chance of governing safely and discreetly is for the go-
vernment to take charge of the general education of the people.
A ukase of the Czar has lately limited even the number as well
as the quality of the students in his universities; and though this
may be somewhat peculiar, yet the subjects of instruction are very
rigorously limited in many of the continental states. The profes-
sors and teachers, too, are appointed and partly paid by these
governments; so that an effective control is kept over the simplest
details of popular instruction; whilst it is sufficiently well known
what care is taken to prevent the circulation of "improper books."
Every state has its "index," as well as the Vatican. Yet the last
two years have shown to all the world (kings, emperors, and states-
men excepted) the inefficiency of such contrivances for creating a
docile and obedient populace. Russia was not ripe: but in all
other states, the convulsions have been more severe and the con-
tests more sanguinary, in the direct ratio of the rigour with which

popular education was supervised by the respective governments.
This should be a warning; and the comparative non-interference
on the part of the government, in the United States, in England,
and in Belgium, has been rewarded with internal peace, in propor-
tion to the degree of that non-interference. This, too, should be
a warning to us.

We are bound to say that the principles and profession of the
English Government on this matter, have our entire concurrence.
Indeed, the sujiervision of education was altogether forced upon
tbe Government, by incessant clamour, out of the House and
in the House : for if the iMinister was compelled to bring in a bill
for a money grant in aid of general education, he was obliged as a
consequence, to control its dispensation and supervise its use. So
far at least the Minister is free from all blame.

However, the task was an ungracious one, — involving responsi-
bilities rather than conferring power, and creating much official
trouble without the possibility of giving general satisfaction.
Faction and sectarian jealousies are too intimately mixed up with
the question of education in this country, to render an Educational
Board much unlike a committee of bear-wards or railway directors.
It has certainly so proved itself^at least as at present constituted;
and this is the more to be regretted from its being the result of
religious intolerance and of priestly assumption of an educational
monopoly. Thus it ever is where there is money to be dispensed and
power to be exercised. It is, indeed, with deep pain that we have
witnessed the unworthy scenes that have been exhibited in the
Broad Sanctuary during the last two or three years. The hold of
the Church upon the affections of the people depends so much
upon the bearing of its priesthood, that we are sure the clamour
and rapacity, and above all the claims of vested privilege, which
have marked the proceedings of that assembly, are little calculated
to serve either the interests of the Church, or even to advance the
personal interests of the conclave.

The Government has, in one respect, done well — it has ignored
all claims for monopoly, as regards religious profession. The
chuichman and the dissenter stand alike; and the same conditions
are imposed upon all. On the other hand, except the dispensation
of money, or the supply of certain books at reduced prices, or (as
should be added) the appointment of salaried "Inspectors" of those
schools that receive pecuniary assistance, the Government has
managed to take as little trouble as could well be taken ; — and a
to responsibility, their do-nothing system relieves them in a great
degree from charges of direct wrong-doing. Of sins committed,
few can be laid at the door of the Minister: but of implied duties
omitted, alas, how many !

The greater part of the money voted by Parliament is expended
in payment of the official persons employed to work the educa-
tional machine — the members of the Committee, its clerks, and
the School Inspectors. No doubt, too, if the grant were doubled
or tripled, these items would expand themselves in a still greater
ratio. But even if they did not, it cannot be denied that under
its present conditions, this t^ommittee of Education has degene-
rated into little more than a comfortable snuggery for a few indi-
viduals, and a pleasant system of gratuitous locomotion for a few-
others. We put it under the best view in putting it thus: but
even then, does not the educational philanthropist call upon us to
" buy too dear a whistle"? The results are incommensurate with
the cost of the machinery; and the best interests of tlie country
would be consulted by an entire dissolution of the Committee
and the entire cessation of the grant. The whole system is un-
suitable to the social relations of parties in this country.

Still, we have no expectation that any attempt of this kind will
be made, either by the Government in esse or by the Minister in
posse. Education is the great political stalking-horse of the day ;
and his paces are snch that every charlatan can mount him with
perfect security. Twaddle, Rhodomontade, Quackery, and Self-
Conceit can always keep their seats, and goad the poor beast at
their own will — and to the execution, too, of any and every pur-
pose they may think it their interest to entertain. No dissolu-
tion, then, is'in the remotest degree, probable.

What then can be done? — and, which is equally important, will
what can be done, be really done?

In the first place, then, let a committee be appointed to/.r upon
the hooks most suitable for the purposes of education. This ought not
to be composed of any one class of persons exclusively,— except
that they should all be men of educational experience, of ten
years at least; and that not only should their knowledge, but
their professional experience too, include a great deal more
elementary subjects than Greek and Latin, Dialectics and Analy-
tical Mathematics; neither wholly University men, nor wholly non-
Academic. Let their decision be final, say for five years; and at

43

330

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

fNoVEMBEB,

the same time be confined to a xinyJe v^ork on each subject. Then,
let justice be done to the aiithurn of those works, by the Govern-
ment purdiasinf,' the cojiies it expects to require at a fair market
price, and lii/ tdkiiif/ tlioxe capies and paying fur thorn at once. At
]iresent, whether in ignorance, or under some more culpable
motive, the Council seems to treat an edition of a book like a
corfe of coals, or a barrel of train oil, as thins?s to be supplied
by contract, — chosen by the lowest tender, and to be supplied
at certain stated times, just as they will probably be wanted.
They forijet, or at least affect not to know, that copies of books
are only to be multiplied at nnce, except at enormous addition^d
expense; and that the only ground on which low prices and re-
muneration can be combined, is by immediate sale. Wliy is the
writer of a good book (and good elementary writing is more rare
in all ages of the world than any other class of good writing) to
be sent into the Gazette for bis labours — and sent, too, by a
Government Board specially appointed for the encouragement
and aid of learning .'' Yet sucli is the tendency of the plans
adopted by Dr. Shuttleworth, if it have not already been the
actual effect. Ami this is called "aiding education"! It makes
one blush — aye, till the blue asphyxia takes the place of honest
red!

Nothing short of such a committee will satisfy the public —
nothing, indeed, should. An honest compliance with its decisions
should replace the present system of underling influence in the
selection of books, and in the special recommendation of particu-
lar ones from tlie list which is issued by the Committee. On this
last phrase, wliich expresses a wide-spread suspicion, we have only
to remrtrk that — if an ungarbled report of the prices at which the
Committee buys and sells be published, together with liberty
granted to the public to inspect all correspondence about the
choice and supply of these books; and if we do not find that the
suspicion is justified by these documents, we will gladly withdraw
the implied censure. \Ve should be amongst the foremost to award
the praise of having done well, could we conscientiously believe
that such praise was deserved.

If, on the contrary, such a plan be not adopted, let all works be
alike thrown open, so tliat whichever of them be deemed by the local
committee of any school tlie best adapted for their own purpose,
be supplied with them by the Government, at a certain but fixed
per-centage below the price of publication. The Government
might without censure, perhaps, demand the trade-advantage; but
not a single sous more than any other dealer is regularly allowed.
This, indeed, diminishes the author's and publisher's income suffi-
ciently— as too many of us know too well. What further reduc-
tion the Government may make by the aid of the annual grant,
should only be made from these wholesale prices; and not upon tlie
sixty per cent, now enforced (upon some books we believe even
more) by the Committee, upon authors and publishers.

But why should even this trouble, and its multiplied costs, be
incurred.'' It certainly furnishes a few more opportunities for
patronage, by the appointment itf employees in managing the details
of the business. Would it not be more simple, economical, and
consistent, to allow upon the book-bill of every school that com-
plied with the conditions for the grant, a certain per centage in
part-payment of the bill? The accuracy and honesty of such bills
could be easily guarded by sufficient tests; and even if not, as a
false attestation is a misdemeanour at law, we ajiprehend there
would be little risk of imposition.

But to return to Mr. Tate's book : — but here we are again forced
back upon the Committee of Council. It appears from the sen-
tence quoted as comprising the preface, that any schoolmaster who
is master of the first three hooks of Euclid, may otitain a '■'•Govern-
ment certificate" of his competency as a teacher. What an exalted
idea of the present race of schoolmasters her Majesty's Ministers
must have formed! However, the evil will work its own cure; and
the ridicule attached to a Government diploma, gained on such
grounds as these, will be as great amongst the schoolmasters, as
that of a Scotch LL.D. is amongst literary and scientific men.

What Mr. Tate calls his "edition" comprises only just the half of
all modern editions — viz. the first three books. The Privy Council
in its superlative wisdom has decreed that these are sufficient, and
that the next three are merely curious redundancies which ought
to be lopped off: and Mr. Tate, like a well-bred spaniel watching
its master's eye, is eager to perform the "fetch-and-carry" orders
therein expressed. Tliat tlie fifth book should transcend the
comprehension of a minister, or a minister's "managing master,"
we can well understand; and the sixth has too intimate a relation
with the fifth, to be very intelligible without its fellow: but that
the fourth, which is the only book that takes a formally practical
character, should have been excluded, can only be accounted for

by the assumption that the question as to the number of books to
be required was decided by a throw of the dice, or some equally
scientific criterion!

Perhaps some one of the "rising generation" of Pettys may
enlighten their grandpapa, the Marquis; or some of Dr. Shuttle-
worth's Cambridge friends, sorry to see so great a man committing
such strange blunders, remonstrate with him on the absurdities of
his doings. In due time, the fourth book may get amongst the
conditions for the "Government certificate;" and to save appear-
ances, even the fifth and sixth may be inserted in the list, though
nut enforced as a condition. In these cases, Mr. Tate's eye will be oa
Dr. Shuttleworth's; and the signal being understood, Mr. Tate's
edition will expand in the indicated ratio.

As Mr. Tate's edition is professedly printed verbatim from
Simson's, this is no place for remark upon any of its details. A
few pages of problems and theorems, mostly unsolved, constitute
the whole of Mr. Tate's labours — with the exception of a treatise
on 'Geometrical Analysis,' which occupies, with its illustration,
almost a whole page! These "various useful theorems and pro-
blems" are so familiar to our eye (mere "stock-problems," the pro-
perty of everybody), and the whole, either in the same or slightly-
modified forms, have been so often given, that we wonder what
peculiar merit belongs to Mr. Tate for their transfer from Mr.
Potts's edition of Euclid into his own. To bring them together
for the first time is very meritorious, for it costs an immense
amount of disagreeable labour: but to mark a few of an already
collected set for the use of the printer, involves so little labour,
that if fame is to be thus obtained, fame ought to be as cheap as
"blackberry tarts." Mr. Tate has earned thin fame at least. But
there yet remains the "analysis."

In a foot-note at p. 88, we find the following : — " Should the
student fail in solving any of these problems by the ordinary synthe-
tic method, let him employ the method of analysis given at p. 107."
We have to ask whether the words ordinarg and synthetic are to be
understood as synonymous, and the phrase itself as a pleonasm?
or whether we are to understand that there are more synthetic
methods besides the ordinary one ? We look in vain for an ante-
cedent definition of synthesis, and the student would naturally go
to Johnson to be enlightened — with what success we need not say.
However, we proceed to the page referred to, viz. p. 107, and we
begin by placing Mr. Tate's and Sir John Leslie's definitions of
analysis in juxta-position.

Tate.
Geometrical Analysis*
In the method of analj'sis we as-
sume the proposition advanced, and
then proceed to trace the conse-
quences which follow from this as-
sumption, till we arrive at some
known or admitted relation. The
reverse of this process constitutes
Synthesis or Composition, which is
the method employed in the pre-
ceding pages. In the solution of
geometrical prolilems of more than
ordinary difhculty, it is necessary
that we should adopt the method of
analysis, in order to discover the
different steps which must be pur-
sued in the construction. ''Analysis,"
observes an eminent geometer, "pre-
sents the medium of invention j
while synthesis naturally directs the
course of instruction."

Leslie.

Geometrical Analysis,
Analysis is that procedure by which
a proposition is traced up, through a
chain of necessary dependence, to
some known operation, or some ad-
mitted principle. It is alike applic-
ahle to ihe investigation of truth con-
templated in a theorem, or to the dis-
covery of the construction required
for a problem. Analysis, as its name
indeed imports, is thus a sort of in-
verted form of solution. Assuming
the hypothesis advanced, it re-mounts,
step by step, till it has reached a
source already explored. The reverse
of this process constitutes Synthesis,
or Composition, which is the mode
usually employed for explaining the
elements of science. Analysis, there-
fore, presents the medium of inven-
tion, while synthesis naturally directs

the course of instruction.
The wonderful originality of Mr. Tate will now be apparent
enough: but the intelligibility of these very general modes of
defining analysis, to any but an experienced analyst, will be more
doubtful. What is said is not false : yet it is only vaguely true ;
and no one, we are confident, that attempted to form an idea of
geometrical analysis from such definitions, could form a correct and
definite, and still less a working, idea. In truth, there is no portion
of geometry that requires so much careful instruction and ampli-
fied illustration to become intelligible, as the doctrine of geo-
metrical analysis — not even the doctrine of ratio or the method of
exhaustions. In this nearly all writers have alike failed. Brevity
leads to obscurity — as Horace intimated long ago. Mr. Tate was
not then very likely to succeed where so many have failed: but most
writers (and Leslie amongst them) have made some atonement by
furnishing an adequate number of examples, from which thepraetict
of the method of analysis and its related synthesis might be learnt.
Here, however, we are shuffled off with the analysis and syntheii*

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

331

of one easy problem; and the analysis of this consists of a^in^/e
step only. Nor is the language and manner of this one analysis and
synthesis so very precise as to preclude the possibility of miscon-
ception of the analytical principle. At any rate, tliis example is
preposterous as a specimen of the method itself, or even as a ijuide
for those wizards who "may be desirous of obtaining a Govern-
ment certificate." Mr. Tate is insulting the scientific public, and
hood-winking the jeHera/ public, by such arrant trifling as this.

One word more about this work. The stuilent who stops short
at the third book might as well not begin Euclid at all, whatever
might be the case with the aspirants for a Government diploma.
He cannot get the remaining books of Euclid separately from
these ; and hence he is obliged to buy over again what Mr. Tate
had sold him, in order to his getting what Mr. Tate professed to
give him — an "edition of Euclid." This mode of imjxising upon
the poor youth of humble life who is desirous to study, by ab-
stracting from his pocket his hard-earned sliillings (all under the
])retence of serving him too!) is very much like some of the bene-
volence which occasionally comes before the metropolitan police
magistrates.

Differences of detail, indeed, there are ; and, according to the
trader's code of ethics, the difference of detail between an ambi-
guous transaction and a masterly piece of enterprise need not be
very great. The Christian moralist may see more to condemn
than to admire in such a code; but what matters this, when that
code is framed by the great city lawgivers— the magnates who
count the day's gains by hundreds, and sometimes by thousands .''
" Why not then allow Mr. Tate, in his small way of business, the
privilege of other traders.''" Aye — why, indeed.'' We do not
wish to deprive him of it ; but we ask consistency even in trade.
We only object to his one day deluging the public mind with a
subtle poison at a profit, in order that he may the next make a
fortune by its antidote, or perhaps by a semi-antidote. In the
case of physical poisons the law would step in ; but public opinion
can alone arrest a moral or intellectual pestilence. The press is
the only tribunal before which such cases as these can be tried :
and we believe that we "judge righteous judgment," in an unhesi-
tating condemnation of the same man writing the two works in
question ; and still more so, of that man putting in any claims to a
consistent scientific character. We consider him to have damaged
the cause of science itself, — to have held geometry up to ridicule
in public estimation, as a thing having one character last year,
and another this, — as destroying public confidence, in the earnest
enforcement of the value of science by its sincere cultivators, — and
as placing reason on a par with mere sentiment, variable as the
digestion, and uncertain as the megrims of the morrow. We yet
hope that the public may be led, on forming its judgment of the
sincerity of the convictions of scientific men, to select sjiecimens
to judge from, very much contrasted to that which Mr. Tate will
afford them.

REPLY TO REVIEW OF 'ALGEBRA OF RATIOS.'

Sir — Having observed in the review of my 'Algebra of Ratios,
in your last number, a very serious misconception on some import-
ant points, I will, with your permission, offer a few remarks, ))rin-
cipally by way of reference to certain portions of the work which
the nature of the objections clearly shows have either escaped
perusal, or been greatly misunderstood.

1st. It is said, that "Mr. Browning assumes as an axiom that
when three terms of a proportion are fixed upon, a fourth exists.
There is nothing in the details or the spirit of the ancient geo-
metry analogous to this assumption. Still, we will not quarrel
with the assumption, though we could wish the author had been
able to dispense with it."

That this assumption has been dispensed with, a reference to the
index will at once show; and on turning to the pages therein re-
ferred to, it will be seen that the mode of proof is as follows: — "If
)h'B is a variable fraction of B increasing to the limit A, then m'D
is a variable fraction of D increasing to some limit C." — IX. Art. 1.

This limit is proved in I. Art. 2, to be "a quantity wliich has the
same ratio to D which A has to B; and therefore when the ratio of A
to B is given, and D is any quantity whatever, we thus prove the ex-
istence of another quantity C which has the same given I'atio to D."

By means of these propositions, in the proof of which the wliole
difficulty lies, it is shown in I. Art. 5'2, that when three terms of a
proportion are given, a fourth exists.

2ndly. It is objected "that the cases are very few in which rce
can exhibit the arbitrary fractions of any one of the quantities con-
cerned.'

This clearly is not required, and were it possible, would be of
little use. It is only necessary tliat we should be able to conceive
the existence of such fractions, not to exhibit them in a iiainericat
form J and for all purposes of reasoning on tlie nature of ratio in
general, this mental conception, witli tlie use of general symbols to
denote what we know to exist but cannot otherwise express, will
be found sufficient.

3rdly. It is said, "His definition of proportion is tantamount to
this: that if

_ y

.•^'

V

then C = —

z

A >

Azi^.

B, then C >

D;

D:

B, then C / — . D

.'/

for all values of y and a expressible in finite terms. In this, if y
and c be not numerical symliols, we apprehend that tlie terra 'frac-
tion' will be deemed inappropriate; and not only so, but that the
definition itself is without distinct meaning. We have viewed
them, then, as 'numerical symbols.' On tlie next page, however,
they are deprived of tlieir arithmetical character, and are directed
to he understood as 'symbols of ratio' only. This seems to us to
invalidate the definition itself; and we apprehend that, to render
this consistent, a new definition of ratio which does not involve
anv numerical cnnsiilerutions whatever, ought to be given."

here I am constrained to complain somewhat of unfairness (un-
intentional I am sure), in exhibiting my definition in a symbolical
form very different from my own — w Inch, for the most part, is ver-
bally expressed — and then framing objections from the form which
is tlius introduced. I have no where said Xhni fractions and whole
numbers verbally expressed, as in my definition, are to be deprived
of arithmetical meanings, and regarded as ratios; but tliat symbols
which hitherto have been used to represent fractions and whole
numbers, will, with special exceptions, he regarded as symbols of ratio
in the sense previously defined.

The distinction between tlie arithmetical and the extended
meanings of these symbols has, in all cases, been carefully ob-
served. Thus, the symbol m is used in mU to denote an arithme-
tical multiple or fraction of B; but as a subscript symbol, it is
used in B,,, to denote the quantity whose ratio to B is m. This
notation has been retained until, in the course of investigation, it
could be shown that j»B and B,„, having the same value, could
allowably be interchanged. And in page 55, will be found this
remark: — "Consistently with this, inB may in future be used to
denote either a concrete number of which B is the unit, or a quan-
tity whose ratio to B is m. The notation of Art. 3, which was
adopted only to avoid confusion with arithmetical symbols, will there-
fore no longer be required."

The foregoing remarks will, I think, tend to show that the
logical niceties which I am rejiresented to have disregarded, were
invariably present to my mind during the investigation of the
subject, and have in reality been carefully observed in every por-
tion of the work.

I am, &c.

Henry B. Browning.

Stamford, October 20, lSi9.

[\Ve have inserted Mr. Browning's letter entire, although a large
portion of it is taken up with quotations from our review of
his book. Mr. Browning is of opinion that we have misrepre-
sented his meaning; and we deemed it the best way to allow him
to explain away, as he best could, the passages and steps of his
processes to which we had expressed objections. We make this
exception to our general rule (of not allowing our pages to be
made the vehicle of reply from authors dissatisfied with our stric-
tures,) entirely on account of the abstract character of the subject
under discussion, and the almost insurmountable difficulty of
expressing verbally the conceptions of the mind respecting it.
We consider that Mr. Browning, under these circumstances, is
entitled to that indulgence : but were we to open our pages to
replies in general, we should find it necessary to only notice those
works upon which we could bestow unqualified praise — for what
author, but those fortunate few, would not otherwise deluge us
with ''reams of reply?"

1. AVhetlier Mr. Browning's proof of the existence of the fourth
proportional be, as tie says" it is, legitimately made out from the
passages referred to, we shall not liere stop to inquire. We appre-
hend the existence in. posse of the fourth proportional has not been
questioned— only the exhibition of it in esse. No one doubts the

43*

332

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrs JOURNAL.

[NoVEMBEB,

pos.fihle exhtence of a line perpendicular to a given line, drawn
through a given point ; and much ingenious reasoning may be
wasted in pri>\ ing that possibility. Yet to make the mere possi-
bility (nay, the very necessity) of such a line existing, a condition
in tlie hypothesis of a theorem or a datum in a problem, would be
contrary to the general practice of geometers. Euclid, at any
r'Ate, art ually finiln this perpeiidhndar be^hre he makes the leant use of
it. Mr. Browning does not even now profess to have placed his
fourth proportional in the same category. M'hat we stated is
therefore not yet invalidated ; and our objection retains all its
force — even did we grant, wliicli we are not prepared to do, that
his proof of the possible existence of this fourth magnitude is free
from paralogism.

2. This obviously stands or falls with the preceding, if viewed
under one aspect — that of jilecing our conceptions of things abso-
Intclij (the fourth propcu-tional, for instance,) in the same category
witli our rojicejitious of the reliitiu)is of actual tilings to one another.
The difference between these classes of " conceptions " is, philoso-
phically, veiy great.

It would almost seem that Mr. Browning considers that words
are not si/mhols. M'^e are really unaware of any " mental concep-
tion" which can l/e expressed in "general symbols," and which
cannot be expressed in a verbal form. We fear Mr Browning is a
little confused in his views of the objects, and of mental influences
and uses, of symbols.

3. We really cannot see the force of the objection made to the
"symbolical form " in which we exhibited Mr. Browning's defi-
nition, so long ae he is unable to affirm that one form of it is not
essentially different from the principle of that definition — mostly
" verbal," as he says. We intended no travestie of his views ; but
it does happen to place the question under an aspect very incon-
venient for j\lr. Brovvning to deal with. We still think tliat who-
ever reads his verbal definition with our symbolical expression of
it, will not only acquit us of " unfairness," but be compelled to
admit that a more accurate symbolical exhibition of it could not
be devised.

Did we believe Mr. Browning to be capable of intentionally
trifling with us, we should be disposed to suspect he intended to do
so, in what he here says I'especting " symbols of ratio." It is here
that the inconvenience of our symbolical version of Mr. Brown-
ing's definition is felt by him. He says, in his letter, that " sym-
l)ols which hitherto have been used to represent fractions and
whole numbers, will be regarded as sijntljols of ratio in the sense pre-
vinushj defined." Of these same symbols he says in his book,
" these not being numerical symbols, but symbols of ratio, to
which at present arithmetical rules do not apply." Ifhe deny that
liis definition involves number, what can the word "fraction"
mean? If it be admitted to involve an arithmetical idea, how
does he deprive the symbol of ratio of its arithmetical character.''
He must disentangle himself from this dilemma before we can
])roceed another step, and answer the question whether his defi-
nition be intended to be arithmetical or not. This was the
ground of our former objection ; and, for aught that Mr. Brown-
ing has shown, that objection still remains in aU its force.— Ed.]

THE LAWS OF FORM IN ARCHITECTURE AND
ARCHITECTURAL DECORATION.

1. Form and Sound — can their lienuty be dependent on the same
Physical Lav\s? A Critical Ini/uiry dedicated to the President,
Council, and Members of the Royal Scotch Society of Arts. By
Thomas Pirdie. Edinburgh : A. & C. Black, 1849.

2. An Impulse to Art; or Ancient Greek Practical Principles for
Volutes and Lines of Beauty innunierahle. By Joseph Jopling,
Architect. London: Published by tlie Author, 1849.

Mr. D. R. Hay has praiseworthily devoted himself to tlie subject
of decoration, and more particularly to the finding out and striking
out of the great laws which govern it. His industry in the publi-
cation of many works, we have had occasion to praise, and likewise
his spirit of research; but his latter works, although beginning
with the most tempting promise, have been carried to a heighth of
idealism and mysticism which has much detracted from their useful
character. They have not, however, come before us, and although
we were desirous of making some remarks on their obvious tend-
ency to mislead the student, we have not till now had the oppor-
tunity. The development of the simple numerical law of colour,
following in the steps of Field, was useful; but the ambition of
the author has failed to keep him up in soaring higher. We must
conclude that Mr. Hay did not adequately appreciate the result of
liis own labours, or he would not so liave miscalculated his powers.

The application of the numbers 3, 5, and 8, to j'ellow, red, and
blue, was good as a formula in mixing and placing colours, but the
knowledge of it did not suffice to make a lad a colourist. The
determination of three d(miinant sounds in music will not make a
composer. Why, then, should Mr. Hay suppose that the elimina-
tion of three simple elements of form would make a designer ?
The three elementary colours result from light — by their synthesis
they make the two modes of white and black. They combine
together, and make secondaries and tertiaries. Mr. Hay's elemen-
tary forms do not admit of a similar synthesis and combinations.
Indeed, no practical result could be expected from an inquiry so
conducted.

We take a diff^erent ground from the writer of the 'Critical In-
quiry,' and we therefore contend a priori that there can be no
complete comparison between shape and sound, or shape and colour.
Points of resemblance there may be, and must be, but identity
there cannot be. The objects of sight, hearing, and taste are
brought witliin the appreciation of the same nervous centre, but
objects of colour, shape, sound, and taste are of different origin.
Things seen have three modifications — shape, light-shade, colour.
Wliat have things heard, tasted, or smelt? 'I'hings touched have
several modifications. Colours, as the elementary constituents of
one object — light— have a greater degree of simplicity; but shapes
are not the elementary constituents of one object : and even the
researches of the crystallographer do not show that circles are
generated from squares, or ellijises from triangles — the research is
useless. Colour is the limited attribute of one class, — heat is a
limited attribute, — sound is a limited attribute : but form is un-
limited. Whatever the shades of difference, and they are slight,
there is a oneness, a greater sameness, spreading through the
works and schools of painting from all time, than there is of those
of architecture. To quote loosely, —

O ! nimium fuvlunali, si sua n6rint bona ;

how happy would architects be if they did but avail themselves of
the resources of their art. The schools of architecture have great
and essential differences, — how unlike are the Parthenon and the
Alhambra, York Minster and a Teocalli ! To compare the modi-
fications of I'orm with those of colour is truly magiui componere
parvis — a giant is matched with a dwarf, and the former is thereby
dishonoured.

Because nature in simple things is simple, and because the capa-
city of man is limited, so is there a school of philosophy which
toils to bring all things down to simplicity, — as if the attributes of
nature were to be so limited. The universe is reduced to homo-
geneous atoms; man is developed from a zoophyte, a cryptogam, or
a non-fossiliferous rock; the solar system is traced to circles and
spheres; all nature is brought down to one socialist standard.
These are various forms of humbug which figure in the garb of
philosophy, and by the teaching of which art is more or less hurt-
fully affected.

To bound the field of artistic exertion is to bound the artist's
powers : give him the ambition of a Phidias to reach even to
heaven, and he will strive for godlike works; but the strength of
a Sampson, while yoked in a mill-track, will only grind the same
meal and bran. We tlierefore earnestly deplore those works which
have the tendency of limiting the circumscriptions of ai-t, and feel
the greater interest in books, like those of Mr. Jopling, which
teach the infinite variety of the resources of art. Mr. Jopling
steadfastly contends that circles and ellipses are not the be-all and
end-all of art, but that the number of beautiful curves is endless,
and the mode of executing them easy.* It is evident he is no
patron of the pseudo-geometrical decoration of the great hall of
the Society of Arts.

Mr. Purdie was not able to listen calmly to Mr. Hay's papers
on 'Form and Sound,' read before the Scotch Society of Arts, and
he therefore claimed the right to review them at length in other
papers before the Society; and this being demurred to, he has
rushed into print. Tlie metapliysics of the subject he has treated
rather loosely, and left many points unelucidated; but he has con-
tested, with great success, the practical application of Mr. Hay's
doctrines.

Of late, strong testimonials have been given by men of high
standing and pretensions, to Mr. Hay's scheme for mapping out
the human figure; and if we believed what we read, we could hold
no doubt of its entire success as a substitute for the study of ana-
tomy. Painters of the ]>resent day are lazy enough as it is, and
they may not be disinclined to avail themselves of a method which
promises to revive Albert Durer's empirical proportions, and Sir

* We learo that the Board of Trade, through the Instrutnentaiity of Mr. Stafford
Nonhcote, ]iave ordered several copies of the * Impulse to Art,' f^r the Schools ot'
Design.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

333

Joshua's empirical flourishes of the compasses, to find out where a
woman's breasts ought to be placed.

This would be a bad look-out enough ; but besides applying his
system to plum-puddings and the human face divine, Mr Hay has
adapted it to the Parthenon and the Pantheon, and opened a royal
road to architecture. It is under these circumstances we recom-
mend Mr. Purdie's little work to our readers — first, because we think
he ought to be encouraged for writing on architectural art, when
so few are inclined to do so; but most because he lias taken up a
question which architects have very little considered, and are very
little in the habit of considering — what is the foundation of beauty
in art? Incidentally, Vitruvius comes under discussion, and stu-
dents may read with some degree of interest Mr. Purdie's com-
mentary on his text.

We sliould have liked well enough to have followed Mr. Purdie
at some length, but our readers are not in the habit of pursuing
metaphysical disquisitions, and would thank us little for our pains.
We are' obliged, therefore, to refer those zealous in these matters
to Mr. Purdie himself. We must, however, give one caution —
tliat Mr. Purdie seems to labour under rather warm feelings
against Mr. Hay, and with the wish to arm himself with a to-
mahawk instead of a quill.

In concluding these remarks in deprecation of the "elementa-
tion" of form, we cannot help expressing our belief that a study of
the laws of proportion, properly conducted, would lead to results
very valuable to the practitioners of art.

THE SEWERS COMMISSION.

Our Journal is not so considerable, that we can claim for it the
power of influencing the opinions of the public at large, or the
decisions of a cabinet; but we may safely pride ourselves on pos-
sessing the confidence of the leading members of two intelligent
professions, and thereby the means of taking some considerable
part in the discussion of measures affecting tlieir interests. Of
ourselves we could do little, but in stimulating the professions
watclifully to uphold their intei-ests, we have set machinery in
motion wliich has worked out a great result. All parties joined in
decrying the old Commission of Sewers; its evil working could
readily be seen, but all were not agreed as to tlie want to be set
right. The old Commission has been swept away; but in setting-
up a new one, the ministry has made a show of remedying that
evil on which the professional interest and their organ were most
urgent in their denunciations.

The old Commission wanted men of working knowledge and
skill: they wasted their time in undertakings beyond their grasp,
— and they did nothing, inasmucfi as they did not grapple with the
crying evils before them. Tlie old Commission is dead, — ^^Anno
tetatis sua;" may be written on its tomb: it may be set down how
long it lasted, but there can be no words to show what it did.
When death was stalking over the land, and tlie readiest help was
wanted to stay it, the Commission, before tliey did anything, un-
dertook a survey. When engineers and surveyors were to be had
in numbers, and were, in good truth, starving for want of work,
the Commission gave the Survey away to the soldiers, who ought
to have been at work on the Ordnance Survey, — and to this day
tlie corporals and privates have not sent in tlie survey. For the
plans sent in for a general sewage, there was no Sewers Map, and
the profession owe the one they had from the Commissioners to the
private enterprise of Mr. Wyld, M.P., the geographer, who pub-
lished his own survey, and compelled the Commissioners of Sewers
to give him the levels.

'I'he same mood has swa5'ed throughout. The soaring mind of
Mr. Chadwick was to give us lasting springs of healtli, so that
London should never again sicken. What lias been done .'' — The
needful works have been stayed, and some paltry cleansing under-
taken; and so far from the common health having been bettered,
the common health has been hurt by the mistaken doings of the
Commission. In the height of the cholera, they flushed sewers
and emptied cesspools — thereby blasting the air by niglit and by
day; and they poured into the Thames such a reeking flood of
filth, as to make the river hurtful to those who travelled on it for
health or for business, or who drank its polluted waters.

The Commissioners talked a great deal upon the subject of the
wasted sewage, and of what they meant to do on that head: but
all they did was to make trials of sewer-water, — whereas sewer-
water is worth so little, that it cannot be borne beyond the neigh-
bourhood of London; is only fit for grass-land; and as it cannot
be laid on at aU times of the year, must there'ore be wasted or

long-stored — thereby again raising the outlay.* Besides, if it be
used for watering and manuring grass-lands in the vicinity of large
towns, the evaporation would cause the atmosphere to be tainted,
and infect the inhabitants with fever and all the attendant mala-
dies of malaria.

On the old Commission there was no engineer, architect, or sur-
veyor, though there were some royal engineers. Thus, the Com-
mission wag without working men, and thus slur was cast on the
professions, on the pretence that their members might have an
interest in the works. The true meaning was to thrust away men
who would not be the followers or tools of Mr. Chadwick, and who
might open their minds fairly and freely. Thus was a crying evil
made, and it behoved the professions to clear themselves of the
stigma which Mr. Chadwick attempted to cast on their value in the
business of the Commission, and again on their skill in that of the
Survey.

The ministry have sent the old Commissioners adrift, and have
named new ones, and in so doing have called in Robert Stephenson,
M.P., Philip Hardwick, Rendel, and Peto. So far as this is an
acknowledgment of the wrong that has been done, and so far as it
is acknowledgment of the rights of the professions, it is to be
praised. Jlen of higher standing and of better feelings than those
named, cannot be found; and so far as it rests with them, we have
every ground for trust: but we warn the professions not to give
way — to be wary and watcliful— for the old leaven is still at work.
As if for fear of the mischief to jobbing, which a few high-minded
men might do if left to themselves, the civilians are muzzled by
having several royal engineers set against them. What royal en-
gineers have to do on the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers we
cannot understand. Every opening in the Sewers Commission
belongs as rightfully to the professions, as the Lunacy Commission
does to the medical'men, and the Law Commissions to the lawyers.
This Commission is among the few public employments which the
engineers have, and there can be no right in making it partake of
the appearance of a military commission, which it now does by the
number of Royal Engineers in the Commission.

AV'e maintain that if eight professional men are to be on the
Commission, they ought to be all civilians; and on all hands we
think it unfair the civil engineers or architects should be over-
borne by a greater number of the military engineers, who have
less weight and less standing as a profession. If the whole eight
were taken from among the civilians, an evil would be stopped
which has now arisen. The civilians now named are of that high
standing, they cannot readily give their time to the working of the
Commission— they are so busy it is not worth their while: they can
only give tlieir time to such business as is of greater weight. Not
so with the military engineers, they can always be there; and it is,
therefore, only a sham to talk of the new Commission being in the
hands of working men. It is well enough that the civilians now
named are goxernment employe's, and the fellows of Mr. Cliadwick
on tlie Board of Health; but having done the professions the
honour of naming some of their head men, the other four may
now be taken from men of less standing, but having the time to
do the daily and weekly work of the Commission.

It does liot seem to us by any means settled that Chadwickisni
is at an end in the new Commission, although Mr. Chadwiek's
nariie is not in it. The civilians cannot very well trouble him, as
they are likely to be everywhere but at the Sewers Office; indeed,
at St. Stephen's, the Britannia Bridge, Birkenhead, or Great
Grimsby, or in any canal in Eui-ope where their skill is wanted.
The military engineers will be at their posts. The AVoods and
Forests and the Board of Health are always at hand to meddle,
and Lord Carlisle and Mr. Chadwick will have the sway without
bearing the brunt.

Above all things, the professions must not forget that, Com-
mission or no Commission, their work is not at an end. To lay
down sewage for the world of London, to heal the blighted streams,
to bring in fresh water and fresh air, to supply the husbandman
with the needful food of culture, — these are works which must be
wrought out by our professional men. It is a new field for work
which Is opened to them; and they must not lean on the Commis-
sioners, but woi-k liard themselves. Formerly, our path was a
straight one; we were going on slowly and steadily in it, but the
Sewers Commission has upset everything, — and it is needful to
provide not only for the wants of' the metropolis, but to remedy
the errors they have committed, and the evils they have created.

• ' Native Guano, tlie best Antidote anainst tlie Fatal Effects of Free Trade in Corn.'
ByGEOKGE BURGES, M.A. London: Effingham Wilson, 1»48.

' Native Guano versus Server Water." By SCAVENGER. London : Sherwood, lS4i).

.334

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

REGISTER OF NCW PATENTS.

RAILWAY WHEELS.

Charles Gbken, of Birmiiifrliani, brass tulie inatmfactnrer, and
J \MKs Newman, of the same place, mamiacturer, for '■^imjiriiremnits
ill the mniiuf'acture of railway-wheels." — Granted March 28; En-
rolled September 28, istQ.

The improvements relate to the construction of wroii<fht or mal-
leable iron wheels for railway-carriages The wheel is to be made
of two pieces of metal only, the boss or nave, and the rim and body
of it; and the two to be welded together. The iron is rolled into
bars first, as shown at A, in the section fig. 1, and then bent into
the form of a hoop, and the ends welded together; the hoop is
then placed in the block B, and there subjeeted to re)ieated blows
from a succession of upper dies or blocks C, the form of which
gradually approaches the form of one side of the wheel, until ulti-
mately the metal takes the form shown by the dotted lines. It is

Fig. 1.

"i^^m^^Mx-

Fig. 2.

then in a state to have the hole made in the centre for the recep-
tion of the boss or nave, and for this purpose is placed in another
die or block, only differing from the one described in having a hole
in the centre, coinciding with the hole to be made. A descending
die or cutter then forms the hole of the shape and size required;
tliis hole is not formed even and cylindrical, but is made serrated
or jagged, for enabling the boss to take a better hold when manu-
factured. The hole is now fit for the reception of the boss, which
is inserted in tlie shape of a hollow cylinder of one or two pieces
of metal, and a mandril driven in expands the cylinder, and com-
pels the metal forming it to enter the serrations of the hole in tlie
wheel; it is now again subjected to the action of a series of dies
or blocks as before described, the mandril still remaining in the
hole until the wheel ultimately takes the form shown in fig. 2. In
placing and forming the boss in the wheel, it is necessary it should
be at a welding heat.

METAL CASTINGS.

^ Andrew Shanks, of Robert-street, Adelphi, engineer, for an
'"■improved mode of yivirig form to ccrfiiin iiwtah when in a fluid or
molten state."— Granted March 11; Enrolled September H, 1819.

This invention relates to the employment of centrifugal force
for forming metal castings of tubes and cylinders, and other
circular-shaped hollow vessels, without the use of cores. The
casting is eftected by pouring the liquid metal into hollow cylindri-
cal moulds (the internal diameter of which corresponds with the
external diameter of the tube or cylinder to be cast), jilaced in a
horizontal position, and caused to rotate rapidly; when the centri-
fugal force produced will cause the molten metal to spread itself

in a uniform manner over the internal surface of the mould, the
thickness of the tube or cylinder depending upon the quantity of
metal poured into the mould.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 1.

The machinery employed in casting tubes and cylinders is re-
presented at figs. 1, and 2. Fig. 1, is a side elevation of the
machine; fig. 2, is a plan view thereof; and fig. 3, is a longitudinal
section of the mould, showing the pipe ^, cast within it. a, is the
metal mould, formed with two collars a', a'-, which rest upon the
wheels b, c,d,e; and the collar «-, has a rib or bead upon it, that
enters into a corresponding groove in the wheels c, e, in order to
prevent any movement of the mould in the direction of its length.
On the shaft /, of the wheels J, c, is a rigger or pulley g, around
which pasi;es an endless band from a steam-engine or other first
mover, and causes the shaft/, to revolve; and this motion is com-
municated to the mould by the wheels b, c. The bearings A, A, of
the shafts/", i, can be caused to approach to or recede from each

Fig. 4.

Other by turning the screws /,/, for the purpose of adjusting the
level of the mould, and for regulating the distance between the
wheels b, c, and rf, e, to suit moulds of different diameters. One
end of the mould is formed with an internal flange A-, to retain the
.fluid metal within it during its rotation; and, to the other end, an
annular plate or ring /, is bolted, for a like purpose. The fluid
metal is introduced into the mould, while the latter is rotating, by
means of the spout m; and, when the metal has become sufliciently
set, the rotation of the mould is stopped; it is lifted off the wheels

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEKR AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

S3£

6, c, d, e, the plate /, is taken off, and the pipe or cylinder is re-
moved from the mould.

The apparatus employed for castina: circular-shaped hollow
vessels is represented, in sectional elevation, at fig-. 4. It consists
of a framing n, in which two shafts o, p, are mounted; to the shaft
0, motion is given by a band passing around the pulley q; and this
motion is transmitted by the bevel-wheel r, and pinion s, to the
upright shaft ;), which carries the mould t. On the upper edge of
the mould an annular plate ti, is bolted, to retain the fluid metal
during the revolution of the mould, and to admit of the casting
or vessel v, being removed when the metal has become sufficiently
set. At the bottom of the mould is formed a socket, to fit upon
the top of the shaft p; so that, when placed thereon, it will accom-
pany the shaft in its revolution; and tlie mould may be readily
removed from the shaft and replaced thereon, w, w, are the
handles by which the mould is lifted.

METAL CASTINGS.

David Henderson, of the London Works, Renfrew, Scotland,
engineer, for ^''improvements in the mnniifiicture of metal castings."
—Granted March 20; Enrolled September 20, i84.9. [Reported
in the Patent Journal.^

This invention has reference: First — to the manufacture of
pipes, columns, girders, and other similar castings, presenting an
uniform section throughout the whole or greater part of their
length, by means of a short moveable part pattern, and also in close
mould-boxes. Secondly — To the casting of pans, basins, or other
like circular figures, by means of part patterns, in moulds formed
in close mould-boxes. Thirdly — To the producing a succession of
castings, of the uniform section mentioned, from the same mould,
without destroying it at each casting, as is usually the case.

In the manufacture of castings of the kind mentioned (having
an uniform section throughout) he employs what he terms a close
mould-box, instead of the ordinary box used, which is open at the
back; the sand or loam being rammed from tlie back. This mould
consists of two parts, as usual, dividing at tlie centre line, in the
case of small pipes, representing two halves of the tube, each hav-
ing numerous small holes bored through them to allow the air and
gases to escape. Each half-mould is furnished with two internal
lips or flanges, of the full length of the mould, which project
towards the centre, their inner edge being suited to the external
form of the casting; or they may he of a breadth that will admit
of a slight thickness of sand between the edge and the casting.
These lips form a secure hold for the sand constituting the mould,
which in the upper half (with the mould in a horizontal position)
may be said to represent the abutments of the arch formed by the
sand. The lips are carried out thin, or tapered towards the centre,
and planed or otherwise rendered true on the face, so that they
may fit accurately together to form the entire mould. The pattern
employed to form the body-part of the mould consists of a short
semi-cylindrical piece, having a plate on the flat side or back of
the part pattern, which slides on the dividing surfaces or lips of
the mould, retaining it always in the same central position as it is
travelled throughout the length of the mould, and may either be
held at the difl'erent positions required, by bolts at the edges, or by
clumps embracing the hack part of the lialf-moulds. In commenc-
ing the moulding, the mould to form the socket or lower end is
introduced, and the sand rammed round it from the top; the part
pattern is then placed in a position immediately above the socket
part, and the sand rammed in the space left between the pattern
and mould-box, the previously-rammed sand of the socket part
closing the bottom of the space. The part pattern is then raised
a step higher, and the operation repeated, and continued through-
out the whole length of the mould, which is afterwards surmounted
by a jet-piece or mould, into which the metal is poured. If the
spigot end of the pipe is furnished with a bead, it is produced at
the junction of the mould with the sand in the jet-box, one-half
being in each; that in the mould being produced by a half-bead on
the upper end of the part pattern, and the other formed in the jet
part of the mould. Two half-moulds thus formed are placed and
bolted together by clumping-rings, or other suitable means, and a
core introduced in the ordinary manner, and sustained in a central
position at either end. In this manner various other articles may
be formed, such as columns, girders, gutters, and other like cast-
ings; using the half or single mould-box for such purpose, with
the projecting lips, and a plate for the other half, faced with sand,
having a core or internal figure of the gutter. Cornices, and other
like figures, are also capable of being moulded in a similar manner;
the muuld-box in each case being suited to the- shape of the article,

so that only a thin uniform or nearly uniform coating of sand i»
required on the interior to form the mould. An example is also
given of a grooved roller or pillar, having sharp angular grooves
running throughout its length, which in the ordinary mode of
casting would require a complicated pattern to produce the mould,
whereas it may be formed as readily as a plain casting by this mode
of operation. Moulds of this description maybe formed in mould-
boxes, without lips, to retain the sand, the edges of the box being
planed true and out of winding to ensure accuracy in the sliding
of the part pattern, which is guided by pieces that embrace the
sides of the box, and are carried out to its full length.

In all castings having their interiors formed by cores, the ordi-
nary modes are resorted to for carrying such part into efl^ect. In
pipes or cylinders of the larger sizes, it may be advantageous to
divide the boxes into three or moi'e parts, in which case, each
division is provided with lips, as before explained, which will retain
the sand in each individual part. Bend pipes are also represented;
in this case the mould-box is divided in the centre line, at the
sides of the bend, and suitably faced and lipped at the junction, to
admit of tlie correct worl<ing of the part pattern, which is curved
to correspond with the curve of the bend. The outer lialf of the
bend is placed on a foot, so that the socket projects in a horizontal
direction, suitably furnished with guide-pins, to ensure the parts
of the mould meeting correctly.

The second part lias reference to the casting of pans and otlier
basin-like shapes. This is effected also in close mould-boxes,
somewhat appri'aching the shape of the pan to be cast, having a
number of perforations, as before explained, and also with an in-
ternal flange or lip projecting towards the centre, the distance of
the said coating. A pin stands up in the centre of the pan at the
bottom, on which is placed a part pattern, — that is, the lower end
is stepped on it, the part pattern being perhaps 3 or 4 inclies
broad, and carried up to the edge of the mould-box, where it is se-
cured. This pattern is on the side next tlie box of the form to be
given to the exterior of the pan, and between the pattern and the
pan is the space to be filled with sand or loam. When first com-
mencing the operation, one side of the space is closed with a board
until the first breadth of the pattern is complete, when it is un-
bolted at the upper or lip edge of the mould-box, and the pattern
moved nearly its breadth in the direction of the circumference,
in which it will be guided by the central pin on which it works,
and the part bearing upon the lip; the ramming is then con-
tinued,— the previously-formed part of the mould forming the
stop against which the successive breadths opened are pi-essed.
In this manner, the whole circumference of the interior is lined,
wlien the outer half of the box will be ready to receive the
internal part of the mould which is formed on the exterior of
a similarly-shaped mould-box, and produced by a part pattern in
the same manner as the other; but with this difference in the part
pattern — that it is the reverse of that used for the other box. The
lialf-moulds or external and internal parts, so formed, are then
placed together and secured in the ordinary manner, when suitable
jets are produced in the sand for the introduction of fluid metal.

The third part of this invention refers to the production of suc-
cessive castings from the same mould, — that is, without destroying
the form of the sand of which it is composed, but which is only
applicable to such articles as pipes or otlier plain castings easily
removed from the mould; in which case he employs close mould-
boxes, having lips which retain the sand. If the casting is re-
moved with care, which is to be done immediately the metal has
set suflRciently for that purpose, after the black-wash with which
moulds are usually coated has been scraped off, the several parts of
the mould which have been injured are then to be made good, and
the black-wash repeated while the mould yet retains sufficient heat
to dry it. Moulds used in this manner should be of dry sand or
loam and care taken in the removal of the casting and repairing at
each time; thus several castings in succession may be produced
from the same mould before its total destruction is necessary.

VALVES AND COCKS.

Peter Llewellin, of Bristol, brass and copper manufacturer,
and John Hemmons, of the same place, brass-founder, for ^^im-
provements in the manufacture of cocks or valves for drawing off
liquids."— Grantei November 23, 1848; Enrolled May 23, 1849.

The improvements relate to the introduction of a screw or disc-
valve in cocks, to render the same steam and water-tight. The
valve is raised for closing the way, or lowered for opening the way,
by means of a hollow screw in the rotary stem of the handle;
which screw acts upon the disc-spindle. By the turning of thi«

336

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

QNoVEMBEB,

rotary hollow-tlireaded stem, the spindle of the disc-valve is moved
up or down; — it beiiifj guided by feathers sliding' in the socket.
The face of the disc, when raised and brouiiht into contact with
the mouth of tlie aperture, closes it, and stops the flow of tlie fluid;
Init when it is lowered the way is opened, and the fluid flows
til rough the cock freely.

In the accompanying engraving, the way a, a, for the passage of
steam or other fluid, is shown as closed by the disc-valve A, which
is brought up into close contact with the lip or edge c, c, of the
aperture. The disc h, is fixed upon a spindle rf, having a sci'ew or
worm at its upper part, acting in a hollow screw in the lower
part of the stem of the handle /; and from the lower part of
the spindle rf, wings or feathers g, extend, and slide in vertical
ji^rooves in the socket or plug A, which closes the bottom of the
cock. The flange or ring i, fixed upon the rotary stem of the

winch, should be ground very accurately on all its surfaces, in

order that it may fit
tightly in its sock-
et; and when it is
so covered by the
winch-cap /c, it may
form a perfectly
steam-tight joint.
The flange i, may
be packed with a
collar of India rub-
ber, leather, or any
fit material, to ren-
der it air or water-
tight.

GAS AND WATER METERS.

William Parkinson, of Cottage-lane, City- road, gas-meter ma-
nufacturer, for '■^improvements in gas and water meters." — Granted
March 20; Enrolled September 20, 18i9.

We gave last month an abstract of a paper on this patent meter,
read at the British Association; we now have an opportunity of
giving additional details from the specification, with tlie engrav-
ings, for which we are indebted to the Mechanics' Magazine.

Figure 1 represents a meter of this descrip-
tion attached to the top of a water cistern, and
capable of registering a flow of 90 gallons per
hour. Fig. 2 is a section of the same, through
the centre from front to back. Fig. 3 is a sec-
tion through the box L; and fig, 4 a section
through the centre of the meter at right angles
with fig. 2. The wheel, or drum, W, is inclosed
in a case M, as in the gas-meter, but it revolves
at bottom in a trough of water T, which is
freely suspended from the top of the case M, by
a semicircular handle V, and adj usting-screw X.
The height of water in the trough determines,
of course, the measuring capacity of the com-
partments of the drum; but that height maybe
varied as may be required, by raising or lower-
ing the trough by means of the adjusting-screw
X. The water passes from the trough into the
case, and thence into the cistern beneath; and
it must never be allowed to rise in the case
above the edge of the trough. The apparatus
for regulating the inflow of the water into the
trough is inclosed in a separate box L, similar
to the box which contains the inlet valve in the
gas-meter. A view of this apparatus, in two
different positions, is given separately in figs. 5,
6, and 6^, A is a vertical pipe, which is con-
nected at top by a pipe, hose, or otherwise with
a head of water, and terminates at bottom in a
segmental flange M, in which there is a dia-
gonal slit or opening n, for each passage of the
water. To the outer sides of this pipe A, there
is gimballed a valve D, the top surface of the
bottom part d, of which is twrned truly to cor-
respond with the under face of the flange M.
As long as this valve is in the same vertical
plane with the pipe A, it completely closes
the opening n, but on being drawn to one side,
as represented in fig. 6, it passes more or less
from under the diagonal opening n, and allows
a proportional outflow of water. It will be ob-
vious, therefore, that by attaching a float to this
gimballed valve, as shown in fig, 3, there will
be always just as much water supplied as may
be wanted. The instrument is in efl'ect very
similar to a ball-cock, only that it is much
better adapted for accomplishing the end in
view, because it is attended with extremely
little friction, and the water, however great the head pressure may
be, has no tendency either to open or shut it; the only thing
affecting it being the actual rise or fall of the float. To obtain a
smooth surface for the float to work in, a shield A", is inserted
athwart the box L, in a direction inclined downwards from a point,
immediately above the bottom opening n, of the pipe A. But
ijistead of the regulating apparatus just described, another may,

if necessary, be adopted, such as is represented in figs. 7, and 8,
which will' answer eciually well. A, is an inlet pipe, as before,
which is soldered (sidewise) to, and communicates at bottom with,
another pipe 1). E, is a conical valve fitted to the bottom of the
pipe D, the spindle of which is connected at top to a small piston
of equal area with the valve, by which piston any tendency which
the pressure of the water might have to open or shut the valve is
completely counteracted or neutralised. N, O, are apertures to
admit a free ingress or egress of air from the box L, and case M.

Fig. 4.

Fig. X

Should it be necessary to provide a compensation for any variation
in the level of the water in the trough, this may be readily done
by suspending the trough from the short end of a rod or lever (to
which the adjusting-screw X, might be attached), and attaching
the other or long end by a connecting-rod to the spindle of the
float in the regulating-box L.

13*9.]

THE CIVIL EKGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

337

ON CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE.

An Introductory Lecture, given at the Putney College for Practical
Science, September, 1849. By Samuel Clegg, jun., Esq.

Civil engineering and architecture, the subjects upon which I am called to
lecture, are both essentially practical sciences, and are in some measure so
connected as to be synonymous ; both engineers and architects must be well
versed in the strength of the various materials with which they have to deal,
and be so acquainted with their numerous propertiss as to be enabled to
make a choice of tbera for any peculiar circumstances attending their work.
Both must be mathematicians, draughtsmen, carpenters, masons, and be
acquainted with the details of all, or nearly all, the mechanical trades; at
least they must be learned judges of them, if not skilful operators. They
must both be men of business, and should not he ignorant of law.

Both architecture and engineering, therefore, in their most comprehensive
meanings, are studies of many and singularly opposite qualities, and are al-
lowed by all whose opinions are worth regarding, to he sciences of the
highest importance to the well-being of society : thus far the two professions
go side by side. But architecture, as well as being a science, is also essen-
tially a fine art, and here the two professions separate. The path of the ar-
chitect will, after he has gained his practical knowledije of construction and
building, be parallel with that of the painter and the poet in the regions of
cultivated tasie. The path of the civil engineer is widely different, but if
his labours be less in the captivating regions of beauty than tlie arcliiteet's,
they are perhaps more among the grand, certainly more among the stern
development of massive strength, to resist shocks, inundations, and storms,
— which, from the simplicity of the requisite forms and their associations,
constitute grandeur. I come amongst you fully sensible of the responsi-
bilities of my office, and with an equally fnll determination to perform its
duties to the utmost of my power; and I shall expect you to go with me,
cheerfully, to the tasks which lie before us, and assist me with your
diligence. Nothing is more necessary to the due understanding and proper
study of engineering and architecture, and to the formation of a proficient
in either, than habits of application and industry. Without theui even the
lowest departments of the professions are not to be mastered. It is not a
rapid growth that produces a sound and skilful practitioner, any more than
precocity is an emblem of a great statesman. It is not by occasional fits of
application, by short starts of preparation, by numerous progenies of little
works, performed in a little time, and with less study, sometimes discontinued,
and again renewed, that eminence is to be obtained in either of these arts ; on
the contrary, it is only by regular application — by a constant study of good
examples — by able instruction, — by deep and intense study of the elementary
principles, with an uninterrupted practice, solely directed to the object,
grown up almost into a habit, and ready to be called into use at the shortest
notice; it is only by sacrificing every comfort that aims at prevention, — by
having resolution to suflFer nothing to impede your progress, and by avoiding
the Dead Sea of idleness and pleasure, that you can be enabled to shine
either as an architect or as an engineer.

MiCHAEi, Angelo Buonarroti, full of the great and sublime ideas
of his art, lived very much alone, and never suffered a day to pass with-
out handling his chisel or his pencil. When some person reproached him
with leading so melancholy and solitary a life, he said, " Art is a jealous thing,
and requires the whole and entire man." He was also both frugal and
temperate, and so persevering in his labour, that he used occasionally at
night to throw himself upon his bed without disencumbering himself of the
clothes he had worked in.

Inigo, or John, Jones was a native of Llanvrost, in Denbighshire, and by
his indefatigable zeal, raised himself from the position of a working me-
chanic to that of the first architect of the day. Like his father, he fol-
lowed the occupation of a carpenter and mason in his native town, and
built Llanvrost bridge when he was 23 years of age. It was with the money
thus obtained that he went to Italy, with letters of introduction from the Duke
of Ancaster. When at Rome, finding that he bad more talent for design-
ing palaces than adorning cabinets, he turned his study to architecture. By
denying himself the common necessaries of life, — by rising early, and retir-
ing late, sometimes not going to his bed at all, he conquered all the difficul-
ties in his path ; and after remaining some time in Italy, shackled by poverty.
Christian the Fourth of Sweden invited him to Denmark, and appointed him
his architect. He afterwards returned to England, and was made surveyor-
general of the king's works to James the First, but refused to accept any
salary until the heavy debts contracted under his predecessor had been
liquidated. Upon the accession of Charles, he was continued in his office,
when his salary as surveyor was Ss. id. per day, with an allowance of 46/.
per year for house rent.

Sir Christopher Wren is an eminent example of a great architect
excelling in mathematics, and producing works bearing the evident impress
of their author's learning. From the number and diversity of his occupa-
tions, may be gathered the fact of his close study and application ; and al-
though, unlike Inigo Jones, he had not poverty to fight against, infinite credit
is due to him. He was one of the original members of the club which was
formed at Oxford in 1648, for philosophical discussion and experiments, and
which eventually gave rise to the Royal Society. In 1657 he was chosen
professor of Astronomy at Gresham College, and on the Restoration was ap-
pointed to the Savilian professorship of astronomy at Oxford. It was very
soon after this that he was first called upon to exercise bis genius in archi-

tecture (a study, however, which had previously pngagcd a good deal of his
attention), by being appointed assistant to the surveyor-general. This led to
Wren's employment on the work upon which his popular fame principally
rests — the rebuilding of the cathedral of St. Paul's after the great fire. The
erection of this noble edifice occupied him for thirty-five years, but did not
prevent him during the same period from designing and superintending the
completion of many other buildings, nor even interrupted his pursuit of the
most abstract branches of science. Wren was created a doctor of law and
logic by the University of Oxford in 1661, and was knighted in 1674. In
1680 he was elected to the presidency of the Royal Society, and in 1685 he
entered Parliament as the representative of the borough of Plympton.
While superintending the erection of St. Paul's, all the salary Wren received
was 200/. per year. He was also in other respects used by the commis-
sioners with extreme illiberality, and was obliged to yield so far to their
ignorant clamour as to alter the design of his building, and to decrease the
size of his dome, which he had intended should spring from the outside
larger gallery which surrounds it, and give up bis magnificent idea of enrich-
ments for embellishing the interior. If he had had the moral courage of
Michael Angelo, we should have had yet a nobler monument of his fame,
lie, like Wren, had obstacles thrown in his way, and we are told the fol-
lowing anecdote: — Under the papacy of Julius III. the faction of Michael
Angelo's rival, San Gallo, gave him some trouble respecting the building of
St. Peter's, and went so far as to prevail upon that pope to appoint a com-
mittee to examine the fabric. Julius told him that a particular part of the
church was dark. " Who told you that, holy father ?" replied the artist.
" I did," said Cardinal Marcelln. "Your eminence should consider, then,"
said Michael Angelo, '• that besides the window there is at present, I intend to
have three in the ceiling of the church." " You did not tell me so," replied
the cardinal. " No, indeed, I did not. Sir; 1 ara not obliged to do it, and I
would never consent to be obliged to tell your eminence or any other person
whomsoever anything concerning it. Ynur business is to take care that money
is plenty in Rome, that there are no thieves there, — to let me alone, and to
permit me to proceed with my nlan as I please." Wren's ungrateful em.
ployers, in 1718. dismissed him from his place of surveyor of public works ;
he was at this time in the 86th year of his age. This great and good man
died at Hampton Court on the 25th of February, 1723, in the 91st year of
his age. His remains were accompanied by a splendid attendance to their
appropriate resting-place under the noble edifice which his genius had
reared, and over the grave was fixed a tablet, with the following inscription :
— " Beneath is laid the builder of this church and city, Christopher Wren,
who lived about 90 years, not for himself but for the public good. Reader,
if thou seekest for his monument, look around."

Great architects, if uniting with their works any other pursuit or study,
have generally fixed upon some branch of science or art connected with ar-
chitecture: tiius, Michael Angelo was a sculptor; Inigo Jones was a painter,
and Sir Christopher Wren an astronomer. But Sir John Vanbrugh was a
dramatist as well as an architect; he wrote "The Provoked Wife," "jEsop,"
and other comedies, and built Blenheim and Castle Howard.

Were I to give the character of each and all the eminent architects of this
or any other country, they would serve to show bow great was the amount
of their labour, and with what cheerfulness and perseverance they pursued
their tasks at the commencement of their career, and with what determined
energy they maintained their name and fame after they had risen to excel-
lence : nor will the characters of civil engineers lose by comparison with the
already-named artists.

When the state of civilization and trade in England required more con.
venient and cheaper modes of transit for its goods than the common roads
and wagons of the day afforded, a system of inland navigation was proposed,
and Mr. Smeaton was employed in making rivers available for this purpose:
afterwards, more direct routes became desirable, and canals were projected,
in imitation of those made before by the Dutch and French. The Duke of
Bridgewater was the great patron of these schemes, and brought forward
James Brindlev, who constructed the canal called the Bridgewater
Canal, between Liverpool and Manchester. This immense work, which was
ridiculed by most of the scientific men of the period as impracticable, Brindley
undertook, and completed so as to form a junction with the Mersey. This
success caused him to be employed, in 1766, to unite the Trent and Mersey,
upon which he commenced the Grand Trunk Navigation Canal. From this
main branch Mr. Brindley cut another canal near Heywood, in Staffordshire,
uniting it with the Severn in the vicinity of Bewdley, and finished it in 1772.
From this period scarcely any work of the kind in the kingdom was entered
upon without his superintendence or advice. Among other designs, he pre-
pared one for draining the fens of Lincolnshire, and the Isle of Ely, and
another for clearing the Liverpool Docks of mud, which was especially suc-
cessful. The variety of his inventions, and the fertility of his resources,
were only equalled by the simplicity of the means by which he carried his
expedients into effect. He seldom used any model or drawing, but when
any material difficulty presented itself, he used to seclude himself for days,
or until an idea presented itself to him for overcoming it ; and so partial was
he to inland navigation, that upon a question being put to him by the oppo-
sition to one of bis schemes, " for what purpose he imagined rivers were
created," he at once replied, " undoubtedly to feed navigable canals." The
intensity of his application to business brought on a fever, of which he died
in 1772, in the filty-sixth year of his age. i""*^

John Smeaton, another engineer who did much to advance his profesion
in this country, may almost be said to have been horn an engineer, his

41

338

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[NOVEMBEB,

genios appeared at so early an age. Ilis playthings were not those of chil-
dren, but the tools which men employ. Before he was six years of age, he
was discovered on the top of his father's barn, fixing up what he called a
\YiridniiIl, of bis own construction ; and at another time, while he was about
the same age, be attended some men fixing a pump, and observing that they
cut off a piece of the bored pipe, lie procured it, and actu:dly made a pump
with it, which raised water. When he was under 15 years of age, he made
an engine for turning, and worked several things in ivory and wood, which
lie presented to his friends. A part of every day was occupied in forming
some ingenious piece of mechanism. In 17ol he began a course of experi-
ments to try a machine of his own invention, to measure a ship's way at
sea, and made two voyages to try the effect of it, and also to make experi-
ments upon a compass of his construction. In 1753, he was elected a fellow
of the Koyal Society, and the number of papers he published in their Trans-
actions will show how highly he deserved the honour of being enrolled a
niembcr of that useful and important body: in 1759 he received the gold
medal. In 1/55, the Eddystone Lighthouse was burned down, and Mr. Smea-
lon being recommended to the proprietors of that building as an engineer in
every way calculated to rebuild it, he undertook the work, which was com-
pleted in 1759. To this work I shall allude more particularly when instruct-
ing you in the building of lighthouses, as the practice of building then
adopted has been continued to this day. But the part of Mr. Smeaton's
life I would more particularly draw your attention to is this. During many
years he was a frequent attendant upon Parliament, his opinion upon various
works begun or projected being continually called for; and in these cases
Ms strength of judgment and perspicuity of expression had the fullest scope.
It was his constant custom, when applied to to plan or support any raea-
Bure, to make himself fully master of the subject, to understand its merits
and probable defects, before he would engage in it. By this caution, added
to the clearness of his expression, and the integrity of his heart, he seldom
failed to obtain for the bill which he supported the sanction of parliament.
No one was ever heard with more attention, nor had any one ever more con-
fidence placed in bis testimony. lu the courts of law he had several com-
pliments paid him from the bench, by Lord Mansfield and other judges, for
the new light he always threw on difficult subjects. Mr. Smeaton died in
1792, in the sixty-eighth year of his age.

John Uennie, to whom England is indebted for some of her noblest en-
gineering works, was born on the 7th of June, 1761, at Phairtassie, in the
parish of Prestonkirk, in the county of East Lothian. His father, a highly
respectable farmer, died in 1766, leaving n widow and nine children, of whom
John was the youngest. The first rudiments of his education were acquired
at the village school. It so happened that he had to cross a brook on the
way, which, when flooded, obliged him to make use of a boat kept in the
workshop of Mr. Andrew Meikle, an ingenious mechanic, well known in
Scotland as the inventor of the thrashing machine. In passing so frequently
through this workshop, young Ronnie's attention was diiected to the various
operations in which the men were engaged ; and they, noticing the interest
be took in their labours, were in the habit of lending bim tools and showing
him their use. In the evenings he amused himself with endeavouring to
imitate the models he liad seen at the shop ; and it is related that, at little
more than ten years of age, he had completed the models of a windmill, a
pile-engine, aud a steam-engine. Renuie continued at the Preston school
till twelve years of age, when, having had a quarrel with his master, he en-
treated to be allowed to leave, and, at his own request, was placed for two
years with Mr. Meikle. At the end of that time, feeling that a constant ap-
plication to manual labour was likely to retard his mental improvement, he
determined to become a pupil of Mr. Gibson, an able mathematical teacher
at Dunbar. Here he soon attained great proficiency, and in less than two
years returned to Mr. Meikle with a mind well stored with mathematical and
physical science. His first essay in practical mechanics was the repairing of
a corn-mill in his native village ; and before he was eighteen years of age
he had erected several others. During this time he occasionally visited
Edinburgh, to pursue his studies in physical science under Professors Robin-
son and Black. The former of these gentlemen may perhaps have laid the
foundation of his future fortune, by introducing him to Messrs. Boulton and
Matt, of Soho. Deeming the capital the proper theatre to try the strength
of bis own powers, Rennie settled in London, after having been a few months
only with Boulton and Watt, who had confided to him the superintendence
of the mill-work of the Albion Mills then erecting. Mr. Rennie was thus
led to study hydraulic engineering, in which he became so celebrated as,
after the death of Smeaton, to have no rival. Amongst the most celebrated
works of this great engineer must he mentioned — besides numerous mills,
hridges, canals, &c. — Waterloo and Southwark bridges, the Lancaster Canal,
with the aqueduct over the Lune, the breakwater in Plymouth Sound,
and the improvements in the dockyards at Portsmouth, Plymouth, Chatham,
and Sheerncss. The industry of Mr. Rennie was so great, that he never suf-
fered amusement of any kind to interfere with his business, which fre-
quently occupied him twelve, and sometimes fifteen hours in the day. He
was clear in his mode of communicating information to others, and pleased
when he found that information was desired. He was never actuated by
professional jealousy, or selfish feehngs, but was always kind and conde-
scending to the more humble members of his profession. Mr. Rennie died
on the 16th of October, 1821, in the sixtieth year of his age, and was
buried in St. Paul's, where his remains repose near to those of Sir Cbrisio-
plier Wren.

Thomas Telfokd was born in 1757, and commenced life as a shepherd

boy in Eskdale j but his early and eager love of knowledge led him to seek
abroad an occupation more suited to his inclinations. He first repaired to
Edinburgh, where he studied architecture with unremitting application, al-
though he must have earned his daily bread by the labour of his hands. In
1782 he was emboldened to try his fortune in London, and was (as he states
in his life, written by himself) fortunate enough to employed at the quad-
rangle at Somerset-place, where he acquired much practical information,
both in the useful and ornamental branches of architecture. After a resi-
dence of two years in London, he was engaged in superintending the build-
ing of a house in the Portsmouth dockyard. " During the three years," he
remarks, "that I attended the building of the commissioner's house, and of a
new chapel in the dockyard, I had an opportunity of observing the various
operations necessary in the foundation and construction of graving docks,
wharf-walls, and similar works, which afterwards became my chief occu-
pation." When he left Portsmouth, he was appointed surveyor to the
county of Salop, and to this, and the connections formed at this time, he
was indebted for a very favourable opening of his career as a civil engineer.
His chief attention was devoted to building and repairing bridges and other
works, but he also built several churches and other architectural edifices.
Telford's progress in his professional career, though not rapid, was steady
and certain, and every new opportunity of exercising his talents contributed
to extend a reputation which at length became unrivalled — not to his talents
alone though, be it said, but by downright hard work united with them. To
enumerate all his works would take a long time ; but his principal ones are
the Holyhead-road, (upon which he himself set higher value than any other),
the Pont-y-Casylte aqueduct, and the Menai bridge, the most imperishable
monument of Telford's fame. The defects of his early education he had
endeavoured to remedy in his maturer years. He taught himself Latin,
French, German, and mathematics, in which he was a proficient, but relied
more for the dimensions of his works upon practical experiment than upon
calculation ; but his reason for this preference may have been, and most
likely was, his distrust of the data furnished him by mathematical experi-
menters in those days; but now that we have Barlow and Hodgkinson, cal-
culation from the results of their labours may be safely relied on. Telford
was the first President of the Institution' of Civil Engineers, and died still
holding that office in 1834, aged seventy-seven years.

I shall conclude these sketches with a few remarks upon the life of an
engineer not less eminent than those already mentioned — the late George
Stephenson. He was born in 1781, at Wylam, a colliery village on Tyne-
side, near Newcastle. His father was a poor pitman, and he himself com-
menced his career of labour, when only seven years old, as a "trapper," and
advanced in the quality of his employment with bis years : became a "picker"
at five shillings a-week wages; then, the driver of a "gin;" then, a "breaks-
man," attending the engine while drawing up coals from the pit — and it was
at this time that he thought himself a "made man" for life, because his pay
was twelve shillings a-week. When about 23 years of age he began to learn
to read, for he had already felt the disadvantages of his early want of ele-
mentary education; and in his after years, he never omitted an opportunity
of urging young men to avail themselves of every means of education offered
to them. While at Killingworth colliery, he perhaps first felt aspirations for
higher things rising up within him. He was attentive, assiduous, and active-
minded; and he studied the engine at which be worked, so that in time he
came to understand it thoroughly. Not contented with merely understand-
ing it — he sought how to improve it, and added so many useful contrivances,
that he was at length called upon to do the work of an engineer. He never
made a false step, and every year found him higher up upon the ladder of
life. He was never idle, either in body or mind. He invented the safety-
lamp, and so greatly improved the locomotive engine, that that also may be
called hit invention. — What George Stephenson did for railways all know.

From these few instances in the lives of men devoted to science and to
art, the student will learn the necessity of study, exertion, and self-
dependence. An architect or an engineer taking up his work as a task, or
merely with the business-l.ke view of earning a livelihood, will never excel.
In the days when men of science were comparatively scarce, great persever-
ance was necessary to get into notice and rise to fame ; but double exertions
are now necessary; an aspirant to professional honour will find himself
jostled and hard set by competitors at every step of his progress. But this
must raise up within him a determined spirit of emulation, a spirit not to be
daunted or cast down by failures, but one that will become more buoyant by
pressure, and he must walk with steady stride and upright head along the
steep and difficult path which leads to fortune.

I have said that both architects and engineers must possess a knowledge
of the strength and nature of the materials with whieh they have to work.
This I think is self-evident, for the means or money to be expended is always
one great element lo their calculations | and the quantity of material that
can be usefully employed can only be ascertained by calculations based upon
an intimate knowledge of the strains and forces they will have to resist, and
the capabilities of the timber, the stone, the iron, or other substance that
may be employed to resist them. Both Tredgold and Barlow have furnished
us with admirable works from which the theoretical knowledge of the pro-
perties of all the materials used in building can be learned. There is no
excuse, therefore, for failures of work arising from actual want of strength ;
but failures do sometimes occur, notwithstanding every precaution may have
been taken to give the materials, both theoretically and practically, their
proper size and form, and proper distribution in the work. In engineering
especially, circumiitances are occurring every day, features constantly present

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

330

themselves, of which even the oldest practitioner may have had no example
previously ; and other means taken to obviate evils that may and do thus
arise may be the best that both science and art could point out, and yet fail
in their object. I say that these are misfortunes only, not faults; but when
they occur with a man unqualified by scientific linowledge to deal with thera,
they are very serious faults indeed, and should be visited vrith the utmost
censure.

Engineering (says Mr. Hyde Clarke), is of all profpssions, the military
excepted, that in which a new adaptation of expedients to unforeseen occur-
jences is ever most imperatively required, and in which a mere knowledge of
past eiTorts will be insufficient, unless the mind be competent to invent new
processes, as well as to avail itself in the best manner of old ones. No man
can go upon a spot and say, I will certainly do such and such things at such
an expense : some unexpected variation of nature beneath the surface will
often thwart the best-calculated plans, and render all attempts at economy
abortive. It is practice, aided by scientific knowledge of the highest kind,
that only can properly preside over the just application of material to the
ever-occurring variations which spring up in the course of an engineering
undertaking. And if science and practice sometimes fail in effecting their
object at once, what must be the result when ignorance attempts the work ?
Failure, certain and disastrous failure, heaping disgrace upon the head of the
quack practitioner, and often ruin upon his employers. I use the word quack
advisedly, for although neither architect nor engineer unfortunately need
diplomas of practice to give them a right to the use of C.A. or C.E. after
their names, — they yet have morally, and in common honesty, an obligation
which should bind thera to certain spheres of work which they feel them-
selves qualified to undertake; and depend upon it every man knows his own
capabilities. If, then, men calling themselves engineers or architects, under-
take a work they know they are incapable of performing without the assist-
ance of a dry-nurse, in the shape of a good " clerk of the works," they are
quacks in every sense of the word, — quacks as much as the charlatan who
practices medicine without the sanction of the colleges.

The demand for engineers, caused by the hair-brained railway speculations,
has filled the profession with unqualified persons, and has tended to lower it
below its proper level : and although the present times are, I am rejoiced to
say, weeding them out pretty fast, it will, and must, be some time before it
reaches its healthy state again.

It is true, the Institution of Civil Engineers and the Institute of Archi-
tects exist, and men to become members of either must present proper
qualifications; but there are numerous practitioners who are not members,
and who seek and gain employment. But I hope to see, ere long, by legisla-
tive enactment, both architect and engineer oliliged to take out a diploma
before being allowed to take upon themselves the responsibility of any woik,
when lives, or a sum of money beyond a certain amount, are at stake, — a
diploma granted only after a severe examination as to scientific acquirements,
and a practice under others of at least seven years.

I here beg permission to quote some passages from a paper written by Sir
John Soane, which appeared in the Artist of June 13th, 1807, — as quota-
tions from this high authority will give strength to what I have ventured to
suggest myself: —

" An architect, strictly so considered, is not sufficiently employed ; his pro-
fession is too open to the assumption of persons who have no claim by
education or ability ; and these are admitted to that patronage without which
the architect has no chance either of emolument or fame. There are, there-
fore, very few persons engaged solely in the practice of architecture. The
great mass of those whom we here call architects, though many of them
respectable in talents as artists, are under the necessity of combining with
their study of the science pursuits not strictly analogous, and are, in conse-
quence, and to their great discouragement and mortification, assimilated with
another description of professional men called surveyors, and that name is
again assumed by all sorts and classes of building workmen and others, until
it becomes utterly contemptible."

After enlarging somewhat (and in language by no means mild) upon the
difficulties which beset an architect when carrying out a design, through the
interference of public boards, and complaining, justly, that unqualified per-
sons are allowed to enter into competition with him, by the aid of pilfered
plans, Sir John concludes thus : —

" Before the state of architecture can be improved, and the professors
excited to that species of emulation which only can make them eminent,
strong and marked distinctions must take place. Those who have patronage
must consider it a sacred trust and deposit, — the meed only of science and
genius. The claims of the untaught, ignorant, and presumptuous, must not
only be disallowed, but repelled with indignalion and contempt, till at length
they are consigned to that obscurity whence they ought never to have been
suffered to emerge."

Both engineer and architect must also be men of business ; and to the
knowledge of the uses and relative advantages of materials must be added
the knowledge of their commercial value. The sum to be expended in any
undertaking is always a marked feature; and the reputation of an engineer,
especially, will be raised by the commercial success of his work. Harbours,
roads, canals, and railways, before they are commenced, must show that the
traffic or dues from them will amount to such a sum as will insure to their
projectors a proper return for their money. The first estimate of the
engineer is the document from which the probable amount of returns is cal-
culated. The statistical calculations, or the quantity of trade that wiU arise,
is not, strictly speaking, in the department of the engineer ; and he is not

answerable if the scheme is not a paying one, from a deficiency in the traffic
returns or dues ; but if it fail through any excessive expenditure over and
above his estimate, he is answerable. His estimate and scliedule of prices,
fixed through knowledge of local charges and custom of labour — through
his close observation and acquaintance with tlie geological features of the
spot, and through his knowledge of the best districts from whence to draw
his foreign materials — must he so worked out in detail, and capable of being
referred to precedent, if precedent exist, or borne out by tlie opinion of
others, that it will bear the strictest investigation — we will say for the sake
of example, that of a Parliamentary Committee; for be it remembered, that
estimates are the most vulnerable points in which opponents strike when in
the " House ;" and if the said estimates do not carry on the face of them
the handiwork of a man of business, they will be the first and last work of
the scheme — for the session in which they are brought forward at all events.

Perfect knowledge of the business habits of contractors, and of the work-
ing habits of artisans, can alone enable him to draw out his specification
properly. It is true, the lawyer will be called upon to give to it its legal
phrases and finely-drawn pains and penalties for any breach in the perform-
ance thereof; but the lawyer will have to work upon a base of the engineer's
planning, and, be it sure, the blame will rest with hira if any oversight has
been committed.

In the specification must be described the exact method by which the
various works enumerated therein are to be perlornied. All the drawings
must he enumerated, and more particularly referred to and exijlaincd; in
short, the specification must be a hook of reference, as it were, for the con-
tractor, by which he can settle dimensions and quantities, and appeal to in
case of any dispute with his employers as to the proper performance of his
duty. There can therefore, I think, be no doubt but that the engineer must
be a thorough man of business.

Because I have not alluded in these examples to the architect, it must not
be supposed that such documents as estimates and specifications are foreign
to his practice, for, equally with the engineer, must he be capable of direct-
ing the modus operandi of his undertaking, — nay, even probably with still
greater minuteness of detail, seeing that his work is generally more minute,
and depending more particularly upon exact dimensions for its success.

Both architects and engineers must also understand those branches of law
which relate to their profession, and study the science of jurisprudence, so
far as to enable them to judge of the legality of their proceedings, to pre-
vent their employers from being involved in law-suits through their means ;
and to extricate them by the shortest way when so involved, by a cessation
or alteration of the offensive operations, if the cause be connected witli their
pursuits. I mean not that their duties should in any way trench on those of
the attorney, or that they should advise in any matter involving a legal or
technical question, for "a little law is a dangerous thing;" but they should
always understand the particular sections of the law relating to their opera-
tions, that they may be able to steer clear of the dangerous rock of litiga-
tion.

All the laws of England contain enactments and regulations concerning
building, and theyconsist both of written laws or statutes, and unwritten
laws, or laws of common customs. It would be out of place here to describe
all the laws which affect the operations of an engineer or architect, but I
may be pardoned for making mention of one or two points that have come
within my experience, to serve as illustrations of my statement, that they
should know " their own law." When the inhabitants of a county are
liable for the repairs of a public bridge, they are liable also to repair, to the
extent of 100 yards, the highway at each end of the bridge. One instance
came under my observation, in which a surveyor neglected not only to take
into account the existence of that law in his estimate of the work to be
done, but even through his ignorance suffered an action to be brought against
himself, as the official representative of the county authorities. He lost the
action, and the magistrates refused to bear him harmless, " because he ought
to have known the law."

I may mention another instance in the case of a bridge. An engineer
was employed by a private gentleman to build a bridge for a public road
upon his estate; two years after its completion it was washed avv:iy by a
flood. It had become so useful to the public that it was necessary to
have it rebuilt, and the owner then thought that it might be erected at the
expense of the county. But the county refuwed, because his eugineer had
not submitted his plans to, and oblaiued the approval of, the couuty sur-
veyor,— this neglect freeing them from the legal obligation.

Again, an architect designed and erected for a genthman a very expen-
sive conservatoi'y, and it was made portable, for as this geutleniau was
only a yearly tenant, he intended to remove it should he change his resi-
dence. But his architect erected the conservatory on a brick luuudatiou;
it thus became a fixture, and the property of the landlord.

Examples of such cases might be repeated until the relation of them
might fill a considerable volume, but those mentioned will serve to show
that the artist employed to execute any works should inquire cuucerniug
the laws relating to them.

I have now said as much as the limits of a lecture will allow, upon the
duties required of architects and engineers, but I will add a few words
upon the duties of the general community with regard to architecture more
especially.

If we refer to history we shall find that exactly in proportion as civilisa-
tion advanced, civil aixhileclure flourished — had its I'ise, its progress, and
decay. It took its styles, its varieties, and its general tone, from lire uatiou

44*

310

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND AUCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[NoVEMBKB,

who inveutfd or introduced it; and what may with great proprietj be
called a iiatiuudi st)le ainajs existed.

Greece, during her independence, invented that architecture which, even
at the present day, is our model. Her princes and rtiltTS esteemed it the
highest honour to be ranked with artists, and her buildings were looked
upon by all as types of her glory.

Republican Home, although .*lie borrowed her designs from Greece, and
built by the hands of Grecian arliets, cherished architecture, because,
through it, the Eternal City might be embellished, and the diguily of its
citizens be enlarged; and although this did nol, perhaps, proceed from
pure love and >eneralion of the art, it hnd its efTects, and buildings were
produced that have been handed dona to us as forms worthy to be imitated
even to the present day.

The architecture of England also had its rise, progress, and decay : its
rise during the Anglo-Normans, — its progress during the reigns of the
Plautagenels and Tudors, when it arrived at its greatest excellence, — and
its decline may date from James I., almost up to our own times. I say
almost, for latterly, under the fostering patronage of royalty, and men of
taste and genius, it has struggled into a new existence : let us hope that it
is the dawn of a new era for architecture and the fine arts in England.
That this germ may bud and grow into healthy beauty, it will require the
steady co-operation of all Englishmen connected in any way with archi-
tecture. Genuine professors of the art will gladly give their best energies
to the task of regeneration, and we have already examples which tell in
glorious language (language engraven in stone) what will be the result of
those energies. Nothing is wanted but men of influence and and taste to add
weight to the balance already inclining so decidedly in favour of purity
and fitness of stjle. I am an advocate iot fitness in the style of architecture
of every liuilding, civil, inililary, and ecclesiastic; and would those through
whose patronage the fine arts flourish study, equally with its professors,
the true meaning and intent of fitness, there would speedily be an end to
incongruity, and English buildings would stand proiniuenlly out as types
of English architecture.

Both Grecian and Palladian architecture have taken so firm a root in
the soil of England, that any attempt to dismiss the styles at once would
be useless, and perhaps fatal to the regeneraiion of a national one. But
will nol a liille consideraliun show that these styles are unfiited for the
English climate throughout the year? The windows, few and far between,
obstruct the light. 1 he low pitched roofs retain the snow and rain, and
the projecting porticoes throw shadows where there is already too much
shade. An Italian villa, appropriately situate, may fitly serve as a sum-
mer residence ; but we must seek in another style that comfort and homeli-
ness so loved by all Englishmen: for this style we need not become imita-
tors or pilferers from a foreign nation.

The high-pitched roof, the clustering chimney shafts, the ornamented
gable, the oriel window, the irregular plan, suitable as well for internal
convenience as for external beauty, are all characteristic of our English
style; and each feature has, besides, fitness to our climate to further
recommend it. I wish particularly to be understood that I now speak of
domestic architecture, — for that of public edifices we may still be indebted
to Greece or liome. Our palaces, institutions, and prisons may still be in
the decorated Corinthian, the chaste Palladian, or the stern and sombre
Doric. But let our residences, our country residences, serve to keep us
in mind of our former genius, while they add to our comfort and enjoy-
ment.

One word more before we leave this subject, upon a point which every
man has power to forward. I allude to internal decoration. In this
branch of art, the house-painter, the paper hanger, and the joiner, are too
often allowed to usurp tie place of artists, and sulTered to bedaub the
walls with incongruous colours or tasteless woodwork. Joiners, in par-
ticular, have a kind of gystematised patent to work evil things; custom to
one set of forms and method of work, has so fixed itself upon us, that
the same set of moulding planes, the same kind of paneling, serves for all
styles of houses. The architect himself is probably somewhat to blame in
this, but I believe only to a small extent, for builders, nol architects, are
generally employed to run up the brick-and-stucro boxes called houses, —
and these, building either per contract, or for themselves, to save money
and trouble, are liltle inclined to study proprie'y in internal finish. It is
Dot that artists consider it beneath them to be the decorators, for italTaelle
painted the walls of the Vaticim, Kuben's hand embellished the ceiling of
Whiiehall, Sir James Thornhill decorated the walls of the chapel and hall
of Greenwich, and we have Owen Jones in our day.

It cannot, therefore, be through any false notion of the architect that
these internal finishings are left to artisans; but whether it be or not, every
gentleman, every man of cullivated mind, is to blame who sulfeis his
house to be coloured up to suit the taste of the sign-painter, who, without
any feeling of art in liis composition, daubs away in any shade of any
pigment be may fancy to be in fashion.

Many patrons of the arts would fire up and say indignantly, "I do not
suffer this outrage upon taste to be committed in my house." And I am
only happy to admit that there are some glorious exceptions to my rule; hut
that they are exceptions I »ill uphold, and say confidently that eight men
out of ten have houses painted, fitted, and furnished, «itli designs that have
issued from the shop, and n. t from the studio. Poor men in the present
state of things cannot, perha|is, help this; and the poor man with refined
feelings for art must submit, for he cannot alter. But rich men are those to
whom I point, and say, — " Study art, and be judges yourselves where art is

employed ; or consult those whose whole life has been devoted to the culti-
vation of it,— and who «ill work for you, not for money alone, but for the
love of art : architects are such men,"

I shall now heg to conclude with a brief outline of the system I intend to
follow in my instructions. The heads of this lecture will show what points
I consider the most essential : I shall not confine myself to these alone, hut
often dwell upon studies which will naturally arise during their development.

The students in both civil enjiineering and architecture will be divided
into three classes. Ihe junior classes of each will be united, because I con-
sider that their first studies are identical ; and the lectures will he arranged
thus: — The history of architecture and engineering, commencing from the
earliest state of man in which either science existed ; carrying it on through
the several epochs which have left us any marked signs from which to date,
up to the present time. From this subject I shall go on to the theory and
practice of building, explaining the principles which are to guide us ; give
piactical rules and data for determining dimensions; and lay down, as far as
possible, a firm foundation upon which the student may build up his own
reputation. This junior class will be confined entirely to the study of first
principles and detail, that each division of students when they join their
respective second classes, may be prepared for general principles and more
practical inquiries, and learn the arts as well as the sciences connected with
their professions.

The subjects brought before the 2nd class of jirchitecture will be divided
into three sections. The first will consist of an inquiry into the principles
which constitute beauty in architecture, — fitness of construction, propriety
of form, and dimensions being brought more prominently forward than the
abstruser doctrines which must form the study of maturer years. The orders
of classic architecture, their general character and application ; intercolum-
niations, pediments, profiles of doors and windows, proportions of rooms,
and matters of this nature, will form the studies of the second section ; and
the third section will consist of inquiries into the practical detail of old
English domestic architecture.

The studies of the senior class of Architecture will be almost entirely
practical. Proper data will be supplied to the students, and they will design
from them simple edifices in the first instance, and proceed gradually to more
complicated buildings; examining also into the requisites for barracks, hospi-
tals, prisons, and other public buildings, — the necessary working drawings,
specifications, and modes of measurement being particularly attended to
in all.

The Ind class of Engineering will be engaged in learning the art of using
the pile-engine and driving piles for foundations; timber bridges and cotfei-
dams ; of preparing foundations under various circumstances of locality and
material ; of erecting bridges of timber, masonry, and cast-iron ; of drain-
ing ; of laying out and constructing ordinary roads and railways ; of sewer-
ing and draining towns, and supplying them with light and water.

The studies of the senior class of Engineering }:fi\\ he directed to hydraulic
engineering — which consists of canals and their detail, docks, harbours,
breakwaters, sea defenses, and lighthouses. Great attention will be paid to
drawing and designing from given data, and the making of estimates and
specifications ; — lut these sulijects will not be confined to the senior, but be
equally attended to by the 2nd class.

It is likewise my wish to make all the students familiar with the use of
tools, and that they should become practical as well as scientific workmen ;
that this is essential, I have the high authority of the late Mr. Telford, who
has said, — " Youths of respectability and competent education, who contemp-
late civil engineering as a profession, are seldom aware how far they ought to
descend in order to found the basis of future elevation. It has happened to
me more than once, when taking opportunities of being useful to a young
man of merit, that I have experienced opposition in taking him from his
books and drawings, and placing a mallet and chisel or a trowel in his hands,
till, rendered confident by the solid knowledge which only experience can
bestow, he was qualified to insist on the due performance of workmanship,
and to judge of merit as well in the lower as in the higher departments of a
profession in which no kind or degree of practical knowledge is superfluous.
For this reason, I ever congratulate myself upon the circumstances which
compelled me to begin by working with my own hands."

Many, indeed I may say most, of the young men of the present lime have
no idea at all of working themselves ; they learn in the office, from draw,
ings, how work ought to be done, — perhaps I shall be even more correct
when I say they know how it ought to look when done; but how to do it
they don't know, and are thus obliged to trust much to artificers: and I have
known young engineers hesitate to find fault with bad work — such work as
common-sense would pronounce to be imperfect — because they could not
point out to the workmen the way in which it should be executed.

It perhaps would be loo much to expect that every architect and engineer
should he absolutely skilful operatives, because, to become so, the artificer's
tools must be constantly in the band; whereas their time, of course, would
be occupied more in head than in hand labour. They must, however, as I
have remarked, be learned judges of work; and do man can be this unless
he himself knows how to work.

Having mentioned the numerous subjects which will form studies for the
aspirants to professional qualification, 1 wish it to be distinctly understood
that we do not profess to perfect young men, either as engineers or archi-
tects, any more than the Woolwich cadet is perfected by the academy to
command when he has received his commission : he may possess the scienti-
fic knowledge' theoretically, but it will be readily admitted that be will lack

184.9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

3-11

the cool head and ready resources in danger which practice and confidpnce,
the result of practice, alone can give. A naval cadet may li-arn navigation,
—may know how to steer, to reef and furl, and even to rit? a ship, hy in-
structions on shore; hut he would make a sorry seaman without he gained
bis experience amongst the rough realities of liis profession. So, also, a
civil engineer or an architect may learn how to excavate, to build, and to
design at college; hut he must not he entrusted to expend money for others
upon his designs, without being qualified by steady, bard practice.

But we do profess to give the architectural and engineering student that
scientific knowledge, that theoretical acquaintance with their business, that
when they enter the office of a practical man, they may understand v\hat
they see — and understanding, profit by tiie experience they will gain on
works entrusted to their charge. From my experience with young begin-
ners, it is my decided and serious opinion that they should, before entering
an office, learn well all the theoretical branches of their proftssiou, because
when in the office they will he left principally to their ovvu resources; and,
unless they learn themselves from opportunities offering (not pointed out to
them), they may leave the office at the end of their term with probably some
knowledge of simple business routine — with some vague and undigested ideas
of the conduct of works; but further than that, as little qualified to practice
as when they left school.

In this respect, then, as offering a sound mathematical and scientific edu-
cation to yuung professional men, this College ought to be encouraged by
the older societies of Civil Engineers and Architerts,— for by doing so, they
would receive into their ranks far different, far better, men than they have
been in the habit of receiving.

I earnestly hope, having the dignify of my profession at heart, I may he
enabled to unite my strength with tliat of the other professors of this estab-
lishment, so effectually, that it may become all that its most ardent support-
ers can desire.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Nineteenth Meeting, — held at Birmingham, September, 1 849.

(Continued from page 314.)

Chemical Section. — Db. Percy in the Chair.

1. Chi the Decomposition and Partial Solution of Minerals, Kochs,
SfC, by Pure Water, and Water charged with Carbonic Acid. By
Prof. W. B. Rogers and Prof. R. E. Rogers, of the University of
Virginia, U.S.

In opening this communication, Prof. W. B. Rogers adverted to
its important bearings upon the Chemistry of Geology and the
tlieories of the formation of soils and of the nutrition of plants.
He referred to the experiments of Struve, Forchliammer and
others, as being of too restricted a sco|)e to permit a basis for
reasoning generally on the disintegration of rocks, the formation
of chalcedonic, zeolitic and other minerals by solution, and the
conveyance of inorganic materials into the structure of plants.
It therefore becomes a question of importance v\hether water,
pure or charged with carbonic acid, possesses tliat general decom-
posing and dissolving power which some chemists have vaguely
and witliout sufficient evidence ascribed to it, or whether this
action applies only to the few materials hitherto tried, and which
all contain an alkali.

The experiments of the Professors Rogers wei"e of two kinds:
first, by an extemporaneous method with tlie tache, and second, by
prolonged digestion, at the ordinary temperature. In the former a
small quantity of the mineral in very fine powder is digested for a
few moments on a small filter of purified paper, and a single clear
drop of the liquid received on a platinum slip is dried and ex-
amined by appropriate tests before .Tnd after ignition. In the
second process a quantity of the finely-powdered mineral is placed
with the liquid in a green glass bottle, and agitated from time to
time for a prescribed period. The liquid separated by filtration is
evaporated to dryness in a platinum capsule. The residuum is
then critically examined, and, if in sufficient amount, is submitted
to quantitative analysis. In both processes two parallel experi-
ments were made, the one with pure atirated water, the other with
water charged to saturation at 60° viith carbonic acid. In the
second process correction was made for the alkali, lime, &c., dis-
solved from the containing glass, by making separate experiments
in similar vessels without the mineral powders.

1. AVhen the substance is very minutely po^idered before
mingling it with the liquid, even the first drops that pass the
filter will commonly give a tache containing some of the alkali or
alkaline earth that has bren dissolved. In this way proof of the
action of the carbonated water may generally be obtained in a few
minutes after adding it to the powder. In the case of pure water
the action is feebler and requires a longer time; but with nearly

all the substances enumerated it is distinct, and with some of
them quite intense.

2. By an independent series of experiments, to determine the
effect of heat, which were made upon the taches of potassa and
soda, and their carbonates, and upon those of carbonate of lime
and magnesia, as well as upon considerable quantities of these
substances successively exposed in a crucible to the heat of a table
blow-pipe, it was found that the order of volatility was as follows:
potassa, soda, magnesia, lime. The tache of potassa disappeared
almost at once, that of soda lingered some time, that of magnesia
wasted more slowly, while that of lime remained with little altera-
tion for a long time. Before heat was applied the tache of the
alkalies or their carbonates would of course be strongly alkaline.
That of the carbonate of magnesia also presented a decided and
sometimes strong reaction with the test paper, while that of car-
bonate of lime gave a merely appreciable effect. But on raising
the tache to a red heat, the carbonate of lime, by escape of car-
bonic acid, would acquire intense alkalinity, the reaction of the
magnesia tache would be but little altered, and that of the alkaline
taches would be almost or entirely destroyed. As examples of this
distinctive testing and of the mode of proceeding in these tache
experiments. Prof. Rogers gave some details extracted from the
large mass of unpublished results, and called attention particu-
larly to the contrasting phenomena in the cases of Leucite,
Olivine, and Epidote: the first characterised by potassa, the second
by magnesia; and the last by lime. Thus, in the case of Leucite,
the water tache and carbonic acid water tache were both alkaline,
the latter very strongly so. But even gentle ignition for a few
seconds, or strong ignition for a moment, was found entirely to dis-
sipate the alkali. In the case of Olivine, the water tache was
decidedly alkaline; and that from carbonic acid water greatly
more so. Ignition produced for the first second or two but little
change; but its continuance caused a gradual diminution of the
alkaline reaction, which at the end of ten seconds was reduced to
about one-twelfth of what it was at first. With Epidote, the tache
presented an extremely feeble reaction before heating. Ignited
for a moment, the alkalinity was intense; and after ten seconds of
ignition, but little abatement of the alkaline reaction was discerned.

3. Referring to the second method of experimenting used by the
Professors Rogers — viz., that of prolonged digestion in water or car-
bonic acid water. Prof. Rogers exhibited results obtained with
hornblende, epidote, chlorite, mesotype, &c., showing that the
amount of solid matter dissipated by the carbonated water in
many of these cases is quite sufficient for a qualitative analysis even
when the digestion has only been continued for forty-eight hours.
When farther prolonged, they have procured from the liquid a
quantity of lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, alumina, silica, and
alkali, the dissolved ingredients of these minerals severally
amounting sometimes to nearly one per cent, of the whole mass.

4. In connection with the preceding investigations. Profs. Rogers
were led to an examination of the comparative solubility of carbonate
of lime and carbonate of magnesia in carbonated water. In the
standard chemical and geological works, the carbonate of lime is
stated to be the more soluble; and on this supposed fact is founded
a common theory of the origin of the large quantities of carbonate
of magnesia in the magnesian limestones. It was conceived that
in a mixed limestone containing both the carbonates, the relative
amount of carbonate of magnesia would be augmented through the
more rapid removal of the carbonate of lime by the percolating
waters, and that thus the mass would approach more and more to
the composition of a dolomite. The experiments of the Profs.
Rogers demonstrate that in water impregnated with carbonic acid,
carbonate of magnesia is much more soluble than carbonate of
lime. Thus by allowing the slightly-carbonated water to filter
through a mass of magnesian limestone in fine powder, and col-
lecting the clear liquid, analysis detected a much larger proportion
of carbonate of magnesia in the solution in comparison with the
carbonate of lime than corresponded with the amount of those
substances relatively in the powdered rock. Again, by agitating
briskly a quantity of the powder with the carbonated water in a
glass vessel, and then separating the liquid by filtration, it was
found that a larger relative amount of the carbonate of magnesia
had been taken up by the solvent, than of carbonate of lime.
From these experiments, the Profs. Rogers infer that the unfilter-
ing rain-water, with its slight charge of carbonic acid, in passing
through or between strata of magnesian limestone will remove the
carbonate of magnesia more rapidly than the carbonate of lime;
and that thus the rock will gradually become relatively less mag-
nesian, instead of being made to approach the contiition of a
dolomite, as is commonly maintained. Prof, Rogers called atten-
tion to the fact that the stalactites in caverns of magnesian lime-

342

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

stone contain only minute quantities of carbonate of magnesia.
An I'Xiimiiiation or those in Weyer's cave in Virginia liad proved
tliat wliile the niilivy white opaque stalactites contain a small hut
measurable amount, the sparry and more transparent kinds are
almost destitute of a trace of this ingredient. It is evident that
in such cases the carbonate of magnesia is carried oif by the liquid
below, and that such is the case seems to be confirmed by the fact
of the large amount of carbonate of magnesia found in the springs
in tlie immediate neighbourhood of the cave just named.

5. A fact of much interest noticed in these experiments, is the
comparative readiness with which the magnesian and calcareo-
magnesian silicates yield to the decomposing and dissolving action
of carbonated water and even simple water. This explains the
rapid decomposition of most rocks composed of hornblende,
epidote, ike, without calling in the agency of an alkali; and it
enaldes us to trace the simple process by which plants are fur-
nished with the lime and magnesia they require from soils contain-
ing these silicates without our having recourse to any mysterious
decomposing power of the roots of the growing vegetable.

6. In their tache experiments, the Profs. Rogers ascertained that
the powder of anthracite, bituminous coal, and lignite, all yielded
a discernable amount of alkali to the cai'bonated water, while the
ashes of these materials similarly treated gave no alkaline trace
on the test paper. This, they think, is at once explained by the
high temperature at which tiie ash is formed, which by experi-
ments already noticed is quite sufficient to dissipate any portion of
alkali or carbonate originally present in the material.

Remarks. — Mr. Pattinson stated that he had patented a process for
separating magnesia from the magnesian limestone. Tlie process consists in
forcing carbonic acid to dissolve the magnesia, whereas it will not dissolve
the lime.

2. Report on the Oxidation of Rails in and out of use, determining
the Loss by Abrasion. By Mr. R. Mallet.

The top surface of a railway-bar in use is constantly preserved
in a state of perfect cleanliness, freedom from oxidation, and polish;
while the remainder of the bar is rough-coated originally with
black oxide, and soon after with red rust (peroxide and basic
salts). Not only is every metal electro-positive to its onn oxides,
but, as established in the second Report on the Action of Air and
AVater on Iron, the polished portion of a mass of metal partially
polished and partially rough is primarily corroded on the rough
portion. Hence a railway-bar while in use is constantly preserved
from rusting by the presence of its polished top surface. Such
polished surface has no existence on the rail out of use. The
upper surface of the rail in use is rapidly condensed and hardened
by the rolling of the traffic over it; and it is also shown in the
above Report that, all other circumstances being the same, the
rate of corrosion of any iron depends upon its density, and is less
in proportion as this is rendered greater by mechanical means. As
every metal is positive to its own oxides, the adherent coat of rust
upon iron, while it remains, powerfully promotes the corrosion of
the metal beneath, and this in a greater degree in proportion as
the rust adherent is of greater antiquity. It has been shown that
the rust produced by air and water, which at first contains but
little per-oxide, continues to change slowly, and becoming more
and more per-oxidised, becomes more and electro-negative to its
own base. Now, the rust upon a railway-bar out of use continues
always to adhere to it, and thus to promote and accelerate its cor-
rosion; while the rust formed upon a railway-bar in use is per-
petually shaken off by vibration, and thus this source of increased
chemical action removed.

To recapitulate, railway-bars forming part of a long line, whe-
ther in or out of use, corrode less for equal surfaces than a short
piece of the same iron similarly exposed. Rails in use corrode
less than those out of use. This difference is constantly decreas-
ing with the lapse of time. The absolute amount of corrosion is
a source of destruction of the rail greatly inferior to that due to
traffic. It is highly probable that the electrical and magnetic
forces developed in the rails by terrestrial magnetism and by
rolling traiHc re-act in some way upon the chemical forces con-
cerned in their corrosion; aiul that, therefore, the direction of
lines of railway in azimuth is not wholly indifferent as respects
the question of the durability of rails.

The author concludes with two practical suggestions, deducible
from the information obtained: — 1st. Of whatever quality iron
rails are rolled, that they should be subjected prior to use to an
uniform course of hammer-hardening all over the top surface and
sides of the rails; and, 2ndly, that all railway-bars before being
laid down should, after having been gauged and straightened, be
heated to about 400° Fahrenheit, and then coated with boiled coal-
tar. This has been proved to last more than four years, as a

coating perfectly impervious to corrosive action, while constantly
exposed to traffic.

.3. Anah/tical Investigations of Cast-iron. By Mr. AVniGnTSON-.

The analyses showed the influence of the hot blast in producing
the so-called "Cold Short Iron," by occasioning an increased
reduction of phosphoric acid, and the consequent increase of
phosphorus in the "hot-blast" iron. The respective per centages
were —

1 I 2 I 3 I 4 ] .1 I fi I 7
Cold Blast .. 0 47 U-11 0-31 (fin 0 21 0-OM 0:tS
Hot Blast .. 0-51 I 0 5.^ j 0-60 1 071 ] 0-^4 | 0*ur [ 0-4D

The irons differed also considerably as to the state in which the
carbon was contained in the hard white iron, resembling impure
steel, containing nearly all its carbon in a state of chemical com-
bination, whilst the carbon contained in the grey and mottled
varieties of iron was principally contained only as a mechanical
mixture. The presence of sodium and potassium in all the speci-
mens examined was also noticed for the first time, and it was
thought probable that these might materially affect the qualities
of the metal.

liemar/is. — Mr. Phillips pointed out the loss of carbon, which, in the
method described, would arise from the use of hydrochloric acid, giving rise
to an oily product; to which Mr. Wrightso.v replied tliat he had determined
the carbon by an independent method. — The President inquired if Mr.
Wrightson had sought arsenic in all liis analyses ? — Mr. Wrightson replied
that be had not found it in some, and did not, in consequence, look for it in
the others. — The President objected that it was as important to determine
the absence as the presence of so important an element as arsenic. In reply
to an inquiry, be said that in examining the slags of furnaces in many coun-
tries, he had only discovered phosphoric acid in one from Belgium.

4. On Copper containing Phosphorus, with details of Experiments
on the Corrosive Action of Sea-Water on some varieties of Copper.
By Dr. Percy.

Upon analysing a specimen of copper, to which when in a state
of fusion some phosphorus had been added, it was found that it
contained a considerable quantity of phosphorus, and also a large
portion of iron derived from an iron rod employed in stirring the
mixture at each addition of the phosphorus. The copper employed
was of the "best selected" — it appeared to be harder than copper
treated with arsenic. The details of the analysis of 116'76 grains
were given, the result of which was —

Phosphorus 0*93

Irou l-y9

A second analysis gave —

Copper 9.572

Iron 2-41

Phosphorus 2'41

100-.54

It has long been stated that a very small quantity of phosphorus
renders copper extremely hard, and adapts it for cutting-instru-
ments— but such an alloy as that formed by Dr. Percy has not
previously been formed. It is a remarkable fact that the presence
of so large a quantity of phosphorus and iron should so little
affect the tenacity and malleability of the copper. The effect also
of phosphorus in causing soundness in the casting of copper is
interesting, and may be of practical importance.

Remarks. — Captain James, superintending engineer at the Woolwich
dockyard, said that the rapidity with which copper sheathing sometimes de-
cays was surprising; in five months it sometimes decays completely. Some
of the old copper had lasted forty years ; and for the purpose of determining
the cause of this difference, he made a series of experiments on all the
copper which had been used in her Majesty's dockyard. By steeping these
different coppers in salt water for nine months, a series of actions set in,
which, by subsequent weighing, were accurately determined. The following
table exhibits the results of these experiments : —

Grains.

Klectrotype copper, loss per square inch 1'4

Selected copper 1 • 1

Copper containing phosphorus ■(.)

Copper from the " Kloric" VI 2

dockyard copper. No. 1 l-(i6

Uitto No. 2 3'

l>iUo No. 3 2-43

Ditto No. 4 2'a3

Rlunts's metal -yj

Mr. Phillips inquired if the specimens were wholly exposed to the water,
or were only partially exposed, so as to allow the action of air ; as in the
latter case the chloride of magnesium in sea-water would give rise to the
formation of an oxichloride, but which would not be formed if air were
absent. — Captain James said they had been wholly immersed.

5. On the Formatioyi of Dolomite. By Professor Forchhajumeb.
The white chalk of Denmark is covered by a bed only a few feet
thick, containing corals of the genera Caryophyllia and Oculina,
and a number of fossils different from those of the white chalk;

18i9.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

343!

that this bed, which may be seen over a preat part of Denmark
always in the same position, the same fossiliological character, and
the same thickness in the hill of Faxtie, is enlarged to a thickness
which cannot be much less than 150 feet. Here the Faxoe lime-
stone is covered by a bed of dolomite, ivhich again is covered by a
bed of limestone, consisting almost entirely of fragments of
Bryozoa, and belonging likewise to the chalk formation. The
limestone of Faxoe contains about 1 per cent, of carbonate of
magnesia, arising from the shells and corals which always contain
it in a small quantity, but which in some instances, as in the Isis
and some Serpulre, amount to 6 or 7 per cent. The bryozoan lime-
stone which covers the dolomite does not contain more than 1 per
cent, of carbonate of magnesia, while the dolomite contains 16 or
17 per cent, of carbonate of magnesia. The dolomite occurs
generally in round globular masses; very similar to those of Hum-
bledon Hill, and are evidently (like most of the globular masses of
limestone, such as confetti di Tivoli, and the peastone from Carls-
bad) the produce of springs, — an opinion which is still more con-
firmed by a number of large vertical tube-like cavities, which pass
through the compact limestone, and are completely similar to those
described by several English geologists as passing through the
chalk, which have been recognised as the natural pipes of springs.
Thus the Faxoe dolomite is the produce of springs; but then these
springs have deposited stalagmitical limestone wherever they
have passed through the crevices of tlie limestone rock, which as a
more or less thick coating covers all the fossils. Now, this produce
of tbe springs contains only a very small quantity of magnesia,
but besides lime, a great quantity of oxide of iron. It appears
thus, that the springs do not deposit carbonate of magnesia, if no
other reaction takes place than the escape of carbonic acid; but
that the dolomite is formed where the carbonic acid springs come
in contact with sea-water. The author has made a great number
of experiments on the decomposition which takes place when water
containing carbonates dissolved by carbonic acid acts upon sea-
water, and found that always a more or less great quantity of car-
bonate of magnesia was precipitated with the carbonate of lime.
AVhen using water containing only carbonate of lime, the quantity
of carbonate of magnesia thrown down at a boiling heat amounted
to 12,^ per cent., the rest being carbonate of lime. The results of
this decomposition vary, however, very much, and according to
conditions not yet well known. So much, however, may be stated,
that the quantity of carbonate of magnesia precipitated increases
with the increasing temperature. AVater which, besides carbonate
of lime, contains carbonate of soda, throws down a much larger
quantity of carbonate of magnesia, amounting in one experiment
to 27 '93 per cent, of the precipitate. At last, the author tried
what kind of precipitate some of the most famous mineral springs
of Germany would form, if they at the boiling point aeted upon
sea-water. Thus, he obtained : —

From the water of Sellers.

Carbonate of lime 86'55

„ maguesia 13'45

loo-uo
From the water of Pyrmont,

Carbonate of lime 84-33

„ magnesia b-\2

Protoxide of iroa 10 50

lillf 01)

The oxide of iron in the experiment was of course precipitated

as peroxide of iron, and from tliat the carbonate was calculated —

From tlie water of Wildengen,

Carbonate of lime 92'12

„ magnesia 7'8ej

lOo-iiu
Remarks. — Professor Ansted agreed with the view of Professor Forch-
hammer relative to the formation of dolomite, at the same time observing
that there were undoubtedly several other ways in which it may be pro-
duced, but that suggested by M. Forchhammer was undoubtedly one. — Dr.
Daubeny was glad to see that such subjects were enjoying the attention of
chemists. Had Von Bucks had a small amount of chemical knowledge, he
would have avoided the elaborate but untenable theory relative to the forma-
tion of dolomite which he had advanced.

6. On the Colouring of Glass by Metallic Oxides. By M.

BoNTEJJPS.

Oxide of iron gives usually a green colour, but by various
methods of treatment the author obtained by its use all the colours
of the spectrum. In the manufacture of earthenware a red was
obtained by iron, and at some degrees of heat it gave a yellow
colour. Manganese gives a purple or pink colour. The light
pink colour given by manganese is liable to change by exposure
to a low heat; it passes first to brownish red, then to yeUow,

and lastly to green. Flint-glass, in which small quantities of
manganese are used, is liable to become of a light yellow by
exposure to light. Copper produces a fine red colour, and also
a green; the former being produced by the lowest degree of
oxidation, and the latter by the highest. Silver produces a
yellow colour, which may vary fi-om lemon yellow to deep orange.
Gold, in the form of the purple precipitate of cassius, gives a
ruby colour to glass, but it requires careful treatment; the mixture
when first melted is colourless, but becomes red on re-heating.
The various colours whicli at different temperatures the same
oxide produces, are attributable to some molecular change in the
glass.

M. Bontemps has found that similar changes take place in the
annealing oven. He has determined, by experiments made by
him on polyzonal lenses for M. Fresnel, that light is the agent
producing the change mentioned; and the author expresses a
doubt whether any change in the oxidization of the metal will
explain the photogenic effect. A series of chromatic changes of a
similar character were observed with the oxides of co])per; the
colours being in like manner regulated by the heat to which the
glass was exposed. It was found that silver, although with less
intensity, exhibited the same phenomena; and gold, although
usually employed for the purpose of imparting varieties of red,
was found by various degrees of heating at a high temperature
and re-casting several times to gi^'e a great many tints, varying
from blue to pink, red, opaque yellow, and green. Charcoal in
excess in a mixture of silica alkaline glass gives a yellow colour,
which is not so bright as the yellow from silver, and this yellow-
colour may be turned to a dark red by a second fire. The author is
disposed to refer these chromatic changes to some modifications of
the composing particles rather than to any chemical changes in
the materials employed.

Remarks. — Dr. Faraday said, in the beautiful facts brought forward by
M. Bontemps, it appeared that many of the changes of colour mentioned
are purely physical. The phenomena of the change of manganese fiom
white to pink in glass appeared to him inexplicable as a chemical effect.

Mr. DiLKE inquired upon what peculiarity depended the .iiBerences dis-
covered to exist in the coloured glass of the windows of old churches and
that of modern manufacture.

M. Bontemps stated that the observed differences were entirely due to
age and imperfections in manufacture.

Dr. Faraday remarked that any irregularities tended to produce the
diffusion of the rays which permeate the glass; and that the opacity of
ancient church windows was probably due to a superficial change of the
external surface.

M. Bontemps stated that old glass was by repolisbing rendered as trans-
parent as any modern glass.

Dr. Faraday concurred with M. Bontemps in regarding the phenomena
of coloured glasses not as purely chemical nor purely physical, and bL'lieved
that it is only by considering them conjointly as physical and chemical that
they can be successfully studied.

7. On the cause of the Colouration of Porcelain by Oxide of Iron,
and the general theory of Kilns. By M. Leon Arnoux.

This communication, which was read by the author in the French
language, entered very extensively into the general detail of the
process of forming porcelain, and particularly adverted to many
defects to which it was liable in the process of manufacture. Par-
ticular attention had, however, been directed to discover the cause
giving rise to a disagreeable yellow tint which frequently presented
itself. The author comes to the conclusion that this yellow colour
is due to the presence of oxide of iron. It had been thought by
jM. Ebelman that infinitely small quantities of carbon produced
this defect, but all the experiments of M. Arnoux went to prove
the presence of iron whenever the porcelain presented this peculiar
tint.

A short discussion followed between the author and M. Bontemps, the
latter contending that carbon was far more likely to produce this yellow
than iron, and instanced the effects of carbon on glass. He was disposed to
think that at the high temperature of firing, the presence of iron would give
rise to a blue rather than a yellow colour.

8. On an improvement in the Preparation of Photographic Paper,
for the purpose of Automatic Registration, in which a long-continued
action was necessary. By Mr. Charles Brooke.

The preparation of the paper described may be thus briefly
stated: — The paper is washed over by a brush with a solution of
12 grains of bromide of potassium, 8 grains of iodide of potassium,
and i gi-ains of isinglass in 1 fluid ounce of distilled water, and
dried quicklj'. When about to be used it is washed over by a
brush with a solution of 50 grains of nitrate of silver to 1 fluid
ounce of water, and placed on the cylinder of the registering
apparatus, on which it remains in action for twenty-four hours.

314

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[NOVEMBEB,

^V^len removed the impression is developed by brushina: over a
warm solution of frallic acid, containinjr 20 ffi-ains in the fluid
(Hiiice, to wliicli a little stron^r acetic acid is added, and is then
fixed with a solution of hyposulphite of soda in the usual manner.
The present im])rovement consists in rinsings the paper in water
after the application of the solution of nitrate of silver, pressinj^
out the superfluous moisture in folds of blottinf^-paper, and then
addiiifr a little more of tlie s(dution of nitrate of silver to tlie sur-
face of the paper. This is most conveniently eff'ected by pouring
a small quantity on the paper, and then pressing a glass-rod or
tube lightly over the paper, by which the solution is evenly dis-
tnlmted over the surface, and the contact of organic matter
avoided. The increased sensibility and improved cleanliness of
the paper consequent on this addition to the process are presumed
to depend on the removal by washing of tlie nitrate of potash
formed by the mutual decomposition of the salts on the surface of
the paper.

/temarii.—Mr. Shaw remarked that the difficulty Mr. Brooke had ex-
perieiiced could only have arisen from some defect in the preparation of his
paper, and that had tlie difficulty a real existence, the means proposed to
remedy it were very doubtful. lie spoke confidently on the suhject, as by
hundreds of experiments he knew that the paper in question, when cartfully
prepared, preserved all its properties unimpaired for a much longer period
than that named by Mr. Brooke, and the failure of the paper in his hands
must have arisen from want of care in its preparation. Mr. Brooke's pro-
posed remedy was, he believed, defective in the following respect :— Mr.
Brooke assumed, that by adding bromide of potassium to the iodiile, a mix-
ture of the bromide and iodide of silver would be obtained on the paper;
hut such was not the case. If paper prepared with bromide of silver be
drawn through a solution of iodide of potassium, the whole of the bromide
is converted into iodide. The same took place with chloride of silver when
treated with iodide of potassium, so that Mr. Brooke was in error in suppos-
ing that he had formed any bromide of silver by the method he described.
This new paper was exactly the same as the old which he condemned.

9. On the Heat of the ra/mrizatimi of Water. By J. P. Jouie.
The object was to point out the complex nature of the heat

hitherto taken from the latent heat of steam. In the exact ex-
periments of Regnault 90.5° was found to be the quantity of heat
evolved in the condensation of steam saturated at 219°; of this
quantity 75° is the heat due to the vis viva communicated by the
pressure of the steam, leaving 890° as the true heat of vaporization
of water. In a perfect steam-engine supplied with water at '212°,
and worked at atmospheric pressure without expansion, 965° will
be the heat communicated from the fire to the boiler, 75° will be
the heat utilised by conversion into force, and the remainder 890°
will be the heat given out in the condenser.

10. On a new Galvanic Buttery. By Mr. W. H. Wallenn.
The battery consists of zinc and cast-iron, the plates of the

latter being brought very near to the former. The zinc jilate was
coated with lead, by being first immersed in acetate of lead, and
afterwards treated with mercury, the mercury being subsequently
volatilised by heat. The cast-iron was also prepared with carbon
in a way which was not easily gathered from the description, and
carbon was also described as dift'used in some way through the
dilute sulphuric acid which was used to excite it. The battery
Has said to be very active and very constant, and from the pro-
tecting action of the lead the zinc was eciniomised. The author
exhibited a plate of zinc which he described to have been used
for a considerable time, but which was nevertheless little acted on.

Remarks — Mr. Shaw stated that the only novelty in the battery, except-
ing the use of carbon, which be did not comprehend, was the coating of the
zinc with lead, the effect of which, as he understood the author, was to pro-
tect the zinc not merely from what is called local action, but to defend it in
a great measure from the solvent power of the acid without impairing the
action of the battery. In the present state of electrical science, it vias im-
possible to receive such a view without a mass of evidence oiuch more exact
than that which had been brought forward. The elaborate researches of
Faraday had determined that the amount of electricity evolved in a voltaic
pair was in direct relation to the quantity of zinc oxidised and dissolved;
that is to say, the solution of an atom of zinc was accompanied by the
circulation of a definite amount of the electric force, and that whatever im-
peded the oxidation and solution of the zinc, diminished in the same ratio
the evolution of electricity. The electricity concerned in the decomposition
or formation of a compound was as definite a quantity as the material ele-
ments entering into its composition, and could be measured as accurately as
they could. This was established by a mass of evidence so overwhelming
as to be wholly unatfected by the general experiments brought forward.

Mr. Wali.enn replied that he was still of opinion that his battery was
superior, and that the deflection of the galvanometer and the deposition of
copper, supported his opinion.

Mr. Robert Hu.nt insisted on the importance of exact experiments;
nothing which he had stated could be put ia competitiou with the principles

explained by Mr. Shaw, and he believed that by a more minute examination
of the subject he would find himself in error. Some of the parts of his
battery wbifh he regarded as new were not new ; and those that were, were
not improvements.

lii'P'irt on recent Applications of the Wave Principle to the Prac-
tical Construction of Steam Vessels. By iMr. J. Scott Ri'sskij..
- — (Read in the Section of Mathematical and Physical Science.)

During the last year I have had more than one opportunity of
ajiplying the wave princi|)le to the construction of steam vessels.
There is one case, however, in which I have been able to apply it
to practice under circumstances of greater complexity and ditficulty
than have ever occurred to me, and where it has been successful in
overcoming difficulties to a greater extent and in a more decided
manner than heretofore.

During the last year a very difficult problem was proposed to me.
It was this: — -To build a steam vessel that should be fast without
great length, a good sea-boat without drawing much water, and to
carry a great top weight and yet swim very light. Besides, this
vessel was to be able to go backwards as well as forwards equally
well; and, though a small boat, was to contain great accommoda-
tion. The problem is one to which the wave principle is far from
seeming peculiarly applicable. In the first place, it is well known
that the wave principle prescribes a different form of the bow from
that of the stern, in order to obtain most speed with least cost of
power. In the second place, it is known that a high speed re-
quires on the wave system a very considerably greater length than
was here allowed for the entrance of the vessel or the lines of the
bow. It would therefore seem at first to be a case that would prove
too difficult for the successful applicatiim of the wave system.
There is one more feature in the case which gives it interest. At
the same time the same problem was worked out by another party
on another plan of construction, not on the wave principle. Another
vessel was built under similar conditions, with engines of the
best construction, made by one of the most eminent engineers in
England. Both of these vessels were built at the same time and
tried under similar circumstances: therefore, here was a case in
which the practical value of the wave principle has been brought
to a test more direct and less questionable than any that was likely
to have occuiTed — and, therefore, more important to be placed on
the records of the British Association. The first question which
will naturally occur to a member of this Association who recollects
this principle will be this: How could you apply the wave principle
in a vessel made to go equally well both ways.^ The first answer
is ready — it is this, that the vessel cannot be made to go only one
way — seeing that in one case she would have a best possible bow
and a best possible stern, and in the other case could have neither.
The next point is this; that in both cases of bow and stern it was
necessary to have a compromise. Each required to be in turn bow
and stern, — this was accomplished in the following manner: — If
there be any point which has more forcibly struck me in the appli-
cation of the wave principle than another, it is the flexibility of
the wave principle, — the extent to which it admits of deviations
from its strict rules without losing the benefit of its assistance. If
it had unluckily been true of this system that it prescribed an
exact mathematical solid in its three dimensions (like Newton's
Solid of least Resistance), to which implicit adherence was impera-
tive on pain of losing all the benefit proffered, then, indeed, the
system would have been (like Newton's) of little use, from the fact
that, from causes independent of resistance, ships cannot be solids
of revolution, consistently with other qualities. The wave princi-
ple, on the contrary, possesses wonderful flexibility; first, from the
circumstance of its prescribing lines iti one plane only, and so leav-
ing the other two dimensions in the hands of the practical con-
structor,— so that the sections of the ^essel in one plane being
given by the system, the sections in two others are at the service
of the constructor. I had in this case to lay down for both ends
of the vessel, that which is best for a bow and that which is best
for a stern, at the given velocity. I had next to place relative
values on bow resistance and stern resistance. I had next to
single out from between those two lines one which, taken either as
bow or stern, would deviate least from either, and so have least
resistance on a mean of both directions. This, therefore, the wave
principle did; — it gave the limits, and gave also the choice of a
series of means all more or less suited to the purpose intended. I
have now shortly to state the practical details by which this pro-
cess was carried into effect and the results arrived at in conse-
quence.

The engines of the vessel, as well as the vessel, had to be con-
structed by my partner, Mr. A. Robinson, and myself, and we were
enabled to adapt the one to the other with greater ease and cer-
tainty than in all likelihood we could have done had the engineer

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

34$

been separate from the ship-builder. In our case the engine was
considered and made an actual portion of the ship, and the ship of
the engine. It will be fair, therefore, to deduct from the good
effects attributed to the wave form of the ship such advantages as
we possessed in building both engines and boilers and ship as one
whole; — still it is fair to remember, on the other side, that the
builders of the engines with which ours had to compete have been
celebrated for their efficiency and for the large actual power they
have developed, when compared with their nominal power. It
should also be remembered that the builders opposed to us had
previously built the fastest boats of their district. The results
obtained are as follows: — Both vessels were about 150-55 feet
long; 22-22;^ feet beam; 4 feet draft of water; 240 tons displace-
ment; i50-hoi-se power, nominal; propelled by oscillating cylinders
of 48 inches diameter, with the same proportion of stroke to
paddle-wheel in both cases; and with only such diiferences as the
engineers and ship-builders in each case considered likely to be
most successful in carrying out the execution of their work to the
best advantage. The terms prescribed to both builders by the
engineer of the proprietors being identical, and with only such
latitude as should not form an obstacle to whatever might seem
best suited for obtaining greatest efficiency.

Results of Experiments on Velocity with equal Power.
Ware vessel. Competing vessel.

Speed 16*13 1.'>'03 niiles per hour.

Power 20-3 19-9 velocity of wheel.

Loss 4 17 4 S7 slip of wheel.

These are the results of accurate trials, at the measured mile,
made both with the tide and against it. It is important to ob-
serve the amount of slip, as it serves to show that it was no
deficiency of the engine power which caused the difference, both
engines having gone at, as nearly as possible, the same speed. In
order that the statement just given may not lead to false conclu-
sions, it is necessary to state what were those minor differences in
vessel and engine which each constructor adopted as tending to
greater efficiency. The wave vessel had a flatter floor, and con-
siderably squarer on the midship section, which was done for
diminishing the depth of water as wanted for her use. In the
other vessel, the consideration of draft of water was rejected or
overlooked, and a finer midship section taken, although with a
larger draft of water. In one case, also, the rudders were con-
sidered as part of the length of the vessel, and treated accordingly,
and in the other case rejected from it. In the engines also,
although the diameters of the cylinders were identical, the stroke
of the wave vessel was somewhat longer than the other, but the
diminished effective diameter in the shorter stroke reduced them
to nearly the same proportion. Thus far the experiments given
only serve to prove that, practically, a considerably better result
has been obtained by a steam-vessel built on the wave principle
than a competitor built under conditions that are perfectly identi-
cal, in so far as the public and the owners ai-e concerned. But as
regards the purely scientific question, I shall add two other ex-
periments with the wave vessel, which furnish data of a more per-
manent and precise nature — one at a higher, the other at a lower
velocity: —

Experiments on the Wave Vessel.

I. Velocity of vessel 15*14 miles an hour. II. Velocity of vessel Ifi-.'iO miles an hour

„ of wheel lS-17 „ „ of wheel 2120 „

Slip a-03 Slip 470

'1 he area of midship section immersed was 89*4 feet.
Tlie surface of vessel immersed was .'iOHO'O feet.
The area of paddle- fluats was 2lj y feet.

The conclusion which I deduce from these last experiments is
this, that by means of the wave form one may obtain a form of
which the resistance shall be represented by R = j\r A H S, instead
of R = ^ A H S, which is the lowest number given in any previous
system of construction; — A, being the area of midship section, H,
tlie height due to the velocity of the vessel, and S, the weight of a
cubic foot of water.

Comparative Statement of Prices and Wages during the Years from
1842 to 1849. By Mr. G. R. Porter.

We extract the following tables from Mr. Porter's very interest-
ing paper, read in tlie Statistical Section.

To begin with what is emphatically called "the staff of life,"
and the price of which is a thing of the very first importance to
those who depend upon daily or weekly Mages. The 4lb. loaf of
bread sold in the bakers' shops in London, has been, in the month
of July of each year, from 1842 to 1849 as follows: —

1H42. 1K43. 1H44. 1S45. 1846. 1847. 1848. 1849.
9id. 7id. Bid. 74d. SJd. U4d. 7id. 7d.

Meat. — The following prices, per stone, are those given for the
primest beef (Scots) and Southdown mutton, at Smithfield, in the
month of June in each year: —

Beef.

W'lt on.

Beef.

Dlutton.

1842 .

. 4s. 8d. .

.. 4s. 3d.

1846 .

. 3s. 9d. .

.. 4s. 3d.

I84;i .

. 3s. lOld. .

.. 4s. Ud.

1847 .

. 5s. 6d. .

... 53. 7d.

1844 .

. 38. 8Jd. .

.. -M. li'd.

1848 .

. 3s. lOd. .

... 43. Ud.

1845 .

4s. 41. .

.. 4s. 9d.

1849 .

. 33. 5d. .

... 43 2d.

The retail prices paid by the working classes for other articles
of food, and for groceries, in a populous district of London, were
as under: —

1845. 1847. 1848.

d. s.
0 to 7
5 toO
fiJloO

Tea, per lb h

Raw Sugar 0

Refilled Sugar ....0

Coffee 1

Cocoa 0

Rice 0

Currants 0

Raisins 0

Brittpr

Cliesliire cheese ..
Derby cheese ....
Dutcli cheese ....

Lard

Bacon, per cwt. ..
Eggs, per 120

1644.
d. B.
0 to7
6 too
7i toO
8 to 2
6 too
2 toO
5 too
5 to 0

..5
..0
..0
..1
..0
..0
..0
..0
..«

to 2
toO
too
toO
to 0

0 ....4

6 ....0
7i....0
6 ....1

1847.
d. s.
0 to6
4 t>0
54 toO
4 to 2

toO 10 ..
0 9..

d.
0 ...

5 ...
6J...
0 ...
7 ...
4 ...
7 ...

6 ...

82

6 too

3 too
5 toO

4 too
9 to 0 10

0 9 ....
0 8 ....
0 6 ....
0 10 ....

0to88 0 75

7 6

to«

to 0
toO
to 2
too
to 0
to 0
toO
0
0
0
0
0
0 to 81
7

0
0
0
62 0 to 68
7
The prices for 1846 are not given, as they vary very little from those of 1845.

Tlie consumption in each year, from 1842 to 1848, of such of the
articles of which retail prices have been given, as are imported,
have been —

1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848

4028^07.. 4129443.. 4866604.. 5220248.. 5779508.. 62 i8872

4029;I3',I3 .413IW70,. 44 I934.i;i.. 46740344 46314821.. 48735li71

299. 9404. . 31 352382. . 34293190. . 3675 J578. . 37441372. . 37 li'6292

25479.(4.. 2.I89977.. -679497.. 2951206.. 3079198.. 29.(5479

31.V359.. 4.«J80.. 3"2274.. 646883.. 971'.94.. 9:5731

, 261«0.. 2S4*.94 . 309485.. 358761. 3312.16. 380600

2;i6SJ0.. Ii04230.. 204960.. 238266.. 212024.. 228.'i42

1842
Sugar., cwts,. 3868466.

Tea lbs. .37.(55911.

Coffee 2.s.'il964li.

Cocoa 224>'569.

Rice cwts. . 396922.

Currants 196.(79.

Raisins 186240

It appears thus, that a reduction in the retail price of sugar from
Id. to 4^^. for raw, and from 9rf. to 6c?. for refined sugar, has in-
creased 'the consumption, since 1844, by 2,079,429 cwt., or 50 per
cent. Tlie reduction of Is. per lb. on tea, viz., from Ss. to 4«., has
caused an additional consumption of 7,372,201 lb. or 18 per cent.;
the retail price of coffee has fallen from Is. Sd. to Is. id., and the
consumption has been augmented by 5,753,910 lb. or 18 per cent.;
thus adding very materially to the comforts of the working classes,
and chiefly the artisan class, among whom the increased quantities
here noticed have principally been used.

Strong cotton cloths, the wliolesale price of which in 1810 was
lOrf. per yard, sold in 1820 for9rf.; had fallen iu 1833 to 4d., and
may now" be bought at from 2rf. to 2^^d. per yard. Printed calico,
which sold in 1810 at 2.s. 2(/., in 1820 at l.v. id., in 1833, the Excise
duty having been removed, at 6d. to Sd., may now be bought at
from 3.?. 6d. to 8.S-. per piece of 28d yds., or from 1 id. to 3i(/. per yard.

Average weekly earnings at an ironwork in South Wales, from
1844 to 1849:—

Colliers 13

miners 10

Labourers 11

Founders 23

Fillers 22

Cin er tillers 21

Refiners 37

Puddlers 22

Bailers 22

Rollers :«

Rail straighteners. . 20

1844
d.

1845
B. d.
16 2
12 4
U 0
26 II
25 10
19 0
39 3
30 6
32 7
88 10
36 6

1846
s. d.
20 4
15 7
12 8
33 8
29 10

1847
B. d.

21
61
35
46
72
49

1848

■. d.

16 1

12 1

II 10

35 0
32 7
22 11
48 9

30 It

31 7
00 9

36 8

1849
8. d.

Statement of the workmen's earnings at an ironwork in North
Wales in each year, from 1844 to 1849: —

1844
Colliers, per stent, or s. d

under 8 iiours. ... 1
Miners earn L^d. to
2d. per st'^*nt less
than colliers.
Labourers, per week 8

Furnace Fillers 14

Cinder Fillers 14

Furnace Keepers . . 19

Retiuers 16

Puddlers 22

Heaters or Bailers . . 17

Rollers 30

Rail straighteners . . 30

6

1845
s. d.
2 0

1846
8. d.

1347
B. d.

184S
6. d.

1849
s. d.
I 94

9

15
15

23
25
32
22
47
24

12

19
19
28
32
32
27
76
30

12
18
18
27
30
32
29
77
30

11
18
18
23
24
26
22
46
24

The following are the average weekly earnings of 230 ban
employed in one mill in cotton-spinning, for each year from 1 846
to 1849 :—

1846, the earnings averagud 10s. per head, of all ages and both sexes, of 8 years age

and upwards. wotUing 12 hours a day.

1847 „ „ 8s. 4Jd. f During these years tr.ide was bad, and the work-

1848 „ „ 8s. 2d. ting of t!.e mill averaged about 4 days a- week.

1849 „ „ 9s. 4d. only 11 hours a day.

[We have purposely avoided reporting Professor AVillis's lecture

45

Ud

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

nt tlie Town II;ill, oil tlie 'Di'rtection of Riihvay Riiiltrp^ niuler
tlie passafie of heavy Bodie-;;' and aNo I'rofessor Hodi^Uiinciii's
paper on tlie 'Stren;;tli and Elasticity of Stone and Tinil>er,' read
in the .Mechaniral Section, as they were both merely explanatory
statements of some of the ex])prlments that were performed for
the "'Iron Commission," and whieli we hope to he able shortly to
present to our readers in a mi>re complete form than was given at
JJirmingham.]

THE BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE.

The final lift of the Britannia tuhe took place on Monday the
loth ult,, the permanent level of 150 feet above hifrh-water mark
haviiifr been successfully attained on Saturday the 13th. This
additional hoist of 3 feet had to be made, and was indispensably
ini|iortant to enable the great tube to be joined on to the end, or
land tube, in the centre of the great tower on the Anglesea side of
the Straits, and so completing one-half of the passage iicross. In
effecting this it is found necessary to provide for the expansion
and contraction of so great a mass of metal, which from changes
of temperature are very considerable: the extreme variation in
the length of one of the tubes between summer and winter is
stated to be nearlv 1'2 inches. To make pro\'ision, therefore, for
this constant alteration in length, which would otherwise endanger
the stability of the whole structure, the great tubes are fixed in
tlie central Britannia tower in such a manner that tliey cannot
move; hut on either side where the tube unites with those in the
laml towers and abutments on shore, they travel on moveable rollers
of cast-iron 6 inches in diameter, a portion of the weight being
also supported at the top on balls of hard gun-metal of the same
size, working in channeled beams and acting in the same way as
the rollers. Besides these rollers, which are now being placed,
and on which the tube has to be let down, at the extreme -ends,
where the rails intended for the trains in the tube are joined to
those on land, contrivances are used to prevent a gap being formed
by the contraction of the tube, which might otherwise interfere
with the passage of the trains. Some uncertainty has occurred
with reference to the floating of the second tube. Should the
tides, &c., be favourable, it will take place before the close of
the present month; but if n<it, at tlie beginning of December.
The hydraulic apparatus will be brought into action for the lifting
of the second tube as soon as it is floated to the foot of the piers.

THE PATENT FIRE ANNIHILATOR.

In the Journal for March last (page 127), we gave the substance
of a paper read by the Rev. J. Barlow at the Royal Institution, on
Phillips's 'Patent Fire Annihilator.' Some interesting experi-
ments have lately been conducted by the patentee, at the establish-
ment of the London Gas Company, Vauxhall, and which were re-
ported at the time in the Alining Journal, from which we copy the
following very sensible remarks.

"These experiments afford convincing proof that, while water is
useless when a fire in a building has obtained a hold, except in sa-
turating surrounding materials, and thus preventing its spread, the
vapours generated by this apparatus are perfect non-supporters
of combustion, and that no fire can exist for one minute after the
atmosphere surrounding it has been charged by their application.
The outbreak of several alarming fires in the metropolis of late,
and the approach of winter, when calamities of this kind are of
more frequent occurrence, has again called our attention to the
subject; and, convinced as we are of the soundness of the princi-
ple, and the perfect success which must attend its use, we shall be
most happy if our remarks tend, in the smallest degree, to promote
its general adoption. As regards many of these destructive fires,
had one of the largest Annihilators been in requisition in the
neighbourhood at the first outbreak, the destructive element would
have been subdued immediately, and the large amount of property
in many instances destroyed would have been saved; while even
when the building was in one mass of flame, had the firemen been
supplied with some of the Annihilators of the more powerful sizes,
the fire would have been got under in a few minutes, instead of
requiring the exertions of a number of men for perhaps 30 or 40
hours in deluging the remains of the property with water, and thus
utterly spoiling what probably had escaped burning. It is a re-
markable, and one of the most advantageous features of the in-
vention next to its annihilating powers, that as instantaneously as
it extinguishes fire, so immediately does it create a perfectly whole-
some atmosphere for inhalation, and the most delicate fabrics which
might escape the flames are uninjured by the vapours generated.

We would therefore suggest to the hoard of directors of insurance
companies managing the fire-brigade department, to Mr. Braid-
wood, the superintendent, and to country insurance companies,
whether it would not be advisable to give the new extinguishing
apparatus a fair trial. We know how prone human nature is to
hang to old associations, and how dilficult it is to introduce new
modes of action to the exclusion of the old; but in this age of
improvement and scientific advancement, the public look to public
men to carry out new discoveries, which promise to be productive
of general benefit; and in this instance nothing could be more
easy, or devoid of any inconvenience, and, at the same time, with-
out invidving an expense worth naming when the prospective bene-
fit is considered, than for the firemen, when called out with their
engines, to be provided with some of the largest of tlie hand Anni-
hilators, and thus give them a fair trial. Should they not prove of
the advantage represented, the operat(n's would be provided with
the element usually employed — water; but should they turn out to
be generally effective, as we expect they will be, it must, on con-
sideration, be perceived what a vast amount of annual loss would
be prevented to the companies and to the public ; while the safety
to human life would, doubtless, fm-m a large item connected with
their introduction. During .Mr. I'liillips's lectures, he described to
the audience the natural phenomena which first suggested to his
mind the idea of applying vapours to the extinguishing of fire in
buildings. It appears tliat, many years since, he was on board
an English man-of-war, cruising in the .Mediterranean, when an
extraordinary phenomena occurred, which few have had an oppor-
tunity of witnessing — -the formation of an island from the depths
of the ocean by volcanic agency. After the cmisolidation of land
above the water, where the sea was 80 fathoms deep, to an extent
of six miles in diameter, the volcanic action continued with extra-
ordinary impetus, notwithstanding an enormous chasm was open on
one side the island, into which the waters flowed in foaming tor-
rents, and were as instantly ejected, in combination with red-hot
cinders and flames of fire, to a perpendicular height of probably
three miles. At this awful moment the vessel, about two miles dis-
tant, was gradually drifting, at a slow but certain rate, with the
current, directly into this vast fiery opening, and the consternation
and despair of all on board may be better fancied than described.
All was given up for lost, when suddenly the eruption ceased, a
vast body of vapour escaped from the crater, and a current of wind
springing up from the island, bore the apparently doomed vessel
away in safety. From this perilous adventure, Mr. Pliillips was
struck with the idea which formed the basis of his present inven-
tion. He considered that water, per «■, had evidently no extin-
guishing effect on the flame, or even on the smirce from whence
it arose; but as soon as a sufficient quanity of vapour had formed
in the fiery depths to cut off all connection with the atmosphere,
and thus prevent access of oxygen to support combustion, in-
stantly the flames were checked, the very foundation of the
fire annihilated, and the mere island alone remained to show the
extraordinary outbreak to which Nature had been subjected.
Having thus embodied the idea, the next difficulty was the con-
struction of an apparatus which should instantaneously he avail-
able, and which should be certain in operation, and this has been
most completely effected. The charge in tlie machine is a chemi-
cal compound of a highly-combustible nature, hut only when fired
by chemical means. It then gives out a most intense heat, suffi-
cient instantly to vapourise the water contained in the case, and
which, mi.xing with its own vapours, forms the gaseous compound,
in which no fire can exist. Although thus a strictly chemical
operation, it is so arranged that the most unenlightened, or even a
mere child, can perform the action required with ease and safety,
it being merely pressing down a peg in the toj) of the outer case.
This peg breaks a capsule containing sulphuric acid, which,
dropping into a tube containing chlorate of potash and lump
sugar, mixed in the form of a powder, the charge above-noticed
is instantly put in a state of combustion, and the effects mentioned
are the result. We understand that the public generally are be-
coming alive to the safety of having one of the Annihilators in
their houses, as offering such simple yet certain means of stopjiing
the ravages of fire when in embryo; and no theatre, bank, or other
public establishment, gentlemen s country mansions, where, from
their isolated position, fires are generally so fatal, nor ships at sea,
should be without one or more of these life and property saving
machines. Preparations are now being made, by the erection
of a much larger building than the one on which experiments were
lately made, for proving its capabilities on a more magnificent
and practical scale; and on suc-li exposition being made, we shall
again return to the subject."

I

i.n9.2

THE C'.VIL EXUINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

347

PAUPER INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS.

"It is an ill wind that Mows no one good:" so the melancholy
event that took place in the late Mr. Dronet's estahlishnient,
Lower Tootin"-, at the early part of the present year, is likely to
Mow good to the rising generation of panper children, Iiy having
atti-acted the attention of the pulilic, in an extraordinary degree,
to the manner in which those estahlishments were conducted, and
excited a very general and just prejudice against the whole system
of what has heen termed tlie "farming-out" of pauper children;
and in consequence, an act of parliament was passed to euahle
boards of guardians to form district unions, for the erection of
schools, away from workhouses, for the education of pauper chil-
dren.

Although prejudice may exist against the congregating a large
numher of children together, still, unless this is done to a certain
extent, projjor masters cannot be obtained and paid to educate the
children. Hy education is meant, not only what is known as ordi-
nary school tuition, but also such industrial tuition as will make
valuable servants, and induce respectable masters to take the chil-
dren when of projier age, or to fit them for emigration.

Tlie educatiiui in most pauper schools is not at all of an industrial
or agricultural character, as it should he with reference to the pro-
bable destination of the children in after-life, to whom the utility
of garden or lield-labour is obvious, as the greater pro])ortion of
pauper children have to gain a livelihood as agricultural labourers;
and even when they are engaged in other occupations, the now
general practice of annexing allotments to cottages, renders a
knowledge of gardtn culti\ation of importance to tliem. Also,
from a want of this knowledge, farmers are very unwilling to en-
gage hoys from workhouses; and, in consequence, the children
remain a burthen to their parishes long after they ought to be
supporting themselves by independent work.

There can be no doubt of the fact that, so long as the present
system of education in workhouses ])revai!s, responsible people
will not take into their service either boys or girls who have been
brought up therein, from their want of industrial knowledge, or
dread of contaminated morals (the result of contact with adult
paupers); and until the whole system is thoroughly reformed, chil-
dren so bronglit up will be taken, as now, by people who are little
better than paupers themselves, and so become perpetual paupers
and burthens to the parishes to which they respectively belong,
with perhaps the addition of wives and families; and, therefore,
the conviction is forced upon us, that pauper children must have
industrial education, and be removed from workhouses into district
schools, as early as possible, to avoid contamination.

It is now generally admitted by all persons whose opinions are
entitled to any consideration, that no money returns so good an
interest as that which is expended in improving the morals of the
labouring classes. This is making it a matter of pocket; but of
course higher and better considerations should influence our
actions.

The guardians of the Wandsworth and Clapham, Croydon,
Kingston, Richmond, and Lewisham Unions, are the first to set a
good example to the rest of the country, by the formation of a
district school, under the said act (for which they deserve great
commendation); and for efficiently carrying out their object, they
have purchased 50 acres of land by the Annerley Station of the
Croydon Railway, at Penge, in the county of Surrey, and they
have had prepared by their architect, Mr. Charles Lee, of Golden-
square, designs for the proper accommodation of 600 children —
viz., 250 boys, 210 girls, and 140 infants; and a contract has been
entered into for a portion of the buildings, which are now com-
menced.

This establishment is to be strictly industrial, and no pauper
officers or servants will be allowed on the premises; it will have
three large school and class rooms, with apartments for school-
masters, school-mistresses, and trade-masters; for steward, matron,
other officers, and domestics; with dining-room, chapel, chaplain's
room for examining and instructing the children; board-room;
wardrobes, cutting-out, work, and store-rooms; two receiving
wards, with clothes-rooms and baths attached; three kitchens, scul-
lery, servants' hall and private rooms; bakery, larders, dairy, lava-
tories; plunging and other baths; a separate laundry-building, with
drying, ironing, mangling, and mending rooms; likewise a detached
Infirmary-building, containing eight distinct boys' and girls' wards,
nurses' day and night rooms, surgery, kitchen, wash-house, and
laundry. There are to be also bailitl's house and offices; dairy,
cow-houses, and other farm buildings; likewise large gardens, so
that the boys will be instructed, not only in trades, but in farming
and gardening; and the girls in dairy-work. The buildings are to

be heated throughout by warm water, applied in a new manner,
and thorouglily ventilated by flues and shafts.

The boys', girls', and infants' departments are quite distinct;
and all the servants in the bakery, kitchens, and offices are to be
women, so that the girls will be taught baking, cooking, house-
hold and needlework; and the whole, when finished, will be a
model for the guidance of other districts.

THE NATIONAL EXHIBITION OF ARTS.

Since we last wrote, the scheme for a National Exhibition of
Arts and Manufactures has made further progress. A private
meeting of friends of the Lord Mayor has been held at the
Mansion-house, at which a deputation from the Society of Arts
attended, and before which the plan was laid, under the name of
Prince Albert's Plan. Mr. Cole a])peared as the representative of
Prince All)ert on the occasion, but we could not ascertain from his
statements that H.R.II. has any plan at all, the only one put for-
ward being that long since propounded by Mr. Carter Hall, in the
Art-Union; by ourselves in this JoiirnnI; and by Mr. Francis
AVhishaw before the Society of Arts; and by others whose names
we do not now remember.

If an object which is desirable should be carried out, there need
be no squabbling as to who was the originator, or as to who was
the first in the field; but we ai'e sorry for the miserable sycophancy
which can attribute to the Prince a projection to which he has no
claim, and fearful of the spirit of intrigue and jobbery which can
use the Prince's name to cover its own iqjerations.

This is a blemish on the beginning of the undertaking which,
it is to he wished, "ill be got rid of; and there is every hope that
it will, for the plan lias now attalne<l great publicity, and is likely
to receive the support of many leading men. Prince Albert will
be fully satisfied with the share of merit which really belongs to
him, of having given his powerful Influence and patronage for the
advancement of this enterprise; and it will be a title to public
respect and esteem, of which it is to be hoped he will earn many
more in tlie course of his abode in our country. If the Prince
has not hitherto been able to do much, he has nevertheless shown
the disposition to be useful; and by presiding at the meetings of
the Society of Arts, the Fine Arts Commission, and Agricultural
meetings, and many chai-itable societies, he has greatly contributed
to the cause of progress. It is because the Prince is so well
worthy of esteem, we should be sorry to see his fame tarnished: it
is because the object to which he has devoted himself is truly
worthy, we should be sorry it should fall or fall short in its results.

It has been remarked with truth in the Times lately, and in our
Journal of last month, that one reason why such an exhibition has
not lieretof(n-e been established in this country is, because we feel
the need of it much less than our continental neighbours; for to
walk from the East India House to Regent's Circus, is to walk
through a grand exhibition of national arts and manufactures.
There are the windows full of glass, porcelain, and earthenware;
the artistically-arranged shows of silks, cottons, woollens, ribbons,
shawls, and laces, of England and Paris, the scarce-born novelty
of yesterday; the art manufactures, wood-carvings, bookbinding,
papier-mache ornaments, picture-frames, plate-glass; fowling-
pieces; musical instruments; cutlery from the first workshops of
the world; choice tools; saddlery unsurpassed; a rich display of
gold, silver, and jewellery; watchwork; optical, philosophical, and
surgical instruments; also many new manufactures — cocoa nut fibre,
gutta percha, caoutchouc, parianware; the last process in machine-
carving, daguerreotyplng, electro-plating; the newest application
of science or art. Here, too, we see many historical establish-
ments— those of the Arnolds, Dollonds, and Troughtons,

The wide footways, the careful cleansing, the good police, the
plate-glass, the gas at night, no less than the walking habits of tlie
population, tend to promote the display in the shop windows, in the
arrangement of which practised hands are emjiloyed, and in which
the glass-worker, the gas-fitter, and the ticket-writer find well-
paid occupation. Thus, not even in the covered galleries of Paris,
or bazaars of the East, is there a more open exhibition. Everything
is made to minister to this show, and Instead of the upper floors
of the houses, as in other great cities, being occupied by large es-
tablishments, all the ground-floors in the trade streets are thrown
into the long line of glass-cases — the walls of the grand museum.

It is precisely this state of aft'airs which makes the influence
of Prince Albert more valuable in giving any impulse to the exhi-
bition, for there is a vis inertia; to be overcome. Thus, even our
provincial capitals have had shows before ourselves; and the

45*

318

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[|NoVEMBEB,

Mechanics' Fairs of the United States give tliem precedency of us.
The provincial flocks to the extii()ition of ni-ichinery, or the hazaar
for tlio inec-lianics' institution, as he dues to the great metropolis:
but hitherto tliere has been no sufficient temptation to open such
exiiihition. Tlie gallery formed in tlie King's Mews by Mr.
Charles I'ayne, and the Polytechnic Institution, were botli pro-
jected on a scale too inconsiderable to f(nin a complete national
exhibition; and the reliance was rather on tlie publication of
novelties than in the formation of a full collection of everything
<dd and new. Indeed, the call on the Polytechnic Institution is
for novelty; and the metropolitan population support it to a much
smaller extent than is supposed. To them tlie shops are open —
Woolwich, Chatham, the Mint, the shipyards, lirewcries, gasworks,
marbleworks, saw-mills, docks, railway stations, telegraph stations.
It must be sometliing very new to raise wcnider in a population so
trained. The exhibitions' of the Society of Arts begin to pall, and
tlie prosecution of the great undertaking will alone preserve their
reputation.

Tlie results to be expected from an exhibition here must be very
difl^erent from those on the continent. ^Ve do not want to glorify
manufacturers, to teach governments or people the value of the
manufacturing arts; we cannot do much in saimulating tlie enter-
prise of our population, for they are figliting against the world.
Much of the result will be owing to claptrap. The exhibition, in
the Queen's name, in Hyde Park will be a show and a holiday, and
tens of thousands in London and throughout England will pay
their shillings, regardless of anything but getting pastime for it.
Still, some good may be done. Our progress in many branches of
manufacture may be made visible, and this will be an encourage-
ment for future exertion; our shortcomings in some may be made
known, and English enterprise may be drawn into fresh channels.
We must not, however, be unmindful of the inherent vices of such
exhibitions, — the prominence given to exceptional skill, — the want
of relation between the artistical and meclianical results. On such
occasions, we see knives with a hundred blades, wliich are of no
possible use, and a whole table- service within a walnut-shell; cast-
ings to rival those of Prussia; silks those of Lyons; — but, after all,
a better criterion of national skill than any Exposition, is the
£,. s. d. return of the Board of Trade. From the first Exposition
in Paris, there perhaps has not been one in which the wares of
"perfidious Albion" have not been beaten; there has never been an
exhibition in a colony, but the prizeholder has produced goods
equal to those of the mother country: but the commercial results
remain unaltered. To make a good article is one essential, but to
make a cheap one is another; and the most successful manufac-
turer is he who does the latter, and as much enterprise must be
exerted to effect this, — so after all the cheapest manufacturer is
commonly the best. He who can substitute a machine for handi-
work, not only obtains greater economy, but greater pi-ecision.

At this present time it is not possible to predict results. The
organization of local committees does not require any special su-
pervision, hut hereafter it will become of the greatest importance
to provide properly for the suitable working of the undertaking;
and unless it be chiefly by the manufacturers themselves, we are
convinced it will fail. If, too, there is to be a centre of toadyism,
flunkeyism, and jobbery, the fate of the plan will be sealed. Prince
Albert has done his part in launching the undertaking, — he may
use his influence witli the government in obtaining grants of money
and land: hut interference in the details must he fatal. When the
Prince is present, the freedom of discussion will be swamped by
conventionality; when absent, his delegate will rule for him, and
he will be compromised unwittingly. The Prince's name will he
used in every kind of way, as it has been freely used in giving his
name to the plan; and instead of Mr. Whishaw, Mr. Cole, or Mr.
Scott Kussell being responsible for his own suggci^tions, he will arm
himself with the authority of the Prince. Therefore we say, let
tlie committees at once take upon themselves the necessary autlio-
rityand responsibility: do not let them fear to displease the Prince
by meddling with his plan or his arrangements; but rather to strive
for what will truly please the Prince — that is, to carry out the
great enterprise in which he has embarked with them.

Let there be no want of zeal on this occasion, but, as it is deter-
mined to have an exhibition, let it be one of which England need
not be ashamed, and which shall surpass all which has been before.
This we can do, and therefore we ought to do it; and the only way
is to go heart and hand to the work, — not caring whether a prize
fund be raised or not, or whether the prizes are or are not fairly
dealt out to each branch of manufacturing industry.

EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS.

On a Formula for Culfulutiny the E.vpanaion of Liquids by Ileiit.
By W. J. Macquokn Kankink, C.E. — [From the Edinburgh New
PhitoxojMcal Journal for October, 1819.]

Having been lately much engaged in researches involving the
comparative volumes of li(piids at various temperatures, I have
found the following formula very useful: —

Log V = B< -H - — A.

Log V represents the common logarithm of the volume of a
given mass of li(|uid, as compared with its volume at a certain
standard temperature, whicli, for water, is the temperature of its
maximum density, or 4°'l centigrade, and for other liquids 0° cen-
tigrade.

t is the temperature measured from the absolute zero mentioned
in my paper on the 'Elasticity of Vapours,' in the Edinburgh IVeu)
Philosophical Journal for July 1849, and is found by adding 274°-6
to the temperature according to the centrigrade scale.

A, B, and C, are three constants, depending on the nature of the
liquid, whose values fur the centigrade scale, corresponding to
water, mercury, alcohol, and sulphuret of carbon, are given below.

A. Log B. Log c.

Water 0-44141107 4'-8US;.')4S 1-78'J0285

Mercury 0l'22in3ll 5a04S7(iti i-a70:i«97

Alrohol 0-2'il5i33 484144.'i2 1-28<JS05I>

Sulphuret of Carbon 0-2.M0074 4-B483-I72 1-21'.I2054

The data from which the constants have been computed have
been taken from the following authorities: — for water, from the
experiments of Ilallstriim; for mercury, from those of Regnault;
and for alcohol and sulphuret of carbon, from those of Gay-Lussac.
As the experiments of M. Gay-Lussac give only the apparent ex-
pansion of the liquids in glass, I have assumed, in order to calcu-
late the true expansion, that the dilatation of the glass used by
him was -0000258 of its volume for each centigrade degree. This
is very nearly the mean dilatation of the different kinds of glass.
M. Regnault has shown that, according to the composition and
treatment of glass, the coefficient varies between the limits '000022
and -000028.

Annexed are given tables of comparison between the results of
the formula and those of experiment. The data from which the
constants were calculated are marked with asterisks.

The table for water shows, that between 0° and 30° centigrade,
the formula agi-ees very closely with the experiments of Hallstrom,
and that from 30° to 100° its results lie between those of the
experiments of Gay-Lussac and Deluc.

The experiments of Gay-Lussac originally gave the apparent
volume of water in glass, as compared with that at 100°. They
have been reduced to the unit of minimum volume by means of
Ilallstriim's value of the expansion between 4.°-l and 30°, and the
coefficient of expansion of glass already mentioned.

In the fifth column of the table of comparison for mercury it is
stated which of the experimental results were taken from M. Reg-
nault's own measurements on the curve, representing the mean
results of his experiments, and which from his tables of actual
experiments, distinguishing the series.

In the experimental results for alcohol and sulphuret of carbon,
the respective units of volume are the volumes of those liquids at
their boiling points, and the volumes given by the formula have
been reduced to the same units.

Expansion of Water.

Volume as compared with that at

Difference

Temperature

4° 1 C. according to

bet>vefn

Authorities

on ttie

Calculation

for the

Centigrade

th.

the

and

Experiments.

Scale.

Formula.

Experiments.

Experiment.

%

1-0001120

1-0001082

+•0000038

Hallstrftm

* 4-1

1-0000000

l-lllUlltOtIO

-0000000

Do.

10

l-00022.-t4

l-oooa2iio

+0000034

Do.

20

1-Ip01.'>6a8

10lll.')490

+ ■100(1178

Do.

«30

l-00402+'i

1-0II4U24.'.

-0000000

Do.

1 (104 1481)

--0(101244

Deluc.

40

1-00750

1 •00748

+ 00002

Gay.Lussac.

1 00774

— -00»)'24

Deluc

fib

1-01718

l-01(i70

+ -0004)j

Gay.LuBBac.

.,

1-01773

--OOOSS

Deluc.

80

1-03007

l-ii28iir)

+00142

Gay-Lussac.

l-ii;io;i2

- -00085

Deluc.

ibi)

1-04579

lo42;io

+ -00289

Gay-Lussac.

1-04604

--00O85

Deluc.

1849.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

349

Expansion of Mercury.

Volume as compared with that at

Difference

Temperature

0^ C according to

between

on the

Calculation

Remarks.

Centigrade

the

RI. ReRnault*s

and

St-ale.

Formula.

Experiments.

Experiment.

• 8

1-000000

1-nooooo

•000000

Carvf.

90-22

1 oica:i3

1-016361

--0IIOO28

Series I.

100-UO

l-0lsr(4

1-01S153

- -000019

Curve.

Iii0-.i2

1-018230

1-018-267

— -001)037

Series I.

*150-00

1-027419

1027419

-oooooo

Curve.

198-79

1 o:ifir,'j7

1036468

+ -000129

Series II.

205-07

1 -037786

1-037805

- -0000 19

Series IV.

205-57

1-037905

1-037910

--0O0UO5

Series 111.

•300 00

1-055973

1-055973

•0000i:0

Curve.

Erpansion

of Alcohol.

Volume as compared with that at

Diff-erence

Temper.iture

78^-41 C. according to

between

nn ttie

Culculmion

Centigrale

the

M. Gav-Lussac's

and

Scale.

Formula.

Kxperiments.

Experiment.

J-41

•91795

•91796

- -00001

*18 41

•932G9

-93269

■OOOOO

.•i3-41

•94S03

•94 99

+ 011004

♦48 41

■90449

•96149

•00000

63-41

•98183

•9^*210

- -01027

*78-41

1-00000

lOJOOO

-00000

Volume as compared with that at

Difference

Temperature

46°-60 C

according to

between

on the

Calculation

Centigrade

the

M. Gay.Lussac*8

aud

Scale.

Formula.

Experiments.

Experiment.

*-13-40

•93224

•93224

•01)000

+ 1-60

•94768

•94776

-•00008

• 1660

•96417

■96417

•00000

31 60

■Urfl63

-98163

•OllOOO

• 46-60

lOOOOO

1-OUOOO

•( 0000

THE WATER FROM THE CHALK FORMATION.

Analysis of the Water from the Chalk Formation. By Messrs.
Abel and Rowney, Assistants at the Royal College of Chemistry.

The deep well water of the London basin has been analysed by
Professor Graham. The strilving feature of this analysis is, the
discovery of the presence of sulphuric acid, and the absence of
salts of potash. The water which he analysed, was taken from the
deep well in the brewery of Messrs. Combe and Uelafield, Long-
acre. This well not descending so deep into the chalk as the
Artesian wells in Trafalgar-square, induced Messrs. Abel and
Rowney to subject the water of the latter to an analysis, in order
to compare the results with those obtained by Professor Graham.
The water on which they operated was taken in the beginning of
October, 1847, from the shaft at the back of the National Gallery.
At a depth of about 109 feet, the water enters the shaft througha
borehole, which passes the London clay and penetrates into the
chalk. Thus the water rises from a depth of nearly 400 feet.

The temperature of the water is 58° Fahrenheit., its specific
gravity is 1000^95, the specific gravity of distilled water being
1000. The water is very soft and very delicate; test-papers show
that it has an alkaline reaction.

The subjoined analysis shows that the constituents of the water
of the Artesian wells in Trafalgar-square, are essentially the
same as those of the water from the well in Messrs. Combe and
Delafield's brewery. There is only one point in which the two
waters materially diifer in composition. The waterwhich Profes-
sor Graham analysed, and which, as already mentioned, comes from
a higher stratum, was found to contain no potash salts, whilst
these were invariably present in the water of Trafalgar-square.
In order to preclude the possibility of error, the water employed
for testing was collected at diiferent periods.

M. Payen found that the water of the Artesian ^7ell at Greuelle

contained a considerable amount of sulphate of potash and chloride
of potassium, so that it would appear that potash salts are charac-
teristic of the waters from the deeper strata.

The water analysed by Messrs. Abel aud Rowney did not contain
a trace of iron.

Annexed is a tabular view for the comparison of the water
analysed by Professor Graham, and the Trafalgar-square water, to
which is anne.xed the results obtained by M. Payen from the
analysis of the water of Grenelle, each showing the number of
grains in an imperial gallon.

Wells at Messrs.
Combe and
Delafield.

Trafalgar.aquare
Wells.

Grenelle.

6-18
0-19
0-24
1-08

24-25
12-74

11 '68
0-44

3-265000
0034041

2-2.M000
13-67 1000

8-749300
20-058500
0-291000
18-048800
0-971000
0098700
0-137200
0672000

4-7600

0-9940
0 8600
0-76.(0
2 0720

0-3990

0-0014
0-0138

Perphosphate of iron

Carbonate of magnesia

Sulphate of potassa

Chloride of potassium

Biciirbonate of potassa

Silicic acid

Organic matter (nitrogenous)

56-80

68-240541

9-6632

The presence of phosphoric acid, first pointed out by Professor
Graham in deep well water, could be easily ascertained in the Tra-
falgar-square water, by the method indicated by that chemist; in
fact, on evaporating the water to dryness, and gently igniting the
residue, the phosphoric acid, existing partly in combination with
lime and partly with soda, is obtained altogether in the form of a
soda salt, the solution of which deposits the yellow tribasic silver
salt on the addition of nitrate of silver.

The large amount of organic matter contained in deep well
water is very remarkable, while the quantity observed in the water
of a higher stratum seems to have been very trifling. It evidently
arises from the remains of organised beings which have invariably
been found in the chalk.

With reference to the quantities in which the different consti-
tuents are present, it will be observed, on comparison, that the
total amount of fixed constituents is somewhat different (56'80 and
69^40), whilst very considerable deviations are perceptible in the
quantities of the various constituents.

The most striking difference is observed in the quantities of sul-
phate of soda contained in the two waters.

ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS.

The following communicationa were made : —

1. ^'Improvements in Fixed and Revolving Lights, being a New Dia-
Caioptric Instrument for increasing the intensity of the light." By Thomas
Stevenson, Esq., F.1«.S.E., C.E.

The author stated that this instrument is composed of three parts— &
paraboloidal mirror, having the conoidal portion behind the parameter cut
off, and its place supplied by a hemispherical reflector, whose centre thus
coincides with the focus of the paraboloid, while in front of the flame is
placed an annular lens subtending at the focus of the paraboloid, the same
angle as that which is subtended at that point by the greatest double ordi-
nate of the reflector, and having its piincipal focus coincident with that of
the paraboloid. This instrument should theoretically produce the most in-
tense light yet derived from any given flame, as it incloses and parallelizes
each ray of the whole sphere of light, so that none are lost by divergence
between the lips of the reflector, where, in the preseHt arrangement, not
very much short of one-half of the light is lost.

In this instrument the hemispherical reflector throws the light which it
receives (viz., the posterior half of the sphere of light) through the focus of
the paraboloid, and while the outer ring of this light is received by the para-
boloid, and parallelized by it, the central cone is received by the annular
lens, and is also parallelized. The outer ring of the anterior half of the
sphere of light is received directly by the paraboloid, and is parallelized by
it ; while the central cone of rays, which, in the present arrangement, is
lost by natural divergence, is received by the annular lens, and is parallelized
by it. Thus the whole sphere of light is economised. This combination
may also be applied mutatis mutandis to the illumination of half of the ho-
rizon of a fixed light, hy means of a single light : the only difference being
the substitution of two truncated parabolic conoids (or the paraboloid, auii a

S50

THE CIVIL ENGINKER AiXU ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

QNOVEMBEB,

rpfrarlinz licit for the lens. Two of these instrunienis directed to opposite
points of the eiimpass would light up the whole horizon.

Another new form of lighthiiuse apparatus was also descrihrd, hv nhieh
Die whole spheie of rays can he parallelized hy means of a iM-niisphcrieal
II llei-itir placed hehind the lieht, and an annular lens, and a series of eon-
renlric t taliy-rtflectinR glass zunes also placed in front, anil reeedini; from
the lens haek to the reflector. These zones are also new in themselves, as
they havetlie property of parallelizing diveigent riiys, not only in a vertical
)dane lilie the zones in Fresnel's fixed lights, hut also in every plane what-
ever.

2. "Remarks on JVorkmen's Houses in Tovn Districts, vith PInvs, Elera-
lions, and Desrrip/ioris of the ' Liimsden Model Ihi-eltiiu/s for the ll'orhiur/-
Classes,' erected in Glasi/ow." By James Wilson, Esq. architect, Glasgow.

The author stated that these model dwellings have heen especially calcu-
lated fur towns, where ground is too expensive to admit of the separate-
ci.itace plan heing availahle; yet, from the concentration of conver.iences
contained in them, and the economical arrangement of these in regard to
space, presenting the elements of improvement and economy applirahle to
cultages. The particulars are as follows: — The hnihling is four stories high;
tlie ground story contains a suh-factor's house, and six others; the three
upper stories contains eight houses each, arranged on each side of a (etitral
pass.ige. The latter is lit at each end; also, the floor of it is grated for
shout 6 feet at each end to admit of free ventilation to the roof, where
there are two corresponding lowered openings. At the hack, on the ground-
stoty, is a wash-house, with three pair of tuhs, three boilers, and a centri-
fugal drying machine ; aff'ording euch tenant an (jpportunity of washing
clothes once in ahout every ten days. There is also a halh-house, for plrrnce
»nd shower hathing. Each house is contained in a clear space of 18 hy I5J
feet. There is an entrance-lohhy to each, 4 hy 3-J feit, with waterdoset, of
pood size, and ventilated ; the apparatus is sinrple and strong. The main
apartment (which is more room than kitclierr) contains a clear space of not
less than 132 square feet, by 9 feet high ; besides —

1. Two bed-closets, in corners diagorrally opposrte to each other, and con-
tairiiirg each a bed-bottom, 6 feet hy 4 feet, heing a frame of ancle-iron,
frilcd-in with iron-hooping, webbed, with dressing-space in front of same,
averaging 11^ square feet. One closet is enclosed with a partition 7 feet
liigh only; the other is enclosed to the ceiling, but with an opening over
tlie door from door-frame to ceiling, both thus admitting tlie free ciicolatinn
of the air of the main apartment over them; each has a shf'lf for band-
hoxes, &c. — 2. A scullery, containing a dresser with two drawers, shelves
a'love for dishes, &c., and rack below for cooking utensils ; a press with
three tier of shelves; a coal-box to contain 12 cwt. of coal; a sink with
water laid on; and a clear working space 5^ by 3^ feet. — 3. A larder in
outside wall, with window. frame tilled with perforated zinc, and door on
inner side. — 4. A cor king-range in 3-feet fire-place, with oven, open fire,
and boiler. — 5. The hearth to fire-place of cast-iron, with low stgnrerrtal
fender cast with it; and in the bottom an ash-box covered by a grating —
for the economy of fuel. — 6. The lower sash only of main window hung, lirit a
transotn and louvre board for ventilation above the upper sash : the lower
one easily brought inside to facilitate the cleaning of both.

The rent (which is payable quarterly, in advance) is (il. 10s., including gas,
water, and all other rates, excepting the poor's rate. The gas is supplied in
the evenings till eleven o'clock, throughout the year. Notice is given by
turning it Iralf-off five minutes before eleven, the meter being in the sub-
factors house. A jet is burned all night in the central passage on each
floor.

3. "Jn Improvement in the Expansive Steam-Engine." By Mr. J. C.
rEAKCE, of Manchester.

The improvement contemplated by the author is stated to consist in the
jpplicaliiin of two self-acting valves, in addition to the expansive regulator,
rne to each end of the steam cylinder — fixed in suitable passages, which
conmiunicate with the waste steam or cxbaust-pipe. He states that the use
of these valves is to prevent the pressure upon the working side of the
piston ftonr falling below the resistance or back pressure upon the opposite
side — a very common occurrence in carrying out the expansive prrnciple,
although attended with very considerable loss of power; and that the pro-
posed inrprovement is chiefly adapted to locomotives and other non-condens-
ing expansive engines where the power is extreiuely variable.

4. **^ln Air- 'IrojU or Stink- Trap, for preventive noxious rjjttivia proceed-
ing f rim Drains and Common Seuers." By Mr. James Kubd, Gas-works,

Haddington.

Ihe model is a box, wider at the top than at the bottom, and having a
strip of leather fixed round the lower edge, to assist in making an air-tight
joint with the valve. The valve is a flat piece of iron, made large enough
to cover the hottonr of the box, to which it is attached by a hinge on one
side, which also forms a lever, on which is hung a balance-weight, for the
purpose of bringing it into close contact with the bottom of the box. When
fitted into the mouth of the drain or common sewer, and covered with an
iron grating, the author stated that it becomes an efficient protector in all
weathers, especially as it does not depend ,on water for preveirling the foul
air from blowing through.

5. "A Self Acting Water-Meter." By A. Cabbick, Esq., of Glasgow.
The author stated that this meter is a close vessel of any size; that the

water is iutiuduced through a valve, aud when it reaches up to the bend of

a fixed syphon, it is discharged into a receiver below ; that the valve is
closed while the discliarge ciirrlinries by means rrf a beam on a fuli'ru'u
inside tlie meter; to the ends of tliis beam a chain connection is nijih-, so
that the valve is drawn up by the superior weight of water flowing tbrcniKh
the syphon into a perfonited bucket. The number <<f discbarges is indicated
by wheel-work sinrilar to a gas meter, the rocivement beirrg obtained from
the arbor that carries the beam. The end of this arbor comes out throuiih
the meter, arrd works a ratchet-wheel, with a pinion of ten leaves on its axia.

6. " On a New Valve NoscCoch." By Mr. Daniel Erskine, plumber.
The author slated that this valve cock is superior to tire common cocks

either for steam or hot ^ ater-. It is fitted with a valve that ne.uly fits the
case; the spindle is fitted with a spiral spring, which makes it self-shutling,
and the sjiindle passes thrnugh a stuffing-box.

7. " Time Piece moved bij a Spring of Vulcanised Caoutchouc." By
Mr. William Smith, clockruaker.

The author stated that he conceives the superiority of this spring to con-
sist in its perfect invariabilit; , from the absence of friction, and the sim-
plicity of its application, heing in the form of a ring, one end of v\hich is
passed through a piece of steel with an eye, to wlrrch is attached a honk
connecting it with a pulley, both ends being fixed at the bottom of the
column by a steel pin passed over them.

8. " Description and Drawing of a Glass-BIouing Appnrntns " " De-
scription at'd Drauivg of a Aew Furnace for Melting Class." By Mr.
William Cooper, gla>s manufacturer, Aberdeen.

The author remarks, that owing to the manufacture of glass having been
so long chiefly in the banrls of monopolists, and coupled with stringent
excise restrictions, the principle of the crown and plate giass melting fur-
naces have uridergnrre little alteration or improvtment for the last half
century. During the decrimpositirm of the ingredieirts used in the manu-
facture of crown, sheet, and plate glass, the application of heat to the
crucibles or pots, by the present system, is deleclive and objectionable.
The present mode of melting is in a square furnace, with the jints plai-ed at
each side, and the fire in the middle of the furnace : the flame and heat
acting on one side of the pots, and passing over the lop of the pots to the
working holes, the furnace being fed at each end. By this method there is
a great waste of fuel and beat, and the heat heing more immediately on the
side of the pots, the decomposition and fusing of tlie nraterials begin at the
ceirtre or middle of the pot, and is not carried on recnlarly, which is the
means of causing seed and other defects in the glass metal.

1. By the new method the heat is brought to act on the bottom of the
pots, where the decomposition and fusing of the materials ought to com-
mence, uniform and regular in its progress towards the top of the crucible,
and by this means expelling more effectually the various gases during the
process of melting, which, if they be retained, are irrjnrious to the mttal.
— 2. The construction of the tease hole is such, that the carlmnaceous
matter contained in the fuel is consumed in passing through the grate
room, leaving a solid pure body of heat in the furnace, under and arouird
the pots, and thereby preventing the carbonaceous matter from acting upon
and discolouring the metal. — 3. From the subdivision of the tease holes, and
the retention of the heat, the metal is fused in a shorter space of time.

9. " On the Manufacture of Kelp-Glass, and on the best Kinds of Glass
for Staining and Enamelling." By Mr. William Cooper, glass manufac-
turer, Aberdeen.

The author in his communication remarks, that the glass stainer and etra-
meller is subject to frequent disappointments and losses, owing to the va-
riety and difl'erent proportions of ingredients used in the manufacture of
glass since the use of kelp was abandoned ; each kind requiring a diflferent
degree of heat, and piorlucing different results, when passed through the
enamelling and staining kilns. English crown glass stands a greater heat
than sheet glass, even although of the same composition ; and this is owing
to the peculiar method of manufacturing it. Glass made from Orkney kelp
produces the most brilliant red colour, and which has a remarkable property
of transmitting red rays of light at a great distance, and on that account it
is preferred for lighthouses. The French ruby glass, though of a rich and
beautiful colour, has not the same reflecting power. The author gives the
following recipe for making kelp glass for staining purposes, as successfully
practised by him for a number of years: — Good Orkney kelp well-ground
and sifted, 308 ; Lynn sand, 224 = 532 pounds, well fritted together in the
calcar arch; a due mixture of cullet to be added while founding. If it is
required to improve the colour, reduce the 532 pounds to powder, and add
maganese 2 to 4, nitre 8, and arsenic 4 pounds. The whole to be intimately
mixed before founding. Cullet may be added or not, at the discretion of Ihe
founder. If properly treated, either mixture will be found to produce an
excellent red colour in crown or sheet glass, by means of the oxides of silver
and antimony, in the usual way of applying them. The author states that
kelp is now almost entirely out of use in making glass; and that a spurious
article is now made to resemble kelp glass in appearance, called ' dark sheet
glass,' and sold at double price, as kelp glass. It is made from sand, chalk,
common sea salt, and broken glass, and sometimes the usual sheet glass metal
is tinged with the oxides of iron and maganese, or smithy coals, to counter-
feit kelp glass. This " dark sheet glass," when the staining magma ia
applied to it, gives a 'dingy red colour' with a slow heat, but when fired
with other (oUiurs, with a smart heat, it produces an 'opaque brown colour,'
instead of the biilliaut tiausjiarent red expected, ard the artist's work is

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

851

spoiled beyond all remedy. The author states that Orkney kelp glass is the'
best for ornamental work and picture subjects, where a brilliant red colour is
required, and that the market sheet glass, made with soda, ash, or harytes,
&c., and selected as colourless as possible, is the best for enamelling pur-
poses, or for light orange, yellow, aud lemon stain colours.

NOTES OF THE MONTH.

Gumey's High-Pressure Steam-Jet for Sewage Ventilation. — Some account
appeared in the morning papers a few weeks since, of an explosion of sewer-
gas in the Friar-street sewer, Blackfriars-road, in consequence of the sewer
being connected with the furnace-chimney of Messrs. Anderson and Cattley.
A most interesting and perfectly successful experiment with the steam-jet of
Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney has since been tried, for ascertaining its capabili-
ties, in the yard of these gentlemen, who thus describe the operation and its
effects: — " A communication was made from our yard to the sewer by a
stone piping, 12 inches diameter, and a steam-jet three-eighths of an inch
diameter (about the size of a large goose quill), taken from a small boiler,
was, by a proper arrangement of connected cylinders, made to act as an
exhausting power, and thus draw the foul air from the sewer. This jet pro-
duced a most powerful current, and in five minutes after it was set in action
the whole of the pestilential vapour was drawn out, and the flushing men
were able to go into the sewer, which, for nearly two years past it had been
impossible to enter. At the Blackfriars-road entry, they found most foul and
putrid depnsit, to the depth of four feet eight inches, exhaling sulphuretted
hydrogen, and other poisonous gases in large quantities, saujples of which
have been taken by Mr. A. Anderson, which he intends, in conjunction with
Dr. Ure and Mr. Scanlan, to analyse carefully. This filth is so thick that
the shovels stand upright in it, and the men found it so difficult to wade
through that they could not proceed further than 200 yards up the sewer.
This morning all the man-holes in Friar-street have been opened, and the
men have gone into the sewer at every point. It is in the same state of ac-
cumulated filth from end to end, with an inclination running towards our
factory, originally intended to go to the Thames, through Union-street.
We tested the down-cast draft of fresh air at every man-hole, and found it
to be of considerable velocity when the jet was on, drawing in rapidly the
vapour from smoking paper, and almost instantaneously re-producing flame
by the force of the current. At the opening of the large sewer in Black-
friars-road, the draft was so strong as to oblige the workman to surround
the light with his hands. The officers of the commission have set men to
work to clear out the sewer, and they can remove the deposit through
Blackfriars sewer, instead of drawing it up into the street and carting away.
In an experiment made on the 20th ult., the action of the jet was slopped for
five minutes; the down-cast air was also stopped at every opening, when the
stench over the man-hole in Blackfriars-road was insupportable ; hut within
80 seconds after the jet was again put on, the currents were reversed, as if
by magical command, and all effluvia to the street ceased. Every one ac-
quainted with the power of the steam-jet, as now applied to the ventilation
of coal mines, would expect this result in its application to the ventilation of
eewers ; but the most interesting and valuable point to the public in this
operation is, that it not only draws off all ofl'ensive effluvia, but by a simple
process decomposes, and, in popular language, destroys it on the spot.
The withdrawal of the whole mass of gaseous sewage from Friar-street has
neither tainted the air, nor can it be detected at any distance from the ap-
paratus by the most delicate tests. These remarkable results have
been effected in a few hours, at a very trifling cost, and it is quite evident
that we have now at command the means of effectually and safely purifying
the sewers of all London."

Timber Preserver. — M Louis Vernet, of Buenos Ayres, has obtained a
patent for preserving from destruction by worms, insects, decay, and flre,
certain vegetable and animal substances. This invention consists chiefly in
impregnating, saturating, or coating the substance to be preserved with a
weak solution of arsenic, alone or combined with other materials. The
solution is obtained by boiling an arsenious acid in water until it is dis-
solved, and the fluid becomes clear and transparent. The proportion of
arsenic to water is 1 lb. to 40 gallons, and care should be taken not to allow
the fire to toucb the sides of the boiler above the water, which would cause
the arsenic to sublimate, and act injuriously on the health of the workmen.
The quantity of water evaporated should be replaced by the same quantity
of fresh water, in order that the relative proportions above-mentioned may
be maintained. Or, a concentrated solution may be formed by dissolving
1 lb. of arsenic in 5 gallons of water, which can be preserved for any length
of time in wooden vessels until required for use, when every five gallons
must be diluted with 35 gallons of water. The article may either be im-
mersed in or washed over with the solution, and then dried, whereby it will
acquire a thin coating of arsenic, which will be imperceptible to the senses,
but a suflicient preservative against the ravages of insects, &c. Or, it may
be impregnated with the solution by exhaustion or pressure. When the
solution is required to dry quickly, 6 lb. of alum to 1 lb. of arsenic are dis-
solved in it. To preserve timber from fire, it is to be impregnated with a
solution of lib. of arsenic, 61b. of alum, and 10 lb. of potass, in 40 gallons
of water. To preserve timber immersed in water from decay, and the
ravages of the worm, it is to be painted over with the solution mixed with
oil or any suitable tarry matters.

Lancefleld Forge. — This extensive and interesting workshop of industry,
the property of Messrs. Fulton and Ncilson, situated in Laucefield-street,
Anderston, near the foot of the North-quay, is celebrated for the production
of the hugest aud finest pieces of forged iron work to he found in the thn e
kingdoms. When in full operation there are about 100 persons employed
on the premises, several steam engines constantly at woik, and the various
processes for the conversion of common worthless-looking scraps into pon-
derous bars and sliafts, fitted to drive the paddles of the largest steamers, or
the wheels of the most extensive manufactories, are carried on with steadi-
ness and vigour. In one part of the work we are shown a cutting machine
driven by steam, which slices iron plates, an inch in thickness, into small
pieces, as' easily as a housewife could cut a piece of cheese with a table knife.
In another department, these scraps or shingles are built into heaps, about
the size of quartern loaves, preparatory to being put into a furnace, from
which they are drawn out in lumps or masses blazing red, and then subjected
to the "tilt hammer," by which they are beaten into a solid state, and
shaped into bars of a certain length and thickness. From this part of the
work comes the material for the construction of all the immense shafts, co-
lumns, and heavy engine gearing which daily issues from the forge, some-
times requiring 10 or 12 horses to convey them to the place of tbeir destina
tion. After leaving the tilt hammer, these iron bars are conveyed to
Nasmyth's patented hammers— two of the most interesting machines in the
place— by which they are beaten into larger pieces, and made to assume tlie
form and design for which they are required. These machines can bo made
to give a pressure of five to seven tons at a stroke, and are easily managed
by two or three workmen, who can make the huge mass come down at one
moment so snftlv as scarcely to bruise a blade of grass, and ut anotlier with
a force that would sink a ship of war. Here, by the help of lever power,
two or three men can raise, and turn, and manage the formation of a mass
of iron weighing 12 or 14 tons as readily and as simply as a common black-
smith would forge a horse's shoe, and here these immense masses are formed
so accurately as not to be the sixteenth part of an inch from their pattern.
At present we may mention the Lancefleld Forge Company are in couise of
constructing four shafts, eai h of them 14 tons weight, for the Halifax ves-
sels, and the process of their formation is both ingenious and surprising.
Another article in the work that attracts much attention is what is called
the slotting machine, a huge iron structure, about 65 tous weight, by which
blocks of cold iron are cut, and grooved, and paired, as easily as pieces of
wood in the hands of a carpenter.— Gtoyoiti Chronicle.

Morticing Machine for Joiners' JVorh.—We inspected, at Messrs. E. T.
Bellhouse and Co.'s Eagle Foundry, a new machine for morticing wood.
This machine, though recently introduced into this country, where it has
been patented by Mr. William Furness, of Liverpool, has been used for the
last fifteen years in the United States of America, where it was invented by
a Mr. J. A. Fay. It is on the principle of the slutting machine for iron, but
with a power of adjustment of the point of the tool which enables a great
variety of work to be done by it. The chisels emplojed are peculiar
in shape, not being solid like the ordinary mortice chisels, but flat, like the
common joiner's chisels, with the edges turned up at right angles, so that
the chips are drawn out of the mortice, after the hole has been cut. The
machine can be used with any size of chisel from i-inch up to 2 inches; it
will also set out and mortice naves for wheels not exceeding 10 by 15 inches.
Pins and dowels are made by it in a quick and perfect manner. It can be
made to operate either by foot or steam-power, and one machine will
perform the work of eight men. The cost of the machine is about 20f.
— Manchester Guardian.

Biscuits madebg Machinery. — At the extensive ship-bread bakery of Mr.
Thomas Harrison, Mersey-street, is a patent machine, which ditiers froni
those hitherto in use, in size, in utility, and in adaptation for the firing of
the bread, on the hot-air principle, now the property of the Patent Desic-
cating Company. The flour and water in proper proportions are placed in a
cylinder, and the first operation of thoroughly mixing is performed by arms
inside. On leaving the cylinder, the dough is kneaded by means of a large
iron cylinder, under which it is passed several times. The required thickness
is attained on passing beneath a smaller cylinder. The dough, spread like a
large sheet, passes along an endless cloth, the machinery moving at each
stroke the precise width of a biscuit. As the dough passes along, by the
rising and falling of a nicely-adjusted piece of mechanism, the biscuits are
cut into shape and receive the stamp of the patentee. The biscuits are not
circular, but have six sides, and, therefore, there is not, in cutting out, any
waste of dough, except a small portion at each end. Passing along the
endless cloth, the biscuits are conducted to the mouth of the oven, where
they are received on what may be called, for familiar illustration, an endless
gridiron, which, as the machine moves, draws in the biscuits in a few seconds.
Each oven is 4 J feet in width, and 26^ feet in length. There are four ovens,
one above another, and all fed from the same furnace with hot water. The
mixing of the flour and water occupies about twelve minutes, the kneading
five or six, and the firing half an hour. As each oven contains G50 biscuits,
and may be filled within a few minutes of each other, there is no difiiculty
in producing from flour and water no fewer than 2,600 biscuits in an hour,
or nearly a ton of ship biscuits every two hours. The biscuits, too, are of
excellent quality — beautifully crisp and sweet. It is difficult to convey to
the reader a correct idea of the operation of so ingenious and useful a piece
of machinery, but it is so exceedingly clever that we would advise the curiuua
to visit the establishment. Messrs. W. and M. Scott, of the Tranmer^
Foundry, are the manufacturers.— iiwryjoo/ Mail.

552

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[N JVEMBEB,

Railways. — The railway system in England has nearly reached 5000 miles

In leneth. tinfi the averape t-ost of constnictioii hos been very much rediicwd, thereture a
diminiijhed Iruftic per mile may be expected. It appears on a comparison of results that
the mileage tniffic has nut fnllt-n below the estiinut« rate, and that there is not the least
ground for doubting the traffic resources of the country^ or despairing of the extension of
the ruilivay system.

Locomotion v. Stationary Engine power. — We understand that the altera-
tion in the working of the London and Blackwati Railway, by the substitutioQ of 1ol-o>
motives for the rope, has resulted in a saving of ftO per cent, in the working expeosfS,
the cost of the ro)ie having been Is. lUd. per mile, and tiie locomotives about 1 M. On
the Bow branch, nhich, as our readers ure aware, is being worked by one of Messrs.
England's new engines, the working expenses amount only t'l about fourpence per mile.

Proposed Great Railway Bridge at Cologne. — We have much pleasure,
says the ' Manchester Guardian,* in noticing, as one of the fruits of the recent vi?it of
his excellency the Prussian ambassador to this town and neighbourhood, that our distin-
guished townsman, Mr William Fairbairn, C.E., has been invited by the Prussian
Government to offer his advice and assistance in connection with a most important
work, which is about to be undertaken in Rhenieh Prussia. It has been determined that
ths Rhine is no longer to be a btirrier to an uninterrupted railway cummnnication
between the shores of the German Ocean and the great cities of central Germany; and
the neighbourhood of Cologne has been selected as the fittest site for effecting this
junction. On the invitation of his excellency Chevalier Bunsen, Mr. Fairbairn has
prepared plans and calculations for this important bridge, and lias been called to Berlin
to submit his design to his Majesty the King of Prussia and the authorities. The
Rhine is at present, as is well known, crossed only by floating bridges, and it has,
indeed, hitherto been considered an impossibility to erect permanent structures, which
should be able to withstand the destructive powers of the enormous masses of ice which
are brought down from the region of the Alps by this mighty stream. It is known that
the Romans had two passages across the river, constructed, however, of wood, aiid con.
tequently liable to great damage and deterioration; but since their age alt attempts to
erect massive bridges have tailed.

Fall of a Railway Viaduct at Preston. — During the last nine or ten
months some hundreds of men have been employed in the construction of a viaduct in
the Kibble Valley, forming part of the Preston extension of the East Lancashiie Uait<
way— a branch by which it is intended to form a connection with the main line at Los-
tock junction (some two or three miles from Preston), so as to render the company
indepeu'lent of the North Union. Ihe viaduct is intended to consist of b'l arche'^, alto-
gether about 6iK> yards in length. The arches (whith are built upon piles) are con-
structed of brick, with stone springers. In consequence of the wetness of the weather,
the bricklayers were not at work at the time of the occurrence. The only m*^n engaged
at the time of the full were soma half dozen, who were making preparations for the
resumption of work by the bricklayers. The whole of the centres, with the exception of
three seta, had been removed, for the ereciion of other arches. Of the three remaining
in, two sets had been "slacltened," preparatory to removal.

Telegraphs. — England is now one of the worst provided countries in the
world for electric telegraphs. Although In this country so much genius has been
devoted to the establishment of the telegraph system, as much is charged to convey a
message yO miles here as to convey one IttOO miles in the United States ; yet suih is the
state of legislation, no new company can be started here to afford etticient telegraphic
communication. If this state of affairs be long allowed, the commercial interests of the
country wilt suffer.

Telegraph Posts. — Mr. H. G. Hall, of Kirkersville, Ohio, has patented in
America an improvement in posts for telegraphs, which consists in "preventing the
posts supporting magnetic telegraph wires from rotting at the tturlace of the ground, by
firming 'on their lower ends shanks or tenons, and inserting the same into sockets,
tormed in cast iron shoes, made flnring anrl sharp on their upper or concave ends, to
allow them to be driven into shoulders on the posts, which are of greater diameter than
the shnes, in order to overhang and protect them, nnd prevent the water getting into the
shoes at the joints, said sockets or cavities being made of greater depth than the length
of the tenons, in order to leave spaces between their bottoms and the ends of the tenoi.s.
after the shoes are driven on the same, and thus allow them to be driven farther on when
required."

The French Navy. — The Minister of France has made his report on the
present state of the French Na»y, and very great Improvements are to be made !n (he
steamers, the machinery of many of them being of u description that would be of Vf ry
little service In case of being called suddenly to sea. It appears that several English en-
gineers have received orders, and entered into contracts for supplyini? new boilers, and
the requisite machinery, to be constructed in Frjince, but the material to be allo>ved being
imported from England. A great alteration is likewise about to be made in the import
duty of English coals In France — to be the same impost as those from Belgium.

Hydraulic Machines, — -Monsieur A. de Caligny has applied to hydraulic
engines, worked by a small fall of water at a low speed, the cylindrical valves used in the
Cornish engine. We are not able to speak aa to the oriffinulity or utility of this appli-
cation.

Chain Links for Cables, i(c, — Some experiments have been tried on the

premises of Messrs. Brown and L«nnoi, Mill-wall, Stepney, to test the power of links
for mooring chains, cables, and other purposes, formed on the principle of Mr. Price, of
Lower Islington, a gentleman already known among scientilic men as the inventor of ini-
proren>ents in anchors. The object of the inventor is to lessen the expense and weight
of chains as at present constructed, by doing away with the stud or cross-bar of the link,
and making the link with straight or parallel sides, and not of the prest-nt oval t>hiipe: his
jirinciple being that the fibre of the iron being kept straight, it will sustain or resist a
much greater weight or strain than when force is exerted agidfist it transversely. The
Itst was completely satisfactoiy ; a link of iron, ^ Inch in diameter, with parallel sides 'A
inches in length, and 2^ laches in breadth, without a stud, not breuking till a strain of 18
Ions was put on it, being HJ tons beyond the governmant prooT. This invention is worthy
the notice of nautical men, and those who require chains for other purposes.

NeualVs Patent IndiaRubber Springs for Rigging. — A patent has been
secured by Mr. Newall, the wire-rope manufacturer, for a new description of spring,
intended lor the purpose of forming an elastic support from the ship's side, for setting
up the rigging. It consists of a long box, formed of iron plates, leinc square iu the
ineide, into which are Inserted square blocks of India-rub'^er, having between them thin
plates of sheet- iron. T here la a regulating screw by which the rigging can be strained to
any deprte of tightness, and whatever strain is Imposed on the rigging uftei wards from
winds, lurching of the vessel, or other cause, the India rubber spring, by its reaction
pulls the rope in its place when the strain is removed.

Asphalte of Seyssel. — The results of the experiments, made by direction

of tlie Hon. Board ot Ordnance on tlie embrasures of Plymouth citadel, for testint? the
stren^-th of buildings cemented with asphalte, have been highly satisfactory. In the
course of last year several experiments were made on the old batteries, and on new ones
tonstiucted in brickwork, bedded and jointed in fluid asphalte. The (dd embrasure of
lubble masonry was considerably shattered by the firing six times of a ."i^-poundt r gun,
with charges of 101b. of powder each. The experiment was repeated on the asphalte
battery, and no effect wan observable. By the aid of this valuable material, the bomb-
proof buildings on the southern rimparts, which were uninhabitable for a centuiy, have,
since June, imti, been converted, under the orders of the englnetrs, into barracks,
where about -lOU men ure uow lodged iu dry quarters.

LIST OF NSW PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM SEPTEMBER 20, TO OCTOBER 18, 1849.

Si^ Months allowed for Enrolment^ unless otherwise expressed,

James Higgins, of Salford, Lancastsr, machine m iker, and Thomas Schofield Whit-
worth, of Sdit'ord aforesaid, mechanic, for certain iniprovementa in machinery for pre-
paring, spinning, and doubling cotton, wool, tliix, silk, and siuular filirous materials, —
September 24.

The uiiove patent being opposed by caveat at the Great Seal, was not sualed till October
'Jnd, but bears date the 24th September, the day it would have been sealed had no oppo-
sition been entered.

John Meadows, of Princes-street, Coventry-street, Middlesex, carver and gilder, for
improvements in veneering.— September 2/.

John Marriott HIashtiBid, of Milhv<tll, Poplar, Middesex, roman cement manufacturer,
for improvements in the manufacture of manure. — September 27.

William Browne, of St. Austell, Cornwall, mine agent, and Kichard Rowe Veale. of
St. Culumb Major, Cornwall, for improvements in preparing tor puiverizHtion fltnl-stone,
china-stone, ori*8, n.inetals, tpas, sands, earths, and other substances. — September '27.

Nicholas Doran Maillard, of Edward street, Portland-place, engineer, for improvments
in obtaining motive power for giving motion to machinery, and in propelling vessels,—
September '27.

William Boggett, of St. Martin's lane, Middlesex, gentleman, lor Improvements In
heating and evaporating fluids.— September 27.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for improvements In the
manufacture ot knobs for doors, articles of furniture, or other purposes; and in connect-
ing metallic attachments to articles made of g>ass or other analogous materials. (A com.
munication.)~September '27.

William Jamieson, of Ashton-under- Lyne, Lancaster, machine maker, for certain im-
provements in looms for w* aving. — October 4.

Charles Atwood, ot Tow-lane Iron Works, near Darlington, Durham, esq., for an im-
provement or impiovenients in the manuf.icture of iron. (A communication.) — October 5.

William Edward Newton, of Ch;incery-I«ne, civil engineer, tor improvements in ma-
chintry for planing, tongueing, and grooving boards or planks. (A lommunicatioD.) —
October 6.

Alfred Vincent Newlon, of Chancery. lane, mechanical drauphisman, for improvements
in the manufacture of pipes or tubes. (A communication.}— October 5.

Henry V\'atson, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, brassfuunoer, for improvements in valves or
cocks.— Octi'ber 12.

Robert Larkin, of Ardwick, Lancaster, machinist, and William Henry Rhodes, of
Openshaw, Lancaster, mechanic, lor certain improvements in maLhinery for preparing,
spinning, doubling, and weaving cotton and other fibrous substances. — October 12.

Peter Armand le Comte de Fontainemoreau, of South-street, Finsbury, lor improve-
ments in spinning fibrous substances. (A commnnicaiion.)— October 12.

Joseph Lowe, of Saltord, Lancaster, surveyor, for certain improvements in grates Of
grids applicable to sewers, drains, and other similar purposes. — October 12.

Michael Titch, of Chelmsford, Essex, patent salt manufacturer, for imjirovements in
baking bread, biscuits, and other matters, which improvements are applicable for drying
goods. — October 12.

Cornelius Bonell, of Kempsey, Worcester, engineer, for cer'ain improvements In rotary
engines, to be vvorked by steam or other means, and also in the construction of carriages,
vessels, or other vehicles to be worked or propelled by the said improvements in rotary
engines or other motive power, and for the machinery to be connected therewith.— Octo-
ber 12.

James Banister, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for a certain improvement or certain
improvements in tubes ror locomotive and other boilers.— October 1'2.

George Alois Kingeison, of Essex-street, S rand, Jliddlt-sex, chemist, for a composi-
tion or preparation for destroying vermin.— October 12.

Charles Rowley, ot Newliallstret, Birmingham, button manufacturer, for certaim im-
provements iu apparatus (or weaving, and in articles to be attached to dresses.— Octo-
ber 12.

John Torkington, of Pury, Lancaster, railway contractor, for certain improvements In
the eonstnjctiun of chaiia for railways. — October 12.

John Chri-tophers, of Heavitree, Uevon, formerly merchant and ship owner, for im-
provements in naval architecture.— Oi tober 12.

Tliomas Lightfoot, of Broad Oak, Lancaster, chemist, for improvements in printing
cotton f.nbrics.— October 12.

William Steilman Gillett, of Willon-streel, Grosvenor place, Esq., for improvements
In packing pistons, stulfing-boxes, slides, ami other parts of machinery, and iu forming
b-iirinps, and in making cylinders and other forms of metal.— October 12.

Conrad William Tinzel, ot Bristol, su> ar refiner, fur improvements in the processes and
machinery employed in, and applicable to, the manufacture of sngur. — October 12.

John Riercer, of Oakenham, Lancaster, gentleman, and.Wiliiam Blythe, of Holland
Bank, Lancaster, manufacturing cliemist, for improvements in certain matvriuls to bo
used in the j^rocess of dyeing and printiiig. — October 12,

Jules le Bastier, of Paris, gentleman, for certain improvements in machinery or appa*
ratus tor piinting. — October 12.

Joseph Johnson, of Huddersfield, York, bricklayer, and Joel Cliffe, of the same ptac«,
ironfounder, for improvements iu furnaces or in the mcdus of consuming smoke. — Octo-
ber 12.

John Debell Tuckett, of Plymouth, Devon, merchant, for a new and improved method
of preparing a manure called '* snperpbosiihate of lime," without using any acids in the
decomposition of the various substances of which the manures now in use. and for which
patents have been obtained, called " superphosphate of time," by the a|)plicalion of arti-
ficial itgency, by which more than double the quantity ot a true superphosphate of lima
can be produced beyond that tor which any patent has hitherto he< n griinted ; that the
s^.me may be applied in the production of all kinds of crops, more particularly wbeaCt
barley, oats, turnips, and other vegetables.— October 18.

Thomas 0awson, of Melton-street, Euston-square, machinist, for Improvements ia
cutting and shaping garments, and other articles or dress for the human body. — Octo-
ber 18.

Gforge Shove, of Deplford, Kent, for improTements in manufacturing ornamented
surfaces when glass and other substances are used. (A communication.) — October 18,

Joseph Stovel, of Suffolk-place, Pali-KIall East, Middlesex, tailor, for improvements in
coats; part of which improvements are applicable to sleeves of other garments. — Octo-
ber 18.

David Hulett, of Holborn, Middlesex, gas engineer, and John Birch Paddon. of Lam-
beth, gas engineer, for improvements in gas-nieters and gas- regulators.— October IH.

Etham Campbell, of New York, In the United stales ot America, philosophical, prac-
tical, and experimental engineer, and a citizen of ihe said United States, for certain new
and useful improvements in the means of generating and applying motive power, and in
propelling vessels.— Octolier IH.

William \\ yatt, ol Wiiterloo cottage. Oldswinford, pump maker, for Improvements in
coaling the suiiaces of pumps, pipes, cisterns, and other articles of iron.— October IH.

CharlfS Fellon Kirlin>:in, ot Argjle sitcet, Middlestx, gentleman, lor spinning or
twisting cotton, wool, or ulbei Ubrous substances.- October \ti.

PLATE XTCl

NATIONAL EXHIBITION

OF THE PRODUCTIONS of FRENCH INDUSTRY

18*3.

i

T 0 W A R D a

RIVER

m^ jjiDiJim

WARE ROOM

RE.FRiSHHtlNT

1 y -f >-

C Pi. 0 » gg 0 f L C L 0 T_H I I 9 i^ D S

V ARIOUS-MACHINES

MA CHINES

\^ VA R I 0 UB FURfi ITU R E

' *

m _ . «

1

" •

s

,

CAsr iRorv

>■

<t

' <^

■

jj'

■ a

a

■ %

to

'

^

* TURRET

"^ CL0CH5

O

t

y~.

r,opp£p t

f

o,

%

s

o

^

t

ytnOUCHTIHON

u

«

• •

^ ^

— ^

/"^

^

n

^

^

5

■J

*

5

«

X

^

^~-J

^ )

(^ TRoyes rLANncLS ~) {^ wool ) (

P A P ^U £T R Y

I L LI A RD TABL El

^ 0 F A a CHAIRS MRU- CHAIRS- ~)

/^

Oi

o

^

K

i

(t

^

k

s

0.

ce

:3

5

Or

Q

tO

?

%

■~

.^

-4

lU

^

O

k

to

W

I

V-J

LACQUERCD WARE

*

^1

r , r

' a t

, ui i

K -^

O o

a

O

K

s. * 1

i <=

•fc -= 5

, ^ -1

3: -J

■^ XJ

, s "

v_/ ,1 1 vj

TOWARDS THE GREAT AVENUE OF THE CHAMPS ELVSEEi

1819.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

353

THE FRENCH EXPOSITION.

( Tl'ith an Engrav'wg, Plate XXI.)

We have thouijht it rij^ht to give Mr. Digbv Wvatt's Report,
and the plan of the Palace of Industry, as our readers will thereby
see the kind of accommodation which will he provided in Hyde
Park in 1S51. The Report tliey will read with interest, as it is
from the pen of a man who well understood and carried out the
mission he had undertaken.

From what we saw at Paris, we feel quite sure no building like
the one there, will be big enough for our Exhibition, whicli will
require thrice the room. The ground taken up at our agricultural
shows for tools and stock is great enough; and then there is all
that is wanted for our mines, manufactures, and colonies, besides
what may come from ahi-oad. A^ hether we look to the resources
of England or the situation of London, as compared with those of
France and Paris, we shall see enough to show how much greater
are our requirements. The population of London is twice that
of Paris London will, by railway', receive productions from the
whole land between Plymouth and Aberdeen; by her river and
l>y canals from towns not reached by railway; and \>y sea from all
the neighbouring lands. Bulky machinery can most readily be
brought to London; and, indeed, it is mor? easy to get to London
from the whole shore of France between Bayonne and Dunkirk,
than to get to Paris. Bordeaux, Nantes, Rouen, and Havre, and
the towns on their rivers, will ship straight for London. By our
steamers, the hundreds of towns on the Mediterranean, the Atlan-
tic, and the Nortli and the East Seas, will send tlieir productions;
— and not only these, but every town on the ship-bearing rivers of
Europe, be it on the head of the Danube or among the mountains
of Bohemia. From the wide Atlantic our brothers will send to us;
from the furthest East, wherever the daring of the English mind
can reach, — from the shores of America, Southern Asia, and Aus-
tralia, on which our steamboats daily ply, will produce be sent to
London, for this town has means of communication which all
France even does not possess.

A great building must therefore be raised, worthy of England,
who has called the world to this meeting, and worthy of those who
will answer to the call. It may, perhaps, be still worthy of con-
sideration which of the Parks should be chosen. Hyde Park has
a good field, and is between two great streets and in the neighbour-
hood of handsome buildings. The nearest canal, the Grosvenor
Canal, is within half-a-mile of the walls. The Regent's Park is,
however, likewise in a handsome quarter, and has ground enough,
while it has the Regent's Canal i-unning through it on the north,
and is also near the North-Western and Great Western Rail-
ways.

A Report on the Elerenth French E.rpo.tition of the Produrtf: of In-
dustry; prepared 0;/ the direction of and .tiilmiitted to, the President
and Council of the Society of Arts. By Matthew Digby Wyatt,
Architect.

To THE President and Coi'ncil of the Society of Arts.

Sir, my Lords, and Gentlemen, — In accordance with instruc-
tions which I had the honour to receive from you, I have visited
the French metropolis, for the purpose of collecting all such
details concerning the quality, extent, and general character of
the present "Exposition of tlie Products of Industry," as might
seem most deserving of the careful attention of your Society.

On my arrival in Paris I lost no time in studying the actual
position of the building — the system which had been adopted as
the basis of its distribution — the official arrangements connected
with the selection and reception of the works of art exhibited —
their leading characteristics, as contrasteil with the parallel exist-
ing products of English manufacturing energy — and their com-
parative excellence in relation to the previous history of French
commerce. I endeavoured immediately to make myself acquainted
with the printed records of all previous similar National Exhibi-
tions, and to put myself in communication, not only with the
authorities, but with gentlemen not officially connected with the
administration, from many of whom I have been fortunate enough
to gain information of the most valuable kind.

When we consider that during the Inst fifty years constant and
sedulous attention has been paid by the government to tlie great
interests of manufacture in France, by precept, example, pre-
miums, public exhibitions, the institution of Elementary Schools,
"Societies of Encouragement," and, above all, by an incessant
attempt to elevate the social and intellectual condition of all
engaged in the great work of supplying the necessities, gratifying

No. 147.— Vol. XII.— December, 1849.

the tastes, and ministering to the resources and revenues of their
native country, we cannot be surprised to find in the year 1849, that
the impulse oriyinally comeyed to manufactures limited in extent,
and serving chiefly for the use of a small ])ro])ortion only of the
citizens, has been transmitted through infinitesimal ramifications,
until it has become infused and incorporated into the very essence
of the spirit of the people.

The traditions of excellence in manufacture reach in France to a
very remote period : as early as the commencement of the thirteenth
century her celebrity in the production of stained glass, of gold-
smith's work, of Limoges enamel, of ornaments in carved ivory,
and of illuminated manuscripts, had become European. Aided by
the influence of the great banker and merchant, Jacques Coeur,
the industrial arts attained an almost unrivalled development at
the beginning of the fifteenth century; and under the patronage
of the royal connoisseur, Francis the First, the union of the high-
est order of artistic ability, with the mechanical skill and experi-
ence accumulated during many centuries, stamped with a peculiar
and unniistakeable character of perfection many of the celebrated
productions of the period of the Renaissance. The establishment
of the silk trade at Lyons about tlie year 1450 — the ancient pro-
ficiency of Paris, St. Denis, Jiagny, Beauvais, and Cambray, in all
other branches of weaving — the Gobelin tapestry — the carpets of
the Savonnerie — the Sevres China Institution^and the commence-
j ment of the employment of cotton in the seventeenth century, are
all land-marks in the great scheme of French manufacture. Now,
although in all the departments of trade enumerated, the highest
art was associated with manufacture in supplying the wants and
gratifying the tastes of the lay and clerical aristocracy, it was not
until the advent of the Revolution that the attempt was made in
France to popularise any of tliese productions. From the year
1797 we may date a gradual attempt to disseminate, from the few
to the many, the luxury of beautiful design in all objects of daily
and universal use. It is true that, since this tide has set in, we
have met with no such artists in manufacture as Benvenuto
Cellini, Jean Goujon, Leonard de Limousin, Petitot and Bordier,
Clodion, Girardon, Bernard de Palissy, Girolamo della Robbia,
Pierre I'Escot, &c., l)ut in their stead have arisen myriads of
earnest men, anxious to afford additional employment to the swell-
ing masses congregating on the great points of centralization: and
de.-iirous, at the same time that they supjdied to all .at a moderate
rate, an approximation to the enjoyments of taste, formerly the
appanage only of the minority, to establish and maintain that
great bulwark of the wealth, intelligence, and respectability of
their native country — the enormous and now all-powerful 5our(/eo«*
class.

This generalization and dissemination of "Art Manufacture"
has been much excited and aided by the establishment of great
National Expositions, exhibiting from time to time tlie actual con-
dition, advantages, deficiencies, capabilities, and variations of in-
dustrial exertion throughout the country. It may be scarcely
necessary to prove the excellence, in principle and practice, of the
institution of such a systematic stimulant to public emulation,
since a recapitulation of the names of such men as FraUj'ois de
Neufchateau, Chaptal, Napoleon, Berthollet, Dupin, Louis Phi-
lippe, &c. fall of whom, though diftering most widely in their
political views, have united in prosecuting these Exhibitions with
the greatest ardour), would alone suffice to convince the most
sceptical, that France at least has acknowledged the great public
benefit of such competitions. VV^hen, furthermore, we find that
similar exhiliitions have been organised in Belgium, Italy, Austria,
Spain, Prussia, Sweden, Bavaria, and Russia, and that the nun.ber
of exhibitors has augmented in one constantly increasing ratio, it
is manifest that the manufacturers themselves have derived a prac-
tical benefit, as direct and important as that received by the
]mblic. As far as I have been aiile to remark, there does not exist
one single writer who has ventured to assert, either personally or
anonymously, that France has ever acquired aught except benefit
from this admirable Institution.

In order to convey, in as short a compass as possible, the facts
prejiared for your examination, it may perhaps be well to arrange
them under three heads, gi\-ing, —

Firstly — A description of the present building, and generally of
the nature of the present Exposition (A).

Secondly — A short account of the history of the institution of
past Expositions, and their connection with the industrial progress
sion of the country.

And, Thirdly— An analysis of the oflScial arrangements, their
routine, and in an appendix, copies of public documents con-
nected with the organization of the present and past Exposi..
tions.

4Q

854

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[^DECEJIBEIt,

Section A. — Tup; Present Exposition.
No. 1. — The Building, its Cost, S^c.

The vast edifice which has heen erected to contain the specimens
of maiuifactiire selected for exliihitiun in tlie year 1H4-9, is situated
(in tlie same site as that occupied by a similar buildinff in the year
184t. The Carre de jNIaritrny, on which it has heen placed, is a
large ol)loii!j piece of ground, abutting on the main avenue of tlie
Champs Elysees, and as a site offers every possible advantage,
being of a gravelly soil, already efficiently drained, and placed on
the line of a continually moving series of public conveyances.
The Champs Elysees, though at some considerable distance from
the great centre of I'arisian population, are still so universal a
]ilace of resort, that they may be fairly assumed to be "in the way"
of even the poorest classes of the community. The elevation may
be admirably seen from all the approaches to the building, and it
has the advantage of being in the immediate proximity to the
residence of the President of the Kei)ublic.

'J'he architect, M. Moreau, was engaged in the year 1844. (the
date of the last Exposition) on the design of a building almost
similar to the present one, exhibiting a somewhat analogous ar-
rangement, but presenting less complication of form. By a com-
jiarison of the two appended plans, the differences of his arrange-
ment of the Palace of Industry in ISti, and that in 18t9, will be
apparent; and it will undoubtedly be perceived that the interior
of the vast rectangular courtyard in the jilan of 18+1- must have
presented a magnificent coup d'tnil, which is totally wanting in its
fellow of the present year.

The whole ])lot of the present building (exclusive of the agri-
cultural department) covers a vast parallelogram of 206 metres by
100 (about 675 X 328 feet English), round the outline of which
runs a gallery about 90 feet wide, divided into two avenues by a
double range of pilasters. In the centre of each avenue is a set
of stalls, placed hack to back, for the exhibition of merchandise;
and both between the central pilasters, and round, and upon the .
walls, other objects are jilaced, so that on traversing either of the
four gangways (each about 10 feet wide) the public have upon
their right and left hands objects for inspection. In the part of
the building appropriated to large machinery, of course this system
cannot be carried out with the same regularity. The vast parallelo-
gram, enclosed by a somewhat similar gallery in the year 1844-,
was left as one magnificent hall, within which were placed the
most important objects; in the present building we find it divided
by two transverse galleries, similaily arranged to those we have
described, forming three courtyards; the central one being about
140 feet square, and the two lateral ones 80 feet by 14-0. The cen-
tral courtyard is open to the sky; in the middle rises an elegant
fountain placed on a platftu'm of turf, and around are disposed
sheds for the exhibition of flowers and horticultural ornaments
and im])!ements. One of the lateral courts (enclosed) receives a
large collection of objects in metal-work, cast-iron, &c., and the
other contains an immense reservoir, in which all the drainage
from the roofs is collected, so as to form a supply of water imme-
diately serviceable in case of fire. In addition to this great build-
ing, which corresponds with that previously erected, there is this
year constructed a vast shed for the exhibition of agricultural pro-
duce, and stock. It extends to a length rather greater than the
width of the great parallelogram, and is about 100 feet (English)
wide. Its construction is ruder than that of the "Palace," but it
is not on that account less effective. It appears to have been
<u-igin;illy contemidated to fill the whole of this gigantic hall with
cattle, &c., and to jilace the agricultural implements in a long nar-
row gallery intervening between it and the main building; but as
the stock of animals forwarded for exhibition has not proved so
large as was anticipated, it has been half-filled with semi-agricul-
tural machines, and the whole of the long narrow gallery alluded
to crammed with stoves, and miscellaneous domestic mechanism.

The whole of the building is constructed of wood; the roofs
being covered with zinc: of the latter material 4-00,000 kilo-
grammes, equal to nearly 4,000 tons, are stated to have been used;
and of the former, nearly 45,000 jiieces of timber.

It is hojied that the accompanying plans, M-hich have been pre-
pared from some recent authorities, and an inspection of the
sketches given in the pages of the I/lustriition and other journals,
will convey a tolerably good idea both of the exterior and interior
arrangements of the exhibitions. They will serve to show at least
that a somewhat unnecessary expenditure has been gone into, and
to manifest the possibility of constructing a much more simple
building, possessing all the advantages of this one, at a far less
cost.

Both externally and internally there is a good deiJ of tasteless

and unprofitable ornament; all the pilasters are papered and
])ainted in a species of graining to imitate light oak, and even the
ceiling is covered over with the same work. Large ctirtim pierre
trusses apparently support the timbers, and a puinted bronze bas-
relief fills the tyni])anuin of the pediment, at the principal en-
trance. The architecture of the whole is me-tquiii, although the
gigantic scale of the building necessarily elevates the general
effect into S(miething of impressiveness; not, however, to nearly
the extent which the same outlay might have produced.

In spite of a statement which has been going the round of the
French papers, declaring that the building has cost 900,000 francs,
I may, I believe, state with certainty, on the authority of M.
Audiganne (Chef du Bureau de ITndustrie), who has kindly com-
municated to ine a few official details, that nothing like that sum
has been expended, and that about 450,000 francs is the real
amount. In a letter I had the honour to receive from him, he
informs me that —

Francs. jg

The cost of the building in the year 1839 was 303,791 about 14,.560
„ „ 1844 „ 376,406 „ 15,050

1849 „ 400,0U0 „ 16,000

If to this last amount we add 2,000/., the lowest estimated cost
of the agricultural died, making the whole sum expended equal to
18,000/., the difference of about 3,000/. between the outlay of the
present year and that of the year 1844 will be satisfactorily ac-
counted for.

It is, of course, to be remembered in these calculations, th.at the
money is paid only for the hire of the iniUcriulu for about three
months, the whole remaining the property of the contractor at the
termination of the Exhibition.

We find that tlie Exposition of the year

1839 couiaiiied a total area of 11,3621

1811 „ l'J.49/ 1 metres

J849 „ 22,391 J

That of these total areas.

In 1H.'<9. ^ 80(1 ine'.res'^ consislc-d of space availai le f .'i.'j.^fi") metres remained for the
l.i'44, i).U->l „ i- far (,'oods j and, ciinse--^ 10,4-15^ passafji-s. hall, gang-
)-oJ'J. a,734 1 - -- . - -

J qiieiitly, ihat-

We may, therefore, infer that
working proportion; and since

S(;. Mctics. Francs.

In 1339, atutal of 11,362 cost 363,791,
1814, „ 19,497 „ 370,406

1849, „ 22,391 „ 400,000

It follows that.

l.li,ti37J ways, &c. Sic.

about half-and-half is a good

dS s.

that is 1 5

„ 0 15

„ 0 14

-per square ui^tre.

d.

2 '

25

per tq. ft. English.

In 1H39, the cost of the building was at the rate of 2

1844, „ „ 1

1849, ., „ 1

Now, setting aside the year 1839 as a manifest extravagance, we
learn that Is. 3d. has been the average of the cost of building per
foot S(iuare in the two last French Expositions; but at the same
time it is to be i-emarked that the work is done in an extravagant
style, and that the expenses of some branches of building are
considerably greater in France than in England.

N.B — It has not heen possible to obtain more detailed informa-
tion of cost, the returns having not yet been officially made up.
These figures must, therefore, be regarded only as the iiearest
approximation to correctness procurable.

No. 2.— 7Vie Classification of Product.^, Sjc.

Not only in laying-out the scheme of building, but in the ar-
rangements preliminary even to that point, it becomes necessary
where objects of such various descriptions are to be assembled, to
adopt some general system of natural or artificial classification, in
order that facilities for the jiroper grouping of analogous arts may
be uniformly and consistently provided, both in the Exhibition,
the Catalogue, and the Report of those appointed to examine into
the merits of the workmanship or design.

In the three first E.xpositions no system of classification was
adopted, and consequently the labour of all employed in studying
them must have been, and still is, very much enhanced.

If one of the objects of these exhibitions be, as it most as-
suredly should, to instruct the public, the clearness of their
memories and impressions mainly depends upon the simplicity and
perfection of the system of succession, subordination, and classifi-
cation of all the elements composing the great display. If it
be otherwise, they gain only a confused sense of weariness, in-
stead of a series of important, mutually dependant, practical con-
clusions.

1849."!

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

355

In the year 1806 we meet with the first attempt at arrangement
by M. Costaz, who edited the Report of the jury on the Evpositioii
of that year. He proceeded on a fffographical analysis, and
treiited his examination of all the ohjects exhihited, under the
heads of the depai'tments of France from which they emanated.

In the year 1819 he again edited the llei)ort, and on that occa-
sion adopted an entirely material or natural system, dividing all
the arts into thirty-nine heads. The consequence was, of course,
great confusion.

In the year 1827, M. Payen took up a purely scientific arrange-
ment into five great divisions, namely —

Arts. — 1, Chemical; 2, Mechanical; 3, Physical; 4, Economical; 5, Mis-
cellaneous.

This was deemed almost too artificial and ahstract; and, ac-
cordingly, in 18:51 we find M. Diipin very wisely estahlishing his
system of division on the basis of the relation of the arts to man.
Thus—

Anihropic Arts — 1, Alimentary ; 2, Sanitiry; 3,Vi'stiary; t. Dnmioiliary ;
5, Locomutive; 6, Sensitive; 7, Intellectual; 8, Preparative; 9, Soi-ial.

In 1839 M. Dupin's analysis was adhered to, and found to work
very well.

In 184t the jury adopted a more material classification, uniting
something of the spirit of each of the three former systems.
They divided the Manufacturing Arts into —

Arts oil the Accidental or Natural Si/stem. — 1, Woven ; 2, Mineral ; 3, Me-
chanical; 4, Mathematical; 5, Chemica! ; G. Fine; 7y Ceramic; 8, Miscella-
neous.

This arrangement led rather to confusion, and unfortunately, as
may be seen by a reference to the plan of the building of the pre-
sent E.xposition, in vvliich this system (if any) has been followed,
it is sufficiently complicated to render it extremely difficult to
refer to any particular object, from its proximity to others having
any analogy with it.

Perhaps some of the elements of Mr. Fergusson's excellent
analysis of the Anthropic Arts might be advantageously adopted,
or some classification referring to modifications of material in the
raw state, in the manufactured state, in the ornamented state —
treating tltem as representatives of the science of production, of
manufacture, of decoration, might be found available in default of
other better arr;ingements.

No. 3. — The Nature and Character of the Products.

It was a matter of common complaint among all connected with,
or interested in, the present exhibition, that, owing to the com-
mercial crises of 1848, it had become almost impossible to foresee
either the probable amount or character of the goods forwarded for
exhibition. I fear, therefore, that the most careful computations
as to the relative spaces occupied by different trades would rather
mislead than inform, if they were likely to be regarded as the
slightest indication of what might be probable in England.

On examining and comparing the leading features of all the
previous Expositions, we find that each one was specially charac-
terised by some feature peculiarly it sovvn. Thus, Machinery,
which this year is the great and predominating attraction, in 1839
■was comparatively a minor item; while the products of Mulhausen,
which in 1839 actually required a special great hall for themselves
alone, this year sink into the ordinary space allotted to many other
branches of industry. In forming a judgment as to the proper
space to be occupied by any specilic manufacture, in reference to
its actual importance, much must naturally be left for decision to
the constituted authorities for the time being, and they in turn
must he swayed more by a sense of duty and justice, than by any
laws with which precedent could provide them.

In quality of her position, as "mistress of the reigning mode"
France this year, as in duty bound, e.xliihits a dazzling array of
pretty and tasteful objects. Evidence is exhibited on all hands of
the extent to which the education of her workmen have been car-
ried. Scarcely e\er do we recognise a piece of bad ornamental
modelling; where the human figure is introduced, it is rarely igno-
rantly drawn. In the departments of manufacture requiring ten-
der manipulation, such as the more delicate articles of jewellery,
carving, tooling, &c., we recognise a practised hand, acting in
unison with an ever-thoughtful head. Everything seems pro-
duced, to a certain extent, con atnore; and on conversing with
every tradesman he will he found to take an immediate pride in
his occui)ation, as a means of elevating him in the social scale,
rather than as a drag to prevent his entering into competition
with a class, whose hopes, fears, associations, prejudices, virtues,
and demerits, have little natural affinity to his own. Thus,
French manufacture has a certain peculiar charm, which frequently

paralyses the judgment in appreciating the numerous structural
defects which her ])rodactions constantly exhibit. If a piece of
furniture he well and artistically carved, tlie ordinary eye cares
little whether it be or be not well fitted or well seasoned. A beau-
tiful silver-gilt ornament is at once preferred to an ugly gold one,
and a paper-hanging printed in two tints vvhich harmonise is far
preferable to one executed with sixty, all of which "fight" and
weary the eye. The only important branches of manufacture in
which, to judge from the present Exposition, PVance seems de-
cidedly behind England, are those of the application of mechanism
to carving on a large scale, the manipulation of gutta-percha, tin-
plate and Britannia-metal working, earthenware, antl japanning
on papier-mache, and generally, perhaps, in her immediate adapta-
tion of new machinery to facilitate, and consequently cheapen,
production; while in many departments, such, for instance, as the
cultivation of the art of enamelling, of bronze-working, of the
production of artistic stone-ware, the making and colouring of
terracotta, and of riband and silk-weaving and dyeing, she ap-
pears as decidedly in advance. In such a Report as the present it
would he needless to particularise the differences between the
manufactures in detail; but it may, perhaps, be well to remind
those interested, that the predominating feature of this year's
exiiibition in France is the manifestation of her power to get up
those machines on the possession of vvhich our facility in produc-
tion has long depended, and that if once she attain in this depart-
ment anything approaching our mechanical resources, at the same
time retaining her present artistic capability, there is little doubt
that she will be enabled to command many markets to which we
alone now procure access, and which we are too apt to regard as
permanent property, rather than as requiring peculiar and con-
tinued exertion to monopolise.

The exhibition of raw silk of the finest quality should make us
turn with peculiar interest to the details of the experiments lately
made, with a view to introduce the subject to the notice of the
English cultivator, recorded in the last portion of your Society's
Transactium, and encourages us to hope that ere long this im-
portant material may be naturalised in England.

The raw products of Algeria seem to promise much as a field for
the outlay of French energy and capital.

No. 4. — General Excellencies and Defects of the present Exposition.

Perhaps the chief excellencies of the arrangements may be
deemed the extreme liberality with which the building has been
constructed, and the noble style in which the whole affair has been
managed as regards the unlimited supply of public money, the
number and civility of the keepers and attendants, and the ease
with which the enormous masses of visitors vvere enabled to circu-
late by the width and uninterrupted lines of tlie gangways.
There was considerable benefit in the opening of numerous outlets,
though the public were generally admitted by one entrance only.
The advantage afl'orded by this was, that if any pei-sons were
inconvenienced by heat or pressure, they co\ild readily find an
exit; while limiting the points of entry secured a tolerably unani-
mous movement, without driving those on whose inclination led
them to dwell especially upon one particular spot. It also con-
siderably simplified the "overlooking and checking the receipts on
entry. The placing at all these doorways, ladies, who benevo-
lently devoted themselves to the collection of funds to be dedi-
cated to the service of the poor, and more particularly to relieve
those suffering from the cholera, has been productive of very great .
good, and by their means large sums of money have been raised
for the purposes of charity.

The system which has been heretofore adopted of grouping
together goods of a similar kind — affording great facilities for
comparison and study — and increasing the ease with which par-
ticular classes of manufacture may be separately examined, without
confusing the memory with the labour of recalling the exact position
of kindred objects scattered about, it was found impossible to fully
carry out, owing to the feverish political excitement, which, up to
a late period, rendered the existence, even of this year's Exposi-
tion, quite problematical. A mode of arrangement of products of
manufacture so topoyraphicnl as to exhibit together all the energy
and relative power of production, of different districts, has been
suggested, but never tried to any great extent; the general opinion
being that it would not convey as much practical infiu-mation, or
in half so agreeable a form, as if effected by the usual practice.
Classified indices to the Catalogues would probably unite the
advantages of both systems, and to a slight extent they have been
adopted in France.

The Catalogue as at present arranged consists of tv.'o parts.
The first, containing the numerical series in the order in which the

40*

356

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

products stand in the several stnlls, the names of manufacturers,
their addresses, and the nature of tlieir goods, placed somewhat
thus: —

Patent Malleable Iron.
Cast-iron goorla.
Cotton Prints.

No. 19 James White Leeds

No. 20 Jrihn Smith Broad-street, Blnniiigham
No. 21 James Brown Mosely-street, Manchester

And the second, the names of manufacturei-s arranged alpha-
betically, followed hy the number of the stalls, iSic, thus: —

White, Janies I P iteiit Malleahle Iron No. 19

Wilson, U'lheit Stocking-frame, with patented Improvements No. 521

Wood and Smith | Painted and Ornamental Glass No. 4213

In all cases where honours have in former years been awarded
to individuals, their nature is indicated by distinctive marks
attached to each name. In truth, however (e.xceptiujf as a book
of reference after the close of the exhibiti(m), the French Cata-
logue, as at present arranged, is almost valueless: the names and
addresses of each exhibitor being attached in a clear aud legible
form to every stall, and some one representing his firm being
generally present to take care of his or her master's goods, and to
convey whatever information may be requested. The present con-
struction of the Catalogue is, on the whole, to he regarded rather
as a defect than as an excellence. The self-evident principle of
regulating the line of progression, and fixing the numbers so as to
fall in with that order, seems to have been quite lost sight of, and
thus considerable confusion would be created by any one who per-
severed in following out the series presented by the Catalogue.
If it were determined to have one up and one down-current in a
gangway, it would he well to let the numbers follow each other on
either the right or left-hand sides; if, on the contrary, the whole
stream of visitors poured in one direction, it might be well to place
the odd numbers on the left-hand side-stalls, and the even num-
bers on the riglit, and thus the classes of fabric and material miglit
be kejit tolerably together in the Catalogue. Now on the forni^er,
the present French system, they get very much scattered about.
There is considerable advantage in allowing the exhibitors to fit
up (under certain general restrictions) their own stalls, at their
own ex])ense; since it affords an opportunity for the exercise of
individual taste, is gratifying to those who would be dissatisfied if
the charge of arranging their goods was entrusted to any but
themselves, and effects also a considerable saving of time, trouble,
and expense, to the executiie. It is, however, absolutely neces-
sary, that all goods should he finally arranged some time prior to
the opening of the exhibition, and'that none should he received
after a certain day, except under the most extraordinary circum-
stances. The non-observance of sudi a regulation completely'
marred, for some time, the effect of the present Exposition;
instead of inaugurating a perfect and splendid spectacle with
fitting national solemnities, and thus interesting at once to the
people and the press, the saloons were opened half-filled, or even
less than half-filled; — upholsterers hard at work in all directions;
boxes, packing-eases, lumber, and heaps of straw, dust and dirt,
disfiguring and spoiling the whole effect. For nearly three weeks
these inconveniences existed, in a greater or less degree; and, as
might naturally be expected, the jiress scarcely ])raised, scarcely
noticed, and the better class of citizens and foreigners scarcely
visited, the exhibition for the first month. It is needless to insist
on the ini])ortance of this error.

One of the most striking defects in the plan of the building was
the total impossibility of converting it, for any great national pur-
pose, into a vast hall, in which a multitude might assemble to
witness such an exhibition as the bestowal of the prizes. In no
position could more than a fourth of the whole extent be seen at
one view, so that not only was the effect of a possible e/JsemWe,
similar to that which ni'ght have been gained hy the adoption of a
design proposed in the Heme d' Architecture, by jNI. Hector Moreau,
entirely lost, but the stupendous effect of one enormous impression
of grandeur on entering was perfectly s.acrificed to a fancied
regularity of plan. Another great disadvantage was the ini|)ossi-
bility of adding to the beauty of the efl'ect hy the additional
galleries, and the acquisition of more space to be appropriated, in
the event of the coutributious proving more numerous than was
expected.

One peculiarity, which architecturally was most distressing, was,
that a system of eha7n seemed to preside over all the ornaments
and construction. Great carton picrre trusses which supported
nothing — painted bas-reliefs to imitate bronze — fir covered all over
with pajier to make it look like oak, — were all unnecessary and
wasteful professional forgeries. If each simple material had been
allowed to tell its own tale, and the lines of the construction so
arranged as to conduce to a sentiment of grandeur, the qualities of

"power" and "truth," which its enormous extent must have neces-
sarily ensured, could have scarcely failed to excite admiration, aud
t.'iat at a very considerable saving of expense.

The Agricultural ])ortiou of the building was by far the best in
design, though comparatively rude ; but, unhappily, since the
exhibition was a very poor one (the jirovinces being scarcely at all
represented) almost twice as uiuch accommodation was provided
as was needed.

We fully believe, that a better building might be erected,
affording the same area and advantages as the Parisian Palace of
Industry, and avoiding most of its defects, for an amount less — •
probably by one-fourth — than that whicli has been expended
upon it.

The remaining sections of this Report consist of a short but
interesting history of the origin and progress of the past Exposi-
tions, from their commencement in 1797, under the auspices of
Napoleon, up to that of the present year ; showing their connec-
tion with the industrial progression of the country; their cost;
the official arrangements, antl duties of the various authorities ;
the distribution of prizes; together with an appendix which shows
the labour and judgment bestowed by Mr. \Vyatt in collecting it.

LAW FOR PATENTEES IN FRANCE.

Whoever knows anything of law anywhere, knows it is a very
bad thing; but those who have the ill-luck to bring a mechanical
question before one of our law courts, learn it is the worst thing
they have done in their lives. Law may be the perfection of rea-
son— though we do not know why tliis is to be believed, — but as
lawyers know nothing of mechanical affairs, and yet undertake
them, the evil lot of patentees, maniifacturers, engineers, and
others, may be foreseen. Nor are we better off with juries. What
are called special juries are not composed of men of education,
though it miglit be thought if a special jury were needed, it would
he of men of mind and knowledge. So far from this, special jury-
men are taken from the wealthy or trading classes. To be a mer-
chant or banker, is a qualification; hut to he an engineer, architect,
editor, author, professor, schoolmaster, chemist, doctor, or gra-
duate, is none. Lawyers and medical men are exempt, even if
otherwise qualified; so that to get an educated man on a special
jury is a mere chance. If the judge go so far as to recommend a
reference, to whom is the reference made ? Not to practical men,
but to barristers, who are not, of need, either lawyers or men of
sense, and whose judgment may be utterly impossible to be carried
into effect.

"They do these things better in France." It is quite true that
they have law and lawyers: but they have, further, something rea-
sonable. They have professional witnesses, or experts; but they
have likewise, for trade cases, "Tril>unals of Commerce," consisting
of mercantile men, and chosen by mercantile men.

The "Syndical Chambers" are of recent institution, established
not by the government, but hy private exertion. The building
trade, in Paris, some years ago found an inconvenience even in the
Tribunal of Commerce and the experts, who made long inquiries,
long rejiorts, and long fees. M. Letellier de Lafosse, therefore,
proposed to the building trades the formation of a Syndical Cham-
ber, chosen by the trades, — which undertook to judge all questions
referred to them, without delay and without expense. The Tri-
bunal of Commerce took advantage of this institution, by refer-
ing, and the building trades have had great benelit from it.

In consequence of this success, the mechanical engineers have
formed a syndical chamber, under the name of "Union des Con-
structeurs Mecaniciens." This has already worked so well, that
ecery case brought before it has been settled amicably at the first
sitting.

In these Syndical Chambers, and in the "Conseil des Prud-
hommes," the French are coming back to the institutions of the
middle ages, aud we hope it will not be long before the same thing
is done here. The jealousy of lawyers, and the quackery of the
(loctriiuiires,ha.s done its best to suppress old and local institutions ;
the lawyers gain, the public suffer: but in the end we shall have to
begin again — to go back; and if we do not restore the functions of
the Blacksmiths, tlie Carpenters, or the Goldsmiths Company, we
must give a jurisdiction to the Institution of Civil Engineers, or
the Institute of British Architects. We have official assignees
and official referees, but ^ve want self-government, and no lawyers.

1849. J

THE CIVIL EXGIXEKR AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

357

SUPPLY OF WATER TO THE METROPOLIS.

It is not usual for us to comment on the proceedings of scientific
bodies, reported in our Journat, but we cannot refrain fi-om making
some remarlis at this time on the lecture delivered by Dr. Buck-
land, at the Royal Institute of British Architects, and published
in our present number (p. 379.)

In the first place, we find it needful to question the accuracy of
Bome of the Doctor's statements, for he says the supply of water
wanted for the Trafalgar-square fountains could be obtained from
the Chelsea Waterworks at much less than it now costs. This
might be the case if the whole outlay of the well and machinery
be set down to the account of the fountains, and, as the Doctor
says, in pumping and re-pumping the same water. He must, how-
ever, be well aware the engines are likewise used for pumping the
water to supply all the government ofEces, the palaces, the Houses
of Parliament, and St. Martin's baths and washhouses. Does he
know what is the contract price for pumping all the water for such
supply, — and the sum demanded by the Clielsea W^aterworks for
such supply.'' If he be nott possessed of such information, he
will in a future number find the means of enlightening himself
and the public on the subject.

We further contend, with all due submission to the learned
doctor, that an Artesian well is a well sunk to a certain depth to
form a reservoir, and whence a boring is made to the lower springs
until the water rises and overflows the top of that borina- into the
well or reservoir. The learned Doctor holds that nothing is an
Artesian well, unless the well itself overflows; as if there were any
great good in that, or as'if all the wells in the country of Artois
are of that character. \Vbat the Dean calls an Artesian well, we
call an Artesian boring, which is nothing more than a bore-hole
made from the surface down to the springs, until the water rises
and overflows at the surface of the ground, or above the surface of
the bottom of a well. An Artesian well is therefore a well with
such a boring.

Having said thus much on these two points, we wish to make a
few remarks on the important question of the supply of Lond(m
with water. The first step, we conceive, should l)e the appoint-
ment, by government, of a commission of scientific gentlemen,
untrammelled and unfettered by any bias or connection with any
other scheme, and to whom the whole subject should be referred.

We could much have wished that Dr. Buckland had, at present,
held back from offering any opinion on the Henley water scheme.
Had he wished to do so, it would have been far better to have
reviewed all the plans proposed, for if any other than the learned
and respected Dean had made such allusion to the Henley water
scheme at such a moment, he would have been strongly suspected
of aiding and abetting the promoters of that work, and running
down the Artesian-well scheme. For ourselves, we will not at-
tempt to give any (qiinion now on the various plans, but will in our
next month's Joaruul review the whole, in order that our scientific
readers may be in a position to join in the discussion, and to come
to a correct judgment, for it is of the greatest importance the
public mind should be led in the right direction.

It is very evident something must be done to improve the water
supply, — the monopoly of the London water companies can last
no longer, for they \\n\e had time enough to improve the supply,
and have taken no heed. There is a pressure from without, — the
companies must discharge the public duties with which they have
been entrusted, or they must cease to be public servants. The
contract is to supply such water as the public want to drink, not
such as the companies choose to sell. As it now is, the companies,
claiming a monopoly, are a hindrance in the way of those who
offer to sell pure water. They claim a monopoly for trash. The
New River Company, while the cholera was still raging, actually
withdrew the supply to the courts and alleys. The quantity is
now little more, the mode of supply still inconvenient, and the
quality of the water no better.

The companies persist in using the Thames, while it is clear the
public must have water from some other source than the Thames
in the neighbourhood of the London drainage, and from a source
in which there is no chance of contamination. The supply, too,
must be constant. The practice of compelling the inhabitants to
have cisterns, can no longer be uplield; and no engineer who has
any respect for the honour of the profession, will any longer advo-
cate intermittent supply, and the nonsensical stuff which has been
put forward in its support.

The public are masters of the subject, and will not allow
themselves to be talked out of their senses by any parade of
figures, for what can be done in other parts of England can be done
in London ; and there is no need ior the Londoners, after having

shown the %pay forward, to be left behind the rest of the world.
We shall do our best for the cause, and we think we can show there
is no additional expense for constant supply, as the actual cost of
lifting water 100 feet, for the supply of 100 gallons of water to
each house daily, is not, on the average, above 2«. 6d. yearly.

We wish the Rev. Dean had in his lecture gone a little further,
and explained why the wells in London have failed, for, with his
great geological knowledge, his opinion would have had some
weight. As he is aware, nearly all the deep wells of London
derive their supply from springs below the level of the river
Thames, and we ask him whether it is to be expected supply
enough of water can be so obtained, when the natural outfall of
the springs and drainage is by the river Thames.'' The Doctor
may be able to inform us, that if we go much below the level of
the' sea, there cannot be any dependence on getting a large supply;
but that if we go to the outcrop of the chalk, in the neighbourhood
of London, and there sink wells, thei-e can be little doubt a large
quantity of water may be had from the bowels of the earth before
the water has had time to overflow from the springs into the rivers.
How are the rivers rising in the chalk formation, as the Colne,
Mole, Wandle, and Lea, all of which derive their supply from the
springs in the chalk, supplied with water ?

It may be said by the niillowners, "This can be done, but then
you will hurt us" — to which we answer: "You, a few in number,
must not stand in the way of the health and life of millions; you
must be recompensed, — the VYater Clauses Act gives you ample
protection; you can claim compensation, and set steam-power to
drive your mills, instead of water." Much, too, may be done for
the millowners by damming and storing-up the water of ri\ers in
compensation reservoirs in the time of heavy floods, and letting it
out in time of drought, for by such care, the stock of water now
wasted may he made enough for the waterworks and the mills, and
the latter have much steadier h ork and more working-days in the
year.

In offering these few suggestions, we do not mean to say a supply
for all London can be got from any one well, but we think it may
from a few wells sunk north, east, west and south, within twenty
miles of London. If the supply from such source to the full ex-
tent required for all sanitary purposes be doubled, this mode of
supply might be confined to household uses, and the plants of the
water coni])anies at Brentford, Hammersmith, Chelsea, Battersea,
London-bridge, and Old Ford be used for pumping up the water of
the river Thames, as now, but for sanitary purposes only, as flushing
the sewers, and watering and cleansing the streets; and by making
an arrangement with the Regent's Canal Company, the water might
be pumped into that canal, which is well situated for the purpose of
sending a stream of water to the head of the main sewers, through
which it would f.o\v, cleansing them, and emptying the sewage into
the river Thames below low-water mark.

In the way here shown, ten gallons of pure water could be given
daily to each house in London, wliich would be enough for house-
hold uses; and, at the same time, the mains of present companies
might be kept for cleansing. It may further be observed, an
arrangement could be made for connecting many of the present
services with the new mains to be brought into London for the
pure water supply, and also the present reservoirs likewise be
used for distributmg such v/ater. An arrangement of this kind
depends, of course, on the present water companies, and, as we
have said before, if they will not move and do something- of them-
selves, it must be done for them, and they must be crushed. The
result lies with them, and they have had warning, often and loud
enough.

A Salt Tf'aler Spring in a Coal Mine. — During the past month (lie miners
employed in sinking down to the Ardley Mine, at nhat is commonly callfd
the Patricroft Colliery, Ince, completed their task ; and during tlieir progress
they have cut through a white stone rock of 15 yards thick, in the centre of
which, at 410 yards from the surface, they found a spring of salt water,
which, according to their account, makes about 20 gallons per hour. The
water is clear and hright, and on a tenijiorary anahzation is found to contain
about 14 grains troy of tlie different kinds of salts to 1 ounce of water.
The mines are the property of Messrs. Lancaster, the Ince Hall Cnal and
Canal Company ; and it now remains a question as to how far this excellent
alkaline spring might he rendered nvailalile for haths, &c. Below this rock
the miners cut thiough various metals for about 15 yards, when they came
to the mine, vihich is 4 ft. 6 in. thick, exclusive of what is called the
"buzzard" coal on the top. The miners have frequently fiiind salt water in
the mines in Ince, hut we believe that this is the first discovery of the source
from whence it emanated. — I'reslon Chronicle,

3,58

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

THE HEALTH OF TOWNS QUESTION AND THE
ENGINEERS.

It is owing in no small way to the engineers that the health of
towns is now so much thought of, anrl it behoves them to take care
tliev tlu'iuselves are not now lost sight of. The medical men have
worked hard and earned their reward, and the engineers must have
tlieirs ; hut unless they look out, the government will, as they com-
monly do, make the appointments a nest-egg of jobbery; and sons,
brothers, military men, and lawyers will take oif the hard-earned
meed of the engineers. We therefore most earnestly call on our
brethren to do their utmost so that neither the carrying out of
the health of towns plan is lost sight of, nor their own claims; and
they may make up their minds that, in upholding the public rights,
they are also in the best way upholding and strengthening their
own.

Hitherto the engineers have called loudly for better works, hut
it is now they must show they can he got. To talk is one thing,
to work another ; and if it is in doubt whether doctors or engineers
have recommended or ought to recommend, there can be little
doubt who ought to do the work. Unless, however, the engineers
bestir themselves, the government will cheat them, as they did in
the Commission of Sewers and the Survey of London. Doctors
may say we ought to have good air to breathe, and clean dwellings
v. herein to live ; bishops, deans, and archdeacons preached this on
the thanksgiving day ; the press have said so with one tongue —
now the task lies with the engineers to answer to the common
call.

While a huttful of water was thought enough for those who were
rich enough to pay for it, waterworks were small undertakings ;
but now the task is far greatei', and worthy of the highest minds.
Here in London, a great commonwealth of more than two millions
of men, one with as many men as the Netherlands in the height
and might of their pride and wealth, as Switzerland with its many
cantons; as Denmark, as Tuscany; with more than the kingdoms
of Hanover, Saxony, Wurtemberg, Sicily, or Norway ; with more
than Athens, or Sparta, or Corinth ever knew — this is the great
body of men, women, and children who are to be daily fed with
fresh and wholesome water. So great an undertaking has seldom
come within the reach of one mind, but it is to be done, and must
he done. The neighbourhood must be searched far and wide,
streams that flow farthest west must be bi'ought east ; if need be,
the bowels of the earth must be sought, hut water must be found ;
it must have room to settle down and be cleansed, and it must be
sent even to the roofs of the topmost dwellings in this town, not
of seven, but of many hills. Even the poorest man must have
water and enough to his hand ; the working man's wife must not,
as now, be left to drag the child at her breast in the wearisome
search for a pailful of heated and filthy water. If tlie rich are to
have health unharmed, if they are to have their span of life un-
shortejied by fever and by plague, it must be by taking care of the
poor and their abodes.

So great is this town, so widely has it spread, that the task ot
the engineer is made e:'ery way harder. Already hills have
been brought down, dells filled up, springs choked ; wells, chaly-
lieate, suliduirous, and saline, buried; rivers swallowed up, and the
woods and fens which fed them built over ; nay, even the Thames
has bec(jme an outpouring of filth. The Fleet river, on which our
fathers fought the Danes, and on which for hundreds of years ships
traded, having become a sewor, has been hidden from the sight,
aiul now the great Thames is in judgment. Our store of wholesome
water lias been taken from us, the outfall of London filth is over-
worked, and another great and new task is set before us — that of
cleansing a mighty stream. By our own nnskilfulness has the
evil been done, and it needs more to do the work now than before
the mischief was brought about. We have here a great warning,
fcu', it may be said, knowledge run miid. We wished to cleanse
the houses, and we drained them into the sewers; theretofore the
sewers bore only the drainage water from the streets and houses;
but when the new load of filth was ])oured in, the sewers became
great dungheaps or cesspoids, fr(un wliicli hurtful and deadly
gases steiimed off. The drains which bring down the filth carry
up to tlie bedroom floors the sewer steams, and the heat of the
fires lends a draught for their so doing.

This is a network of evil; hut this is not all; the very filth which
is in tlie sewers wrought up into deadly gase?-, is needful for dung-
ing the corn-lields: nor can food be grown without such help, or
without the husbandry of JIngland being put to great shifts. It
is the law in the working of this world that nothing sliall be lost:
corn is eaten — it takes anotlier shape; hut it is thereby made
ready, as it were, for being again grovvn. The earth has its lime,

its clay, and its sand, — these are lasting; but the nitrf)gen is not
so, it grows up in the blade of grass or wheat, and is carried away;
and until it be brought back again there can be no yield of nitro-
genous crops. The farmer buys guano, bones, and oil-cake — of
these many hundreds of tons; hut it may fairly be said, the dung of
three millions of people in the great towns, and of their beasts of
burden, now wasted, would give greater crops than all the ship
loads from the shores of Peru or the East Sea, yearly brought at
a very heavy outlay. The dung of sea-birds can never be so fit
a manure for corn crops as the dung which is made from the corn
itself.

To keep the sewers clean, the solid and liquid faeces must not be
sent into them, and, for the sake of the farmers likewise, they
must he saved. The great stumbling-block in the way of saving
street and town manure is the outlay for cartage, as was found by
the National Philanthropic Association, in their first trials of the
street orderlies. More must be laid out to carry a ton of street
dirt two miles by cart than to carry it fifty miles by railway; and
yet the same chemical constituents, when wrought up, will pay for
sending to the West Indies.

It is needful, therefore, that steps should be taken to gather and
carry the street and house refuse cheaply, as a beginning. This is
much more wanted than plans for sewage-water, which can never
pay. The next thing wanted is to get rid of the waterclosets.
These need water, and which is either carried into the cesspools
or the sewers. If in the former, there is a greater weight to be
carted when they are emptied; if in the latter, there is a waste of
water, as well as of manure. In reckoning the water for two mil-
lions and a half in London, as much must be set down for water-
closets as for household wants: three hundred thousand waterclosets
must he daily fed. Plans have been brought forward for doing
without waterclosets, and they are well worthy of being looked
into.*

Waterclosets have been for some time held to be a great good,
and they have been strongly recmnmended by the greatest masters
of the laws of health, to be set up in every dwelling, even in the
poorest. Now that the fearful state of the sewers is known, it is
vei-y much open to question v,'hether anything of the kind should
be done. A short time ago, no one would have been listened to
who talked of shutting up waterclosets and privies, and taking
away the faeces daily; and yet in the choice of evils it is against
waterclosets.

VV^atei-closets, so far from being healthful, are unhealthful, by
bringing the sewer steams into the houses and dwelling-rooms;
they are wasteful in wasting water and in wasting manure, and,
most of all, the liquid manures. If waterclosets are to be set up
in every house, then they must have an outfall to themselves; a
new, troublesome, and costly sewage, free from the street sewage,
— ;uid yet the evil will not he wholly got rid of.

It is quite within means to provide closets which shall not be
unwholesome or unpleasant, and which can be daily emptied, and
whereby the waste of manure and water shall be put a stop to, the
health of the dwellings be kept free from sewer nuisances, the
sewers themselves he in a more wholesome state, the gully-holes
be less hurtful, and the river less polluted.

All this makes a great undertaking, and in a less way the same
things have to be done in all our towns; but it will not be enough
to lay down great and good works — they must he done cheaply.
To give water to every house is so great an undertaking that the
outlay and tlie income are among the first things to be borne in
mind; and he will be the best engineer who can do his work at the
least cost. Above all, there must he no rashness, there must he
no low beginnings and heavy reckonings — all must be well
settled at first; neither must we have any superfine or silver-fork
engineering, using stucco for brick, and stone for timber, making
things to last for ever, when at a tithe of the cost they may be
made to do for our grandcliildren, and setting up complicated
machines where there is little for them to do. The pay-sheet is
much nuu-e worth looking to than the drawing-board, though we
are sorry to say few bear this in mind.

* 'Native Guano veisus Sewer Water.' London : Sherwood, 1849.

Reclnmalion of Land from Rivers. — Tlie Lords Commissioners of Woods
and t'liresis liave served notices claiinin){ the l.uid taken in tram the river by
tlie Cork, lilaukrock, and Passage Railway Company, and they have written
to say that a valuator is instiucled to come over and value the property for
their lordships. 1 he corpiiration of Liverpool, within a ifvi days, com-
pletid a compromise wiih the Commissioners of Woods and forests, hy con-
senting to pay to the credit of their lordships a sum of 100,000/. for land
they took in from the liver. — Cork Conslitulion.

18 19. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL.

359

IRRIGATION OF LAND IN INDIA.

Aijriciihtiral Jie.innrces of the Punjab; hciii(/ a memorandum on. the
Ajiplicutinn of the Wiixte Waters of the fiinjab to purposes of Irriga-
tion. By Lieut. K. Baird Smith, F.G.S.

Watering land is of great worth at home, but still greater in the
hot, burning fields, or rather sandbeds of Hindostan, where there
are no small springs flowing, as here, in each township, nor even
what our fathers called the "winter bourn," the stream flowing in
winter only. The water comes from afar, perhaps from the snow-
clad Himmalehs, and runs in one great stream, from which only
can it be fetched to feed the wants of each neighbourhood. This
is the business of the engineer; and some very old works are to be
found in Hindostan. The writer, whose book is before us, says: —

The river Jumna supplies two canals, denominated, respeclivtly, the
Eastern and Western Jumna Canals. Both were excavated, oiiginally, dur-
iug the period of the Mahoniedan supremacy ; tlie former in Shall Jehan's
reign, atjout the year 1626, the latter ahout 300 years earlier, in the time of
Feroze Shah, a.d. 13o0. During the administration of the Martjuis Hast-
ings in 1817-18, the restoration of these old canals firi.t attract-^d attention,
and in 1821 the Western Jumna Canal was le-opened : 9 years alterwanis
the Eastern Jumna Cana! was brought into active operation. This canal,
leaving the Jumna under the Siwalic or sub-Himahiy;in range, rejoins it near
Delhi, after flowing about 145 miles. Its subordinate channels, each a small
canal with its complement of masonry woiks, exceed at tiiis time 490 miles
in length, and are extending annually. Not less than 2,0C0 miles of village
water-courses spread their waters over the .iljoining fields. It supplies 600
separate villages, covering 497 square miles of area, and containing a popu-
lation of about 300,000 souls. From the lands under its influence. Govern-
ment derives a revenue of upwards of 60,00C/. per annum, which never fluc-
tu,ates, as the crops are secured against all ordinary vicissitudes of the sea-
sons. The agricultural produce thus secured is valued at nearly half a
million sterling per annum, ahout an eighth of which forms the government
land rent, the remainder being the property of tlie villnge communities.

The discharge of this canal is about GOO culiic feet per secoml. Its cost
in works, up to the present lime, has amounted to nearly OO.OOOi!. ; and its
maintenance in repairs and estahlisbments, European and native, entads an
expense of nearly 7,000/. per annum. Its direct income amounts to nearly
15,000/. annually ; and its indirect returns, from increase of land revenue
derived from canal villages, are equal to about as muchMimre ; so that by an
investment of 90,000/. goveinment has secured a permanent revenue of not
less than 25,000/. per annum. This large rfivenue is obtained, under the
happiest circumstances, by contributing directly to the prosperity of the
people; who, in districts to which canal irrigation has been thus plentifully
extended, are in a state of material comfort far exceeding the average of
other parts of the country.

The Western Jumna Canal is nearly four times as large as that on the
eastern bank of the river. It has a discharge of 2,270 cubic feet per second,
and, with its branches of large dimensions, has a course of about 430 miles
in length. Its annual income is ahout 30,000/., its cmrent expenditure
12.000/., and its cost for works has, up to the present time, amounted to
about 140,000/. It has enabled government to derive frr>m the tract of
country under its influence a land revenue of 29,000/. per annum, in excess
of what otherwise would have been obtained ; and in the use of its water
lias redeemed a large portion of the districts of Hansi and Hissar from utter
and hopeless sterility.

During the troubled periods of the latter Mahomedan Emperors, the old
canal had become useless, and the country was consequently depopulated and
reduced to the condition of a desert. W'beiever the canal now extends, the
richest cultivation covers the lands ; the villages are prosperous and the
population abundant. The total area of irrigated land amounts to 1,015
square miles; the population to about 300,000. Tlie land revenue derived
from the canal districts is nearly 100,000/. per annum, and is placed beyond
all risk of fluctuation. The value of produce obtained from lands irrij'ated
by the canal is estimated at IJ millions sterling per annum, of wliiih about
T^gth reverts to government as land and wr.ter rent,whih- the remaiiider sup-
ports in great material comfort about 600 village communities. During the
great famine of 1837, when the crops failed everywhere else from want of
water, the canal districts were safe and flourishing ; and no more significant
illustration of the beneficial efl'ects of canals of irrigation could he found,
than in the contrasts exhibited between irrigated and unirrigated districts,
during the progress of this terrible calamity.

These will show the great worth of such works, and our writer
is therefore earnest they should be carried out in the Punjab. He
is one of the Bengal Engineers, was Superintendent of the Eastern
Jumna Canal, and Assistant Field Engineer with the army of the
Punjab; so that as he knows the latter land well, he has had good
training in the management of canals, and what he says must have
great weight. We do not think it needful to give his plan here,
for that is a matter of which our readers cannot well judge, and
we shall therefore lay before them what he says of the Great
Ganges Canal, which is one of his strongest proofs in favour of his
own system.

The greatest work in this department, the Grand Ganges Canal, projected
and superintended by Major Proby Cautley, of the Bengal Artilleiy, is now
in progress of execution, and will be completed in about five years. It will
have a discharge of 6,750 cubic feet per second, and is expected to cost
about 1,250 000/. Its total length, navigable throughout, is 898 miles, and
it will furnish irrigation to a tract of country, between the rivers Ganges anil
Jumna, having an area of 5,400,000 acies. Its annual income from sale of
water, &c., is estiinated at about 160,000/., and the increase of land revenue,
which "ill he derived from the country under its influence, will not be less
than 240,000/. per annum.

The agiicultural produce, which will be secured from loss in those very
districts which were the seat of the great famine in 1837, is valued at up-
wards of 7i^ millions sterling per annum ; and a population of nearly 6-^
millions of souls will he saved from a recurrence of those appaling scenes of
misery which are still fresh in public memory. Under the influence of irri-
gation, the produce of the soil will he increased to an amount valued at
1,200,006/. per annum ; and this result will be obtained at a cost to the cul-
tivators less by 2} millions sterling annually than if the only other method
of irrigation practised (that by wells) had been employed-

The works of the Ganges Canal are of magnitude unprecedented in India,
The great aqueduct across the Solani river alone, will require for its con-
stuction nearly 90 millions of the large bricks employed in this country,
and a iniliion cubic feet of lime, employing nearly O.OOO men daily for fivo
years on the masonry and earthwork connected with it. The other works
are of proportionate magnitude ; and the whole, when finished, will form a
monument worthy of our national chiiracter, and will leave lasting proof that
the British government in India is not so unmindful of the great interests
committed to its charge, as some would desire to have it believed. The
works are advancing with great energy ; and, to his honour he it stated that,
even during the enormous financial pressure of the hte campaign, the
Governor-General of India, Lord Dalhou>ie, would admit of no check being
given to an undertaking calculated to promote so materially the best interests
at once of the government and the people.

Lieut. Smith gives a short sketch of the Indian canal system,
which will be read with interest by professional men here.

Indian canals of irrigation are essentially artificial rivers, having the in-
clination of tlieir beds tegulated by the introduction of masonry falls; to
which, for purposes of navigation, chambers, gates, sluices, in a word — all
the machinery of locks on ordinary reservoir canals, are adapted, with only
such modifications as the existence of a consideiahle current requires. All
the irrigation canal> now in existence in this country are aerived from
Himalayan rivers, and the drainage of this great chain, nhere it crosses their
beds, is controlled and regulated by dams of large dimensions, maintained
amid great engiueering difiiculties, and liable, during the periodic rainy
season, to serious damage fiom floods. \A'heii riveis at lower levels interfere
with the course of the canals, aqueducts carry the water over them. The
cross cominunicatinns of the country are maintained by numerous bridges
and immense numbi-rs of masonry works of all kinds: inlets, outlets, irriga-
tion drains, and sluices, &c., are scattered over the country thiough which
the lines pass.

The water is sold to the cultivators, and distributed to the lands, either
directly from the main canals, by openings of fixed dimensions in their
banks, or indirectly hy means of subordinate channels of smaller dimensions,
designed to supply a limited number of villages. The latter is the favourite
method ; and with reason, as it has many advantages, especially in facility of
control and distribution over the former.

Two systems of assessment are employed : — 1st. The measurement
system ; under which water-rent is levied on ground actually measured after
each crop, and rates ch.arged, which are discriminating, both as regards the
nature of tlie grain grown and the manner in which irrigation is supplied —
i.e., whether by natural flow over the land or hy mfaiis of irrigatiug-
machines. 2nd, The contract system ; under which rents are levied on the
area of outlet, variable in amount according to the facilities for irrigation in
each particular case, but fixed for periods of 20 years. Under both systems,
the average rate at which water is supplied amounts to about 1 rupee, or 2s,
per acre. There is, however, no branch of the canal system which so im-
peratively requires reforming as the assessment; and, should canals of irri-
gation be introduced into the Punjab, it is to be hoped that the principles
on which the water-rcut is levied, may be established on a sounder and more
scientific basis than now prevails. It is scarcely possible to conceive a ruder
or more cumbrous plan than the first-mentioned; which entails the measure-
luent twice a year, of every field irrigated, and which checks the extension
of the valuable crops hy the higher rates imposed upon them. The contract
system is a step in advance j but it is very imperfect, and open to many
grave objections as it now exists. This question is, however, loo large to be
discussed here, and this slight reference to it must suffice.

The writer has brought before the government of India a most
important subject, and we hope it will receive early and earnest
attention, as a means of increasing their own income, and better-
ing the condition of the people.

The description of great works elsewhere, must always have a
claim on the attention of engineers; and the more so in proportion
to their novelt)'. Although works of drainage are of great ini-
poitance here, we are far from thinking that irrigation is only

36a

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

^December,

worthy of the small attention which it meets. The application of
fresh and sewer water to meadow lands and market gardens, is ap-
proved by tlie best authorities; but little is done to provide a
proper system for the supply of water. Now e\erybody is for
deep-drainiiiiT, the water is carried away, and little provision is
made for its supply at the times it is wanted, — though the farmer
is as ready to p-rumble about drought as wet. 'Wherever water
has been applied to growiny- crops, the good is great; but the
means of supplying it are very small. Lands need water several
times a year; and there are many lands where a skilful engineer
might usefully set to work to supply our farmers with water. A
better supply of water would allow our farmers to give more land
for meadows and market gardens.

A FEW NOTES ON 1849.

In former years polychromy was the cry of a zealous agitation,
and now it is bearing its fruits all over the country; and, we think,
good ones. We have, it is true, lost Montague House, but we
ha\e Montague Houses enough in Greenwich and Hampton Court;
and we have also restored the Temple and Savoy Church. Who
knows? we may live to see Westminster restored, for something
is being done there; and St. Paul's painted by the Royal Academy,
for we have now and working deans at each of our cathedrals.
Westminster Palace, the British Museum, Reform Club, Conser-
vative Club, Coal Exchange, Royal E.xchange, St. George's Church,
and Travellers' Club, are beginnings in inner decoration; not to
speak of the Duke of Clevelaiul's, the Baron de Goldsmid's, and
other dwellings. Pidychromy will be a feature of the Victorian era,
as stucco was of the Georgian.

Outer polychromy seems to have had its beginning. All Saints,
Gordon-square, was a very meagre start with its four or five marble
paterae; but Mr. H. T. Hope's house is something of a step. Tlie
Museum of Economic Geology was a great miss. In the front of
that building we mitrht have had, and ought to have had, slabs of
our English marbles, the introduction of wliich would have given
the spur to a useful branch of home industry; for we have many
ornamental marbles, and need not go abroad. The Russians and
Americo-English do much better — they are fond of showing their
liome wealth. At Mr. Hope's more might have been done, but it
will nevertheless serve as an example to others. It is a novelty,
and will be followed.

M'hat we in this time cannot help looking upon as a good feature
of the Victorian era, though it would have l>een heresy in the days
of Nash, is the growing use of stone instead of stucco, and even of
ornamented brick in jireference to the latter. The Hall of Lin-
coln's-inn is a more honest building than any in Regent-street.
Not only are the buildings we have ali'eady named of stone, but
the houses of the Earl of i^llesmere and JMr. Hope; and the carv-
ings are made on the rough stone of the building, as in olden
time.

If all goes on well, we shall be better off than ever. Charles
changed wood for brick; George the Last trimmed up the dingy
buildings of his fathers, and left London in stucco; Victoria will
be able to say she left it stone.

A new agitation is the successor of that for the polychromy of
buildings. It is the restorati(m of the polychromy of sculpture.
Mr. Fergusson has sounded the war-horn, and others have fol-
lowed, although the great world of art stands firm to tlie pseudo-
classicality of whitewash. Gibson has made a slight innovation,
but the Birmingham art-workmen are taking tlie lead, and by the
use of many materials are showing how mucli the resources of
formative art can be extended.

We are coming near Paris in some things; but it is strange that
none of our public or private buildings are" begirt with gilt railings
or beset with gilt lamji-posts : the "Golden Gallery" of St. Paul's,
glittering aloft, is all we have in this way. Handsome railings
give an opening for the skill of the Birniingham men. Brass,
glass, and pottery — anything which will wash and keep clean —
may be used.

The iron inside of the Coal Exchange is another beginning. For
the inside of churches, playhouses, halls, and lectui-e-rooms, iron
can well be wrouglit up for fittings, as the Coal Exchange shows
ornamentally, and we have no doubt cheaply. By the proper use
of this material the erection of many public buildings will become
possible, wliich heretofore have proved too expensive, and iron will
be as regularly used by the architect as by the engineer ; it has
been so in railway stations and bridges.

The Coal Exchange has likewise given a good specimen of a large
inlaid flooring, showing what Englishmen can do in this way. Last
year, the great pari]'ietterie was that at the Baron de Gcddsmid's.

There are many little things to be seen in the streets, which may
as well be set down among the notes of the year. One of these is
the spread of the gilt letters of names, inlaid or stuck on the shop
windows. Another is the introduction of glass lower-windows,
instead of what used to be the skirting of shop-windows, so as to
allow heavy goods to be shown below, as lamps, fire-grates, &c.
There is likewise a tendency to have plate-glass in the first and
upper floors, to light them with gas, and to make show-rooms of
them.

Some of the streets are cleaner, on account of the new street-
orderlies; but the leading thoroughfares are not enough so to allow
of ornamental painting, carving, gilding, marlde, glass, porcelain,
&c. in the lower shop-frouts, — and thus by the (distinacy of the
aut!iorities, many worthy workmen are hindered from getting a
livelihood.

Taking off the glass duties begins to yield fruits. In the shop-
windows are to be seen much ornamental glass, English and out-
landish; and glass is now used for many things where brass was
before common, as candlesticks, door-pulls, finger-plates, &c. —
being more readily kept clean than brass. Earthenware is like-
wise spreading for many purposes. In the fishmongers and cheese-
mongers, more marble slabs are to be seen — in the confectioners,
handsomer glass-ware. Picture frames and glasses are very cheap,
and tliere is, as it was said there would be, a large consumption of
framed engravings. Glass shades, cases of stuffed birds, and bowls
of gold fish, are much cheaper and more common. So, likewise,
there are more greenhouses, more cucumber-frames and bells, and
more hyacinth-glasses. If the window duties only were taken off,
there is no saying what might be the improvement in internal de-
coration— nay, more, in the Arts. Painters would work in an-
other manner if they got a better light ; pictures, too, would be
mure bought.

Looking-glasses are getting more into use, but not so much as
abroad. In Paris, looking-glasses are fixtures, and let with the
rooms and shops.

Gutta-percha shops are among the new trades, and gutta-percha
is now worked up for many things, and perhaps for none more than
the Telekouphonon, which as a speaking-tube is being set up where
tin would formerly have been. It would be worth the while of
the glassmen to try glass speaking-tubes.

The material called "Parian" is in favour, and seems likely to
take the place formerly held by plaster casts.

The im]irovements in wire-drawing have of late years made the
brass birdcages handsomer, which are very different from the old
wicker and iron bedstead-looking places. Even a well-shaped
birdcage in a room may help to keep up the public taste.

Daguerrotype portraits have this year reached the prices of
7.?. 6d. and 5s., and will most likely in time be the same prices as
the old black things were. If the price of common daguerro-
tyiies is falling, so that of the coloured ones, by Messrs. Be-ard and
others, is rising, and better artists are employed..

Electro-plating, or, as the French would say, galvano-plating, is
becoming better understood, for there are more shops for it in
London, no less than in Birmingham; and, as well as richer ware,
coach-harness is now thus decorated.

Through the gas-cry, the gas is rather better; and with this and
the jilate-glass, the shops and streets are brighter at night, — as
unlike as m.iy be from the London of 1820, with its glimmering
oil. Gas has been a great hindrance to the thieves; old gentlemen
can no longer be knocked down between two lamp-posts; — gas has
been very good to the shopkeepers and clerks, for they can now go
to suburban dwellings; but it has had one evil, in making thou-
sands of poor shopmen work late. Early-closing must soon become
the law of the land.

There is one thing as to which nothing has been done this year,
and tliat is cleaning the public buildings, which as it is easy, so
should it he set aliout forthwith. If we are to have London of
stone, let it be clean.

In this year many oflScers of health have been named, and, it is
hoped, they will do good; but their works have yet to be seen.

The Architectural Exhibition was a beginning of the year. We
hope it will go on, and redeem us from the pauper show of the
Royal Academy room. AVe still want a good public school of ar-
chitecture as a Fine Art, nothwithstanding the Royal Academy,
King's College, University College, and Putney College.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

361

NOTES ON THE PENTAGRAPH.

The Pentagraph is an instrument so well known, and described
in so many familiar works, that it may be thought nothing remains,
deserving of special remark, belonging to it. These notes have
not for their object anything new as regards its principle or con-
struction; but rather to present somewhat systematically, and in a
form that is useful in a practical sense, an explanation of its geo-
metrical proportions, and some more precise directions for its use,
than are found in modern treatises on mathematical instruments.

If two similar triangles having their homologous sides parallel,
are subject to a change of position, and to the conditions that two
of the adjacent sides in each constantly retain the same length or
value, and are in all positions parallel, as they were at first — but
that the magnitudes of the angles, as well as of the third sides,
are variable; then these third sides will also be parallel, and will
retain the same ratio to each other in all positions of the two tri-
ang:les, because it is evident their similarity is preserved, although
their magnitude is changed.

This, then, is the elementary principle of the Pentagraph; and
the instrument is so devised, as to connect two such triangles by a
simple arrangement of bars of brass, or of ebony, graduated in
such a manner, and provided with such joints and moveable parts,
as to adapt it to a great variety of proportions.

Thus, confining our attention to geometrical figures, suppose

ABC, uBD, to be two tri-
angles, so connected that
oB may always form a part
of AB; that aD may always
be parallel to AC; that the
angle at A, and therefore at
«, may have any variable
value; and that the three
points B, D, C, lie in the
same straight line in any
given position of the two
triangles.

It is evident, that wh.itever value the angle at A may have,
B, D, C, once in a straight line will always be so, because, when
they are first adjusted,

aB:AB::aD:AC;

and, when from any change in the value of the angle A, we still
have the angle a equal to it, by reason of the parallelism of AC,
and oD, and of AB being a straight line; and nothing having
altered the magnitudes of aB, aD, AB, AC, the ratio already
established remains unchanged; therefore the two triangles are
still similar, and the angles aDB, ACB are equal; but the line DC,
connecting the parallels aD, AC, makes the alternate angles at C
and D equal; hence the vertical and opposite angles at D are equal,
and BDC is a straight line.

The instrument consists of a bar of metal, or of wood, to em-
brace the three points A, «, B, of which the two former are the
centres of accurately-formed steel pivots, connecting it with two
other bars shaped so as to include a, A, C, and to attach them by
similar pivots to a fourth bar, of which the length should be ex-
actly equal to Aa, or as usually made equal to half of AB. The
tln-ee points B, D, and C, are made the centres of metal cylinders
or. tubes, which are accurately turned and bored, so as to be true
inside and out, and which each fit, with perfect precision, solid
cylinders of metal forming a tracing-point, a pencil-holder, and a
fulcrum about which the whole instrument may revolve with free-
dom and ease.

This fulcrum may therefore be fixed at either B, D, or C; or the
pencil may occupy either of these three points; or the tracer may
fill either of the three tubes alternately with the pencil; — conse-
quently, there may be 1x2x3 = 6, different arrangements.

The tube at C is permanently fixed to the bar AC, but the tubes
at B, and D, are attached to boxes, which slide along the bars aB,
BD, and may be secured in any desired position on the bars, by
means of clamp screws. The letters B, D, C, are usually engraved
on the ends of the several bars, in the same arrangement as they
stand in the figure, and they will be used in these notes to designate
the bars.

The part aB of the bar B, as well as the bar D, are graduated
and figured, so as to indicate certain ratios which may be preserved
between the original of any system of lines or curves, as a draw-
ing, and its proportional copy, — the two being supposed to lie in
one geometrical plane : the principles upon which this is done may
now be developed.

Premising that the sliding-boxes may be adjusted to any points

of the bars aB, and D, we must consider the length of either and
both of these as variable. Let us represent

The constant length of Aa = 6
„ „ of C = c

The variable length of aB =: x
„ „ of D = 3/

Then, if the fulcrum is fixed at D, the tracer at C, and the pencil
at B, the ratio of the copy to the original, considered in point of
scale, will be that of the lines BD, DC.

Let BD : DC :: n : m; then, x-\-b : x :: m-\-n : n:: c : y;

, nb

and .r = — ;
m

y =

m-\-n

Suppose the drawing is to be copied to the same scale: then,
n^=rn; x^=b; y:^^c.

In a 30-inch Pentagraph, by Troughton and Simms, from its
construction 6 =^ |c ; therefore, with this instrument, x = y =: gc;
and the divisions for this are figured 1 3.

If the copy is to be ^rd the original, then m = 3ra; x = g6; and
y ■=. ^b. On the instrument, this division is figured 1 i.

Now, if m : ra :: 12 : 11, then we have

and y =

226

_ 11*

^ - 12 ; -- . - 23

The divisions on the instrument corresponding with these values

are figured 11 12; and we should find, if^ n = ^m, that tlie

corresponding divisions were figured 5 6; and so on.

By changing the fulcrum to C, the tracer to B, and the pencil to
D; BC : DC :: m : «, becomes the ratio of the oeioinal to the
copy, and

b : x-]-b :: 71 : m :: c — y : c ;

hence, x =

b{m—n)

y

c {m — n)

n ' ~ m

For examples : Suppose m = n, .\x = y ^0, which the construc-
tion of the instrument does not admit of. If n =: -^', we should
have .V = yV^j V = i^i corresponding to the divisions figured

1 12. If n = -r-, then the divisions coiTe5])onding to the

values of x and y, would be found figured 1 6.

By extending this process to each of the six different cases, we
are enabled to arrange the results so as to offer facilities in apply-
ing the instrument, as follows.

No.

Fulcrum
at

Tracer
at

Pencil
at

Value of
X.

Value of

y-

1

D

c

B

nb

tic

«< m

m + n

2

D

B

C

mb
n

mc

n>m

m + n

3

C

B

D

b(m — n)
n

c(m — n)
m

n<m

4

C

D

B

b(n — m)
m

c{n—m)
n

n>m

5

B

C

D

n

h

m — n

n

c -~
m

n<.m

6

B

D

C

m

m
"n

n>m

n — m

From the construction of the instrument, x cannot be greater
than b; nor can .r or y =: 0, or have negative values.

Surfaces or areas may be enlarged or reduced in any ratio m : n,
by finding values of x and y from the formulse given above, but
substituting V???, Vn,, for m, and n, therein.

Considering the equations here set forth, in connection with the
values of x and y, as measured on the instrument, it appears that
the divisions on the bars B, D, which have unity for one of the
ratios, are figured in reference to tlie position of the fulcrum at B,
their values being given by equations 5 and 6.

And that, by changing the fulcrum to C, we obtain a set of ratios,
which consists, in any particular case, of the diffiixnce between the

47

362

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrs JOURNAL.

[Decembeb,

number fiJ,^lre(l on tlie riyht-lmnrl, and unity to that right-hand
fif^ure; — and by placing tlie fiilcium at U, the ratio becomes this
same diffcrenre to unity, wliich is figured on the left-hand.

TIius, supposing tlie boxes adjusted to the divisions figured

1 3 ; then, with the fulcrum at B, the ratio 1 : 3 holds good ; —

with the fulcrum at C, the ratio is (3 1) : 3; — and with the ful-
crum at I), it is (3 1) : 1.

On the other hand, it appears that all the divisions, which have
the ratios expressed by niimbers, each greater than unity, are de-
termined by placing the fulcrum at D; and it follows, that, chang-
ing the fulcrum to C, we obtain a new ratio, which consists of the
ium of the two numbers to the riyht-hand number; and by chang-
ing it to B, it becomes the sum of the two numbers to the left-hand
number. Thus, supposing the boxes to be adjusted to the divi-
sions marked 5 6, this is the proportion when the fulcrum is at

D; transferring it to C, the ratio becomes 11:6; and changed to
B, it is 11 : 5.

This property increases the number of ratios as figured on the
instrument, and is of valne in adjusting it to the most convenient
position as regards the drawing, copy, size of drawing-table, &c.

Instead of selecting a certain number of ivrbitrary ratios, as is
the usual course with instrument-makers, and dividing the bars to
conform to them, it has been proposed to make the divisions equal
])arts of b for ,r, and of c for y — the value of each part being very
small, such as ttbtj'') according to the size of the instrument; and
to adjust the boxes, for any required ratio, according to values
which might then be readily ascertained from the equations given
herein.

Thus, suppose it was required to reduce a plan on the scale of
100 feet to the inch, to a copy on the scale of 12 chains to the inch;

then 12 ch. = 7fl2 feet, and — — |^, or i nearly. Referring to the

table of equations, three of them only belong to the case of re-
ducing a drawing, and we can determine at once that the selection

lies between equations 1 and .5.

By equation 1, x=— = f|5 b,
~9; and by

which corresponds nearly to the usual division, 1-

equation 5, ^ := — -^ = ^S b, which corresponds nearly to the

usual division, 1 8. Now, with the instrument as it is usually

divided, the error of adjustment made by adopting the conditions
of equation 1, would be rb^b; and for those of equation 5, it would
be j!TTjb nearly; and the accurate adjustment is a matter dejiend-
ing altogether upon repeated and careful trials: — whereas, if the
bars were divided into equal parts as suggested, the adjustment
would be determined at once, thus —

100

792

z
500

631.
500'

or,

100
692

500

72-25
oOO

If the decimals were neglected, the error by adjusting to the divi-
sion 63, would be sTTooi'', ""•! to the division 72, it would be ttjtoo*-
Thus the adjustment would be more readily made, and, by the aid
of a vernier, it need not be necessary to neglect decimals.

The adjustment of the three tubes in a straight line has been
already shown as essential to the correct working of the instru-
ment, and it should be made by means of a steel straightedge; the
drawing-board or table should be smooth and true, as a plane sur-
face; the Pentagraph should move in every direction with the
most perfect freedom; and the point of the pencil should be ex-
actly in the axis of the tube which contains it, — this is ascertained
by turning it round with the finger and thumb, and cutting the
point with care, until the mark it makes on paper, after so turning
it round, is a mathematical point, and not a diminutive circle.
The drawing, and the paper to receive the copy, should be pinned
to the table, and should be so placed that the angles of the rhom-
boid formed by the bars need not become very acute during any
part of the process. With proper attention to these points, the
Pentagraph will be found to be an instrument, when well made,
for copying drawings on the same or different scales, deserving
greater confidence from the draughtsman than is usually accorded
to it. For obvious reasons, this confidence may be more complete
when the copy is to be on a reduced scale.

The drawing to be dealt with may be one of considerable size,
and can oidy be brought within range of the instrument in limited
portions at one time. To connect the various partial copies to-
gether, corresponding lines should be traced on each of them, as
well as on the drawing, of considerable length, in order that the
various parts may occupy their just positions, or that the drawing
and paper receiving the copy may be accurately shifted.

Although it may be evident that the lines and curves traced by
any two of the points B, D, C, which are in motion simultaneously,
are precisely similar, the consideration of the curves traced or

passed over by the other points at tlie joints or pivots of the in-
strument, may not be wholly speculative or without use. These
curves will now be discussed in a general sense.

LetAa = Dc=ri; aD=Ac=c; cC=c'; andaB=l'.
Also, su](posing the fulcrum at D, take this as the origin of co-
ordinates, the axes being DX. DY, and B, D, C, being always in
the same straight line; then the co-ordinates will be expressed as
follows: —

X, y, for the point C

x', y\ for the point c

x", y", for the point A

tj', z' t for the point a

V, r, for the point B

By the properties of similar triangles —
y'-y y"-y'

and.

From equation 1,
From equation 2,

c'

c

x-x'

x,-x"

c'

Q

y =

cy + c'y"
c+ c'

x' ■=.

ex + c'x"

c + c'

1.

By the properties of right-angled triangles —

b- = x"- + y''^ 5.

and, {y'—yy- + {x—x'y = c'- .... 0.

Now, expanding equation 6, and making substitutions, according
to equations 3, 4, and 5, we obtain —

(jr5 + y-)(e' — c) + i-(c' + c) = e'-(e' + c) + 2c'(yy" + a;x") . 7.
for one of the equations connecting the curves traced by the points
C and A. The second is derived from equation 5, by substituting
in it the values of x and y, given by equations 3 and 4: hence —

(cjr + cV)-+ (cy + cy')= = 4"(e' + c)- . . 8.

By similar reasoning we obtain for the corresponding equations
which connect the curves traced by B and A —

(j)-' + 2=)(A'-4) + c°-(4' + 4) = i'-(A' + i)-24'(M'" + zy") . 9.
and, {lv-b'x"f-\-{b'y"-hzf^tr{b'-k-bf . . 10.

Now these two equations are of the same form as those connect-
ing the curves traced by the points C and A, and they differ merely
in a change of sign, which obviously arises from the different posi-
tions of the points C and B, in reference to the axes. Hence we
see that any curve traced by the point B, is similar to the curve
traced by the point C; the ratio being obviously that of b' : 6, or
of c : c.

In the same way we may arrive at equations to connect the
curves traced or passed over, simultaneously, by the points C, c, or
c. A, &c.

To apply these equations, — let us take the 30-inch Pentagraph
already mentioned, and adjusting the boxes to the divisions marked

1 2 on the bars D, B, fix the fulcrum at D, and with C trace a

straight line which shall pass through D : it is required to deter-
mine the curve passed over by the point A.

From the construction of the instrument,

4 = 4'; (4' + 4)^(c— c') ; andc = 4'; .'.c'^b.

Then equation 7, becomes 2b{yy"-^xx") = 0. Now, if the line
traced by C is assumed as the axis of x, its equation will be ^ =: 0;
.-.'ibxx" = 0; consequently, x"=^ 0 ; and this being the equation of

1349.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

363

the axis of y, the point A will describe a straight line perpendicu-
lar to the line passed over by C.

This is the principle and the arrangement (either with two or
with four bars) wliich furnishes the most perfect parallel motion
for the piston-rods of reciprocating steam-engines, as indicated by
Mr. Scott Russell, in his 'Treatise on the Steam-Engine,' p. 210.

Preserving the same arrangement, except moving the box B to
any other division towards A, to determine the curve traced by B.
We have just seen, that under such circumstances, A passes over a
straight line; and (since by construction 6 =r e) it is evident that
the curve passed over by B, as between the rectangular axes of
y and t', will be the same as that which would be passed over by A,
referred to the axes of x and y, when we consider c' = b, and b>c.

In this case, equation 7 becomes, since y = 0,

2bx"

x-lb- c) = 2jy\r: .-.x = . - .

^ ' b—c

Also, equation 8 becomes,

(m- + 4x")2 + iy = b^{b + !:)•■,
and substituting for x, and reducing, we have —

This is the equation to an ellipse of which the semi-transverse
axis = b-\-c, and the semi-conjugate axis =: 6 — c; the former being
coincident with the axis of y, and the latter with that of ,r, as is
shown by considering .r, and y, in the equation, as successively =0.

Now, by substituting v for y', z for a/', and 6' for c, we liave

the equation to an ellipse whose semi-transverse axis, 64-6', is
coincident with the axis vx; and whose semi-conjugate axis, 6 — 6',
corresponds with the co-ordinate axis of y.

From the make of the instrument, 6 is a constant quantity,"and
to this jth the sum of the transverse and conjugate axes of any
ellipse to be traced in this manner must always be equal; 6' will
then be equal to |th the difference of those axes. It is evident,
too, that when 6'^ 6, the equation is that of a straight line; and
6'= 0, it is that of a circle.

This little investigation naturally suggests an ellipsograph of
very simple construction. It also manifestly points to the deter-
mination of the curve described by a point in the connecting-rod
of a steam-engine, one end of which moves round in the circle of
the crank, while the other end performs a rectilineal, or a circular,
reciprocating motion.

This curve possesses interest by reason of the "very beautiful
method of working the valves of the steam-engine, invented by
Mr. Melling," and is obviously a kind of oval — oblate at the end
nearest the crank, and elongated at the other end.

Now, using the same notation, and referring to tlie annexed

figure, in which Oc re-
presents the crank-arra
=:6; eC, the connecting-
rod ^3 c'; and cA, the
distance of the given
P point from the crank-

' end of the connecting-
rod =c: it is evident,
\ ^/ the formula} 7, 8, will

■^ — " apply, by merely chang-

ing the sign of c, because the line represented by this letter has
now a direction contrary to that hitherto assigned to it. Hence
they will become —

(:!?' + y-') {c' + c)-i- b'^ic' -c) = c'-{c' -c)+2c' [yy" + xx") . 11.
and, {c'x"-cxf-^{c'y"-cyY = b-{o'-cY . . 12.

Thus, suppose the path of tlie piston-rod to coincide with the
axis of abscissae x, whilst the connecting-rod attaches the crank-
arm and piston-rod together; then y = 0, and equations 11, 12,
become, x-{c' + c)-i- b-(c'—c) = c"-{c'—c) + 2c'xx" ;
and, {cx"—cxy -\- e'y-= b-{e'—c)-.

The first of these equations enables us to find ,i", for any value
of x; and the second gives the corresponding value of j/".

Suppose, as in Mr. Melling's arrangement, the connecting-rod to
be four times the length of the crank-arm, or d =: 46, and 2c =: e' ;
then, at the commencement of the stroke, xz=.b-\- c, and we find
■r" = fc', as it should be. At half-stroke, xz=c'—b; and then,
Jr"=3c', as it should be.

It is only in the case of the crank-arm being equal to the con-

necting-rod in length, that any part of the curve described by a
point in the connecting-rod is an ellipse — and then it could not be
during more than half-a-revolution: but the conditions imposed
by the mechanism render these proportions inadmissable. In no
others is the curve described an ellipse; nor is it correct, that the
deviation from a true ellipse becomes more and more as the con-
necting-rod becomes shorter.

I

LEVELLING STAVES.

A new Method of Gradunting Levelling Staves, by which they may
be much more accurately read and at much greater distances than at
present.

At the present time, when drainage of towns with reference to
sanitary arrangements, and drainage of lauds in connection with
agricultural improvements, engage so large a portion of public
attention, the suggestion of any real improvement in the instru-
ments usually employed in practical levelling is certain to be lis-
tened to with attention, if not with approval, by the numerous
body of professional gentlemen now occupied in conducting the
operations alluded to. The great benefit conferred upon engineers
and architects as a body by Mr. Gravatt, by the arrangement
which superseded the use of the sliding-vane in levelling staves,
is too well known and appreciated to require comment: while,
however, Mr. Gravatt's method is in general far superior to the
old one, there are two particulars in which it is usually admitted
to be inferior to it — viz. 1st, the trouble and attention required to
read the minute divisions on the staff — an important point when we
reflect on the vast number of readings taken in a single day's level-
ling; and, 2nd, the difficulty of reading them at any considerable dis-
tance. In order to remedy these defects, several eminent engineers
and others liave, at different times, proposed methods of graduat-
ing, which, however, seem to have failed to supersede that origin-
ally introduced by j\Ir. Gravatt. To ascertain the reason of this,
as well as their comparative merits in connection with some by
other engineers, 1 made a series of experiments on all such level-
ling staves, of new construction, as I could meet with; a very
brief account of the results of which may not be uninteresting,
and should perhaps, in justice to the inventors, accompany these
remarks, in which shall be proposed a method of graduating level-
ling staves, which will, I believe, entirely get rid of the two dif-
ficulties already mentioned, without any counterbalancing dis-
advantage. Two levels were used, a 10-in. and a 12-in. focus of
Troughton's, in the experiments. The staves compared were as
follows: —

No. 1, Mr. Gravatt's: lOths clearer and more readable at long
distances than, perhaps, in any other; lOOths read generally with
distinctness at about 8 chns.— 10 chns. should not be exceeded; in
this Mr. Williams coincides in his 'Practical Geodesy,' p. 63. On
the whole, this staff' has the advantage of all that have appeared
since; in which opinion I am supported by Mr. Bourne in his
'Principles and Practice of Engineering,' p. 210.

No. 2, A mode of dividing, invented and adopted by Mr. P. N.
Barlow, C.E.; the object being to obtain greater distinctness and
less liability to error. The divisions are composed of triangles, each
occupying ^ijths of a foot, except that at tlie even tenth, which is
diamond-shaped, to render it more defined than in other staves.
The chief advantage of this arrangement consists in the greater
distinctness with which the point of intersection of the triangle,
and the hair-line of the telescope is defined, compared with the
horizontal divisions, and their paraUelisra with the hair-line. The
peculiar dilRculty of setting two parallel lines to coincide with one
another is well known to astronomical observers, who can bisect a
dot with greater precision than two of the finest lines are known
to agree. — vide Encyc. Metrop.

No. 3, preferred by Mr. Castle ('Land-Surveying,' p. 255), goes
by the name of "Stephenson's," and was first used on tlie London
and Birmingham. The lOOths are obtained in the same way as in
the common ivory protractor; the lOtlis of a foot through the
whole length of the staif are bisected, making the two divisions
20ths; and these division lines extend the whole breadth across
the staffs. The opposite ends of these lines are connected by dia-
gonal lines, each one with its preceding — viz., the left of No. I.
with the right of No. II., the right of No. II. with the left of
No. III., and so on. And five vertical lines are drawn, at equal
distances, along the whole of the stafi^, which thus divides each of
these diagonal lines into five equal parts, each being ^th part
of wijth, or xtrotli P'"'t of a foot.

47*

36t

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

[^December,

)seA

j\'(>. i. Mr. Sopwitli's: this on trial seemed altotjetlier too com-
plicated, and the suljdivi.sions too minute. Mr. Bourne's remarks
on this staff seem decidedly judicious — page 21 1 of the work before
(juoted: "Several attempts liave been made at improvements in
tliis (Mr. (Jravatt's) staff, but their success is very problematical.
Mr. Sopwith, for instance, has introduced one in which distinctive
figures are attached to every-other 100th of a foot; the mechanical
construction also differs from this, — it is more elaborate, which
consequently makes the staff more expensive. It is very neat,
however, but is subject to injury in windy weather."

A'o. 5. A staff of my own invention, constructed with cylinders
of block-tin, the largest 3d inches diameter, to slide one within
another, which seemed to afford great strength and lightness, and
fonned besides a case to carry plans in, — the particular object
aimed at being, by obtaining a surface of 9 to 11 inches, to mark
every 100th of a foot by a dot and figure, running in a spiral line
from bottom to top; it should of course revolve slowly during
observation. On actual trial, however, Mr. Gravatt's staff seemed
jireferable.

Ao. 6. A staff which, on actual trial, seems capable of being

read with more distinctness at short distances tlian any staff now

in use, and with facility at between four to five times the usual

distance; it is graduated by an application of the upiight vernier,

the principle of which is usually expressed

in the formula,

(« — 1) L = nV;

., L-V=L-^L=liL = 'L.

n n

* L and V being the length of a division on
the staff and vernier respectively. And
since to propose any form of sliding ver-
nier would have been at once rejected, as
introducing the old vane in a new form, I
have got over the difficulty in the following
manner; —

By inspecting the diagram, it will be seen
that there are 9 rows, or columns of stars
or dots, which it is impossible to confuse
in a lateral direction one « ith another. The
initial position of the first star in the first
of these rows is zero on the staff; the
others follow in regular succession at in-
tervals of lOOth-foot between each; then,
all the stars in any one row are y^Tiths of
a foot from centre to centre, while the
lines dravvn across mark -njtlis of feet as
usual: one star will therefore be found at
every -^th-foot, which is useful to recol-
lect in graduating a staff in this manner.

In reading such a staff, we first read the
feet and rnths of feet as usual; then, sup-
pose the cross-hair of the diaphragm to
occur anywhere within some particular
•jijth, observe whicli dot or star it inter-
sects, then count dots or stars upwards, in
its vertical line, until a coincidence with a
horizontal line is found: the numbers so
counted will represent smiths of feet, and
consequently gives us the second decimal
place. '^

E^FjFy^-^^-'P^ The great advantage gained is simply this:

vJ Cr that wliereas in all the staves now extant,

14* I ♦ M W6 'ire obliged to distinguish between';hun-
J^HH^B ■ I dredths, to obtain tlie second place; in this
levelling staff, we attend to no subdivisions
less tlian -j-lj^ths-foot apart, to obtain equal
accuracy. On trial, it will be found that this staff can be read
with facility at yj-mile sights: I found it practicable at 35 and
40 chains, witli a 12-in. focus.

I sliouid reconimend the horizontal lines to be put in in Ver-
million, as the contrast between black and vermillion will be
found distinct at the utmost distance at which any staff can be
read.

♦ ♦

♦ U

♦

♦

'Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester, November 9th, 18+9.

J. D. Pembebton.

PRESSURE TO SUSTAIN BANKS OF EARTH.

On the Maximum Amount of Resistance, acting in any direction,
required to sitstain Banks of Earth, or other materials, vith Sloping
Tops and Faces, and the effects of Friction between the Face of the
Rank and the Back of a Retaining Structure. By J. Neville, Esq.,
Dundalk, County Surveyor of Louth. — (I'aper read at the Koyal
Irish Academy.)*

If CDE be any bank with a sloping face CD, and a sloping top
DE; CE tlie position of the plane of repose, CF tliat of the plane
of fracture, and the arrow R that of the resistance: put
c = the angle of repose;
c =; the complement of the angle of repose;
fi =: the angle DCE contained between the plane of repose snd
the face of the bank;

5 := the supplement of the sum of the complement of the angle

of repose, and the angle which the given direction of the
resistance makes with the face;

6 := the angle KDF, contained between the face produced and the

top of the bank;
f ::= the angle DCF, contained between the plane of fracture and

the face;
h = the length of the fare CD;
w = the weight of a cubical unit of the bank;
R = the resistance.

Then, when tlie resistance is a maximum,
tan3v'(tan 6 tan 5)

tao If =

V(iiaeiaaS) + -v/Ktan /8 + tan S) x (taa fl— tan (3)]
wh^ tan B sin i8 tan B

R =

2 cos S

1

(I)

(2)

V A/[taii 5 (tan 6 — tan ;8)] + ^/[tan 9 (tan 5 + tan fl)]

Equation (1) furnishes the following geometrical construction
for finding the fracture CF. Draw any line GH at right angles to
the face produced, cutting the slope DE at H and the line DG;
making the angle GDK=5 at G : on GH describe a semicircle
cutting the face produced in I : draw Dc parallel to the plane of
repose CE, meeting GH in e: draw eO parallel to KI, meeting the
circumference in O: make I L equal «0 ; draw I/' parallel to Le,
and CF parallel to T)f: CF is the fracture requiring a maximum
resistance to sustain the hank CDF.

If the top lying between F and D be loaded with a given weight,
the values of ip and R are rigorously determined from the equations
by producing the top ED torf, so that tlie triangle CDrf, multiplied
by w and the length of bank acted on, may be equal to the given
weight, and then substituting the new values of h, 5, 6, and 8, cor-
responding to the face Crf and top Erf, in the equations, in place of
those to the face CD and top ED.

When the resistance is generated by the pressure of the bank
against a structure at the face, 5 may be taken equal 2c'. Thus,

tan 3A/(iaii 6 tan 2c')
tan 0= ^

^/(tan e tau 2c') + ^/[(tan B- tun j8) x (tan 0 + tan 2c')]
wA' sin B tan ;8 tan 8
¥ ' cos 2c

V[tan 5 (tan B — tan /3)] + V[lan 8 (tan 2c' + tan B)}

(3)

m

* ' Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,' Vol. W. Part 2.

-i Equatioug (3) and (4J dvteiniirie the diieclioD uf the fracture CF, and value of the

1819.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL.

365

When the face is vertical and the top horizontal, c=i3; in this

case

ens c' ,,.

tan <f> = -: — ~ — 77 (5)

sin e' + Vi

trA- spn c'

( ' y

W2 tail c' + acce'/ ■

(6)

The value of tan ^ here derived is equivalent to that of

ill equation (F) of Tredgold;* hut the value of the resistance
differs materially from his, and is far more simple. Tredgold's
equation (G) for the value of the resistance acting horizontally,
after making the necessary changes to our notation, is

sin c a/2 + 1 +

1

siu^c' v'2 + sin- c'

V2

+ n '~ — ;

COS^ C' ' 2 COS c'

This value, however, is erroneous, and should be

„ /i=W 1

^—r"- — "" — — - — —

sin c' V2 + 1-1-

sin^ c' \/2 + 3 sin- c' + sin c' \/2

which, multiplied by sec c\ to find the resulting resistance, is equal
to the more simple form found above.

AVhen e = /3, the top slopes upwards at the angle of repose : in
this case

tan(p = tan/3 (7)

_ K.-A- sin^ B ,„,

The second of these equations gives the greatest of the maximum

values of the resistance : if the face be vertical, tan /3 = ;, and

' tan c

R = — cose' (9)

2 ^ ^

The horizontal portion of this resistance is

toZi^ w7<- ,,„^

R= — cos- c'= ■ — sin=' e (10)

2 2

As this value is the same as (7") the limiting value of tlie hori-
zontal resistance, neglecting friction at the face, it appears that the
limiting value of the horizontal resistance is the same whether
friction at the face be taken in the calculation or neglected.
M'lien the top slopes downwards at tlie natural slope,
tan (p= tan |/
t/'A= sin S tan e / ^/(tan 2c' + tnn $)

trA= sin S tan e / ^/(tan 2f' + tnn e) y

~ 2 cos 2c' \tan 2e' sec 8 + tan 2c' + tan Sj

(11)
(12)

The value of the resistance here given is the least of the maximum
values. If the face be vertical,

tan(f = tan^e (13)

«=— secc'l- ; I (11)

2 V2 tan c' + secf'/ ^ ^

The value of the angle of fracture is of the same form as that
of Prony for a vertical face and horizontal top.

The equations show that the stability imparted to a structure at
the face of a bank, by friction, arises principally from the direc-
tion of the resulting force, which makes an angle equal to the
complement of the angle of repose with the face, and that this
force is in general less than the horizontal force derived from the
equation of Prony, or any other in wliich face friction is ne-
glected; that the values of both forces, for ordinary banks, ai-e
equal at angles of repose in and about 45°; that the former are
least for angles of repose less than this, and the latter for angles
of repose that are greater; and that the direction of the resulting
force makes it in no small degree a crushing force.

It also appears from the equations, that when the angle of
repose is 45°, the face vertical, and top horizontal, that the tan-
gent of the angle of fracture is (i) equal half the tangent of
the angle of repose. The Equation of Prony, which neglects fric-
tion at the face, for the same case, gives the tangent of the angle
of fracture equal to the tangent of half the angle of repose.

resistance when a maximum, for any banli CDE, v hen suppcrted at the face CD, by a
retaining structure, taliing the friction at CU into account ; for, in this case, the resist-
ance, when in equilibrium with the pressure, must malce an angle equal to the comple-
ment of the angle of rtpose with the face, and hence iS=SC'.
* Philusc^hical Magayiue, vol. li. p. 402.

In the following Table of Co-efficients, for finding the maximum
values of the resistances, —

Column 1 contains the engineering names for the slopes corre-
sponding to some of the angles of repose in column 2.

Column 2 contains the angles of repose from which the co-
efficients of whl are calculated.

Column 3 contains the complements of the angles of repose in
column 2; or the angle which the direction of the resulting resist-
ance makes with the face, taking friction thereat into account.

Column 4 contains the co-efHcients which, multiplied by u-AJ,
give the value of the horizontal resistances when the top is hori-
zontal and the face vertical; calculated from the Equation of
Prony, neglecting friction at the face.

Column 5 contains the co-efRcients which, multiplied by m7jJ,
give the values of the horizontal resistances, rejecting friction at
the face, required to sustain banks with a horizontal top; tlie face
sloping 10° from the vertical: 6 = 80°.

Column 6 contains the co-efKcients which, multiplied by wh;,
give the values of the resulting resistnnces when the top is horizon-
tal and the face vertical, as in column 4.

Column 7 contains the values of the co-efficients as before, for
finding the resulting resistances when the top is horizontal and the
face slopes 10° from the vertical, as in column 5 : now, in this case
e = 80°.

Column 8 contains the values of the co-efficients for finding the
values of the resulting resistances when the face overhangs 10° from
the vertical, and the top is horizontal: in this case 6 = 100°.

Column 9 contains the resolved co-efficients of a7ij for finding
the portions of the resistances in column 6 at right angles to the
face, which in this case are horizontal.

Column 10 contains the resolved co-efficients of vhl for finding
the portions of the resistances in column 7 at right angles to the
face. These, in this case, not differing much from the resolved
horizontal portions, may be compared with those in column .5.

Column 11 contains the resolved co-efficients of u'AJ, for finding
the portions of the resistances in column 8 at right angles to the
face.

Column 12 contains the values of the co-efficients which, multi-
plied by whf, give the ultimate or maj:imum maximorum \'alues of
tlie resulting resistances; the face being vertical and the top sloping
upwards, at the slope of repose.

Column 13 contains the co-efficients for finding the horizontal
portions of the resistances determined from column 12.

The length of the perpendicular from the toe of the face to the
top, or top produced, is represented hy h^; and the lengtli of tlie
face itself by h.

whl is to bs multiplied by the co-efficients in columns 4 to II,
to find the resistances; and wh'^ by the co-efficients in columns 11
and 12.

Table of Co efficients for finding the maximum Values of the Resistances
for different Angles of Repose; also the Co efficients for finding the ulti-
mate Values of the Resistances when the Face is vertical, and Scarp at the
natural Slope.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

SJtol*

16=

74°

■284

•228

■249

•218

•287

■239

•209

•276

•481

•462

17

7;h

•274

•218

■239

•207

■2ri

-I'M

■198

■■259

■478

457

'3 tol*

18+

7U

•269

•207

■226

•193

■266

•214

■1H3

■262

■474

•460

;24 toi*

22

Cs

•228

■177

•197

•11.4

■210

■ita

162

•195

■464

•430

2 tol*

27

(i,-i

•188

■141

•165

•130

■2iiS

•147

■lis

•IbS

■446

•397

2<)

H

■173

•129

•155

•119

■197

■136

■104

•172

■4:<7

■3b2

;il

5!»

■ISO

•117

•144

108

■isa

■123

■093

•llil

■429

■SB?

S2

6rt

■163

•111

■139

•103

■183

■118

■0S7

•156

424

•,00

:i.-i

57

■147

•loa

1:>1

•1198

■177

■113

0»2

•149

■419

■352

It tol*

•M

.■)«

•141

•101

•129

■094

■173

•107

■07S

■143

■416

■344

35

fi5

•135

■096

•126

•090

•169

•103

■074

•l;i8

■410

■336

M

54

•130

■090

•121

■ObS

•l.;6

•098

■ii70

■133

■405

■327

■XI

53

•124

084

•117

•osi

•161

•093

■066

129

■400

■319

■Mi

61

•114

■077

•108

•074

•164

•084

■087

■r20

■389

•;i02

-11

4il

•104

■069

•102

■067

•146

■077

■061

■110

■377

•264

4(1

47

■Q'JA

■062

■095

■001

■140

■069

■045

•102

■3116

•?67

1 tol

45

45

■086

064

•0»9

•056

•134

•063

039

•095

■364

•260

47

4:i

•077

•048

•OtiS

■049

•129

•067

033

■08S

•3-U

■■233

4!)

41

■oro

•042

•077

■044

•l-'3

■051

■029

•Obi

•32tj

•215

hi

;'S)

■002

•03S

•072

■039

•118

■045

■025

•074

•S16

198

5 tol*

5;!

;i7

056

•031

•C6B

■035

•113

■040

•('21

■068

•801

•181

65

«•'*

•I14SI

•027

•062

■031

■109

■036

■018

•062

•2S7

•1«5

57

33

•048

•022

•057

•027

•105

■031

•015

•057

•272

■149

The slopes marked thus * are approximate.

In the preceding equations we have only considered the maxi-
mum retaining-forccs. The minimum overcoming-forces, and the
position of the corresponding fractures, are determined in a simi-
lar manner, and by similar etjuations. Retaining the same nota-

366

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

tion as before, we get, in this case, for the value of the overcoming-
force,

ifAy 6in (2c'-{-S-,p)
~ 2 sill (5 — 2e'-j-()!)

M'lieie y is equal the perpendicular from ( F) on the face, or face
jiroduceil.

If we put Bi=2c' + e, and Sj^S— 2c'', the above equation,
after a few reductions, becomes

_ why cosB, tan B,— tan o

H ^Z X X —

2 cosSj tan Sj+tau j,

^^'hen this is a minimum,

jj^^ tang, V(lan fl tan SJ

" "" -/(tan 9 tan 5 J - -/r(tan S-tan fijx (tan;8j-(-tau 5,)]

(15)
r (16)

K =

ujA^ tan e sin /S, tan /3,
2 cos 5j

e-tane,)]) 3

,/(17)

1 = 0,

R = — sin /
2

\ ^/[tane (tanfij + tanSJ] - V[tan 8, (tan S-

iu %vhich the usual changes of signs are to be made for the negative
values of 5j, and for arcs greater than 90^

When the direction of the force makes an angle equal to c with
the face, then S^ = o, and,

(18)

(19)

If the force exceed the value of R here found, it will slide along
tlie face, and wlien the face is vertical this value is equal to the
maxbnum maximorum value of the resistance, in the same case,
already found; or,

R = — sin c
2

When 6 = 90°, the general equations become

tan (B = tang,^(tan5.)

^ V(tar.Sj- ^/[(tan/3,+tan8J] '- "-^

u-h'' sin/S, taniS, / 1 \2

~ W(tanB,+tan5j)-^((an87)/ ^^^^

R -

2 cos 5, \V(tanB,+tan

If the force in this case be supposed to act in an horizontal direc-
tion (5j -j- /3j := 90^)j these equations may be reduced to

tan ^ = cot (<' — - ) (22)

Rz. 2 cot

■ (-9

(23)

If the face be vertical, then S = c, and the equations may be
further reduced to

tan ip = cot Je (24)

R = -^ cot= ic

(25)

TEMPERATURE AND ELASTICITY OF VAPOURS.

On an Equation between the Temperature and the Maximum Elas-
ticity of Steam and other Vapours. By \Vu.i,\au John Macquorn
Rankine, C.E. — [From tlie Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal
for July 1849.]

In tlie course of a series of investigations founded on a peculiar
hypotliesis respecting the molecular constitution of matter, I liave
obtained, among other results, an equation giving a very close
a])pr(iximation to the maximum elasticity of vapour in contact
with its liquid at all temperatures that usually occur.

As this equation is easy and expeditious in calculation, gives
accurate numerical results, and is likely to be practically useful, I
liroceed at once to make it known, without waiting until I have
reduced the theoretical researclies, of which it is a consequence, to
a form fit for publication.

The equation is as follows: —

(1-) Log. P = a---^

t t-

Where P represents the maximum pressure of a vapour in contact
with its liquid ; t, tlie temperature, measured on the air-thermo-

meter, from a point which may be called the absolute zero, and

which is —

274°-6 of the centigrade scale below the freezing point of water.

462°'28 of Fahrenheit's scale below the ordinary zero of that scale,
supposing the boiling point to have been adjusted under a pres-
sure of 29'992 inches of mercury, so that 180° of Fahrenheit may
be exactly equal to 100 centigrade degrees.

4Gl°-93 below the ordinary zero of Fahrenreit's scale, when the
boiling point has been adjusted under a pressure of 30 inches of
mercury, 180° of Fahrenheit being then equal to 100°'0735 of the
centigrade scale.
The form of the equation has been given by theory; but three

constauts, represented by o, /3, and 7, have to be determined for

each fluid by experiment.

The inverse formula, for finding the temperature from the pres-
sure, is of course

(2.)

W

o-Log i^ e-

2y

7 ^ 472

It is obvious that for the determination of the three constants,
it is sufficient to know accurately the pressures corresponding to
three temperatures; and that the calculation will be facilitated if
the reciprocals of those temperatures, as measured from the abso-
lute zero, are in arithmetical progression.

In order to calculate the values of the three constants, for the
vapour of water, tlie following data have been taken from M. Reg-
nault's experiments : —

Temperatures

in Centigrade

Degrees

Common T.ogarithnis

01 the Pressure

Remarks.

Above the

Above the

in Millemetres ot

Freezing

Absolute

aierciiry.

Point

Zero.

C Measured l)v M. Regnault

220-

494-6

4-2403

< on his curve, showing the
mean of his experiments.

100-

374-6

2-8808136

Logarithm of 760 millemet.
["Calculated Ijy interpiilatiou

26-86

301-46

1-4198

■j from M. Regnault's gene-
[ ral table.

These data give the following results for the vapour of water,
the pressures being expressed in millimetres of mercury, and the
temperatures in centigrade degrees of the air-tliermouieter : —

Log7 = 5-0827176 Log /3 = 3-1851091 a = 7-831247

Table I. exhibits a comparison between the results of the for-
mula and those of M. Regnault's experiments, for every tenth
degree of the centigrade air-thermometer, from 30° below the
freezing to 230° above it, being within one or two degrees of the
whole range of the experiments.

M. Regnault's values are given, as measured by himself, on the
curves representing the mean results of his experiments, with the
excejition of the pressures at 26°'86, one of the data already men-
tioned, and that at — 30°, which I have calculated by interpolation
from his Table, series h.

Each of the three data used in determining the constants is
marked with an asterisk*.

In the columns of differences between the results of the formula
and those of experiment, the sign -{■ indicates that the former
exceed the latter, and the sign — the reverse.

Beside each such column of differences is placed a column of the
corresponding differences of temperature, which would result in
calculating the temperature from the pressure by the inverse for-
mula. These are found by multiplying each number in the pre-
ceding columns by — -r=, or by -t-j =, as the case may require.

In comparing the results of the formula with those of experi-
ment, as exhibited in Table I., the following cii-cumstances are to
be taken into consideration : —

First, That the uncertainty of barometric observations amounts
in general to at least one-tenth of a millemetre.

Secondly, That the uncertainty of thermometric observations is
from one-twentieth to one-tentli of a degree, under ordinary cir-
cumstances, and at high temperatures amounts to more.

Thirdly, That, in experiments of the kind referred to in the
T able, those two sorts of uncertainty are combined.

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

367

The fifth column of the Table shows that, from 30° below the
freeziiia: point to 20° above it, wliere the minuteness of the pres-
sure makes the barometric errors of most importance, the greatest
difference between experiment and calculation is -^ of a mille-

metre, or -^ of an inch of mercury, — a very small quantity in
itself, although, from the slowness with which the pressure varies
at low temperatures, the corresponding difference of temperature
amounts to -^ of a degree.

Table I. — Vapour of Water.

Temperatures In Centi-

Presaures in IMlUimetrea of

Difference be-

Common Logarithms of the

Differences be-

grade Degrees of the Air

Mercury, according to

tween Calcula-

Corresponding

Pressures in

JHUiimetres,

tween Calcula-

Corresponding

Temperatures

X Derniotif

tion and Expe-

Differences of

ag to

tion and Expe-

Di&'erences of

above the

The Freei-
ing Point.

The Abso-
lute Zero.

The Formula.

M. Regnault's
Experiments.

riment in
Millimetres.

Temperature.

The Formula.

ni. Regnault*8
Experiments.

riment in
Logarithms.

Temperature.

Freezing Point.

o
-30

244-6

0-35

0-34

-fOOl

o

-0-42

-20

254.6

0-89

0-91

-002

+ 0-25

-10

264-6

2-07

2-08

-0-01

+ 006

0

274-6

4-47

4-60

-0-13

+0-38

+10

284-6

905

916

-Oil

+0-18

20

294-6

17-33

17-39

-006

+0-06

*26-86

301-46

26-29

26-20

000

000

30

304-6

31-57

31-55

J-0'02

-0-01

40

314-6

55-05

54-91

+0-14

-005

50

324-6

92-26

91-98

+0-23

-0-06

60

334-6

149-15

148-79

+0-36

-0-05

70

344-6

233-48

233-09

+0-39

-0-04

80

354-6

355-04

354-64

+0-40

-0-03

90

364-6

525-70

525-45

+0-25

-0-01

*100

374-6

760-00

700-00

0-00

000

2-8808136

2-8808

-0-0000

0-00

100

no

384-6

1074-82

1073-70

+ 1-12

-0-03

3-031362

3-0307

+0-0007

-0-05

110

120

394-6

1490-1

1489-0

+ 1-1

-002

3-173204

31734

-00002

+0-01

120

130

404-6

2028-0

2029-0

-10

+ 0-02

3-307061

3-3076

-0-0005

+ 0-04

130

140

414-6

2713-8

2713-0

+0 8

-002

3-433576

3-4332

+0-0004

-003

140

150

424-6

3575-5

35720

+3-5

-004

3-553334

3-5537

-00004

+0-03

150

160

434-6

4643-6

4647-0

-3-4

+003

3-666853

3-6676

-0-0007

+0-06

160

170

444-6

5951-2

5960-0

-8-8

+0-06

3-774603

3-7750

-00004

+ 0-04

170

180

454-6

7533-7

7545-0

-11-3

+0-07

3 877005

3-8772

-0-0002

+0-02

180

190

464-6

9428-5

94280

+ 0-5

-000

3-974443

3-9743

+ 0-0001

-0-01

190

200

474-6

11675

11660

+ 15

-0-06

4-067268

4-0674

-0-0001

+0-01

200

210

484-6

14315

14308

+ 7

-0-02

4-155796

4-1561

-0-0003

+0-03

210

*220

494-6

17390

17390

0

0-00

4-240300

4-2403

0-0000

0-00

220

230

504-6

20945

20915

+30

-008

4-321083

4-3207

+00004

-0-05

230

(!■)

(2.)

(3.)

(4.)

(5.)

(6.)

(7-)

(8.)

(9.)

(10.)

(11.)

The sixth and tenth columns show that, from 20° to 830° above
the freezing point, the greatest of the discrepancies between e.x-
periment and observation corresponds to a difference of tempera-
ture of only yfij of a degree, and that very fevv of those discrepan-
cies exceed the amount corresponding to ^ of a degree.

A comparison between the sixth and tenth columns shows that,
for four of the temperatures given, viz., 120°, 150°, 200°, and 210°,
the pressures deduced from M. Regnault's curve of actual elastici-
ties, and from his logarithmic curve respectively, differ from the
pressures given by the formula in opposite directions.

If the curves represented by the formula were laid down on
M. Regnault's diagram, they would be almost undistinguishable
from those which he has himself drawn, except near the freezing
point, where the scale of pressures is very large, the heights of the
mercurial column being magnified eight-fold on the plate. In the
case of the curves of logarithms of pressures above one atmosphere,
the coincidence would be almost perfect

The formula may therefore be considered as accurately repre-
senting the results of all M. Regnault's experiments throughout a
range of temperatures from 30° of the centigrade scale below the
freezing point to 230° above it, and of pressures from -.p^ of an
atmosphere up to 28 atmospheres.

It will be observed that equation (1.) bears some resemblance to
the formula proposed by Professor Roche in 1828 — viz. :

where T represents the temperature measured from the ordinary
zero point, and A, B, C, constants, which have to be determined
from three experimental data. It has been shown, however, by
M. Regnault, as well as by others, that though this formula agrees
very nearly with observation throughout a limited range of tem-
perature, it errs widely when the range is extensive. I have been
unable to find Professor Roche's memoir, and I do not know the
reasoning from which he has deduced his formula.

The use in computation of the equations I have given, whether
to calculate the pressure from the temperature, or the temperature
from the pressure, is rapid and easy. In Table II. they are re-

capitulated, and the values of the constants for different measures
of pressure and temperature are stated.

In calculating the values of o, the specific gravity of mercury
has been taken as 13-596.

Temperatures measured by mercurial thermometers are in all
cases to be reduced to the corresponding temperatures on the air-
thermometer, which may be done by means of the table given by
M. Regnault in his memoir on that subject.

Table II. — Vapour of Water.
Formula for calculating the Maximum Elasticity of Steam (F), front
the Temperature on the Air-Thermometer., measured from the Abso-
lute Zero if) :

LogP = o- J.

Inverse Formula for calculating the Temperature from the Maximum
Elasticity of Steam :

1 /a

7=V "

i-LorP (82

-t- r^-

7 4y

■27

Values of the Constants depending on the Thermometric Scale.
For the centigrade scale : —

Absolute zero 274°-6 below the freezing point of water.
Log/3 = 3-1851091 Log 7 = 5-0827176

■^ = 0-0063294
27

472

= 0-00004005

For Fahrenheit's scale; boiling point adjusted at 29-922 inches : —

Absolute zero 462°-28 beluw ordinary zero.

Log 0 = 3-4403816 Log 7 = 5-5932626

;^ = 0-0035163
27

= 0-000012304

For Fahrenheit's scale; boiling point adjusted at 30 inches : —
Absolute zero 461°-93 below ordinary zero.
Log 3=3-4400625 Log 7=5-5926244

0-0035189

— =0-000012383
47^

3r,H

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

QDecembeb,

Ml. Ull llie ceimiucLic- J

1 of 30 in. =761-99 mil 1
l>. on the square inch >
il. on the centimetre ^ J

Values of the Constant a, depending on the Measure of Elasticity.

Fur millimetres of mercury .
Eni;lish inches of mercury
At.iiospheres of 7GU mil. = 29-9221

inches = 14-/ lb. on the sq. inch V

= 1-0333 kil. on the centiraetre^J
Atmospheres

= 14-71 lb.

= l-036kil.
Kiliigrammes on the square centimetre
Pounds Avoirdupois on the square inch

N.B. — All /lie Cons/ants are for common logarithins.

I have applied similar formulae to the vapours oi alcohol and ether,
making use of the ex-periments of Dr. Ure.

In order to calculate the constants, the following experimental
data have heen taken, assuming- that, on Dr. Ure's tliermometers,
180° were equal to 100 centigrade degrees.

Table — Vapours of Alcohol and Ether.

-7-831247
6-426421

4-9J0433

4-949300

4 964659
6-117817

Temperatures on

it's Scale

Pressures

from the

in Inches

Remarks.

Orilinary

Absolute

of

Zero.

Zero.

Mercury.

For Alcohol, of the]

o
250

7123

13230

From Ure's Table.

specific gravity \

173

635-3

30-00

Do.

0-813 J

111-02

573-32

6-30

Interpolated.

For Ether, boiling"!

200

662-3

142-8

From Ure's Table.

at 105° F., under I

148-8

611-1

66-24

Interpolated.

30 in. of pressure J

lOo

567-3

30-00

From the Table.

For Ether, boiliniT

104

566-3

30-00

From Ure's Table.

at 104° F., under \

66-7

5'290

13-76

Interpolated.

30 in. of pressure J

34

496-3

620

From the Table.

The values of the constants in equation (1.), calculated from
these data, are as follows, for inches of mercury and Fahrenheit's
scale : —

Alcohol, specific gravity, 0-813
Ether, boiling pohit, 105° F.
Ether, boiling point, 104° F.

6-16620
5-33590
5-44580

Log. /3

33165220
3-2034573
3-2571312

Log. 7

5-7602702
5-5119893
5-3962160

Absolute zero 462°-3 below ordinary zero.

The results of Dr. Ure's experiments on the vapours of turpen-
tine and petroleum, are so irregular, and the range of temperatures
and pressures through which they extend so limited, that the value
of the constant y cannot be determined from them with precision.
I have, therefore, endeavoured to represent the elasticities of those
two vapours approximately by the first two terms of the formula
only, calculating the constants from two experimental data for
each fluid. The equation thus obtained,

Log P = o y,

is similar in form to that of Professor Roche.

The data, and the values of the constants, are as follows : —

Table — Vapours of Turpentine and Petroleum,

Temperature on

Fall re uhc it's Scale trom

Pressures

Values of the Constant?

in Ini lies of

fur F;ihreiiheil's

the Ordinary

the Aljsiilute

Blercury

Scale, and Inches of Mercury.

Zero.

Zero.

Turpentine.

300

822-3

60-80

a = 5 98187

304

7663

30-00
Petroleum.

Log 3=3-5380701

370

8323

6070

a=619451

316

77H3

3000

Log 5 = 3 5618490

point of water, I have not endeavoured to reduce them to the
scale of the air-thermometer, as it is impossible to do so correctly,
without knowing the nature of the glass of which the mercurial
tliormometer was made.

I Iiave also endeavoured, by means of the first two terms of the
formula, to approximate to the elasticity of the vapour oi ^nercury,
as given by the experiments of M. Ilegnault. The following table
exhibits the comparative results of observation and experiment.

Table — Vapour of Mercury.

Temperatures in

Ceuligra'le Degrees

(rom the

Freezing Point.

72°-74

100-11

100-6

146-3

*177-9

200-5

*3580

Preesures in Millemetrea of Mercury,
according tu

The Formula
(of ivvo terms.)

0-115

0180

0-49

3-49

10-72

21-85

760-00

M. Regnault*8
Experiments.

0-183

0-407

0-56

3-4 6

10-72

22-01

760-00

Differences between

CalculGtion

and Experiment

In Millimetres.

-0-068
+0-073
—0-07
+003

0-00
-0-16

0-00

The discrepancies are obviously of the order of errors of observa-
tion, and the formula may be considered correct for all tempera-
tures below 200° C, and for a short range above that point. From
its wanting the third term, however, it will probably be found to
deviate slightly from the truth between 200° and 358°; while above
the latter point it must not be relied on.

I have not carried the comparison below 72°, because in that part
of the scale the whole pressure becomes of the order of errors oF
observation.

In conclusion, it appears to me that the following proposition, to
which I have been led by the theoretical researches referred to at
the commencement of this paper, is borne out by all the experi-
ments I have quoted, especially by those of greatest accuracy, and
may be safely and usefully applied to practice : —

If the maximum elasticity of any vapour in contact with its liquid
he ascertained for three points on the scale of the air-thermometer, then
the constants of an equatio7i of the form

LosP = a-?-l

may be determined, which equation will give, for that vapour, with an
accuracy limited only by the errors of observation, the relation between
the temperature (<), measured from tike absolute zero (274-6 centigrade
degrees below the freezing point of water), and the maximum elasticity
(P), at all temperatures between those three points, and for a consider-
able range beyond them.

Although the temperatures are much higher than the boiling

RSGISTER OP NE'W PATENTS.

COMPRESSED FUEL.

William Buckwell, of the Artificial Granite AVorks, Battersea,
Surrey, civil engineer, for '•'■improvements in compressing and solidi-
fying fuel materials." — Granted March 38; Enrolled September 28,
184.9.

The improvement consists in compressing fuel material by means
of percussion force instead of a continuous pressure. The appa-
ratus consists of a ram worked by steam or other poivcr, the size
of the ram to be about three tons weight, falling tlirough about
4 feet, and making about 50 strokes per minute; and beneath the
hammer is placed a mould, in which the blocks are to be formed.
The mould contains two blocks, divided from each other by an iron
plate; and when the upper of the two blocks is formed and suffi-
ciently compressed, the lower one is removed, and the upper one
takes its place, which allows anotlier to be formed on the top.
The mode of extracting the lower block is as follows: — There is
no fixed bottom to the mould, but a loose one is provided, and held
in its place by a rod or )irop beneath it, which is attached to a
piston witliin a steam cylinder. This loose bottom is held up by a
catch while the hammer is in operation; but when the lower block
lias to be removed from the mould, the catch is withdrawn, and the
next blow of the hammer forces out the block, carrying with it the
bottom and piston. Tlie upper block now takes the place of the
former, within the lower part of the mould, and another block is

N£W PATENTS.

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

360

formeil on the top, upon the lower block being forced from the
mouhl; the pressure of steam forces up the loose bottom, and,
when up, it is secured by the catch, as before, and the hammer set
to work to form another block. The blocks, after beiug com-
pressed, are subsequently dried by exposure to tlie atmosphere or
heated air.

STEAM ENGINES.

AViLLiAM Edward Newton, of 66, Chancery-lane, Middlesex,
civil engineer, for "certain improvemmita in steam-enginrx." (A com-
munication from Charles M. Keller, Esq., New York.) — Granted
December 28, 1848; Enrolled June 28, 1849. [Reported in New-
ton's London Journal.~\

{With Engravings, Plate XXII.)

This invention of improvements in steam-engines is represented
in the annexed engravings. Fig. 1, is a vertical section of a
steam-engine of tlie improved construction, taken in a plane
parallel with the beams, and passing through one of the cylinders
and the crank-shaft; and fig. 2, is another vertical section, taken
at the line a, a, of fig. 1. Figs. 3, and 4, are diagrams of the ordi-
nary crank-beam engine, to illustrate the irregular mechanical
force on the crank of a steam-engine working expansively. Fig. 5,
is a longitudinal vertical section of an improved condensing appa-
ratus; fig. 6, is a section thereof, taken at the line b, h, of fig. 5;
and fig. 7, is a cross-section of the pumping part of the apparatus,
with the auxiliary engine, by which it is operated.

The inventor, preparatory to explaining the nature of his inven-
tion, makes the following introductory remarks: — It is a well-
known fact, in the application of steam as a motive power, tliat
the nwre the princi])le of expansion is introduced the more econo-
mical will be the effect produced, provided some element or ele-
ments be not introduced in the mechanism to counteract it. To
give tlie full effect to tliis expansive principle of steam, it should
be either applied to a resistance which decreases in the exact ratio
of the decreasing pressure of the steam, by reason of its expansion
or dilatation; or, wliat amounts to the same thing, the leverage of
the body, impelled by this force, should increase in the inverse
ratio of the decreasing ])ressure. The ordinary crank-engine, in
general use, presents in nearly every particular, tlie reverse of
the requirements of this problem; and it would be difficult to con-
ceive a mechanism theoretically so ill-adapted to the application
of this principle; but still, from its practical advantages in other
particulars, it continues in use, because of the practical objections
to all other plans vvliich have been suggested for overcoming its
theoretical defects. The irregular meclianical force of steam ap-
plied expansively to the ordinary crank-beam engine, is illustrated
in diagrams 3, and 4, — the former being based on the assumption
that the steam is cut off at one-quarter of the stroke, and the lat-
ter at one-twentieth. In these diagrams, a, represents the cylin-
der; i, the piston; c, tlie piston connecting-rod; d, the beam; e,
the crank connecting-rod; /, the crank; g, the circle described by
the centre of the crank-pin in tlie rotation of the crank; and i,
the line of pressure of the expanding steam. When the steam is
cut off at one-quarter of tlie stroke, one-half of the wliole me-
chanical force of the steam is expended in forcing the piston up to
the dotted line h, a little more than one-quarter of the entire
stroke, — tlie crank making but about one-third of its semi-rotation
from tlie dead point, and therefore along that part of the rotation
in which it presents the shortest leverage. During the next quar-
ter of the stroke, the crank passes to the line j, which indicates
the half of the semi-revolution; and, in passing to this point, tlie
leverage of the crank increases nearly in the inverse ratio of the
decreasing pressure of the steam on the piston; but this is the
only part of the stroke in which the motion and leverage of the
crank are in such relation to each other as togive an approxiniaton
to the full mechanical force of the steam; whereas, during the re-
maining half-stroke, the leverage of t!ie crank decreases as the pres-
sure decreases. The great defect is to be found in the fact that
(when the steam is cut off at the quarter-stroke) one-half of the
mechanical force of the steam is exerted in moving the crank
through only one-third of the circuit due to the entire stroke, — -the
other two-thirds remaining to be effected by the otlier half of the
mechanical force of the steam, and that too by a force decreasing
as the leverage to which it is applied decreases. But it will be seen,
by reference to the diagram, fig. 4, that this irregularity, so wasteful
of power, increases as the steam is cut off at a less portion of the
stroke, — as, for instance, in this diagram the steam is supposed to
be cut off at one-twentieth of the sti'oke. In this, the line of mean

pressure h, is at one-eighth of the stroke; and therefore one-half of
the mechanical force of the steam has been exerted in moving the
piston only one-eighth of its stroke, — the remaining seven-eighths
of the stroke ha\ing to be effected by the remaining half of the me-
chanical force. It follows, from these illustrations, that the more
expansively steam is applied to the ordinary crank-engine, the
more irregular will be tlie motion, and the more wasteful the
application of the impelling force.

In view of the problem above given, and the theoretical defects
of the ordinary engine, the desideratum has been the production
of an engine which would present all the practical advantages of
the ordinary crank-engine, such as simplicity and cheapness of
construction, strength and durability, and which, at the same time,
would admit of a more economical application of the principle of
the expansion of the steam.

The accomplishment of this important end is the object of the
first part of tlie present invention, which consists, first, in placing
the axis of the crank-shaft in a plane nearer than heretofore to
the axis of vibration of the beam which transfers the power from
the piston to the crank; that is, instead of placing the axis of the
crank-shaft in a plane midway between a plane passing through
the axis of the connection of the connecting-rod with the beam at
the two extremities of its vibrations, and a plane parallel to it,
and passing through this point of the beam at the middle of the
vibration, it is placed within this plane, — that is, in or near a
straight line, passing through the axis of the connection of the
connecting-rod and beam at the extremities of the vibrations of
the beam; whereby less than the first half of the stroke of the
piston shall carry the crank through one-half of its semi-revolu-
tion,— that is, from the dead point to the right angle; and the
remaining portion of the stroke, more than one-half, shall give to
the crank the remaining half of the semi-revolution, — that is,
carry it from the right angle to the other dead point, and, at the
same time, bring the line of the connecting-rod (which is shorter
than heretofore, say a little more than double the throw of the
crank), nearer to a right angle with the crank during the second
half of its semi-revolution than during the first-half; and thus
not only increase the proportional velocity of the piston whilst
impelled by the expanding steam, but make it act on a longer lever
than by any other known crank-engine. Secondly, in combining
with the crank-shaft, located on the principle herein specified, two
single-acting engines, acting on cranks placed on the shaft at an
angle of 180°; whereby the force of expanding steam maybe more
economically applied, and a more regular motion obtained, than
heretofore And, thirdly, in making the second engine of greater ca-
pacity than the first, anii receiving steam at one end only, and from
the first; this end being also alternately connected with the first en-
gine, to receive steam, and with the condenser for exhausting, that
the piston may be acted upon in one direction by the expansion of
steam, after it has acted in the first engine, there being a vacuum
on both sides of the piston during its return motion, when this is
combined with the first engine, which receives the steam at one
end only, — its other end being connected with that end of the
second engine which receives the steam ; so that, during the return-
stroke of the piston in the first engine, it shall be balanced by the
expanding steam, whilst it is acting on the piston of the second
engine.

In the drawings at figs. 1, and 2, a, and b, represent two beams,
having the same axes of vibration, and both of the same propor-
tions. The short arm of the one a, is connected by a rod c, with
the piston-rod d, of a piston e, that works in the cylinder/, of the
first engine; and the corresponding arm of the other beam 6, is in
like manner connected with a piston g, working in the cylinder h,
of the second engine (see fig. 2), and which is to be placed as near
as practicable to the first. The long arms of the two beams are
connected by rods ij, with two cranks /c, /, on the crank-shaft m,
and opposite to each other; that is, dividing the circle into two
equal parts, that one piston may be up whilst the other is down,
and vice versa. The connecting-rods iJ, should be about two and
a half times the length of their cranks. The axis of the crank-
shaft is in the straight line n, passing through the centres of the
connection of the connecting-rods i,j, with the beams a, i, when at
the extremity of vibration of the beams; from which position,
relatively to the proportions of either one of the beams and length
of crank and connecting-rod, it results, that the long arm of the
beam, in being moved to the position indicated by the dotted line
;), about one-third of its entire vibration, by one-third of the down-
stroke of the piston e, will carry the crank /r, from the dead point to
the right angle, one-half of its' semi-revolution, as indicated by the
dotted lines /i; and that in passing through the remaining two-thirds
of its vibration, to the position occupied in the drawings by the beam

48

570

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Decembbb,

//, by the remainin^T two-thirds of the down-stroke of tlie piston c,
the crank k, will be carried the remaining half of its semi-revohi-
tion to the second dead point. The dotted lines o. o, o, p, p, p, and
7,7,7, illustrate how much nearer to a right angle the jiull of the
connecting-rod is on the crank during the secimd half of its semi-
revolution than during the first half, for this directness of the
pull, during the second half of the semi-revolution, must be
greater than during the first half, in the proportion of the greater
range of motion of the piston during the one than during the
other,— that is, nearly in the juoportion of two to one. So soon
as the first piston has reached the end of its down-stroke, and its
crank has performed the effective half of its revolution, the second
jiistcm begins to descend, producing the same effect on its crank;
and in this way the two pistons and their cranks alternate,— no
force being applied to either of their pistons during their up-
motion: the cranks, therefore, each pass through the remaining
half of their revolutions without any impelling force being applied
to them. Steam is admitted to the upper end of the first cylinder
./; from the steam-pipe «•, by a slide-valve t, which is held up in the
position shown in the drawing, and with the port closed by a
helical spring », on the valve-rod v, — one end of the said spring
being attached to the valve-rod, and the other resting against a
guide-stud u; attached to the frame. To the valve-rod is jointed
one arm of a lever ,v, represented by dotted lines, which turns on
a stud at i/, — its other arm resting on the periphery of a cam z, on
the crank-shaft. This cam, which is represented by dotted lines,
is conceJitric from the point 1 to 2; and, during this part of the
rotation of the crank-shaft, the valve remains closed by the tension
of the helical spring; but from 2 to 1, the cam has an enlargement,
which acts on the lever t, to depress and open the valve for the
admission of steam to the cylinder; and therefore the extent of
this cam-like projection, in the direction of the peripherj', will
determine at what portion of the stroke the steam shall be cut off.
After the valve is closed, the steam acts on the piston expansively,
until the end of the down-stroke; a sliding-valve a\ then opensa
port b\ which establishes a communication between the upper end
of the tv.o cylinders, that the steam may act on the piston g, to
force it down solely by its expansive force; the second cylinder k,
being of much greater capacity than the first, and so much larger,
that the steam, acting by expansion therein during the range of
the piston, shall exert on it a mechanical force about equal to that
which is exerted on the first piston. The steam of the valve «', is
jointed to a lever c\ that turns on a pin at d\ its other end being
forked, to embrace an eccentric e', on the crank -shaft by which it
is operated. The lower end of the second cylinder is always in
communication with the condenser by means of the pipe/'; and
the upper end also communicates with the condenser by means of
a passage <;', governed by the valve a'; and the motion of the valve
is such, that at the end of the down-stroke of the piston g, this
passage is opened, whereby the steam from the cylinder is ex-
hausted, and a vacuum established above as well as below the
piston. There is a connection or passage h\ between the lower
end of the first and the upper end of the second cylinder (partly
represented by dotted lines); so that when the upper end of the
second cylinder is exhausted, the lower end of the first is also, to
establish a vacuum below the piston e, during its descent; but
when the valve a\ is opened, to pass the steam from the first to
the second cylinder, it also communicates with the lower end of
the first cylinder by the passage h'; so that whilst the second pis-
ton is being forced down by the expanding steam, the first piston
is balanced, during its return motion, by the pressure of the steam
on both sides of it;— thus making the full pressure of the steam
on the large piston available, instead of having it react against the
surface of the first piston, as in Wolf's expanding engine.

The inventor does not limit himself to the precise proportions
or disposition of the crank-shaft, as these may be greatly varied
within the principle of the invention, without affecting the result,
except in degree. Nor does he confine himself to the combined
employment of all the improvements in this part of the invention,
as important results can be obtained from either one of them sepa-
ratelv: as, for instance, the means of obtaining an equal, or nearly
equal, mechanical force on the first and second halves of the semi-
rotation of the crank, when using steam expansively, by the prin-
ciple involved in changing the position of the crank-shaft, rela-
tively to the axis of vibration of the beam, may be advantageously
employed, with only one engine, for many purposes. The use of
two engines, with the cranks on the same shaft, and on opposite
sides of the centre, in combination with the location of the crank-
shaft on the principle herein specified, may be advantageously
applied to obtain a more regular mechanical action on the crank-
shaft, by the use of expansive steam on two ordinary engines,

and without the use of the third branch of this part of the inven-
tion; and the arrangement of and manner of connecting the
ex|>ansion engine with the ordinary engine, so as to prevent the
steam, whilst acting by expansion alone on the large piston, from
re-acting on the small piston, may be advantageously applied,
without the use of the first and second branches of this part of the
in\ention; but the best results will be obtained when all three are
employed together. Under this part of the invention he claims —
Firstly, placing the axis of the crank-shaft of beam-engines, in
which the steam is applied expansively, nearer to the axis of
vibration of the beam, on the principle herein specified, and for
the purpose of obtaining a more regular mechanical action on the
crank by the applicati(m of the expansive principle of steam, ag
described. — Secondly, the employment of two engines, with their
cranks on one and the same shaft, and on opposite sides, — that is,
at an angle of 180°, substantially as described, when this is com-
bined with the location of the crank-shaft on the principle herein
specified. — Thirdly, expansion engines, having two cylinders and
pistons, in one of which the steam acts by expansion alone, having
one end of the large or expansion-cylinder at all times in connection
with the condenser, and the other alternately in connection with
the condenser and with the steam end of the other cylinder, that
tlie large piston, during its return-stroke, may have a vacuum on
each side, as described; when this is combined with the other
cylinder connected with the boiler, and which is so arranged as to
have both ends in connection with one end of the larger and
expansion cylinder, so that when its piston is acted upon by the
steam there shall be a vacuum on the other side, and when the
steam is acting by expansion on the large piston, it shall be in con-
nection with both ends of the small cylinder, as described.

The object of the second part of the invention is to condense
the steam without admixture with the condensing water ; that the
water produced by the condensation may be carried back to the
boiler, to prevent the evil consequences arising from the use of
water that contains, in solution or suspension, mineral or other
solid matter — and to condense the waste steam blown off from the
boiler, to suj)ply the waste arising from leaks, and also for the
production of fresh water for any other use. In the fresh-water
apparatus a tubular condenser is used, through the tubes of which
the steam passes, and is condensed by the cooling influence of a
current of cold water, taken from outside the ship or vessel, and
made to pass outside of the tubes; and, to this end, the invention
consists in combining a condenser of a steam-engine, for the pro-
pelling of a ship or other vessel, with a pump that receives the
condensing water from outside of the vessel and causes it to pass
through the condenser; — the said pump being actuated, irrespec-
tive of the engine that propels the vessel, by means of an auxiliary
engine, — whereby the amount of condensation can be regulated,
independently of the working of the engine that propels the
vessel.

Secondly, in connecting the condenser with the boiler or boilers,
or any part thereof, in addition to its or their connection with the
exhaust of the engine, when the pump, which carries the con-
densing water through the condenser, is operated by an auxiliary
engine; by means of which double connection not only is the steam
that escapes from the safety-valve condensed, to be carried back to
the boiler, but the boiler or boilers may be used to distil and pro-
duce fresh water for any purpose desired, when the engine is not
required for propelling the vessel.

And, lastly, in connecting the tubes of the condenser with the
cylinder or outer case thereof, by connecting one or both of the
diaphragms, to which the ends of the tubes are secured, with the
outer cylinder or case by means of a ring, or the equivalent
thereof; so that the said ring or flanch may bend to adapt itself to
the unequal contraction and expansion of the tubes and cylinder
or outer case of the condenser.

At fig. 5, a represents a hollow cylinder, within which are ar-
ranged a series of small parallel tubes h; and the said tubes are
secured at one end, in the usual way, to a diaphragm c, which has
a turned flanch, through which rivets or bolts d, pass, to secure it
to the cylinder a, and within such distance of the head as to leave
a sufficient space between it and the head e, of the cylinder, for
two chambers/, and y; — these two chambers being separated by a
horizontal diaphragm or partition h. The outer ends of the tubes
are, in like manner, secured to another diaphragm t, at the other
end; which said diaphragm, instead of being bolted directly to the
end of the cylinder, in the usual way, is bolted to a ring^', near its
outer periphery, — the inner periphery thereof being provided with
a turned flanch, bolted to the end of the cylinder. The said ring
or flanch should be slightly conical, or bent, that the diaphragm
may be at some distance from the end of the cylinder, that it may

1819.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

371

move in and out, to adapt itself to the unequal contraction and
expansion of the tubes and cylinder, by reason of the passajje of
the steam through the tubes, and the water, for the condensation,
throua:h the cylinder. A chamber fr, is formed at this end of the
cylinder by means of a head /, secured to the diaphragm by means
of a double-flanched rinff w), and screw-bolts, so that it may be re-
moved, when required, to give access to the tubes. The upper
chamber /; at the end of the cylinder first described, communicates
bv means of a pipe n, in any desired niiuiner, with the exhaust-
pipe of the engine, and, by another pipe «', also with the escape-
pipe of the boiler; and these connections should be governed by
appi-opriate cocks or valves, so that either can be closed or opened
at pleasure. Either of these connections being opened, the steam
passes into the chamber./; thence through the range of tubes above
the diaphragm or partition /i, to the chamber fr, at the other end,
and thence back, through tlie lower range of tubes, to the lower
chamber g, which communicates, by means of the pipe o, with the
air-pump and supply pumps of the engine, or (this connection
being closed) by means of a pipe o', with any desired recipient
with which the pipe o, may be connected. The direction of the
passage of the steam, and the water, produced by its condensation
through th? tubes, is indicated by the arrows. The steam, in pass-
ing through the tubes, is condensed by the cooling influence of a
constant current of cold water which passes outside of the tubes,
and which travels in a direction the reverse of the current of
steam; so that the steam as it parts with its caloric, is constantly
approaching a cooler medium. The water, for the condensation, is
forced into the cylinder a, near the dia])hragm c, through a pipe /),
and passes around the lower half of the series of tubes, until it
strikes the other diaphragm i; thence it passes up around the end
of a horizontal partition-plate 7, on the same plane as the partition-
plate li; which plate 7, extends from the diaphragm e, to within a
short distance of the other diaphragm ?'; and from this the water
passes around all the ujiper series of the tubes to the first, where
it escapes at the top through a pipe r, that discharges through the
side of the vessel above the water-line.

The water, for the condensation, is impelled through the con-
denser by a rotating pump, the case .9, of which is provided with a
tangential pipe t, at the lower part, connected with the pipe /;, of
the condenser. This case is also provided with another pipe »,
which extends from the centre thereof to and through the side of
the vessel, and so far down as to be always below the water-line,
that the water may flow through it to the inside of the pump-ease.
To the centre of this case a shaft v, is adapted, the journals of
which run in appropriate bearings «;, w, in the case, and are pro-
perly packed, to prevent the escape of water. On this shaft is a
hub ,r, with four arms or vanes y, accurately fitted to the case, but
rotating without touching it. By the rotation of these arms or
vanes, the water is drawn in near the centre, and, by centrifugal
force, carried out through the tangential pipe t, to and through
the condenser. The required rotation of the pump is given by an
engine »', secured to the casing of the rotary pump, through the
rod M, which is jointed to the cross-head c', and connects it with a
crank d^, on the shaft of the pump. This shaft is provided with
an eccentric e', for working the valves of the engine «'. The
water sujiply-pum]), which receives the water from the outside of
the vessel, and is, for that purpose, below the water-line, is pro-
lided with a valve /', the stem 3', of which passes through a
stuffing-box, and has a handle /;', by means of which the pipe can
be closed at pleasure, when it becomes necessary to obtain access
to the inside of the pump.

From the foregoing it will be seen that, by means of the auxi-
liary engine, which actuates the pump, a constant current of cold
water is carried through the condenser, independently of the work-
ing of the pi-opelling-engine of the vessel; and, as a necessary con-
sequence, tlie more the propelling-engines labour, by reason of
head-winds, or rough water, the more perfect will be the condensa-
tion and the vacuum produced, — thus increasing the power of the
propelling-engine, when power is the most needed; whereas, if the
current of cold water were dependent on the working of tlie pro-
pelling-engine, the sum of the mass of water, passing through the
condenser, would be exactly in proportion to the motion of the
engine, and, therefore, the condensation and vacuum would be
decreased in the ratio of the decreased motion of the pi'opelling-
engine. It will also be seen that — by reason of the working of the
pump which impels the water for the condensation, by means of an
auxiliary engine, and the double connection of the condenser with
the waste-pipe of the boiler or boilers, and with the exhaust of the
propelling-engine — whenever the safety-valve is opened, the steam
issuing therefrom, instead of being wasted, will be carried through
the condenser and condensed, to be returned to the boiler, — thus

avoiding the necessity of a separate supply of water to make up
for the waste by the escape of steam from the safety-valve. When
the propelling-engine is at rest, the condenser can be used for the
distillation and production of fresh water for any desired purpose
on board ship; for the condenser may, when desired, be rendered
entirely independent of the propelliiig-engine.

By passing the current of steam in a direction the reverse of the
current of condensing water, the greatest amount of caloric is
extracted with the least amount of water. The condensing water,
in its passage through the condenser, never reaches the point of
evaporation, and thei'efore mineral and other matter held in solu-
tion, will not be deposited to incrust the apparatus; and, by in-
suring a constant and i-apid current of water, unequal expansion
and contraction is reduced to the smallest amount; so small, in
fact, that all injurious efl^ects may be prevented by the mode, above
described, of connecting one of the diaphragms, to which one end
of the tubes are attached, with the cylinder, by means of the coni-
cal or bent ring or flanch.

Under this head of the invention the patentee claims. Firstly, —
the combination of the condenser of a steam-engine, used for the
propelling of a ship or other vessel, with a pump that receives the
condensing water from outside of the vessel, and causes it to pass
through the condenser when the said pump is operated by an auxi-
liary engine, independently of the propelling-engine. Secondly, —
the dou1)le connection of the condenser; that is, with the exhaust
of the propelling-engine, and with fhe boiler, when the said con-
denser is combined with a pump that receives the condensing water
from the outside of the vessel, and is impelled by an auxiliary
engine. And, Lastly, — the method of connecting the tubes with
the cylinder or external case of the condenser, by attaching the
diaphragm, to which one end of the tubes are connected, to the
cylinder or exteimal case, by means of the conical ring, or any
analogous means; by the bending of which allowance is made for
unequal contraction and expansion of the tubes and cylinder or
external case, as described.

GUN CARRIAGES.

Alfred Woollett, of Li\erpool, artist, for " improvements in
(jun ciirridges." — Granted Ajiril 3; Enrolled October 3, 1649. [Re-
ported in the Repertory of Patent Inventions.^

(^With Engravings, Plate XXII.)

The invention relates to improvements in the construction of
gun carriages, whereby only the upper part of the carriage is
required to be moved when pointing the gun, and tlie recoil of the
gun is controlled, so as at all times to cause it to be run out at the
centre of the port or opening through which the gun is to be
fixed, with other details of arrangement, which are shown in the
engravings.

fl, is an eight-inch gun (sixty-eight pounder) ; b, ft, ujjper and
lower cheeks of the carriage; c, section of a wrought-iron plate;
(/, cast-iron plate ; e, wrought-iron swivel bolt connecting the
upper part of the carriage to the lower part, on which the gun
can be moved round to the greatest nicety, and trained fore and
aft with facility ; ./', is a moveable wrought-iron shaft or bar to
secure the gun in the centre of the port, and serves to check the
recoil ; </, regulating-screw to adjust the upper part of the carri-
age ; A, plan of cast-iron plate fixed in the lower cheeks of the
carriage; ?, fore-axle fitted with four friction-rollers or sheaves,
the shaft f, passing through between them ; /, graduated arch for
supporting the rear of the upper part of the carriage, and measur-
ing the angles of training ; k, elevation of the fore-axle with
trucks ; /, /, friction-rollers, the wrought-iron shaft or bar f, pass-
ing through between them, as shown ; «, wrought-iron shaft for
bow or stern-gun or midship-gun; 0, fighting-bolt and socket; the
hinge p, being lifted up, the gun can be transported to the next
fighting-bolt ; from each bolt the cari'iage gives seventy degrees
training by moving round the top part of the carriage only ; 7, 7, 7,
fighting-bolts and sockets for a broadside-gun.

The following advantages result from these improvements : —
First, momentary training of broadside guns, being able to point
the guns to the greatest nicety fore and aft, or concentrate the
fire in less time than with the common carrriage, and without the
aid of handspikes. Secondly, the gun can be worked with much
greater facility and precision, with less men to each heavy gun.
Thirdly, the gun is capable of being trained forty degrees each
side of the centre of the port, the gun can be elevated and de-
pressed the same as with the old carriage, not covering more space
on deck, and the gun recoils at right angles with the port ready

48*

373

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Decembeb,

for loading. Fourthly, a self-acting compressor, preventing the
gun fnun recoiling home upon the breecliing, consequently no
breeching can be carried away, therefore the dangers attending
such a misfortune are obviated. Fiftlily, the gun much better
secured uithin-hoard through the nature of the machinery, as
when the gun being lashed by the usual tackle, no violent motion
of the ship can act upon the guns to disarrange them. Sixthly,
the inventinn is well adapted for a bow or stern-gun, being
ca])able of transporting from one port to another, possessing the
same advantages in firing as the pivot-gun, although less and con-
siderably lighter; and. Seventhly, the invention allowing of being
fixed on deck as a pivot-gun of any calibre, not covering so large
a space on deck as the slide, and weighing less, and will be less
expensive.

VENTILATION OF MINES.

RoBKBT Gordon, of Heaton Norris, Lancaster, engineer, for
improrfyiieiits in the ventilation of mints." — Granted April -t; Enrol-
led September 29, 1849.

{With Enyravings, Plate XXII.)

The invention relates to improvements in the ventilation of
mines, and consists of certain apparatus, as shown in the engrav-
ings, by which a larger and more uniform amount of atmospheric
air is passed through the workings of a mine than by the arrange-
ments at present in practice.

Fig. 1, is a vertical section of the shafts of a mine, along with
the exhausting apparatus ; and fig. 2, is a plan of the same, a, is
the down-cast shaft through which the pure air descends; b, is the
iip-cast shaft, which is closed at the top with an air-tight door,
below which a culvert or air-course c, is carried under-ground, and
connected to the air-courses d, which terminates at the ash-pits e, !
to supply the steam-boiler or other furnace fire_/J with air. The
ash-pits e, being closed at the front by a door i, so that the whole 1
of the air required to support combustion must ascend the up-cast i
shaft h. When steam-boiler furnaces are employed, as in figs. 1
and 2, from the air-course </, there is a connecting culvert or flueAr,
passing into the base of the chimney h, which may be opened when
the steam is "up," and the furnaces yj do not require attention.
]{y this arrangement, the power of the chimney A, is not checked
liy dampers when the steam gets too high, but it is checked and
modified by the admission of air through the culvert /r, all of which
is drawn from the up-cast shaft b; and if at any time the air taken
from the up-cast shaft in this arrangement should contain "choke-
damp" or carbonic acid in such proportion as to endanger the com-
bustion in the furnaces_/J the door j, of the ash-pit can be opened .
and pure air admitted at pleasure.

Fig. 3, is a sectional elevation of a shaft divided by a partition
or air-tight "bratice" into two compartments, one part being used
as the up-cast shaft 6, and the other as the down-cast shaft a. The
h compartment is connected with the air-culvert c, which leads to
the air-course rf, and the ash-pits e, of the furnaces f, as in the
former figs. 1 and 2.

Figs. 4., and 5, rejjresent a sectional elevation and plan of another
arrangement of the improvements, in which the culvert c, leading
from the up-cast shaft b, is connected with the chimney A, and at
the ash-pits e, by the air-courses d. This powerful cliimney is
placed in any convenient position, near the up-cast shaft, and pro-
vided with four furnaces y;/,/;/'; the ash-pit e, being closed by
doors a, as in the former arrangement, so that the supply of air
re(piired to support combustion is taken from the up-cast shaft 6,
through the culvert c, and the course or current of the air is indi-
cated by the small arrows at fig. 4; the smoke, gases, and heated
air from four furnaces returning to the chimney A, by the main
flues (/, figs. 4, and 5. By this arrangement not only the air and
gases heated by the furnaces ascend the chimney h, but a large
quantity of air from the up-cast shaft is drawn up direct without
going through the furnaces, by the intensely heated gases passing
off from the fires, making the exhaustion of the up-cast shaft more
complete and efficacious. The result from measurement of the
quantity of air passing through a large coal-mine ventilated by an
ordinary under-ground furnace, as compared with one arrangement
of the improved system, is as follows: — The sectional area of the
up-cast shaft of the coal-mine in question is 55 square feet. The
fire being 200 fathoms from the surface, the average amount of air
found to pass through the workings was rather less than 18,000
cubic feet per minute. In one of the arrangements, a chimney
75 yards high, and connected with the furnaces of four steam
boilers, gives an exhausting power equivalent to a column of 1 inch

of H ater, and as a column of water an inch high equals a pressure
of •031(i of a pound, or 5-198 pounds on the superficial foot, which
pressure will cause the air to pass through the said diinuiey at a
velocity of 32ii miles per hour, or 2,H()0 feet per minute; then
2,S0O feet multii)lied by 34'33, the sectional area of the cliimney,
gives 98,183 cubic feet of air per minute for ventilation in place of
18,000, or more than five times the quantity obtained by the ordi-
nary system. Not only is the ventilation materially increased by
the improved arrangements, but the ease with which they can be
carried out render them much more valuable and efficient. The
ventilating fires being at the surface and the stoker at all times
under the cognisance of the bank-manager, preclude the proba-
bility of neglect. Should the mine be ventilated with one or more
boiler fires, as shown in the drawing, figs. 1, and 2, a valve is
placed in each of the air-courses d, with a spindle attached to
regulate it, as shown at /, fig. 1, which may be closed to prevent
the atmospheric air from returning should it be desirable to stop
one or more fires for repairs.

It is further proposed to close up the top of the down-cast shaft
a, figs. 5, and 6, at any convenient opportunity when the miners
are absent from the pit, and at the same time keep up the venti-
lating fires until the workings ai'e exhausted, equivalent to a
column of 1 inch of water or more. This would extract the light
explosive gas from the charged receptacles more effectually than
any means at present employed, as the pressure of the atmospheric
air being diminished in the mine the highly-charged cavities would
discharge part of their contents, and when pure atmospheric air
was allowed to rush into the workings, the explosive gas in the
recesses would become adulterated and its dangerous power de-
stroyed. The position in which the chimney and furnace are
placed as regards the up-cast shaft may be varied to suit the
locality and character of the mine, and it is obvious that a similar
effect may be produced by building the chimney within the up-
cast shaft, leaving an opening or annular Rpace between it and the
native rock, to allow the water to descend without cooling or im-
peding the ascending ventilating current, which is ))roduced by an
ordinary furnace at or near the bottom of the up-cast shaft.

RAILWAY AXLES AND WHEELS.

William Kilner, of Sheffield, engraver, for '■'•certain improve-
nicnt.f in mainifacturing railway and other axles and wheels; and in
machinery to be emjilnyed in such mattafacture." — Granted April 24;
Enndled October 24, 1849. [Reported in the Mechanics Maga-
zine.']

1. The inside surface of the tyre, after being bent into a circle,
is raised to a welding heat, by placing it into a hollow fire or
closed hearth, after which it is laid on a block, and the spokes,
previously heated at one end, are successively welded to it. The
nave is composed of two half-naves formed of bar-iron coiled into
rings, with the internal hollow of less diameter at one end than the
other; and the inner ends of the spokes are arranged on the face
(with the smallest bore) of one of the half-naves, and the corre-
sponding face of the other half-nave laid on them. Care is taken
to leave a space between each pair of spokes, and to piinch holes
in them, in order that the inside surfaces of the half-naves may be
welded together at these points. The nave and spokes are heated
to the welding point by being placed above the fuel in a furnace,
the top of which is made moveable for tlie purpose of admitting
the wheel, after which they are welded together by swages, and
the small ends of the half-naves welded over the ends of the
spokes. Or, two chains, united by a right and left hand screw-
coujiling, and passing through the centre of the wheel, are
attached to the opposite sides. The wheel is placed in a project-
ing hearth above the fuel, and when heated to the proper degree
of temperature, the chain is tightened and the wheel formed.
Instead of welding the spokes to the tyre after the latter has
been bent into a circle, they may be welded to a straight bar of
iron, which is then bent to the required shape around the ends of
moveable blocks arranged to form part of a circle, with interven-
ing spaces to receive the spokes.

2. To give the necessary rotundity to the tyre, a bed-plate is
employed which has a central vertical shaft, on which the wheel
is placed, and is free to revolve thereon. Around the rim are two
pairs of equidistant rollers, supported on spindles in the ends of
four levers, the other extremities of which encircle two screw-rods,
whereby they can be made to approach or recede from the tyre,
while above and beneath it are two other rollers, capable of being
brought closer together. The rollers are driven by toothed gear-

1819.]

THE CIVIL EXGINEER AXD ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

ra

ing from any prime mover, and communicate their motion to the
wheel. The felloe is formed with a dovetail, and the edg;e of the
tyre bent over it by the action of the rollers. An adjustable
scraper is made to act against the tyre, for the purpose of cleans-
ing it.

3. For the purpose of turning the tyres, the patentee employs
revolving circular cutters keyed on a shaft, resting on moveable
bearings, which can be made to slide up and down simultaneously
by means of a hand screw.

4. The axles are constructed of two tubes, placed one within
the other, or of a tube filled with bar-iron, and « elded at the ends
only, or of a number of bars of iron, curved and overlapping one
another, to give a S])iral direction to the fibre.

Claims. — 1. The use of the hollow fire or closed hearth for heat-
ing tyres to the welding point. — 2. The projecting hearth. — .3.
Heating the inside surface of the tyre, by causing the flame and
products of combustion to impinge against it, instead of by radia-
tion.— 4. Heating the spokes and tyre together, in order that they
may be welded at the same heat; and arranging the spokes which
have holes punched in them, at a distance from each other, be-
tween two half- naves, to allow of the surfaces of the latter being
welded together at these points, as well as over tlie ends of the
spokes. — 5. The employment of two or more rollers acting uni-
formly and capable of being caused to ajiproach or recede from the
tyre, in conjunction with the scraper, for the purpose of rolling
and cleansing it. — 6. Boring and turning the inside and outside
surfaces of railway wheels by revolving circular cutters. — 7. The
compound hollow axle. — 8. The railway axle, composed of a tube
filled with bar-iron welded only at the ends. — 9. The railway axle,
with the bars of iron laid so as to give a spiral direction to the
fibre.

LUBRICATING COMPOSITION.

Alexander Munkittrich, of JIanchester, merchant, for "«»
im]iruved ctmiponition of matters, loliich is apjilicuhle as a substitute for
oil to the lubrication of machinery, and for other purposes." — Granted
May \; Enrolled November 1, 1849.

This invention consists in forming a compound which is to be
used as a substitute for oil, grease, and other matters, for lubri-
cating machinery. The compound is formed in the following man-
ner : 4 lb. of caoutchouc dissolved in spirits of turpentine, or any
ether suitable solvent; 10 lb. of carbonate of soda; 1 lb. of glue;
10 gallons of animal or vegetable oil; and 10 gallons of water;
and the mode of incorporating these ingredients is as follows : the
water is to be heated in a suitable vessel, in which the carbonate of
soda and the glue are to be then dissolved; the oil is then to be
added, well stirring and agitating the mixture, to incorporate the
ingredients; the caoutchouc, previously dissolved, is to be added
last, and the whole well stirred together until it becomes homo-
geneous and as fluent as oil. It is then ready for use, and may be
stored in casks or bottles until wanted. Any substances possessing
the same properties as the above-mentioned, may be substituted
for them, and that when the caoutchouc and oil are previously
purified, the carbonate may be dispensed with ; the proportions,
also, may be varied according to the consistency required.

WATERPROOF PAPER.

William Brindley, of Twickenham, papier-mache manufac-
turer, for ''''improrenwuts in the manufacture of ivaterproof paper." —
Granted February 28; Enrolled August 28, 1849.

The improvement consists in causing the long webs of machine-
made paper, and sheets of paper, to be rendered waterproof by
saturating them, when dry, with linseed oil at high degrees of
heat. The machine-made paper is caused to pass into a trough
containing oil by means of a roller, and by a pair of pressing roll-
ers any excess of oil which may be on the paper is pressed out ag
it rises out of the trough, in like manner to what is now practised
in sizing machine-made paper; or the oil may be applied in any
other convenient manner to the webs of paper. The paper is then
placed in a suitable stove heated to 200° to 300°, the paper being
kept opened out so that both surfaces may be acted on by the heat,
and in about three hours the desired efl'ect will be obtained; a
somewhat less temperature and longer time will produce a like
result, but the temperature above-mentioned is preferred.
f ' If sheets of paper are to be treated according to the invention,
the patentee prefers to apply the oil by using boards such as when

making panel-boards, saturated with oil, and then place several
sheets of paper between each two boards, and subject a large num-
ber thus surrounded to a press, or the sheets may have the oil
applied in any other convenient manner. The separated sheets arc
then to be bung separate in a suitable stove heated to the extent
before mentioned and dried.

The paper thus prepared will be found applicable to many
purposes where waterproof paper is desired, and where any oily
character remaining would be objectionable : it may be written or
printed on, and paper-hangings thus made will be found of great
importance when the walls are damp; and paper-hangings may be
either printed before or after rendering the same waterproof, ex-
cepting where the high temperature will interfere with the colours
thereon.

STEAM HOISTING MACHINES.

Improved Portable Steam Hoisting Macliiucs for Loading and
Discharging Cargoes. By A. L. Abciiamb.ai lt, Philadelphia, U.S.
[From the Journal of the Franklin Institute.']

This useful invention, of which the annexed cut is a representa-
tion, was built for Charles Bentric, a stevedore of Philadelphia,
who has successfully tested it in discharging the cargoes of the
ships Austria, Monongahelu, and Hercules.

The operation of the machine is briefly as follows:— The motion
of the engine is communicated to the fly-wheel shaft S, which
carries a small pinion gearing into the large wheel/; the winding
barrel c, to which the hoisting rope is attached, is locked to the
shaft of the wheel/ by means of the driving friction coupling «,
the latter being thrown into or out of action by the lever d; and
the motion of the drum c, when free from the shaft of the wheel./,
is controlled by the friction-band 4, which is tightened or slackened
by the break e.

The machine requires but a single person to keep up steam and
attend to the breaks, and is capable of hoisting twelve hogsheads
of tobacco from the hold of a ressel and turn them out on the
wharf in ten minutes, or can discharge cotton at the rate of 300
bales per hour. In case the hogshead or other article being raised
should strike on the combings of the hatchway, the engineer has
only to slacken tlie break, and it is lowered, without stopping the
motion of the engine, so as to clear the obstruction; and then, by
drawing the lever of the break tight again, the ascending motion
is restored. The lowering break is so arranged that a hogshead of
tobacco can be suspended at any point required with the greatest
ease. The machine being on wheels, is portable in its character,
and can be moved about with a single horse.

374

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.

At a iiieotinir of the above Institution, held at Birminirham,
Nov. 2tth, R. Stepiiknso.v, Esq., M.l'., in the Cliair, the followinff
])a])ere were read: —

ON THE ECONOMY OF RAILWAY TRANSIT.

On the Ernnnmii of RiiUimy Transit. By Mr. J.\1MES Sa.iivkl, of
the Eastern Counties Railway.

TliC olijeot of the paper was to show the necessity of working
l)ranch lines with ligliter and less e.\pcnsive trains and locomotives
tlian are at present in use, with a view to diminish first cost, con-
sumption of coke, and deterioration of permanent way. My returns
of the number of passengers conveyed on the Eastern Counties
and Norfolk Railways, they showed that the greatest number of
passengers in any main line train at any one time was 231, and the
least number 7; the greatest number in any of the branch line
trains being 82, and the least number 3. And that there were con-
veyed on the Eastern Counties branch lines during the year 1847,
42,644' tons of passengers (calculating each passenger with his lug-
gage at 168 lb.), and that the weight of engines and carriages
required to convey them was about 1,112,500 tons, being in the
proportion of 2S to 1.

The main line engines consumed from 24|^ to 40glb. of coke per
mile, and the engines for working the branch line trains consumed
from 16^ to 35:^ lb. per mile, varying of course v/ith the size of the
engine employed to do the work, the smallest engines invariably
consuming the smallest quantity of fuel for the same work done.
The average consumption of coke during the half-year ending
4th July, 1849, was 31;; lb. per mile for passenger engines, and
4T-} lb. ])er mile for goods engines. These returns refer to a stock
of about 200 engines, and a length of line of about 310 miles.

Thus the writer came to the conclusion that it would be possible
to construct a carriage and engine combined, of sufficient capacity
for l)ranch traffic, and by his advice the directors of the Eastern
Counties Railway gave orders to Mr. Adams to construct such a
carriage, subject to the approval of Mr. Hunter, the locomotive
sujierintendent.

The carriage was accordingly luiilt, and called the EnfieM, from
the branch which she was intended to work. The engine has 8-in.
cylinders, and 12-in. stroke; driving-wheels 5 feet diameter; dis-
tance between centres 20 feet; width of framing 8 ft. 6 in. The
boiler is of the ordinary locomotive construction, 5 feet long by
2ft. Gin. diameter. The fire-box is 2ft. lO^in. by 2ft. 6in. There
are 115 tubes of Ig inch diameter and 5 ft. 3 in. in length, giving a
total of 230 feet heating-surface in the tubes. The area of the
fire-box is 25 feet, giving a total heating surface of 255 feet. The
weight of this steam carriage is 15 tons 7 cwt. in working trim.
The engine and carriage being combined, it is evident that the
weight on the driving-wheels is increased by the load carried, and
that this weight increases in the same ratio as the load required to
be taken. The extreme distance between the centres of the lead-
ing and trailing wheels being 20 feet, accounts for the steadiness of
this machine; there is indeed no perceptible oscillation when tra-
velling at the highest speed, and this verifies the observation "that
the steadiness of an engine depends not on the position of the
driving-wheel, hut upon the length of the rectangle covered by the
wheels." This engine at the same time daily traverses curves of
5 or 6 chains radius.

The Enfield steam carriage was originally intended to convey 84
piissengers, hut as it was found that when she was put on as an
express train the passengers increased in number, a North Woolwkh
carriage was attached ca])able of conveying llti passengers, and
also a guard's break van, making provision altogether for 150 pas-
sengers, which is now her regular train taken at a speed of 37 miles
per hour.

This engine commenced her regular work about eight months
since, and the following return shows the miles run and coke con-
sumed by this engine during the 7^ months' regular working from
January'29th to September 9th, 1849:—

14,021 total miles run. 74.1 cwt. coke consumed in running.

408 cwt. „ Btnniiing.

280 cwt. „ getting up steam.

1.4;i7 cwt. total col<e consumed.
2,162 total hours, in steam. lr48 iiis. per mile average consamplion of coke.

The Enfield is in steam 15 hours per day, the fire being lighted
about six in the morning and drawn at ten o'clock at night. But
of these 15 hours it a|ipeai"s by tlie return that she is engaged run-
ning only five hours, tlie remaining ten being employed standing in
the siding. It was fcmnd by experiment that the quantity of coke
consumed standing was 32 lb. per hour, and after deducting this

"t'.'J hours, running time.
1.4.')7 hours, standing time.

and the quantity consumed getting up steam, it will appear that
the actual consumption of coke runnitig is under 6 lb. per mile. It
must also be particularly borne in mind that this consumption of
coke includes the total goods and coal traffic on tlie branch,
amounting to 1,410 tons — viz. 1()9 tons of goods and 1,241 tons of
coal.

The EnfieM steam carriage worked the 10 a.m. passenger train
from London to Ely on 14th June, a distance of 72 miles, taking
behind her three of the ordinary carriages and two horse-boxes ;
she arrived at Ely 8 minutes before time, and the total consump-
tion of fuel, including the getting up steam, was found to be 8| lb.
per mile. The tubes of the boiler are only 5 feet 3 inches in
length, and the economy of fuel is consequently scarcely at the
maximum.

Another engine on a similar plan to couple with a 40 feet carri-
age is now nearly re.idy, the tubes being 6 feet 6 inches long, from
wliich is expected even more economical results.

The result of the writer's experience is the conviction, that for
express purposes, and for the larger portion of the branch traffic
on railways, the light steam carriage is the best adapted and most
economical machine, both as to first cost compared to the work
done, and in working expenses.

The first cost of a large engine, tender, and four carriages has
been 4000/. The steam carriage for the same number can be made
for something less than one-half the cost.

Remaris. — Mr. M'Connell gave much credit to Mr. Samuel for the
introduction of this branch traffic-carriage. If managers of railways could
always calculate the number of passengers to be carried, he (Mr. M'Connell)
could conceive that a great economy might be effected, even under the
present system. But this was impossible. How far, under these circum-
stances, Mr. Samuel's carriage might become useful, he was not prepared to
say. Undoubtedly with the present carriages the proportion of tbe tare to
the passengers carried was very great ; and although a case which rarely
happened, instances had occurred where the tare was 50 tons to 3 tuns of
passengers. But even taking the weight of passengers at 10 tons, 50 tons
of carriages was unquestionably a large proportion of dead weight to carrryj
and he considered that the long carriage, if always likely to be well em-
ployed, would be an advantageous mode of saving the dead weight, more
especially on branch lines, and at the junctions where such branches came in.

Mr. Samuel further explained, that as Die length of coupling of the
engine-wheels in the Enfield was oidy 5 ft. 4 in., with an 8-inch cylinder, it
was necessary to attach the carriage and engine on one frame, otherwise it
would be too short to run steadily ; the effect produced by the carriage wa«
like the stick of a rocket in steadying the motion. But in the Cork and
Bandon engine with a 9-inch cylinder, the length. of coupling of the wheels
was 10 feet, and no carriage was required to produce steadiness, as the rect-
angle on the rails was so much longer. In the case of large engines, where
the distance between the axles had been increased to 16 feet, a greater
steadiness was observable. There was accommodation in the carriage for
15 first-class and 116 other passengers, giving a total accommodation for
131 passengers; and this he considered the most serviceable fur working the
express traffic. One of these steam-carriages was being prepared for working
on a railway in Scotland, at a contemplated speed of 40 miles an hour. Xt
the present time it was impossible to keep the road in good repair, especially
on tbe old lines, in consequence of the enormous weight of the engines.
The Enfield engine was worked at 120 lb. pressure, while in ordinary engines
it did not exceed 801b., and hence an advantage of 40 lb. was obtained.
The heating surface of the fire-box was 25 feet. He had, with the Enfield
engine, made the quickest journey that had ever been performed betweea
Norwich and London. With a train capable of containing 84 passengers
they performed the distance of 126 miles in 3 hours 35 minutes, including
stoppages. Another advantage in a large carriage of this description re-
sulted from making use of the side space, for there were only 8 wheels to do
the work of 24, and at the same time they had no greater amount of weight
on each wheel than under the ordinary arrangement. The whole weight was
9 tons without passengers, and 84 passengers might be taken at an average
as weighing 6 tons.

The President considered that they were much indebted to Mr. Samnel
for his excellent paper, and he regretted that many interested in the econo-
mical working of railways had absented themselves from that meeting. The
subject of economical transit had, of course, occupied his attention, and he
must say, that, although he considered the suggestion of Mr. Samuel, so far
as certain branch lines were concerned, was entitled to the consideration of
all railway companies, yet he (the President) did not agree with Mr. Samuel
to the full extent. ()n small local lines — such as those from London to
Greenwich, and London to Blackwall — such carriages would he very valuable
in lessening the expense of working, but he could not agree in thinking that
for express purposes, or any other, such carriages would or should become
popular on main lines, lie could not agree with Mr. Samuel, also, with
reference to the necessity of fixing the engine to the carriage, for the pur-
pose of giving it steadiness. It appeared to be like riveting harness to a horse.
There was no mechanical necessity for it. He would advise Mr. Samnel not
to overstrain his principle by endeavouring to apply to trunk lines what
would be manifestly beneficial to branches. The public expected certain

18i9.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL.

375

comforts ill railway (ravelling, anri no system that cnuld he devised woiiH
recimcile passengers to be packed together like fisli. He (the President) felt
that, occupying as he did a position in the manatreinent of railways that
might give his npininn weight, he had thnnglit it riglit to say what he had
done, lest lie miyht he considered tacitly to admit that that which engineers
had heen doing since 1831 in increasing the weight of engines, had been
practically wrong.

ON RAILAVAY AXLES.
On the Construction of Jtailway Axles. By Mr. J. E. M'Connell.

Wlien the railway system was first introduced into this country,
the question of strength of materials for constructing the new
stock was (it is to be presumed) materially influenced by the
amount of experience derived from the vehicles which had pre-
viously been in use for the conveyance of traffic.

As the new system became extended and improved in all its
arrangements, and the facilities which it possessed for conveying
greater loads at higher speeds were gradually developed, the
working stock was necessarily changed from time to time in con-
formity with the greater demands for convenience and stability.
Improvements in almost every point have been carried out, until
we have now in operation the railway stock, generally speaking, in
an excellent condition for the purpose to which it is applied. It is
remarkable that, notwithstanding the importance of proportion
and quality as first elements in considering the strengtli of the
materials of which railway moving stock is composed, no rule,
generally applicable for even the main features of this great
system of machinery, has been established. AVithout attempting
to embrace the whole subject, although one of great importance to
proprietors of railways and the public generally, I conceive it is
proper, in this place, to express my strong conviction that the
general question of the strength and quality of those materials
justly proportioned to the strains to which they are subject, and
bearing reference to accidents from collision, faults of road, dete-
rioration from a variety of causes, S:c., must eventually be treated
with great attention and consideration; and, in order to insure
safety to life and property for all who use railways, as well as the
greatest possible economy for the profit of those who have em-
barked their capital in their construction, I believe it will be
found essential to have some regulations founded upon the joint
experience of those parties who have been practically engaged in
managing and working the different departments of railways.

It is well known that short-sighted economy has been practised
in many instances in giving directions for the purchase and repair
of railway stock, and it is only dear-bought experience which can
effectually convince those who, to make a little saving by purchas-
ing a cheap, ill-constructed machine, gain a great and constant loss
whilst it is in use. The advantages of a general and constant in-
terchange of opinion among those parties to whose judgment and
management the working expenses of the different railways are
entrusted is most important; and if such varied experience could
be collected, regularly and systematically into one focus, where it
might be digested and prepared for practical use, the effect for
good to the general system of railways would be very great, and,
in a scientific point of view, the results recorded would prove
highly interesting. Having thus briefly stated a portion of my
views as bearing upon the introduction of the best means of pro-
ducing uniformity in the working stock of railwjiys, I will now
proceed to consider Railway Axles, which, as an important part
of the great machinery, are deserving of the most marked atten-
tion.

1 have endeavoured to ascertain whether any data were available
which might assist me in forming a groundwork of the results of
combined experience on this subject; but I regret to say that,
although my inquiries have been in all cases promptly and care-
fully attended to, yet the object which I had in view has not been
attained. As an example of the diversity of opinion, or rather,
perhaps, the want of some certain rule to guide engineers in pro-
portioning the strength of axles to their \^eights and strains, I
would refer to different forms of axles now in use on one portion
of one railway, and in doing so would remark, that a clearer proof
could not be afforded of the desirableness of having some defined
principle to guide us in deciding on the strength for i-ailway axles.
For obvious reasons 1 wish particularly to guard against express-
ing, directly or by inference, any opinion on any description of
manufacture of axle, or even quality of iron of which axles are
composed. I would wish to limit the scope of the present paper
simply to the question of form and dimensions of axles, with the
changes and deterioration to which tliey are subject in process of

working, assuming, in all cases, the material of which the axle is
made, and the mode of manufacture, to be of the most approved
description.

In order to arrive at a knowledge of the best form and dimen-
sions of axles, we have first to ascertain the load and friction to
which they are to be exposed; and, secondly, to estimate, as nearly
as possible, the strains to which they will be subject whilst in
motion. Supposing a wagon or carriage to be constantly in a state
of rest, it would, of course, then only be necessary to consider the
axle as a beam or girder, sustaining a load of five tons upon the
two journals, the points of support being the viheels resting upon
the rails, the middle portion of tlie axle being of sufficient strength
to sustain the wheel or prop in its perpendicular position. We
then require to find out the proportionate strength, so that each
section of this beam or girder sliall only be sufficiently strong to
resist the strain or load to which it is then subject.

It is ascertained, by an approximate calculation, that a journal of
1-128-inch diameter is not capable of sustaining a heavier load, when in
a state of rest, than 2^ tons, or 5,600 lb.; and allowing, in practice,
that the wagon- or carriage axle is made ten times the breaking strength,
the diameter of the journal would be, adopting the same calculation,
2'-13 inches. In these calculations the strength alone is considered:
but we have also to take into account the question of friction, and
likewise the tendency to abrasion. AVith our present means of
information, no accurate data are available for determining the
best proportion of journal or bearing according to the weight it
has to bear, or the velocity at which it is required to move. A
great variety of proportion is in use, but it is fair to note that in
engine-axles, particularly the length of bearing, depends, to a cer-
tain extent, upon the construction and arrangement of the engine;
as a general rule the length of the bearing is not in due propor-
tion, according to our general experience, to the diameter.

It has always been considered that having first ascertained, from
example and experience, the strength of sectional area necessary,
nnder every circumstance, to sustain the load which the journal
has to carry, tlie length of it was determined by the velocity or
amount of friction to which it is liable. Judging from axles at
present in use in carriages and wagons, the length of bearing is twice
the diameter of the journal; but on this, as v,ell as otiier points on
strength of material, there exists a great variety of opinion.
Even the forms of journals are found to differ \ery much. With-
out attempting to decide on the merits of any of them, I shall in
the present instance content myself with stating that all my expe-
rience has proved the desirableness of maintaining rubbing or
wearing surfaces of bearings as free as possible from sharp abrupt
corners, sudden alterations in diameter, or sectional strength.
Having thus treated the journals as regards the load and the
friction upon them, I now proceed to estimate the various strains
to which the axle is exposed whilst in motion.

The first .strain to which the a.xle is subject is that arising from
the weight of the wagon and load, which being received or resting
on the journal, produces the greatest effect upon the axle at the
outer face of the wheel-boss, and to which is to be added the
momentum of the load in falling through spaces caused by inequa-
lities or joints of rails. Tiie injurious consequences of inequalities
on the road, surface, and flat places on the surface of the wheel-
tyre, upon the axle, by the jolting or perpendicular motion which
they produce, cannot be accurately estimated, and these are very
much inci-eased when the bearing springs of the wagon or carriage
are not sufficiently elastic, and do not yield to the shock or blow
downwards, so as (to use the expression) to cushion its effect. As
an instance of the imperfect action of the springs, I would allude
to those in use on many wagons, in which the form and construc-
tion cause them to be so rigid that the downward blow is more
like a hammer upon an anvil. To obviate this strain as much
as possible, it is necessary to proportion the spring so as to
sustain the load properly, and yet to be of sufficient elasticity
to absorb the effect of the load oscillation. The strain arising
from the oscillation of the wagon on curves from imperfect
coupling, and increased by the lateral freedom or space on the
bearings or play between the rails and flanges of the wheels whicli,
when an irregularity occurs on the side of the rail, or any sudden
cause disturbs the direct motion of the wagon onwards, is in effect
the same as a blow upon the flange of the wheel, the radius of the
wheel tending to act as a lever to break the a.xle at the inner face
of the boss of the wheel. This strain is in the compound ratio of
the momentum of the load, the angle at which the wheel strikes
the rail, and the distance from the centre of the axle to the point
of impact; producing an effective strain upon the axle at the inner
face of the wheel boss, which extends proportionately over the
whole axle between the wheels. To lessen in practice as much as

370

THE CIVIL ENGIXEER AND ARCIIITECrs JOURNAL.

[December,

possible the deterioratina: effect of these descriptions of strains
upon tlie axle, the following conditions are important: —

That the bearings or journals of the axle fit as closely to tlie
brasses as is consistent with freedom, the allowance of flange
gauge of wheel being quite sufficient for the carriage to move
freely round curves and meet any irregularity in the gauge of the
rails. That the wagons or carriages be as equally loaded as possi-
ble, and the draw-chains be exactly in the centre; and as side
chains are dangerous, they should be completely removed, pro-
vision being made for a duplicate centre draw-chain should a
failure take i>lace. As the damage to the loading of wagons is in
proportion to the oscillation, they should all be screwed together
by means of screw-couplings, having spring buffers upon both ends
of every wagon. It is well known that the injury to the wagon,
to the load which it conveys, to the axle which carries it, and to
the road over which it runs, is very much aggravated if the wagons
are allowed to oscillate from side to side, and become like so many
battering-rams, injuring themselves and all substances in contact
with them. A ti-ain of wagons or carriages should be jointed
together similar to the vertebrae of an animal, by which means any
sudden lateral action would be neutralised by the support derived
from the neighbouring vehicle. The road to be kept as accurate
as possible to gauge and line. The tliird class of strains to which
axles are liable are the shocks produced by starting and stopping
a train, and which are in proportion to the momentum of the
wheel and axle at the time of collision when stopping, and to the
velocity of the impelling force and the inertia of the wheel and
axle when starting; these strains are felt principally on the neck
of the journal. Fourth strain, the torsion or twisting produced
owing to wheels travelling over curves of the line; the difference
in length of surface of the inner and outer rail compels the one
wheel to grind or slide upon the rail, while the other is free to roll.
This strain is proportionate to the load on the wheel, determining
the amount of friction upon the rails, and the length of axle between
the wheels; a slight amount of torsion is also produced from any
variation in the diameter of the wheels on the same axle, by any
inequality of load upon each journal, the quality of the brasses, or
the amount of lubrication ]iroportionately, and the strain of the
break-block on one side, because when any of these occur sepa-
rately or jointly, one-half of the extra strain on one journal is
transmitted through the axle to the other, and twisting or weaken-
ing the axle is necessarily produced. To lessen the amount of the
above strain, it is obvious that the wheels should be kept in the
best possible state of repair, so far as equal diameters and true
circubir surfaces are concerned, the wagons or carriages should be
loaded e(|ually on each side, the journals carefully lubricated, and
all break-blocks to bear the same pressure on both wheels of the
same axle. Fifth strain, the constant vibration of the whole axle.
This is more particularly the case, and is accelerated when the
axle is fixed in a rigid, unyielding wheel. Aly experience has
proved that the axles fixed in cast-iron wheels are very much more
liable to deterioration than those in wrought-iron wheels, and the
jar or vibration tending to deteriorate the quality of the iron, by
altering its texture from fibrous to crystalline, is clearly visible in
its effects in several fractures which I have seen. It would appear
that the cast-iron wheel acted more like a hammer on the axle,
and as in the cold-swaging process a gradual breaking-up of the
fibre at the back of the wheel goes on, which is shown by an annu-
lar ring, varying from g-incli to j-inch in breadth, the strength is
com]ili'tely destroyed of this outer portion, and a sudden shock of
the wheel ui)on some point of the road completes the fracture.

Among other causes which contribute to the deterioration of
axles may be mentioned — the practice of throwing cold water on
the axle to cool it, when it has become nearly red iiot for want of
proper lubrication in the journal. With regard to the strain to
ivhicli tlie portion of the axle between the wheels is subjei't, there
can bo no d(uibt if the form of the axle is so proportioned that any
blow transmitted through the wheel is received equally along the
\vh(di' body of the axle, and the sectional strength at each point is
fairly balanced to resist the effect of the blow, the axle will then
be best suited to prevent deterioration at any particular place.
With the view of determining the weakest point of a common
wagon axle under different circumstances, 1 made a few experi-
ments, as follows: —

In the first experiment the power was applied to the flange of
the wheel, and the resistance (as in the case of a railway axle
wlien ruiuiing) at the centre of the opposite wheel; the result was
that the axle began to bend from a straight line 12,1 inches from
the bo^s of that wheel to which the power was applied, and there
is no doubt that if the power had been continued the fracture
would have taken place within the 12j inches.

As a proof of this, in the second experiment, an axle of the
precisely same dimensions and form, on being bent alternately
backwards and forwards (the power being always applied on the
same wheel at opposite points) was broken at the twelfth time of
bending, within G inches of the back of the wheel.

In the third experiment the power and resistance were exactly
in a parallel line to the centre of the axle, and the result, as
might be expected, was a curve of a nearly uniform radius; prov-
ing that although the foi-m of this axle was adapted to receive the
blows of both wheels at precisely the same instant, and to the
same extent (an impossible circumstance in practice), it was not
suited to receive alternate strains or shocks, to which all axles are
subject in ordinary use. The sizes of the axles in Xhe above
three experiments were precisely alike.

In the fourth experiment another axle of the same dimensions
was taken, and reduced at the centre in a lathe to the following
dimensions: — The axle was divided into eight equal spaces from
the back of the wheel to the centre of the axle. Immediately at
the back of the wheel the axle was 4 inches diameter, and the de-
flection was 9'i inches; at the first space the diameter was 3|
inches, and the deflection 8j| inches; at the second space the dia-
meter Sfif inches, and deflection 7 inches; at the third space
the diameter Sy's inches, .ind deflection 5| inches; at the fourth
space the diameter 2}^ inches, and deflection 4-\ inches. Up
to this point the axle maintained a straight form from the back of
the wheel; and from this point to the centre of the axle, as shown
by the deflections, it assumed a fair curve, proving that the axle
was weaker towards the centre than it ought to have been, and
that the first 12 or 14 inches from the wheel having maintained
the straight form was stronger in proportion.

In the fifth experiment the axle was reduced to 2i inches in the
centre, and with power applied similar, as in the last case, the
weakness at the centre was more perceptible.

In the sixth experiment the axle was made of another form,
weaker immediately at the back of the wheel and at the centre.
We had here two bends or curves, with a straight jjortion between
them.

In the seventh there was an improvement upon the sixth, but it
did not realise a perfect balance of strength at the different points.

In the eighth experiment, this was fairly accomplished, the pro-
portion being as follows: — ^From the back of the wheel to the
centre of the axle, the sizes were 4y^in. diameter, 3^ in. dia-
meter, 3 in. diameter, 2| in. diameter, 2^-^ in. diameter, 2| in.
diameter, 2f^ in. diameter, 2i-^ in. diameter, 2'j| in. diameter;
the half-length of the axle being divided as before, into eight
equal spaces.

It must be evident that this can only be an appi'oximate result,
but we found that these proportions enabled us to attain the
nearest approach to a regular curve in bending the axle; and it is
worthy of notice, that when the dimensions of the axle at the
journal and in the boss of the wheel are determined, a calculation
to ascertain the exact proportion between the wlieels seems to
confirm the above statement of dimension in the eighth experi-
ment. The greatest strain to which this portion of the axle is
subject being received at the bottom flange of the wheel, and
transmitted through its radius, the amount of strain which any
portion of the axle has to resist is inversely as its angular distance
from the point of impact is to the radius of wheel. Assuming the
blow on the flange of the wheel to exert a breaking force equal to
102,229 lb., and the diameter of the axle to be 4-71 inches to resist
this blow, then, dividing the axle into four equal spaces to the
centre, the proportionate breaking force at each point would be
as follows: — At the first, 91-,381 lb., relative diameter, 4,59 inches;
at second, 80,697 lb., relative diameter, 4-35 inches; at thii-d,
67,798 lb., relative diameter, 4-11 inches; at fourth, 58-829 lb.,
relative diameter, 3'92 inches. ^Vith regard to engine axles, these
proporti(uis will apply where no circumstances exist of emj)loying
the centre of the axle for transmission of power. The crank axles
of locomotive engines cannot be treated by any of the rules ap-
])licable to straight axles; and our experience would seem to prove
that, even with the greatest care in manufacturing, these axles are
subject to a rapid deterioration, owing to the vibration and jar
which operates with increased severity, on account of their pecu-
liar form. So certain and regular is the fracture, at the corner
of the crank from this cause, that we can almost predict in some
classes of engines the numlier of miles that can be run before
signs of fracture are visible: a certain amount of injury can be
prevented by iiutting ciuinterbalance weights opposite to each
crank, which lessens the vibration very considerably. It is right
to observe in this place, that to some extent the injury to all axles
may be increased, if the wheels in which they are fixed are not

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

377

properly balanced; and I have no doubt tbat a great portion of the
constant vibration to which they are subject may be traced to the
knocking action of the wheel upon the rail, owing to a want of
balance. The question of deterioration of axles arising from the
various causes which I have enumerated, is a very important one
to all railway companies: that some change in the nature of the
iron does take place is a well-established fact, and the investiga-
tion of this is most deserving of careful attention.

I believe it will be found that the change from the fibrous to the
crystalline character is dependent upon a variety of circumstances.
I have collected a few specimens of fractured axles from different
points, which clearly establish the view I have stated. It is im-
possible to embrace in the present paper an exposition of all the facts
on this branch of the subject; but so valuable is the clear under-
standing of the nature of the deterioration of axles, that I am
now registering each axle as it goes from the workshops, and will
endeavour to have such returns of their performances and appear-
ances at different periods as will enable me to judge respecting
their treatment. When it is considered that on the railways of
Great Britain there are about 200,000 axles employed, the advan-
tage of having the best proportions, the best qualities, and the
best treatment for such an important and vital element of the
rolling stock, must be universally acknowledged.

Remarks. — The President said, that Mr. McConnell had expressed a
strong opinion, that a change took place from a fibrous structure in iron to
a crystalline one during the time of its being in use : and it would be satis-
factory if an instance could be pointed out where this change had occurred,
owing to vibration or any other treatment, for he had not been able to
satisfy himself, from many experiments, that any such molecular change took
place. Hammering a piece of hot iron till it is cold produced a hardness
called crystalline ; but the question for consideration was, supposing an iron
axle were annealed by heating to a dull red heat and being allowed to cool
slowly, would the " texture" of that iron undergo any alteration afterwards,
from the vibration of the railway or any piece of machinery they were in
the habit of employing ? He had not been able to detect an instance of the
kind; and in giving evidence before the Iron Girder Bridge Commission, he
mentioned cases of vibration going on from year to year without any sensi-
ble change occurring in wrought or cast-iron. For instance, they hail the
Cornish engine-beam with a strain of 50 1b. per inch, working 8 or 10
strokes per minute for more than 20 years ; and certainly if a molecular
change was introduced by vibration, it ought to be by that continual con-
cussion and vibration, but none was perceived. Again, the connecting-rod
of a locomotive was a piece of iron in a most perplexing situation, for one
having more to do and having the strain changed more frequently it was
difficult to conceive ; and yet he had known the connecting-rod of a loco-
motive engine to vibrate 8 times in a second for several years' regular work,
making more than 200 million times altoj;ether, but the iron retained its
fibrous structure ; and he thought axles could not be suliject to so much
vibration. When, therefore, he found that a connecting-rod did not cliange
its molecular texture, he must say there were good grounds for douliting that
iron changes its state in axles. Then with regard to the experiments made
by Mr. McConnell with a view to ascertain where axles were most exposed
to tension, he could not quite agree with him ; for he subjected tlie wheels
and axles to a slow, steadily increasing pressure, till he bent the axles iu dif-
ferent positions. The results were correct as far as regarded the slow pressure
on the flanches of the wheel under the circumstances of the experiments re-
corded by him, but they were not a faithful representation of what takes
place in practice, for it would be found tbat when the wheels of a carriage
jarred, a violent blow was inflicted on the rail, and the strain on the axle
was toially distinct from a slow prrssurc. He would refer to the experi-
ments made some years ago by Mr. John Gray, on the Hull and Selby Itail-
way, and which were published in the Civil Engineer and Architect s Journalj
or the Mechanics* Magazine, to show how important is the element of time
in the fracture of an axle. He took a round bar of iron 3 feet long and
2 inches diameter, and turned it down in the middle to 1 inch in diameter
for 2 inches in length. He then took another bar, 1 inch in diameter uni-
formly throughout, and he tried the strength of these bars under coiicusnion
and not mere pressure. Now the severest point of strain would evidently
be the middle of the bars where the diameter was the same in both, and
consequently if weights were gradually and quietly laid on, the results would
be alike in both bars ; but when small weights were let fall on them, the bar
1 inch in diameter throughout its whole length was found to be much
stronger than that which was in the main 2 inches and 1 in the middle.
For as time is an element \\hen the resistance of material is concerned, re.
garding the axle as elastic like a piece of india-rubbber, the only particles
that could yield to percussion from the falling weight were tlmse between
the shoulders in the part of the axle that was turned down, but in the case
of the bar an inch in diameter throughout its whole length, the whole of
the particles would yield ; the one being a good spring and the other a very
bad one. It therefore appeared to him that the experiments recorded by
Mr. McConnell, though correct as regarded the position in which he put
them, were not correct as regarded concussion. The axles rarely if ever
broke in the middle, but generally at the end close to the boss of the wheel,
because of the sudden change in the elasticity of the axle at that point ; the

portion of the axle fixed within the boss of the wheel being very rigid whilst
the rest remained elastic, which caused the vibrations to be suddenly checked
at that point. No doubt the plan of weakening axles in the middle had
done good because it made them spring, and in crank axles it relieved the
strain in the cranked part.

Mr. Henry Smith suggested that in the case of bar-iron, the exterior
portion had greater tenacity than the interior or under part ; and the strength
would be more than proportionately diminished where the exterior portion
was cut through. He also referred to some experiments in which he had
cold-hammered fibrous iron till it became crystalline, and the effect produced
corresponded with the description given by Mr. McConnell of the fractured
axles.

Mr. McConnell observed, that he had met with several cases of broken
axles in which a distinct annular space was observable all round the surface
of fracture, that was quite short.grained and appeared changed into a crys-
talline texture, whilst the centre of the axle remained fibrous. He admitted
that his experiments were only approximate, and that he had not put the
strain in the natural way ; but it was almost impossible to do so in conse-
quence of the great trouble and expense that would have accompanied it ;
at the same time the results were proportionate in each case, and the accu-
racy of the experimental results had been confirmed by calculation. With
regard to the axle fitting into the wheel, they now allowed only a very small
shoulder, not exceeding a sixteenth of an inch ; and this shoulder was not
square but tapered, and the boss of the wheel was slightly coned to fit the
shoulder.

Mr. Cowper did not believe that any axle which when broken proved to
be crystalline had ever been filirous in its character.

Mr. Uamsbottom considered that a change took place in the axle from
the effect of mere mechanical action, and his observations tended to confirm
him in that opinion. Some time ago he selected an axle which had not a
very good form of journal, and the end broke off with two blows of a 12 II).
hammer. This axle had for three years been subjict to a strain vertically,
which was reversed at every revolution, and it came off with a crystaUine
fracture. He then tried the part that had been within the boss of the
wheel, which had not been subject to this great strain, and found the
strength was very much greater than that of the journal, for it required 79
blows to break it off, and in that case the fracture was fibrous. A parallel
case might be observed with reference to an ash stick, which if doubled
would break with a fibrous fracture; but if subjected to vibration, however
slight, running through it a great number of times, it would break in a
different mode. He thought the strain on a locomotive connecting-rod was
by no means so great for the sectional area as upon an axle-journal ; and
the latter had two reversed strains for every revolution of the small wheels,
but the connecting-rod had only two for each revolution of the driving-
wheels.

The President said, he was only desirous to put the members on their
guard against being satisfied with less than incontestiljle evidence as to a
molecular change in iron, for the subject was one of serious importance, and
the breaking of an axle had on one occasion rendered il questionable whether
or not the engineer and superintendent would have had a verdict of man-
slaughter returned against them. The investigation hence required the
greatest caution ; and in the present case there was not evidence to show
that the axle was filirous beforehand, but crystalline when it brcke. He
therefore wished the members of the Institution, connected as they were
with the manufacture of iron, to pause before they arrived at the conclusion
that iron is a substance liaide lo crystallise or to a molecular change from
vibration. For his own part, he was now induced to look upon wruught-iron
as literally elastic, l.ke a piece of india-rubl)er ; fur in the case of the
Britannia Tubular Bridge, where they had two lOinch square chains or bars,
each 100 feet in length, it was found that before the tube was raised, the
chains or bars strftc-hed nearly 2 inches in length at each time of lifting, but
resumed their original length when the strain was withdrawn; the same
action being repeated every time the tube was Jifted. He could therefore
only regard these 10-inch bars of iron as analogous to a piece of india-
rubber.

Mr. McConnell said, he had one specimen of an axle which he thought
furnished nearly incontestible evidence of the truth of his position, that a
change took place in the texture of (he iron. One portion of this axle was
clearly fibrous iron, but the other end broke off as shoit as glass. The axle
was taken and hammered under a steam hauimer, then heated again and
I allowed to cool, after which they had to cut it nearly half through and to
hammer it a long time before they could break it.

The President remarked, that this was a case of converse reasoning ; for
it was an instance of a piece of crystalline iron being converted into fibrous
iron. Iron when it was once heated and allojrcd to cool gradually, acquired
a close and fine grain, but became neither crystalline nor fibrous; if cooled
suddenly it acquired a crystalline grain, and if rolled while being cooled it
became fibrous, but he did not think that it underwent any molecular change
from mechanical action after it was cold.

Mr. Henry Smith observed, that throwing cold water upon hot journals
did great injury by crystallising that portion of the axle.

Mr. Slate did not think that any change from a fibrous to a crystalline
texture was produced in iron unless it were strained beyond the hmit of
its elasticity. Some of the pump-rods in Staffordshire which had been in

49

378

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

use for 18 or 20 years, were subject to a strain of 31 tons per square inch ;
and a sliort time ago he liad occasiim to ascertain their actual performance
with reference to this very question, and this not being considered conclusive,
he had made a machine in which he had put an incli square bar subjected to
a constant strain of 5 tons, and an additional varying strain of 21 tons,
alternately, raised and lowered by an eccentric 80 or 90 times per minute,
and this motion was continued for so long a time that he considered it equal
to the effect of 90 years' railway working, but no change whatever was per-
ceptible ; and therefore he was one of those who did not believe in a change
from a fibrous to a crystalline structure in iron. He remembered a case
where a question having arisen as to the manufacture of a certain shaft, it
was agreed to hammer it until it split, as a means of discovering the nature
of the manufacture of the shaft : the result was satisfactory ; and the iron
appeared still fibrous in texture.

The further consideration of the paper was then adjourned, and the Chair-
man said he wished that more of the members had been present at the meet-
ing, and hoped they would attend and assist in the further discussion of the
subject.

The third and last paper read was "On Nasmyth's Patent Girders and
Fire-proof Floors," contributed by Mr. S. Lloyd, of Wednesbury. The
paper was illustrated by drawings and models. A discussion followed the
reading of the paper, and after a vote of thanks to the President, the meeting
adjourned.

SUPPLY OF WATER TO THE METROPOLIS.

On Monday evening-, the 19th inst., I attended a meeting at
the Institute of British Architects, to hear a lecture delivered by
the Very Rev. Dr. Buckland, Dean of Westminster, on "Artesian
Wells."

This lecture was for the avowed purpose of proving that it is
impossible to procure from the chalk formation, situated beneath
tlie London clay, sufficient water to supply the requirements of
the inhabitants of London; and that the level of the water in
wells under London, deriving their supply from this service, has
been lowering for several years past.

In numerous instances, the lowering of the level of the water in
deep wells beneath Loudon, is so well attested, as also the fact,
not alluded to by Dr. Buckland, that water thus procured contains
a large quantity of alkaline bi-carbonates, and is consequently un-
fitted for general domestic use, — that much good may result from
widely diffusing this information.

The explanation offered by Dr. Buckland, and referred to by
him to account for this fact, is contained in his Bridyewater Treu-
titiP, entitled 'Geology and Mineralogy considered with respect to
Natural Theology," — in which it is asserted that floods, evapora-
tioii, the support of animal and vegetable bodies, and springs sup-
plying rivers, will account for the consum])tion of the rain falling
upon the earth's surface, as shown in the following quotation,
page 557, edition 1837: —

" The great instrument of communication between the surface of the seo,
and that of the land, is the atmosphere, by means of which a perpetual sup-
ply of fresh water is derived from an ocean of salt water, through the simple
process of evaporation. By this process water is incessantly ascending in
the state of vapour, and again descending in the form of dew and rain.

Of the water thus supplied to the surface of the land a small portion only
returns to the sea directly in seasons of flood tbroagli the channels of rivers.
A second portion is re-absorbed into the atmosphere by evaporation. A
third portiou enters into the composition of animal and vegetable bodies.
A fourth portion descends into the strata, and is accumulated in their inter-
stices into subterranean sheets and reservoirs of water, from which it is dis-
charged gradually at the surface, in the form of perennial springs that form
the ordinary supply of rivers."

If the above quotation contained a true exjilanation of the con-
sumption of rain falling ui)on the earth's surface, it would follow
that no water found its way by subterraneous drainage to the sea,
and that no large amount of water could be procured at consider-
able depths beneath the earth's surface.

This conclusion is in direct opposition to every day's experience,
as likewise to that of all other authorities. In a note at the end
of the first proposition, before quoted, from Dr. Buckland's iJ/'/o'^e-
vtite7- Treatise, the following remark appears: —

" It is stated by M. Arago, that one-third only of the water which falls in
rain, within the basin of the Seine, flows by that river into the sea : the
remaining two-thirds either return to the atmosphere by evaporation, or go
to the support of vegetuhle and animal life, or find their way into the sea by
subterraneous passages. " — Annuairepourl'An. 1835.

From this it will be seen, that M. Arago, unlike Dr. Buckland,
accounts for the disappearance from the eartli of a large body of

rain by subterraneous drainage into the sea; and all who choose
may ascertain the fact that large bodies of fresh water are dis-
charged from the fissures of the chalk formation into the shingle
and sand that covers the sea-coast, and even into the bed of the
sen itself, in the vicinities of Dover, Folkstone, New Romuey,
Brighton, AVeymouth, and other places.

This water may be traced at various places along the coast,
issuing in large quantities (doubtless where the greatest fractures
in the chalk occur), between high and low tide; and the large
amount which must be discharged in this manner will be apparent
from the fact, that the chalk formation, when it appears near the
surface, is full of small fissures (caused possibly by the action of
frost), which, communicating with larger ones, rapidly absorb and
carry off all the rain falling upon it. This fact must be familiar
to every observing person; Dr. Buckland himself dwelt upon it
in his lecture. It is only wlien the surface of the ground is se-
verely frozen, and a rapid fall of rain follows, or when a sudden
thaw of snow takes place, that a flood is found in rivers fed en-
tirely from the drainage of a chalk district ; the heaviest rains, at
other times, is absorbed as it fails. This fact is alluded to in
Conybeare and Phillips's ' Geology,' where it is stated, "All the
rain and snow which fall upon chalk percolate downwards to the
base, where the water is stopped by a subsoil of blue clay, and that
occasions it to accumulate in the chalk, until it rises to such a
height as doth enable it to flow over the surface of the adjoining
land."

In the south of England the area of the chalk formation, almost
bare or only slightly covered with porous layers, consists of 4,117
square miles, as measured upon Knipe's geological map. The ave-
rage annual depth of rain falling upon this area of chalk country
will be certainly under than over rated at 20 inches ; and allowing
that as much as one-half of this quantity either finds its way to
the rivers, or is consumed in supporting vegetation and evapora-
tion, still 10 inches in depth remains to percolate down through
the fissures of chalk, till arrested by the impervious clay which
lies beneath; and it accumulates in fissures, or faults, to such a
height as to occasion sufficient hydraulic pressure to cause its exit
by subterraneous drainage at the sea-coast.

This depth of 10 inches of rain per annum percolating through
an area of 4.,117 square miles, is equal to a supply of 1,595 (one
thousand five hundred and ninety-five) 7nillions nf yallons of water
for every day in the year; and this quantity is the least which must
find its way by subterraneous drainage to the sea-coast.

If the amount of water before-named as daily running use-
lessly into the sea, could not be clearly demonstrated by an appeal
to facts and figures, such a statement would hardly appear credible,
yet is nevertheless the case: the largest portion of this water is
probably discharged through large fissures, or cavities, which in
many places may be distinctly traced.

Borings in the valley of the Colne, prove that these fissures vary
from 2 feet to 12 feet in depth, producing when tapped enormous
quantities of water, wliich immediately flow to the surface: and
when it is remembered that tlie chalk formation to the north-west
of Watford is in some places 900 feet above the sea, or 738 feet
above the valley of the Colne, this fact will not appear at all sur-
prising.

From the foregoing, it will be perceived that more water may be
expected to be found at some places in the chalk formation than at
others, — and this, in fact, is found to be the case: it is necessary
to intercept the fissures in the chalk to collect large bodies of
water, for solid chalk being almost impervious, will allow but little
to pass througli it. Thus it is doubtless owing to the density and
closeness of the interstices of the chalk underlying the London
clay, caused probably by the weight of the clay itself, that the
lowering of the level of the water in many wells in the London
basin is to be accounted for.

It also appears, from chemical analysis, that the water procured
from under the London clay is partly replenished with sea-water
by means of the fissures of the chalk formation, which to the east
of London communicate with the sea, — for the principal constitu-
ent of sea-water is found in that procured from under the London
clay.

'I'he above narration will show that the theory laid down by Dr.
Buckland, and before quoted, cannot be accepted as the true ex-
])lanatiiin of the falling of the level of the water in so many deep
wells in the London basin; but tliat it is to be accounted for
simply from the fact that the fissures in the chalk underlying the
London clay are not sufficiently large to admit water into the basin
as rapidly as it is pumped away.

It is also clear that by means of a well, or wells, sunk in a suit-
able locality, combined with the driving of adits to intercept the

1849.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

379

fissures in the chalk, an enormous body of water may be collected
at a high level, and made available for practical use. This water,
at present, is not used either for navigation or manufacturing pur-
poses, but runs uselessly by subterraneous drainage to the sea.

I shall in a future number again allude to this subject, as I find,
to say all I could wish, at present, would take up more space than
1 could reasonably ask for.

Samvel Collett Homeksuam.

19, Buckingham-street, Adelphi,
November 2itli, 1849.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

Nov. 5. — Earl de Grey, President, in the Chair.

At the opening meeting of this Society, the fallowing gentlemen were
elected honorary and correipondiiig members : — The Sigiior Antolini, archi-
tect, Prof, of the Academy of Fine Arts at Bologna ; the Abate Antonio
Magrini, and the Signer Miglinranza, architect, of Vicenza ; the Signer
Vantini, architect, of Brescia ; .Mynheer J. B. Weenink, architect, director of
the Academy at the Hague. — The decease of Herr de Lassaulx, of Cebleniz,
honorary and corresponding member, W. T. Pocock and John Woolley, fel-
lows, during the recess, was annouDced. Numerous donations to the Library
were laid on the table.

The President, in addressing the meeting, alluded to a statement which
had been made some months back as to the powers of the Senate of the
University of London to institute examinations for certificates of special
proficiency in architecture, as well as in other professions. By a communi-
cation from that body it appears that the new regulation will not at present
include architecture.

"Remarks on the earlier and later Gothic Architecture of Germany."
By the Uev. Dr. Whewell, Master of Trinity.

Dr. Whewell stated that he came forward hut as an amateur. To deter-
mine tlte progress of styles, to trace their growth, seemed to him an impor-
tant object, and to aid in this it was that he strove. Deductions from the
exandnation of existing monuments would not of themselves suflice, — these
must be confirmed by reference to history. He had already put forth the
theory, founded mainly on the churches of the Rhine, that the leading
features of Gothic architecture had grown out of the necessities of structure,
and his object on this occasion was to carry his theory a little further, treat-
ing of the tendencies which had changed the character of buildings in the
later Gothic period. He should he assisted in this by the works of some
receni German writers, who had pursued the investigation to a considerable
extent. The rev. Doctor then proceeded to discriminate what he considered
the three important principles concerned in the formation of the Gothic
style — namely, the principle of frame-work ; the principle of tracery, — which
he thought quite distinct from frame-work; and the principle of wali-work;
but the inquiry was sufficiently subtle to prevent us from attempting to
convey now a general notion of it in a few words : we may perhaps be able
to refer to it at greater extent hereafier. He spoke at considerable length
of what he called the principle of upward growth. Speaking of unconstruc-
tive forms of the later Gothic, Dr. Whewell said that the outer portion of
Strasburgh spire would not hold itself together ; the joints, as he had ascer-
tained, vvere veitical, and could not stand ; but there were internal ribs
rightly constructed, which really did the work.

At the close of the meeting a letter was read from Mr. Mocatta, asking
advice as tKi the means of ridding a house of a great and Inci'easing nuisance,
the domestic ant. The annoyance is one of great n\agnltudein London, and
applications are constantly heing made to us to learn the best mode of
getting rid of them. — The Dean of Westminster thought poison the only
remedy. — Several members said they had failed in all endeavours to eradi-
cate them.

Nov. 19. — Thomas Bellamy, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

The Very Rev. Dr. Buckland, Dean of Westminster, delivered a lecture
this evening, on the subject of " Artesian Wells." There was a very nume-
rous attendance of mendiers of the Institute, and several strangers were
present by invitation, among whom we observed Lord Ehrington, M.P., Mr.
Mangles, M. P., Mr. R. Stephenson, M.P., Mr. Stanford, M.P, Sir F. Dwarris,
Mr. G. Kennle, and Mr. A. Goldsmid.

Dr. BucKLAND commenced by observing, that the architecture of the
globe was a subject which he thought ought not to be foreign to the consi-
deration of mem'>ers of an architectural institute, for he must humbly sub-
mit that no architect could perfectly understand his profession unless he
had acquired some knowledge of the materials with which he had to deal;
and he hellnved no one would deny, that had their ancestors known as much
as they did now touching the duraliilily of various kinds of stone employed
in the construction of ecclesiastical and castellated buildings, they would
not have to deplore the ruin of so many of those edifices. It would be bis

dnty to-night to direct their attention to the architecture of that particular
portion of the earth which they themselves inhabited — a subject possessing
an Interest literally of vital Importance. It was, as had been proved by the
events of the last six months, a question of life or death to thousands and
tens of thousands in this great metropolis, whether they should have the
means of obtaining an abundant supply of fresh water. It was, unfor-
tunately, too notorious that the supply of water was at the present time
awfully defective, and the last month had been fertile in schemes of various
kinds for supplying that defect. He would not now enter Into the relative
merits of those schemes, hut he would explain to them — so far as It was
ascertained— the structure of that portion of the earth on which they dwelt
in this great metropolis. He had affixed the term "Artesian Wells" to the
sul'ject on which he had to address them. In his Bridijewater Treatise,
which was published 13 years ago, he had written a chapter on this subject,
and he might say that the result of his observations in England had been
entirely confirmed by the practical experience of some of the most eraineiit
scientific men in Germany and France, lucluding M. Arogo. It had been as-
serted that sufficient water might be obtained in this metropolis, by Arte-
sian wells, to aflTord an ample supply to ten such cities as London; but he
would venture to affirm, that though there were from 2o0 to 300 so-called
Artesian wells In the metropolis, there was not one real Artesian well
within three miles of St. Paul's. An Artesian well was a well that was
always overflowing, either from its natural source or from an artificial tube;
and when the overflowing ceased, it was no longer an Artesian welL 20 or
30 years ago there were many Artesian wells in the neighbourhood of the
metropolis, — namely, in the gardens of the Horticultural Society, in the
gardens of the Bishop of London at Fulham, and in Brentford and its vici-
nity; but the wells which were now made by boring through the London
clay were merely common wells. He had heard it said that Artesian wells
might he made in any part of London, because there was a supply of water
which would rise of its own accord; but he could state, with regard to the
water obtained to supply the fountains in Trafalgar-square, that it did not
rise within 40 feet of the surface, it was pumped up by means of a steam-
engine ; and the requisite supply of water could be obtained at a much less
cost from the Chelsea waterworks. Indeed, the same water was pumped up
over and over again. No less than 18,000/. had been spent upon an Artesian
well which had been made on Southampton-common, but the water never
had risen within 80 feet of the surface, and never would rise any higher.
The supply of water formerly obtained from the so-called Artesian wells in
London had been greatly dirulnished by the sinking of new wells. Many of
the large brewers in the metropolis who obtained water from these wells
had been greatly inconvenienced by the failure of the supply; and he had
received a letter from a gentleman connected with a brewer's estahllbhment,
stating that the water In their well was now 188 feet below the surface,
while a short time ago it ustd to rise to within 93 feet of the surface. In-
deed, the large brewers were actually on the point of bankruptcy with re-
gard to a supply of water. There were, as he had said, more than 250 Arte-
sian wells, falsely so-called, In London, one-half of which had broken down;
and those from which water was obtained were only kept in action at an
enormous expense. The average depth at which water could now be ob-
tained from so-called Artesian wells in London was GO feet helow the Trinity
high water-mark; and he believed that in 20 or 25 years more, water would
not be obtained at a hss depth than 120 feet. This was, as he had said, a
subject of vast importance to the Inliabitants of the metropolis, who had not
now a supplv of water equal to one-fourth of what was required for their
ordinary use. The rev. Doctor, after going into a lengthy and elaborate
geological description of the soil in the metropolis and the neighbouring dis-
tricts, illustrating his observations with well-executed and interesting plans
and sections, proceeded to inquire by what means a sufficient supply of
water could be obtained for the Inhabitants of the metropolis .' He consi-
dered that an ample supply might he obtained from the Thames in the neigh-
bourhood of Hetdev, after' that river had been fed by the Loddon, the Ken.
nett, and other tributary streams The water might be conveyed to London
bv an open aqufduct of sufficient depth, parallel with the Great Western
Railway; and, as It would have a fall of three feet, it would flow without the
aid of any englneeiing works, and might be brought to a reservoir in a valley
north of Paddington. It would there be at a level of 103 feet above high-
water mark, and at that level two-thirds of the inhabitants of London
might, by means of an engine, be supplied with water at high-pressure. The
rev. gentleman concluded hy saying that upon careful consideration, this
plan appeared to him the most feasible that had yet lieen suggested for afford-
ing to all the Inhabitants of this metropoUs an abundant supply of pure
water; and he sat down amid loud and general applause.

After a few words from Mr. Clutterbuck, in explanation of some of the
sections which had beea prepared by him,

Mr. TiTE said, that, as a member of the Institute, be felt bound to tender
his thanks to the very rev. Dean for the Interesting paper with which he Lad
favoured them to-night. This was not a mere question with regard to the
nature of Artesian wells. He had not been aware before he heard it from
the rev. Dean that an Artesian well was one that was constantly overflowing;
but of this there could be no doubt — that what were called Artesian wells
required frequent deepening, and were a source of constant expense. He
sincerely hoped that the Government would take up this question. It ought
to be looked upon as a national question; for a large city like this, con-
taining so immense a population, ought not to be left dependent for the sup-

49*

380

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND AUCHITEcrS JOURNAL.

[Decembeb

ply of so important and necessary an article as water upon private companies
or individual speculators. He would not express any opinion as to the
means by which a sufficient supply of water should he ohtained; hut he he-
li.'i-ed that a public discussion of this nature would be attended with very
beueficial results.

Mr. It. Stei'hensok expressed his gratification at the paper which had
been read by the rev. Doctor, and observed, that though he did not wish to
Rive any opinion as to the mode in which the rev. gentleman's views should
be carried out, he must say that be had some doubts as to the practicability
of the plan he had suggested. He thought that a measure which might tend
to obstruct the navigation of so important a river as the Thames should not
be decided upon without most careful consideration; but the obstruction of
thewatersof the tributary streams would not be open to the same objection.
He quite agreed with the rev. Doctor that it could not he expected that any-
thing like an adequate supply of water could be provided for the metro-
polis from Artesian wells.

Mr. HoMERSHAM cxprcsscd his opinion, founded upon experience which
he had had in Watford and the neighbourhood, that a sufficient quantity of
water might be ohtained by means of Artesian wells to meet the wants of
the inhabitants of the metropolis.

Mr. \V. HoR.NE said that, as the owner of an Artesian well in the vicinity
of Goswellstieet, his experience tended to confirm the Dean's views as to
the inadequacy of such wells as a source of supply to the people of London.
It had been found necessary to deepen the well twice, and its working had
been found very expensive, as the pipes and joints were constantly getting
out of order.

Mr. Dickenson had had a good deal of experience with regard to Arte-
sian wells in the valley of the Coin. He had bored wells in four different
places to a considerable depth, and in none of them did he find the water
rise to thesurface, although it rose somewhat above the level of ailjaceiit
springs.

A gentleman said he knew that an arrangement had been made by some of
the brewers who obtained their supplies of water from what were called
Artesian wells that they should not brew on the same days, in order that
they might all have a sufficient quantity of water.

After a few words from Dr. Buckland in reply,

Mr. Stanford expressed his thanks to the Council of the Institute for
having allowed him the opportunity of attending a discussion in whicli, as a
mend]er of the Legislature, be felt great interest. He thought they were
much indebted to the very rev. Dean for the interesting information be had
afforded them on the subject. The question was one in which his (Mr.
Stanford's) constituents took much interest, and he hoped it would receive
the attentive consideration of Parliament.

On the motion of the Chairman, a vote of thanks to Dr. Buckland was
unanimously carried, and, the rev. Doctor having briefly acknowledged the
compliment, the proceedings terminated.

SOCIETY OF ARTS, LONDON.

Nov. 14.— \V. TooKE, Esq., F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

"On a neitt Princijtle for Suspension Bridges and Landing Piers." By
Mr. H. H. Russell.

The paper commences with some preliminary remarks on the origin and
adoption of suspension bridges, which would appear to be of great antiquity,
Humboldt and other travellers having seen them in uncivilised countiies
constructed of liark, reeds, and bamboo-cane, &c. slung across wide and dan-
gerous chasms, and used for passenger-traffic. In Thibet and China they
have been found sufficiently strong to enable beasts of burden, and men with
loads and palanquins, to pass over in safety. The application of this mode
of coristructing bridges in our country was first made by Captain Samuel
Brown, R.N., in what he termed his " Chain Cable Bridges," and was first
suggested to bim by the rope-bridge of Penipe. Bridges of this description
were constructed, and others proposed, by Telford, Mr. Tierney Clerk, and
others. The success of these bridges gave so great a stimulus, as to cause
their introduction into almost every civilised country in Europe; and tl'.eir
partial destruction has led to various arrangements for increasing their sta-
bility, especially with a view of arresting tlie undulations which niay be
excited in them. The principle adopted by Mr. Russell was first suggested
to him by witnessing the rigidity of two lines of cobwebs crossing a street
in the direction of the main-chains of the bridge; a third, running in a
nearly horizontal direction un<lerneatb, was supported at intervals from the
U|iper two in the one spandrail, and in the other had a circular web, of
large diniensiims, also stayed in all directions to the upper and lower webs;
and a spider was observed to cross the lower cord withont causing sensible
deflection. The model and drawings exhibited were of a bridge with jners;
the main-chains are arranged so as to pass over the top and uniler the bottom
of the outer piers ; thus presenting two systems of chains, having tiieir ex-
tremities fastened at different points. By this arrangement the structure
will, it is conceived, he nioie rigid, and the disturbance to which the bridge
is subject less felt.

The disturbances to nhich chain bridges are subject are of two kinds—

undulatory and oscillatory. The proposed plan prevents, it is conceived, the
undulation, by relieving the summit of the piers from a great part of all
strain, and throwing it upon their lower parts, where it is resisted by the
roadway in the direction of the greatest strength. The oscillatory disturb-
aiues, or those from side to side, are considered to be practically annihilated
by reason of the smaller curvature of the chains; and the more equal distri-
bution of the load renders any local pressure less effective in causing dis-
turbance; anil additional facility is aflforded for the introduction of stays
between the chains, so as to equalise to a greater extent the tension and
strength of the parts. The attachment of chains to the upper and lower
points of the piers diminish, it is conceived, the tendency to general oscil-
lation, while the alternation of long and short suspension-rods, and the
steadying of the longer rods by passing between links of the lower chains,
must almost entirely obviate local oscillation. Mr. Russell is of opinion,
that, hy the mode suggested, a counteraction to any passing weight is ob-
tained by the lower portion of the catenary curve being supported on the
pier through which it passes. The masonry above supporting the upper
chain, acts so as to prevent deflection of the upper chain, unless the lower
chain or pier should ascend, which is impossible, for the weight upon the
suspension-rods is applied to both piers, thereby affording rigidity against
action upwards.

Nuv. 21.— T. Webster, Esq., F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

The Assistant Secretary read a paper " On Flexible Breakwaters and
Li:jhlhouses." By Mr. W. H. Smith, C.E.

The paper, after alluding to the losses and amount of property annually
sacrificed on our coasts, referred to various eft'orts that have been made, by
means of floating breakwaters, to effect an economical harrier to the sea.
The peculiar principle of Mr. Smith's proposed breakwater is to give elas-
ticity to the structure. The models exhibited were formed of a long wall
of open piles, divided into separate sections, each having an independent
motion at the top, but secured and pivoted at the bottom, on the screw-pile.
The braces (with counterbalance weights at the centre), extending seawards
from ench side, are also affixed by the screw-pile, "Ihe sections, on being
struck by the sea, yield to it, thereby eluding violence, and the waves passing
tlirougb the close grating are disseminated. The structure recoils when it
becomes in equilibrium with the waves, and on its return still further cuts it
up. Exceptijig in a storm, tlie breakwater is comparatively motionless. The
author conceives it applicable in every situation to the formation of harbours.
The m.iterial employed may he either wood or iron. The same principle of
giving elasticity is proposed to he applied to lighthouses, whatever the varia-
tion of circumstances as regards depth of water, situation, &c., — the object
beiiig to obtain the greatest possible strength and least possible shock from
the force of the sea or wind draft.

ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS.

Nov. 12.— John Cay, Esq., F.R.S.E., President, in the Chair.

The President, on taking the Chair, opened the session with the follow-
ing address : — As the time had now come when he must vacate the chair to
which the Society had done him the honour to elect bim, he could not do so
without adverting to the interesting session which they were that night to
wind up. They bad had a great many excellent communications connected
with the practical arts, both of chemistry and mechanics, as the prize-list and
models on the table abundantly testified. He must advert, in a particular
manner, to the papers of Mr. Buchanan on the Strength and Strain of Mate-
rials. He was sure that these papers were of the highest importance to
practical engineers, and that every member who had heard them must agree
V. ith bim in thinking that tlie thanks of the Society were especially due to
Mr. Buchanan for his vyluable communications. He had to deplore the loss
of several members hy death duiing the last session. He could not but
name Dr. S. Hibbert Ware, a distinguished naturalist, and a member of the
Society from its commencement. Their ranks were continually thinning
from various causes, and hence the necessity for continued recruiting to keep
the Society in healthful woiking order. It was manifestly the interest of
this country, he said — a couniry which depended so much upon its me-
chanical elliciency — to promote and encourage improvements in the useful
nrta, more especially as, from the report of the Society of Arts of England,
to which he referred, it appeared that Ihe French are treading very closely
upon our heels. The Americans, too, he understood, were now spinning
and weaving their own cotton, and that to such an extent as to give no
little anxiety to those great £ut;lish lowns which depended so entirely for
their prosperity upon this article of commerce. He had, however, no fear
for our 15ri(ish machinists — they had long stood unrivalled for their me-
chanical ingenuity, and he did not for a moment doubt that Krilish skill
aud British enterprise would still maintain their wonted superiority. He
called Ihe utienlion of the Society to two most important opporlunilies for
the exhibition of mechanical skill and research, which would soon occur —
namely, the great exhibition to be opened to all nations in London, under
the patronage of H R.H. Prince Albert, and the meeting of the British
Association at Kdiuburgh next year, and expressed a hope that the mem-
bers of this Society would avail themselves of these occasions for distin-
guishing tiiemselves. In quitting the Chair, he thought it his duty to
state that his experieucc of (her coustaul atleniioa to the interests of the

lol9."l

THE CIVIL EXGINEER AND ARCHITECTJ'S OURNAL*

381

Society, warranted bim in stating that the thanks of the Society were most
especially due to Iheir excellent Secretary, to whose unwearied and labo-
rious exertions they owed so very much ; also to their Treasurer and
liditor of Trnnsaflions.

The following conin)uni<*ations were made : —

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.

"At the request of the Council an Experimental Exposition teas given, con-
taining his concluding obset'vations on the ^Strength of Materials* as applic-
able to the construction of Cast or If'rought-Iron Bridges, and on the Con-
way and Britannia Tubular Bridges" (Part I.) By George BncHANAN,
Esq., F.R.S.E., late Pres. R.S.S.A.

In this exposition, Mr. Buchanan, after apologising for the length to
which he had been imperceptibly drawn in these comniunicalions, com-
tnenced by recapitulating the general principles which had formerly been
laid down regarding the tensile and compressive strains of materials, and,
in addition to the results of former experiments, made at Ihe request of
the Society, on the stones from different quarries in the neighbourhood,
gave now the results of others which had since been carefully made on the
harder materials of Caithness and Arbroath pavement, along with while
marble and whinstone, as follows — viz. :^

Tensile. Compressive.

Whinslont 14691b 827015.

Arbroath pavement 1261 7H84

Caithness do 1064 fi4a3

Warble 723 6431

In all these experiments the peculiar nature of the two strains is dis-
tinctly exhibited ; the specimens exposed to the tensile strain showing a
clean fracture and no fragments ; those exposed to the compressive being
generally crushed to powder, and the fragments flying in all directions
by lateral divergence ; and generally, when any considerable fragment
remains, showing the appearance of a pyramid from which the sides of Ihe
square had been broken— a form which has also been observed in the com-
pression of cast-iron.

In regard to the transverse strength, he repeated the principles and
general rule for calculation formerly explained by adopting what he termed
a unit of strength, which differs in each material ; but being once deter-
mined by actual experiment, affords a (?a/«m for calculating the stiensth
of that material in every case, whatever be the dimensious of the masses
acted on. This unit expresses the strength of a cubic inch of the material
— i.e., a bar 1 inch square, supported on bearings 1 inch apart, and loaded
in the middle till it breaks. The strength of such a unit for cast-iron had
been given on a former evening at 11 tons. In regard to timber, he had
himself made various experiments on Memel fir, and had found the unit
4,0001b. Oak and beech, by other experimenters, was found 6,000 lb. ;
ash, 8,0001b.

In regard to the tranverse strength of stones, few experiments, he said,
had been made on our building materials, although it was a strain they
were much subjected to in stairs, balconies, covers of conduits, &c. He
proposed, therefore, to try several specimens which were now before the
meeting — viz., Hailes pavement, Craigleith, and Arbroath. Each of
these specimens was 3 inches thick, 9 inches broad, laid flatways and sup-
ported at each end between two upright pillars, Ihe distance between
the bearings being exactly 3 feet. These specimens were loaded by
weights successively laid on a scale hung from the centre of Ihe pavement,
until it broke. The Hailes was first tried, and, after carrjing succes-
sively 4 cwt. and 5 cwt, for a little time, at last it gave way with 7 cwt.
10 lb. A specimen of the same rock and dimensious previously tried gave
nearly the same result, being 7J cwt. The Craigleith carried considerably
more. After bearing 7 cwt. and 8 cwt. for some time, it gave way at last
with 10^ cwt. The Arbroath pavement was found still greatly ahead even
of the Craigleith. After carrying 12 cwt. and 14 cwt. for some time, it
went on bearing 16J cwt. This it bore for a short interval ; and while an
additional weight was m the act of being put on it gave way. These
experiments are important, and appeared to excile much interest. From
these the unit of strength is easily calculated.

The transverse strength and the forms of cast-iron girders for spanning
wide openings were formerly explained, and the application of malleable
iron in the form of hollow tubes or girders ; and, connected with this
subject, he explained a plan which had lately been propossd by I\lr.
Beardmore, C.E., London, who had favoured him with the results of some
interesting experiments made by him. The plan consisted in constructing
tire-proof or other floors by girders, consisting merely of thin plates of
sheet-iron running parallel to each other at intervals, like ordinary joists
resting on the walls at each end ; these plates strengthened and united to
angle-irons on the top, and to a thin plate below, running Ihe whole way
between the girders. The interval between them is filled up with a mass
of concrete, the use of which is chiefly to keep the thin plate girders in
their place, so that being incapable of bending, the full effect of the section
of Ihe iron is obtained, whereby the strength of such flouring, considering
the thinness of the metal employed, is remarkable. In one experiment,
where the girder consisted of sheet-iron. No. 14 gage, or ^'^ih of an inch
thick and 13 inclies deep, and placed 13 inches apart, and the length or
span between ilie walls or bearings :!3 feet — also the total seciinniil area
Gj inches, while that of the concrete was 331 inches. This was loiideil
8,000 lb., which is nearly doulile the weight of any number of persons
tlial could have room to stand on the beam, and only ilcSected ^ inch.
With 12,000 lb. it deflected about Jim h, which was considered the proba-

ble limit of safe deflection. With 13,670 1b. it deflected 1 inch; it was
not loaded farther, hut the calculated breaking weight was 25,0ii0 lb. Mr.
Buchanan then showed a model of a floor on this principle, consisting of
the thinnest tin-plate iron gilders, 3 feet long, 1 ^ inch deep, and 2 inches
apart, and the spaces filled-in with plaster of Paris. Even this slender
material carried with safely a person standing in the middle, and gave
way with 3 cwt., chiefly owing to the joints in the bottom plate not being
soldered, hut merely laid over.

In regard to the application of hollow girders, or tubes, and the won-
derful discoveries on this subject which the progress of engineering works
had recently brought to light in Ihe construction of the Conway and Bri-
tannia Tubular Bridges, he had formerly given a particular account of
these, and I ad only now further to add, that he had the pleasure recently
of visiting these structures, and nas in every respect highly gratified with
the result, and with Ihe progress and state of the works, which were all
pointed out to him and explained in the most litjeral manner by Mr. Edwin
Clarke, the very able and accomplished engineer on whom the active
charge of the principal department in this undertaking had been devolved
by Mr. Stephenson.

The Conway Bridge, as we know, has been long since finished, and the
trains on the Chester and Holyhead Railway are seen daily passing and
repassing. It ceases already to be any longer a wonder in the neighbour-
hood, yet the stranger pauses to gaze with admiration on this extraordinary
triumph of science and engineering skill, as Ihe train enters the tube, and
again emerges under Ihe walls of the magnificent remains of Conway Castle.
In passing through the tube the sound of the train is peculiar, but not
greatly louder than in ordinary tunnels. No sensible tremor or vibration
is expurienced, and Ihe heaviest trains, when observed externally, do not
produce any visible deflection. The line of the under surface of the tube
is quite horizontal. The upper surface rises with a gentle curve towards
the centre. The under surface had also when constructed a slight rise or
camber in Ihe centre of about seven or eight inches; but when the snp-
poits were removed from beneath, leaving it siamling on Ihe two extremi-
ties, it sunk in the middle by its owu'weight into a straight line, and this
exactly as was intended by the engineers; showing the accuracy of Ihe
principles and data on which such nice calculations could previously be
made of Ihe probable deflection, and this chiefly from Ihe experiments on
the model lube by Mr. Fairbaini, described ou a former evening.

The Britannia Bridge, to which he next proceeded, is a still greater
work even than Ihe Conway, and connected with many circumstances cal-
culated to impart interest to this structure, and everything connected with
it. The curiosity and wonder excited by the famous Bridge of Suspensioa
over llie iSIenai Straits were great: and he well recollected visiting this
work during its progress, and the vast operations, as they were then con-
sidered, of fabricating, connecting, and finally lifting the enormous chains
of which it is composed, each of which atier all, hardly exceeded 100
tons, between rock and rock, and the central portion, which alone had to
be lifted by one purchase, not above 30 or 40 tons. The principle of sus-
pensiou also was not quite new, but had previously been exemplified in
structures of considerable magnitude; still this was considered, and
justly, an astonishing etiort of skill, and remains a monument of the genius
of Telford. What must we think, then, of the structure now in progress,
and already seen partly spanning Ihe same Straits, which is not only new
in principle, and untried before Ihe great experiment of the Conway, but
where Iht- entire bridge itself, nearly 2,000 tons in weight, requires not
ouly to lie floated en ilie water from the place of its construction, but Iheu
raised nioie than 100 feet in perpendicular altitude in one mass, and by
one mighty purchase, to its seal ou the lop of the towers prepared for it.
What extraordinary strength of materials — of chains, bolts, bars, and con-
nections, does not this imply ! What amazing resources of nieclianical
power and comliinalion in the lifting machinery ! M'hat cou=umniate
arrangements, in lauuching the gigantic mass into the truuljied waters of
these Straits, and steering it with safely to Us destination I All these cir-
cumstances lend to raise a singular degree of interest in this structure,
and Ihe operations connected with it, and the result full) realised his anti-
cipations, of which, however, he could only give but a faint idea by de-
scription.

The first view which the traveller obtains is in crossing the Straits by Ihe
present Suspension Bridge. Looking about a mile to the westward, the
towers of the Britannia Bridge are .seen rising with imposing efl'ect — the
centre one, as it were, from out of Ihe water — Ihe two exterior ones from
the edge of the waters, and the terminal pillars or abutments on the top of
Ihe high ground ou eacii side. But the object to which the attention above
all becomes riveted, is the appearance of an extended wall or roadway
spanning the 460 feet opening between the Biitauuia lower and the Angle-
sea shore. This is the first of the four lubes which has been raised to its
elevation of 103 feet above the waters. This is, in fact, The Bridge,
standing without any appearance of support, and totally uulike any of the
great works of this kind which ba\e hitherto formed Ihe pride of the
architect and engineer. No more the noble arch rising, as we often see, so
magnificently troni the level of Ihe opposite shoies — nur the light and ele-
gant curve of suspension hanging witli such regular and airy proportions
between the lofty towers ou each side, but a figure perfectly horizontal
and nearly rectilineal, spanning the opening and resting on the opposite
towers — a figure certainly unequal to the others in beauty, but yet raising
in the mind a sensation irresistibly striking, as exhibiting on such a mag-
nificent scale the successful development of a new, granu, and simple idea
lu mechanical science.

382

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

QDecembeb,

Mr. Buchanan Ihen procepdeil to give an interesting description of the
situation of the bridge, the romantic shores of the estuary, the extraordi-
nary phenomena of its tides rushing in from the great sea at either extre-
mity, and producing, by tiie concurrence of waters and other circum-
stances, peculiar anomalies, and, al)ove all, currents, running often at the
rate of seven and eight mdes an hour ; and lastly, the extraordinary and
exciting operations connected with the launching of the first great tube,
Hnd floating it through those waters and currents; the difficulties, the
dangers, and the singular incidents which occurred during the brief and
trying moments of this extraordinary enterprise, but which, by the long-
matured aud perfect arrangements previously made, ail ended in depositing
it .-afely on its site between the piers.

The next great operation to be described was that of the lifting of the
lube, but the description of which, owing to the important business before
liie Society this evening, of distributing the annual prizes to the successful
competitors for Inventions anil C'oinmnuications, was necessarily deferred
to another evening. In lonclusicjn, particular reference was made to the
great work which is now preparing by Mr. Edwin Clarke, with Mr. Ste-
p.ienson's sanction aud advice, being a history and description of the Con.
way and Britannia Tubular Bridges, with all the operations, and Illus-
trated by very Dumerous drawin-s, on a large scale, of the details of the
work, and also an account of I he various experiments on the strength of
iron, rivetted joints, &c., some of the results of which, as communicated
to him by JMr. Clarke, he would state at the next meeting.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

Nov. 13 ami 20. — Joshua Field, Esq., President, in the Chair.
In accordance with the resolution of a special meeting of Members, the
Session of the Institution commenced nn the 13th ult., instead of, as hereto-
fore, in the middle of January. This is a great improvement, as it assimi-
lates the routine of this useful Society to that of other scientific bodies; it
will also prove very convenient to the country members, give a greater iiura-
ber of meetings, and enable the Session to terminate lirilliantly witli the
President's conversazione. The annual general meeting for the election of
President, Council, and OtBcers, is appointed to take place on Tuesday, De-
cember 18th.

The paper read was a "Description of the Cufferdam at the Grimsby
Dovki. By Mr. Charlfs Neate. A.Inst. C.E.

The author commenced by briefly noticing the importance of preliminary
structures iu all works of hydraulic engineering, and the difficulties gene-
rally attending their exi-cution. The position of Grimsiiy, on tiie south shore
of the Hnmber, was then described ; its proximity to the sea; the natural
shelter afTorriiil liy the opposite shore of Spurn llead ; and the various ad-
vantages it presented for the construction of extensive docks. A general
description followed of the enclosure made for the purpose of tlie dock-
works, which comprised an ,irea of 138 acres, and projected five-eighths of
a mile beyond the margin of the high-water line of the shore. It was ex-
plained that the flatness of the coast necessitated tliis great |>rojectinn, as it
«as requisite to found the new cnirance locks in llie low-wati-r channel of
tlie river, in order to secure, at all times, a suffiiient deptli of water for large
vessels. These conditions regulated the position of the coftVrdam, which
stood in a very exposed siumlion, and was entirely self-supported; its prin-
cipal features were stated to be its extent, anri the form ol its construction.

I he hngth of the cofferdam w.is l.iOO feet, su|iporling at high water a
head of water of 2S feet, whiKt the excavation behind it was carried to

I I feet below low water. The form of the dam was that of a circular curve,
v^ith a versed sine of 200 feet, or nearly one-fiflh of the span.

Several of the constructive arrangenients were peculiar; the work con.
sisted ol a triple row of whole timber sheet-piling, which derived interior
support from counterforts or buttres?es of solid sheet-piling, driven at inter-
vals of 25 feet throughout its length. The long or through-bolts were tuade
to break jnint and terndnale at the mirldle row of piling, so that no water
ccuhl pass along them thrnuch the dam. In the middle row of piling,
wroupht-iron plating was substiluled for timber wabngs, which formed ex-
cellent longitudinal ties, and left an iminterrupted surface nn the piling,
apainst which the puddle would lie compactly. It was stated that these
arrangements had imparted an extraordinary degree of stability and tight-
ness to the strni'ture, which had resisted the etfeets of storms, and the pres-
sure of the tides, in the most perfect manner, during a period of fourteen
iiionths. A ponion of the ground between the works and the shore was
riescrihed as being of a soft silty clay, probably the site of an old channel;
iuid as it was found, after all precautiiiiis, impossilile to raise any solid struc-
ture U|ion it, the alternative was adopted of displacing it completely, by
r. ising a batik of chalk-stone rublile, which sunk down to the hard bed of
cl.iy beneath. This method was successful in forming a very fine embank-

IIK-llt.

The abundant supply of water from Artesian wells in Giimshy was ad-
verted to, and referred to the vicinity nf the chalk hills.

The coiiclnsinn of the paper drew attention to the magnitude of the ma-
sonry woiks now ailvanciii;; at Giiinsby, and for the formation of which the
C' Ifiidain was erected, ai:d wliicb, when conipkted, from the designs of Mr.
Utiidel, the chief engineer, and under the superintendence of Mr. Adaiu

Smith, the resident engineer, will form perhaps one of the most useful, as
well as the most important, maritime works of modern times.

The Dean of Westminster made some remarks on the advantages that
would result, from engineers possessing a more accurate knowledge of geo-
logy, and being able to discriminate between strata by an examination of tha
component parts, and to decide upon their origin, as a guide in judging of
their capability of supporting the weights likely to be placed upon them ia
the construction of works, lie gave many instances where, in his opinion,
more accurate geological knowledge would have secured greater success, or
have prevented casualties. He quoted particularly the borings and the report
said to have been made previous to the commencement of the Thames Tun-
nel, and the recent statement, that the projected tunnel for receiving and
conveying the sewage of London down to the Essex marshes, would, through-
out its entire length, have been in the London clay. He showed, however,
that no London clay was to be found eastward of St. Paul's, and that the
plastic clay was constantly mistaken for it, in consequence of the observers
not possessing a sufficiently accurate knowledge of the difl'erence in the con-
stituent features ot the two clays.

Mr. Rendel and Mr. Brpnel, although they admitted that an accurate
knowledge of geology was most valuable to the profession, contended that
engineers were not so ill-informed on the subject as had been assumed; they
iliii appreciate the necessity of that knowledge, and although they might not
he able to discnurse upon it with the eloquence of a Buckland, a Lyell, or a
Sedgwick, or to speculate so plausibly upon the events of past ages, no
careful engineer ever decided upon the position, or mode of construction of
his works, without a series of trial borings, a careful examination of the
specimens, and experiments on them, cbii fly with the view of ascertaining
their strength, or cafiability for sustaining weights. Instead, therefore, of
accusing engineers, of knowing so little, it was rather a sutiject of surprise
that they knew so much ; for no profession demanded such varied acquire-
ments, or the exercise of such general common-sense and judgment. It was
shown, that the position of the Thames Tunnel was not determined by the
report, or the results of the borings, but with a view to establishing a con-
nection between particular localities. The borings were perhaps inefficiently
made, as compared with those of the present day, with the improved appa-
ratus now in use; but Mr. I. K. Brunei had made a very complete series of
borings across the Thames, showing most accurately the strata of the bed,
and no errors could have been induced by them. — The statement of the pro-
posed sewer tunnfl being in the London clay, never had been accepted by
eminent men, who understood their profession, however it might have been
argued upon, as an assumed fact, by Commissioners and Boards of Sewers.

The discussion was closed by the Dean of Westminster giving an example
of the urgency for engineers becoming geologists; and on Mr. Uendcl stating
that the clay at Leith was so hard as to require to he blasted, and yet that,
when exposed to a small current of water, was completely dissolved within a
fortnight, the rev. Dean at once explained it, as arising from the presence of
a multitude of minnte particles of mica, whose non-adhesive properties pro-
duced the speedy disintegration of the mass. This was admitted to be the
fact, and had been observed and allowed for by the engineer in the construc-
tion of the works.

Nov. 27.— JosFiDA Field, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The paper read was a " Description of the Old Southend Pier-head, and
the e.vtension of the pier ; with an inquiry into the nature and ravages of
tlie ' Teredo Navalis' and tlie means hitherto adopted for preventiny its
attacks.'' By Mr. John Paton.

After describing the form of construction f the old pier-head, and
showing ihe adoption of copper sheathing for protecting it from decay, and
the inipurlunt cousideralious involved iu the attempt to preserve marine
structures, the paper explained Ihe ravages committed by marine worms
( Teredo Navalis, Lymnoria Terebrans, and others) on the piles, both above
and below the copper sheathiug. Tins sheathing exieuded from the top of
the mud to three feet above low water-mark ; the worm destroyed the
timber f'rom two feet b' low the surface of the mud, to eight feet aliove low
water spring tides, and, in fact, out of thirty-eight lir timber piles, and
various oak piles, not one remained perfect, after beiug up only three years
indeed, some were entirely ealen through.

A general outline of the extension ol the pier, and a minute description;
of the pier- head, were tlieu given, showing the means adojited by the us
of iron piles, aud by scupper-nailing the inner piles, to preserve the struc-
ture from decay. The greater portion of the extension of the pier, the
length of which was one mile, as well as the whole of the pier beail, we
constructed of square, hidlow, iron piles, aud scupper-nailed feniler piles ;
the iron piles being foiced to a depth of from eiglit feet to sixteen feet, by
pulling them backwards and forwards with ropes attached to them, aud
not by driving in Ihe usual inaiiuer ; they were then tilled with gravel and
concrete to w iiliin five feet of the top, aud the fir piles to sustain the super-
structure were fitted into them. The pier-head was constructed with forty
cast-iron piles, and twenty fender piles, nailed from five feel below the bed
of the sea to eight feet above low water; its greatest height was Iweulj-
li\e Icet above low water spring tides.

The paper llien entered into an investigation of the nature and opera-
tii>ns of the Teredo Navatis, and showed, as a remarkable peculiarity, that
no ebeiiiical means bad hnherto prevriited wood from being destroyed by
ihese animals and lUe Lymnoria Terebrans, whose deslruclive pov^ers were
likewise noticed, aud as haviug peuetruled between ihe copper sheathiug

ISlt.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

383

and the wood at Southend. The operations of the Teredo, although most
desinictive in warm eliiiiaies, extended themselves to all places, having
been found almost in the I'olar seas.

Tiie chief periiliaiities which distinguished the Teredo were stated to
have been a^ce^l;lin•'d by minute microscopical investigaiiou, and that
woody libres of an extremely minute nature had been discovered in ihe
body, tlius setting at rest the question as lo wlielher the Teredo (i\<i actually
feed upon the wood. It was stated, that the failure of chemical means to
preserve timber from destruction by the marine worm was believed to pro-
ceed from two causes — namely, of poisonous compounds having no se-
riously injurious etl'ect upon them, and the sea-water, and other things, de-
composing the poisonous ingredients contained in the wood. In corrobo-
ration of the first of these views, accounts of experiments made by Mr.
Paton were adduced ; and physiological facets, quoted from the British and
Foreign Medical Review, were brought forward to show, lliat cold-blooded
anlnials were much more tenacious of life, than those of a higher tempera-
ment; and hence it was argued, that, as it required a very large quantity
of poison of the most virulent nature, to destroy animals of a much higher
order than the Teredo Navatis, it would take a still greater quantity to
att'ect those animals as they existed in their own element ; and it was ques-
tioned, under these circumstances, whether wood could ever be so com-
pletely auil thoroughly saturated, as in any degree to all'ect them. The
C( rrosive action of tlie sea-water, its extended influence and constant vari-
ableness in difVerenl parts of the globe, were then coiiujieuled on, and some
of the various salts held in solution nieutioned. It was believed to be im-
possible to lorm any general notion of the precise action of sea-water on
timber, whether chemically saturated, or not, without a series of most mi-
nute experiments, and a large body of facts, carefully collected in different
parts of the globe — as that which might be advantageously used in the
Thames, might not be of the slightest avail in the Tropics, and vice versa ;
it was thus questioned, whether any generally applicable principle could
be found for the counteracting of that universal solvent of soluble matter.
The conclusions arrived at were, that the ravages of the marine worm were
not prevented by any chemical application, and that nothing but mechani-
cal means could ever prove completely successful : studding with broad-
headed nails was considered to be the most effectual remedy, and various
authorities were quoted, proving its success. The paper concluded with
a list of places where wood, prepared with various chemical ingredients,
had been destroyed from various causes.

The discussion was commenced by the Dean of Westminster who
descanted very lengthily uu the analogous action of the Pholas ou stone,
and uu other topics, until, as the evening was so far advanced, it was an
uuunced that the discussion on the paper would be continued at the next
meeting, December 4, when the first muothly ballot would take place.

NOTES OF THE MONTH.

The Royal Yacht. — The Victoria and Albert is ordered to be docked at
Portsmouth to have an entire refit, and to have new boilers planned for her.
This «ill be the third set of new boilers within five years, although she is
only employed about a month each year. When this vessel was launched we
estimated the cost at 100, OUO/. The idea was then scouted, but it is never-
theless the fact that she has cost the country altogether nearer 200,000/. We
are quite sure that the public would not begrudge the expenditure of the
larger sum in procuring for her Majesty a suitable yacht, if the accommoda-
tion could not he obtained for a less amount, but they will object to paying
for one most inefficient vessel what ought to purchase at least half a dozen.
The Ruler of Egypt has degraded and banished the naval architect and cap-
tain of his yacht — a good and etficient ship many hundred tons larger than
the Victoria and Albert — because the cost exceeded the estimate ; but our
liberal and enlightened government has given the naval architect of the
Royal yacht a retirement of 500/. a year, whilst his assistant has had his
salary increased from 650/. to 800/. a year, and the shipwright, builder, and
his progeny have received all sorts of promotions. People of comiiion sense
will easily determine which government is most wise and just. — United
Service Gazette,

Parachute Lights. — Snme experiments were recently made at the Wool-
wich Mortar Battery, to test the efficiency of a new light invented by Capt.
Boxer, for lighting the atmosphere. General Lacy, Col. Dundas, C.B.,
Lieut.-Col. Chalmer, Lieut.-Col. Bell, Lieut.-Col. Brereton, C.13., Lieut. -Col.
Hardinge, K.ll., Lieut.-Col. Anderson, Lieut.-Col. Pester, Lieut. Col. Max-
well, Brigade-Major Bingham, and Major Dupins, with a great numlier of
officers ot the garrison, and Lord James Hay, assembled at the Mortar Battery,
when quite dark, to witness experiments with the common 8 inch carcases
of the service, used for firing so as to give light to show the position of an
enemy in dark nights, itfid to compare them with an invention to answer the
same purpose more effectually, invented by Capt. Boxer, Royal Artillery.
The first fired was one of the carcases from an 8. inch mortar, and it fell to
the ground at a distance of between 200 and 300 yards, and continued
burning aliuut 10 minutes. One of the cases containing Capt. Boxer's plan
was then fired. It consists of two tin cases, each being half-a sphere; the
one containing the composition, which Iiuriis like a brilliant blue light, and
the other, the parachute, formed uf a light description of closely-woven

bunting. The diameter of the cases appeared to be about five inches, and
when fired they attained a considerable altitude, hut the parachute did not
in the first instance open out sufficiently, and the lighted composition soon
fell to the ground. The second fired ou Capt. Boxer's plan was a beautiful
spectacle, the shells ascending to a great altitude, and when at the highest
point an explosion took place, similar to the bursting of a rocket in the air,
and out came a parachute fully 6 feet in diameter and about 3 feet in depth,
suspending the brilliant blue light and gradually descending, illuminating
the pait of the common on which it descended with a very brilliant light.
The third and fourth — all that were fired on Capt. Boxer's principle — were
equally successful, and all appeared much gratified with the result. Three
other carcases were fired from the 8-inch mortar with a similar effect to the
first ; but although they gave out flame for a considerable time, they ap-
peared to burn dim compared with Capt. Boxer's. It may be mentioned
tbat the parachute which supports the burning composition, on Capt. Boxer's
plan, is about from 7 to 8 feet above the burning matter; six curds descend-
ing from it are attached to a small chain about a foot lung, fixed to the com-
position shell.

Poor rates in the Metropolis. — It appears from an ingenious work recently
published by Mr. G. L. Hutchinson, that the following inequalities exist in
the rating of the metropolis, which is by no means the worst instance to be
adduced : — The annual value of property in East and West London is
211,150/., rated at 2s. lOrf. in the pound. The annual value assessed in the
City is 613,883/., rated at Is. Id. ; Whitechapel, 197.522/., rated at Is. 9rf. ;
St. James's, Westminster, 250,160/., rated at lOrf. ; Bethnal-green, 05,549/.,
rated at 2s. 9rf. ; St. George's, Hanover-square, 601,105/., rated at dd. The
amount received by the poor of the city is equal to 18s. lOrf. per head on
the population within the walls, and the amount of relief given to the po-
pulation without the walls is equal to 8s. dd. per head. The amount of re-
lief extended to the poor of the different districts per 1/. value of rated pro-
perty is — Bermondsey, 3s. id.; East and West London, 2s. IQd. ; Bethnal-
green, 2s. 9(/. ; St. George's, Southwark, 2s. id. ; Shoreditch, 2s. id. ;
Greenwich, 2s. id. ; Newington, 2s. id. ; Stepney, 2s. ; Rotherhithe, Is. lid. ;
Whitechapel, Is. 9rf.; Camberwell, Is. 8<f. ; Holborn, Is. 'id.; St. Luke's,
Is. Id.: City of London, Is. Id.; Hackney, Is. hd.; Strand, Is. hd.; Cler-
kenwell, Is. 4d. ; Poplar, Is. 3(/. ; St. Giles, Is. 3d.; Kensington, \s.\d.;
St. Pancras, Is. Id.; Westminster, lid.; Marylebone, lid.; St. Martin's-
in-the-Fields, lid.; St. James's, Westminster, lOd.; Islington, 8d. ; and St,
George's, Hanover-square, 6d. These disproportions have rather increased
than diminished since this return was made.

Chlurure of Silver. — Ilerr Poggendorf has succeeded in decomposing
chlorure of silver by the galvanic battery, which is useful when it is wanted
to prepare pure silver to re-dissolve it. The way is, to take chlorure of
silver in the wet state, put it in a crucible, pouring over diluted sulphuric acid
(1 acid,9-water), and introducinga porous cylinder filled with the same liquid,
and in this a plate of amalgamated zinc, brought into communicaiton by a
copper wire with platinum or silver.

Profits on Gas Manufacture. — A statistical return of the outlay and
profits of the Durham Gas Company shows tbat their gains for the year
1848 were at the rate of 27t per cent.

On the Duration of Wood, and Means of Prolonging it. — The following
are the results of experiments made with great care and patience by Mr. G.
S. Hartig : — Pieces of wood of various kinds, 25-8th inches square, were
buried about an inch below the surface of the ground, and they decayed in
ihe following order : — The lime, American birch, alder, and the trembling-
leaved poplar, in three years; the common willow, horse-chesniit, and plane,
in four years ; the maple, red beech, and common birch, in five years ; the
elm, ash, hornbeam, and Lumbardy poplar, in six years; the robinia, oak,
Scotch fir, Weymouth pine, and silver fir, were only decayed to the depth of
half-aninch in seven years ; the larch, common juniper, red cedar Quniperus
virginianaj, and arbor-vilse, at the end of the last-mentioned period re-
mained uninjured. The duration of the respective v\oods depends greatly
on their age and quality ; specimens from young trees decaying much quicker
than those from sound old trees ; and, when well seasoned, they last much
longer than when buried in an unseasoned state. In experiments with the
woods cut into thin boards decay proceeded in the following order, com-
mencing with the most perishable order : The plane, horse chesnut, poplar,
American birch, red beech, hornbeam, alder, ash, maple, silver fir, Scotch
fir, elm, Weymouth pine, larch, robinia or locust oak. It has been proved,
by repeated experiments, that the best mode of prolonging the duration of
wood is to char it, and then paint it over with three or four coats of pitch.
But simply charring the wood was of very little utility, as were also satura-
tions with various salts, acids, &c, — Revue Horticole.

Expansive Steam- Engines. — Mr, J. C. Fearce, of Salford, has made aa
improvement in the expansive steam-engine, the advantages contemplated
by which are stated to consist in the application of two self-acting valves,
in addition to the expansion legulalor, one lo each end of the steam
cylinder — fixed in suitable passages, which communicate with the waste
steam or exhaust pipe, Mr, Pearce states that the use of these valves is
to prevent the pressure upon the working side of the pistou from falling
below the resistance or back pressure upon the opposite side — a very com-
mon occurrence in carrying out the expansive principle, although attended
with very considerable loss of power ; and that the proposed improvement
is chiefly adapted to locomotives and other nou-coudcnsiug expansive en-
gines, and the power is extremely variable.

S84

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHlTECrs JOURNAL.

[December,

Government Steamers. — A very lar^e armament has been ordered for the

Valerius stfum frU-ate, now beiiiR built at Pembroke. On the upper deck she will carry
one fiH.pouiiHer of it5cwt. ; one lOinch gun of H5 cwt. ; and fnur 32-pounders of 66 cwt.
each, all ot which are to be mounted on pivotB. In addition she will be prepared to carry
eight 32-potnnler8 of 5t» cwt. each.

The Vulcan. — A large spare screw-propeller, furnished by Messrs. Rennie,
haa been landed at Woolwich Dockyard, to be put on board this vessel. It is 14 feet in
diameter, and .''i^ tons in weight, and being made of the best brass, or mixture nearly ap-
proaching to gun-metal, is calculated to be worth I,2U0/.

Screw Propellers.— It ha^ bitherto been usual to fit screw-propellers in tbe
rough shape in which they are cast, simply filing and smoothing the narrow edge of the
blade; but one of the michines in the factory at Woolwich dockyard has been btted in
such a manner as to plane the whole of one side of the blades, and on its being tried in
the factory for the first tlmo on a screw-propeller I* feet in diameter, cast of bra-s, for the
Archer, it ap[)ear3 to perform the work in great perfection. The difficulty of obtaining a
motion which would suit itself to the curve of the bhide of a screw-propeller muat be
•vident to every one who has witnessed its form, and yet it has been perfectly accom -
plished in this instance.

The Termagant, 24, screw-frigate, by White, of Cowes, built in Deptford
dockyard, !,.').'>(; tons, G2U-horse power, by Seawiird, was ii^u\n tried at Portsmouth. Nov.
ll/, at the mt-asiued mile in Stokes Bay, with light airs and a smooth sea, to endeavour to
obtain a more creditable result than on the former occasion. Captain Horatio Austen,
C.B.. of the Blenheim, commanded the ship on this occasion. Mr. White, her desik-ner,
was on board; as also Rear-Admirals Frescott, C.B., and Sir Charles Napier, K.C.B.,
Hith Mr. Murray, the chief engineer of the docltyard, and a host of naval officers from
the college, and elsewhere ashore, the trial having attracted much attention in the ser-
vice. She went out of the harbour about 11 o'clock, trimmed to a draughtof 17 ft. 10 in.
aft and U» ft. 1 in. forward, her midship portsill being then 6 ft. U in. from the water.
Her former draught was 16 ft. U In. forward, and 17 ft. 3 in. abaft. She was considered
at her load draught for sea service, being all complete for offic«is and men, topgallant
masis struck, and yards an end and pointed, all her guns and shot on board. The follow-
ing is tbe result of each run at tlie measured mile : —
Knots.

First run 8-39U

Second run 8 551 ]

FmmhUun ;.';;;!!!'.;;;;:!: tlHi j-GMng a mean speed of 8-644 knots per hour.

Fifth run .,'.",'.'.'.".'*,*/.'.'.".'.".'. 9137 )

Sixth run 7627-^

Revolutions (mean), 32; mean revolutions of propeller, 64 ; pressure of steam, 12 lb. ;
thermometer in engine-room, 86^; stokehole, 108'-'; temperature on the upper deck, f'2° ;
meau barometer, 27^ inches. She turnei a whole circle to port, with the engines in full
play, in *> min. 9 sec. in a space the mean of which was about four limes the ship's length.
This result is certainly more respectable than that obtained on her triul a few days since,
with rough wind and weather; but is, after all. but a beggarly account of service to be
expected in return for an expenditure of 70,000^, especially when placed in cuntparison
Willi the performances of the Arrogant screw-frigate, which achieves, under all circum-
stances, more speed, although 306 tons more burden, with 'J(»0-hoise power less.

The Conffict. — On Tuesday, the 13th ult., Her Majesty's steam-sloop
Conflict, H, of 4IJ0 horse power. Commander T. fi. Drake, hiade ;ui exi)eiimental trip to
the Kddystoiie,to test the power of her screw. From Plyniuuth she started from abreast
of the Breakwater Lighthouse, and reached the Kddysiune Lighthouse, a distance of
rather more than 10 miles, in 1 hour and .'>"i minutes, to cover the ground, being an
amount of lime for such a distance which *per se' is not satisfactory.

Steayn Screw-Propeller, Minx. — This vessel weut down the river from
Woolwich dockyard on the 14th ult., te test the disc-enudne of 10 horse power wiih which
she has been fitted. The engine, at starting, made 130 revolutions per minute, but the
average during the trial in Long Reach wiis I'JO revolutions per minute. The speed at-
tained was r)271 knots with the tide, and 2'0 knots awainst the tile, giving an averiige of
3'iJ25 knots per hour. The engine woiked diultig tbe tiial with a pressure of tin lb. to
the square inch. The speed was comparatively so little, thiit she was towed back to
Woolwich by the Monkey steam-vessel, at the rate of 6'-15 knots per hour.

Launch of the Propont'is. — A fine screw steamslii|), built of iron by Messrs.

Blare and Co., Blackwail, from a design by Mr. T. Waterman, jun., hiis been launched.
The Propontis will be the third constructed fur the General Screw Sldpping Company,
JMid of the same class as their two vessels the Bosphorus and Hellespont. Her dimen-
tiona are — length, 17& feet ; breadth, 2'^ ft. fi in. ; deptli, 17 ft. (» in. ; and tonnage, .'J3l
8ti'lt4. She is to be fitted with auxiliary engines of 8U-horse power, by Messrs. Maudstay,
Sons, and Field, and will be commanded by Captain Brenan.

French Steamers. — Monsieur Ca\e, the great French engineer, has, accord-
ing to the * Moniteur Industriel,' supplied a fourth steam tow-boat for the Rhine, which
is held forth as a great feat, and a triumph over the Eni^lish, likewise that he is the
great champion of the oscillating engine.

LIST OP NEVtr PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM OcTOBER 18, TO NOVEMBER 22, 1849.

Six Months allowed/or Enrohnentj unless otheituise expressed,

Jolin Cowley, of Walsall, Stafford, manufacturer, and John Hickman, of Aston, War-
wick, clerk, for improvements in the manufacture of bedsleade, chairs, tables, couches,
and tubular or hollow articles. — Sealed November 3.

George Park Macindoe, of Moiintbloa, Scotland, for certiiin improvements in machin-
ery or itppuralus applicable to the prepamtion, spiiuiing, doubling, and twisting of cotton,
ttuol, silk, flax, and other fibrous substances. — November 2.

Adam Cottom. of the firm ot John KIce and Co., of Rlunchester. machine makers, for
iniprovemeiits in machinery to be used in preparing and spinning cotton and other fibrous
Buiistunces. (A communication.! — November 2.

.Tohn Jordan, of Liverpool, engineer, for certain improvements in the constructijn of
ships and other vessels navigating on water. — November 2.

Lucien Vidle, formerly of Paris, but now of South-street, Fiusbury, French advocate,
for certain improvements in couveyances on land and water. — November 2.

Frederick Octavius Palmer, of Great Sutton-sireet, ftliddlesex, genileman, for certain
imptuvements in the manufacture of candles, and also in the machinery for the manufac-
ture of such matters.— November 2.

Charles Cowper, of Sonihainpton-bulldings, Chancery Ure, for Improvements in the
treatment of coal, and in separating coal and other substances from toretgn matters, and
iu the manufactu'e of arlifitial fuel and cuke, and in the distdlalioo and treatment of Car
and other products from coal ; together with improvements in the machinery and appa-
ratns employeii for the said purposes. (A communication.) — November 2.

Michael John Haines, ol Lucas-street, Commercial road East, Middle^iex. leather-pipe
maker, for improvenients In the manufacture of bands for driving machinery, in hose, or
pipes, and buffi^rs for railway purposes. — November 2.

Hiram Tucker, of Rnxbury, ivJassachusetts, United States of America, for a certaia
new or improved manufacture of nuintel-pieces. — November 2.

William Buckwell, of the Artificial Granite Woiks, Battersea, Surrey, civil engineer,
and Joseph Apsey, of Blackfriars, Surrey, engineer, for improvements iu steam-engines,
and in propelling vessels. — November 2.

William ftlorris, of Coldbith-sijmiire, Middlesex, civil engineer, for improvements In
the preparing ol day, and in the manufacture of bricks, tilts, and other articles made ot*
clay or brick earth. — November 2

James Combe, of Belfast, Ireland, engineer and machinist, for improvements in ma-
chi[iery for backiing flax and hemp, and in machinery for producing fiax yarns. — Novem-
ber 2.

Alfred Barlow, of Friday-street, London, warehouseman, for certaia improvements in
weaving. — November 2.

\\ iUiam Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for Improvements in ma-
chinery for dressing, shaping, cutting, and drilling or boring rocks or stone; part of
which improvemeuis are, with certain modifications, applicable to machinery or appara-
tus fur driving piles. {A communication.) — November G.

James Buck Wilson, of St. Helens, Lancaster, ropemaker, for certain Improvements In
wire ropes.— November 8.

Charles Edivards Amos, of the Grove, Southwark, Surrey, engineer, and Moses Clark,
of St. Mary Cray, Kent, engineer, for improvemeuis in tlie manufacture of paper, and in
the apparatus and machinery used tliercin ; part of which apparatus or machinery Is
applicable for regidating the prebsure of fluids for various [lurposes. — November 10.

Charles Matthew Biirker, of Loner Kennington-lnne, Surrey, engineer, fur improve-
ments in sawing or cuttiUj; wood and metals.— November 10.

Richard Ford Sturges, and Jonathan Harlow, both of Birmingham, for improvements
in bedsteads. — November 10.

Enoch Chambers, of Birmingham, smith, for improvements in the manufacture of
wheels. — November 1''.

Thomas Keely. of Nottingham, manufacturer, and William Wilkinson, of the same
place, framework knitter, for certain impiuvements in looped or elastic fabrics, and in
articles made therefrom ; also certain machinery for prod, icing the said improvements,
which is applicable iu whole or in part to the manufacture of looped fabrics generally.—
Novemlier 10.

Samuel Brown Oliver, of Woodford, Kssrx, gentleman, for improvements In dyeing and
dyeing materials. (A communication.) — November 10.

Henry Henson Henson.of H-impatead, Middlesex, gentlemen, for certain Improvements
in railways and railway carriages. — Novamber 10. To be dated June 14 lS4y.

Rowland Brotherhood, of Chippenham, Wilts, railway contractor, for an apparatus or
mode for covering trucks and wagons on railways, road wagons, and canal boats, so as
etFectually to protect goods in the cour.se of public transit from theft or d'lmf.ge, and at
the same time to allow of anch trucks and wagons being loaded and unloaded with equal
facility.— November 10. To be dated July 18, I84H.

[The two last patents being opposed by caveat at the Great Seal, were not seoled until
the lOth November, i»4'J ; l>ut bear I'especlively the date they would have been ssaled
had no such opposition been entered.]

Robert Parnall, of the city of London, clothier, for a new instrument for facilitating
the stitching or sewing of woven fabrics. — Novembur 13.

James Chesterman, of the firm of Messrs. Cutis and Co., of Sheffield, macliinist, for
improvements in carpenters* braces and other tools and instruments used for drilling and
boring purposes. — November \'i.

Charles Cowper. of Souihanipton-huildings, Chancery-lane, I^Iiddlesex, for improve-
ments in the manufacture of sugar. (A coiomunication.) — November 14.

Louis Adolphe Uuperiey, of 112, Faubourg du Temple, Paris, engineei', for certain im-
provements in machinery for producing figures in relievo, — November 1".

Alfred Vincent Newton, of Chancery-lane, mechanical draui;htsman, tor Improvements
in manufacturing leather. (A communication.) — November 17.

Charles Ludovic Auguotin Meinig, of Hamburgh, now residitnj in London, merchant,
for certain improved modes or methods of applying galvanism and magnetism to cura-
tive and sanitary puposes. (A communication.) — November 17.

Charles James Pownall, of Kensington, Middlesex, esquire, for a certain mode or
method, or certain modes or methods, of ascertaining or registering the number of per-
sons entering in or upon passenger conveyances and passage ways, and the instruments
and apparatus for ettecting the same. — November 17.

Geoi'ge Edmond Uonisthnrpe, of Leeds, manufacturer, and James Milnes, of Bradford,
York, lor improvements in apparatus used for stopping steam-engines and other first
movers. — November 17.

Wdliam Brindley, of Nelson terrace, Twickenham, Middlesex, papier-mache manufac-
turer, for improvements in producing ornamental designs on papibr-niaclie, and in pre-
serving vegetable matters. — November 17.

William Buckweil, of the Artificial Granite Works, Battersea, Surrey, engineer, for im-
provements in manufacturing pipes and other structures artificially in moulds when using
stone and other matteis. — November 17.

Samuel Srocker, of High Holborn, Middlesex, hydraulic engineer, for certain im-
provements in the boer-engines, beer measures, and tobacco-boxes used by publicans.-
November 17.

I'homas Wursdell, of Birmingham, Warwick, manufacturer, for cerrain impvovements
in the manufacture of envelopes and cases, and in the tools and machinery used therein.
— November 17.

John Webster Hancock, of Melbourne, Derby, manufacturer, for improvements in the
manufacture o{ hosiery goods, or articles composed of knitted fabrics. — November 17.

Charles Edouard Fruni,:is Constant Prospere ])e Changy, of Brussels, now residing in
Tavistock street, Westminster, civil engineer, for Improvements in the preparation and
manufacture of flax, hemp.aud other like fibrous substances. — November 20.

Charles Cowper, of Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, for certain improvements
in the manulacture of sugar. (.A conininnicatisn.)— November 2U.

Francis Justin Duburguet, of Cahors, in the republic of France, for certain improve,
ments in hydro-pneumaiic engines.— November 22

Joseph Pierre (Jillard, of Paris, gentleman, for certain improvements in the production
of heat a!id light in general.— November 22. %

END OF VOLUME XII

CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

1849.

INDEX TO VOL. XII.

Abbattoirs of Paris, Grantham on, 93
Abrasion and oxidation of rails, Mallet on, 342
Academy Royal, architecture at, 163, 209
Academy Royal, award of prizes, 31
Accident at the Britannia-bridge, 287, 305
Accidents in coal mines, prevention of, 91, 308 ;

Gordon's pat., 372
African steamer, experiments with trapezium

floats, 260
Agricultural customs, Shaw and Corbett on tenant

right (rev.), 120
Agricultural resources of :he Punjab, Smith (rev.)

359
Aide Memoire (rev.), 227
Aikin's report on india-rubber rings, 27
Ainslie brick and tile company's kilns, 188
Air or stink-trap for drains, Robb's, 350
Algebra of ratios, H. Browning (rev.), 293
Algebra of ratios, Browning's reply to review, 331
American saw-gin. Burn on, 122
American steamers' engines, Napier's, 191
Ammonia destructive to leather, 62
Analysis of water from chalk formation, 349
Analytical investigations of cast-iron, Wrightson's

342
Ancient city in Asia Minor, discovery of, 31
Ancient Greek practical principles for volutes,

Jopling (rev.), 332
Ancient pulpits in England, F. DoUnian (rev.), 225
Anderson's revolving valve, 187
Aneroid barometer, 94

Annihilator of fire, Phillips's pat., 127, 316
Antiquities of Jerusalem, Scoles on, 92
Appold's pump for draining marshes, 305
Arbitrator's right to copy plans, 91
Archambault's steam hoisting-machine, 373
Arch, pointed, history of, Fergusson on,254; Wil-
kinson (Sir George) on, 255
Architects, Royal Institute of Brititish, 9, 30, 57,

eo, 92, 120, 158, 223,254; award of prizes,

158, 224, 255, 379
Arcnitecture, Gothic of Germany, Whevvell, Dr.,

on, 379
Architectural criticism, 324
Architectural exhibition, 98, 159
Architectural lending library, Brompton (rev.), 275
Architectural publications. Church (rev.), 225
Architectural publication Society (rev.), 167
Architecture and engineering, Clegg's lecture, 337

Architecture and chronology of Egypt, Papvforth

on, 185
Architecture at Royal Academy, 163, 209
Architecture, Bernan's dictionary of (rev.), 148
Architecture, C'ockerell on style in, 254
Architecture, Greek, Candidus on, 97
Architecture, Leeds on the Orders of (rev.) 16
Architecture, medieeval, Candidus on, 65, 146
Armament of steam frigate, Valerius, 384
Armament of the French fleet, 318
Army and Navy clubhouse, Candidus on, 289, 322
Arnoux, on colouration of porcelain, 343
Arsenal, Royal, experiments at, 31 ; Improve-
ments at, 192
Art, beauty in, Fergusson (rev.) 2, 17, 44, 73

110, 143
Art, impulse to, Jopling (rev.) 332
Artesian well, Southampton, 287; Trafalgar-
square, 349
Artesian wells, remarks on Dr. Buckland's lec-
ture, 357 *
Artesian wells. Dr. Buckland's lecture on, 379
Artesian wells, Horaersham on, 378
Artiflcial light, Braode on, 95; Daubeny, 127;

Mansfield, 156
Arts, London Society of, 28, 60, 92, 157, 186, 380
Arts, national exhibition of, 347
Arts, Royal Scottish Society of, 13, 29, 61,94,
122, 158, 186, 349, 380; opening address, 380 ;
award of prizes at, 29
Asia Minor, discovery of ancient city in, 31
Asphalte of Seyssel, experiments on, 352
Association, British, mechanical section, 304;

chemical section, 341
Atlas, popular, Clarke (rev.) 17
Auckland islands, Enderby (rev.) 318
i Austria, war steamers for, 288
Award of prizes at Institution of Civil Engineers,
61 ; Royal Institute of British Architecls, 158,
224, 255 ; Scottish Society of Arts, 29
Axles and wheels, railway, Kiloer's pat., 372
Axles, railway, McConnell on, 375
Axles, railway, remarks on, 44
Ayre (Dr.) on animal refuse of towns, 157

Haines' Railway-chairs and Switches, 184
Balance-valve for locomotives, 29
Bakewell's copying electric telegraph, 217, 311
Barber's pat. sawing-machine, 24
Barlow, on Phillips's fire annihilator, 127,

Bars for suspension bridges, Howard on rolliog

of, 222
Bars, iron, Shaw's pat., 114
Barometers and compasses, Napier's pat, 79
Barometers, aneroid, 94
Bayer, on discharge of water from reservoirs, 243,

201,291,325
Baylis, on the sewage of Chester, 188
Beacon on Goodwin sands, 256
Beams, corrugated iron. Porter's pat,, 58, 250
Beardmore's fire-proof iron flooring, 120
Beardmore, on water supply of Plymouth, 25
Beche (De la) and Playfair's second report on

coals for steam navy, 269
Bell rock lighthouse, correspondence on, 77, 123,

136, 180, 253
Bending iron plates, Turton's pat., 83
Benzole, light from, Mansfield on, 156
Bernan's dictionary of architecture (rev.) 148
Bibliotheques scientiSques industrielles, M, Ma-

thias (rev.) 274 .
Billings, on geometric design, 30
Birmingham, British Association meeting, 304,341
Birmingham, exhibition at, 314
Birmingham, Institution of Mechanical En-
gineers, 01, 180, 278, 297, 315
Biscuit making machine, 351
Bismuth, crystalline polarity of, Faraday on, 30
Blackie's electric clock, 29
Blair's malleable iron lattice bridge, 161
Bland's plan of Clapham (rev.) 120
Boat for the Prince of Wales, 224
Bogs, roads, &c. in, MuUins on, 201
Bogs, reclamation of, 285
Boiler crust, West on, 187
Boiler, Ramsbottom's locomotive, 278
Boilers, Seaton's pat. steam, 23
Boilers, supply of water to. Ward on, 394
Bolivia steam-ship, launch of, 288
Bombay steam- ship, lauuch of, 95
Bontemps, on colouring of glass by metallic

oxides, 343
Boomerang propeller, Poole's pat., 23
Boring-machine, Watney's pat., 151
Boring rocks, chemical process of, 63
Borrie's companion to the log-book (rev.) 120
Bosphorus, screw steamship, 288
Botanical subjects for ornaments, Whitaker (rev.)

149
Bourne, on Indian river navigation (rev.) 271
Boxer's parachute light, 383
Braidwood, on fire-proof buildings, 121

INDEX.

Branch-railway steam-carriage, Samuel's, 374

Brande, on artiticial lislit, 05

Brandon, on timber roofs of middle ages (rev.) 225

Breakwater at Dover, 62, 204

Breakwaters, flexible, and lighthouses. Smith, 380

Brewster's (Sir D.) binocular camera, 186

Brewster's (Sir D.) new stereoscopes, 159

Brick and tile kilns, Ainslie, 188; Swaine'spat.,81

Brick ceiling, St. George's liall, Liverpool, 158

Bricks, Skertchley's pat. for moulding, 55

Bridge at Atblone, 222

Bridge, the oblique, Bashforth on, 147

Bridge, Blair's iron lattice, 161

Bridge, Britannia tubular, 218, 251, 264, 287, 305,

346, 381 ; accident at, 287, 305
Bridge, Conway tubular, 63, 251, 381
Bridge, floating railway, 191
Bridge, girder, Gardner's pal., 250
Bridge, high-level, on the Tyne, 216
Bridge on the Blackwall railway, 192
Bridge, Pesth suspension, 64, 287
Bridge, proposed railway, at Cologne, 352
Bridge, tubular, Gainsborough, 255
Bridges, strength of, Buchanan on, 13, 331 ; Os-
borne on, 83
Bridges, suspension, a new principle of, Russell

on, 380
Bridgewaler House, 1
Brindley's pat. papier mach^, 55
Brindley's pat. waterproof paper, 373
Britannia and Conway bridges, Fairbairn's his-
tory of (rev.) 251
Britannia tubular bridge, 218, 251, 264, 287, 305,

346 ; accident at, 287, 305
British Architects, Royal Institute of, 9, 30, 57,
60, 92, 120, 158, 223, 254 ; award of prizes, 158,
224,255
British Association, mechanical section, 304 ; che-
mical section, 341
British Museum, 290
British Museum and iMr. Fergusson, 196
British Museum and National Gallery, 274
British Museum, Candidus on, U7, 146, 161, 258
Brooke, on photographic paper, 343
Browning's algebra of ratios (rev.) 293
Browning's reply to review, 331
Brunton's colliery ventilator, 187, 308
Buchanan, on Britannia and Conway bridges, 381
Buchanan, on strengtii of materials, 13, 381
Buckland's (Dr.) lecture on Artesian Wells, re-
marks on, 357
Bucklands, pat. compression of fuel, 3C8
Buckland, Dr., lecture on artesian wells, 379
Builders' benevolent institution, 224
Builders, Gerbier's counsel to, 153
Buildings and monuments, modern and mediaeval,

(rev.^ 167
Buildings, cleaning of, 286

Building materials of Paris, Burnell on, 223,238
Buist, on evaporation from the soil, 288
Bunnell's pat. walerclosels, 119
Burn, on American saw-gin, 122
Burnell, on building materials of Paris, 223, 238

Caen Stone, qualities of, 60

Calculating machine, Neudsladt and Barnett's

pal., 314
Caleduuiau canal, 246

Calico printing, Davison's drying apparatus, 311
California, iron buildings for, 319
Cambridge, King's College chapel, 162
Cambridge, restorations at, 32
Camden station, North-Western railway, 122
Camera, binocular. Sir D. Brewster's, 186
Canals in India, irrigation of. Smith on, 359
Canals of England, 214 ; Scotland, 246
Canals, &c. in Bog, Mullins on, 201
Candidus's Note-book, 2, 33, 65, 97, 145,161,

195, 229, 258, 289, 322
Candidus. on the ' Seven Lamps of Architecture,'

161, 195,229,258,322
Caoutchouc spring for time-pieces. Smith's, 350
Caoutchouc springs for rigging, Newall's pat., 352

Cape Pine lighthouse, 287

Carriages, gun, Woollen's pat., 371

Carrick's self-acting water-meter, 350

Carving-machinery, Jordan's, 28

Cast and wrought iron bridge girders, Gardner's

pat., 250
Cast and wrought iron bridges, Buchanan on, 13 ;

Osborne on, 83
Cast and wrought iron, soldering of, 191
Cast-iron, Analytical investigations of, Wrightson

on, 342
Cast-iron windows, ornamental, 63
Cast-iron pipes, enamelled, 62
Cast-iron pipes, Stewart's pat., 280
Castings, metal. Shank's pal., 334 ; Henderson's

pat, 335
Cathedral, St. Paul's, Candidus on, 33
Central railway station, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 97
Centre of gravity of locomotive-engines, 216
Centrifugal pump for draining, Appold's, 305
Centrifugal strains of railway-wheels. Cox on, 31
Chain-links for cables, Price's, 352
Chain-pipe for subaqueous telegraphs, Whi-

shaw's, 304
Chalk formation, analysis of water from, 349
Chalk formation, water from, Buckland's lecture

on, 379
Chalk formation, water from, Homersham's reply

to Buckland, 378
Chalk formation, water from, 357
Chemical process for boring rocks, 63
Chapman, on railways in Bombay, and the cotton

question (rev.) 86
Chester, novel suspension bridge at, 320
Chester, sewerage of, Baylis's report on, 188
Chloride of gold, preparation of, 319
Chloride of silver, reduction of, 225
Chlorure of silver, decomposition of, 383
Chronology and architecture of Egypt, Papworth

on, 185
Church architectural publications (rev.) 225
Church of St. Isaac, Pelersburgh, 9
Church of the Holy Trinity, Cork, dry rot in, 303
Cistern, self-acting, Hosmer's, 312
Civil Engineers' Institution, 35, 60, 93, 121, 156,

184,222,382; award of prizes, 61
Civil engineering and architecture, Clegg on, 337
Clapham, plan of, Bland's (rev.) 120
Clark, on isonietrical perspective, 3
Clay's pat. rolling of iron, 249
Claudet's pholographometer, 93
Cleaning of buildings, 286
Cleaning silver or brass, 191
Clock, electric, Blackie's, 29
Clegg's lecture on civil engineering and architec-
ture, 337
Cloth, paint or colours on, Pattison's pat., 180
Clubhouses, London, Candidus on, 289
Coal-field of South Wales, Moses (rev.) 318 ;

Richardson on, 121
Coal-mine, salt water spring in, 357
Coal mines, prevention of accidents in, 94, 308 ;

Gordon's pat., 372
Coals for steam navy, De laBeche and Playfair's

second report, 269
Coal-tar, Smith's pat. preparation, 179
Cockerell, on style in architecture, 254 ; Candidus

on, 322
Cocks and valves, Llewellin's pat, 336
Colierdam, free-action pump for, 57
Cofl'erdam, wroughl-iron, 62
Cofl'erdam at Grimsby docks, 382
Colliery ventilation, Brunton on, 187, 308 ; Edg-

inglon, 180; Guruey, 127 ; Nicholson, 314
Celling, on Gothic ornaments (rev.) 225
Cologne, proposed railway bridge at, 352
Colon, Spanish war steamer, 100
Colouring glass by metallic oxides, Arnoux on,

343; Boutemps on, 343; Faraday on, 343;

Pellatton, 157
Colours or paints on cloth, Pattison's pat, 180
Combined vapour-engine, DuTrembley's 7
Commission of sewers, 333
Companion to the log-book, Borrie's (rev.) 120
Comparative inequality of poor-rate, 383

Comparative prices and wages — 1842 to 1849,

Porter on, 345
Compasses and barometers, Napier's pat, 79
Compression of fuel, Buckwell's pat., 368
Condensers, Siemens's improvements, 127
Condensing steam-engines, Newton's pat, 369
Conflict, steam sloop, trial of, 384
Conservatories, roofs and glazing of, Cooper, 187
Conversazione, Mr. Field's, 185
Conway tubular bridge, 63, 251, 264
Cooper, on flint-glass for optical purposes, 122
Cooper, on roofs of conservatories and hothouses,

187
Cooper, on staining and enamelling glass, 350
Cooper's glass blowing apparatus, 350
Cooper's glass melting furnace, 350
Cooper's kelp glass manufacture, 350
Copper, enamelled, manufacture of, at Canton, 278
Copper, experiments on action of sea water OD,

Dr. Percy, 342
Copying electric telegraph, Bakewell's, 217, 311
Correct sizing of toothed- wheels, Roberts on, 304
Correspondence on the Bell-rock lighthouse, 77,

123, 136, 180, 253
Corrosion of metals, prevention of, 95
Corrugated-iron beams. Porter's pat, 68, 250
Cost of the Victoria and Albert yacht, 383
Coupling-joints for pipes, Newton's pat, 118
Cox, notes on engineering, XII. 34 ; XIII. lOT
Cox, on the centrifugal strains of railway car-
riages, 34
Cox, on the vibratory strains of railway bridges,

107
Crampton's pal. locomotive-engines, 157, 184
Crane's wax candle safety mining-lamp, 94
Crank, substitute for, 328

Cryslalline polarity of bismuth, Faraday on, 30
Croll's pat. gas improvements, 150
Cross-cut sawing-machine, Douglass, 61

D

Danube improvements applicable to Indian

rivers. Shepherd on, 321
Davison's desiccating process, 310
Decay of timber from dry rot, 303
Decomposition of chlorure of silver, 383
Decomposition of minerals, &c. by water, Rogers

on, 341
Decorative glass, 286

Dee, report of commissioners of river (rev.) 149
Dempsey, on drainage of towns and buildings

(rev.) 318
Desiccating process for drying wood, Davison, 310
Dia-magnetism, 95

Dictionary of architecture, Bernan (rev.) 148
Digest of evidence on tenant right, Shaw (rev.) 120
Dilapidations and nuisances, law of, D. Gibbons

(rev.) 221
Discharge of water from reservoirs, Bayer on,

243, 201, 291, 325
Distance of sun from Ihe earth, 51
Dock-entrances, Redman on, 129
Docks, hydraulic, Scott's, 29
Docks of England, history of, 284 >

Docks, Grimsbp, cofl'erdam at, 382
Dockray's description of Camden station, 122
Dockray's report on permanent way, 193
Dodd's swivel bridge at Falkirk, 191
Dollraan's ancient pulpits of England (rev.) 225
Dolomite, formation of, Forchhammer on, 342
Donaldson, on church of St. Isaac, Pelersburgh, 9
Dover breakwater, 62,204
Double-action pump, Easlou and Amos's, 213
Double-trapped waterclosets, Bunnell's pat, 119
Douglass's cross-cut sawing-machine, 61 ; saw-
mill, 187
Drainage of (Juildford, 191
Drainage of Haarlem lake, 320
Drainage of land, Webster on, 123 ; Williams on,

39
Drainage of marshes, Appold's pump, 305
Drainage of towns and buildings, Dempsey (rev.)

318
Drayton's pat silvering of glass, 251

Dressing straw bonnets, Howell's machine, 94

Drilling metal, Watney's pat., 151

Drying and seasoning wood, Davison's process,

310
Drying closet, Middlesex liospital, 159
Dry rot, extraordinary instance of, 303
Dundee competition, 43
Duration of wood, experiments on, 383

Earthenware Piping, 62

Earthwork, scale for measuring, Huntington's, 12

Earthworks, Neville on sloping hanks, 364

Easton and Amos's double-action pump, 213

Eccentric sheetmelal and wire gage, Roberts's,

Economy of railway transit, Samuel on, 374

Edge-tools, improved method of tempering, 288

Edinburgh police office, ventilation of, 159

Education of engineers, 42, 337

Electricity, Staite's pat. improvements, 53

Electric clock, Blackie's, 29

Electric light, Le IVIolt's pat., 89 ; Payne's, 127

Electric telegraph, copying, Bakewell's, 217, 311

Electric telegraph, Holmes ou, 28

Electric telegraph, printing by, Highton ou, 92

Electric telegraph wires, Ricardo's pat., 118

Electro-magnetic coil machine. Dr. Wright's, 158

Enamelled cast-iron pipes, 62

Enamelled copper, manufacture at Canton, 278

Enamels for iron. Stumer's 302

Enderby, on Auckland islands (rev.) 318;

Southern whale iishery (rev.) 318
Enfield steam-carriage, description and working

of, 374
Engine, expansive steam, Newton's pat., 369
Engine, expansive steam, Pearce's, 350
Engine, (ire, M'hite's pat., 61
Engine, pumping, Newton's pat., 281
Engine, Richmond waterworks, 165
Engine, rotary, iVIcGauley's, 314
Engine,steam and hydraulic, Woodcock's pat., 1 78
Engine, vapour, Du Trembley's, 7
Engines for American mail steamers, 191

Engines, hydraulic pressure, Glynn on, 28

Engines, locomotive, Cranipton's pat., 157, 184

Engines, locomotive, oscillation of, Heaton on, 308

Engines, locomotive, Thornton and McConnell's
pat., 176 I

Engines, marine steam. Main and Brown (rev.)
121

Engineers and the health of towns question, 358

Engineers' college, Putney, 320

Engineers, education of, 42

Engineers, Institution of Civil, 35, 60, 93, 121, 129,
156, 114, 222, 382 ; award of prizes, 61

Engineers, Institution of Mechanical, 61, 180,278,
297, 315, 374

Engineering, hydraulic, 149

Engineering, civil, Clegg's lecture, 337

Engineering, notes on, XII. 34 ; XIII. 107

Engineering, quarterly papers,Weale (rev.) 167

England, ancient pulpits, F. Dollojan (rev.) 225

England, new survey of, 320

England, public works — Canals,214,246; Docks,
284; Lighthouses, 247

English built war steamers for Austria, 288

English locomotives in France, 192

English patents, list of new, 32, 64, 96, 128, 160,
192, 224, 256, 2S8, 320, 352, 382

Entrances to docks, Redman on, 129

Equilibrium or balance-valve fur locomotives, 29

Euclid's elements of geometry, Tate (rev.) 328

Euston-square railway station, 192

Envelopes, Remond's machine for manufacture,
191

Erskine's valve nose-cock, 350

Erwood's pat. paper-hangings, 301

Evans's steanuvalves, 52
Evaporation from the soil, Buist on, 288
Ewbank, on paddles of steamers, 210, 231
Excavations at Fountains Abbey, 255
Exhibition at Birmingham, 314
Exhibition of arts, national, 347

INDEX.

Exhibition of machinery at Ghent, 191
Expansion of liquids, Rankine's formula of, 348
Expansive action of steam, Fairbairn on, 315
Expansive steam-engine, Newton's pat., 369
Expansive steam-engine, Pearce's, 350
Expansive steam-engines, Pearce's, 383
Experiments at Woolwich, 31, 383
Experiments on duration of wood, 38S
Experiments on railway axles, McConnell's, 375
Experiments, submarine telegraphic, 61
Experiments on seysselasphalte at Plymouth, 352
Experiments on gutta percha tubes as water ser-
vice, 255
Explosion of fire-damp, Richardson on, 121
Exposition of 1849 at Paris, 282
Exposition of products of French industry, Wyatt

on, 353
Express engine, Stephenson's, 184
Extraction of metals, Hunt's pat., 56

F

Fairbairn, on Britannia and Conway Tubular

Bridges, (rev.) 251
Fairbairn, on expansive action of steam, 315
Fairbairn, on water-wheels with ventilated buck-
ets, 232
Fall of railway viaduct at Preston, 352
Faraday, on crystalline polarity of bismuth, 30
Fastnett-rock lighthouse, 128
Fergusson and the British Museum, 196
Fergusson, on philosophy of nature and art (rev.)

2, 17, 44, 73, 110, 143
Fergusson, on the church of the holy sepulchre, 92
Fergusson's history of the pointed arch, 254
Fergusson's system of fortification (rev.) 227
Field's, (Mr.) conversazione, 185
Filter for towns, Stirling's, 159
Fire annibilator, Phillips's, 127, 346
Fire-cock, Bateman and Moore's, 166 ; Forester's

83 ; Lambert's, 155
Fire-engine, White's pat., 61
Fire-proof buildings, Braidwood on, 121 ; Fox

and Barrett (rev.) 318
Fire-proof flooring, Beardmore's pat., 120
Flexible breakwaters and lighthouses. Smith, 380
Flexure, resistance of posts to, Houpt on, 302
Float-wheels, trapezium, Rennie on, 259
Floating railway bridge. Frith of Tay, 181
Floors, lime-ash, 64

Flooring, fire proof, Beardmore's pat., 120
Fonlainemoreau's pat. veneer cutting and joining,

115,152
Force of screw-drivers, 62
Forchhammer, on formation of dolomite, 342
Forester's pat. hydrant or fire-cock, 83
Form and sound, Purdie (rev.) 318, 332
Formation of hydraulic limestones, Kublman, 286
Form in architecture and decoration, (rev.) 332
Fortification, Fergusson's new system (rev.) 227
Fountains abbey, excavations at, 255
France, law for patentees in, 350
Francis's pat. sawing and cutting wood, 299
French steamboats on the Rhine, 384
French exposition of industry, Wyatt, on, 353
French fleet, armament of, 318
French navy, 352

Fuel, compression of, Buckwell's pat., 368
Friction curve, Schiele's improvements, 186
Furnaces and stoves, Newton's pat., 56

G

Gainsborough iron-girder tubular bridge, 255
Gallery, National, and British Museum, 274
Galvanic batteries and magnets, Staite's pat., S3 ;

Wallenn's, 344
Galvanic batteries, zinc deposits of, 127
Ganges steam navigation, Robinson (rev.) 49, 86
Gardner's iron bridge girders, 250
Gas and water meter, Parkinson's pat., 311,336
Gas burners, self-lighting, Strode's, 191
Gas improvements, Croll's pat., 150
Gas manufacture, profits on, 383

Gas-meter for new houses of parliament, 31
Gage, sheet-metal and wire, Roberts's, 312
Gauge, vacuum and steam, Stillman's, 169
Geology of the Lake district, Rooke (rev.) 318
Geometric design, Billings (rev.) 30
George's (St.) Hall, hollow brick ceiling, 158
Gerbier's (Sir Balthazar) advice to builders, 153
Ghent, exhibition of machinery at, 191
Giant's staircase, Venice, 4

Gibbons on law of dilapiJations and nuisances,221
Gibbons's pneumatic lift, 297
Girderbridge, Gainsborough, 255; Thompson's,57
Girder, Gardner's iron bridge, 250
Glasgow and Edinburgh national bank, 257
Glasgow, model dwellings for workmen, 350
Glass blowing apparatus. Cooper's 350
Glass-colouring bv metallic oxides, Arnoux on,
343; Bontemps,343; Faraday, 343; Pellatt,157
Glass for optical purposes. Cooper, 122
Glass, kelp, manufacture of, Cooper, 350
Glass-meltiug furnace, Cooper, 350
Glass, pat. decorative, 286

Glass, ellect of oxygen ou colour, Pellatt on, 157
Glass silvering by gun-cotton, 191
Glass silvering, Drayton's pat., 251
Glass staining and enamelling. Cooper on, 350
Glaziers' machine, Howell's, 187
Glazing of hothouses &:c., Cooper on, 187
Glue, liquid, 288

Glynn, on hydraulic pressure engines, 28
Glynn's reference-book to railway companies, 120
Godwin's buildings and monuments (rev.) 167
Gold, chlorides of, preparation of, 319
Gold mines in Wales, 63
Goodwin sands, neacon on, 256
Gordon's pat., ventilation of mines, 372

Gothic ornaments, Colling (rev.) 225

Gothic architecture of Germany, Dr. Whewell
on, 379

Government shipbuilding, 85

Government steamers, armament of, 384

Grantham, on abbattoirs of Paris, 93

Grantham, on public slaughterhouses, 51

Gravity, centre of in locomotives, 21(i

Great Britain steamer, sale of, 127

Gregory's safety-valves, 5

Greek architecture, Candidas on, 97

Green and Newman's pat. railway-wheels, 334

Greener, on iron and steel manufacture, 3C6

Greensted church restoration, 120

Greenwich hospital, 33

Grimsby docks, cofl'erdara at, 382

Grove, on voltaic ignition, 126

Groynes at Sunderland docks, 156

Guildford drainage, 191

Gun-carriages, Woollett's pat., 371

Gun-cotton a motive power, 160

Gun-cotton, glass silvering by, 191

Guruej's steam jet for ventilation of sewers, 351

Guttapercha, new kind of, 302

Gutta percha pattern-book of ornaments (rev.) 120

Gutta percha, peculiar property of, 159

Gutta percha tubing, 160

Gutta percha tubing for water service, 255, 256

H

Haarlem Lake, drainage of, 320
Hall, on warming and ventilation of dwelling-
houses, 158
Hann's elements of plane trigonometry (rev.), 318
Harbour of refuge, Dover, 62, 204
Harbour screw-cramps, Stevenson on, 61
Harrison, on obstructions in tidal rivers, 223
Hart's pat. prevention of smoky chimneys, 23
Hartig's experiments on duration of wood, 383
Hawkshaw, construction of permanent way, 185
Hay tor granite, 253

Health of towns question and the engineers, 358
Henderson's pat. metal casting, 335
High Level bridge, Newcastleon-Tyne, 216, 287
High-pressure steam. Seaward on, 222
Highton's electric printing telegraph, 92
Hoby, on construction of permanent way, 180

Hoisting macliine, Archambault's steam, 373
Hollow brick ceiling, Liverpool, 158
Holmes, on electric telegraphs, 28
Honiershani, on artesian wells, 378
Hosiner's self-acting house-cistern, 312
Hothouses, Cooper on roofs and glazing of, 187
Houpt, on resistance of posts to flexure, 302
Howard, on rolling bars of suspension bridges, 222
Howell's glaziers' machine, 187
Howell's machine for cutting standing timber, 187
Hunt's pat. extraction of metals, 56
Huntington, on measuring earthwork, 12
Hutchinson, on poor-rates of metropolis, 383
Hydrant, or firecock, Hateman and Moore's pat.,

IGC; Forester's, 83 ; Lambert's, 155
Hydraulic dock, Scott's, 29
Hydraulic engineering, Stevenson (rev.), 149
Hydraulic engineering, report of committee on

Dee navigation (rev.), 149
Hydraulic limestones, Kuhlman on formation, 286
Hydraulic machines, 313, 352
Hydraulic press, Dall's, 94
Hydraulic pressure engines, Glynn on, 28
Hydraulic steam-engines. Woodcock's pat., 178
Hydro-carbonic illumination, Mans&eld, 156

I'Anson on THiiroRM or Solomon's temple, 120
Illegible manuscript, restoration of, 255
Important decision on rating case, 253
Improvement of tidal rivers, Stevenson (rev.), 149
India, Smith on irrigation of land (rev.), 359
Indian railways and steam navigation (rev.) 86
Indian river navigation. Bourne (rev.) 271 ; Shep-
herd, on improvement of, 321
India-rubber joints, Aikin on, 27 ; Wicksteed,26
India-rubber springs for rigging, Newall's pat.,

352; for time-pieces. Smith, 359
Industrial schools for paupers, 347
Institute of British Architects, 9, 30, 57,60, 92,
120, 158, 22:i, 254, 379 ; award of prizes, 158,
224, 255
Institution, Builders' Benevolent, 224
lostitutioa of Civil Engineers, 35, 60, 93, 121,

129, 156, 184, 222, 382 ; award of prizes, 61
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 61, 180,278,

297, 374
Insulating wire of telegraphs, Iticardo's pat., 118
Irish railways, White's letter on (rev.) 167
Iron and metallic compounds, Stirling's pat., 151
Iron and steel manufacture. Greener on, 306
Iron bars, Shaw's pat., 114
Iron beams. Porter's pat., 58, 250
Iron bridges, strength of, Buchanan on, 13 ; Os-
borne on, 83
Iron buildings fur California, 319
Iron, cast, Wrightson's analysis of, 342
Irou, coating of with zinc, Kiepe on, 255
Iron cofl'erdani, Brunei's, 62
Iron, enamelling of. Stumer on, 302
Iron fire-proof flooring, Beardmore's pat., 120
Iron girders, Gardner's pat., 250
Iron ladders, 127
Iron lattice bridge, Blair's, 161
Iron lirjks fur chains and cables, Price's, 352
Iron manufacture, Booker on, 95 ; Lee's pat., 82
Iron oxides, Longniaid's pat., 179
Iron pipe moulds, Stewart's pat., 280
Iron pipes enamelled, 62
Iron plates, Turton's pat. for bending, 83
Iron, rolling of. Clay's pat., 249
Iron roof, Liverpool railway station, 320
Iron steam-frigate, Megajra, 192
Iron steam-vessels ou the Ganges, Robinson on, 49
Irou, soldering of cast with wrought, 191
Irrigation of laud in India, Smith (rev.), 359
Isaac's (St.) church, Petersburgh,9
Isomelrical perspective, Clark on, 3
Ivory manufacture, 320

Jerusalem, Antiquities of, 92

INDEX,

Jerusalem, I'Anson on temple at, 120

Joiners' morticing machine, Furness's pat,, 351

Jopling's impulse to art (rev.) 332

Jordan, on carving machinery, 28

Joule, on heat of vaporization of water, 344

K

Kilns, Brick and Tile, Ainslie Company's, 188

Kilns, Swaine's pat., 81

Kilner's pat. axles gnd wheels, 372

Kuhlmann, on hydraulic limestone formation, 286

Ladders, Iron, 127

Laing, on railway taxation, 72

Lambert's hydrant, 155

Lancefield forge, description of, 351

Land drainage, Webster on, 123 ; Williams ou, 59

Launch of vessels — Bolivia, 288; Bombay, 95 ;

Megaera, 192 ; Vulcan, 90 ; Propontis, 384
Law of Patents, report of committee, 275
Lead ores, refining and smelting. Young's pat. 119
Lecture at Putney college, Clegg's, 337
Leeds, ou the orders of architecture (rev.) 16
Lee's pat. manufacture of iron, 81
Le Molt's pat. electric light, 80
Levelling staves, Pembertou on graduation of, 363
Letter on Irish railways. White (rev.) 167
Library, architectural lending, rules of (rev.) 275
Life of George Stephenson, 6, C8, 103, 170, 205
Lift, pneumatic, Gibbons's, 297
Light, parachute, Capt. Boxer's, 383
Light, artificial, Braude on, 95 ; Daubeny, 127;

Mansfield, 156
Light, electric, Le Molt's, 80; Payne's, 127
Lighthouses and breakwaters, Smith on, 380
Lighthouse, Bell Rock, 77, 123, 130, 180,253 ;

Cape Pine, 287 ; Fastnett rock, 128
Lighthouse lamps and reflectors, 287
Lighthouses, history of, 247
Lights, fixed and revolving, Stevenson on, 349
Limeasb floors, 64

Limestones, Kuhlmann on hardening of, 286
Liquid glue, 288

Liquids, expansion of, Rankine on, 348
Lists of new English palents, 32, 64, 96, 128, 160

192, 224, 250, 2SS, 320, 352, 384
Liverpool braucli bank, Candidus on, 322
Liverpool, North-Western railway station at, 319
Llewellin's pat. valves and cocks, 335
Locomotive boiler, Ramsbottom's, 278
Locomotive engine, Craropton's pat., 157, 184;

Thorutun and McConnell'spat., 176
Locomotive engines, centre of gravity, 216
Locomotive engines, usciilationof, Heaton ou,308
Locomotive engines, English in France, 192
Locomotive v. stationary-engine power, 352
Log-book, Borrie's companion to (rev.) 120
London and N.W. railway 122,192,319
London, map of, Wyld's (rev.) 318
Londou Society of Arts, 28, 00, 92, 157, 186
Loudon, supply of water to, 68, 357, 358
Longmaid's pat. oxides of iron, 179
Lovelace (Earl), ou timber roofs, 222
Lubricating composition, MuukilUrich's pat., 372

M

Macadamised Roads, Smith on, 306
Machinery, lubricating composition for, Munkil-

Irich's pat., 372
McConnell's pat. locomotive engine, 176
McCounell, on railway axles, 375
McGauley's rotary engine, 314
Maidstone, sanitary condition of (rev.) 72
Malleable iron lattice bridge, Blair's, 161
Mallet, on oxidation and abrasion of rails, 342
Mansfield, on artificial illumination, 156
Manure and refuse of towns. Dr. Ayre on, 157
Manuscript, illegible, restoration of, 255
Map of London, ^Vyld's (rev.) 318
Marine engines, Napier's, 191

Marine worms, Paton on ravages of, 382
Materials, strength of, Buchanan on, 13, 381 ;

Osborne on, 83 ; Thompson on, 41
Materials for a new style of ornament, Whitaker

on (rev.) 149
Mathias, des bibliotheques scientifiques indus-

trielles (rev.) 274
Measuring earthwork, Huntington on, 12
Mechanical Engineers' Institution, 61, 180, 278,

297,315, 374
Mediasval architecture, 05, 140
Megaera steam-frigate, launch of, 192
Metal castings, Henderson's pat., 335 ; Shanks's

pat., 334
Metal, extraction of from ores, Hunt's pat., 50
Metal work, artistic design in, Wyatton, 186
Meter, gas and water, Parkinson's pat., 311, 336
Meter, water, Carrick's self-acting, 350
Miller's railway tubular bridge, 158
Military engineering, Fergussou on (rev.) 227
Mineral oil, 90

Mineral resources of Egypt, 95
Minerals, rocks, &c., decomposition by water, 341
Mines, communication by tubes in, 96
Mines, prevention of accidents in, 94, 308
Mines, ventilation of, Brunlon on, 308
Mines, ventilation of, Gordon's pat., 372
Mining almanack for 1849 (rev), 167
Mining lamp, wax candle. Crane's, 94
Minx, screw steamer, trial of, 384
Mitchell, on submarine foundations, 35
Model dwellings for workmen, Glasgow, 350
Moorsom, on velocity of trains, 222
Morticing machine, joiners', Furness's pat., 351
Moses, on coal-field of South Wales, 318
Moulding bricks and pipes, Skertchley's pat., 55
Moulding machine, sheet metal, Roberts's, 305
Blullins, on roads, &c. in bog, 201
Munkittrich's pat, lubricating composition, 372
Mural paintings at St. Cross, 198
Musket ball, new, 128

N

Napier's marine engines, 191

Napier's pat. barometers and compasses, 79

Nasmyth, on the principle of railways, 52

Nasniyth's oil test, 314

National Bank of Scotland, 257

National defenses, Fergussou on (rev,) 227

National exhibition of arts, 347

National Gallery and British Museum, 274

Nature and art, philosophy of, Fergussou (rev.) 2,

17, 44,73, 110, 143
Navigation of Indian rivers. Bourne (rev.) 271
Navigation of Indian rivers. Shepherd on, 321
Navigation of the Ganges, Robinson (rev.) 49, 86
Navigation of tidal rivers, Harrison on, 223
Neate's description of a cofl'er dam at Grimsby

docks, 382
Neville, on sustaining sloping banks, 361
Newall's pat. india-rubber springs for rigging, 352
Newcastle centjal railway station, 97
Newcastle, High Level bridge, 216, 287
New Kremlin, Moscow, 94
New method of levelling graduating slaves, Prm-

berton's, 303
New motive power, 160
New musket ball, 128
New Palace of Westminster, illustrations of,

(rev.) 273
New patents, lists of English, 32, 64, 96, 128, 160,

192, 224, 250, 288, 320, 352, 384
New patents, register of, 22, 53,79, 113, 150, 176,

217,249,280,299,331, 3CS
New police office, Edinburgh, ventilation of, 159
New principle for suspension bridges and piers,

Russell, 380
New railways opened in 1848,64,
New Society of Painters in Water Colours, 106
New style of ornamentation, Whitaker (rev.) 149
New valve nose-cock, Erskiue, 350
Newton's pat. coupling-joints for pipes, 118
I Newton's pat. pumping engines, 281

INDEX.

Newton's pat. railway wheels, 300
Newton's pat. steel manufacture, 179
Newton's pat. stoves and furnaces, 56
Neudstadt and Barnett's calculating machine, 314
Nicholson, on ventilation of mines, 314
North-Western railway station, CamUen-town,

122; Liverpool, 319
Note-book, Candidus's, 2, 33, 65, 97, 145, 161,

195, 229, 258, 289, 322,
Notes of the Month, 31, 62,94, 127,159,191,255,

286, 319, 351, 383
Notes on engineering. Cox, XII. 34 ; XIII. 107
Notes on the Pentagraph, 361
Notes on the year 1849, 360
Nuisances and dilapidations, law of, Gibbons,

(rev.) 221

O

Oeliql'e bridges, Bashforth on, 147

Oil, mineral, 96

Oil test, Nasmyth's, 314

Optical purposes, glass for, 122

Oriental and Peninsular steam navy, 95

Ornamental cast-iron windows, 63

Ornamentation, new style of, Wbitaker (rev.) 149

Ornaments, Gothic, J. Colling (rev.) 225

Ornaments, gutta-percha, pattern-book of (rev) 120

Osborne, on strength of bridges, 83

Oscillating steam engine. Want's pat., 24

Oscillation of railway wheels, Heatoa on, 308

Oxalis crenata, Suarc6 on, 157

Oxidation of rails, Mallet on, 342

Oxides, metallic, colouring of glass and porcelain
by, Arnoux on, 343; Bontemps on, 343; Fara-
day on, 343

Oxides of iron, Longmaid's pat., 179

Oxygen, influence on colour of glass, Pellatt, 157

Paddle-wheels and ships, Taylor's pat., 81
Paddle-wheels, Ewbank on, 210, 231
Paddle-wheels, trapezium float, Reonie on, 259
Painters in AVater Colours, Society of, 166; New

Society of, 166
Paint without smell, 288
Paint, zinc, 62, 286
Paints for cloth, Pattison's pat., 180
Palace of Westminster, illustrations of (rev.) 27S
Paper-hangings, Erwood's pat., 301
Paper, mode of splitting, 63, 96
Paper, photographic, Brooke on preparation of,

343 ; Shaw on, 344
Paper, waterproof, Brindley's pat., 373
Papworth, on architecture of Kgypt, 185
Parachute Ijgnt, Capt. Boxer's, 383
Paris abbattoirs, Grantham on, 93
Paris, building materials of, Burneil on, 223, 238
Paris Exposition of 1849, 282
Paris, subterranean survey of, 127
Parkinson's pat. gas and water meters, 311, 336
Patents for inventions, remarks on, 88,100, 173
Patents, report of committee on, 275
Patents Granted for England, List of—

Fi-om 23rd Novemljer, to '21st December, 32

From 21^t December, to 25lh January, tl-l

From 2.'Jtli January, to 22iid February, 9f»

From 22nd February, to 20tb March, 128

From 20th March, to I'Jlh Aiiril, ICO

From 10th April, to 24th May, 102

From 24th fllay, to 7th June, 224

From 7th June, to 24th July, '2i)l)

From 24th July, to 23rrt August, 288

From 23rd August, to 20th September, 320

From 20th September, to Idth October, 3&2

From ISlh October, to 22nd November, 384

Patetits, Register of New —

Brick and Tile Kiln, Swaine, 81

Brick and tobacco-pipe moulds, Skertchley, 'jo

Bridge girders, Gardner, 2.')0

Casting pipes, Stewart, '2^0

Coal tar, Smith, 17'J

Compasses and Barometers, Napier, 79

Corrugated iron beams. Porter, 2.'J0

Coupling joints for pipes, NewtOD, 118

Drilling nii-tal, Watney, 151

Electric light, Le Molt, 80

Patents, Register of New CconiinitedJ—
Electric telegraph, Bakewell, 217
Electric telegraph wire, Ricardo, 118
Extractiou of Metals, Hunt, 5»i
Fuel, compressed, Buckwell, 368
Galvanic batteries and magnets, Staite, 53
Gas and water meter, Parkinson, '^G
Gas apparatus, Baines, 23
Gas manufacture, Croli, 150
Glass silvering, Drayton, 251
Gun carriages, Woollett, 371
Iron bars, Shaw, 114
Iron manufacture, Lee, 82.^
Iron lilanufacture, Stirling, 151
Iron plate bending, Turton, 83
Iron rolling. Clay, 4t)

Locomotive engine, Thornton & McConnell, 176
Lubricating composition, Munkittrich, 373
Metal castmgs, Henderson, S3^* ; Shanks, 334
Oscillating steam-engine, Want and Venittm, 24
Oxides of iron, Longmaid, 179
Paints for cloth, PattisOD, 180
Paperhangings, Erwood, 301
Papier-mache, Briudley, 56
Propeller, boomerang, Poole, 23
Pumping engine, Newton, 281
Railway axles and wheels, Kilner, 372
Railway ivheels. Green & Newman, 334 ; Newton, 300 ;

Wharton, 218
Sawing and cutting wood, Francis, 299
Sawing machine. Barber, 24
Screw propeller, Pim, 300
Ships and paddle-wheels, Taylor, 81
Sniel'ing and refining lead ores. Young, 119
Smoky chimneys. Hart, 23
Steam boiler, Seaton. 2.^

Steam-engines and hydraulic machines. Woodcock, 172
Steam-engines, Newton, 369
Steel manufacture, Newton, 179
Stoves and furnaces, Newton, 56
Tapering tubes, Winfield and Ward, 112
Tubes (metal, Taylor, 22

Valves and cocks. Llewellin and Hemmou, 335
Veneer cutting and joining, Fontainemoreau, 115, 152
Ventilation of Mines, Gordon, 372
Walling, Taylor, 3(»1
Waterclosets, Bunnett, 119
Waterproof paper, Brindley, 373
Window back enclosures, Tutton. 281
White I. .id, Pattinson, 301 ; Richardson, 115

Patentees, law for in France, 356

Paton, on Southend pier, and ravages of marine

worms, 382
Pattinson's pat, white-lead, 301
Pattison's pat. paints for cloth, 180
Paul's (St.) Cathedral, Candidus on, 33
Pauper industrial schools, 347
Payne's electric light, 127
Pearce's expansive steam-engine, 350
Pearce's expansive steam-engines, 383
Peat bog, aiullins on reclamation, 201
Peat charcoal, 63
Peat, valuable products of, 63
Pellatt, on influence of oxygen on flint glass, 157
Pemberton, on graduation of levelling staves, 303
Pentagrayh, notes on the, 361
Percy, on corrosiou of copper by sea-water, 342
Perinut, on preservation of water, 282
Permanent way, Dockray on, 193; Hawkshaw

on, 185 ; Hoby on, 180
Pestli suspension bridge, 64, 287
Petersbursh, church of St. Isaac, <l
Phillips's Are anuihilalor, 127, 346
Philosophy of nature and art, J. Fergusson (rev.)

2, 17,44,73, 110, 143
Photographic paper, Brooke on, 343 ; Shaw, 344
Photographometer, Claudet's 93
Pierce's pyro-pneumatic stove, 95
Pini'spat. screw propellers, 300
Pipes (iron) enamelled, 62
Pipes, iron, Stewart's pat. for casting, 280
Piping, earthenware, 62
Plan of Clapliara, Bland's (rev.) 120
Plans, arbitrators right to copy, 91
Plymoutii, water supply of, 25
Plymouth, experiments on seyssel asphalte at, 352
Pneumatic lilt. Gibbons, 297
Pointed arch, Candidus on, 66; Fergusson on,

254 ; Wilkinson on, 255
Poisoned water, 256

Poor-rates in the metropolis, inequalities of, 383
Porcelain, colouring of by oxide of iron, 343
Porter, on prices and wages, 1842-49,345
Porter's pat. corrugated iron beams, 58, 250
Posts, resistance to flexure, Houpt on, 302

Preservation of timber, Vernet's pat., 351
Preservation of water, Periuet on, 282
Prsesure to sustain sloping banks, Neville on, 364
Prevention of accidents in mines, Gordon's pat.,

372
Prices and wages of 1842-49, Porter on, 345
Principle of railways, Nasmyth on, 52
Printing electric telegraph, Highton on, 92
Proceedings of scientific societies, 28, 60, 92, 120

156, 180,222,254
Profits on manufacture of gas, 383
Progress in the year 1849, 360
Projecting window enclosures, Tutton's pat., 281
Propeller, boomerang screw, Poole's pat., 23
Propeller, screw, Pirn's pat., 300
Proposed railway bridge at Cologne, 352
Propontis, screw steamer, launch of, 384
Publication Society, Architectural (rev.) 167
Public and scientific libraries, 274
Public enterprise and patent law, 88, 100, 173
Public slaughterhouses, Grantham on, 51, 93
Public works of England — Canals, 214, 246;

Lighthouses, 247 ; Docks, 284
Pulpit at Sienna, 65
Pulpits of England, Dollman (rev.) 225
Pump, centrifugal, for draining, Appold, 305
Pump, double-action, Easton and Amos, 213
Pump, free-action, for colferdams, 57
Pumping engine, Newton's pat., 281
Pumping engine of Richmond waterworks, 165
Punjaub, agricultural resources of. Smith on(rev.),

359
Purdie on form and sound (rev.) 318, 332
Pyro-pneumatic stove, Pierce's, 95

R

Rails, abrasion and oxidation, Mallet on, 342
Railway and steamboat time signal, Torrop's, 159
Railway axles and wheels, Kilner's pat., 372

„ „ McConnell on, 375

Railway axles, on form of, 44
Railway chairs and switches, Baines, 184
Raihvay companies reference-book, Glynn, 120
Railway express engine, Stephenson's, 184
Railway floating bridge, Frith of Tay, 191
Railway, London and N.W., renewal of perma-
nent way, 192 ; stations of, 122, 192, 319
Railway stations — Camdentown, 122 ; Newcas-
tle-upon-Tyne, 97 ; Liverpool, 319
Railway taxation, Laing on (rev.) 72
Railway transit, Samuel on economy of, 374
Railway tubular bridge, Miller's, 158
Railway viaduct at Preston, fall of, 352
Railway wheels, centrifugal strains of, Cox, 34
Railway wheels. Green and Newman's pat., 334 ;
Newton's pat., 390; Smith's pat., 199 ; Whar-
ton's pat., 218
Railways, East Indian, Stephenson (rev.) 86
Railways in Bombay and cotton question. Chap-
man (rev.) 86
Railways in England, 352
Railways in Ireland, White on (rev.) 167
Railways' permanent way, Dockray on, 193 ;

Hawkshaw on, 185 ; Hoby on, ISO
Railways, roads, &c. in bog, Mullins on, 201
Ramsbottora's locomotive boiler, 278
Rankine, on expansion of liquids by beat, 348
Rankine, on sea walls, 265, 319
Rankine on t emperature and elasticity of steam

and other vapours, 366
Rapid filler for towns, Stirlings, 159
Rating case, important decision, 253
Ratios, algebra of, Browning (rev.) 293 ; Brown-
ing's reply to review, 331
Reclamation of Irish bogs, 285 ; Mullins on, 201
Reclamation of land from rivers, 358
Redman, on dock entrances, 129
Reduction of chloride of silver, 255
Reflectors and lamps of lighthouses, 287
Register of new patents, 22,53,79, 113, 150, 176,

217, 249, 280, 299, 334, 368
Reid's young surveyor's preceptor (rev.) 22
Remarks on Dr. Buckland's lecture on artesian
wells, 3-57

Rennie's correspondence on Bell Rock lighthouse,

77, 12:t, 130, 180,253
Rennie's pat. trapezium float wheels, 259
Report (2nd) on coals for the steam navy, De la

Beche and Play fair, 269
Report on Dee river, Stevenson (rev.) 149
Report on railways' permanent way, Dockray, 193
Report on sewerage of Chester, Baylis, 188
Report on patent laws, 275
Report on the Fr-uch exposition of products of

industry, \Vyatt, 353
Reservoirs, discbarge of water from, Bayer, 243,

261, 291,324
Resistance of posts to flexure, Houpt on, 302
Restorations at Cambridge, 32

Reviews of Books-
Aide Memoire, 227
Algebra of ratios. Browning, '2'J'S, 331
Architectural dictionary, Bernan, 148
Arcliitectural lending library, rules of, 275
Architectural publication society, 167
Architecture, rudimentary, Leeds, IG
Art, impulse to, Jopling, 332
Atlas, popular, Clarke, 17
Auckland islands, Endsrby, 318

Bibliotheques scientiliques industrielles, Mathias, 274
British Bluseum and National Gallery, Fergusson, 274
Buildings and monuments, modern and mcdicEVal, 1*»7
Clapham, plan of. Bland, 12l>
Coal field of South Wales, Moses, 318

Dee river, report of commissioners, 149

Dilapidantios and nuisances. Gibbons, 221

Elements of plane trigonometry, Hann, 318

Engineering, Weale's quarterly papers on, 167

Euclid's Elements, lirst three books of, Tate, 328

Fire-proof buildings. Fox and Barratt, 318

Form and sound, beauty of, Purdie, 318, 332

Fortification, new system of, Fergusson, 227

Ganges navigation, Robinson, 41>, 86

Geology of the Lake district Rooke, 318

Gothic ornaments, Colling, 22.>

Gutta-percha ornaments pattern-book, 120

Indian river navigation, Bourne, 271

Irrigation of land in India, Smith, 3');t

London, Wyld's map of, 318

Maidstone, sanitary condition of, Whichcord, 72

Marine steam engine. Main and Brown, 221

IVIining almanack, English, 1*J7

Ornamentation, materials for new style, Whitaker, 149

Palace of Westminster, illustrations of, 278

Philosophy of nature and art, Fergusson, 17, -14, 73, HO,

Pulpits, ancient English, DoUman, 22.'> [143

Railway companies reference-book, Glynn, 120

Railway curves, tables for setting out, Kennedy, 318

Railway taxation, Laing, 72

Railways in Bombay, Chapman, 8*>

Railways in Ireland, White, 1(J7.

Roofs (open timber) of the middle ages, Brandon, 225

Slaughterhouses, Grantham, 51

Steam. vessels, companion to log-book for, Borrie, 120

Southern whale fishery, Enderby, 318

Surveyor's (young) preceptor. Held, 22.

Tenant right, Shaw and Corhett, 120

Tidal rivers improvemsnt, Stevenson, 120, 14p

Ricardo's pat. insulating wire of telegraphs, 118

Richardson on coal-field of South Wales (rev.) 121

Richardson on explosion of firedamp, 121

Richardson's pat. white- lead, 115

Richmond vpaterworks pumping engine, 165

Riepe, on coating iron with zinc, 255

Rigging, india-rubber springs, Newall's pat. 352

Ritchie, on ventilation of public buildings, 159

Rivers, reclamation of land from, 358

Rivers, tidal, improvement of, Stevenson, 120, 149

Roads, railways &c. in bog, Mullins (rev.) 201

Roads, macadamised. Smith on, 300

Robb's air or stiuk trap for drains, 350

Roberts, on correct sizing teeth of wheels, 304

Roberts's eccentric metal and wire gage, 312

Roberts's sheet metal moulding machine, 335

Roberts's tide-winding apparatus, 313

Rocks, chemical process for boring, 03

Rocks, minerals, &c., decomposition of, 341

Rogers, on decomposition of rocks, &c., 311

Roof, iron, Liverpool railway station, 320

Roofs, timber, Earl of Lovelace on, 222

Roofs, timber, of middle ages, Brandou (rev.) 225

Rolling iron bars, Clay's pat., 219

Rolling iron bars for suspension bridges, 222

Rooke's geology of the Lake district (rev.) 318

Rotary engine, McGauley's, 314

Royal Academy, architecture at, 103,209

Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, experiments, 31, 192

INDEX.

Royal Institute of British Architects, 9, 30 57,

60, 92, 120, 158, 223, 254 ; award of prizes,

158 224 255 379
Royal' Scottish Society of Arts, 13, 29, 61, 94,

122, 153, 186, 349, 380 ; opening address, 380 ;

award of prizes, 29
Royal Society, 30

Rudimentary treatises, Weale (rev.) 16, 318
Ruskin's'Seven Lamps of Architecture,'Candidus

on, 101 , 195, 229, 258, 289, 392
Russell, on wave principle of steam-vessels, 344
Russell, on suspension bridges and piers, 38

Safety mining-lamp. Crane's, 94
Safety-valve, Gregory, 5
Sale of Great Britain steamer, 127
Salt water spring in a coal mine, 357
Samuel's steam carriage for branch traflic, 374
Sands, Goodwin, beacon on, 256
Sanitary condition of Maidstone (rev.) 72
Sash, window, Dean's, 94
Saw filing and setting machine, 127
Saw gin, American, Burn on, 122
Saw mill, Douglass's, 187
Sawing and cutting wood, Francis's pat., 299
Sawing machine. Barber's pat., 24 ; Douglass's
cross-cut, 01 ; for standing timber, Howell, 187
Schiele's friction curve improvements, 168
Schools, pauper industrial, 347
Scientific societies, proceedingso f, 28, 60, 92, 120,

150, ISO, 222^ 254, 379
Scoles, on antiquities of Jerusalem, 92
Scott's hydraulic dock, 29

Scottish Society of Arts, 13,29, 01, 94, 122, 158
180, 349 ; opening address, 380 ; award of
prizes, 29
Screw cramps, Stevenson on, 01
Screw-drivers, force of, 02
Screw frigate Termagant, trial of 384
Screw-pile and moorings, Mitchell on, 35
Screw propeller, Pim's pat., 300
Screw propeller planing machine, 384
„ „ for the Vulcan, 384

Screw propeller, proportions of, 320
Screw steamer, Bosphorus,288; Propontis, 384
Seasoning wood, Davison's process, 310
Seawalls, Rankine on, 265, 319
Sea water, action of on copper, Percy on, 342
Seaward, on high-pressure steam, 222
Self-acting water meter, Carrick's 350
Self-heating shot, 288
Self-ligjjting gas-burner, Strode's, 191
'Seven lamps of architecture', Caudidus on, 101,

195, 229, 258, 289, 322
Sewerage of Chester, 188
Sewers Commission, 333

Sewers or drains, air or stink trap for, Robb's, 350
Sewers' ventilation, Gurney's steam-jet, 351
Seyssel asphalte, experiments on, 352
Shanks' pat. for casting iron cylinders, 334
Shaw, on tenant right (rev.) 120
Shaw's patent iron bars, 114
Sheet metal moulding machiue, Roberts's, 305
Shepherd, on river Danube improvements, 321
.Ship-building, government, 85
Ships and paddlewheels, Taylor's pat., 81
Shot, Smith's pat., 319; self-heating, 288
Siemen's steam condenser, 127
Sienna, pulpit at, 05
Silver and brass, cleaning of, 191
Silver, reduction of chloride of, 255
Silvering glass by guu-coltun, 191
Silvering glass, Drayton's pat., 251
Simpson's pumping engine, 165
Skertchley's pat. for moulding bricks, &c., 55
Skew bridge, Bashforlh ou, 147
Slaughterhouses of Paris, Grantham on, 93;

public, Grantham (rev.) 51
Sloping banks, Neville on resistance and sustain-
ing of, 304
Smelting and refining lead ores, Young's pat., 119
Smith, on irrigation of land in the Pnnjaub, 359

Smith, on flexible breakwaters and lighthouses, 380
Smith, on macadamised roads, 306
Smith's pat. preparation of coal tar, 179
Smith's pat. shot, 319

Smith's pat. solid iron railway wheels, 199
Smoky chimneys, Hart's pat. for preventing, 23
Society of Arts, London, 28, 60, 92, 1 57, 1 86, 380
Society of Arts, Scottish, 13, 29, 61 , 94, 122, 158,
180,349,380; opening address, 380; Award
of prizes, 29
Society of Painters in Water Colours, 106; ditto,

new, 166
Soldering cast with wrought iron, 191
Solid iron railway wheels, Smith's pat., 199
Southampton, artesian well at, 287
South Devon railway, 127

South Wales coal-field, Richardson on, 121 ; Mo-
ses on (rev.) 318
South Wales, explosion in Eaglebush colliery, 121
Southend pier, Paton on, 382
Southern whale fishery, Enderby on (rev.) 318
Spanish war steamer. Colon, 160
Splitting paper, mode of, 93, 96
Staining oak colour, method of, 62
Staite's pat. galvanic batteries, &c., 53
Stationary v. locomotive engine power, 352
Statue of Duke of Wellington, Tower, 31
Steam and other vapours, Rankine on tempera-
ture and elasticity, 306
Steam and vacuum gauge, Stillman's, 169
Steamboats (French) on the Rhine, 384
Steamboat and railway time signals, Torrop, 159
Steamboat, ' Emmet,' 96
Steam boilers, Sealon's pat., 23
Steam-carriage for branch tiafiic, 374
Steam-engine, Newton's pat. expansive, 369
Steam engines and hydraulic machines, M'ood-

cock's pat., 178
S^pam engines and railway carriages, Thornton

and McConnell's pat., 176
Steam engines, expansive, Pearce's, 350
Steam engines, marine, Main & Brown (rev.) 221
Steam engines, oscillating. Want & Veriium, 24
Steam, expansive action of, Fairbairn on, 315
Steam-engines, Pearce's expansive, 383
Steam factory in Sweden, 320
Steam frigate, Megaera, 192 ; Vulcan, 90 ; Vale-
rius, 384
Steam, high-pressure, Seaward on, 222
Steam jet for ventilating sewers, Gurney's, 351
Steam navigation and railways in India, 86
Steam navigation of India, Shepherd on, 321
Steam navigation of the Ganges, Robinson 49, SO,
Steam navigation, At'oodcroft on, 00
Steam navy, coals for, De la Beche and Playfair's

second report, 209
Steam ship, Bombay, 95 ; Mega5ra, 192; Vulcan,

90; Colon, 100
Steam sloop Conflict, trial of, 384
Steam valves, Evans, 52; Fairbairn, 315; Gre-
gory, 5
Steam vessels, log-book for, Borrie (rev.) 120
Steam vessels, wave principle for, Russell on, 344
Steel and iron manufacture, Greener on, 300
Steel manufacture, Newton's pat., 179
Stephenson (Geo.), life of, C, OS, 103, 170, 205
Stephenson (R.M.) on East Indian railways, 80
Stephenson's (Robert) express engine, 184
Stereoscopes, Sir D. Brewster ou, 159, 180
Stevenson (Alan), correspondence on Bell Rock

lighthouse, 77, 123, 136, 180, 253
Stevenson (David), on tidal rivers (rev.) 120, 149
Stevenson (Thomas) on fixed and revolving lights,

349 ; on harbour screw-cramps, 01
Stewart's pat. iron pipe casting, 280
Stillman's vacuum and steam gauge, 169
Stirling's pat. iron and luelallic compounds, 151
.Stirling's rapid water filter, 159
Stones, Buchanan's experiments on strength of,

381
Stoves and furnaces, Newton's pat. 56
Stoves, pyro-pueumatic, Pierce's, 95
Strawberry-hill villa, Caudidus on, 33
Straw bonnets, machine for dressing, 94

Strength of materials, Buchanan on, IS, 381 ; Os-
borne on, 83; Thompson on, 41
Strode's self-lighting gas-burners, 191
Stucco colouring and whitewash, 288
Stumer's enamel for iron, 302
Style in architecture, Cockerell on, 254; .Candidus

on, 323
Suarc^, on the oxalis crenata plant, 157
Sub-aqueous telegraphs, chain pipe for, 304
Submarine foundations, Mitchell on, 35
Submarine telegraphic experiments, 61
Substitute for tlje crank, Kisdon's, 328
Sun, formula for finding the distance of, 51
Sunderland dock groynes, 156
Supply of water to boilers, VFard on, 304
Supply of water to London, 58, 357, 358
Survey of England, 320
Suspension bridges, Russell on a new principle

for, 380
Suspension bridge, Chester, 320
Suspension bridge, Pesth, 64, 287
Suspension bridges' vibratory strains, Cos on, 107
Swaine's pat. brick and tile kiln, 81
Swivel bridge at Falkirk, 191

Tables of curves for Kailways, Kennedy, 318
Tar, coal, Smith's patent preparation, 179
Tate's Euclid's elements of geometry (rev.) 328
Taylor's pat. construction of walls, 301
Taylor's pat. ships and paddle-wheels, 81
Taylor's pat. metal tubes, 22
Taxation, railway, Laing on, (rev.) 72
Telegraph, electric, Bakewell's coying, 2L7, 311 ;

Highton on, 92; Holmes on, 28; in England,

352 ; Ricardo's pat. insulating wire, 118
Telegraph posts, Hall's improvements, 352
Telegraph, subaqueous, Whishaw on, 304
Telegraph, submarine, 61
Temperature and elasticity of steam and other

vapours, Kankine on, 366
Tempering edge-tools, 288
Temple at Jerusalem, I'Anson on, 120
Tenant right, Shaw and Corbett (rev.) 120
Teredo Navalis, Patou on ravages of, 382
Termagant screw frigate, trial of, 384
Thames steamboats, 96
Thomson, on strength of materials, 41
Thompson's tubular beam bridge, 57
Tidal river obstructions, Harrison on, 223
Tidal rivers, improvements of, Stevenson, 123, 149
Tides in the German ocean, 96
Tide-winding apparatus, Roberts's pat, 313
Timber preservation, Vernet's pat., 351
Timber roof. Earl of Lovelace's, 222
Timber roofs of middle ages, Brandon (rev.) 225
Time signal for railways, &c., Torrop's, 159
Time-piece with india-rubber springs. Smith's, 350
Tobacco pipes and bricks, Skertchley's pat., 55
Tools, method of tempering, 288
Torrop's railway and steamboat time signal, 159
Towns and buildings, drainage of, Dempsey, 318
Tracery, geometric design in. Billing, 30
Trains, velocity of. Captain Moorsom on, 222
Transit on railways, economy of, Samuel on, 374
Transverse strain of materials, Buchanan on, 13
Trapezium float-wheels, Rennie's pat., 259
Trembley's (Du) combined-vapour engine, 7
Trigonometry, plane, Hann's elements (rev,) 318
Tubes, casting of. Shanks' pat., 334
Tubes, Taylor's pat., 22; Winfield and Ward's,

pat., 113
Tubing, gutta-percha, 160, 256
Tubing, gutta percha, for water service, 255

INDEX.

Tubular beam bridge, Thompson on, 57

Tubular bridge, Britannia,21S, 251,264,287, 305,

346; accident at, 287, 305
Tubular bridge, Conway, 63, 251, 264
Tubular bridges, Britannia and Conway, Fair-
bairn (rev.) 251
Tubular bridges. Miller's, 158
Tubular girder bridge, Gainsborough, 255
Turton's pat. iron bending machine, 83
Tutton's pat. window-back enclosures, 281
Tyne river, 31; High-Level bridge on, 216,287

Vacdcm and steam gauge, Stillman's, 169
Valerius steam frigate, armament for, 381
Valuable products of peat, 63
Valves,Anderson's revolving, 187; Erskine's, 350;

Llewellin's, 335 ; Schiele's, 168
Valves, steam, Evans's, 52; Fairbairn's, 315;

Gregory's safety, 5
Valves of pumping engines, Newton's pat., 281
Vaporization of water, Joule on, 344
Vapour engine, Du Trembley's, 7
Vapours, temperature and elasticity, Rankine, 366
Velocity of trains, Moorsom on, 222
Veneer-cutting, Fontainemoreau's pat,, 115 ;

veneer-joining, 152
Venice, Giant's staircase, 4

Ventilation and warming of houses, Hall on, 158
Ventilation of coal mines, Brunton, 187, 308;

Edgington, 186; Gurney, 127; Nicholson, 314
Ventilation of mines, Gordon's pat., 372
Ventilation of public buildings, Ritchie, 159
Ventilation of sewers, Gurney's steam-jet, 351
Vernet's pat. for timber preservation, 351
Vibratory strains of suspension bridges. Cox, 107
Victoria and Albert yacht, cost of, 383
Vitrified lace-pattern glass, 286
Vohl, on silvering glass by gun-cotton, 191
Voltaic ignition. Grove on, 126
Vulcan steam frigate, launch of, 96
Vulcan steam frigate, spare screw propeller, 384

\V

Wages and Prices — 1842 to 1849, Porter, 345
Wales (Prince of), boat for, 224
Wales, gold mines in, 63
Wallenn's galvanic batteries, 344
Walls, sea, Rankine on, 265, 319
Walls, construction of, Taylor's pat., 301
Want and Vernum's steam-engine, 24
War steamers for Germany, 96 ; for Austria, 288
Ward, on the supply of water to boilers, 3Q4
Warming and ventilating of houses. Hall on, 158
Water and gas meter, Parkinson's pat., 311, 336
AVater and gas pipes, india-rubber joints, Wick-
steed on, 26
Water Colours, Society of Painters in, 166; ditto,

New, 166
Waterclosets, doubly-trapped, Bunnell's pat., 119
Water, discharge of from reservoirs, Bayer on, 243,

261, 291
Water, preservation of, 282
Water, poisoned, 256
Water-meter, Carrick's, 350
Waterproof paper, Brindley's pat., 373
Water service, experiments upon gutta percha tub-
ing for, 255
Water supply of London, 58,357,358
Water supply of Plymouth, Beardmore on, 25
Water test, 127
Water-wheels, Fairbairn on, 60, 232

Wave principle for construction of steam vessels
Russell on, 344

Wax-candle safety mining-lamp. Crane's, 24

Weale's quarterly papers on engineering (rev.) 167

Weale's rudimentary treatises (rev.) 16, 318

Webster, on deep draining, 123

Wells, artesian, Dr. Buckland's lecture on, 279

Wells, artesian, Homersham on, 378

Wellington statue in the tower, 31

Werdinsky, on xyloidine as amotive power, 160

Westminster new palace, illustrations of (rev.) 273

West on boiler crust, 187

Wharton's pat. railway-wheels, 218; Green and
Newman's, 334 ; Newton's pat., 300

Wheels and axles, Kilner's pat., 372

Wheels, railway, solid wrought-iron. Smith's, pat.,
199; Wharton's pat., 818

Wheels, trapezium float, Rennie's pat., 259

Wheels, correct sizing of teeth, Roberts on, 304

Whewell, Dr., on Gothic architecture o" Germany,
379

Whichcord, on sanitary condition of Maidstone, 72

Whishaw, on telegraphic communication, 311

Whishaw's chain-pipe for subaqueous telegraph, 304

Whitaker's new style of ornamentation (rev.) 149

White's fire-engine, 61

White-lead manufacture, Pattinson's pat., 301 ;
Richardson's pat., 115

White's letter to Lord J. Russell on railways ia
Ireland (rev.) 167

Whitewash and stucco colouring, 288

Wicksteed, on india-rubber joints, 26

Williams, on land drainage, 59

Wilkinson (Sir G.), on origin and history of the
pointed arch, 255

Wilson's model dwellings at Glasgow, 350

Window-sash, Dean's 94

Window, ornamental cast-iron, 63

Windows, projecting back enclosures, Tutton, 281

Winfield and Ward's pat. taper tubes, 113

Woodcock's pat. steam-engines and hydraulic ma-
chines, 178

Woodcroft, on steam navigation, 60

Wood, Hartig's experiments on duration of, 383

WooUett's pat. gun-carriages, 371

Woolwich arsenal, 31, 192

Workmen's model houses in towns, Wilson's, 350

Wright's electro-magnetic coil-machine, 158

Wrightson's analytical investigations of cast-ir0D,342

Wrought-iron cofferdam, 62

Wrought-iron solid railway-wheels, Smith's, 199

Wyatt (D.) on metal-work and artistic design, 186

Wyatt's report on the French Exposition of pro-
ducts of industry, 355

Wyld's map of London (rev.) 318

X

Xyloidine a motive power, Werdinsky, 16

Y

Young's pat. smelting and refining lead

orgs, 119
Young surveyor's preceptor, J. Reid (rev.) 22

Zinc, co.ating iron with, Riepe on, 255
Zinc deposit of galvanic batteries, 127
Zinc paint, 62
Zinc white, 286

INDEX.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Axles, railway, 2 cuts, 4-1
Banks, sloping, 1 cut, ;«>4
Bending iron plates, 1 cut, Hli
Brick and tile kllus.2 cuts,f<l, 1(<8
Bridge girders, 7 cuts, 1V»0
Britannia tubular biidge, 5 cuts, 21", 3f'.">
Bog reclamation, 'J cuts, 201
Boomerang propeller, 1 cut, 23
Casting iron pipes, 1 cut, 2S0
Casting metal, ft cuts, 334, 335
Church architecture, 3 cuts, 225
Cisterns, self-acting, 2 cuts, 'M'2
Combined-vapour engine, 1 cut, 8
Corrugated iron beams, 3 cuIs.tSO
Coupling-joints for pipes, 5 cuts, US
Dock entrances, ^ cuts, 121)
Draining marshes, 1 cut, 305

Karthwork, scale for nieasuring,2 cuts, 12

Electric light, 5 cuts, 80

Electric telegraphs, 3 cuts, US, 2\f'

Expansive steam, 1 cuut, ^ll.')

Extraction of metals. 1 cut, 56

Friction curve, G cuts, 163

Gas and water meters, 8 cuts, 33C

Hydrants, 4 cuts, 83. 55, 166

Iron bars, 4 cuts, 114

Iron manufacture, 1 cut, 82

Iron, rolling of, 2 cuts, 249

Levelling staves, 1 cut, 364

Locomotive, centre of gravity in a, 1 cut,

216
Locomotive engines, 9 cuts, l"G
Oblique bridge, 4 cuts, 147
Oil test, I cut, 314

Oflcillating steam-engine, 2 cuts, 24
Paddles of steamers, 33 cuts, 27, 214,231

259
Pentagrapli, 3 cuts, 361
Permanent way, 4 cuts, 180
Posts, flexure of, 1 cut, 302
Pump for coflTerdam, 1 cut, 57
Pumping engine, ;i cuts, 165, 281
Railways, on the principle of, ;i cuts, 52
Railway- wheels, 8 cuts, 300, 334
Reservoirs, discharge of water, 11 cuts,

243,261,2111,325
Safety-valves, 2 cats, 5
Sea-walls, 5 cuts, 265
Screw-pile and moorings, 14 cuts, 34
Sheet-metal and wire- gauge, 1 cut, 16;»
Steam-valve 3 cuts, 52

Steam and vacuum gauge, I cut, 169
Steam hoisting-machine, 1 cut, 373
Strength of materials; 1 cut, 41
Tide winding-apparatus, 3 cut, 318
Trapezium float-wheels, 6 cuts, 259
Tubes, 4 cuts, 22, 113
Tubular bridges, 3 cuts, 57, 251
Valves and cocks, 5 cuts, 8, 52, 335
Veneer-cutting, 7 cuts, 115
Veneer-joining, 2 cuts, 152
Venice, giant's stairs, 1 cut, 4
Ventilation of coal-mines, 2 cuta, 308
Walling, 1 cut, 301
Walerclosets, 1 cut. 111*
Water-wheels, 6 cuts, 232
Window back enclosures, 2 cuts, 281

DIRECTIONS TO BINDER.

Plate I. Bridgewater House

11. III. St. Isaac's Church, Petersburgh ..

IV. Pulpit at Sienna

V. East Indian Steam Navigation

VI. Raihvay Station, Newcastle-upoa-Tyne. .

VII. Dock Entrances
VIII. Beli Rock Lif?hthouse

IX. Iron Lattite Bridge

X. XI. Railways' Permanent Way

XII. Reclamation of Bog, ,

XIII. Solid Wrouyht-Iron Railway Wheels ..

oppos]

ite page ' 1

9

XIV. XV. X

M

,

«8

„ XVII.

'.1"

„ XVIII.

,

121)

„ XIX.

,

130

» XX.

,

1«1

„ XXI.

19:i

'

201

„ XXII.

,

200

r Lady Chapel, Ely Cathedral ; Roof over Nave,"\

XIV. XV. XVI. < Fresliogtield Church, Suffolk; Stone Pul- J-

L pit St. Peter's Church, Wolverhampton J

Glasgow and Edinburgh National Bank

Pneumatic Lift

Sheet- RIetal Moulding Machine . .

Improvements of the Danube River

The French Exposition — Plan of Building
/Newton, Steam Engines; Woollett, Gun Car- i
t riages ; Gordon, Ventilation of Mines S

opposite page 225

257
897
305
321
353

NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

3 9358 00828805 9

I^i'l^'lpillllli/I

iii£i,;iiiii

I/:

iiltiuliUllliUilttiliilliliiliiUlitiiiiiiiiiillitiliililj

NOHTHf ASTERN UNIVERSITV LIBHARIES

3 9358 00828805 9

jtuuijiiiaiiiiunuiiUij