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Digitized by tine Internet Archive
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Presented to the
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY
by the
ONTARIO LEGISLATIVE LIBRARY
1980
SCHMITZ & ZUMPTJS OZiilSSICAZ. SSRIES FOR SOHOOXiS.
BLANCHAKD AND LEA,
ISjlilnhlfjitE;
ABE PUBLISHINQ UNDER THE ABOVE TITLE,
A SERIES OF CLASSICAL SCHOOL eOOKS,
EDITED BY THOSE DISTINGUISHED SCHOLARS AND CRITIC*,
LEONHARD SOHMITZ AND 0. G-. ZUMPT.
The object of this publication is to present a series of elementary worki ■uited to the wants of the beginner, as well as accurate texts of the more pro- minent ancient writers, revised in accordance with the latest investiga- tions and MSS., and the most approved principles of modern criticism.— These are accompanied with notes and illustrations introduced sparingly avoiding on the one hand the error of overburdening the work with commen- tary, and 01 the other that of leaving the student entirely to his own resources. The main object has been to awaken the scholar's mind to a sense of the beau- ties and peculiarities of his author, to assist him where assistance is neces- sary, and to lead him to think and to investigate for himself For this pur- pose maps and other engravings are given wherever useful, and each author is accompanied with a biographical and critical sketch. The form in which the volumes are printed is neat and convenient, while it admits of their being sold at prices unprecedentedly low, thus placing them within the reach of many to whom the cost of classical works has hitherto proved a bar to this depart- ment of study. It will be seen, therefore, that the series combines the follow- ing advantages:
1. A gradually ascending series of School Books on a uniform plan, so aa to constitute within a definite number, a complete Latin Curriculum.
2. Certain arrangements in the rudimentary volumes, which will insure a *»ir Rmount of knowledge in Roman literature to those who are not designed fci ptofcBBioDcl lile,and who therefore will not require to extend their studiea to the advanced portion of the series.
3. The text of each author will be such as has been consliluled by the most recent collations of manuscripts, and will be prefaced by biographical and cri- tical sketches in English, that pupils may be made aware of the character and peculiarities of the work they are about to study.
4. To remove difficulties, and sustain an interest in the text, explanatory notes in English will be placed at the foot of each page, and such comparisons drawn as may serve to unite the history of the past with the realities of modern times.
5. The works, generally, will be embellished with maps and illustrative engravings, — accompaniments which will greatly assist the student's compre hension of the nature of the countries and leading circumstances described.
6. The respective volunics will be issued at a price considerably less than that usually charged : and as the texts are from the most eminent sources, and the whole series constructed upon a determinate plan, the practice of issuing new and altered editions, which is complained of alike by teachers and pupilf, will be altogether avoided.
The series consists of the fallowing volumes, which have recently appeared •r will Bliortly be ready ;
1
Schmitz and Znnipt's Classical Series— Coutinned^.
tl.) C. JULII CAESARIS COMMENT ARII DE BELLO GALLICO. — With an Introduction, Notes, and a Geographical Index in English. Also, a Map of Gaul, and Illustrative Engravings. Ia one handsome 18mo. volume, of 232 pages, extra cloth, price 50 cts.
ai.) PUBLII VIRGILII MARONIS CARMINA.— With an
Introduction and Notes. In one handsome 18mo. volume, of 438 pagei, extra cloth, price 75 cts.
(in.) C. CRISPI SALLUSTII CATILIN A ET JUGURTHA.
— With Introduction and Notes in English. Also, a Map of Numidia, an4 other Illustrative Engravings. In one handsome I8mo. volume, of 168 pages, extra cloth, price 50 cts.
aV.) LATIN GRAMMAR.— By Leonhard Schmitz. Ph. D., F. R. S. E., Rector of the High School, Edinburgh. In one handsome 18mo. volume, of 318 pages, neatly half-bound, price 60 cts.
V.) Q. CURTII RUFI DE GESTIS ALEXANDRI MAGNI,
Libri Qui Supersunl VIII. With a Map, Introduction, English Nctea, &.C In one handsome 18mo. volume, of 326 pages, price (50 cts.
(VI.) M. TULIill CICERONIS ORATIONES SELECT^K.
With Introduction, English Notes, &c. &c. In one handsome 18mo. volume, of 300 pages, price 60 cts., {just issued.)
(VII.) T. LIVII PATAVInT~HISTORIARUM, Libri I. II. XXI. XXII. With Two Maps, an Introduction, and English Notes. In one handsome l8mo. volume, of 350 pages, price 70 cents, (now ready,)
(VIII.) A SCHOOL DICTIONARY OF THE LATIN LAN- GUAGE.—By Dr. Kaltschmidt. In Two Parts, Latin-English, and English-Latin. Forming one large and closely-printed voluaie, royal 18mo. of 850 double-column pages, strongly bound: price, $1 25. Part I., Latin-English, of nearly 500 pages : price, 90 cts. fart II., English-Latin, of nearly 400 pages : price, 75 cts.
(IX.) p. OVIDII NASONIS CARMINA SELECTA.— With Introduction, English Notes, &.c. In one handsome 18mo. volume of 259 pages; price 60 cents.
(X.) Q. HORATII FLACCI POEMATA EXCERPTA.-
With Introduction, English Notes, &c. In one handsome 18mo. volume oi 312 pages ; price 60 cents.
(XI.) ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR AND EXER.
CISKS.— In one handsome 18rao. volume, of 235 pages* price 50 cents,
(XII.) LATIN READING AND EXERCISE BOOK.—
In one handsome 18mo. volume, {preparing.)
(XIII.) A COMPLETE SCHOOL CLASSICAL DICTION- ARY.—In one large and handsome I8mo. volume, {preparing.)
The numerous advantages which this series possesses have secured for U the unqualified approbation of almost every one to whom it has been sub- mitted. From among several hundred recommendations, with which they bav€ been favored, the publishers present a few from the following eminent wbotars and practical teachers.
2
Schmitz and Zumpt's Classical Series — Coutiunejt*
F^om. Trof. J. F. Richardson, Madison University, Oct. 27, 1849. I gnre the Grammar at once a very careful examination, and have no heaitatioo i^ mying that, for the use of school and college classes, I consider the work superior to any •iher Latin Grammar in our' language with which 1 am acquainted. I have alro»dy directei! one of my classes to purchase copies of it. 1 shall also introduce in the coorM •f the year your edition of Virgil and probably also tnat lA Osesar, both cf which I prefflf te acy others as text books for our classes.
Frmn Prof. J. J. Owen, Free Jlcademy, JVeto York, Aug. 31, 1849.
I am highly pleased with vour excellent publications of the above series, and as anevi*
fmnci* of the e'stiraation in whicii I hold them, on my recommendation, your Virgil haa
t«*n adopted as a text-book in the Free Academy in this city. I shall be happy to oom-
maiA your series to all viilh. whom I may have any influence.
From Prof. J. B. Hudson, Oberlin College, O., Oct. 12, 1850. I have examined the series of Elementary Classics published by Lea & Blanchard, and take great pleasure in saying that I regard them as admirably adapted to secure the object proposed. The text is a highly approved one and the typography has been rarely excelled m works of this sort for clearness and beauty. 1 have detected fewer mistakes in th« printing and pun^'^tuation of these books than in almost any works of a similar character that I have seen. The maps too are a great help — an inaispen»>ib'e one indeed to the preat majority of students who have no ancient atlas— in understandii.jj the geographical allusions contained in the text. The selection of notes is judicious; u.?4 the whole design and execution of the series commend it to the notice of those who wisti . ."» become iudependeut and .soLf-relying scholars.
From Prof. J. Packard, Theological Seminary, Fairfax county, Firginia^
March ^, 1850.
The size of the volume, the beauty and correctness of the text, and the jndiciooe
*Dte8, not «o copious to supersede the industry of the pupil, seem to me to leave notliing
>o be desired. I doubt not your enterprise will be rewarded by your editions taking the
Jilace of others now in use. to which there are many objections, and I will do what in me ies to promote their circulation.
fVom Prof. J. S. Bonsall, Frederick College, Mi., March 18, 1850. Having used the first three volumes of the scries for more than a year. I am free t« ■ay, that I prefer them to any school editions of the same authors with which 1 am acquainted.
From Prof. J. Forsyth, College of J^cw Jersey, March 19, 1850. I am happy in being able to say that every successive volume has confirmed me in the judgment formed on those first issued, and renews my delight that you have resolved ta place the whole of this admirable series of classical authors within the reach oi Lvtn. ean students. The Grammar is already in use in this college; and I 6ha.T co:JL«l7 recommend our students to procure your editions of such authors as we read.
From T. J. Sawyer, Esq., Clinton Liberal Institute, March 28, 1850. We have paid them the compliment of making them our text-books and introducing them at once into this institute. In size and price, in design and execution, they seem to me better fitted for schools of this class than any others that have fallen under ray observation. A neat and accurate text, and brief, but exolicit notes, constitute the prin- cipal characteristics of a good classical school book. Tir^se distinguish your series, and give them a claim to general diffusion.
From the Rev. J. J. Smyth, A. M., Sussex Court House, Va., April 6, 1850.
While at the head of the Petersw-p Classical Institute, I introduced your Caesar, Virgil r.fl Sallust, as being in my judgmeiit ;l>e best school editions of these works that 1 have ■eeii. Since I have been in my present pastoral charge, I have been the means of having the Caesar and Sallust introduced into two schools in this county. These works are • happy medium between the mere text and the overloaded annotations which rendec ■ome editions but the clandestine refuge of idle school-boys.
From President Manly, University of Alabama, March 29, 1850. So far as 1 may bo consulted, or have influence, I shall seek to recommend the on aC thk well edited and cheap series, in all the preparatory schools of our regioB.
8
Schmitz and Zumpt's Classical Scries— Continued*
Fr(m A. W. Pike, Esq., Kcnnehunk, Me., December 14, 1349,
1 have examined with much care and hi^h satisfaction, the first five volumes of yctl edition of Drs. Schmitz and Zumpt's clsissical series. The plan and execution o£ the serle« •re excellent. The notes appended to the several authors evince fully the sound jud^,- ment and accurate criticism of the learned editors. They are sufficiently copious to me** the wants of the student, without, at the same time, by their fulness, encouraging habitt of indolence I have, for more than thirty years, been constantly engaged in teaching the classi(;s, and 1 have not seen any edition of the Latin authors, usually read in o'Ur •cademies, wliich 1 could commend so confidently, as the one you are pubUsliing.
From E. Everett, Esq., JJ'ew Orleans, December 14, 1849. All these publications are valuable acquisitions to our classical and school libraries. I •m particularly pleased with the Virgil ; the notes are a store of learning; they fumisii the student with such hints on the manners and customs of the Romans as caimot fail to ■crve as important aids to the study of Roman history, at the same time that they throw new light on the text of the great poet. They seem to me to be model notes : they &r» neither so copious ss to enable the student to dispense with the exercise of judgment and taste, nor so meagre as to leave difficult passages unexplained.
J<Vo^.'A'homas Chase, Esq., Cambridge, Mass., September 28, 1849. I take gre-al pleasure in recommending the various volumes of Schmitz and Zumpt's Classical Series, which have appeared in this country, as admirably adapted for the use of schools. The character of the editors is a guarantee of the accuracy of the text and the correctness of the annotations. The notes are prepared with careful scholarship and nice discrimination, and the amount of information given on historical and grammatical points is sufficient to satisfy the wants of the learner, while it is not so great as to be prejudicial to his habits of study. We have introduced the editions of Caesar and of Vir fy, comprised in this series,.into the High School in this city.
From R. B. Tschddi, Esq., JVorfolk Academy, May 31, 1849. I received the fourth volume of your classical series and take great pleasure in inform- ing you they have been the text-books recommended in this school since their first ap- pearance. I have found the text and typographiowl execution equal, and in many respects superior to any other editions that I have seen. Buttheir cheapness is destined to make them take the place of all other school editions. Of course it will take time to assume the place of works already in use, but I believe fully, at no distant day these will be the sole editions in general use.
From A. Morse, Esq., J^antuckct ITigh School, July 20, 1849.
After a somewhat minute examination of the same, in which I have compared thenv,
line by line, with other edi-tions, edited by different gentlemen, which my classes-are now
reading, 1 have no hesitation in giving to the series, edited by Drs. Schmitz and Zumpt,
& decided preference to any with which I am acquainted.
jFVom R. H. Ball, Esq., JVortkumberland Academy, JiTovember 28, 1849.
This edition of the classics, so far, I greatly prefer to any other I have seen, for the us*
of schools. It combines the advantages of textual correctness, cheapness, and pre-emi-
nent ability in the annotations, three things especially desiralile in school books. 1 hav«
adopted this series, as far as issued, to the exclusion of all others.
From the Rev. E. A. Dalrymple, Episcopal High School of Virginia, JiTovem her 27, 1849. I have examined them with some care, and have pleasure in stating that they ai* judiciously and carefully prepared for the use of schools and colleges. The notes are U the point, and "what notes to classical authors should be, not so full as to amount to . translation of the text, or so meagre as to give no satisfiactory information to the studci 4. As the best evidence of my approval, I would state that it is my purpose to introduce them, as occasion may arise, into the institution under my direction.
From Z. D. T. Kingsley, Esq., West Point, JV. Y., J^ovember 6, 1843. I am very much pleased with the Csesar and Virgil, and presume 1 shall be equally m with the Sallust. 1 shall adopt these Latin books for my school.
From Prof. A. F. Ross, Bethany College, Virginia, December 7, 1848. ^ My opinion of the Caisar you have already had expressed, and I will only add that my mtetest in the completion of the series has been enhanced by the volumets which TOB have forwaided me. I shall recommend them for adoption as the standard oourae in tha
BLANCHARD AND
Schmitz and Zumpt's Classical Series — Coutiuued«
From J. S. Bonsall, Esq., Frederick College, Md., Feb. 5, 1849. • A have examined them, and find them on all points what the reputation of the enuiUHrt
■ditors led me to expect Ironi them, and what they design the books to be. I know not that i can give you a better proof of the estimation in which I ho fl thea^
Uian by simply saying that I am already usmg Caesar and Virgil of the series in mj ^inf^n
■nd expect very soon to introduce Sallust.
From Prof. N. L. Lindsley, Cumberland University, Tenn., Kov. 22, 1848.
I am very favourably impresred with the merits of Schmitz and Zumpt's classical serkw. %) far as my engagements have permitted me to examine the " Virgil" and "Sallust," I am induced to believe that they are superior to the other editions in common use.
1 shall take pleasure in recommending tliein to teachers and students in this vicioit/
From Prof. Gessn r Harrison, University of Virginia, JVov. 3, 1848. I very decidedly approve of the plan of publishing cheap editions of the classics, •witk brief notes, for the u&e of schools, and shall recommend this edition to my friends, as attit- able for this object.
From Prof. W. S. Tyler, Amherst College, Mass., Dec. 25, 1848. The notes are pertinent and pithy, as well as accurate and learned, and contrast to freat advantage willi some whose chief recommendalion is, that they are designed ta atone for the indolence of the student by the supererogatory works of the editor.
From John S. Hart, LL.D., Central High School, Philadelphia, Dee. 14, 1848.
I have examined, with much satisfaction, your editions of Virgil and Sallust, being coa- Unuations of your reprint of Schmitz and Zumpt's classical series, and take pleasure ia renewing the recommendation which I gave to the plan of the series on the appearance of Csesar, The notes are admirably adapted to the precise wants of the learner, giving in small space all the necessary facilities, without superseding the necessity of diligent and accurate study.
From C. W. Everest, Esq., Rectory School, Hamden, Ct., Dec. 7, 1848. From the brief examination I have been able to give them, I feel very much pleased with them, both as regards tiie execution of your own part of the plan, and also that of jrour able editors. Such text-l)ooks are much needed. Instead of them, we have been inundated with editions, too often wretchedly printed, and more frequently ruined by a multiplic^y of notes. Accept my thanks for your kindness in sending me the works, and ue sure 1 shall be happy to adopt them as text-books lu my school.
From Wm. B. Potts, Orwigsburg, Pa., JVov. 28, 1848. 1 have devoted sufficient time to the examination of your editions of Caesar, Virgil, and Sallust, to enaljle me to form an estimate of tlieir respective merits. I do not hesitate K» jay that the uniformity and cheapness of the works, with the notes of the learned editors, lufficiently illustrative of the style and sentiments of the authors, and yet not so volumi- nous as to obviate the necessity of careful study on the part of the student, must recom- mend them to the favourable consideration of those engaged in teaching this interesting oranch of Uterature. We shall certainly adopt this series in the academy.
From Wm. Garnete, Esq., JVorfolk, Va., JVov. 20, 1848. I return you my thanks for the copies of Virgil and Sallust sent to me. The professor of languages in the Norfolk acadeniy has introduced them in this school, and we thiak thoy will be used in all schaols, as soon as known to them. I shall recommetjl them t« ail the teachers of my acquaintance.
From Wm. Dennis, Esq., Wilmington, Del., JVov. 11, 1848.
I have received the Ciesar and Virgil of the classical senes now in course of pubUcatioa kryou and have for some tiine been using the Ciesar with a class. I am satiafied tiuw Hiest) ire better school editions of ihoi% authors ttian any others that I have ever seen.
fyom G. W. Meeker, Esq., Chicago, III., Jan. 17, 1849. ! shall be happy to recommend tliem as the best and most accurate ediU'cns of ta« works I hiv'e ever seen.
5
Schmitz and Zumpt's Classical Series — Continued.
/V»m PRor. A. S. Packard, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me., March 8, 1849. I cannot refrain longer from communicating to you the liighly favourable impressiot which they have made upon me. I see nothing to desire in the general style of theC i
•ditions. I know of no others, which for nesitness and cheapness, and sufficient helps fa (Ae student, surpass them. I am exceedingly pleased with the good taste, clear and pr» |
eise statements, and sound scliolarship, which distinguish the uotes. As school ciassics, I resurd them as models. '
From Prof. J. Forsyth, Jr. College qf JV. J., Princeton, Feb. 7, 1849.
' am happy to say that in my judgment the testimonials to the excellence of the MiiM thft. you have already received are fully deserved. The cheapness and convenif't fbrw of these volumes, and especially the character of the notes, make them precisely the kifmi «f text book which I should put into the hand of the young classical student. I shali >• commend the students of this college to procure your edition of ';uch of the Latin authon as we a:? accustomed to read'. You have my best wishes for your success in your prsi*» worthy enterprise.
fVom FaoBrM. L. Stoever, Penn. College, Oettysburg, Pa., Jan. , 1849. The accura.'y of the text, and the judiciousness of the notes, as well as the cheapneii of the volumes, render this edition of the classics most deserving of public attention.
fV»m N. Bishop, Esq., Supt. of Public Schools, and Principal qf High School, Prt- vidence, R. I., JVov. 29, 1848. I have had the honour of receiving the three first volumes of your " Classical Seri^. I am much pleased with the size of the books, and their cheapness ; the correctness of th" text, and the character of the notes. I mean, of couise, the comparative correctness ot the text, as perfect accuracy is rarely attained among us, even in our own language, much less in that of others. I shall take pleaswe in recommending your " Classical Series" to all the schools in the vicinity of this city, and shall introduce them into the Classical De- partments of our High Scliool at the earliest opportunity for cnaiiges in text-books.
From Prof. John Wheeler, Asbury University, Qreencastle, la., Dec. 8, 1848.
As far as I have examined, I am well plessed with them. The notes appear to be what they ought, explanations of difficult passagis. and not extended translations, so common and so detrimental to classical attainment. The modest remarks of the editors on dis puted passages are worthy of notice and imi ation. in these remarks, I refer principalljf to the edition of Virgil, which I have examined mora than the others, and which I consi der far superior to any other edition extant u our country. The cheapness of the serie. is a valuable consideration; and the pub'isl. »-s deserve and doubtless will receive a har vest of thanks from many a student who. ii.„ellect and desire of knowledge are superioi
to his purse.
From A. Campbell, President of Bethany College, Va., JVov. 22, 1848.
1 have just glanced, with much pleasure, over your edition of Virgil, being the lecontf Tolume of Schmitz and Zumpt's Classical Series.
This is just the thing I have long desired to see — a neat, handsome, correct, and chMp •dition of the Latin Classics, relieved from the extraneous and unwieldy lore of prosin* doctors. The addenda or notes in the margin of this handsome volume are just such at the student needs. The series will doubtless meet with very general favour from aU teachers and learners, because of its clear, accurate, and beautiful typography, its general ♦ood taste, its cheapness, and its judicious adaptation to the genius and wants of the age.
From Charles Wheeler, Pres. of Rector College, Taylor C'y., Va., Dec. 1, 1848. The neatness and beauty, and, as far as I have examined, the correctness of execution, together with the lucid arrangement of the notes, must, I think, commend your editioM to public patronage. I am delighted to see Virgil, my favourite poet, so handsomely exo eated. I have recommended your series to our students, as 1 esteem them worthy of a de&.ded preference.
Fr«m Christopher Morgan, Esq. Sup. Com. Schools. Mbany, JV. Y., July 27, ]845>. j
The high character of the gentlemen who superintend the publication, fc deep and j Taried erudition, is a sufficient guarantee for the correctness of the text. The brief note* are suggestive, rather than translative, and much better than the labored exposition! { which carry the student along, instead of pointing out the way. The cheapness and con- venient size of the books, to say nothing of their literary merit, cannot fail to bring the«i ' •ito gieneral use. .
• 1
BLANCHARD AND LEA^S i UuLICATiOHl.
Schmitz and Zumpt's Classical S<3ries — Continaei.
fy»m Prof. John Wilson, Prep. Dep. Dickinson College, Carlislt, Dee. 8, If^fc I haro examined the three volumes with consitlerable care, and can give them mj rnm- fualified approbation. Ttie plan is judicious, and the execution wortliy of all praise. !'•'• Botes comprise all that a student needs, and all that he should have ; and their positi*k U "Jie foot of the page is just what it should be.
From Prof. E. E. Wiley, Emory and Henry College, Va., JVov. 30, 1848.
From the cursory examination given them, I must say that I have been highly gntifitd. Such a series as you propose givhig to the public, is certainly a great desideratum. O j» classical text-books have lieretofure been rendered entirely too expensive, by the costl> dresses in which they have appeared, and by the extensive display of notes appended; many of which, though learned, are of little worth to the student in elucidating the text It will afford me pleasure to introduce into my department such books of your series M nuy be in our course.
From S. II. Taylor, Esq., Andover, Mass., Oct. 30, 1848. The notes seem to me very accurate, and are not so numerous as to do for the studenl wliat he ought to do for himself. I can with safety, therefore, recommend it to my pupil*,
Prom Prof. M. M. Qampbell, Principal of the Grammar School, Indiana Utti
versity, JVov. 6, ]848. 1 like the plan of )'our series. I feel sure it will succeed, and thus displace some of th« learned lumber of our schools. The notes, short, plain, and apposite, are placed whers they ought to be, and furnish the learner just about help enough.
Fnnn Philip Lindsley, D. D., Pres. of the University of JVashville, JVor.27, 1848. The classical series, edited by Drs. Schmitz and Zumpt, has already acquired a high and well-merited reputation on both sides of the Atlantic. I have carefully examined your editions of Caesar and Virgil. I think them admirable text-books for schools, and preferable to all others. I shall avail myself of every suitable occasion to recommend them.
From B. Sanford, Esq., Bridgewater, Mass, Jan. 17, 1849. 1 have examined, with considerable care, both the Csesar and the Virgil, and am much pleased with the plan and execution of the series thus far. I am particularly gratified with the propriety and judgment displayed by the editors in the preparation of the notes: avoiding, as I think, the prolixity and profuseness of some of our classical works, and, at the same time, the barrenness and deficiency of others ; giving a fjody of aanotatiom better suited to aid the teacher in imparling a knowledge of the language, than is to be found in any edition heretofore in use.
From Prof. Stdrgess, Hanover College. Indiana, Dec. 30, 1848.
The mere name of the editors is a sufficient and most ampie guarantee of tne accuraef of the text, the judicious choice of various readings, and the conformity of those adopted to the latest investigations of MSS., and the results of the rnost enlightened criticisnu. The notes I have not examined very carefully, exceot those of the Virgil. They are eid- aairable, extremely condensed, and conveying a gi .at deal of most valuable criticism it the briefest possible way. They are particularly valuable for their aesthetical remark% and the frequent references to parallel passages in the same author. The preliminaiy \ife is excellent, and of great value to the student. The Sallust appears to be of the sam#
neral chaiacter, and the notes to furnish just such help as the diligent student really needs. I think that in bringing out such a course at a cheap rate you are conferring a creat boon on the country, and additional honour on your press, already so distinguished wr the value of its issues.
From Rkv. Robt. Allyn, Providence Conference Seminary, R. I., Dee. 25, 1848.
I am much pleased with the general character of these works. The text in its geneiai tharacter is highly satisfactory, the notes are really illustrative, and admirably calculat«d to assist the student in acquiring a knowledge of the matter in the text, the niaiiners ao^ CUBtoms of the times, and the liistory and characters of the actors in the scenes. Tha Wpography and external appearance of the works are such as please the eye and iaipretia M taste. Yqii certainly deserve encouiagement, and ^o shall do what lies ia our ] la ccteud the circulation of the works.
7
^chmitz and Zampt's Classical Series — Continued.
KALTSCHMIDT'S LATIN DICTIONARY FOR SCHOOLS.
A SCHOOL DICTIONARY OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE,
IN TWO PARTS, LATIN-ENGLISH AND ENGUSH-LATIN.
BY DR. KALTSCHMIDT.
tmnmcs one large royal 18mo. volume of 850 pajres, closely printed in double columu
and strongly bound.— Price, 5 1 25.
jii^o. Part I. Latin English, in one handsome volume, strongly bound, of
nearly 500 pages. — Price, 90 cts.
Part 11. English-Latin, nearly 400 pages, bound to match.— Prioe, 75 ct«.
While several valuable and copious Latin Lexicons have within a few jrears been published in this country, a want has long been felt and acknow- ledged of a good School Dictionary, which within reasonable compass and Bt a moderate price should present to the student all the information requisite for his purposes, as elucidated by the most recent investigations, and at the same time unincumbered with erudition useful only to the advanced scholar, and increasing the size and cost of the work beyond the reach of a large por- tion of the community. It is with this view especially that the present work has been prepared, and the names of its distinguished authors are a sufficient guarantee that this intention has b en skilfully and accurately carried out.
The present volume has been compiled by Dr. Kaltschmidt, the well-known German Lexicographer, from the best Latin Dictionaries now in use through- out Europe, and has been carefully revised by Dr. Leonhard Sclimilz. Learned discussions and disquisitions could not be introduced, as incompatible with the objects for which the Dictionary is intended, and because they would have swelled considerably the bulk of the volume. On the other hand, it has been thought advisable to give, as far as possible, the etymology of each word, not only tracing it to its Latin or Greek root, but to roots or kindred forms of words occurring in the cognate languages of the great Indo-Germanic family This feature, ^vhich distinguishes the present Dictionary from all others, can- not fail to awaken the learner to the interesting fact of the radical identity of many apparently heterogeneous languages, and prepare him at an early stage for the delightful study of comparative philology.
The aim of the publishers has teen to carry out the author's views as far as possible by the form and arrangement of the volume. The type, though clear and well printed, is small, and the size of the page such as to present an ini' mense amount of matter in the compass of a single handsome 18mo. volume, furnished at a price far below what is usual with such works, and thus placing within the reach of the poorest student a neat, convenient, and complete Lexicon, embodying the investigations of the most distinguished scholars of the age.
UNIFORM WITH SCHMITZ & ZUMPT'S CLASSICAL SERIES.
THE CLASSICAL MANUAL.
AN EPITOME OF AI»CIENT GEOGRAPHY, GREEK AND ROMAN MYTH0L09T, ANTIQUITIES, AND CHRONOLOGY.
CItiefly intended for tlie Use of Schools*
COMPILED BY JAMES S. S. B A I R D, T. C. D., &c.
In one handsome 18mo. volume, of about 175 pages
riie want has long been felt and acknowledged of an epitome, presenting in a mode* rate space and at a low price, sucti information as is necessary for the proper ccinpr^ hension and appreciation of the classical authors most commonly read in our s'.hoola. The object of the present volume is to supply this want, by affording in the mo^t con- densed form, and in such a manner as to admit of its being thoroughly mastered and ntained, all the information respecting classical antiquity which is reqiisite for th* Muriier stage* of study.
s
THE
^^
CLASSICAL MANUAL:
AN EPITOME OF
ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY,
GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY,
ANTIQUITIES,
AND CHRONOLOGY.
CHIEFLY INTENDED FOR THE USE OP SCHOOLS.
COMPILED BT
JAMES S. S. BAIRD,
TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIK, ASSISTANT CLA^SiCXL MASTER, KlIW;^ SCHOOL,
BL
1855.
TO TfflJ
REV. THOMAS EVANS, D.D.
HEAD MASTER OF KINo'S SCHOOL, GLOUCESTER,
THIS LITTLE WORK
U BESPBCTFCLLY DEDICATED, BT
HIS OBLIGED AND FAITHFUL SERVANT,
JAMES S. S. BAIRD.
(lii)
f?
Many excellent works have recently issued from the press, which, either separately or in the form of diction- aries, treat of the subjects of the following pages : and yet the want of an Epitome has been recognized, which would contain, in the compass of a single volume, of small size and moderate price, as much information upon such points as is calculated to elucidate the Greek and Roman authors usually read in the junior forms of our schools. It has been the object of the compiler of the present manual to supply this deficiency by introducing into it such details as are most likely to be useful (indeed much of which is absolutely necessary to the classical student) in so small a space as to admit of its being thoroughly Jtiastered and retained. Although at first the requirements of junior forms were chiefly contemplated, yet in the progress of the work so much additional matter has been supplied as, it is hoped, will render it not unacceptable to more advanced students.
In the compilation, the best and most recent authorities have been consulted, but particular obligations must be acknowledged to the following works : Dr. William Smith's 1* (v)
Tl PREFACE.
Dictionaries of "Greek and Roman Mythology and Bio- graphy," " Greek and Roman Antiquities," and " Classical Dictionary;" the Rev. T. K. Arnold's editions of the " Handbook of Ancient Geography and History," by W. . Piitz, and the "Handbooks of Greek and Roman Anti- quities," by Dr. Bojesen. The editor's best thanks are also due to the Rev. H. Haines, M. A., Second Master of the King's School, Gloucester, for his kind supervision of these pages while passing through the press, and also for the valuable assistance he has afforded in several parts of the work.
J. S. S. B.
Gloucestbr, January, 1852.
CONTENTS
GEOGRAPHY.
EUROPE.
Pag« CouNTEiES, Seas, Gulfs, Straits, Rivers, Mountains, Lakes,
Islands 13, 14
Hispania, — Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers, Promontories,
Divisions, Tribes 15
Tarraconensis, Lusitania, Bse tica. Islands.... 16
Gallia. Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers, Lake, Divisions.. 17
Narbonensis ib.
Aquitania, Lugdunensls 18
Gallia Belgica. Tribes, Islands 19
Ger mania. — Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers, Divisions,
Tribes 20
Vindelicia, Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Illyri- cum. — Vindelicia. Boundaries, Rivers, Tribes,
Towns 21
Rhsetia. Boundaries, Rivers, Tribes ib.
Noricum. Boundaries ib.
Rivers, Towns 22
Pannonia. Boundaries, Rivers, Lakes, Divisions,
Towns ib.
Illyricum. Boundaries, Mountains, Divisions ib.
Towns, Islands 23
Italia. — Boundaries, Gulfs, Strait, Mountains ib.
Rivers, Lakes 24
Capes, Divisions 26
Liguria, Gallia Cisalpina or Togata ib.
Venetia, Carni, Histria, Etruria 26
Umbria, Picenum, Sabinum 27
L atium, Samnium 28
Campania, Apulia 29
Lucania, Bruttium 30
Islands: Si cilia ib.
Moesia. — Boundaries, Divisions, Tribes, Rivers, Towns.... 31
Dacia. — Boundaries, Rivers, Tribes 32
Sarmatia. — Boundaries, Tribes, Towns ib.
a)
Vm CONTENTS.
Macedonia. — Boundaries 82
Gulfs, Mountains, Rivers, Divisions, Cities 33
Illyris Graeca ib.
Thracia. — Boundaries, Straits, &c., Mountains, Rivers, Cities 34
Grsecia. — Boundaries ib.
Gulfs, Strait, Mountains, Rivers 35, 36
Lakes, Promontories, Divisions 37
Thessalia ib.
Epirus, Acarnania, iEtolia, Doris, Locris 38
Phocis, Bceotia 39
Attica, Megaris (Peloponnesus), Achaia, Elis 40
Messenia, Laconia, Argolis 41
Arcadia, Corinthia, Sicyonia ,.. 42
Greek Islands. — In the Ionian and -^gean Seas 43
Britannia or Albion. — Boundaries, Rivers, Promontories,
Divisions 44
Tribes, Towns, Islands 45
ASIA.
Countries, Mountains, Seas and Gulfs, Rivers, Islands 46, 47
Asia Minor. — Boundaries, Gulfs, Mountains, Rivers 47
Lake, Promontories, Divisions 48
Bithynia ib.
Paphlagonia, Pontus, Mysia, Lydia or Mseonia 49
Caria, Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia 50
Phrygia, Galatia, Cappadocia, the Six Dorian
States, the Twelve Ionian States 51
^tolian League, "Seven Churches of Asia" 52
Island: Cyprus ib.
Syria, Palsestina. — Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers ib.
Divisions: Syria, Phoenicia, Palaestina or Judaea.
Tribes 53
Divisions: Galilee, Samaria, Judaea 54
Peraea and Batanaea, the Cities of Refuge, Seven
Heathen Nations 55
Arabia. — Boundaries ib.
Mountains, Divisions, Tribes, &c 56
Countries between Pontus Euxinus and Hyrcanum Mare. — Sarmatia Asiatica, Colchis or -^ a, Iberia ib.
Albania 57
Armenia Propria vel Major. — Boundaries, Mountains,
Rivers, Lake, Towns ib.
Mesopotamia. ib.
River, Divisions, Towns 58
Babylonia and Chaldsea. — Boundaries ib.
Countries East of the Euphrates and Tigris: —
Assyria, Media, Susiana or Susis 59
Persia or Persis 60
CONTENTS. urn
•Countries South of the Oxus: —
Hyrcania, Parthia, Aria, Bactriana CO
Carmania, Gedrosia 61
Countries North of the Oxus: —
Sogdiana, Scythia ib.
India. —
Boundaries, Rivers, Divisions, Towns, &c., Islands, &c. 62
AFRICA.
Boundaries, Bays, Strait, Rivers, Lakes 63
^gyptus, — Boundaries, Divisions, ^gyptus Inferior or
Delta, Heptanomis 64
-^gyptus Superior vel Thebais 65
Northern Coasts of Africa. — Divisions ib.
Libya, Tripolitana, Africa Propria 66
Numidia, Mauritania, Islands 67
MYTHOLOGY.
TheTwelve Olympian or National Deities of the
Greeks and Romans 68-70
Minor Deities 70-75
Heroes, Mythical Persons, &c 75-84
EARLY GRECIAN LEGENDS, &o.
The Argonautic Expedition 85
Early Legends relating to Thebes 86
Story of (Edipus and War of the Seven against Thebes 86,87
Early Kings of Troy 88
Legend of the Trojan War 89, 91
Grecian Heroes, &c., connected with the Trojan War 91-94 Trojan Heroes, &c 95-97
GREEK ANTIQUITIES.
Divisions of the Inhabitants of Attica and Sparta 98 Magistrates: —
Archons, their number, functions, &c 98, 99
Inferior Magistrates 99
Ephori r ib.
Assemblies. — The General Assembly, The Senate of the Five Hundred 100
Gerousia, the Senate at Sparta 101
Judges and Courts of Justice. — The Court of Areopagus ib.
The Heliasts. The Diaetetae. The Forty ib.
Court of the Ephetae. Amphictyones 102
Punishments. — Ostracism, Atimia, &c 102, 103
Temples, Priests, and Sacrifices 103, 104
Oracles. — Zeus at Dodona. Apollo at Delphi 104,105
Other Chief Oracles : of Zeus; of Apollo; of Heroes... 105
»ri CONTENTS.
Festivals. — Adonia, Anthesteria, Dionysia, Eleusinia,
&c 106-108
Public Games. — Principal Exercises used in 108,109
The Four National Games. Olympic Games 109
Pythian Games. Nemean Games. Isthmian Games.... 110 Military Affairs. — Divisions of the Army and Classes of
Soldiers Ill
Arms (defensive and oflFensive) ib.
Officers. 'Minor Divisions of the Army 112
Naval Affairs. — Ships of Burden; AVar Galleys; Principal
parts of the vessel, &c. Tackling, &c 113
Naval officers, &c 114
Private Life of the Greeks. — Meals, Dress, Funerals 114-116 The Greek Theatre 116,117
ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.
Divisions of the Inhabitants of the Roman Empire;
Patricii, Plebei 118
Equites, Nobiles, Ignobiles, Optimates, Populares,
Servi, &c 119
The Senate. — Members, Proceedings, &c 119,120
Assemblies. — Comitia Curiata, Comitia Centuriata 121
Comitia Tributa 122
Magistrates and Chief Public Officers: —
^diles, Apparitores ib.
Censores, Consules, Curatores 123
Dictator, Praefectus, Praetor 124
Pro-Consul, Procurator, Pro-Prsetor, Quaestores, Tri-
buni 125,126
Judicial Proceedings, Punishments 126
Priests. — Pontifices, Augures or Auspices 127
Fetiales, Haruspices, Decemviri, Curiones, Rex Sacrifi-
culus, Flamines, Virgines Vestales 128
Salii, Luperci, Galli, Fratres Arvales 129
Prayers, Sacrifices, Festivals 129, 130
Games. — Ludi Circenses, Gladiatorii 131
Classes of Gladiators, Scenic, or Stage Plays, Theatres 122
Military Affairs. — Conscription and Period of Service,
Pay, &c 133, 134
Divisions of the Army ; Arms 134,135
Officers: Legati, Tribuni, Centuriones ; Encampment... 135
Order of Battle, Standards, Military Engines 136
Military Rewards and Punishments, Triumph, Ova- tion 136,137
Naval Affairs 137
Private Life of the Romans. —Dress 138,139
Meals, &c 139, 140
CONTENTS. si
Private Houses, Baths, Amusements 140, 141
Funerals 142
Names, and their abbreviations 143
ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS.
Poets. — Epic, Tragic 144
Comic, Lyric 145
Pastoral 146
Prose Writers. — Historians 146, 147
Orators, Medical Writers 147, 148
Mathematicians, Geographers, Fabulist 149
Satiric Writer, Critic, Philosophers 150,151
ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS.
Poets.— Epic 152
Elegiac, Lyrio 153
Tragic, Comic, Didactic. Satirists'* 154
Epigrammatist, Fabulist 155
Prose Writers. — Historians ib.
Orator, &c 156
Epistolary Writers. Writers on Philosophical Subjects,
Natural History 157
Agriculture, Architecture, Medicine, Grammar and
Criticism 158
SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY.
The Ionic School 159
The Italic School ib.
TOPOGRAPHY of ATHENS 160,161
ROME 162-164
GREEK AND ROMAN DIVISION of TIME 165-167
MISCELLANEA.
Hills of Rome, Kings of Rome 168
Twelve Caesars, Seven Wonders of the World, Seven Sages
of Greece 169
Twelve Labours of Hercules, Nine Muses, Three Graces 170
Three Horse, Three Fates, Three Furies, Three Judges of
Hell, Five Rivers of Hell 171
The Winds 172
ROMAN CALENDAR 172, 173
GREEK CHRONOLOGY 174-180
ROMAN CHRONOLOGY 181-187
INDEX 189
ABBREVIATIONS.
Cap. = Capital.
Ii, = Lacus, Lake.
Mts. = Mountains.
Prom. = Promontorium.
R. = River.
G. = Gulf.
O. T. = Old Testament.
(U)
GEOGRAPHY.
EUROPE.
COUNTRIES. — Hispania, Spain; Lusitania, Portugal; Gallia, France and West of Switzerland; Germania, Germany; Cimbrica Chersonesus, Denmark; Scan- dinavia, Norway and Sweden; Sarmatia Europsea, Russia and Poland; R h se 1 1 a, East part of Suoitzerland and the Tyrol; Vindelicia, Bavaria S. of Danube; Panno- nia, Hungary ; Illyricum, Illyris, Illyrica, Croatia^ Dalmatia, and part of Turkey; Italia, Italy; Graecia, Greece, and part of Albania and Boumelia in Turkey; Macedonia, Western part of Eoumelia ; T h r a c i a, Fast- em part of Boumelia; Moesia, Servia and Bulgaria; Dacia, Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia.
SEAS. — N. : Mare Pigrum, vel Cronium, Frozen Ocean; Oceanus Germanicus, North Sea. W. : Atlanticum Mare, Atlantic. E.: Palus Maeotis, Sea of Azov; Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea; Propontis, Sea of Marmora; ^geum Mare, Archipelago. S. : Mare Internum, Mediterranean ; Mare Ionium, W. of Greece ; Mare Inf erum, Tyrrhenum, vel Tuscum, Tuscan Sea, W. of Italy ; Mare Iladriaticum, vel Superum, Gidf of Venice.
GULFS, STRAITS, &c. — Sinus Codanus, vel Mare Sue- vicum, Baltic; Fretum Britannicum, vel Gallicum, Straits of Dover; Oceanus Cantabricus, Bay of Biscay; Fretum Gaditanum, Straits of Gibraltar; Gallicua Sinus, Gulf of Lyons; Sinus Ligusticus, Gidf of 2 ( 13 )
14 GEOGRAPHY.
Genoa; Tergestinus Sinus, Gulf of Trieste; Fossa, Straits of Bonifacio ; F return Siculum, Straits of Mes- sina; Hellespontus, Straits of the Dardanelles; Bos- porus Thracius, vel Thracicus, Straits of Constanti- nople; Bosporus Cimmerius, Straits of Kaff a.
RIVERS.— Flowing into the Baltic: Vistula, Vistula; ViS- dus, Oder. Flowing into the North Sea: Albis, Elbe; Visurgis, Weser; Scaldis, Scheldt; Rhenus, Rhine; T a m e s i s, Thames. Flowing into the Atlantic : S e q u a n a, Seine; Liger, Loire; Garumna, Garonne; Durius, Douro; Tagus, Tago; Anas, Guadiana ; Baetis, Guadal- quivir. Flowing into the Mediterranean: Iberus, Ebro ; Rhodanus, Rhone; Arar, Saone; Arnus, Arno; Tibe- ris, Tiber; Athesis, Adige; Padus, Po. Flowing into the Black Sea: Ister, Danube; Tyras, Dniester; Borys- thenes, Dnieper; Tan a is, Don. Falling into the Caspian Sea: Rha, Volga.
MOUNTAINS. — Sevo Mons, Dofrefield Mts.; Pyrenjei Montes, Pyrenees; Alpes, The Alps; Apenninua Mons, Apennines ; Carpates vel Bastarnicse Montes, Carpathian Mts.; HasmusMons, Hcemus, or the Balkan; Hyperborei vel Rhipaei Montes, Ural Mts.
LAKES. — Lacus Lemanus, L. of Geneva; L. Brigan- tinus, Boden See, or L. of Constance; L. Verb an us, Lago Maggiore; L. Larius, Lago di Como; L. Benacus, Lago di Gar da; L.'Copais, L. Topolias.
ISLANDS. — In the Atlantic: Britannia vel Albion, Bri- tain; Hibernia, Ireland; Hebudes vel Ebudes, He- brides; Orcades, Orkneys; Thule, Iceland (?). In the Mediterranean: Pityusaelnsulse; among these Ebusus, Ivica; Baleares Insulae (vel Gymnesiae), Balearis Major, Majorca; Balearis Minor, Minorca; Sardinia vel Sardo, Sardinia; Corsica vel Cyrnos, Corsica; ^thalia vel Ilva, Elba; Trinacria vel Sicilia, Sicily; Me lit a, Malta. In the Ionian Sea: Coroyra, Corfu;
GEOGRAPHY. 15
Leucadia vel Leucas, Santa Maura; Ithaca, Thiaki; Cephallenia, Cephalonia ; Zacynthus, Zante; Cy- thera, Cerigo. In the -i33gean Sea: Greta, Candia; Cyclades, Cyclades ; Euboea, Negropont.
HISPANIA.
Spain and Portugal,
BOUNDARIES.— N.. Oceanus Cantabricus, Bay of Bis* cay, and Pyreneei Montes; E. and S.E., Mare Inter- num, Mediterranean; W., Mare Atlanticum, Atlantic.
MOUNTAINS. — N., Pyrenaei Montes, Pyrenees; Mons Idubeda, Sierra D^ Oca and Sierra Molina; Mons Her- minius. Sierra d' Estrella ; Marianus Mons, Sierra Mo- rena; Orospeda Mons, Sierra Segura.
RIVERS. — Falling into the Atlantic: Minius, MinJio; Du- rius, Douro ; Tagus, Tagus ; Anas, Guadiana; B set is, Guadalquivir. Falling into the Mediterranean: Iberus, Ebro (which receives from the N. Cinga, Cinca, and Sicoris, Segre, and from the S. Salo, Xalon); Turia, Guadalaviar; Sucro, Xucar ; Tader, Segura.
PROMONTORIES. — Art abr urn Prom., Cape Finisterre; Magnum Prom., Cape La Roca; Sacrum Prom., C. St. Vincent; Junonis Prom., C. Trafalgar; Calpe, Rock of Gibraltar (which, with Abyla on the African coast, formed the Pillars of Hercules) ; Scombraria Prom., C. de Polos; Dianium Prom., C. La Nao; Prom. Pyre- nseum, Cape Creux.
DIVISIONS. — Ilispania Citerior or Either, afterwards called Tarraconensis ; and Ilispania Ulterior or Further, divided into Lusitania, Portugal, in the "West, and Boetica, Andalusia, in the South.
TRIBES. — In Tarraconensis: Callaici, Astures, Cantabri, Vaccaei, Vase ones, Arevaci, Jacetani, Vescitani, Lacetani,
16 GEOaRAPHY.
Ilergetes, Cosetani, Arevaci, Carpetani, Celtiberi, Ede* tani, Ilercaones, Oretani, Contestani, Bastitani. In Lusi- tania: Lusitani, Vettones, Celtlci. In Baatica: TurduAi, Turdetani, Bastuli, Poeni.
TARRACONENSIS.— CiYies. — On the Ebro: Caesar Au- gusta, Saragossa, On the Salo: Bilbilis (the birth-place of Martial). On the E. coast: Tarraco, Tarragona, the Capital; Saguntum, Murviedro (its destruction by Han- nibal, B.C. 219, gave rise to the second Punic war) ; Va- lentia, Valencia. Near Scrombraria Prom., Cape Palos : Carthago Nova, Cartliagena (taken by Scipio Africanus B.C. 210). On the Tagus: Toletum, Toledo. Near the source of the Douro: Numantia (destroyed by Scipio the Younger, B.C. 133). At the mouth of the Douro: Calle, Oporto.
LUSITANI A. — Cities. — Salamantica, Salamanca, on a tributary of the Douro; Norba Csesarea, Alcantara, on the Tagus ; 0 1 i s i p o, Lisbon, near the mouth of the river ; Emerita Augusta, Merida, on the Anas, Guadiana (colonized by Augustus with the veterans {Emeriti) of the fifth and tenth legions).
B^TICA.— (7i7te5.— Illiturgi, on the Baetis (destroyed by Scipio, B.C. 210) ; below it, Cor dub a, Cordova, surnamed Patricia (the birth-place of the two Senecas and Lucan) ; Italic a, Seinlla la Vieja (the birth-place of the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian); Hispalis, Seville; Tartessus, on the coast; Gades, Cadiz, on a small island, one of the chief seats of commerce of the Phoenicians; Munda, Monda, on the South coast (battle b. c. 45, Csesar defeated the sons of Pompey).
ISLANDS. — In the Mediterranean : Pityusse Insulae, comprising E bus us, Iviga, and Ophiusa; Baleares {or Gyranesise) Insulse, Balearic Isles, comprising Major Insula or Majorca (Cap. Palma, Palma), and Minor In- sula, Minorca, Cap. Mago, Port MaTion.
GEOGRAPHY. ^l
GALLIA.
France, Belgium, and West of Switzerland.
BOUNDARIES. — N. : Oceanus Britannicus, English Channel; Fretum Gallicum, Straits of Dover; and Oceanus Germanicus, German Ocean. E. : Rhenus, Rhine, and Alpes, The Alps. S. : Mare Internum, Mediterranean, and Pyrenasi Monies, Pyrenees. W. : Atlanticum 'islskVOi, Atlantic.
MOUNTAINS. — Pyrenasi Monies, Pyrenees; Alpes, Alps.
RIVERS.— Falling into the North Sea and English Channel: Rhenus, Rhine (with its tributaries, Mosella, Moselle, and Mosa, Meuse) ; So aid is, Scheldt; Samara, Somme; Sequana, Seine (with its tributaries, Matron a, Marne, and Axona, Aisne, Isara, Oise). Falling into the Bay of Biscay: Liger, Loire (and its tributary, Elaver, ^Z^ier) ; Garumna, Garonne, with Duranius, Dordogne, and Aturus, Adour. Falling into the Mediterranean: Rho- danus, Rhone (with its tributaries, Arar, Saone, Isara, Isere, and Druentia, Durance).
LAKE. — L. Lemanus, Lahe of Geneva.
DIVISIONS. — Gaul was originally divided among the BELG^ (between the Rhine and Seine) ; CELTiE (be- tween the Seine and Garonne) ; and AQUITANI (between the Garonne and the Pyrenees). About b. c. 120, Gaul was divided by the Romans into Provincia, or Gallia Braccata, and Gallia Comata; and again, B.C. 27, into,
I. Provincia, or Gallia Narbonensis, in the S.E.;
II. Aquitania, in the S.W. ; III. Gallia Celtica, or Lugdunensis, in the N.W. ; IV. Gallia Belgica, in the N.E.
NARBONENSIS, divided into Narbonensis Prima, Narbo- nensis Secunda, Viennensis, Alpes Maritimoe, and Alpea 2*
18 GEOGRAPHY.
Graice et Pennince. — Towns. — ^In Narbonensis Secunda ana Viennensis: Massilia, Marseilles, on the coast (founded about B.C. 600, famous for its literature and commerce); Aquae Sextise, Aix (Marius defeated the Teutoni, B.C. 102); Telo Martius, Toulon, on the coast; E. of which Forum Julii, Frejus (the birth-place of Agricola) ; Ge- neva, Geneva, on L. Lemanus; Vienna, Vienne, on the Rhone (the chief town of the Allobroges) ; Cularo, Gre- noble; Valentia, Valence; Dea, Die; Arausio, Orange (a Roman colony) ; Avenio, Avignon; Are late, Aries (a Roman colony, founded by the soldiers of the sixth Legion). In Narbonensis Prima: Nemausus, Nismes; on the coast, Agatha, Agde; Narbo Martius, Narhonne, the Capital of Gallia Narbonensis. On the Garonne : Tolosa, Toulouse (surnamed Palladia, a large and wealthy city). On the coast: Ruscino, near Perpt^naw.
AQUITANIA, divided into Nbvempopulana, S. ; Aquitania Prima, E. ; Aquitania Secunda, AV.
Towns. — In Novempopulana : Climberris, Auch. In Aquitania Prima: Albiga, Albi; on the Dordogne, Uxel- lodunum, Puech d'Issola; near the Elaver, Allier, Ger- g 0 V i a ; "West of this, A u g u s t o r i t u m, Limoges ; in the N., Avaricum, Bourges. In Aquitania Secunda : on the Garonne, Burdigala, Bordeaux (the birth-place of Auso- nius) ; in the N., Limonum, or Pictavi, Poitiers: Medio- lanum, or Santones, Saintes.
LUGDUNENSIS, divided into Lagdunensis Prima, Secunda^ Tertia, and Quarta.
Towns. — In Lugdunensis Prima: Lugdunum, Lyons^ the capital, at the junction of the Rhodanus and Arar, Saone (the birth-place of the Emperor Claudius) ; N. of this, Bibracte, or Augustodunum, Autun, and Alesia, Alise (destroyed by Caesar, b. c. 52). In Lugdun/insis Quarta: on the Sequana, Seine, Augustobona, or Tri- c asses, Troyes ; Agendicum, Sens, the Capital of the Senones; and Lutetia, or Parisii, Paris; Genabum, Cena- bum, or Aureliani.. Orleans, on the Liger, the Cap. of tho
GEO OR A PHY. i§
Carnutcs. In Lugdunensis Secunda: Rotomagus, Rouen. In Lugdunensis Tertia : on the Loire, Caesarodtinum, Tours, Cap. of the Turones; in the N.W., Brivates Por- tus, Brest.
GALLIA BELGICA, divided into 1. Belgica Prima; 2. Bel- gica Secunda; 3. Germania Prima ; 4. Germania Secunda; 5. Maxima Sequanorum.
Towns. — On the Mosella: Tullum, Toul; Divodtirum, Metz; Augusta Treverorum, Treves. On the Matrona, Marne: Durocatalaunum, Chalons; N. of this Duro- cortorum, Pheims, the Cap. of the Bemi. On the Axona, Aisne: Augusta Suessionum, Soissojis. On the Sa- mara, >Sbmme: Samarobriva or Ambiani, ^miew5. On the coast: Gesoriacum or Bononia, Boulogne, and Itius Povtus (from which Caesar set sail for Britain). On the Scald is: Turnacum, Tournay. On the Bhine: Argentoratum, Sirashurg (Julian defeated the Ale- manni, a.d. 357); Borbetomagus, Worms; and Mogon- tiacum, Alentz ; at the junction of the Bhenus and Mo- sella, Confluentes, Cohlentz. On the Bhenus: Co Ionia Agrippina, Cologne; Noviom^gus, Nimegtien; Lug- dun um Batavorum, Leyden. On the Dubis, Douhs : Ve- sontio, Besangon; S.E. of this Aventicum, Avenche.
TRIBES. — In Narbonensis: Salyes or Saluvii, Allo- broges, Volcae Arecomici, Volcas Tectosages. In Aqui- tania: Bituriges Cubi, Lemovices, Arverni, Pictones, Santones, Bituriges Vivisci. In Gallia Lugdunensis: Am- barri, ^dui, Lingones, Senones, Carnutes, Veneti, Osismii. In Gallia Belgica: Treveri, Mediomatrici, Leuci, Re mi, Suessiones, Bellovici, Atrebates, Nervii, Morini, Helvetii (people of Switzerland), Sequani, Bauraci, Ubii, Tungri, Menapii, Batavi.
ISLANDS.— On the W. Vindilis, Betteisle; Uxantis, Ushant; Caesarea, Jersey; Sarnia, Guernsey ; Riduna, Alderney.
B9 GEOGRAPHY.
GERMANIA.
Germany and Prussia.
BOUNDARIES. — K, Codanus Sinus and Mare Suevi. cum, Baltic, and Oceanus Germanicus; E., Vistula, R. Vistula, and Carpates Monte s, Carpathian Moun- tains; S., Danubius, B. Danube; "W., Rhenus, R. Rhine,
MOUNTAINS. — Hercynii Montes, all the mountains in the south and centre of Germany. In the centre: Her- cynia Silva, an immense forest which took Caesar nine days to cross.
RIVERS. — Falling into the Baltic : Vistula, Vistula; and Viadrus, Oder (with its tributary Varta, Wartha). Fall- ing into the German Ocean: Albis, Elbe (and its tributary Sala, Saale); Visurgis, Weser; Amasia, Ems; Rhenus, Rhine (with its tributaries Nicer, NecTcar ; Moenus, Main; Lupia or Luppia, Lijppe) ; Ister or Danubius, Danube.
DIVISIONS. — 1. Vindeli or Suevi, N. of the Elbe to the Baltic; 2. Hermiones, N. of the Danube; 3. Istsevones, E. of the Rhine.
TRIBES, &c. — Among the Vindeli or Suevi: Lemovii, Lon- gobardi, Burgundiones, Gothones, Semnones. Among the Hermiones : Cherusci, Catti, Hermunduri, Boii, Marcomanni. Among the Istaevones: Frisii, Chauci (divided into Minores and Majores), Bructeri, Marsii, Sicambri, Tencteri, Mattiaci, Sedusii, Marcomanni, Alemanni, in the S. Decumates Agri, whose inhabit- ants paid a tithe of their produce to the Romans.
N. of Germany: Saxones, Angli and Cimbri, inhabit- ing Cimbrica Chersonesus, Jutland; Hilleviones, Sui- ones, and Sitones, inhabiting Scandinavia or Scandia, Norway and Sweden.
N. B. The Teutones, probably dwelt in the N. of Ger- many, on the coast of the Baltic.
GEOGRAPHY. 21
VINDELICIA, RHiETIA, NORICUM, PANNONIA, ILLYRICUM.
Bavaria ; East of Sioitzerland, Tyrol ; Austria, South of the Danube; Hungary ; Illyria, Croatia, Balmatiu, and part of Turkey.
YiNDELICIA. Bavaria.
BOUNDARIES. — N. and ^Y., Danubius, JR. Danube; E., R. ^nus, Inn; S., iEnus, Fl. Rhsetia, and Brigan- tinus Lacus, Lake of Constance.
RIVERS. — I stir us, Iser; Lie us, Lech.
TRIBES. — Brigantii, Genauni, Estiones.
TOWNS. — Augusta Vindelicorum, Augsburg; Brigan- tia, Bregentz; Reglnum, Raiisbon.
Rh^tia.
East of Switzerland and the Tyrol.
BOUNDARIES. — N., Brigantinus Lacus, R. ^nus, and Vindelicia; E., Noricum; S., Gallia Cisalpina; \Y., the Helvetii.
RIVERS. — Rhenus, Rhine; Mnws, Lm; Addua, Adda; Ticinus, Ticino ; A the sis, Adige (all these rise id Rhajtia).
TRIBES. — Lepontii, Cap. Oscela; Sarunetes, Cap. Curia, Coire; Brenni, Vennones, Tridentini.
Noricum.
Austria, South of the Danube.
BOUNDARIES. — N., Danubius; E., Mons Cetius and Pannonia; S., Illyricum, R. Savus, /S^ai'e. and Alpes Carnicae; AV., Rhsetia and R. -<Enus.
22 GEOGRAPHY.
RIVERS. — Juvavus, Salza ; Anisus, Enns ; Murus, Miihr ; Dravus, Drave (all these rise in Noricum).
TOWNS. — Juvavum, Saltzhurg ; B oio durum, near Pa^- sau, on the Danube, and Lauriacum, the station of a Roman fleet; Noreia, Neumarht, near the centre (battle B.C. 113, the Consul Carbo defeated by the Cimbri) ; S.E. Celeia, Cilly.
Pannonia.
Hungary, Slavonia, and part of Croatia and Turkey.
BOUNDARIES. — N. and E., Danubius Fl.; S., Illyri- cum; W., Noricum.
RIVERS. — Arab on, Radb ; Dravus, Drave; Savus, Save.
LAKES. — Volcea Palus, Flatten See; Peiso L., Neur
siedler See,
DIVISIONS. — Pannonia Superior and Inferior.
TOWNS. — On the Danube: Vindobona, Vienna; Car- nuntum (E. of Vienna); Acincum or Aquincum, Buda ; Contra Acincum, PestTi; Paetovia, near Pe^tew, on the Drave; Mursa, Essech, near the junction of the Drave and Danube. On the Save; Siscia, Sissek; and Sirmium.
Illybicum.
Illyria, Balmatia, Croatia, and part of TkirTcey.
BOUNDARIES. — N., Noricum; E., Pannonia and Mc&. sia; S.W., Mare Hadriaticum and Histria.
MOUNTAIN. — Albius Mons.
DIVISIONS. — N. 1. Liburnia (inhabited by the Liburni and Japydes) ; 2. Dalmatia. The Liburni were famed as bold and skilful sailors, their vessels were remarkable for their swiftness ; hence, vessels after their models wero termed Liburnicce Naves.
GEOGRAPHY. 23
TOWNS. — ^mona, LayhacTi; Scardona, Scardona, the Cap. of Liburnia; Salon a, Spalatro (the birth-place of Diocletian) ; Narona, on the Naro, Narenta; S. of which 'E-pida,uTU8,^0ld Bagusa; Scodra, Skutari, on Labeatis Palus, Lake of Skutari; S. of this, Lissus, Alessio.
ISLANDS. — W. of Illyricum: Scardona, Isola Grossa; Pharus, Lesina; Corcyra Nigra, Curzola; Melita, Melida.
\
ITALIA.
Hesperia, (Enotria, Ausonia, Saturnia.
Italy.
BOUNDARIES. — N. and N.W., Alpes, The Alps; E., Ha- driaticum Mare vel Superum, Adriatic Sea, or Gulf of Venice; S., Mare Internum, Mediterranean; W., Mare Tyrrhenum, Tuscum, vel Inferum, Tuscan Sea.
GULFS.— E., Tergestinus Sinus, Gulf of Trieste: S., Ta- rentlnus Sinus, Gulf of Taranto ; Scylacius Sinus, Gulf of Squillace: W., Terinaeus Sinus, Gulf of St. Eufemia ; Laus Sinus, Gulf of Policastro ; Passtanus Sinus, Gulf of Salerno; Cumanus vel Puteolanus Sinus, Bay of Naples; Cajetanus Sinus, Gidf of Gaeta: S. of Liguria, Ligusticus Sinus, Gulf of Genoa.
STRAIT. — Fretum Sictilum, Straits of Messina.
MOUNTAINS. — Alpes, TJie Alps, in the North, divided into three principal chains.
I. The Westeun: Alpes Maritimae, Maritime Alps; Alpes Cottiae, 3ft. Cents, and 3ft. Gen^vre ; Alpes Graiae, Alps of Sa- voy, including Little St. Bernard and 3ft. Blanc. 11. The Central Alps: Alpes Penninae, Alpa of Valais, including Great St. Ber- nard, 3ft. Eosa, and St. Gothard ; Alpes Lepontiae, Alps of th« Grisons ; Alpes Ilhaeticae, Alpa of Tyrol. III. The Eastern Alps: Alpes Norieae, Alps of Styria ; Alpes Carnicae, Carnie Atpj ; Alpes J nlisG, Julian Alp$,
2¥ GEOGRAPHY.
AppenninusMons, The Apennines, running the whole length of Italy. Principal Elevations: Mons Soracte, S. Oreste, in Etruria; Mons Sacer, in Sabinum; Mons Albanus, in Latium (on which the Ferise. Latinge were celebrated); Algldus Mons, in Latium; Mons Masst- cus, in Campania, near the coast (famous for its wines) ; Vesuvius, the celebrated volcanic mountain (the first eruption occurred Aug. 24, a.d. 79, which destroyed Pom- peii and Herculaneum) ; Garganus, Mte. Gargano, in Apulia; and Mons Vultur.
RIVERS. — In Gallia Cisalpina: Padus, or E rid anus, Po ; it rises in Mons Vesulus, Monte Viso, flows east, and falls into the Adriatic. Chief tributary streams from the N. : Duria Major, Doj'a Baltea; Ticinus, Ticino (Hannibal defeated P. C. Scipio, b. c. 218), from L. Verbanus, Lago Maggiore; Addua, Adda, from L. Larius, Lago di Gar da; and Mincius, Mincio, from L. Benacus, Lago di Garda. From the S. : Tanarus, Tanaro ; Trebia, Trebia (Han- nibal defeated the Romans, b.c. 218). Athesis, Adige, N. of the Po ; Rubicon, Fiumicino, between Cisalpine Gaul and Umbria; Metaurus, Metauro, in Umbria (Has- drubal defeated, b.c. 207); and Aufidus, Ofanto, in Apulia, all fall into the Adriatic. Running into the Tus- can Sea: Arnus, Arno, in Etruria; Tiber is, Tivere — it receives, on the left, CI an is, CJiiano, and Cremera (300 Fabii destroyed, b.c. 477); on the right, Tinia, Tinia, and its tributary Clitumnus, Clitumno ; Nar, Nera, and Velinus, Velino, its tributary; A Hi a (Gauls overcome the Romans, b.c. 390) ; and Anio, Teverone. In the S. of Latium: Liris, Garigliano. In Campania: Vulturnus, Volturno; Silarus, Silaro (victory of Crassus, b.c. 71).
LAKES. — In Cisalpine Gaul: L. Verbanus, Lago Mag- giore; L. Larius, Lago di Como ; L. Benacus, Lago di Garda. In Etruria: L. Trasimenus, Lago di Penigia (Hannibal's third victory, b.c. 217) ; L. Vulsiniensis, X. Bolsena. In Sabini: L. Fucinus, Lago di Celano.
I
GEOGRAPHY, 25
In Latium: L. Ilegillus, Lago di HegUlof (battle B.C. 498); L. Albanus, Lago di Alhano. In Campania: L. Avernus, Lago Averno, and L. Lucrinus, famed for its oysters.
CAPES. — In Etruria: Populonium Prom. In Latium: Circeium Vvom.., Monte Circello. In Campania: Mise- num Prom., Cape Miseno^ and Minervce Prom., Cape Campanella. In Lucania: Palinurum Prom., Cape Par linuro. In Apulia: Garganum Prom., Cape Gargano ; lapygium vel Salentinum Prom., Cape Leuca. In Bruttii: Lacinium Prom., Cape Colonne; Herculeum Prom., Cape Spartivenio; Leucopetra Prom., Cape Armi.
DIVISIONS. — North: I. Liguria; II. Gallia Cisal- pina, vel Togata; III. Venetia, Carni, and Ilistria. Middle: IV. Etruria, vel Tuscia; V. Umbria; VI. Picenum; VII. Sabinum; VIII. Latium; IX. Sam- nium; X.Campania. South: XI. Apulia; XII. Lu- cania; XIII. Bruttii.
LIGURIA. — Nice, Genoa, and part of Piedmont. — Boundaries: N., R. Padus, Po, and Gallia Cisalpina; E., Gallia Cisal- pina; S., Sinus Ligusticus, Gulf of Genoa; W., Alpes Maritimae and Gallia.
Cities. — Genua, Genoa, at the N. of the Gulf of Genoa ; Pollentia, Polenza, on the Tanarus.
Tribes. — N. of Apennines: Vagienni, Statielli, Fri- niates, Montani, Ligures. South: Intemelii, In- gauni, Apuani.
GALLIA CISALPINA, vel TOGATA. — Part of the king- dom of Sardinia, Lomhardy, Parma, Modena, and part of States of the Church.
Divisions.— I. GALLIA CISPADANA, inhabited by tho Boii and Lingones.
Cities: Placentia, Placenza, near the junction of the Po and Trebia, (founded by Romans, 219 b.c.) ; Mutina, Modena (M. Antony defeated, b.c. 43); Ravenna, Ha- venna; Bononia, Bologna. 3
36^" GEOGRAPHY.
II. GALLIA TRANSPADANA, inhabited by the Tau- rini, Salassi, Insubres, Cenomani.
Cities: Augusta Taurinorum, I^wrin, on the Padua ; V ere el la, Ferce?Zi, near which Raudi Campi, (where Ma- riu8 defeated the Cimbri, b.c. 101) ; Ticlnum, Favia, on the Ticinus; Mediolanum, Milan, the capital of the In- s&bres; Co mum, Como, on L. Larius; Cremona, Cre- mona, on the Po, (founded by Romans, b.c. 219) ; Mantua, Mantua, on the Mincius, (near which Virgil was born, B.C. 70).
VENETIA, CARNI, et HISTRI A. — Eastern part of Fene- iian Lomhardy and Istria.
Boundaries. — N. and N.E., Alpes Carnicoe, vel Julia>, and Rhaetia; E., Liburnia; S., Mare Hadriaticum and R. Padus ; W., R. Athesis, Adige, and Gallia Transpadana.
Cities. — ^Verona, Verona, on the Athesis ; E. of Verona, Patavium, Padua, (Livy born, b.c. 59); Aquileia, AquUeia, near the coast, (destroyed by Attila, king of the Huns, A.D. 452) ; E. of Aquileia, Tergeste, Trieste.
ETRURIA, TUSCIA, vel TYRRHENIA. — Tuscany, and part of States of the Church.
Boundaries. — N., R. Macra, Magra, and Apenninus Mons ; E. and S., R. Tiber ; "W., Tuscum Mare.
Cities. — Pi 8 30, Fisa, and Florentia, Florence, both on the Arnus. Luc a, Lucca, on the Auser, Serchio. Fae- stllse, Fiesole; Pistoria, Fistoia, (Catiline defeated, B.C. 62); Portus Herculis, Labronis, vel Liburni, ie^jr- horn; on the coast. Populonium, or ia, the chief sea- port of Etruria. Centum Cellae, Civita Vecchia; on the coast, with a fine harbour.
The following were probably the twelve confederate cities of Etruria Proper.
Volaterr£e, Volaterra. V c t u 1 o n i i, to the E. of Popu- lonia. Rusellae, on the Umbro. Tarquinii, Cometo. Agylla, or Caere, Cerveteri, (where the Vestal Virgins took refuge on the destruction of Rome by the Gauls, b. c. 390). Veii, Isola, on the Cremera, twelve miles from
GEOGRAPHY. 27
Rome, (the most powerful city of Etruria). FalSrii, or Turn, (taken by Camillus, B.C. 394), near Mt. Soracte. Vulsinii, Bolsena, on L. Volsiniensis, (the birth-place of Sejanus, the favourite of Tiberius). Clusium, Chius% near the Clanie, (the residence of Porsena). Peru si a, Perugia, E. of Clusium, on the Tiber. Gorton a, Cortona^ N.W. of Trasimene Lake. Arretium, Arezzo, (the birth- place of Maecenas).
UMBRIA. — States of the Church.
Boundaries. — N., Gallia Cispadana; E., Mare Iladriati- cum and Picenum ; S., Sabini ; "W., R. Tiber. It was in- habited in the N. by Galli Senones.
Cities. — Ariminum, Rimini; Sena Gallic a, Seni- gaglia, on the coast; in the interior, Sentinum, (battle, B.C. 294, Samnites defeated); Spoletium, or Spoletum, Spoleto, in the South.
PICENUM. — Part of States of the Church.
Boundaries. — N., R. iEsis, Esino ; E., Mare Hadriati- cum ; S., Vestini, in Sabinum ; W., Urabria and Sabini.
Cities. — Ancona, Ancona, in the N. ; Asculum Pice- num, Ascoliy (taken, B.C. 89, in the Marsic or Social War).
Tribe. — Prsetutii, in the South.
SABINUM. — Part of States of the Church, and part of Naples.
Boundaries. — N., Umbria and R. Nar; E., Apenninus Mons and Hadriaticum Mare ; S., Samnium ; W., Latium and R. Tiber.
Cities. — Re ate, Eieti, in the W. ; Cures, Correse, (the native city of Numa, and capital of the Sabines); Fidenae, Castel Giubileo, and Crustumerium, between the Anio and Tiber; Amiternum, in the E., on the borders of the Vestini, (Sallust born, B.C. 86); Alba Fucentia, Alba^ N. of L. Fucinus; Marruvium, chief city of the Marsi ; Sulmo, Sulmona, in the country of the Peligni, (Ovid born, B.C. 43) ; Corfinium, the chief city of the Peligni.
28 GEOGRAPHY.
Tribes. — iEqui, Marsi, Peligni, Marrucini, Ves- tini.
LATIUM. — States of the Church.
Boundaries. — N., R. Tiber and Anio; E., Samnium and Campania ; S. and W., Mare Tuscum.
Cities. — Roma, Rome, on the Tiber, (founded by Ro- mulus, B.C. 753, on the Palatine Mount); built on seven hills, Palatinus, Capitolinus, Quirinalis, Vimina* lis, Esquilinus, Caelius, and Aventinus, to which were afterwards added Janiculum, Vaticanus, and Collis Hortulorum (Public Buildings, &c., vide Topo- graphy). Ostia, Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. Lau- ren tum, on the coast. Lavinium, built by ^neas. Ardea, the city of Turnus. Antium, Porto d'Anzo, on the coast. Tibur, Tivoli, on the Anio, (a favourite resi- dence of the Roman nobles). S. of this Gabii. Tuscu- lum, near Frascati, surrounded by numerous villas. Alba Long a, on the border of L. Albanus, founded by Ascanius (a legend). Praencste, Palestrina. Velitrse, Velletri, (the native city of the Octavian family). Corioli, (which gave to C. Marcius the surname Coriolanus). Aquinum, Aquino, (birth-place of Juvenal). Anagnia, Anagni, the capital of the Hernici. Eastward: Arpinum, ArpinOj (birth-place of Cicero and Marius) ; Anxur, or Tarra- cina, Terracina; Suessa Pometia, (stormed by Tarq. Superbus). Cajeta, Gaeta; Formiae, Mola, (famous for its wine) ; and Minturnae ; on the coast.
Tribes. — Latini, ^Equi, Hernici, Rutiili, Volsci.
SAMNIUM. — Part of Naples.
Boundaries. — N., Sabinum and Mare Hadriaticum ; E., Apulia; S., Campania and Lucania; AV., Campania and Sabinum.
Cities. — Beneventum, Benevento, (Pyrrhus defeated, B.C. 275). S.W. of Beneventum : Caudium, near which the pass called Furculao Caudinao, or Caudine Forks (where the Roman army, overcome by the Samnites,
GEOGRAPHY. 2|P
passed under the yoke, b.c. 321); Bovilnum, Bojano, (chief city of the Pentri).
Tribes. — N., Frentani; Middle, Pentri; S., Hirpini.
(JAMPANIA. — Part of Naples.
Boundaries. — N., Latium and E. Liris ; E., Samnium ; S., R. Silarus ; W., Tyrrhenum Mare.
Cities. — On the coast : C u m ae, the most ancient Greek colony in Italy; Baia3, (famed for its baths) ; Misenum, the principal station of the Roman fleet in the Tyrrhene Sea; Puteoli, or Dica3archia, Pozzuoli ; NeapSlis, Naples, founded on the site of the ancient Parthenope ; Herculaneum (over which stand Portici and Besina), Pompeii, and Stabioe, (destroyed, a.d. 79, by an eruption of Vesuvius) ; Salernum, Salerno. In the Interior: Ve- nafrum, Venafro, (noted for its olives); Capua, Capua, (which espoused the cause of Hannibal, and, when taken by the Romans, b. c. 211, suffered the vengeance of the conquerors); Nola, Nola, (here Augustus died, a.d. 14). In the N.: Mons Massicus and Falernus Age r, both noted for wine (Massic and Falernian).
Tribes. — N., Aurunci; S., Picentini.
APULIA. — Part of Naples.
Boundaries. — N. and E., Mare Hadriaticum ; S., Taren- tinus Sinus ; W., R. Bradanus, Brandano, and Samnium.
Divisions. — Daunia, Peucetia, Messapia or lapy- gia, Calabria.
Cities. — Luceria, Lucera, (noted in the Samnite wars); Argyripa or Arpi, Arpi. On the Aufidus: Canusium, Canosa, and Cannae, Canne, (battle, B.C. 216, Romans defeated by Hannibal) ; Asculum Aptilum (Romans defeated by Pyrrhus, b.c. 279); Ventisia, Venosa, (the birth-place of Horace, B.C. 65). In Calabria: Brundti- sium, Brindisi, (the usual port of embarcation for Greece) ; Hydruntum orllydrus, Otranto; Tarentum orTaras, Taranto, (a flourishing and opulent city).
Tribes. — Pediculi, Salentini. .•: s,
3*
30 GEOGRAPHY.
UJCANI A. ~ Part of KapUs.
Boundaries. — N., Campania, Samnium and Apulia ; E., Tarentinus Sinus ; S., Bruttii and R. Laus ; W., Tyrrhenum Mare.
Cities. — In the E.: Metapontum; Ileraclea, on the Aciris; Sybaris (proverbial for the luxury of its inhabit- ants) ; Tliurii, (founded by the Athenians, B.C. 443, with whom were Herodotus, and Lysias the orator). In the W., also on the coast: Pajstum, vel Posidonia, (noted for its roses) ; Elea, Helia, or Velia, (the birth-place of Zeno and Parmenides, the founders of the Eleatic School of Philosophy). In the Interior; to the E., Pandosia; Potentia, Potenza.
BEUTTIUM. — Part of Naples.
Boundaries. — N., Lucania ; E., Ionium Mare j S., Mare Siculum ; W., Tyf rhenum Mare.
Cities. — On the East: Croton, Cotrone, (the residence of Pythagoras, who here founded his school, and of Milo, the most famous athlete of antiquity) ; Scylacium, Squil- lace; Locri Epizephyrii, (the city of Zaleucus, the law- giver). On the West: Consentia, Cosenzayi\iQ Capital; Temesa or Tempsa. On the coast further South: Rhe- gium, Reggio, N. of Rhegium, the Rock Scylla, opposite toCharybdison the Sicilian coast.
Islands.
SICILIA OR TRINACRIA, SicUy, (inhabitants the Sicani). Mountain. — ^ tn a, Monte Gibello. Rivers. — Symsethus, Giaretta, in the E. ; Himera, Salso, in the S. Capes. — Pelorura Prom., Cape Faro ; Pachynum Prom., Cape Pas- saro; Lilyboeum Prom., Cape Boeo. Cities. — E. Messana, Messina; Tauromenium, Taormina; Catana, Catania; Syracusge, Syracuse or Siragossa, consisting of five towns, 1. Ortygia, (or Nasos, the Island), 2. Achradlna, 3. Tyche, 4. Neapolis, and 5. the superb Epipolae: in the S. Agrigentum, Gir genii, (famed for its temple of Zeus Olympius); Sclinus, rwms : in the W. Lilybasum,
GEOGRAPHY. 31
Marsala; Drepanum, Trapani: in the N. Segeste or iEgcsta, near Alcamo ; Panormus, Palermo. Himera, (battle, B.C. 480): in the centre Henna or Enna, Castro Giovanni, (from -which Pluto carried off Proserpine).
North from Sicily, -^olise vel Vulcaniaer Insulae, Lipari Islands, the largest of which Li para; Strongyle, Stromboli: W. iEgates Insulae, (battle, b.c. 241, Car- thaginians defeated): S. Cossyra, Pantelearia; Melita, Malta; Gaulus, Gozzo. "W. of Etruria: Ilva vel ^thalia, Elba, (famed for its iron-mines); Corsica, Corsica. Chief Towns. — Mariana, and Alalia or Aleria, a Roman colony. S. of Corsica: Sardinia vel Sardo, Sardinia^ Cap. Ca- rS,lis, Cagliariy in the S.
I
M(ESIA.
Servia and Bulgaria.
BOUNDARIES.— N., R. Danubius or Ister; E., Pontus Eux- inus. Black Sea ; S., Ilasmus Mons ; W., Illyricum and R. Drinus, Drino.
DIVISIONS.— W., Moesia Superior, including Dacia Aureliani; E., Moesia Inferior, including Scythia Parva.
TRIBES. — Mce si, Scordisci, Dardani, TribalH.
RIVERS. — Drinus, Drino; Margus, Mbrava; OEscus, Isker; latrus, lantro ; all tributaries of the Danube.
TOWNS. — In Moesia Superior: Singidunum, Belgrade; Margus, near the Margus; Naissus, Nissa, on the Mar- gus. In Moesia Inferior: Sardica on the (Escus> S.E. of which Tauresium, (the birth-place of Justinian). On the Danube: Nicopolis, Nicopoli, built by Trajan. On the borders of the Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea: To mi, (to which Ovid was banished by Augustus), to the South of this Odessus, Odessa, W. of which Marcianopolis, founded by Trajan.
32 GEOGRAPHY.
DACIA.
Transylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia, Bessarabia.
BOUNDARIES.— N., Mons CarpStes vel Bastarnicse, and R. Tyras, Dniester; E., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea, and Sar- matia ; S., R. Danubius ; W., R. Tibiscus, Theiss.
RIVERS. — Tibiscus, Theiss; Aluta, Aluta; Ardiscus, Argisli; Ararus, Sereth; Porata or Hierasus, Pruth; all falling into the Danube.
TRIBES. — GetsB vel Daci, (chief city Sarmizegethusa or Ulpia Trajana) ; Jazyges, in the West.
SARMATIA.
Fart of European Russia.
BOUNDARIES.— E., R. Tanais, Don; S., Palus Maeotis, Sea of Azov, and Pontus Euxinus; W., R. Tyras, Dniester.
TRIBES. — Bastarnae, Jazyges, Roxolani, Hamaxobii, Alani, Venedi, &c. &c.
TOWNS, &c. — 01b i a, near the junction of the Borysthenes, Dnieper, and Hypanis. S. of Sarmatia: Chersonesus T auric a, Crimea; on the W. coast of which, Cherso- nesus; on Bosporus Cimmerius, Straits of Kaffa, Panticapaeum, Kertsch, the residence of the Greek kings of the Bosporus.
MACEDONIA.
Part of the Roumelia in Turkey.
BOUNDARIES.— N., Moesia; E., Thracia; S., Mare iEgeum and Thessalia ; W., Illyris Graeca, included in Macedonia under the Romans.
GEOGRAPHY. 83
GULFS.— S. Thermaicus Sinus, Gulf of Saloniki ; Toro- naicus Sinus, Gulf of Cassandra ; Singiticus Sinus, Gulf of Monte Santo; Strymonicus Sinus, Gulf of Coniessa.
MOUNTAINS. — N., Mons Orbelus, Scardus Mons, separating Macedonia from Moesia; S.W. of the Penin sula Acte, Mons Athos, Monte Santo.
RIVERS. — S t r y m 0 n, Struma or Carassou, flowing into Strymonic Gulf; Axius, Vardari (with its tributary Eri« gon), and Ilaliacmon, VistHza, flowing into the Ther- maic Gulf.
DIVISIONS. — S., Pieria, Elymiotis, ^Emathia, Chal- cidice, with the Peninsulas Pallene, Sithonia, and Acte; E., Mygdonia and Sintica. In the centre: Pelagonia; N., PseSnia; W., Lyncestae and Eordaea.
CITIES. — Pydna, Kitron, near the Ilaliacmon, (battle, B.C. 168 ; iEmilius Paulus routs Perseus, the last king of Mace- donia); Pella, Alaklisi, the Capital; Thessalonica or Thermia, Saloniki, on the Thermaic Gulf; Potidaea, Pinaka, on the Isthmus of Pallene; Olynthus, ruins, ovt the Toronaic Gulf, (destroyed by Philip II., B.C. 347); Amphipolis, at the mouth of the Strymon, (taken from the Athenians in the Peloponnesian War by Brasidas, B.C. 424) ; Eastward Philip pi, Philippi, (battle, B.C. 42; Brutus and Cassius defeated and slain by Antony and Octavianus).
The tract of country called ILLYRIS GR^CA (bounded N. by Drinus, R. Drino ; E., Macedonia; S., Epirus; W., Hadriaticum Mare); inhabited by various tribes of Illyrian origin, was incorporated with the Roman pro* vince of Macedonia. Chief Towns. — On the coast: Epi- damnusvel Dyrrachium, Durazzo, (the usual landing- place for persons who crossed over from Brundusium, in Italy). Inland: Apollonia, (celebrated as a place of commerce and learning ; here Augustus for some timo studied literature and philosophy).
34 GEOGRAPHY.
THRACIA.
Roumelia.
BOUNDARIES.— N., Haemus Mons and Moesia; E., Pontus Euxinus and Bosporus Thracius ; S., Propontis, Helles- pontus and ^geum Mare ; "W., Macedonia.
WATERS OF THRACE. — Hell esp on t us, Dardanelles; Propontis, Sea of Marmora; Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea; Bosporus Thracius, Straits of CoTistantinople ; Melas or Melanes Sinus, Gulf of Saros.
MOUNTAINS. — N., Ha3mus, Balkan; W., Pangaeus, Pangea^ east of which R ho dope, sacred to Bacchus.
RIVERS. — In the W. Nestus, Nesto, rising in the N.W. and flowing S. into the ^gean Sea; Hebrus, Maritza.
CITIES. — Abdera, at the mouth of the Nestus, (the birth- place of Democritus) ; Adrianopolis, Adrianople, on the Hebrus ; Chersonesus, in the S. between the Gulf of Saros and the Hellespont, (colonized by Athenians under Mil- tiades) ; Lysimachia, Eksemil, at the Isthmus; S. of this S e s 1 0 s, (between which and Abydos, Xerxes formed a bridge of boats) ; ^Egos Potamos, (near which Lysan- der defeated the Athenian fleet, B.C. 405) ; Byzantium, Constantinople, on the Thracian Bosporus, (made the Capital of the Roman empire under Constantine, a.d. 330).
GRiECIA — HELLAS.
Greece.
BOUNDARIES. — N., Macedonia and Illyria; E., ^geum Mare, Archipelago, and Myrtoum Mare; S., Mare Internum, Mediterranean; W., Ionium Mare, Ionian Sea.
GEOGRAPHY. 35
GULFS. — E., Therm aicus Sinus, Gulf of Saloniki ; Pa- gasaeus Sinus, Gulf of Volo ; Maliacus Sinus, Gulf of Zeitoun; Saronicus Sinus, Gulf of jEgina ; Argo- licus Sinus, Gulf of Napoli. S., Laconicus Sinus, Gulf of Colokyihia ; Messeniacus Sinus, Gulf of Koran. W., Cyparissius Sinus, Gulf of Arcadia ; N. of Achaia and Corinthia, Sinus Corinthiacus, Gulf of Lepanto ; S. of Locris, Crissaeus Sinus, Bay of Salona; S. of Epirus, Ambracius Sinus, Chdf of Aria.
STRAIT, — Euripus, CJiannel of Negropont, between Boeotia and Euboea.
MOUNTAINS. — In Thessalia: N., Cambunii Monte s, Bolutza Mts, ; W., Olympus, Elymho ; Ossa, Kissovo ; Pelion, Plesiiia; S., Othrys, Othrys; W., Pindus, Pindu^.
In Epirus: N.W., Acroceraunii vel Ceraunii Monies, Chimera.
In Phocis: N., (Eta Mons, Katavothra ; "W., Parnas- sus, Lyakouri.
In B(eotia: S.AV., Helicon, Zagora, (a haunt of the Muses). On the borders of Attica and Megaris, Cithae- ron, Cithceron.
In Attica: N., Parnes Montes, Nbzia; N.E., Pen- telicus, Fentele, (celebrated for its marble); S. E. of Athens, Ilymettus, Telovuni; at the S. extremity of Attica, Laurium, (famed for its silver-mines).
On the Borders of Achaia: Cyllene, Zyria, (Mercury born).
In Laconia : Taygetus, West of the Eurotas.
In Arcadia: in the S.W., Lycoeus Mons; in N.W., Erymanthus, (here Hercules slew the wild boar); to- wards the S., M ae n a 1 u s, Roino ; P a r n o n, Malevo.
RIVERS. — In Thessalia: 1. Pen e us, Salambria, from Mt. Pindus, flowing through the lovely vale of Tempe, falls into the Thermaicus Sinus, Gulf of Saloniki ; it receives on the
36 GEOGRAPHY.
North the Titaresius, on the South the Euipeus and Apidanus. 2. Spercheus, JEllada, from the West, falls into Sinus Maliacus, Bai/ of Zeitoun.
In Epirus: 1. Aracthus, Arta, from the N., falls into Sinus Ambracius, Gulf of Arta. 2. Acheron, and its tributary Cocytus, fall into the Glykys Portus or Har- bour. Northward, Thy am is, Kalamas, falls into the Ionian Sea, opposite to Corcyra, Corfu.
In Acarnania: Achelous, Aspro Potamo, from Mt. Pindus, flows southward, divides -<Etolia from Acarnania, and falls into the Gulf of Patras.
In ^tolia; Evenus, FidhaH, from Mt. (Eta, falls into the Gulf of Patras.
In Doris: Cephisus Major, Mavronero, flows through Phocis and Boeotia, and falls into Copais L., Lake Topo- lias.
In Bgeotia: A sop us, Asopo, falls into the sea opposite to Euboea, the island Negropont. Ismenus, into which the brook Dirce flows, falls into L. Hylica. Permessus and Hippocrene, or "fountain of tlie horse,^' falls into Copais L.
In Attica: Cephisus Minor, from Mons Pentelicus, and Ilissus, from Mons Hymettus, flow South into Saro- nicus Sinus.
In Achaia : Crathis, Grata, (into which the Styx flows), and Selinus, VosHtza, fall into the Corinthian Gulf. Pirus, Kamenitza, falls into the Gulf of Patras.
In Elis: Peneus, lliaco, from Mons Erymanthus, falls into Ionium Mare. Alp he us, Rouphia, rising in Arcadia^ and receiving from the North the La don and Helisson, falls into the Ionian Sea.
In Messenia: Pa mis us, Pirnatza, from Mt. Ly casus, and N e d a, Buzi, between Elis and Messenia, fall into the Ionian Sep,.
In Laconia : Eurotas, Basilipotamo, from the N., falls into Laconicus Sinus, Gulf of Kolokythia.
In Argolis: Inachus, Baniiza, falls into Argolicus Sinus, Gulf of NapoU.
GEOGRAPHY. 37
LAKES. — Copais L., Lake Topolias, in Bocotia, (famed for its eels, and subterranean communication with the Euboean Sea) ; Acherusia L., in the S.W. of Epirus ; L. Tricho- nis, in iEtolia; L. Baebeis, in the East of Thessaly; L. Stymphalis, in the North of Arcadia.
PKOMONTORIES. — S.E. of Thessalia, Magnesice Prom., Cape St. George; S.E. of Attica, Sunium Prom., Cape Colonna; S.E. of Argolis, Scyllaeum Prom., Cape Skillo; S.E. of Laconia, Malea Prom., Cape Maleo or St. Angela; S.W. of Laconia, Taenarum Prom., Cape Matapan; S.W. of Messenia, Acritas Prom., Cape Gallo ; N.W. of Elis, Chelonatas Prom., Cape Tornese; N.W. of Achaia, Araxus Prom., Cape Kologria; N. of Achaia, Chium Prom., Castello di Morea, opposite to this in the S. of -^iltolia, Anti-Rhium Prom., Castello Rumeli; N.AV. of Acarnania, at the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, Ac- tium Prom., La Punta, (battle, B.C. 31, Augustus defeats Antony and Cleopatra.)
DIVISIONS. — Northern Greece.— 1. Thessalia; 2. Epi- rus. Central Greece. — 1. Acarnania; 2. iEtolia; 3. Doris; 4. Locris; 5. Phocis; 6. Boeotia; 7. Attica; 8. Me gar is. Southern Greece or Peloponnesus, Morea. — 1. Achaia; 2. Elis; 3. Messenia; 4. Laconia; 5. Argolig; G.Arcadia; 7. Sicyonia; 8. Corinthla.
THESSALIA. — Boundaries. — N., Macedonia; E., ^geum Mare ; S., Phocis, Doris, -^Etolia ; W., Epirus.
Divisions. — N., Pelasgiotis; E., Magnesia; S.E., Phthiotis; S., ^nianes; S.W., Dolopia; N.W., Hes- tiseotis; in the Centre, Thessaliotia.
Cities. — Larissa, Larza, the Capital, on the Peneus. Pharsalus, Pharsa, (battle, B.C. 48, Caesar defeated Pom- pey). Cynoc6phalo3, (battle, B.C. 197, Philip defeated by Cons. Flaminius). Anticyra, at the mouth of the Spercheus. Pherae, Valestino ; noted for its tyrants. Lamia, Zeitoun; near the mouth of the Spercheus, (war between Antipater and the Athenians, B.C. 323). I o loos, 4
38 GEOGRAPHY.
' N. of the Pagasaeus Sinus, (the city of Pelias and Jason, from which the Argonauts sailed in quest of the Golden Fleeced.
EPIRUS. — Boundaries. — N., Illyria; E., Macedonia and Thessalia ; S., Acarnania ; W., Ionium Mare.
Divisions. — N.W., Chaonia; S.E., Molossis; S.W., Thesprotia.
Cities. — Ambracia, Aria, (the residence of Pyrrhus), on the Aracthus. Nicopolis (built by Augustus, in me- mory of his victory at Actium). Do don a, on the borders of Molossis and Thesprotia, (famed for its oracle of Zeus, the most ancient in Greece).
ACARNANIA. — Boundaries. — N., Ambracius Sinus and Epirus ; E., River Achelous ; W., Ionium Mare.
Cities. — Stratus, on the Achelous, the Capital. Ac- tium, on a promontory of the same name, (near which Augustus defeated Antony and Cleopatra in a naval en- gagement, B.C. 31).
^TOLIA. — Boundaries. — N., Thessalia and Epirus; E., Doris and Locris ; S., Sinus Corinthiacus ; W., R. Achelous. Cities. — T her ma vel The r mum, the place of meeting of the jEtolian league. Calydon, the city of Tydeus and Diomedes, (in the vicinity of this city the celebrated Caly- donian hunt took place).
DORIS. — Boundaries. — N., Thessalia; E., Phocis; S., Locris; W., iEtolia.
Cities. — Four small cities which gave the name of Te- trapolis to the country, Erineus, Boium, Pindus, Cytinium.
LOCRIS was divided into two districts, inhabited by three tribes.
DISTRICT l.~Boundaries.—^., Doris; E., Phocis; S., Sinus Corinthiacus; W., iEtolia. Inhabited by OZOLIAN LOCRIANS. Chief Cities. — Amphissa, Scdona; Nau- p act us, Lepanto.
I
GEOGRAPHY. 39
DISTRICT U.— Boundaries.— N., Thessaly ; E., Euboean Sea and Malian Gulf; S., Phocis; W., Doris and Phocis. Inhabited S. by OPUNTIAN LOCRIANS. Citij: Opus, Talanda. Inhabited N. by EPICNEMIDIAN LOCRIANS as far as Thermopylae, (a celebrated pass, where Leo- nidas and 300 Spartans fell, after a gallant defence against the mighty army of Xerxes, B.C. 480). Cities: Phronium, Romani, NScaBa, and Scarphia.
PHOCIS. — Boundaries. — N., Locri Epicnemidii and Doris; E., Boeotia ; S., Sinus Corinthiacus ; W., Locris.
Cities. — Delphi, or Pytho, Castri, on the western de- clivity of Mt. Parnassus, between its two peaks, (famed for the "infallible" oracle of Apollo, and celebrated as the place of meeting of the Amphictyons, and of the cele- bration of the Pythian games) ; Crissa, or Crisa, S.W. of Delphi; Elatea, Elephta, N. of the Cephissus; Ant!- cyra, Asjpra Spitia, in the South, on the coast, (famed for its hellebore, the cure for madness among the ancients).
BCEOTIA. — Boundaries. — N. and E., Euboicum Mare; S., Mountain-chain of Parnes and Cithaeron, separating Boeotia from Attica ; W., Phocis.
Cities. — Thebae, Thihai (founded by the Phoenicians under Cadmus, thence called Cadmea ; it was destroyed by Alexander, B.C. 335). Orchomenus, Scripu, near the Lake Copais, with a temple of the Graces, (victory of Sulla, B.C. 86). Plataeae, or Plataea, Kokla, near Mt. Cithaeron, (battle, B.C. 479, Mardonius defeated). Thespiae, at the foot of Mt. Helicon, sacred to the Muses. Le uctr a, Lefka, S.E. of Thespiae, (battle, b.c. 371, Thebans overcame the Spartans). Tanagra, Grimada, E. of Thebae, (battle, B.C. 457, Athenians defeated). Delium, Bilessi, on the E. coast, (battle, b.c. 424). Ilaliartus, Mazi, on Lake Copais, (battle, b. c. 395 ; destroyed by the Romans, b. c. 171). Co rone a, S.W. of Lake Copais (Boeotians over- came Athenians, b. c. 447 ; Agesilaus defeated allied Greeks, b.c. 394). Chaeronea, Capurna, on the Cephissus,
40 GEOGRAPHY
(battles, B.C. 447; Philip conquers the Greeks, B.C. 338; Sulla's victory, B.C. 86). As era, near Mt. Helicon, the birth-place of Hesiod.
ATTICA. — Boundaries. — N., Bocotia ; E., ^Egeum Mare, S., Saromcus Sinus ; W., Megaris.
Cities. — Athenae, Athens, between the rivers Cephissus and Ilissus, the most celebrated city of antiquity for learn- ing and the liberal arts ; it consisted of two parts, viz. : — 1. The City; 2. Its three ports, Piraeus, Pirceus, Pha- lerum, and Munychia, united to the city by two long walls, called "Longi Muri," sixty feet in height (vide "Topography" for an account of Public Buildings, &c.).
• E leu sis, Lepsina, N.W. of Athens, famous for its temple and mysteries of Demeter or Ceres. Marathon, Maror ihona, N.E. of Athens, (celebrated battle, Athenians and Plataeans, under Miltiades, routed the Persians, B.C. 490). Phyle, Fili, N.W. of Athens, (here Thrasybulus assem- bled the Patriots opposed to the thirty Tyrants, b.c. 404). Sunium, Colonna, on a prom, of the same name in the extreme S. of Attica.
MEGARIS. — Bcundaries. — N., Boeotia; E., Attica and Sar ronicus Sinus ; S., Corinthia ; W., Sinus Corinthiacus. Cities. — Me gar a, Megara; Nissea, on the coast.
Peloponnesus.
ACHAIA. — Boundaries. — N., Sinus Corinthijlcus ; E., Co- rinthia ; S., Arcadia and Elis.
Cities. — Helice, on the north coast, the ancient Capital, (engulphed by an earthquake, b.c. 373); iEgium, Vos^ titza, (here the meetings of the Achaean league were held) ; Patrae, Patras, a sea-port.
ELIS. — Boundaries. — N., Achaia ; E., Arcadia ; S., Mes« senia ; W., Ionium Mare.
Divisions. — 1. Elis Proper, N. ; 2. Pisatis with Olympia, Middle; 3. Triphylia, South.
GEOORAPHY. 41
Cities. — Eli 8, on the Peneus. N.AV., Cyllene, on tlie coast. Pisa, on the Alpheus, (near this the plain of OLYMPIA, where the Olympian games were celebrated. Here was the sacred grove "Altis/' which, with the neighbourhood, were adorned with temples, statues, &c. The " Altis" was inclosed by a wall ; it contained the fol- lowing temples: I. The Olympieum, in which was the famous statue of Zeus, by Phidias, made of ivory and gold ; II. The Heraeum, or Temple of Juno; III. The Metroum. Public buildings : The Thesauri of the states ; The Pry- taneum, in which the Olympic victors dined; The Bo u- leuterion, or council-hall, in which all the regulations were made. The chief buildings without the Altis were the Stadium, for gymnastic exercises, and the Ilippo- dromus, for racing). Pylos, in Triphylia.
MESSENIA. — Boundaries. — N., Triphylia and Arcadia; E., Laconia ; S., Messeniacus Sinus ; "W., Mare Ionium.
Cities. — Pylos, Navarino, in the S.W., (the city of Nestor); It home, in the centre, on a hill of the same name ; near which was Messene, ruins, the Capital, built by Epaminondas ; Ira, in the N., (which Aristomenes defended against the Spartans for eleven years).
LACONIA. — Boundaries. — N., Arcadia and Argolis; E., Myrtoum Mare ; S., Laconicus Sinus ; "W., Messenia.
Cities. — Lacedaemon, or Sparta, Sparta, on the Eurotas, the Capital of the most powerful state in Greece, (the city of Lycurgus, the lawgiver) ; S. of Lacedcemon, AmycloD, with a temple to Apollo; Helos, near the mouth of the Eurotas, (its inhabitants, the Helots, were reduced to slavery by the Spartans); Sellasia, (battle, B. c. 222, Athenians, under Antigonus Doson, defeated Cleomenes, king of Sparta).
ARGOLIS. — Boundaries. — N., Corinthia and Saronicus Si- nus; E., Myrtoum Mare; S., Argolious Sinus and Laconia; W., Arcadia. 4*
42 GEOGRAPHY.
Cities. — Argos, Argos, on the Inachus, one of the most ancient cities in Greece; S.E. of Argos, Nauplia, Napoli di Romania, the port of Argos; N. of Argos, MycensB, ruins, (the city of Agamemnon, noted for its Cyclopean walls; destroyed by Argives, b.c. 468); Tiryns, ruins, S.E. of Argos, (Hercules educated here, hence called Ti- rynthius) ; Nemea, ruins, N.W. of Mycena3, (Hercules killed the lion, vide first labour; triennial games cele- brated in consequence); Epidaurus, Epidauro, in the district of Epidauria, on the Saronic Gulf, (famed for a temple of -^sculapius) ; Trcezene, Demala, in the district Trcezenia, in the S.E. of Argolis; Hermione, Kastri, in the district Hermionis, in the South.
ARCADIA. — Boundaries. — N., Achaia ; E., Corinthia and Argolis; S., Laconla and Messenla; "W., Tryphylia and Elis.
Cities. — Mantinea, Paleopoli, in the East, (battle, B.C. 418, Athenians defeated; battle, B.C. 362, Epaminondas slain); Tegea, Piali, S.E. of Mantinea; Megalopolis, ruins, on the Helisson, founded, by the advice of Epami- nondas, B.C. 371, (the birth-place of Polybius).
CORINTHIA. — Boundaries. — N., Megaris and Sinus Corin- thiacus ; E., Saronicus Sinus ; S., Argolis ; W., Achaia.
Cities. — Corinthus, Corinth, the Capital, built at the foot of a steep mountain, on which stood the Acro-Corin- thus, the strongest citadel in Greece, the key of the Pelo- ponnesus ; (destroyed by Mummius, the Roman Consul, B.C. 146). At the narrowest part of the Isthmus stood Fanum Neptuni, a temple of Neptune, near which tha Isthmian games were celebrated (vide Antiq.). On the Asopus: Phlius, the Capital of the independent state, Phliasia.
SICYONIA. — J5ownc?ane5.— N., Sinus Corinthiacus ; E., Co- rinthia ; S., Arcadia ; W., Achaia.
City. — S icy on, ruins, on the north coast, at the mouth of the As5pus.
GEOGRAPHY. 43
The Greek Islands.
IN THE IONIAN SEA.— Corey r a, Corfu; Cap., Corcyra. L e u c a d i a, Santa Maura ; Cap., Leucas. Ithaca, Theaki; Cap., Ithaca. Cephallenia, Cephalonia. Cities. — Ce- phallenia and Same. Zacynthus, Zante; Cap., Zacyn- thus. Teleboides Insulae, between Leucadia and Epi- rus. Cythera, Cerigo, (sacred to Venus).
IN THE ^GEAN SEA.— I. In the WesUrwparU HydrSa, Hydra, Calauria, Calauria, (Demosthenes poisoned him- self, B.C. 322). ^gina, Egina. Sal am is, Colouri, (battle, B. c. 480, Persian fleet defeated by Athenians, under The- mistocles). Euboea, Negroponty Artemisium Prom., in the N., (battle, b.c. 480); Cities: 1. C hale is, Negro- pontCj the Capital; 2. Eretria. Scyros, Skyro.
II. In the NoriJiem part. Lemnos, Lemno, (sacred to Vulcan, who is said to have fallen on this island, when hurled from heaven by Zeus). Imbros, Imhro. Samo- thrace, Samothraki. Thasos, Thaso, anciently famous for its gold-mines. Tenedos, Tenedos, near the coast of Troas.
III. In the Eastern part. Lesbos, Mytilene, (noted for its wine) ; Cities : 1. Mitylene (the birth-place of Sappho, Alcoeus, Pittacus, &c.) ; 2. Methymna. Chios, Skio, (famed for its wine). Samos, Samo; Cap., Samos; (sacred to Juno, the native city of Pythagoras). Icaros, or-ia, Nikaria, which, with the adjoining sea, derived its name from Icarus, the son of Daedalus (vide Mythol.). Patmos, Patino or Patmos, (to which St. John was banished). Leros, Lero. Cos, Kos, (the birth-place of Hippocrates the physician, and Apelles the painter). Rhodus, Rhodes; Cap., Rhodes, in the port of which stood the Colossus. Carpathus, Scarpanto, whence Car- pathium Mare.
IV. In the SoiUliern part, THE CYCLADES. Delos, Delo, in the Centre, with Mt. Cynthus, (the birth-place of Apollo and Diana) ; Naxos, Naxo or Naxia ; (sacred to
44 GEOGRAPHY.
Bacchus); Paros, Faro, (famed for its white marble). N. : Andros, Andro ; Tenos, Teno ; Ceos, Zea; Cyth- nos, Thermia; Syros, Syra; Myconos, Myconi; Seri- phus, Serplio. S. : Melos, Milo; Siphnus, SipTino; I OS, Nio; Amorgus, Amor go; Thera, Santorin; A sty- pa lae a, Stampalia. The name SPORADES was applied to those islands not lying round Delos, but scattered apart. V. South of the Cyclades. Creta, Candia; Cap., Gnos- sus, (the residence of Minos) ; N.W., Cydonia, Khaniay (famed for its archers) ; S.W. of Cnossus, Gortyna. Mons Ida in the centre of the island ; E., Mons Dicte, in a cave Df which Jupiter was brought up.
BRITANNIA or ALBION.
' Great Britain.
-{■
BOUNDARIES. — N., Mare Pigrum, North Sea; E., Ger- manicus Oceanus, German Ocean; S., Fretum Gallicum, Straits of Dover, and Oceanus Britannicus, English Chan- nel; W., Oceanus Hibernicus, Irish Sea, and Verginium
A Mare, St. Georges Channel.
RIVERS, &c. — Tames is, Thames; Sabrlna, Severn; An- tona, Nen; Trivona, Trent; Abus, Eumher ; Tina, Tyne ; I tun a, Eden; Beva, Dee. In Scotland: Bodo- tria, Forth; Glotta, Clyde; Tavus, Tay ; Metaris -<Estuarium, The Wash; Bodotriae ^st.. Firth of Forth ; G 1 o 1 1 ae iE s t.. Firth of Clyde ; 1 1 u n a) iE s t., &^ tcay FrWh.
PROMONTORIES.— 0 cell urn Prom., Spurn Head; Can- tium Prom., North Foreland; Ocrlnum Prom., Lizard Point; Bolerium Prom., Land's End.
DIVISIONS. — S., Britannia Prima; Centre, Flavia Cajsariensis; W., Britannia Secunda, Wales; N.,
GEOGRAPHY. ^ 45
Maxima Csesariensis; N. of the Wall of Severus, Va- le nti a, South part of Scotland; N. of the Wall of Anto- ninus, Caledonia, North part of Scotland,
TRIBES. — S. of the Thames: Cantii, Kent; Regni, Surrey and Sussex; Belgae, Hants, Wilts, and Somerset; Atre- batii, Berks; Durotriges, Dorset; Dumnonii, Devon and Cornwall. N. of the Thames: Trinobantes, Middlesex and Essex; Simeni, vel Iceni, Suffolk and Norfolk; Cattieuchlani, Herts, Bucks, &c. ; Dobuni, Oxon and Gloucester; Si lures, South Wales; Ordovices, North Wales; Cornavii, Cheshire, Salop, Stafford, Worcester, Notts, &c. ; Coritani, Lincoln and Leicester ; Brigantes, York, Durham, Cumberland, and Westmoreland.
TOWNS. — S. of the Thames : Durovemum, Canterbury; Ru- tupiae, Richhorough; Venta Belgarum, Winchester; Reg- num, Chichester; Aquao Solis, Bath; Uxela, Exeter. N. of the Thames: Londinium, London; Verulamium, St. Alban's; Glevum, Gloucester; Corinium, Cirencester; Isca Silurum, CaerUon; Lindum, Lincoln; Deva or Deona, CJiester; Eboracum, York.
Hadrian's Wall, between the mouth of the Tyne and the Solway Frith; erected a.d. 121. Wall of Severus; erected a.d. 209. Rampart of Antoninus, between the Friths of Forth and Solway ; erected a. d. 140.
ISLANDS.— Orcades, Orkneys; 'EihVi^es, Hebrides ; Thule, Shellaiid Isles [t); Mona (of Caesar), Man; Mona (of Tacitus), Anglesey; Cassite rides, Scilly Isles, (famous for their tin) ; V e c t i s, Isle of Wight ; H i b e r n i a, Ireland; Cap., Eblana, Dublin.
Yn'K)f')OSO
ASIA.
COUNTRIES. — Asia Minor, Anatolia, Bourn, and Karor mania; Syria, Syria and Palestine; Arabia, Arabia; Sarmatia Asiatica, >S^.^. part of Russia in Europe; Colchis, Guriel, Mingrelia, and Imeritia; Iberia, Geor- gia /Albania, Shirvan and pai't ofDaghistan ; Armenia, Armenia and part of Georgia ; Mesopotamia, Algesira; Chaldasa, Irak Ardbi; Assyria, Kurdistan; Media, N. W. part of Persia; S u s i a n a, Khuzistan /Persia,^. W. 'part of Persia; H y r c a n i a an d P a r t h i a, jpar^ q/* Turkic- tan; Aria, U. part of Khorassan and N. part of Afghan- istan; Bactriana, Bokhara; Carmania, Kirman; Ge- drosia, S. part of Beloochistan ; Sogdiana, part of Turldstan and Bokhara; India, Hindostan, &c.; Scythia, Tartary.
MOUNTAINS. — Caucasus, (between Pontus Euxinus and Caspium Mare) ; Taurus Mons, in Asia Minor; Emodi Monies, Himalayah Mountains in the N. of India.
SEAS, GULFS, &c. — Mare Hyrcanum vel Caspium, Caspian Sea and Sea of Aral [1) ; Sinus Arabicus, Red Sea; Erythraeum Mare, Arabian Sea; Sinus Per- Bicus, Persian Gulf; Gangeticus, Bay of Bengal; In- dicus Oceanus, Indian Ocean.
RIVERS. — 1. Rha, Volga (flowing into the Caspian Sea);
2. Euphrates and Tigris, falling into the Persian Gulf;
3. Oxus, Jikon; 4. Jaxartes, Siho7i, falling into the Sea
(46)
GEOGRAPHT. 4T-
of Aral, (but supposed by the ancients to fall into Mare Caspium) ; 5. Indus, Indus, with its five tributaries; 6. Ganges, Ganged.
ISLANDS. — Cyprus, Cyprus, in the Mediterranean; Ta- probana, Ceylon, S. of Hindostan.
\
ASIA MINOR.
Anatolia, Roum, and Karamania.
BOUNDARIES. — N., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea; E., Euphrates and Syria; S., Mare Internum, Mediter- ranean; W., iEgeum Marc, and Propontis, Sea of Marmora.
GULFS. — N., Amisenus Sinus. "W., Adramyttenus Sinus, Gulf of Adrymitti; Smyrnseus Sinus, Gulf of Smyrna; S., Glaucus Sinus, Gulf of Maori ; Issicus Sinus, Gulf of Scanderoon.
MOUNTAINS. — Olympus, a chain extending from N.W. to N.E., passing through Galatia, Bithynia, and Paphla- gonia; Ida in Troas ; Dindymus in Phrygia, sacred to Cybele, (hence called Dindymene) ; Tmolus in Lydia (famed for its saifron and wine) ; S.W. of this My c ale, (near which the Persian fleet was defeated by the Greek, B.C. 479); CrSgus in Lycia; Taurus, extending through Asia Minor, from W. to E., to the countries beyond the Euphrates; Mons Argaeus, Erdgish DagJi, in Cappa- docia.
RIVERS. — Flowing into Pontus Euxinus: 1. Thermodon, Thermeh; 2. Iris, Tesliel IrmaJc ; 3. Halys, Kinllrmak; 4. Parthenius; 5. Sangarius, Sakariyeh. Flowing into the Propontis: 1. Rhyndacus, Edrenos ; 2. Granicus, (battle, B.C. 334, Alexander defeated the Persian Satraps). Flowing into the ^gean Sea: 1. Scamander or Xan-
48 GEOGRAPHY.
thus, Miiiderehy (joined by the Simois) ; 2. Hermus, Ghiediz-Chaiy (with its tributary Pactolus, famed for its golden sands); 3. Caystrus, (abounding in swans); 4. Maeander, Mendereh, (proverbial for its windings). Flow- ing into the Mediterranean: 1. Xanthus, Echen-Chai; 2. Oestrus, Ak-Su; 3. Eurymedon, Kapri-Su, (battle, B.C. 469, Cimon defeated the Persians) ; 4. Calycadnus, Giuk-Sooyoo ; 5, Cydnus, Tersiis-Chai, (famed for the clearness and coolness of its water); 5. Sarus, Sihan; 6. Pyramus, Jihan.
LAKE. — Tatta Pal us, Tuz Gdl, in Phrygia, a great salt lake.
PROMONTORIES.— N., Carambis Prom., Cape Karempe. At the entrance of the Hellespont: Rhoeteum and Si- geum Prom. W., Trogilium Prom., C. St. Mary, near which was the PANIONIUM, or place of assembly for the twelve Ionian states; Triopium Prom., C. ZHo, with a temple of Apollo, (surnamed Triopius), the place of meeting for the six Dorian states, or " Hexapolis," after- wards reduced to five, " Pentapolis." S., Sacrum Prom., and Anemurium Prom., C. Anamur.
DIVISIONS. — N., Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus; W., Mysia, Lydia, Caria; S., Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia; Central, Phrygia, Galatia, Cappadocia.
BITHYNIA. — Cities. — H eraclea Pontic a, HaraTcli, near which Acherusia Chersonesus, (with a cave through which Hercules is said to have descended to the infernal regions to drag up Cerebus). On the Thracian Bosporus: 1. Chrysopolis, Scutari; 2. Chalcedon, (or the city of the blind, so called from its founders having overlooked the more delightful situation of Byzantium). On the Pro- pontis: 1. Libyssa, Geibuzeh, (where was the tomb of Hannibal); 2. Nico media, Izmid, the Capital of the kings of Bithynia, (here Hannibal died, b.c. 183). On L. Ascanius, i. o/ Jznik: Nicaea, Jznik, (first Christian oecumenical council held, a.d. 325).
GEOGRAPHY. 49
PAPHLAGUNIA. — CiYi'e^. — On the N. coast: Si nope, Sinoub or Sinope, (the birth-place of Diogenes, the Cynic philosopher); Cytorus, Kydros^ famous for its t ox- wood.
PONTUS.—Ct^ie*.— On the coast: 1. Trapezus, Tiehizond; 2. Cera BUS, Kheresoun, (from which the cherry-tree was first introduced into Italy, by LucuUus) ; 3. Polermo- nium, Polemon; 4. Themiscyra, Therme1i{t) (founded by the Amazons); 5. Amisus, Samsun, (the residence of Mithridates). Inland: Zela, Zilleh, (battle, B.C. 47, Caesar conquered Pharnaces ; an account of this battle Caesar sent to the Senate in three words, viz., Veni, Vidi, Vici) ; Am as i a, Amasiali, (the birth-place of Mithridates and Strabo the geographer); Magnopolis, (built by Mithri- dates and Pompey).
MYSIA, with TROAS and ^OLIS or \X.— Cities. — In the N. : Cyzicus, Bal Kiz, (on an island of the same name, unsuccessfully besieged by Mithridates, b.c. 75). On the Hellespont: 1. Lampsacus, Lapsaki, (celebrated for its wine, and one of the cities assigned to Themistocles for his maintenance); 2. Abydos, Nagara; 3. Dardanus, from which arose the modern name Dardanelles. At the foot of Mt. Ida, Troja or Ilium, Troy, with its citadel Per- gama; at the head of a bay of the same name, Adra- myttium or eum, Adramytti. Inland, on the Caicus: Pergamus (on or os), Eergama, (celebrated for its library, where parchment (Pergamenae chartse) was first used in writing ; the library was afterwards added to that at Alexandria).
LYDIA or MiEONIA with lO^lK. — Cities. — On the coast: 1. Phocaea, a colony from which was founded Massilia, Marseilles ; 2. Smyrna, Smyrna, (one of the seven cities which claimed the honour of being the birth-place of Homer); 3. Teos, (the birth-place of Anacreon); 4. Colo- phon, (famed for its cavalry) ; 5. Ephesus, AyasaluJc, at the mouth of the Caystcr, (famous for its temple to Diana, 5
60 GEOGRAPHY.
one of the seven wonders). Inland: Magnesia, (battle, B.C. 190, Scipio defeated Antiochus) ; Sardes, Sart, on the Pactolus, (the Capital of Croesus, king of Lydia, taken by Cyrus, b.c. 546).
CARIA with VOBIS.— Cities. — On the Maeander: My us. On the coast: 1. Miletus, (one of the chief cities of Asia Minor, the birth-place of Thales, Anaximander, and other great men); 2. Halicarnassus, Budrum, (the birth-place of Herodotus the historian, and Dionysius the rhetorician, and celebrated for the tomb of Mausolus. Opposite to the island Cos: Cnidus), (battle, b.c. 394, Pisander, the Spartan admiral, defeated by Conon, the Athenian).
LYCIA. — Cities. — On the coast: Telmessus, Mdcri. (in- habitants famed for augury). On the Xanthus: X an thus, Crunik. Near the mouth of the river: Pat a r a, Patara, (with a famous temple and oracle of Apollo). On the East: Phaselis, (the head-quarters of the pirates before its destruction by P. Servilius Isauricus).
PAMPHYLIA with PISIDIA and ISAURIA. — CiVies.— On
the S. coast: Attalia. Inland: Perga, (the birth-place of Apollonius the mathematician) ; Selga, the chief city in Pisidia; Is aura, chief city in Isauria, (taken, B.C. 75, by P. Servilius, who thence received the surname Isau- ricus).
CILICIA. — Divided into Cilicia Trachea or Aspera and Cilicia Campestris. Cities. — In C. Aspera. — On the coast: 1. Selinus, Selenti, (where the Emperor Trajan died, A.D. 117); 2. Seleucia, Selefkeh; 3. Corycus (famed for its excellent saffron). In C. Campestris: 1. Soli, also called Pompeiop5lis; 2. Tarsus, Tersus, on the Cydnus, the Capital of Cilicia, (the birth-place of the Apostle Paul and many distinguished philosophers, cele- brated for the study of philosophy and the liberal arts) ; 3. Issus, ruins, on the Issic Gulf, (battle, b.c. 333, Alex- ander defeated Darius).
GEOGRAPHY. 51^
PHRYGIA with LYC AONIA. — Cities. — In the S.W. — On the Lycus: 1. Colossae, (to the inhabitants of which St. Paul addressed an epistle); 2. Laodicea; 3. Apamea Cibotus. Near the centre: 1. Ipsus (battle, B.C. 301, Antigonus and Demetrius defeated by Lysimachus and Seleucus, the two other generals of Alexander) ; 2. Syn- nada (famed for its marble). In Lycaonia: 1. Iconium; 2. Lystra; 3. Derbe (vide Acts xiv.).
GALATI A. — Cities. — On the Sangarius : 1. G o r d i u m (the ancient Capital of Phrygia, where Alexander cut the famous " Gordian knot," on which its destinies were sup- posed to depend) ; 2. Pessinus (the chief seat of the wor- ship of Cybele, whose image was removed to Rome to satisfy an oracle in the Sibylline books). Near the centre: Ancyra, Angora, (the Capital of the province in the time of Augustus).
CAPPADOCIA with ARMENIA MINOR. — CtVie*. — Near the centre, at the foot of Mons Argaeus: Caesarea or Mazaca, Kesarieh, the chief city; S.W. of this, Tyana, in the district Tyanitis, (the city of ApoUonius the im- postor). In Armenia Minor: 1. Nicopolis, Devriki; 2. Cab Ira or Sebaste, Sivas.
THE SIX DORIAN STATES ("Hexapolis"), which met at the temple of Apollo at Triopium Prom., in Doris (vide Caria), were, 1. Lyndus; 2. lalyssus; 3. Camirus (in Rhodes) ; 4. Cos (in the island of Cos) ; 5. Cnidus ; 6. Ha- licarnassus (in Caria) ; the last city was afterwards ex- cluded from the number, the remaining five being termed "Pentapolis.''
THE TWELVE IONIAN STATES, which held their meet- ings at the Panionium, near Mt. My c ale, in Ionia (vide Lydia), were, 1. Miletus ; 2. My us ; 3. Priene (in Caria) ; 4. Ephesus; 5. Colophon; 6. Lebedos; 7. Teos; 8. Ery- thrae; 9. Clazomene; 10. Phocaea (in Lydia); 11. Chios; and 12. Samos ; Smyrna from the .^olian colony increased the number to thirteen.
52 GEOGRAPHY.
rilE iEOLIAN LEAGUE ("Panceoli ;m") possessed twelve cities, which met at Smyrna : 1. Cyme ; 2. Larissas ; 3. Neontichos ; 4. Temnus ; 5. Cilia ; 6. Notium ; 7. ^gi- russa ; 8. Pitane ; 9. ^gaeae ; 10. Myrina ; 11. Grynea ; 12. Smyrna (which subsequently became an Ionian colony).
THE "SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA." — 1. Ephesus; 2. Smyrna ; 3. Pergamos ; 4. Thyatira ; 5. Sardis ; 6. Phi- ladelphia ; 7. Laodicea.
Island.
CYPRUS (sacred to Venus), separated from Asia Minor by Aulon Cilicius. Towns. — On the W. coast: 1. Paphos, Baffa; Amathus, Limasol; 2. Citium (the birth-place of Zeno the Stoic philosopher); E., Salamis, (said to have been founded by Teucer) ; N., Lapethus and Soli. Inland: 1. Tamasus (famed for its copper-mines); 2. Idalium (sacred to Venus). Mountain. — Olympus.
SYRIA— PALiESTINA.
BOUNDARIES. — N., Amanus Mons, and Taurus Mons; E., R. Euphrates and Arabia; S., Arabia; W., Mare Internum, Mediterranean.
MOUNTAINS. — Casi us Mons, Jehel Okrah; Lebanon (famed for its snowy summits and its cedars), di^^ded into Libanus on the "VV. and Antilibanus on the E., to the E. Mt. Ilermon. On the sea-coast: Carmel. Inland, in Galilee: Mt. Tabor, Mt. Hermon, and Mt. Gilboa. In Samaria: Mt. Ebal and Mt. Gerizim; (on the latter the Samaritans erected a temple to rival that at Jerusalem.) In Peraea: Mt. Nebo and Mt. Abarim.
RIVERS. — Falling into the Mediterranean: 1. Orontes, M Asij, from the S. ; 2. Leontes. Jordanes, Jordan, from Ilermon, flowing S., through, 1. Semechonitis Lacus,
GEOGRAPHY. 53
Waters of Meron; 2. L. Tiberias vel L. Gennesaret, Lake Chinnereth or Sea of Galilee, falls into 3. Lacus Asphaltites vel Mare Mortuum vel Salsum, Dead Sea or Salt Sea.
DIVISIONS. — I.Syria; 2. Phoenicia; 3. Palaestina.
SYRIA. — Cities. — On the coast: Seleucia Pieria, Capital of the district; Laodicea, Ladikeyeli. Inland, on the Orontes: 1. Antiochia, Antioch, ihQ Capital, (where the disciples were first called Christians); 2. Epiphanea, (0. T. Hamath), HamaTi; Heliopolis or Balbec, near the source of the Leontes ; (with a magnificent temple of the sun); to the S.E., Damascus, one of the most ancient cities in the world; E. of Antioch, ChalybonorBeroea, Aleppo. In the Desert: Palmyra or Tadmor, (the city of Zenobia, with whom Longinus the philosopher resided, destroyed a.d. 273). On the Euphrates: 1. Samosata, Someisaty (the birth-place of Lucian) ; 2. Zeugma; 3. Thapsacus, (famed for its ford, by which Cyrus in his expedition, Darius in his retreat, and Alexander previous to the battle of Arbela, crossed the Euphrates).
VRCENICl A. — Cities. —On the coast: 1. Tri polls, Taror hulus or Tripoli; 2. Byblus, Jebeil; 3. Berytus, Beirout; 4. Si don, Saida, (famed for its commerce and manufac- tures of glass) ; 5. Sarepta, for some time the residence of Elijah ; 6. Tyrus, Tyre or Sur, (celebrated for its mari- time wealth, enterprise, commerce, and colonizing activity : taken, b.c. 332, after a siege of seven months, by Alex- ander) ; 7. Ptolemais, Acre, one of the oldest Phoenician cities.
PAL^STINA vel JUD^A. — In Scripture called Canaan, The Land of Promise, The Land of Israel, and The Holy Land.
TRIBES. — W. of the Jordan: 1. Asher; 2. Naphthali; 3. Zebulon; 4. Issachar; 5. a half tribe of Manasseh; 5*
54 GEOGRAPHY.
6. Ephraim; 7. Dan; 8. Simeon; 9. Benjamin; 10. Judah; E. of the Jordan: a half tribe of Manasseh; 11. Gad; 12. Reuben. After the death of Solomon the land was divided into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah.
DIVISIONS. — 1. N., Galiljea (divided into Galilfea Su- perior, Galilee of the Gentiles, and Galilaea Inferior, Lmcer Galilee). 2. Centre: Samaria. 3. S. : Judaea.
4. Batanaea ; 5. Peraea, both beyond the Jordan.
GALILEE.— CtVi65.— In the N. : Dan ; E. of this, Csesarea Philippi vel Pane as, Banias. On the borders of the Sea of Galilee: 1. Capernaum (our Saviour's usual place of residence) ; 2. Bethsaida (the city of Peter, Andrew, and Philip); 3. Tiberias (built by Herod Antipas, in honour of Augustus Caesar). W. of the Lake: Dio Cae- sarea vel Sepphoris^ Sefurieh; 2. Cana (vrhere our Lord wrought his first miracle at the marriage-feast).
5. of Cana: 1. Nazareth (the residence of Joseph and Mary) ; 2. Nain, where the widow's son was restored to life.
SAMARIA. — Cities. — Near the centre: Samaria, aft. Sebaste, (founded by Omri, king of Israel; it was the Capital of the ten tribes until taken by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, B.C. 721). S. of this, 1. Shechem or Sychar, afterwards Neapolis, Nablous; 2. Shiloh, (where Joshua erected the tabernacle); S.E., Archelais, founded by Archelaus, son of Herod. On the coast: Caesarea, or Turris Stratonis, Kaisariyeh, (the residence of the Roman Procurators).
JUDiEA. — Cities. — On the coast: Joppa, Jaffa, a very ancient maritime city; in the N., Bethel, S.E. of this Jericho or Hierlchus, (taken and destroyed by Joshua) ; S. of Bethel, Emmaus, afterwards Nicopolis. W. of the northern extremity of the Dead Sea: Jerusalem vel Hierosolyma (originally Jebus, the city of the Jebu- sites), the Capital of the Jewish nation from the time of
GEOGRAPHY. 65
David, B.C. 1048; destroyed by Titus, a.d. 70; the city was situated on four hills, 1. Zion (or the Upper City), on which a fortress was erected by David; 2. Acra (or the Lower City) ; 3. Moriah, on which the temple was built;
4. Bezetha ; at the foot of Mt. Moriah was the brook Ke- dron, which flowed into the Dead Sea ; N.E. of Jerusalem, Bethany and the Mt. of Olives; S. from Jerusalem, 1. Bethlehem, the birth-place of David and of Our Blessed Saviour; 2. Hebron, the burial-place of Abra- ham, Isaac, and Jacob.
Five principal cities of the Philistines: 1. Gath; 2. Ekron or Accaron; 3. Azotus or As h do d, famed for its temple to Dagon; 4. Ascalon; 5. Gaza.
PERiEA and BATANiEA. — In Peraea: 1. Heshbon; 2, Ramoth Gilead; 3. Bethabara, on the Jordan. In Batanaea and N. of Peraea: DECAPOLIS, comprising,
1. Canatha; 2. Hippus; 3. Gadara; 4. Capitolias; 5. Abila; 6. Scythopolis; 7. Pella; 8. Gerasa; 9. Dium; 10. Phila- delphia.
THE CITIES OF REFUGE.— W. of the Jordan: l.Kedesh;
2. Shechem; 3. Hebron. E. of the Jordan: 4. Golan;
5. Ramoth Gilead ; 6. Bezer.
SEVEN HEATHEN NATIONS. — 1. The Hittites; 2. Gir- gashites; 3. Amorites; 4. Canaanites; 5. Peiizzitcs; 6. Hivites ; 7. Jebusites.
ARABIA
Arabia.
BOUNDARIES. — N., Syria and Chaldsea; E., Sinus Persicus; S., Erythraeum Mare, Arabian Sea; W, iEgyptus, Egypt; Sinus Arabious, Red Sea or Aror bian Gulf; Dirae, Straits of Babel Mandel.
56 GEOGRAPHY.
MOUNTAINS. — In the N., between the two branches of the Red Sea: Mt. Sinai and Mt. Iloreb; Mt. Hor, near Petra.
DIVISIONS. — N.W., ARABIA PETR.EA; W. and S., ARABIA FELIX ; E. and in the interior, ARABIA DE- SERTA.
TRIBES, &c. — N., Idumaea; W., Nabathsei; S., Sabsei, Cap. Saba or Mariaba, 0. T. Sheba. In Arabia Petraea: Petra. 0. T. Tribes bordering on Palestine : Ammonites, Moabites, Midianites, Edomites, Amalekites.
COUNTRIES BETWEEN PONTUS EUXINUS, Black Sea, AND HYRCANUM MARE, Caspian Sea.
I. SARMATIA ASIATICA, Circassia, and S. E. part of Rtissia in Europe. — Boundaries. — N.E., R. Rha, Volga; S.E., Caspium Mare, Caspian Sea; S., Caucasus Mons; W., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea, and R. Ta- nais, Don.
II. COLCHIS or ^A, Guriel, Imeritia, and Mingrelia.— Boundaries. — N., Mons Caucasus; E., Iberia; S. Armenia; W., Pontus Euxinus.
Chief River. — P ha sis, Faz (which has given its name to the pheasant, said to have been first brought to Greece from its banks).
Towns. — On the Phasis: Cyta, (where Medea was said to have been born). On the N. W. coast: Dioscuri as, Ishiria, (a considerable trading city).
III. IBERIA, Georgia. — Boundaries. — N., C au c a s u s ; E., Albania; S., Armenia; W., Colchis [inhabitants, Iberes or Iberi).
Chief River. — Cyrus, Kour, (tributaries, Cambyses and Alason).
Tribe. — W., Moschi.
GEOGRAPHY. ' 57
IV. ALBANIA, Shirvan and part of Daghistan. — Bound- aries,— N., Sarmatia Asiatica; E., Hyrcanum Mare; S., K. Cyrus, Kour ; W., Iberia. Mountain. — Caucasus Mens.
ARMENIA PROPRIA, vel MAJOR.
Armenia and part of Qeorgia.
BOUNDARIES.— N., Colchis, Iberia, and Albania; E., a point at the junction of the Araxes and Cyrus; S., Me- dia, Assyria, and Mesopotamia; W., R. Euphrates.
MOUNTAINS. — Mons Ararat, Imbarus Mons, Niphates Montes.
RIVERS. — 1. Araxes, Aras (rising in the country of the Chalybes), with its tributary, Harpasus, falls into the Caspian; 2. Euphrates, formed by two branches from the N. and E., and flow S., into Sinus Persicus, The Persian Gulf; 3. Tigris, with its tributaries, Nymphaeus and Nicephorius.
LAKE. — Arsissa Pal us, Lake Van.
TOWNS. — On the Araxes: Artaxata. On the Tigris: Ami da. On the Nicephorius: Tigranocerta (founded by Tigranes, son-in-law of Mithridates, king of Pontus).
MESOPOTAMIA.
Algesira.
MESOPOTAMIA, so named from its position between the rivers Euphrates (AY.) and Tigris (E.), was bounded on the N. by Masius Mons, Armenia, and Taurus Mons; S., by Babylonia.
k
58 GEOGRAPHY.
RIVER. — Chaboras or Aborrhas, Khabour (a branch of the Euphrates).
DIVISIONS. — N.W., Osroene; N.E., Mygdonia.
TOWNS. — On the Euphrates: 1. Nicephorium, EaJckah (built by order of Alexander); 2. Cunaxa (battle, b. c. 401, Cyrus the Younger defeated and slain by Artaxerxes his brother. The Greek auxiliaries of Cyrus commence their return to Greece, usually called the retreat of the Ten Thousand). Between the two rivers: 1. Edessa, (0. T. Ur), Urfah, the Capital of Osroene; 2. Charrse, the Haran of the 0. T., (death of Crassus, and defeat by the Parthians, b. c. 53); 3. Nisibis, Cap. of Mygdonia, and a very important place as a military post.
BABYLONIA AND CHALDJEA.
Irak Ardbi.
BOUNDARIES. — N., Mesopotamia; E., R. Tigris; S., Persicus Sinus; "W., Arabia.
Cities. — Babylon, ruins, on the Euphrates, founded by Nimrod, about b. c. 2000, and taken by Cyrus, b. c. 538 ; it was built in the form of a quadrangle, on both sides of the Euphrates, and was distinguished for its extent and mag- nificence. Its chief buildings were: 1. The Tower of Belus; 2.The01dRoyal Palace; 3.The New Palace, with the hanging gardens [i. e, gardens laid out in the form of terraces over arches). S. of Babylon: Borsippa (the chief residence of the Chaldaean astrologers), and Seleucia, on the Tigris, for a long time the Capital of W. Asia.
GEOGRAPHY. 69
COUNTRIES East of the EUPHRATES and TIGRIS.
I. ASSYRIA, Koordistan. — Boundaries. — N., Armenia; E., Media; S., Susiana; W., R. Tigris.
Rivers. — Flowing into the Tigris: Zabatus vel Lycus, Zah; Delas or Sill a, DtaZa.
Divisions. — N., Aturia; Centre, Adiabene; S., Sit- tacene.
Cities. — On the Tigris: 1. Ninus or Nineveh, Tiear Mosul, (the Capital of the great Assyrian monarchy, de- stroyed by the Medes and Babylonians, b. c. 606) ; 2. Ctesiphon (the usual winter residence of the Parthian monarchs). E. of the Tigris: Gaugamela, (the scene of the last and decisive battle between Alexander and Darius, B.C. 331, usually called the battle of Arbela, from its proximity to that town).
II. MEDIA, North-west part of modern Persia, Irak.-^ Boundaries. — N., Armenia, R. Araxes, and Caspium Mare; E., Ilyrcania and Aria; S., Persia and Su- siana; W., Assyria.
Divisions. — N., Atropatene; CJiief Town, Gaza. S., Media Magna.
Chief Toxons. — ^Ecbatana, Humadan, (near Mt. Orontes, the residence of the Median, and latterly of the Persian kings. The city was built without walls, on the slope of a hill, on the summit of which stood the royal castle, surrounded by seven walls, with battlements). N. E. of Ecbatana : Kdartuu rtvXtu, a mountain-pass ; near this the Nicaean plains, famed for the breed of white horses.
III. SUSIANA or SUSIS, KJiuzistan. — BoundaHes,^'^., Assyria; E., Persia; S., Sinus Persicus; W., R. Tigris.
Rivers. — Choaspes, Kerah; Coprates, Ahzal; and P a s i - T i g r i s, Karoon ( ? ) , fall into the Tigris.
60 GEOGRAPHY.
Tribes. — Cossae, Elamitae.
Capital. — Susa (O. T. Shushan), on the Choaspea (the winter residence of the Persian monarchs).
IV. PERSIA or PERSIS, Persia. — Boundaries. — ^., Me- dia; E., Carmania; S., Sinus Persicus; W., Su- siana.
Cities. — Persepolis (the burial-place of the Persian kings); Pasargada (founded by Cyrus the Great, in memory of his victory over Astyages, the last king of Media, b.c. 559).
COUNTRIES South op the R. OXUS, Jihm.
I. HYRCANIA, Astrahad. — Boundaries. — ^, and E., Par- thia; S., Media; AV., Caspium Mare.
II. PARTHIA, Khorassan (inhabited by a very warlike people). — Boundaries. — N., Scythia; E., Aria; S. and S.W., Media; W., Hyrcania.
Capital. — Ilecatompylus (founded by Arsaces).
III. ARIA or ARIANUS, East part of Khorassan and N. of Afglianistan. — Boundaries. — N., Parthia; E., Bac- triana and Indo-Scythia; S., Gedrosia; W., Car- mania and Media.
Divisions. — N., Margiana (famed for its wine) ; Centre, Drangiana [River: Etymandrus, flowing into Aria Palus, Lake ZurraTi) ; S., Arachosia.
Tribe. — P a r o p a m i s a d se (at the foot of Paropamisus Mons vel Caucasus, Hindoo-Koosh.
Capital. — Aria vel Artacoana, Herat,
IV. BACTRIANA or BACTRIA, Bolcliara.— Boundaries.— N., Oxus, R. Jilion; E. and S., Paropamisus Mons, Hindoo-Koosh; W., Aria.
GEOGRAPHY. 61
Capital. — Backtra, Balk (the winter-quarters of Alex- ander, B.C. 329).
V. C ARMANI A, Kirman. — Boundaries. — E., Aria and Ge- drosia; S., Sinus Persicus; W. and N.W., Persia.
Divisions. — Carmania Propria and Carmania De- serta.
Capital. — Caramana, Kirman.
VI. GEDROSIA, Beloocliistan. — Boundaries. — N., Aria; E., Paropamisus Mons, Hala Mis.; S., Erythraeum Mare, Arabian Sea; W., Carmania.
Mountains. — Parsici Montes, near the centre. Tribes. — Ichthyophagi, Oritae, and Arabitae, on the coast.
Capital. — Pura.
I
COUNTRIES North op the OXUS.
I. SOGDIANA, part of Turkestan and Bokhara. — Bound- aries.— N., R. Jaxartes, Sihon or Sirr ; E., Imaus Mons; S., R. Oxus, JiJwn or Amou; W., Sea of Aral (unknown to the ancients.)
Cities. — Maracanda, Samarkand (the Capital) ; Cyro- polis, on the Jaxartes (founded by Cyrus).
II. SCYTHIA {Independent Tariary and Mongolia), the name given to the large tract of country N. of the Caspian Sea, R. Jaxartes, and Emodi Montes, Himalaya Mts., and E. of Sogdiana and Bactriana. Scythia was divided by Imaus Mons, Altai Mts., into Scythia intra Imaum, on the N.W., and Scythia extra Imaum, on the S.E.
T'ibes, &c. — Sacae and Mas sage toe; E. of Scythia extra Imaum, S eric a, N.W. part of China, inhabitants the Seres, famous for their manufactures of silk (the coun- try was regarded as the native region of the silk-worm.) 6
62 GEOGEAPHY.
INDIA.
HindostaUf Birmdh, Siam, Cochin China, and Malaya,
BOUNDARIES.— N., Emodi Monies, Himalaya Mis., and Scythia; S., Gangeticus Sinus, Bay of Bengal, and Indicus Oceanus, Indian Ocean; W., Erythrseum Mare, Arabian Sea, and Paropamisus Mons, Hala and Soliman Mis.
RIVERS. — I. N.AV., Indus, Indus, with its five tributary streams: 1. Hydaspes, Jelum; 2. Acesines, Chenaub; 3. Hydraotes, Ravee; 4. Hyphasis, Gharra or Beeas; 5. Zaradrus, Sutlej. II. Ganges, Ganges. III. Dyar- danes or CEdones, Burrampooier,
DIVISIONS. — W. of the Ganges, India intra Gangem; E. of the Ganges, India extra Gangem.
TOWNS, &c. — On the Indus: T axil a, ^^^ocA; (near which Alexander crossed the river). On the Hydaspes: Buce- phala, Jelum (built by Alexander, in memory of his favourite horse Bucephalus, which died and was buried here, B.C. 327). Malli, a tribe on each side of the Ace- sines, Chenaub ; their Capital is supposed to have been on the site of the fortress of Moultan. On the Ganges: Palibothra, Patna, the Capital of the Prasii.
ISLANDS, &c. — Taprobane vel Salice, Ceylon; Jabadii Ins., Sumatra; Aurea Chersonesus Malaya; E. of which, Magnus Sinus, Gulf of Siam.
AFEICA
BOUNDARIES.— N., Mare Internum, Mediterranean; E., Arabia, Sinus Arabicus, Red Sea, and Erythraeum Mare, Arabian Sea; W., Mare Atlanticum, Atlantic Ocean.
BAYS. — Syrtis Major, Gulf of Sidra; Syrtis Minor, Gulf of Cahes.
STRAIT. — Fretum Herculeum vel Gaditanum, Straits of Gibraltar.
RIVERS. — Nil us, Nile, remarkable for its periodical inun- dations ; some few miles below Memphis the river divided into three branches, but now into two, E., Ostium Phatni- ticum, at Damietta, W., Ostium Bolbitinum, at Eosetta, which flows through a low land, called from its shape (resembling the fourth letter of the Greek language) *' Delta," and fell into the Mediterranean. The seven ancient mouths, from E. to "VY., were: 1. Pelusiac; 2. Saitic; 3. Mendesian ; 4. Phatnitic, or Bucolic ; 5. Sebennytic ; 6. Bolbitic ; 7. Canopic. Of these the fourth and sixth were artificial.
LAKES. — Near the western mouth of the Nile, L. Ma- reotis; S. of this, L. Moeris. E. of the Nile, L. Sir- bonis.
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64 GEOGRAPHY.
^GYPTUS.
Egypt.
BOUNDARIES. — N., Mediterranean; E., Arabia and Sinus Arabicus, Red Sea; S., ^Ethiopia; W., Libya,
DIVISIONS. — 1. N., iEgyptus Inferior or Delta; 2. Middle: Heptanomis; 3. S., uEgyptus Superior vel Thebais.
iEGYPTUS INFERIOR vel DELTA.— CiYie^.— Between L. Mareotis and the Sea, Alexandria, with two harbours (the Capital of Egypt under the Ptolemies, founded by Alexander, b. c. 332, and famous for its learning and com- merce ; the library is said to have contained 400,000 volumes). Opposite to Alexandria: the island Pharos, with a famous light-house, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, B.C. 283. E. of Alexandria: Canopus, near Ahoukir (its inhabitants were proverbial for their luxury). In the Delta: 1. Naucratis, founded by the Milesians, the only place in Egypt where Greeks were permitted to settle and trade) ; 2. Sais (the ancient Capital of Lower Egypt — it contained the palace and burial-place of the Pharaohs) ; 3. Busiris, with the temple of Isis; 4. Buto (with an oracle of the Egyptian goddess Buto). E. of the Delta: 1. Pelusium (surrounded by swamps, and called, from its situation, the Key of Egypt); E. of this, Casius Mons, with a temple of Jupiter ; here also was the grave of Pom- pey; 2. He lio polls, or On, O.T. (with a celebrated temple, the chief seat of the worship of the Sun); 3. Bubastis (where the great annual festival to the goddess Bubastis, or the Moon, was held).
HEPTANOMIS.— Ct7ie5. — On the W. side of the Nile: 1. Memphis or Moph, the Capital (near which were the celebrated Pyramids) : of its splendid buildings the chief were, the Palace of the Pharaohs and the temples of Apis and Serapis; 2. Crocodilopolis or Arsinoe
GEOGRAPHY. 65
(the chief seat of the worship of the Crocodile) : near this, the famous Labyrinthus, containing 3000 apartments, in which the kings and sacred crocodiles were buried; 3. Oxyrhyncus, BehneseTi, so called from the fish of that name there worshipped.
^GYPTUS SUPERIOR vel THEBAIS. — CiWe5. ■- On the W. side of the Nile: 1. Ptolemais, MensJiieh (an import- ant city under the Ptolemies) ; 2. Abydos, with a Mem- nonium, (i. e. a building erected by, or in honour of Memnon), and a temple of Osiris; 3. Thebae vel Dios- polis, on both sides of the Nile, Capital of Thebais, and the most ancient residence of the Egyptian kings: this city, called the hundred-gated (Ixowo/ttTtuXot), possessed many magnificent buildings, the ruins of which now enclose a space two miles in length; 4. Elephantine, and 5. Philae, on two small islands, with many architec- tural remains. On the E. side of the Nile: 1. Syene, Assouan, the S. frontier city of Egypt; 2. Coptos, Koft, (the central point of commerce between India and Arabia, by way of Berenice, on the Arabian Gulf).
At the N. of the Red Sea: Cleopatris vel ArsinSe, Suez.
South of Egypt: Ethiopia, Nubia, Senaar, Kordofany and Abyssinia.
Rivers. — Astapus and Astaboras, flowing into the Nile.
City. — Meroe (the Capital of the powerful kingdom of Meroe), with a famous oracle of Ammon.
I
NORTHERN COASTS OF AFRICA.
DIVISIONS,—!. Libya, Barca, with the provinces; 1. Mar-
marica; 2. Cyrenaica. II. Tripolitana vel Regio
Syrtica, Tripoli. III. Africa Propria, Tunis, with Zeu-
gitana and Byzacium vel Emporia. IV. Numidia,
6*
66 QEOGRAPHY.
Algiers. V. Mauritania, Morocco and Fez, divided into Mauritania Caesariensis, E., and Mauritania Tin- gitana, W.
LIBYA, Barca. — Towns. — In Marmarica. — On the coast : Parsetonium, El-Bareton ; S. of this, Oasis of Amnion, famous for its temple, visited by Alexander ; W. of Paraeto- nium, Catabathmos, generally considered the boundary between Egypt and Cyrenaica. In Cyrenaica: Gyrene, the chief city (founded by Battus, b.c. 631), the birth-place of Aristippus, the philosopher, and Callimachus, the poet ; S.W. of Gyrene, Barce, Barca, chief town of the Barcitae. On the coast: 1. Ptolemais; 2. Berenice, the fabled site of the Gardens of the Hesperides.
TRIPOLITANI, nipoli.— Towns.— On the coast: 1. Leptis Magna vel Neapolis; 2. Oea, Tripoli; 3. Sabrata (these three cities formed the African Tripolis).
Tribe. — On the coast: Lotophagi or Eaters of the Lotus, the taste of which was so delicious, that those who eat of the fruit lost all desire to return to their native country.
AFRIGA PROPRIA, Tunis, divided into Byzacium and Zeugitana. — Towns. — In Byzacium. — On the coast : 1. Tactipe, Cdbes; 2. Thapsus, Demos (battle, b.c. 46, Gaesar defeated the Pompeian army) ; 3. Leptis Minor, Lamia; 4. Hadrumetum (the Gapital of Byzacium under the Romans). Inland: Tritonis Palus, El Sibkah (in which Minerva is said to have been born, and hence called "Tritonia"). In Zeugitana. — On the coast: 1. Tunes, Tunis; 2. Garthago, the Gapital of Africa, situated at the head of a bay, formed by two promontories, Her- maeum Prom., C. Bon, and Apollinis Prom., C. Fa- rina. The Tyrian colony of Garthage was said to have been founded by Dido, about b.c. 853 — its citadel was termed Byrsa (Bvpcra, "a hide"), in reference to the manner in which the portion of land for building the first city was
GEOGRAPHY. 67
obtained by Dido (destroyed, b.c. 146, by Scipio Africanus the Younger) ; 2. U tic a, near the mouth of the Bagradas, the second city in Africa, and even more ancient than Carthage (the birth-place of Cato, whence he received the surname of Uticensis). Inland: Zama (battle, b.c. 202, Hannibal defeated by Scipio, and the Second Punic war ended).
NUMIDIA, E. part of Algiers. — Town.— Cirta,, the Capital, the city of Syphax and Masinissa. Tribe. — Massyli.
MAURITANIA, Morocco^ FeZy and part of Algiers. — Towns, — On the coast: 1. Cartenna, Tennez; 2. Siga; 3. Tin- gis, Tangier ; 4. Sal a, Sallee. S. of Mauritania: Atlas Mons, Mi. Atlas. Tribes. — S. of Atlas Mons, Numidia and Africa Propria, Gaetuli, E. of which Garamantes, dwelling in the region Phazania, Fezzan^ Cap. Garama, Mourzouk.
ISLANDS. — In the Atlantic : Insulae Purpurariae, pro- bably the Madeira, S. of which Insulae Fortunatae, Canary islands, in which the ancients supposed the Elysian fields to be situated; Hesperidum Insulae, Cape Verde Islands, 3r the Bissagos group.
L
MYTHOLOGT.
THE TWELVE OLYMPIAN OR NATIONAL DEITIES OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.
JUPITER (Zfvj'), son of Saturn and Ops, king of gods and men, and the most powerful of all the deities. He was educated in a cave on Mount Ida. When a year old he made war against the Titans, in the cause of his father Saturn, and liberated him. He is usually represented as sitting on an ivory or golden throne, holding in his hand thunderbolts. He bore a shield or goat-skin called -^gis.
NEPTUNE (no(j«Swv), son of Saturn and Ops, and chief deity of the sea ; he was on this account entitled to more power than any other god except Jupiter. He is repre- sented as carrying the trident, or three-pronged spear, attended by dolphins. Amphitrlte was his queen.
VULCAN ("H^aKJT'oj), son of Juno ; the god of fire, and patron of all workers in iron and metals : his palace, which was in Olympus, contained his workshop, in which he made many ingenious and marvellous works, both for gods and men. His abode is said by some to have been in p volcanic island. The Cyclops were his workmen.
MARS ("Apj^j), the god of war ; son of Jupiter and Juno. He presided over gladiators, and was the patron of manly and warlike exercises. He is generally represented as riding in a chariot, drawn by furious horses, called Flight and Terror. In the Trojan war he is said to have taken the part of the Trojans. In Rome he received the most unbounded honours*
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MYTHOLOGY. 69
MERCURIUS ('Ep^^j), son of Jupiter and Maia ; messenger of the gods, and deity of eloquence, commerce, and the a ts. He conducted the souls of the dead into the lower world, and is usually represented with a winged hat and sandals, bearing the caduceus in his hand. Hermes was horn on Mount Cyllene, in Arcadia.
APOLLO, son of Jupiter and Latona ; god of music, medi- cine, augury, painting, poetry, and all the fine arts. H€ was born, with his sister Diana, near Mount Cynthus, in Delos, an island in the ^gean Sea. AVhen he grew up he slew the serpent Python, which infested the country near Delphi, and established the famous oracle. He received the surname of Phoebus from his connexion with the Sun {^^i, the bright).
JUNO ('Hpa or 'Hp»7), the daughter of Saturn and Ops, sister and wife of Jupiter, and queen of all the gods. She was born at Argos (some say Samos), and is noted for her jealousy and severity to the illegitimate children of Jupiter.
MINERVA or ATHENA {'AO^tj or 'A9tp>d, nawiaj), daughter of Jupiter, said to have sprung from his forehead com- pletely armed. She was goddess of wisdom, war, and the liberal arts, the guardian and aider of heroes, and pre- siding goddess of Athens. She is always represented with a helmet, breast-plate (or ^gis), and shield ; on the latter was the Gorgon's head. Her favourite bird was the owl, which was sacred to her.
VESTA ('EdT-ta), the goddess of the hearth, and also of fire. Her worship was introduced into Italy by -(Eneas. The fire on the altar in her temple was never allowed to go out ; but, when such was the case, it was kindled again by the rays of the sun. The priestesses dedicated to her ser- vice were called Vestals.
.CERES {Arjfiri'tTjfi), daughter of Saturn and Rhea (or Ops) ; goddess of corn and plenty, the same as Isis of the Egyp- tians. She was mother of Proserpine, and is represented holding a sceptre or torch, and a garland of ears of com round her head.
70 MYTHOLOGY.
VENUS ('A^poStV?/), daughter of Jupiter and Dione and wife of Vulcan, the goddess of love and beauty, queen of laughter, and mistress of the graces and pleasures. Venus is sup- posed to have sprung from the foam of the sea near the island of Cyprus or Cythera. In the contest for the golden apple of beauty, Paris awarded it to Venus, in preference to Pallas and Juno. Her favourite birds were swans and doves, her sacred flowers the rose and myrtle.
DIANA (•Api'fjWtj), daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and sister of Apollo ; the goddess of woods and hunting. On earth she was called Diana, in heaven Luna, in the lower world Proserpina or Hecate.
Note. — The deities of the Romans were adapted to those of the Greeks, with which they do not entirely correspond.
MINOR DEITIES.
^OLUS, a king of the JSolian Islands. He is fabled to be the god of the winds, from his foretelling the changes of the winds and weather.
iESCULAPIUS ('Acfx^^rttoj), the god of medicine, instructed in this science by Chiron. He was worshipped throughout Greece; and his temples, which were built in healthy places, on hills, or near wells, were not only places of wor- ship, but frequented by sick persons.
AMMON, a surname of Jupiter, worshipped in Libya, and afterwards in Egypt.
AMPHITRITE, a NEREID or OCEANID, wife of Neptutio, and goddess of the sea.
APIS, the bull of Memphis, worshipped by the Egyptians. He was allowed to live but about twenty-five years, and was then slain and secretly buried ; but if he died a natural death, he was buried publicly, with great solemnity.
ASTR-i^A, daughter of Zeus and Themis; goddess of justice. She lived on earth during the golden age ; but the wicked- ness of mankind drove her to heaven during the brazen
MYTHOLOGY. 71
and iron ages. She was placed among the constellations, under the name of Virgo, and is represented holding a pair of scales in one hand, and a sword in the other.
AURORA {Eos, "Ewj), the goddess of the morning, daughter of Hyperion, and wife of Tithonus son of Laomedon. She is represented as setting out before Helios her brother, drawn in a chariot by four white steeds, and dispelling darkness and sleep.
BACCHUS {Dionysus, Atowcroj), the god of wine, son of Jupiter and Semele the daughter of Cadmus of Thebes. He is usually represented as an effeminate youth, crowned with ivy and vine leaves.
BELLONA, the Roman goddess of war, and companion of Mars. She is usually described as his wife, and repre- sented armed with a scourge, to animate the combatants.
CUPIDO or AMOR ("Epcoj), the god of love ; the son of Venus and Zeus (some relate of Mars and Mercury). He is usually represented as carrying a bow and arrows, which he darts into the bosoms of gods and men.
FAUNI, rural deities, represented as half men and half goats.
FLORA, the goddess of flowers among the Romans.
FORTUNA {Tvx*:), daughter of Oceanus ; the goddess of for- tune. From her were derived riches and poverty, pleasures and misfortunes. The Romans paid great attention to this goddess, and had eight temples dedicated to her at Rome.
FURI^ or DIRiE, called by the Greeks Erinyes ('Epw/ucj) or Eumemdes {Evfi(vl8Bi), three goddesses sprung from Ge and the blood of Uranus, namely, TisipJwiie, Alecio, and Megcera, They haunted the impious with remorse for their crimes.
GE or G^A (r^ or Tata), also called by the Romans TELLUS and TERRA, was the personification of the earth, and as such was worshipped by the ancients as a deity.
GENIUS, the guardian or protecting spirit of each man's life. Such spirits were called by the Greeks ^aJLfxovie, by the Romans Genii, and were regarded as the ministers of Zeus, and guardians of men and justice. Hesiod numbers the Dasmones at 30,000.
72 MYTHOLOGY.
GRATIS, the three goddesses presiding over all elegant arts and social enjoyments. They are generally represented dancing. Their names were Aglaia (splendour), Uuphro- syne (joy), Thalia (pleasure).
HADES o*r PLUTO ('AtSjyj), god of the {unseen or) nether world. He is also known as Orcus, Tartarus, and Dls. The word Hades is also frequently used to designate the infernal regions.
HEBE vel JUVENTAS, daughter of Jupiter and Juno ; the goddess of youth. She was for some time cup-bearer to the gods, to which office Ganymede succeeded; she was also employed by Juno in preparing her chariot, &c. She was supposed to have the power of making aged persons young again.
HECATE, a Titan goddess, whose power extended over heaven, earth, and sea. Also a name for Diana or Pro- serpina.
HELIOS, called SOL by the Romans, god of the sun ; brother of Aurora.
HOR^, daughters of Zeus and Themis. Originally the god- desses of the seasons, but in later times of order and justice. They were three in number, Eunomia (good order), DikS (justice), Irene (peace).
HYGIEA or HYGEA, the goddess of health ; daughter of ^sculapius. She is represented as a virgin, draped in a long robe, and feeding a serpent from a cup.
HYMEN vel HYMEN^US, the god of marriage ; described by some as the son of Bacchus and Venus, by others as the son of Apollo and one of the Muses.
IRIS, the goddess of the rainbow, and the messenger of the deities, particularly of Juno.
ISIS, a celebrated deity of the Egyptians, described as the wife of Osiris ; goddess of the earth, and deity of the moon ; inventor of the cultivation of wheat and barley.
JANUS, a Roman deity ; god of the temple of war. He is represented with two faces, sometimes with four heads. Numa dedicated a temple to Janus, open in times of war, and closed in times of peace.
t
MYTHOLOGY. 73
LARES, inferior gods at Rome, who presided over houses and families, and were divided into Lares puhlici and Lares do- mestici ; all the latter were headed by the Lar familiarisj regarded as the founder of the family. Their images stood on the hearth, and offerings were made to them daily.
LUNA or SELENE, daughter of Hyperion ; the goddess of the moon, identified afterwards with Diana.
MANES, the general name for the souls of the departed. They were regarded as gods, and received divine honours.
MOMUS, the god of pleasantry, wit, and satire ; driven from heaven by the gods for turning all their actions into ridicule.
MORPHEUS, son of the deity Somnus, and god of dreams.
MUSiE, goddesses who presided over poetry, &c. They were the daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne (Memory), and nine in number: 1. CUOy the muse of History; 2. Euterpe^ of Lyric Poetry; 3. Thalia, of Comedy; 4. Melpomene, of Tragedy; 5. Terpsicliore, of Choral Dance; G. Erato, of Amatory Poetry; 7. PoUjhymnia, of Rhetoric and Elo- quence; 8. Urania, of Astronomy; 9. Calliope, Epic Poetry. At the Olympian banquets they sang to Apollo's lyre. Their favourite haunts were the hills Pindus, Helicon, and Parnassus.
NEMESIS, daughter of Nox, goddess of vengeance, and always prepared to punish the wicked and reward the good.
NEREUS, a deity of the sea, and father of the fifty Nereides. He is represented as an old man, and described as the wise old man of the sea, at the bottom of which he dwelt.
NYMPHiE, a numerous class of female deities, generally divided into two classes, viz. land and water nymplis. The chief land nymphs were : 1st, Oreades, of the mountains and grottoes; 2d, Napoeae, of the forests, glens, and groves; 3d, Dryades and Hamadryades, of the woods and trees. The chief water nymphs were: 1st, Oceanides, or ocean nymphs, three thousand in number ; 2d, Nereides, or sea nymphs, fifty in number (among them we find Amphitrite, Thetis, and Galatea) ; 3d, Naiades, a general name for those nymphs presiding over either rivers, lakes, brooks, or springs ; 4th, Potameides, or river nymphs.
74 MYTHOLOGY.
OCEANUS, the god of water ; son of Uranus and Ge ; repre- sented as an old man, sitting on the waves of the sea.
OSIRIS, a great Egyptian divinity, husband of Isis, and god of the Nile. He taught the use of the plough, and is some- times represented as the deity of the sun.
PALES, the divinity of sheep-folds and pastures among the Romans.
PAN, the god of shepherds ; son of Hermes. He was usually represented as a monster with two small horns on his head, ruddy complexion, flat nose, and with the legs, tail, and feet of a goat. He resided chiefly in Arcadia, and is said to have invented the pipe with seven reeds, called Syrinx, from a nymph of that name whom he loved.
PAX, the Roman goddess of peace ; daughter of Zeus and Themis.
PENATES, the household gods of the Romans, called Penates from being placed in the innermost part {in peniiissima parte) of the house; they were generally made of wax, ivory, silver, or clay.
PHCEBE, a name given to Diana as goddess of the moon (Luna) ; Apollo, her brother, being surnamed Phoebus, god of the sun.
PHCEBUS, expressive of brightness, a surname given to Apollo as god of the sun.
PLUTO, the son of Saturn and Rhea ; god of the infernal regions. He is described as gloomy and inexorable ; on which account, as none of the goddesses would marry him, he bore off Proserpine by force. He is also known as Orcus, Hades, Dis, &c.
PLUTUS, son of Ceres and lasion ; the god of wealth. Jupiter is said to have deprived him of sight, that he might not bestow his gifts on the righteous alone.
POMONA, the goddess of fruits among the Romans.
PRIAPUS, a deity who presided over gardens, and was wor- shipped as a protector of flocks, goats, bees, and fishing.
PROSERPINA vel PERSEPHONE, daughter of Jupiter and Ceres, and wife of Pluto as queen of the lower world. She presided over the death of mankind.
MYTHOLOGY. 75
PROTEUS, a sea deity (the prophetic old man of the sea), remarkable for hia custom of assuming different forms when consulted. He is described as a subject of Neptune, whose flocks (the seals) he tended.
PARC^E vel MOIlliE, the Fates, powerful goddesses, who presided over the life and death of mankind. They were three in number, viz. : ClotJio, or the spinning fate, who presided at the birth ; Lachesis, who spun out all the events of each man's life, and assigned his lot or fate ; Atropos, the inflexible fate that cannot be avoided, who cut the thread of life.
SATURNUS (Kpdi/oj), a son of Coelus and Uranus, and the father of Jupiter. As the god of time he is represented as an old man, holding a scythe in his right hand.
SILENUS, a rural deity ; an attendant on Bacchus. Usually represented in a state of intoxication, and never seen with- out his wine-bag.
SILVANUS, a Roman deity, who presided over the woods and forests.
THEMIS, daughter of Uranus and Ge ; the mother of Astraea, Irene, the Parcae, &c., «&c. She is the personification of Law and Equity.
THETIS, one of the sea deities or Nereides (daughters of Nereus), and the mother of Achilles.
URANUS, CCELUS, or HEAVEN, a Titan; the most ancient of all the gods ; father of Saturn, Oceanus, &c.
VERTUMNUS, the Roman deity who presided over plants and flowers.
HEROES, MYTHICAL PERSONS, &c.
ACHERON, a river of the lower world, over which the dead were first conveyed : the word is sometimes used to desig- nate the whole of the infernal regions.
ADMETUS, son of Pheres and Periclymene, king of Pherae, in Thessaly, husband of Alcestis, and one of the Argonauts.
76 MYTHOLOGY.
ADONIS, a beautiful youth, the favourite of Venus ; at hia death she transformed him into the flower called Ane- mone.
-<3j]ACUS, son of Zeus and iEgina: he was so famed through- out Greece for his justice and piety, that he was called upon to settle the disputes not only of men, but sometimes of the gods ; on his death he became one of the three judges in Hades.
^.G^ON (vide Briareus).
ALCESTIS, daughter of Pelias, and wife of Admetus, who, having on the day of his marriage neglected to sacrifice to Artemis, Apollo reconciled the offended goddess, and induced the Fates to deliver Admetus from death, if his father, mother, or wife, would die for him ; Alcestis died in his stead, but was brought back from the lower world by Hercules.
AMAZONES, a nation of female warriors, said to have come from the Caucasus, and settled near the river Thermodon, in Pontus ; Hippolyte was their queen.
ARIADNE, daughter of Minos and Creta ; she fell in love with Theseus, who married her, but afterwards forsook her.
ATLAS, one of the Titans, who is generally represented as supporting the world on his shoulders ; which task was allotted him in consequence of his having, with the other Titans, made war upon Zeus (vide Titanes).
BELLEROPHON, son of Glaucus a Corinthian king. To be purified from the murder of his brother Bellerus, he fled to Prcetus, king of Argos, by whom he was sent to lobates, king of Lycia, his father-in-law, who ordered him to slay the monster Chimaera, thinking he would perish in the contest ; but Bellerophon, having obtained the aid of Pe- gasus, the winged horse, conquered the Chimaera : he was also sent against the Amazons, and encountered the bravest of the Lycians, always returning victorious. lobates, see- ing it was hopeless to kill the hero, made him his successor, and gave him his daughter in marriage. Some relate that BeUer5phon attempted to fly to heaven on Pegasus, but Zeus sent a gad-fly to sting the horse, which threw off the
t
MYTHOLOGY. 77
rider, who became lame or blind, and wandered about the earth till the day of his death.
BRIAREUS vel ^GEON, a famous giant, who had 100 hands and fifty heads, called by men ^gaeon, and only by the gods Briareus. He is said to have conquered the Titans, when they made war on the gods.
CALYPSO, one of the ocean nymphs who dwelt in the mythical island of Ogygia, on which Ulj'-sses was ship- wrecked.
CASTOR, son of Jupiter and brother of Pollux, distinguished for his skill and management of horses. Castor and his brother enjoyed immortality, and were called the Dioscuri.
CENTAURI, a race inhabiting Mount Pelion, in Thessaly, represented as half men and half horses ; Chiron was the most celebrated of the Centaurs (vide Pirithous).
CERBERUS, the dog of Pluto : he guarded the entrance to Hades, and is said by some to have had fifty heads, by others only three ; his den was near the spot where Charon landed the dead.
CHARON, a son of Erebus (darkness) : he conducted the souls of the departed in a boat over the rivers Acheron and Styx to the lower regions, for an obolus (about l\d.) ; as all the dead were obliged to pay, a small coin was usually placed in the mouth of the deceased.
CHIRON, the most celebrated of the Centaurs : he lived on Mt. Pelion, and was famed for his knowledge of hunting, medicine, music, and prophecy ; he instructed the chief heroes of his age, namely, Hercules, Jason, Achilles, Pe- leus, &c., and was wounded accidentally in the knee by a poisoned arrow shot by Hercules in his contest with the Centaurs. After his death, Chiron was placed among tho constellations by Zeus.
CIRCE, a mythical sorceress, daughter of Sol and Perseus, celebrated for her knowledge of magic and venomous herbs.
COCYTUS, a river in Epirus, and tributary of the Acheron ; it was supposed to be connected with the lower world, and hence was described as one of the five rivers of hell. , ,
78 ' MYTHOLOGY.
CYCLOPE'^, a race of men of gigantic stature ; they had but one circiuar eye in the centre of their forehead, whence the name KvxXoTt-? ; they were three in number according to Ilesiod, and called Arges, Brontes, and Stejvpes; but this number was afterwards increased.
DjEDALUS, the most ingenious artist of his time: he in- vented sails for ships, and made wings with wax and feathers for himself and son Icarus ; with these they toolj flight from Crete : but the heat of the sun melted the waj» on the wings of Icarus, and he fell into the part of th^ ocean called after him the Icarian Sea.
DAPHNE, daughter of the river-god Peneus in Thessaly, o^ Ladon in Arcadia : she was much beloved by Apollo, snd fearful of being caught by him, was changed into a laurel tree, which thence became the favourite tree of Apollo.
DEUCALION, son of Prometheus, and king of Phthia in Thessaly, saved with his wife Pyrrha, on account of their piety, when Zeus destroyed by a flood the race of men. On the waters subsiding, Deucalion and Pyrrha ofiered a sacrifice, and consulted the oracle of Themis how the human race might be restored ; the oracle ordered them to cast behind them the bones of their mother, which they interpreting to be the Earth, threw stones behind their backs, when those thrown by Deucalion turned into men, and those by Pyrrha into women.
ELYSIUM, a place in the lower world, the abode of the vir- tuous after death : the Elysian regions are placed by some in the middle region of the air or ocean ; by others in the moon and sun ; and by others in the centre of the earth, near Tartarus.
ENDYMION, a youth celebrated for his beauty and per- petual sleep.
EREBUS (signifying darkness), a deity of hell ; the word is applied to the gloomy regions, the abode of the wicked as well as of the good, and is distinguished both from Tar- tarus and Elysium.
EUROPA, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia: her beauty captivated Zeus, who, taking the form of a bull, mingled
MYTHOLOGY. 79
with the herd of Agenor ; when Europa, encouraged by the tameness of the animal, mounted his back, whereupon Zeus rushed into the sea and swam with her in safety to Crete, where she became the mother of Minos, Rhadaman- thus, and Sarpedon.
GIGANTES, the giants, sons of heaven and earth, a savage race, destroyed on account of their insolence to the gods.
GORGONES, three celebrated sisters, daughters of Phorcys the sea deity ; their names were Stheno, EurycXle, and Me- dusa; they were frightful creatures, and instead of hair their heads were covered with serpents ; they had wings, brazen claws, and enormous teeth. Perseus slew Medusa, whose head was placed in the centre of Minerva's shield, and had the power of turning all that looked at it into stone.
IIARPYIiE, winged monsters, w4th the face of a w^oman and body of a vulture ; they were three in number, Aello, Ce- Iceno, and Ocypete.
HERACLYDiE, a name given to the descendants of Her- cules, who, with the Dorians, conquered the Peloponnesus (B.C. 1104).
HERCULES, the most celebrated hero of antiquity : he was the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, and born at Thebes. Juno early plotted his destruction, and her cruelty ren- dered him subject to the will of Eurystheus, king of My- cenae, who imposed on him twelve labours (vide infra). His first exploit previous to entering the service of Eurys- theus, was killing the enormous lion which destroyed the flocks of Amphitryon and of Thespius, king of Thespice : the gods, charmed with the bravery of Hercules, presented him with a complete suit of armour ; Jupiter gave a shield, Apollo a bow and arrows. Mercury a sword, Vulcan a golden cuirass and a club of brass, and Minerva a coat of mail.
HESPERIDES, the celebrated guardians of the golden apples, which Ge gave to Juno on the day of her marriage with Jupiter : they were called the daughters of Atlas and Hes- peris, whence their name ; they resided near Mount Atlas, in Africa.
80 MYTHOLOGY.
HIPPOLYTE, daughter of Mars, queen of the Amazones ; she wore a girdle given her by her father, which was taken from her by Hercules (vide 9th labour).
HYPERION, a Titan, son of Uranus (heaven) and Ge (earth), (father of Helios) the sun.
HYADES (i. e. the rainy), a name given to seven nymphs, who formed, with the Pleiades, the constellation known by that name.
lAPETUS, one of the Titans; being the father of Prometheus, he was regarded by the Greeks as the father of all mankind.
10, the daughter of Inachus, king of Argos. Hera being jealous of her, Zeus changed her into a white heifer : Hera then sent the hundred-eyed Argus to watch her ; but he being slain by Hermes, the goddess persecuted her with a gad-fly ; she swam across the Thracian Bosporus (hence its name Ox-ford), and, after wandering over the earth, gave birth to Epaphus, on the banks of the Nile.
IXION, king of the Lapithse, and father of Pirithous. He treacherously murdered his father-in-law, Deioneus, and having proved ungrateful to Zeus, who had purified him, the god condemned him to be tied to a wheel which per- petually revolved in Hades.
JASON, the celebrated leader of the Argonautae, in the expe- dition to Colchis ; he was the son of ^son and Alcimede, and brought up by the Centaur Chiron (vide Argonautic Expedition).
LAPITH^, a savage race inhabiting the mountains of Thes- saly; Piritholis was their king (vide Pirithous).
LATONA {ArjtJi), a Titaness, the mother of Apollo and Diana.
LEDA, daughter of Thestius, and wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta; she was the mother of Helena by Zeus, who visited her in the form of a swan.
LETHE, a river in the lower world, whose waters, if the souls of the dead drank, had the power of making them forget all they had done before (derivation >^r;0^, oblivion). MAIA, daughter of Atlas, and one of the Pleiades, the most luminous of the seven sisters.
MYTHOLOGY. 81
MEDEA, daughter of ^etes, king of Colchis, celebrated for her skill in music ; she fell in love with Jason, and assisted him in obtaining the golden fleece (vide Argonautic Expe- dition).
MINOS, son of Zeus and Europa, brother of Rhadamantliiis, and the king and legislator of Crete. On his death, Minos became one of the judges of the lower world.
NARCISSUS, a beautiful youth, changed into the flower which bears his name.
NIOBE, daughter of Tantalus, sister of Pelops, and wife of Amphion : being the mother of seven sons and daughters, she considered herself superior to Latona, who had borne only two ; for this conduct, her children were slain by Apollo and Diana, she herself being turned into stone.
ORION, a celebrated giant, sprung from Jupiter, Neptune, and Mercury ; after his death, Orion was placed among the constellations.
ORPHEUS, one of the Argonauts, supposed to be a son of Apollo, and regarded by the Greeks as the most celebrated of the early poets. His skill on the lyre was such that ho charmed even Cerberus and the inhabitants of Hades, when he went thither to recover his wife E ury dice, whom he lost by looking back upon before they had regained the earth.
PANDORA (rtoi/ScSptt), a woman so named from having re- ceived every necessary gift : from Venus, beauty ; from Mercury, eloquence ; and from Minerva, splendid orna- ments. Pandora was the first woman on earth, and made by Vulcan from clay, by order of Jupiter, who might, by her charms, bring woes upon the earth, because Prome- theus had stolen fire from heaven. She was married to Epimetheus, brother of Prometheus : in his house was a jar or box, which he had been forbidden to open ; but Pandora's curiosity could not resist the temptation, and as soon as it was opened all the evils incident to man escaped, Hope alone being left. Others relate that it was ajar, not a box, which Pandora brought from heaven.
PEGASUS, a celebrated winged horse (sprung from the blood of Medusa, yno of the Gorgons, when Perseus cut off her
82 MYTHOLOGY.
Jiead) : he is described as the thunder-bearer of Jupiter ; but by later writers as the horse of Aurora.
PERSEUS, a famous hero, son of Jupiter and Danae, and husband of Andromeda ; he is said to have founded My- cona3 (vide Gorgones).
PIIAETIION (i. e. the shining), a surname of Sol, commonly known as a son of Sol by one of the Oceanides : he was killed by Zeus with lightning, for his attempt to drive the chariot of the sun across the heavens.
PHLEGETIIOjST, a river of hell, in which fire flowed instead of water.
PIERIDES, a name given to the Muses, derived from Pieria, in Thessaly, where they were first worshipped.
PmiTHOUS, a hero worshipped at Athens, and king of the Lapithoe, in Thessaly: at his marriage with Hippodamia the Centaur Eurytion carried her off; which occasioned the war between the Lapithse and Centaurs, in which the latter were defeated.
PLEIADES, a name given to the seven daughters of Atlas — Elcctra, Maia, Tdygete, Alcyone, Celceno, Sterope, Merope.
POLLUX, son of Jupiter and Leda, and brother of Castor, famed for his skill in boxing (vide Castor).
POLYPHEMUS, son of Neptune, a celebrated Cyclops, who fed on human flesh, and kept his flocks on the coast of Sicily.
PROMETHEUS (the Forethinker), the son of lapetus, one of the Titans. Jupiter, to punish him and the rest of man- kind, deprived the earth of fire ; but Prometheus stole it from heaven, for which Zeus chained him on Mount Cau- casus, where an eagle preyed on his liver for ages : it was ultimately slain by Hercules.
PSYCHE (■*"v;i;}j), signifying " the soul," a nymph whom Cupid married: Venus for a time imposed on her the most unpleasant labours, which well-nigh killed her: but Ju- piter, at Cupid's request, conferred on her immortality.
PYTHON, a celebrated serpent, lived in the caves of Mount Parnassus, and was slain by Apollo, who, in commemora- tion of his victory, founded the Pythian games.
MYTHOLOGY. 8^
RHADAMANTHUS, son of Zeus and Europa, and brother of Minos, king of Crete, from whom he fled to Bceotia, and married Alcmene. From his justice throughout life, ho became after death one of the judges of hell.
RHEA, OPS or CYBELE, daughter of Coelus and Terra, wife of Saturn, and mother of Jupiter and the gods.
SATYRI, the name of a class of demigods, attendants on Bacchus, represented with the legs and feet of a goat, short horns, bristly hair, and pointed ears ; the elder Satyrs were called Sileni.
SIRENES, sea nymphs, who had the power of charming by their songs all who heard them : they are usually stated to have been three in number, the daughters of Phoroys, a sea deity. Ulysses, when sailing near their abode, stopped the ears of his companions with wax, and tied himself to the mast, to avoid being charmed by their songs, and thus delayed.
SPHYNX, a monster who had the head and breasts of a woman, body of a dog, tail of a serpent, wings of a bird, paws of a. lion, and a human voice.
STYX, one of the rivers of hell, round which it was said to flow nine times: it was held in such veneration by tho gods, that they took oaths by it; and Zeus caused those who swore falsely to drink of it, which had the efiect of stupefying them for a year.
TARTARUS, one of the regions of Hades or hell, where tho most impious of men were punished. The principal cri- minals were, 1. Tityus, slain by Apollo and Diana for his conduct to their mother, Latona ; in Tartarus his body covered nine acres of land, and a vulture preyed, without ceasing, on his liver. 2. Ixion, fixed by Zeus on a revolv- ing wheel for having aspired to the love of Juno. 3. Tan- talus, who, for having, at an entertainment given by him to the gods, served up the flesh of his son Pelops, was punished with insatiable thirst; he is represented as placed up to the chin in a pool of water, which flowed away when- ever he attempted to taste it. 4. Sisyphus, a son of .^olus, and king of Corinth ; he is said to have greatly
84 MYTHOLOGY.
promoted navigation and commerce ; but his wickedness was great, and as a punishment for his crimes, he was condemned in hell to roll to the top of a hill a large stone, which no sooner reached the summit than it rolled down again into the plain. 5. The Dan aides, forty-nine maidens, who, for stabbing their husbands, the sons of ^gyptus, on their wedding-night, were sentenced to fill a perforated tub with water. Hypermnestra, the fiftieth, spared the life of her husband, Lynceus.
TITANES, children of Uranus and Ge : they were twelve in number, six sons and six daughters, viz. Oceanus, Ceus, Crius, Hyperion, lapetus, Cronus: Thea, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys. Zeus and his brothers re- belled and waged war against Saturn and the Titans : this contest was carried on for ten years, Saturn's party fighting from Mount Othrys, Jupiter's from Mount Olympus ; at length Jupiter released the Hecaton-Cheires (the hundred- handed), the Titans were defeated and confined in Tar- tarus. The name Titanes is also given to the descendants of the Titans.
TRITON, a son of Neptune and Amphitrite : he is repre- sented riding over the sea on horses or sea-monsters, hold- ing a trumpet made out of a shell (concha).
TYPHON, a monstrous giant, described as having a hundred heads, and vomiting flame. He was no sooner born, than he made war against the gods, who were so terrified that they assumed difiorent shapes, Jupiter a ram, &c. ; eventu- ally, Typhon was crushed by a thunderbolt from Jupiter, and placed under Mount ^tna.
EARLY GRECIAN LEGENDS,
THE ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION.
Athamas, a king of Boeotia, married Nephele, by whom he had two children, Phrixus and Ilelle. On the death of his wife, Athamas married Ino, whose jealousy of her step-chil- dren induced her to destroy them ; they, however, contrived to escape, and attempted to cross the sea to Colchis, on the back of a golden-fleeced ram, given by Hermes. Helle, being unable to keep her seat, was drowned in the strait called from her the Hellespont. Phrixus, having reached Col- chis in safety, offered up the ram to Zeus, and presented the fleece to King ^etes, who had received him kindly; the fleece was nailed to an oak in the sacred grove of Mars, and guarded by a dragon.
Jason, son of iEson, king of lolcos, in Thessaly, undertook to recover this fleece. He gave orders to Argus, a son of Phrixus (who was assisted by Minerva), to build a vessel of fifty oars; the ship was named " Argo," from the builder, and those who went on the expedition "Argonautae" (i.e. "sailors of the Argo''). Jason was accompanied by the most re- nowned heroes of the time, to the number of fifty ; among whom were Hercules, Theseus, Pirithous, Castor and Pollux, Telamon, Peleus, Admetus, Oileus, Neleus, Laertes, Menoetius, Orpheus the minstrel, Mopsus the seer, ^sculapius the physician, Tiphys the pilot. After various adventures, the Argo entered the river Phasis, in Colchis, the heroes landed, and Jason immediately informed the king of his mission ; the monarch consented to his taking the fleece, provided he performed the necessary conditions, 8 (85)
86 EARLY LEGENDS RELATING TO THEBES.
viz., ploughing a piece of land with the brazen-footed bulla of Vulcan, sowing it with the teeth of the dragon slain by Cadmus, and destroying the armed crop which would spring up. Medea, the king's daughter, fell in love with Jason, and with her assistance he obtained the golden fleece, and left the country, accompanied by Medea, ^etes, finding that Jason had departed, and taken his daughter, got on shipboard, and pursued ; but, to detain him, Medea murdered her brother Absyrtus, and cut him in pieces, so that, while her father was collecting the scattered limbs, the Argo escaped, and eventually arrived in safety at lolcos.
EARLY LEGENDS RELATING TO THEBES.
Thebes, the Capital of Boeotia, is said to have been founded (c. B.C. 1500) by CADMUS, son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia. According to the legend, Cadmus, failing to find his sister Europa, who had been carried ofi'by Zeus, settled in Thrace, and being ordered by the Delphic Oracle to build a town where a cow, which he was to follow, should sink down with fatigue, he founded Cad me a, the citadel of Thebes. He also there killed a dragon which guarded a well of Ares, and, by the instruction of Athena, sowed its teeth, from which armed men, called Sparti (i. e. sown), sprung up and slew each other, except five, who became the ancestors of the Thebans.
Cadmus was succeeded by his son Polydurus, who was in turn succeeded by his son Labdacus. He was the father of Laius, the next king, who had a son, OEdipus, by J(h casta, the daughter of Menoeceus and sister of Creon.
STORY OF CEDTPUS, AND OF THE WAR OF THE SEVEN AGAINST THEBES.
An Oracle having foretold that Lai us should be slain by his son, CEdipus was exposed at his birth on Mt. Cithsercn,
THE SEVEN AGAINST THETES. 87
but was found by a shepherd, who (from his feot being pierced through) gave him the name of OtSiniouj (i. e. swollen- footed), and brought him to his master, Poly bus, king of Corinth, and husband of Merope or Periboea, and by whom (Edipus was brought up. On attaining manhood, his birthright being called in question, (Edipus consulted the Delphic Oracle, which replied that he was destined to slay his father and marry his mother. Soon afterwards, near Daulis, he met his father in a chariot, and, refusing to make way for him, was struck by Laius, whom he killed, together with the slight escort which attended the chariot. Purposely avoiding Corinth, he arrived at Thebes, where he foiled the Sphynx, a monster who used to murder all those who were unable to solve the riddles which she put to them. CEdipus having explained the riddle of the being with four, two, and three feet, to mean man drawling iti infancy, walking in marir hood, and leaning on a staff in old age, the monster was so enraged at the solution, that she threw herself down from the rock on which she was seated. The Thebans, according to their promise, rewarded CEdipus with the hand of their queen, Jo cast a, by whom he became the father as well as brother of Eteocles, Polynices, Antigone, and Ismene. In consequence of his marriage a plague was sent, and Creon brought back word from Delphi that the murderer of Laius must be banished. Tiresias, the blind seer, forced by (Edipus, revealed to him his crimes ; whereupon Jocasta hung herself, and (Edipus put out his own eyes, was expelled by his sons, and wandered an outcast, under the guidance of his daughter Antigone, to Colonos, in Attica, where he died. Eteocles having violated the agreement with Polynices to reign in turns, the latter fled to Adrastus, kingof Argos, married his daughter Argia, and persuaded her father to assist him against Eteocles. Polynices, accompanied by Adrastus, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, Hippo- medon, and Parthenopaeus, advanced against Thebes, and each assailed one of its seven gates ; but were all slain except Adrastus ; Eteocles and Polynices falling by each other's hands. Antigone performed the rites of burial over
88 EARLY KINGS OP TROY.
Polynices, in defiance of the orders of Ore on (who was regent for Laodamas, son of Eteocles), and was buried alive by her uncle's command; whereupon Haemon, her lover, son of Creon, slew himself in despair. Ten years after the war of the ** Seven against Thebes," the descendants {'Ertiyovoi) of the heroes stormed Thebes, and razed it to the ground.
^ EARLY KINGS OF TROY.
1. TEUCER (c. B.C. 1400?), hence the Trojans were called Teucri. His daughter Batea married — 2. DARDANUS, who came from Arcadia and Samothrace, and built Dardania, hence the name Dardanelles. 3. ERICTHONIUS, his son, was the wealthiest of mortals, and was succeeded by his son — 4. TROS, hence Troja, Tro7j ; he was the father, by Cal- lirhoe, of — 5. ILUS, after whom Troy was called Ilium. The brothers of Ilus were Assaracus (grandfather of ^neas) and Ganymede s, who was carried off by Zeus to be his cup-bearer, in place of Hebe. Tros was compensated for his loss by a present of horses. Zeus also gave Ilus the Palladium, or image of Pallas, with the promise that, as long as it remained in Troy, the city should be safe. 6. LAOMEDON, son of Ilus, and husband of S try mo. Jupiter condemned Neptune and Apollo to serve him for a year ; the former built the walls of his city, the latter became his shep- herd. Upon his insolently refusing them their wages, Nep- tune sent a sea-monster to ravage the country. He si one, the daughter of Laomedon, was chosen by lot as a sacrifice to appease this scourge ; but Hercules came to her assistance, and offered to save her if the king would give him the horses of Zeus. After Hercules had slain the monster, Laomedon refused to fulfil the conditions he had agreed to; the hero therefore slew him and all his sons, except Priam, whom Hesione ransomed with her veil. 7. PRIAM (i. e. ransomed^ HfMkfuu), originally called Podarces, married Hecuba, by whom he had Hector, Paris, Ilelenus, Deiphobus,
LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR. 89
P0I3' dorus, Troilus, also Creusa, Laodice, Polyxena, Cassandra, and other children. At the taking of Troy, he was slain by Pyrrhus at the altar of Zeus, before which his son Polites had just fallen by the same hand.
LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR.
B.C. 1194 — B.C. 1184.
To the marriage of Pel e us, king of the Myrmidons, in Thessaly, and Thetis, parents of Achilles, all the deities were invited, except the Goddess of Discord ("Eptj), who, in revenge, threw among the guests a golden apple, inscribed *' To the fairest." Juno, Venus, and Minerva each claim- ing it, Jupiter referred the decision to Paris, also called Alexander, a son of Priam, and at that time a shepherd on Mt. Gargarus (a part of Mt. Ida), on which he had been exposed at his birth, owing to his mother Hecuba having dreamed that she had brought forth a firebrand, which should devastate Troy. Paris, at the risk of drawing down on himself and on his country the resentment of the two other goddesses, awarded the apple to Venus, who had pro- mised him the most beautiful woman for his wife. This was Helen, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, and wife of Men e- laus, king of Sparta, whence Paris carried her off, together with the treasures of her husband. Upon the commission of this outrage, the various Grecian chieftains, who had been suitors of Helen, collected at Aulis, in Boeotia, an army of about 100,000 men, and a fleet of 1186 ships, and placed them under the command of Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, brother to Menelaus, and the most powerful of the Greeks. Before, however, the expedition started, Menelaus and Ulysses attempted a fruitless negotiation at Troy. Agamemnon hav- ing, at Aulis, killed a stag sacred to Diana, a pestilence was sent on his followers, and a calm detained their vessels. Calchas (the son of Thestor) the Grecian soothsayer, ordered him to appease the anger of the goddess by sacrificing his
90 LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR.
daughter Iphigenla. Diana, however, substituted a stag as a victim, and carried off Iphigenla to be her priestess at Tau- ris, where she subsequently delivered her brother Orestes, when he was on the point of being sacrificed to Diana.
The Greeks, on their arrival at Troy, drew their ships on shore, and surrounded them with a fortification ; but being unable to take the city, they blockaded it, and ravaged the neighbouring country. Among the spoils of Chrysa (one of the captured cities) was Chryseis, who fell to the lot of Agamemnon. On his refusing to release her, Chryses, her father, obtained from Apollo, whose priest he was, the inflic- tion of a pestilence on the Greeks. Calchas having declared the cause of the plague, Chryseis was released, and Aga- memnon consoled himself by taking away Briseis from Achilles, into whose hands she had fallen at the capture of Lyrnessus. Achilles, being deeply enraged, refused to take any further part in the war ; at last, finding that the Greeks, from being deprived of his aid, were worsted, and even their ships assailed with fire, he permitted his friend Patroclus to put on his armour, and lead his Myrmidons to the fight. Patroclus was slain by Hector; and Achilles, in consequence, roused by grief and resentment, and being furnished by his mother with fresh armour, forged by Vulcan, rescued hia friend's dead body, and burnt it. He then pursued Hector thrice round the walls of Troy, slew him, tied him to hia chariot, and dragged him to the ships.
The aged Priam ransomed in person his son's corpse, and buried it: with this event, the subject of the Iliad of Homer closes. The same poem also relates several single combats between the various heroes, in which the gods and goddesses often take part; Juno, Minerva, Neptune, Mercury, and Vulcan, espousing the side of the Greeks, while Mars, Phoebus, Diana, Venus, and Latona, aid the Trojans. Homer also gives an account of the slaughter, by Ulysses and Diomedes, of Rhesus, king of Thrace, and the carrying off his snow-white horses before they drank of the Xanthus, And fed on the Trojan plains ; which had they done, Troy, ac- cording to a prediction of an oracle, could not have been taken.
GRECIAN HEROES, ETC. 91
Helenus (son of Priam), who had deserted from the Trojans, having foretold that the presence of Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus (son of Achilles and Deidamia) and Phi- loctetes was necessary for the success of the Greeks, the former was brought by Ulysses from the court of his grand- father, Lycomedes, king of Scyros ; and afterwards either he or Diomedes aided Ulysses in bringing Philoctetee, who had been bitten by a serpent nine years previously, and left behind at Lemnos by the Greeks, on their way to Troy. Philoctetes, being cured on his arrival, employed against the Trojans the arrows Hercules had given him, and mortally wounded Paris. The carrying off the Palladium from Troy is ascribed to Diomedes and Ulysses ; and the latter hero has also the credit of contriving the huge wooden horse (constructed by Epeus, with the aid of Minerva), which Sinon, a pretended deserter, persuaded the Trojans had been left by the Greeks, on their departure for the Peloponnesus, as an atonement for carrying off the Palladium, and made of a large size, in order that it might not be drawn into the city. Notwithstanding the opposition of Laocoon (who, with his two sons, was killed by serpents sent by Pallas), the in- fatuated Trojans drag the horse within their walls, and Sinon by night releases the Greeks who had been concealed in it. Meanwhile the Grecian army, which had retired only to Tenedos, arrives, and the ill-fated city is sacked and burnt. -(Eneas, however, escapes, with his father, son, and house- hold gods (his wife. Ore us a, being parted from him in the confusion) ; and, after many adventures, he reaches Italy, and founds Lavinium.
GRECIAN HEROES, &c., CONNECTED WITH THE TROJAN WAR.
ACHILLES, son of Peleus and Thetis ; leader of the Myrmi- dons from Phthiotis, in Thesbaly. His mother gave him the choice between a long but inglorious life, and one of
92 GRECIAN HEROES, ETC.
renown and short duration ; the latter of which he chose. Thetis, knowing his fate, concealed him, when a child, among the daughters of Lycomedes, king of Scyros ; but Ulysses discovered his place of concealment. He was re- luctantly led to the Trojan war, of which he was the chief hero, and, after exhibiting deeds of great prowess, he was slain in battle, at the Scaean Gate, before the capture of Troy ; but some say he was shot by Paris in the heel, the only part of his body which was vulnerable, Thetis having held him there when she dipped him in the Styx.
AGAMEMNON, son of Atreus and grandson of Pelops, and commander-in-chief in the Trojan war. On his return to Mycenae, he was slain by his wife, Clytemnestra, daughter of Tyndarus, who had married ^gisthus in her husband's absence. Orestes, aided by his friend Pylades, avenged his father's death.
AJAX, son of Oileus, king of the Locrians. On his return from the war, he was drowned by Neptune, for setting at nought the god's assistance during a shipwreck, in which his companions perished. Virgil relates that he was dashed on a rock by Minerva, in whose temple he had insulted Cassandra, at the capture of Troy.
AJAX, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and inferior only to Achilles in bravery. Ulysses having defeated him in the contest for the armour of Achilles, he became mad, and slaughtered a flock of sheep, imagining them to be the Greeks ; on discovering his mistake, he committed suicide. By Tecmessa he had a son, Eurysaces, named after his father's hroad shield.
ANTILOCHUS, son of Nestor ; slain at Troy by Memnon, after many deeds of bravery.
AUTOMEDON, charioteer and companion of Achilles, and afterwards of Pyrrhus.
CALCIIAS, the soothsayer who foretold the length of the Trojan war, and died of grief because Mopsus excelled him in his art.
DIOMEDES or TYDIDES, son of Tydeus and Deipyle ; king of Argos. On his return from the war, finding his wife,
GRECIAN HEROES, ETC. 93
^gialea, married to Hippolytus, he went to ^tolia. As he was returning, a storm cast him on the coast of Daunia, in Apulia, where he is said to have founded several towns, Arpi, Beneventum, Brundusium, Venusia, &c
HELENA, daughter of Zeus and Leda. On the death of Paris, she married his brother, Deiphobus, but afterwards became reconciled to her former husband, Menelaus.
IDOMENEUS, son of the Cretan Deucalion, king of Crete ; one of the bravest warriors on the side of the Greeks. It is said that he sacrificed his son (who first met him on his return) to Neptune, owing to a rash vow he had made in a storm.
LAODICE or ELECTRA. After the murder of her father, Agamemnon, she sent her brother, Orestes, to King Stro- phius, in Phocis, where he became intimate with Pylades, whom Electra married, after she had incited Orestes to avenge his father's death.
MACHAON, son of ^sculapius, and surgeon of the Greeks.
MENELAUS, son of Atreus, and husband of Helen, by whom he had Hermione, wife of Neoptolemiis.
MERIONES, a brave warrior, who came with Idomeneus from Crete.
NEOPTOLEMUS or PYRRHUS, son of Achilles ; called Neoptolemus (w'oj, Tt{t)6K(iMi), because he came late to the Trojan war, and Pyrrhus (rtvp^dj), from the bright red colour of his hair. He was slain at Delphi.
NESTOR, son of Neleus, king of Pylos, in Elis, and the most venerable of the Greeks, by whom he was greatly respected for his wisdom, oratory, and skill in war.
PATROCLUS, the intimate friend of Achilles. He was son of Menoetius, the brother of ^acus, who was grandfather to Achilles.
PHILOCTETES, the best archer in the Trojan war. He was the friend of Hercules, who gave him his poisoned arrows, as a reward for setting fire to the pile on Mt. CEta, on which Hercules burnt himself.
PHCENIX, son of Amyntor. He fled to Peleus, king of
94 GRECIAN HEROES, ETC.
Tnessaly, who made him ruler of the Dolopes, and tutor of Achilles, whom he accompanied to the Trojan war.
PYRRHUS. See Neoptolemus.
STIIENELUS, son of Capaneus, and friend of Diomedes.
TALTIIYBIUS, herald of Agamemnon.
TEUCER, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, who refused tc receive him on his return from Troy, because he had not avenged his half-brother Ajax's death. Teucer sailed to Cyprus, and there founded a second Salamis.
ULYSSES ('OSufftfEvs), son of Anticlea and Laertes, king of Ithaca. To avoid going to the Trojan war, he feigned madness, by yoking an ox and an ass together, and plough- ing the sea-shore, which he sowed with salt. Palamedes detected him, by placing his infant son, Telemachus, before the plough, which the father stopped. After he left Troy, he underwent a variety of adventures, which are related in Homer's "Odyssey." He blinded the Cyclops Polyphemus, who had devoured six of his companions. After encountering various dangers from the Sirens (vide Mythol.), from shipwreck, and at the islands of ^olus, ^ea (inhabited by the sorceress Circe, who changed his associates into swine), Sicily, Ogygia (where he was de- tained by Calypso, vide Mythol.), and Scheria, he reached Ithaca. In the meantime, the hand of his wife, Penelope, had been sought by numerous suitors, whom she had de- clined answering till she should have finished a web or robe for Laertes ; this she contrived to delay, by undoing by night her day's work. At last Ulysses, after an absence of twenty years, arrived in the disguise of a beggar ; and, after vanquishing the suitors in drawing the bow of Eury- tus, he slew them, by the aid of Telemachus and Minerva, and was recognized by his wife and aged father.
TROJAN HEROES; ETC. Qj
TROJAN HEROES, &c.
ACESTES, son of the Sicilian river-god Crimisus, and the Trojan Egosta or Segesta. He aided Priam in the Trojan war, and afterwards, together with Elymus (son of An- chises), hospitably received iEneas, who built the towns of ^gesta and Elymo, in Sicily.
iENEAS, son of Anchises and Venus, and one of the bravest of the Trojans. By his wife, Creusa (who was parted from him in the confusion at the taking of Troy), he had a son, Ascanius or lulus. After escaping from Troy, he wan- dered over the iEgean and Ionian Seas to Sicily, and La- tium, in Italy, where he married Lavinia, daughter of th« king Latin us, and built Lavinium. Latin us and Turnus, king of the Rutuli, having fallen in battle, JEneas succeeded to their power, but was slain by Mezentius, king of the Rutuli. Virgil, by an anachronism, represents JEneas as visiting Dido, queen of Carthage, who fell in love with him, and burnt herself alive on his leaving her.
ALEXANDER. See Paris, page 89.
ANCHISES, father of jEneas by Venus. Having accom- panied his son after the fall of Troy, he died in Sicily, and was buried on Mt. Eryx.
ANDROMACHE, daughter of Eetion (king of Thebes, in Cilicia), and wife of Hector, by whom she had Scaman- drius or A sty an ax. At the capture of Troy, her son was thrown from the walls, and she became the prize of Pyrrhus, but afterwards married Helenus, king of Chaonia, in Epirus.
ANTENOR, one of the wisest of the Trojans. He advised the surrender of Helen before the war began. After it was over, he is said to have founded Patavium {Padua), in Italy.
CASSANDRA, daughter of Priam; loved by Apollo, who gave her the gift of prophecy ; but, on her offending the god, he caused her prophecies to be discredited. At the taking of Troy, she was insulted by Ajax, son of Oileus,
96 TROJAN HEROES, ETC.
in the temple of Minerva. She afterwards became the prize of Agamemnon, and was murdered, at Mycenae, by Clytemnestra.
COIICEBUS, a Phrygian; son of Mygdon. He fought at Troy with the hope of marrying Cassandra, but was killed by Peneleus or by Pyrrhus.
DEIPHOBUS, son of Priam, and, next to Hector, the bravest among the Trojans. On the death of Paris, he married Helen, and was slain by Menelaus at the capture of Troy.
GLAUCUS, grandson of Bellerophon, a Lycian ally of the Trojans, slam by Ajax.
HECTOR, eldest son of Priam, the bravest of the Trojans, and husband of Andromache. He slew Patroclus, and he himself fell by the hand of Achilles.
HECUBA, daughter of Dymas, or of Cisseus, king of Thrace, and wife of Priam. After the fall of Troy, she was taken by the Greeks to the Thracian Chersonesus, where, accord- ing to Euripides, her daughter, Polyxena, who had been beloved by Achilles, was taken from her by Ulysses, and sacrificed by Pyrrhus. On the same day, Hecuba also be- held the murdered corpse of her son, Polydorus, cast on the shore. He had been entrusted to the care of Poly m- nestor, king of the Chersonese, by whom he was mur- dered, for the sake of the riches he had brought with him. Hecuba, in revenge, enticed Polymnestor to come to her, under pretence of revealing some Trojan treasure, when she blinded him and slew his sons.
HELENUS, son of Priam, gifted with prophecy ; he fell to the lot of Pyrrhus, after whose death he married Andro- mache. When ^neas came to Epirus, Helenus foretold his destinies.
MEMNON, son of Tithonus and Aurora, an Ethiopian prince, who came to the assistance of his paternal uncle, Priam, and was slain by Achilles.
PANDARUS, a Lycian archer; slain by Sthenelus or Dio- medes.
PARIS or ALEXANDER, son of Priam, vide page 89.
PRIAM, vide page 88.
TROJAN HEROES, ETC.
97
SARPEDON, son of Zeus and Laodamia, a Lycian prince; renowned for his valour. He was slain by Patroclus. Apollo, by order of Zeus, cleansed Sarpedon's body from blood and dust, covered it with ambrosia, and entrusted it to Death and Sleep to carry into Lycia to be buried.
TROILUS, son of Priam and Hecuba, or of Apollo ; slain by Achilles.
Note. — After their death, many of the Grecian and Trojan war- riors were worshipped as he^roes, and had various temples erected to them.
GEEEK ANTIQUITIES.
THE INHABITANTS OF ATTICA were divided into three classes: I. no^-rat, or freemen; II. Mstotxoi, or foreigners settled in the country ; III. AoiPtot, or slaves.
THE INHABITANTS OF SPARTA were divided into two classes : I. XTtaptiatac and Ilspioixoi, town and provincial free- men ; II. EtXwt'fj, slaves.
MAGISTRATES.
The form of government at Athens was, as in Kumy states, frequently changed: it began with Monarchy, and, having passed through a Dynasty (in which the power was con- fined to one family) and Aristocracy, ended in Demo- cracy. Theseus may be called the first king, and Codrus the last, after whom (b.c. 1045) the Athenians elected the
Archons,
who were the chief magistrates at Athens, nine in number; their power was originally for life, but was afterwards limited to ten years, and latterly to one. The names and offices of these magistrates were distinct: the President was styled o 'Apx<^ or ircoiwfioi, from the year being called after, and registered in, his name ; the second was called j^aaosvi ; the third, jio\£ixapxo?, or commander-in-chief; and the remaining six, 9safJio9st(u, or legislators.
The functions of the "Apziov were : 1. To provide for the celebration of the feasts, as the Dionysia, &c. ; 2. To settle disputes arising between neighbours and citizens, and to determine all causes between married people; 3. To take
(98)
MAGISTRATES. 99
care of orphans, provide them tutors, and superintend their estates.
The duties of the BaaiKsv^ were : 1. To superintend the fes- tivals, and especially the Eleusinia ; 2. To settle all disputes respecting the priesthood, and judge those accused of impiety.
The duties of the Ho'kifiapzoi were : 1. To celebrate rites in honour of Mars and Diana ; 2. To have under his care all foreigners and strangers, and settle actions brought against them ; 3. To superintend the wars, over which he had tho ,chief command, and thence received his name.
The functions of the (dsdfxoOtifai, were connected with tho administration of justice, such as, 1. Receiving indictments, bringing cases to trial, and appointing the day of sitting; 2. Annually revising the code of laws ; 3. Drawing up agree- ments with foreign states, &c. ; 4. Examining the magistrates, and taking the votes in the assemblies.
THE ARCHONS were elected by lot, and, before they were admitted to office, passed *i.n examination as to their family, age, past conduct, &c., and took oath that they would observe the laws, administer justice, and accept of no presents.
Inferior Magistrates. — 1. Ol sv8exa, the eleven, elected one from each of the ten tribes ; and, to complete the number, there was added a rpajU|ua'r'£vj, or registrar. 2. *vXap;^ot, who presided over the tribes. ♦ 3. A/jjMap;^ot., the chief magistrates of the A^ttot, or boroughs in Attica. 4. Atj^iapx'^h six in num- ber, assisted by thirty inferiors ; they fined those absent from the Assembly, took the votes of those present, and kept the public registers. 5. No^woOst'cu, 1000 in number; they inspected old laws, and, if found useless, caused them to be abolished by an act of the people.
The Epiiori.
The "E^wpoc, or "overseers," were tho chief magistrates at Sparta ; they were five in number, and elected annually, from and by the people, without any qualification of ago or pro- perty. Though at first only judicial officers, in time their authority became so great, that even the two hereditary kings of Sparta, as well as the ma-gistrates, were prosecuted or sue-
100 ASSEMBLIES.
pended at their discretion. They had the superintendence of the public morals, convened the public assembly, levied troops, &c., &c., and had great influence in the most import- ant matters. Every month they exchanged an oath with the kings, promising to defend the royal authority, provided it did not violate the laws. The tribunal of the Ephori was the apxslov or i^pdov, a Council Hall in the Forum.
ASSEMBLIES.
'ExxXiyoio, THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY of the citizens at Athens, in which they met to discuss matters of public inte- rest. This assembly had the power of making laws, electing magistrates, proclaiming war, &c. ; the place of meeting was either the Agora (dyopa) or Pnyx {rtvvt), in later times, the theatre of Bacchus. The magistrates who presided in the Assembly were : 1. Prytanes (^tpvfavf 15), who summoned the people, and announced the subject for decision ; 2. Proedri (rtpofSpot), who occupied the front seats ; 3. iTtiatdTfr;^, or Pre- sident, chosen by lot from the Proedri. The usual manner of giving votes was by holding up the hand, called ;^ffrpoT'oi'Mi, and as soon as the voting was ended, the Proedri examined the suffrages, and pronounced the decree, •\*j^i(si.ia, so called from the 4^to'> pebbles, which, together with beans (xvo^toe), were sometimes used in voting.
*H ^ovxij jy f iiif ftsptaxoaiuv, THE SENATE OF THE FIVE HUNDRED. The institution of this body is attributed to Solon, in whose time the Council consisted of only 400 mem- bers; but, on the tribes being remodelled by Cleisthenes, B.C. 510, the Council was increased to 500, and the members were divided into ten sections of fifty each, and were called Prytanes (rtpvfavfij) : they presided in the Council, as well as the Assembly, during thirty-five or thirty-six days, so as to complete the lunar year of 354 days. Each tribe presided in turn, and the period of office was called a Prytany {rtpvtcwsCa). The members of the Council remained in office for a year, at
JUDGES AND COURTS OP JUSTICE. 101
the end of -which they were obliged to give an account of their conduct {evOvvrj) ; and previous to entering office, they sub- mitted to the SoxLfioaia, or scrutiny into their private character, rtpoufft'tt was the name given to the Council of Elders, yipwtff, or Senate at Sparta ; it was composed of the two Kings and twenty-eight citizens, who had reached at least their sixtieth year. They were elected by the people, and were irresponsible. The functions of this Council were : 1. To propose measures to be laid before the Popular Assem- bly ; 2. To discharge the highest offices of government ; 3. To sit as the supreme criminal tribunal ; and, 4. To watch over the public morals.
JUDGES AND COURTS OF JUSTICE.
THE COURT OF AREOPAGUS. — This was the most ancient and venerable seat of justice in Athens; it derived its name from o "Apstoj rtoyoj (the hill of Mars), because, it is said. Mars was the first criminal tried. The court was com- posed of ex-archons who had discharged their office un- blamably, and of the most distinguished citizens : the num- ber of judges varied at different times. They were termed apst^Tiaylfac, and took cognizance of all crimes, vices, and abuses, such as robbery, murder, poisoning, arson, &c. ; they overlooked religious matters, and punished severely for im- piety and contempt of holy mysteries. So great was their power, that they sometimes even annulled the decrees of the Popular Assembly.
THE HELIASTS, so named from their court, jy^xota, were a body of Judges chosen by lot, and varied in number; some- times the rjXLaatoi were 6000 in number. They took cogni- zance of affairs of the greatest importance, but were not per- mitted to pass sentence until they had taken oath to decide according to the decrees of the people.
THE DI^TETiE. THE FORTY. — The buu^ritai were inferior judges who settled private disputes, subject to an appeal before the Heliasts. They were chosen yearly from 9*
102 PUNISHMENTS.
the ^Xcu, or tribes, and were required to be fifty or sixty years of age. The Forty, ot -tsaaapaxovfa, were also inferior judges, who annually took a circuit through the Demi, and decided causes where the matter in dispute did not exceed 10 drachmas.
COURT OF THE EPHET^. — The i^itac were judges, fifty-one in number, selected from noble families, and re- quired to be more than fifty years of age. Their jurisdiction extended to cases of justifiable and unintentional murder ; when judging of the former, they sat at the Delphinium — when of the latter, at the Palladium.
AMPHICTYONES were members of the ofi^txtvovia, which was a confederation formed for mutual security, and for the protection of a temple at which the members assembled to transact business and celebrate their festivals. The most celebrated was the Delphic Amphictyonia, originally com- posed of twelve tribes, whose deputies met annually at Delphi in the spring, and at Thermopylae in the autumn. The Council itself was called Pylaea, TivTjoia..
PUNISHMENTS.
OSTRACISM {oatpaxiciMi) was a political plan for removing from the country for ten years those who had either power or popularity enough to attempt any thing against the State. The word is derived from oa-tpaxov, a tile, as it was on this each individual wrote the name of the person he wished to be ostracised. The assembly was held in the Agora, where each voter deposited his tile ; but no decision was valid unless the number of votes exceeded 6000. If this number were obtained, the ostracised was obliged to leave the city within ten days ; but in his absence no injury was done to the house or property of the banished, nor was any disgrace attached to ostracism. As by the votes of the tribes a man was ostra- cised, so was it in their power to recall him before ten years had elapsed, if they chose.
TEMPLES, PRIESTS, AND SACRIFICES. 103
*Atifila was a public disgrace, by which the person on whom it was inflicted was deprived, either partially or totally, of his political privileges.
AovXsia (servitude), by which a criminal was reduced to the condition of a slave.
'Ztiyixa'ta, marks impressed with a hot iron on the foreheads or hands of slaves who had fled from their masters, or of cri- minals convicted of grievous offences.
'Xtrp^r], a pillar, on which was engraven the crimes of an offender.
Asujuoj, the punishment of imprisonment or chains. The instruments used were : 1. xv^v, the collar ; 2. x^^^y the stocks ; 3. ffaytj, a piece of wood to which criminals were fastened ; 4. tpo%6iy a wheel to which slaves were bound, and beaten with stripes.
^iryjj, banishment. Persons condemned to this punishment lost their estates, and had no hope of returning to their coun- try, unless recalled by those who banished them.
©dvatoi, capital punishment. This was performed in various ways : 1. By the sword (It'^oj) ; 2. By a rope {^poxos) ; 3. By poison {^pfiaxov) ; 4. By stoning {udo^ofjua) ; 5. By fire (rtvp) ; 6. By the cross ((ytaupoj), &c., &c.
TEMPLES, PRIESTS, AND SACRIFICES.
The objects employed in the worship of the gods were either temples (fooj, fiojttoj), consecrated groves or en- closures (tfjtwws), or altars (jSwfioj). The temples were generally built in an oblong or round form, and adorned with columns. The larger temples were divided into three parts : 1. rtpovaoj or rtpoSojUoj, the vestibule ; 2. luoj, arjxoi, or aBvTfov, the temple or habitation of the deity whose statue it con- tained ; 3. ortKj^oSo/Aoj or Br^aavpoi, the chamber in which the treasures of the temple were kept.
The priests, set apart for the service of certain gods or temples, were called lepels, op'^T'^pfj, dvooxooi, : divines and
104 ORACLES.
wizards, juwt'wj or dsortponoi. They foretold events from signs {tspa/ta, arifiata), such as thunder and lightning; from the song and flight of birds, especially of prey {ouuwoTtoTM, oiuvtafai, Sfltoj oprtj) ; or from dreams, ovsiporio'kot.
The sacrifices were of tJiree kinds. I. Occasionally human. II. Animal, called Ispslov, victima, liostia. The victim was in early times burnt whole, and termed holocaust ; but in Homer's time the thighs (itwypot, jit^pa) were inclosed in fat and consumed, from which omens were often taken. As the gods were supposed to delight in a number of victims, a hundred bulls (txaro'iitjS*;) were often sacrificed. The word hecatomb is also used to signify any large sacrifice. The animals sacrificed were usually oxen, sheep, and goats, with- out blemish [tiT^ioi). Previous to being slain, the head of the victim was strewed with barley and salt [ovKoxv-toA, mola salsa), adorned with garlands, and a tuft of hair was cut ofi" from the forehead as a beginning {artapx^, primitice) of the sacrifices ; the animal was then killed by drawing back the head ((Wp^vw) and cutting the throat. III. Unbloody sacrifices. These were: 1. Libations {koij^ai, GHovbai, or xoai) of wine, milk, and honey, &c. ; 2. Cakes (rtixavot), dishes of fruit (xspm), &c., &c.
ORACLES.
The word oraculum was used by the ancients to describe the revelations of the deities to men. The responses were sometimes given in verse, or written on tablets ; and their meaning was always ambiguous and obscure. The most celebrated oracles were: I. ORACLE OF ZEUS, at DODONA, the most ancient in Greece, founded by Pelasgians. The oracle was given from lofty oaks, which were said to have human voices and the spirit of divination, and were hence called the " prophesying or speaking oaks." With regard to this fable, the fact appears to be, that those who gave the oracles were men, and when consulted mounted an oak, and
ORACLES. 105
there gave the replies. The decisions of the oracle were afterwards given by two or three old women (called 7t£%eiai8Ei). As this word also signifies doves, the fable originated respect- ing the oracles being delivered by doves. The usual form in which the oracles were given at Dodona was in hexamx3ter verse. II. ORACLE OF APOLLO, at DELPHI. This oracle, the most celebrated of antiquity, was situated on Mt. Par- nassus, in Phocis, supposed by the ancients to be the centre of the world. The oracle was at first called Pytho ; the priestess was named Pythia. In the innermost sanctuary the statue of Apollo was placed, and on an altar before it burnt an eternal fire ; in the centre of the temple was a small opening in the ground, from which the most intoxicating vapours arose ; over this chasm the Pythia took her seat on a high tripod when the oracle was to be consulted, and the suf- focating fumes caused her to utter sounds which were taken down by the Prophetes, and were believed to contain the revelations of Apollo. The Pythia was always a native of Delphi, not allowed to marry ; and bound, after once enter- ing, never to leave the service of the god. The times for con- sultation, as well as the number of priestesses, were from time to time changed, to meet the wants of those who flocked to the oracle. Valuable presents were required to be made, and hence this temple exceeded all others in splendour, riches, and magnificence. It must, however, be borne in mind, that many of these valuables were only deposited in the temple for the sake of safety.
The replies were always returned in the Greek tongue, and usually in hexameter verse, in the Ionic dialect. They had at all times a leaning in favour of Doric Greeks.
The chief of the remaining oracles were — I. Of Zeus:
1. The oracle at Olympia, in Elis ; 2. Zeus Ammon, in Libya, N.W. of Egypt. IL Of Apollo: 1. At Abse, in Phocis;
2. At Delos, in the ^gean Sea; 3. Of the Branchidae, at Didyma, in the territory of Miletus ; 4. At Glares, near Colo- phon, in Ionia. III. Of Heroes: 1. Oracle of Trophonius, at Lebadea, in Boeotia ; 2. Of Amphiaraus, near Thebes, and at Oropus, between Boeotia and Attica.
106 FESTIVALS.
FESTIVALS.
Festivals were instituted — 1. In honour of the gods, fcr benefits received from them ; 2. In order to procure some favour; 3. In memory of deceased friends, vrho had done good service for their country ; 4. As a season of rest to labourers, that, as a recompense, some days of ease and refreshment might be obtained. The chief festivals among the Greeks were : —
'ASuvta, in honour of Venus and Adonis. The solemnity lasted two days ; the first was given up to mourning and lamentation, the second to mirth and joy.
'Avdsatripui, the chief of the Dionysian festivals, celebrated, in honour of Bacchus, for three days ; the first called Ilt^otyttt, second, Xofj, third, Xu-r'pot.
'Artatoupta, celebrated at Athens, and lasted three days. The first called Aoprtfta, because each tribe assembled at an entertainment ; second, 'Avdppvsti, because victims were offered to Jupiter ; third, Koupswrtj, because the young children born that year were then taken to have their names enrolled in the public register.
hau^vri^opia, celebrated every ninth year by the Boeotians, in honour of Apollo ; when an olive bough, adorned with garlands, was carried in procession ; on the top of the bough was a globe, the emblem of the sun or Apollo.
Aiovvffta, four festivals celebrated in honour of Dionysus or Bacchus, and observed at Athens with great splendour. The wildest mirth abounded at the various Dionysiac festivals ; some wore the dress of satyrs, others comic dresses, others, dancing ridiculously, personated madmen, and shouted Evot Bdxzs, w 'loixxs, 'Iw Bdx%s. Choruses were sung at these fes- tivals, called Dithyrambs, and theatrical representations were also given.
'Ekivslrta, the most celebrated and mysterious solemnity in Greece (sometimes called, by way of eminence, Mvatrfiia), was observed every fourth year at Eleusis, in Attica. The mysteries were divided into fttxpa, in honour of Proserpine,
FESTIVALS. 107
and ixiyaTM, in honour of Ceres; they lasted nine days: on the first day the worshippers first met together ; second day, they purified themselves by washing in the sea ; third day, they sacrificed ; fourth day, they made a solemn procession, in which the xaxdOwv, or holy basket of Ceres, was carried ; fifth, the women ran about with torches ; sixth, the statue of 'laxxoi, crowned with myrtle and bearing a torch, was carried from Ceramicus to Eleusis in procession ; seventh, there were sports ; eighth, the lesser mysteries were repeated, and those were initiated who did not enjoy that privilege; on the ninth, and last day, two earthen vessels filled with wine were thrown down, and the wine spilt was oifered as a libation.
©fffjito^opitt ("the lawgiver"), in honour of Ceres; celebrated by the Athenians with great pomp and devotion ; the wor- shippers were free-born women, assisted by a priest and by certain virgins, kept at the public charge. The women were dressed in white for four or five days before the festival, and on the 11th of the month Pyanepsion, they carried the books of the law to Eleusis, where the festival commenced, and lasted three days.
Ilavadrivaia, an Athenian festival in honour of Minerva, the protectress of Athens ; it was instituted by Erichthonius, who called it 'A^tjvota; but afterwards revised by Theseus, who, having united all the Athenians into oiie body, called the festival ITafa^^twa. There were two solemnities called UavaSrivaia ; (isyaTM, the greater, celebrated once in five years, and uixpd, the lesser, celebrated once every year. The chief difierence between the two festivals was, that at the greater one, which was attended with more solemnity, the Pe plus, or garment of Minerva, was carried in procession to her temple on the Acropolis. The solemnities, games, and amusements of the Panathenaea were : rich sacrifices, foot, horse, and chariot-races, gymnastic and musical contests, and the lam- padephoria, or race with torches ; at these festivals the works of Homer and other Epic poets were recited, philosophers disputed, and the people indulged in a variety of amuse- ments ; the chief solemnity, however, was the procession in which the greater part of the Attic population took part.
108 PUBLIC GAMES.
These festivals were at first celebrated for one day, but were afterwards prolonged for several. The prizes awarded were vases, containing oil from the sacred olive-tree of Athena, on the Acropolis.
PUBLIC GAMES.
These were instituted in honour of the gods or of deified heroes, and the victors, especially in the Olympian games, received the highest honours. On their return home they rode in a triumphal chariot into the city, a portion of the wall being thrown down to give them admittance ; they were honoured with the first places at all shows and games, were maintained at the public charge, and great honour descended to their relations.
The games were called 'Aywvf j, and the principal exercises used in them were: I. Apo/noj, Cursus, running; II. Atcracoj, throwing the discus ; III. 'AXfia, Saltiis, leaping ; IV. nvyfisj, Pugilatus, boxing; V. IlaXjy, lAicta, wrestling. These five exercises were called by the Greeks TtivtaBtJov^ PentatJdon, by the Romans, Quinquertium. Some, however, instead of Tivyiiri, place axovtwv, jaculum, throwing the spear.
I. Apd|tto5, running ; this game was performed in a space of ground called cytoStw vel av?ioj, containing 125 paces. There were four kinds of races : 1. atdStov ; 2. 6tauXoj, running twice over the stadium ; 3. 86uxos, running seven times ; 4. oTtU'ttj^^ running armed.
II. Ataxoj, the discus, was a round quoit of stone, brass, or iron ; sometimes a heavy mass called ooxoj was used instead of the discus, which was thrown by the help of a thong.
III. 'AXfia, leaping; this exercise was sometimes performed with empty hands, and sometimes with weights of lead or stone, called caTfijpsi, which were carried in their hands or upon the head and shoulders.
IV. IlvyjttiJ, boxing; in this exercise balls of stone or lead were sometimes held in the hand, and the cestus was used,
PUBLIC GAMES. 109
which was the name given to the bands of leather, sometimes loaded with iron and lead, and tied round the hands to harden the blows.
V. nd^fj, wrestling ; this was the most ancient of the exer- cises, and was performed in the Xj- stus, a covered portico ; in which two naked men anointed with oil, and sprinkled ■with dust, folded themselves in one another's arms, and en- deavoured to throw each other to the ground. There were two kinds of wrestling ; one in which the wrestlers contended on their feet, and another in which they threw themselves down, and contended rolling on the ground. [The Pancra- tium, Ttayacpaz'tov, was an exercise which consisted of wrestling and boxing.]
The four solemn games in Greece, called oywrf j tjpoi, were : I. The Olympic; II. Pythian; III. Isthmian; and IV. Nemean.
THE OLYMPIC GAMES. — These were celebrated in honour of Zeus Olympius, and were held at Olympia, a town in Elis, whence they received the name Olympian. Their institution is assigned to Hercules by some, but it is impos- sible to say with any accuracy who was the real founder. They were for some period neglected, until the time of Iphitus, who re-instituted the solemnity ; but it was not till B.C. 776, when Coroebus won the foot-race, that the Olympiads were employed as a chronological era. The games were cele- brated every fifth year, in the Attic month Hecatombaeon, and continued five days, from the 11th to the 15th inclusive, the interval of four years between each celebration of the festival being called an Olympiad. The Eleans had the management of the games, and appointed the judges, who were chosen by lot from their number. Women were not allowed to be present. Those who intended to contend were obliged to swear that they were freemen, not guilty of any sacrilegious act, and had spent the proper period (ten months) in preparatory exercises. The wrestlers were chosen by lot, and the exercises, in addition to those mentioned in the last section, were horse and chario<>races, in which, as in several of the other exercises, boys contended. There were also con- 10
110 PUBLIC GAMES.
tests in which musicians, poets, and artists, strove for the victory.
The victors in these games were rewarded with wreaths of wild olive, and statues in the grove of Altis ; and still more substantially on their return to their own cities, as mentioned before.
THE PYTHIAN GAMES were celebrated in honour of Apollo, at Delphi, anciently called Pytho, whence the name Pythian. The common tradition is, that the games were in^ stituted by Apollo himself, after he had overcome the serpent Python. They were at first celebrated every ninth year [evvcwttjpls) ; but afterwards at the end of every fourth year [Ttsvtas'tvjpls), and comprehended the space of four years, com- mencing with the third year of each Olympiad. The games lasted several days, and the exercises were the same as those of the Olympic games. Some say that the solemnity was at first a musical contention, and that a song (to which a dance was performed) consisting of five parts was sung, in which Apollo's contest with the dragon was represented. The re- wards, when there was only a musical performance, are said to have been gold and silver ; but when gymnastic exercises were introduced, garlands of laurel, palm, or parsley, were presented to the victors.
THE NEMEAN GAMES were celebrated in honour of Zeus, at Nemea, near Cleonae, in Argolis, every third year. The institution of these games is assigned both to the Seven against Thebes, as well as to Hercules, after he had slain the Nemean lion. The various exercises were chariot and horse- racing, and the pentathlon. The reward of the victors was at first a chaplet of olive-branches, but afterwards a garland of parsley was awarded.
THE ISTHMIAN GAMES were so called from the Corin- thian Isthmus, where they were celebrated. At the narrowest part of the Isthmus stood a temple (Fanum Neptuni), near which was a theatre and stadium of white marble, where the games took place. Some say they were instituted in honour of Palaemon, or Melicertes, son of Athamas, king of Thebes ; others, in honour of Neptune. The games took place every
MILITARY AFFAIRS. Ill
third year, and the exercises were the same as those of the , other sacred festivals ; the rewards were chaplets of pine ; at one time ivy was used.
The Isthmian games were held in great veneration, on ac- count of the religion by which they were consecrated, as well as on account of their antiquity.
MILITARY AFFAIRS. Divisions of the Army.
The Grecian armies consisted of free bodies of men, whom the laws of the country obliged, when arrived at a certain age, to appear in arms : at the age of eighteen, the Athenians were appointed to guard the city ; at twenty, they were sent to foreign wars ; at sixty, they were allowed to retire.
The army was composed of three classes of soldiers: 1. In- fantry, Tts^ot; 2. Charioteers, tjvioxot; 3. Cavalry, irtrtfis.
The foot soldiers were divided into, 1. 'Ortutcu, who wore heavy armour, and fought with broad shields and long spears ; 2. "^aoC, light-armed men, who engaged with darts, arrows, and slings ; 3. JlsMao'tal, who were armed with a small shield called TtaMrj.
Arms.
These were divided into itco classes : 1. Arms for the pro- tection of the body ; and, 2. Those used to injure an enemy.
I. The defensive arms, which protected the body: 1. xpdvo^, xopvj, xvviv], or Tiepixe^afiaia, helmet, made of brass or of the skins of animals, and surmounted by a crest [xo^oi] ; 2. 0wpct|, cuirass, made of hemp (twisted into cords, and woven close together), of brass, or of leather covered with brass ; 3. xvriixiSsi, greaves, for the front of the legs, made of brass or other metal ; 4. acrtli, a round buckler, made either of osiers twisted together, or of wood covered with leather, and bound round the edge with metal; in the centre was a projection called OjU^caoj or (nao^^duovy a boss, upon which a spike was
112 MILITARY AFTAIRS.
sometimes placed. The Bvpsos was an oblong shield (corre- sponding to the Latin scutum), and the rtiMt] a small shield used in the Greek army, by a body of men named from using it 7t(Maatal.
II, The offensive arms: 1. tyx^i and 86pv, the spear and lance, usually made of ash ; the point, alxi^r^, was of metal ; 2. |tfo?, the sword, suspended by a belt {tsTM^^v) from the shoulder ; 3. a^lvrj et jti'Kfxvi, pole-axe ; 4. tofoi', the bow, said to have been invented by Apollo, who communicated his in- vention to the Cretans, who became first-rate archers : the arrows, which were called ^i%rj, oCstoi, and T'olsv^ua-r'a, were made of light wood and pointed with metal ; 5. axov-tiov, the javelin, of which there were various kinds ; 6. ai>sv86vrj, the sling, which was commonly used by the light-armed soldiers.
THE CHIEF OFFICERS OF THE ARMY were, 1. TtoXs- ^lapx^i or general (vide Magistrates) ; 2. Gtpatrjyoi, ten in num- ber, one elected from each tribe : they conducted all military affairs at home and abroad; 3. ta^lapxov, ten in number, elected by the tribes : they had the care of marshalling the army, directing the marches and encampments, and discharg- ing the soldiers convicted of misdemeanours ; 4. l7trtap%oi,, two in number: they commanded the cavalry; 5. ^vTm^xoi,, ten in number, elected by the tribes, subordinate to the iTtTtapx^'' '• the inferior officers received their names from the number of men they commanded. Among the Lacedsemonians, the supreme command was vested in one man (usually a king of Sparta), who was attended by a body-guard of horsemen, iTiriiU, 300 in number.
THE DIVISIONS OF THE ARMY.— The whole body was called atpattd ; the van, ixttiorcov vel Ttpwtoj ^uyoj ; the wings, xepata ; the rear, ovpa vel £ff;tar'05 Cuyoj. Minor divisions : TiiiJirtdi, a party of five soldiers ; %6xoi, a party of twenty-four or twenty-five, sometimes of only sixteen; ■r'a|6j vel txatov- tapx^O', a company of 100 or 120 ; $axay|, a body of troops in close order, whose chief Aveapon was a long spear. The whole army of the Spartans was divided into ^opac, regiments, and 7^X01, companies, the number of men each contained is vincertain.
NAVAL AFFAIRS. 113
NAVAL AFFAIRS.
The vessels of the Greeks may be divided into two classes :
I. Naves Onerarise, o^jcdSe^, ^opttjyoi, (jfpoyyvA,at, rtXoca, eliips of burden, generally made of a bulky form, and chiefly propelled by sails.
II. Naves Bellicae, tptripHs, tstpripsii, Ttevtr^psii {triremes, quadriremeSy quinqueremes), war-galleys, propelled chiefly by oars, and distinguished from each other by the number of banks of oars. The most usual number of banks was three, four, or five, which gradually ascended in the manner of stairs. The most common ships of war in the earlier times were long vessels {naves longce) called Ttsvtrixovtopoi,, with fifty rowers, twenty-five on each side.
The principal parts of the vessel were : 1. 'tpoTtti or a-teiprj {carina), the keel ; 2. Ttpwpa or [xstioTtov {prora), the prow ; 3. fi£(s6xoi'ka, or middle part of the ship ; 4. jtpvfivr] {puppis), the stern; 5. 7t%£vpoi {latera), the sides of the ship; 6. xar'acfT'pwiuaT'a, the decks or hatches ; 7. iStixta {transtra), the benches on which the rowers sat: the upper were called Opavot, (the rowers epavtTf(u), the middle ^vyd (the men ^uytfcu), the lower Qaixxfioi (the rowers eaTsxultai) ; 8. t^^o^jov {rostrum) or beak : this con- sisted of a beam pointed with brass, and was used for the purpose of sinking and disabling the enemy's vessels ; 9. oA/fKoi {sentina), the hold; 10. tpd^t, the bulwark.
The tackling, &c., used in navigation were: 1. toroj {malus), the mast; 2. xipata, xfpaiao {antennce), the yards; 3. latiov {velum), the sail; 4. tonna, the cordage, comprising axoiv'uj. {/lines), the cables, ndSsi {pedes), the ropes attached to the lower corners of the square sail, and vrcipac, the ropes fastened to the two ends of the yards ; 5. 7trj8duov {guhernaculum), the rudder, usually two large oars, placed on each side of the stern ; 6. ot'a|, the tiller or handle of the oar ; 7. dyxvpa, the anchor ; 8. xdrioA or ip^-tixoi {remi), the oars : their blades were called rtXafat {palmulce), and were fastened in their holes by leather thongs, 'tpoTtol {strophi) ; 9. xovfoi, {conti), punting poles.
10*
114 PRIVATE LIFE OF THE GREEKS.
The bi'KpCv was a mass of metal suspended from the yaids, •which, being thrown into an enemy's ship, by its weight cither shattered or sank it.
The two principal manoeuvres in commencing an engage- ment were the SuxTiXov?, or breaking the line, and Ttsptrt^ovj, or outflanking the enemy.
The chief naval officers were: 1. ctoTaipxoi, mvap;t;oj, or otpan^rjyoi, the proefedus classis, or admiral ; 2. tTttcrtoTifvj, the vice-admiral ; 3. i'pt^pap;toj, or captain of a trireme ; the captains of other vessels receiving their titles from the num- ber of ranks of rowers their vessels contained.
The common sailors were called vavtat, {iiautce), the rowers ipBfcu, the soldiers who served at sea aTtt/Satac [dassiarii milites), marines; xv^ipvYi-trii [guhernator), the helmsman or pilot.
On landing, the ancients used to haul their vessels on shore [ovi^xiw, suhducere) by means of [oKxd, pulvini) rollers. To launch them, was termed xaJdeXxtiv {deducere).
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE GREEKS.
Meaxs.
There were four daily meals taken by the early Greeks : 1. apWT'oi/ or dxpaT'ttf^tt, the morning meal or breakfast; 2. Ssirtpov, or dinner ; 3. 8hUv6v, or afternoon meal ; 4. Boprtov, supper. The Greeks of a later age partook -of three meals : 1. axpuTfidixa, 2. aptOTfot; 3. Sslrtvov : corresponding to breakfast, luncheon, and dinner. It was customary among the ancient Greeks to sit at meat; but after luxury prevailed they re- clined on couches, xXtvai, that they might drink at greater ease. Two guests usually reclined on a couch, but some- times a greater number, who were then placed according to rank.
private life of the greeks. 115
Dress.
The Greeks in ancient times used no covering for the head, but afterwards they wore hats called rtlxoc. The general name for clothing was so^ijj. The inner garment of men, as well as of women, was x^'T^^^f ^ tunic ; but women of wealth wore a robe called ^yxvx'Kov x'''^*^viov. The exterior garments were : 1. Ifidtiov or ^dpo^, a cloak (Lat. pallium) ; 2. ;tAot»'a, a thicker garment for cold weather; 3. ^troA?;? (La-t. pcenula), a round garment without sleeves ; 4. i^satpi^, a great coat ; 5. tpi^cov, a threadbare coat worn by philosophers and the poor ; 6. croXjJ, a long garment reaching to the heels ; 7. ;i:^i"vj, a military cloak. On the feet were worn : 1. v7to8r;fxata, or shoes bound under with thongs ; 2. xpjyrttSf 5, slippers. Kodopvoi were buskins, or boots worn by tragedians.
Funerals.
The Greeks attached great importance to the burial of the dead, as they believed the souls could not enter the Elysian fields unless their bodies were buried ; and it was therefore looked upon as a grave charge on the character of a man to have neglected the burial of his relations. The following customs were connected with the Greek funeral.
As soon as any one had expired : 1. the eyes wore closed by the nearest relative ; 2. the mouth was shut ; 3. the face was covered ; 4. all the members of the body were stretched out ; 5. the body was washed and anointed with oil ; 6. wrapped in a handsome garment, and decked with chapleta and flowers; 7. laid out (rtpo0£fftj) on a couch {xXtvvj), with the feet towards the door ; 8. a small coin (6/3oXoj) was placed in the mouth, as Charon's fare for carrying the soul over the infernal river; and, 9. a small cake {fisXitoitta) was also placed by the side of the corpse, intended to appease the fury of Cerberus. Before the door a vessel of water (apBdviov) was placed, that those about the corpse might purify themselves by washing.
On the day after the itpoOsats, or the third day after death, the corpse was carried out (« x^pa) for burial, attended by the
116 THE GREEK THEATRE.
friends and neighbours of the deceased. It was either buried {Odritnv, xafopv-tteiv) or burnt {xaCnv) on piles of wood, called TtvpoU : when these were burnt down, the remains of the firo were quenched with wine, and the relatives and friends col- lected the bones, which were placed, together with the ashes, in urns, either made of gold, silver, wood, stone, or clay.
The corpses not burnt were buried in coffins, usually out- side the city. It was usual after a funeral to partake of a feast at the house of the nearest relation of the departed, and on the third day to offer a sacrifice to the dead, called -tpka. Libations {%oaC) were also made for the deceased ; and the relatives expressed their sorrow in various ways, either by cutting off a portion of the hair, or shaving the head, sprin- kling themselves with ashes, beating their breasts, and tear- ing their flesh, &c., &c.
The monuments erected over the graves were either GtiJTju, pillars or stone tablets, xiovsi, columns, vtuBia or ^p^a, small buildings in the shape of temples, and tpd^tf^tu, square stones; on these were inscribed the name of the deceased, and some account of his past life.
THE GREEK THEATRE {eia^pov).
The most ancient theatres were at first of wood, but after- wards built of stone, or cut in the rock. The form was semi- circular, and the rows of benches for the spectators, rising one above another, were arranged in front of the stage, which was divided into the %oyflov [pulpitum) in front, where the actors spoke, and the Ti^ooxr^iov [proscenium) behind, at the back of which was a wall, axrini [scena), usually with three doors, for the entrance of the actors ; in front of the exrjvri the back-ground scenes were placed, and concealed by a curtain, aifkaiai [aulcea), till the play commenced, when it was drawn down. The opxriO'tpa {orchestra) or pit was the circular space in front of the rows of seats and the stage, and was occupied ))y the chorus; in the centre of this space stood the evftijuy, or
THE GREEK THEATRE. 117
altar of Dionysus [Bacchus], on the top of which the leader of the chorus, a^opayoj, sometimes stood, and behind it the prompter, v7toi3o%svs [monitor), and flute-player were usually placed. The ancient theatres were of vast size, capable of containing in the xol'Kov [cavea] many thousand spectators, who sat according to their rank, the senators, priests, &c., occupying the front seats. The buildings were open to the sky [the Romans sometimes used an awning] , and, owing to their vast size, the actors wore masks, personce (adapted to their characters), with mouth-pieces to aid the voice ; and tragic actors wore cothurni, or thick-soled buskins, to elevate the figure. The ancients used in their theatres various stage machinery to give effect to the representations.
»
EOMAN ANTIQUITIES.
DIVISIONS OF THE INHABITANTS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
The Roman people were divided by Romulus into threo tribes [tribus), Ramnes or Ramnenses, TUienses, and Luceres: these tribes were again divided into thirty curice, each of which had its curio, or president, and the whole body had a curio maximus.
The inhabitants of Rome were at first divided into two ranks [ordines): I. Patricii, and II. Plebei — these were connected together as Patroni and Clientes ; afterwards, the Equites, forming a kind of intermediate order, were added. The Patricii appear to have been the original citizens, and were divided into curiae and gentes, or clans, united by reli- gious ties or family connexion. They were entirely separated from the Plebei, no connubium or marriage being permitted between the orders, and were the only parties eligible to the senate, or the higher of&ces in the religious and political government of the state.
In time, however, the Plebeians increased in importance by the admission of conquered tribes into their order, so that, from the time of Servius Tullius, they took part in the comilia or legal assemblies, and ultimately obtained the connubium and equal rights with the Patricians. The Equites were at first only a military order, 300 in number {celeres), and insti- tuted by Romulus. This number was increased by the suc- cessive kings ; the Equites had a horse at the public charge [cquus publicus) and {ces equestre) a sum for its support. Latterly, however, the name Equites was extended from those who had horses at the public charge to all those having
(118)
THE SENATE. 119
horses of their own, and qualified by their property to act as judices, and thus the military character of the original order disappeared, and all free-born citizens possessing 400,000 sestertii were Equites, or of the Equestrian order. The in- signia of these Knights were the annulus aureus, gold ring, and the angustus clavus, a narrow band of purple wrought in the cloth, and extending from each shoulder to the bottom of the tunica. The Equites occupied the first fourteen benches at the theatres.
When the ancient difference between Patricians and Ple- beians had disappeared, then arose a new classification, Nobiles and Ignobiles; the only privilege of the Nobiles was iheju^ imaginum, an ancient custom of setting up in the atria or courts of their houses waxen busts or effigies of their ancestors. These Nobiles were again divided into Optimaies or Conservatives, and Populares or Radicals.
When the Roman empire enlarged its territories, there arose another division, Servi, or slavos, who became such either by being taken in war, by sale, by way of punishment, or by being born in a state of servitude. They received a monthly allowance, but could not obtain property without the consent of their masters. Slaves were sold at Rome by auction, and became either the property of private indviduOils or of the state.
The state of slavery was terminated by Manumissio, which was effected either by entering a slave's name on the Censor's books [censu], or by certain ceremonies with a rod [vindida) before the Praetor, or by will {testamento).
THE SENATE {Senatus).
The Senate, according to tradition, was instituted by Romulus, and consisted at first of only 100 members {sena- iores or patres), chosen from the Patricians. This number was increased to 200 when the Sabine Titles became united to the Latin Ramnes, and another 100 were also added when
120 THE SENATE.
the Luceres, consisting chiefly of Etruscans, were incorpo- rated in the time of Tarq. Prisons ; these new Senators were called Patres minorum gentium, in distinction to the old Senar tors, Patres majorum gentium. The vacancies which occurred in the Senate after the abolition of the monarchy (b.c. 509) were filled up by Plebeians of Equestrian rp,nk, who were designated ConscHpti, and hence the Senate was addressed as Patres (sc. et) Conscripti. The number of 300 remained until the time of Sulla, when the Senate consisted of between' five and six hundred. The Senate possessed the administra- tive authority, in such matters as religious worship, taxation, levying of troops, negotiations with foreign states, embassies, provincial government, &c., &c.
The sittings of the Senate were either regular [senatus legitimus) or extraordinary {senatus indictus), and were held between sunrise and sunset. When the members had assem- bled, the presiding magistrate announced the subject [referre ad Senatum), and called on each member to state his opinions [rogare senientias, senientias dicere) ; this he delivered either by a single word or in a speech ; then followed the voting [discessio, pedihus ire in sentcntiam alic^ijus). The decree, when passed {Senates Consultum vel JDecretum), was written down and placed in the a^rarium or treasury, under the care of the Praetor.
A certain number of Senators were required to be present to make a decree valid, and those absenting themselves with- out just cause were fined. For Intercessio vide Tribuni.
It was required in a candidate that he should be free-born, and possess a certain amount of property ; latterly, 800,000 sestertii. The Senators were chosen [legehantur) by the Kings, by the Consuls, and, in later times, by the Censors ; one of the qualifications necessary was, that the candidate should have fulfilled the duties of the magistracy, the first • degree of which was the quaestorship. The insignia of the Senators were the latus clavus, a broad band of purple, ex- tending from the neck down the centre of the tunica, and the ccdceus lunatus, a high shoe adorned with a small crescent. The Senators had also certain seats at the public shoAvs.
ASSEMBLIES. 121
ASSEMBLIES {Comitia).
The Comitia were the legal meetings of the Roman people, at which their votes were taken on matters connected with the government of the State. The Comitia could only be held on certain days {dies comitiales), never on festivals; and, pre- vious to meeting, notice was given [promulgari) of the subject for decision. There were three kinds of Comitia : I. Comitia Curiata ; II. Comitia Ceniuriata; III. Comitia Trilnita.
I. COMITIA CURIATA were held, in a part of the Forum called Comitium, first by the Kings, and afterwards by the Consuls and Praetors. Though at first they were assemblies of the whole people, and possessed power in enacting laws and confirming the authority of the Kings, on the decline of the Patrician power they lost their importance. The Comitia Calata belonged to these Comitia, which were merely meetr ings for the purpose of sanctioning certain proceedings, in- augurating the Flamines, &c.
II. COMITIA CENTURIATA were held, extra Pomoeriumy in the Campus Martins, either by the Consul or Praetor. In these Comitia the Consuls, Praetors, and Censors, were elected, laws were passed, war declared, and capital offences were tried. The Comitia Centuriata were usually assembled by an edict, and summoned twenty-seven days before the period of meeting ; this space of time was called trinundinum. All those who had the right of Roman citizens might be present, and voted according to their property. On the day of meet- ing, the auspices were consulted by the presiding magistrate and the augurs, and the Comitia were opened with sacrifice and prayer. After the debate, if no religious obstacle pre- vented, the people were called on to arrange themselves for voting. The Equites voted first, and the six classes in suc- cession. The votes were at first viva voce, but were after- wards delivered in writing by means of a tahella. The centuries which were to vote passed over bridges into an inclosed space [ovlle), where the tahellce were supplied, and thrown l)y the voters into the dstcB or ballotrboxes, frcm
11
122 MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS.
which they were taken and counted, and the result of the voting proclaimed with a loud voice.
III. COMITIA TRIBUTA were held both intra and extra Pomoerium, under the presidency of the Tribunes of the People. At these Comitia the inferior magistrates were chosen, as well as the ^diles Curules, and the Tribunes of the People after B.C. 471 ; and after b.c. 104 the members of the Colleges of Priests. Laws were passed at these Comitia called Plebiscita, which at first only bound the Plebeians ; but after b. c. 306 they concerned the whole people. The Patricians seldom attended, as the votes of all were of equal force.
MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS.
N. B. — The dates affixed are those of the institution of the various offices.
^DILES PLEBIS, b. c. 494, two functionaries elected from the Plebei, to take charge of the public buildings, to judge in inferior cases, inspect weights and measure, and prohibit unlawful games.
iEDILES CURULES, b.c. 365, two in number, elected at first from the Patricii. They superintended the public games, took care of the buildings, repaired the temples, theatres, baths, &c., and were appointed judges in all cases relating to the buying and selling of estates.
^DILES CEREALES, b.c. 45, two in number, elected from the Plebei. They inspected the public stores of corn, all commoditis;S exposed in the markets, and punished delin- quents in ^11 eases of buying and selling. The office was instituted by Julius Caesar. The iEdiles had various officers under them, viz., prcecones or " criers,'^ scrihce or " clerks," an.d viaiores or "attendants" and "messengers."
APPARITORES, the general name given to the public officers who waited on the magistrates, such as the Accen&i, LictoreSy Scrihce, Prceoones, Viatores, &c.
MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS. 123
CENSORES, B.C. 443, two officers of high rank and autho- rity, elected (at first from among the Patricians) for a lustrum, or space of five years ; but latterly the period of office was only for eighteen months. The duties were of three kinds : I. To take an exact account of the property and estates of every person {census), and to divide the people into their proper classes or centuries ; II. To superintend the adminis- tration of the finances of the State, and meet the expenses attendant on the erection or repairs of temples, public build- ings &c. ; III. To punish immorality in any person : the Senators they might expel from the Curia or Senate-house ; the Knights they might punish by depriving them of the horse allowed them at the public charge ; and the Commons they might remove from a high tribe to one less honourable, impose on them a fine, or disable them from voting in the Assemblies.
CONSULES, B.C. 509, the principal annual Roman magis- trates, two in number. The office was established on the ex- pulsion of Tarquinius, the last King of Rome. At the first institution, the Consuls were elected from the Patricians only; but afterwards, b.c. 366, the Plebeians obtained the right of electing one. The common age required in a candi- date was forty-three years ; the time of election was about the end of July or beginning of August, they were then called " desiffiiati" until entering on their office, the period of un- dertaking which varied at different times. At first their power was as great as that of the Kings, and their badges of office nearly the same, in public being always pireceded by twelve lictors, with the fasces. They wore the toga proetexta, sat on the curule chair, and carried an ivory sceptre. Their chief duties were presiding in the Senate, administering jus- tice, levying troops, commanding armies and provinces, con- ducting the Circensian games, &c., &c. The first Consuls elected were L. Junius Brutus and L. Tarquinius CoUatinus.
CURATORES, public officers of various kinds, viz. : Cura- tores Annonoe (of corn), Curatores Riparum (of the navigation of the Tiber), Curatores Kalendarii (of books containing the names of persons who borrowed public money), Curatores
124 MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS.
Ludorum (of the public games), Curatores Openim Puhlico- rum (of public works), &c., &c.
DICTATOR, B. c. 501, a magistrate with supreme authority among the Romans ; he was nominated by the Consuls, the auspices being taken at midnight. The Dictator was only elected at times when great danger threatened the State. His period of office was six months, sometimes even less. So great was the power of this officer, that he might proclaim war, levy forces, and lead them to battle, or disband them, without any consultation with the Senate. He could also punish as he pleased, and there was no appeal from him, at least until later times. The insignia of the office were the sella curulis and toga prcEtexta; the Dictator was also pre- ceded by twenty-four lictors, and during his tenure of office all other magistrates resigned except the Tribuni Plebis. On his election, his first act was to choose a "Magister Equitum," or Master of the Horse, who always attended him. T. Lartius Flavus, or Rufus, was the first Dictator, and Sp. Cassius Viscellinus the first Magister Equitum.
PR^FECTUS URBI (office instituted by Romulus), an officer who presided in the city during the absence of the Kings or Consuls. The office was latterly merged in that of Prcetor Urhdnus.
PR^TOR, B.C. 366, one of the chief magistrates at Rome, next to the Consuls. In b. c. 246 a Praetor was appointed, called Peregrinus, whose duty it was to administer justice in matters of dispute between peregrini (foreigners) or pere- grini and Roman citizens. The other Praetor was then called Urban us. Sp. Furius Camillus was the first Prastor: the number varied at different times. The duty of the Praetor was, 1. to administer justice (his tribunal was called " Prse- torium"), and, 2. to act as Consul in the absence of that officer. He was entitled to the prcetexta, the sella curulis^ tico lictors when at Rome, and six when out. The exercise of the praetorian authority was signified by the words "do" (when they granted licence to institute a trial), "dico" (when they pronounced sentence), and "addico" (when they gave
MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS. 125
the goods of a debtor to a creditor). Praetors were also sent to govern provinces subject to the Romans.
PRO-CONSUL, B. c. 327, a magistrate sent to govern a pro- vince vrith Consular power. It was usual for Consuls, on the expiration of their Consulship at Rome, formally to obtain leave of the people, and get a decree of the Senate for per- mission to govern a province. The command lasted one year, at the end of which the Pro-Consul made up his accounts, left them in writing in the two chief cities of the province, and returned to Rome. The insignia were the same as the Consuls, but only six lictors.
PROCURATOR, an officer of the Imperial provinces, who discharged the same duties as the Quasstors in other pro- vinces.
PRO-PR^TOR, an officer who had all the authority of a Prgetor. The name was assumed by those who, as Prsetors, had continued in power beyond the time fixed.
QU^STORES, magistrates, at first two in number; in- creased B. c. 421 to four, B. c. 265 to eight, by Sulla, b. c. 82, to twenty, by Caesar to forty. They had the management of the public treasury. Two Quaestors accompanied the Consuls in all their expeditions; they received the name "Peregrini," the other two "Urbani." When the number was augmented, certain Quaestors were sent to collect the taxes in various pro vinces. No person was eligible to this office under the age of twenty-two years.
TRIBUNI PLEBIS, b.c. 494, certain Roman magistrates, elected from among the Commons to defend their liberties ; they were at first only two in number, afterwards increased to five, and lastly to ten. Though at first only redressers of public wrongs, they afterwards assumed great power. They made decrees, and carried laws, which they executed on ma- gistrates themselves, ordering even Consuls to prison; they possessed the right of " intercessio," and their persons were *^ sacrosanctiJ' Nothing could be concluded without their consent, which was signified by affixing the letter T to the decree. They could prevent the passing of any measure by standing up, and pronouncing the simple word ^'veto" (called
126 JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS, PUNISHMENTS, ETC.
intercessio). They kept open houses, and were never allowed to leave the city, except at the festival " Feriae Latinae," held on the Alban Mount.
TRIBUNI MILITUM, b.c. 445, elected with Consular power. They were three in number, but in b. c. 405 in- creased to six. For many years the number of these tribunes was very irregular. The office was abolished b. c. 367.
JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS, PUNISHMENTS, &c.
The judicial proceedings {Judicia) of the Romans were either public or private. The judicia privata, or civil trials, had reference to the rights of private persons, &c., in which at first the Kings, and afterwards the Consuls and Praetors, decided. The Judicia publica, or criminal trials, were origin- ally conducted by Qucesitores (subject to the Kings), and after the expulsion of the kings by the Consuls and Praetors. Capital offenders were tried before the Comitia Centuriata, at which it was necessary that the accuser should be a magistrate.
The chief punishments among the Romans were : 1. midcta or damnum^ a fine; 2. vincula, bonds, imprisonment; 3. ver- bera, beating or scourging ; 4. ialio, retaliation, as an eye for an eye; 5. ignominia or infamia, disgrace inflicted by the Censors, or by edict of the Praetor ; 6. exUium, banishment ; 7. sei-vitus, slavery ; 8. mors, death, either by decapitation, hanging, throwing from the Tarpeian Rock, strangling, burn- ing, crucifying, &c.
PRIESTS.
The ministers of religion among the Romans were divided into two orders : I. Those appointed to the common service of all the gods ; and, II. Those devoted to the service of par- ticular deities. Among the former were —
PRIESTS. 127
THE PONTIFICES, a college of priests, presided over by the Pontifex Maximus. They were first appointed by Numa. The Collegium consisted of four members, elected from the Patricians until b. c. 300, when an equal number of Plebeians were admitted. They administered the ecclesiastical laws, prescribed the ceremonial of any new public or private wor- ship, prepared the forms for public prayers and vows, com- posed the annals, and regulated the fasti, interpreted pro- digies, inaugurated magistt-ates, and punished persons guilty of offences against religion. The insignia of the Pontifices were the toga prwtexia and a woollen cap, pileus. The Pon- tifex Maximus chiefly superintended the service of Vesta.
THE AUGURES or AUSPICES were originally three or four in number. Patricians, presided over by a Magister Cob- le gii ; but in B.C. 300 five Plebeians were added, and under Sulla the Augurs were increased to fifteen. The word Augur or Auspex at first meant adivinerby birds [aves) ; but in time the name was applied in a much wider sense. The art was called Augurium or Auspicium. In ancient times no transaction, either public or private, took place without con- sulting the auspices, which were divided into five kinds: 1. Those derived from the sky {ex coelo), particularly from lightning and thunder; 2. From birds {ex avibus), which were either osclnes, which gave auguries by singing, or alites, by flying; 3. From the feeding of chickens {ex tri- pudiis), chiefly war auguries; 4. From four-footed animals {ex quadrupedibus) ; 5. Ex diris signis, which included every other kind of augury, as sneezing, stumbling, &c. The Augurs, when about taking the auspices, stationed them- selves on some open ground, and, after offering sacrifices, proceeded, with veiled heads, to mark out with the lifuus, or curved wand, a particular division, templum, in the heavens, in which they intended to make their observations. The spectio, or right of taking the auspices of the State, was con- ducted by a magistrate, assisted by an Augur, who inter- preted the signs. The auspices taken by the magistrates were divided into auspicia majora and minora, the former being taken by the Consuls and superior magistrates, the
128 PRIESTS.
latter by the Quaestors and Curule iEdiles. The right of self- election, co-optatio, was possessed by the Augurs until b.c. 103. The insignia of the order were the trabea and lituus.
THE FETIALES were a college of priests, instituted by Numa. They were twenty in number, and their president was styled Pater Fatratus. The Fetiales acted as the guardians of the public faith, and it was their office, when disputes arose with foreign states, to demand restitution, conclude treaties, and perform the rites atfendant on the declaration of war, &c,
THE HARUSPICES were soothsayers, who interpreted the will of the gods from the appearance of the entrails [exta), whence they are sometimes called Extispices. The art was called Haruspiclna, and much taught in Etruria.
THE DECEMVIRI SACRIS FACIUNDIS or SACRO- RUM were the priests appointed to take charge of the three Sibylline Books (which Tarquin received from the Sibyl), and offer the sacrifices prescribed by them. At first they were two in number, then ten (five Patrician and five Ple- beian), and afterwards fifteen. The term Decemviri was also applied to the ten officers who were appointed to draw up a code of laws, b.c. 451 (vide Chronology).
THE CURIONES were priests for the Curiae, under a Curio Maximus.
THE REX SACRIFICULUS was a priest appointed after the expulsion of the Kings to superintend the religious rites formerly performed by them.
The priests for the services of particular deities.
THE FLAMINES were appointed to the temple-service of certain gods ; they were fifteen in number, the chief of whom were Flamen Dialis, the priest of Jupiter; Flamen Martialis, the priest of Mars; Flamen Quirinalis, the priest of Romulus. They wore a purple robe, Icena, and conical cap, apex.
THE VIRGINES VESTALES were appointed by Numa to feed the sacred fire, and guard the relics in the temple of Vesta; they were at first four in number, two more were sub- sequently added. They were originally chosen by the Kings, afterwards by the Pontifex Maximus, and were required not
PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, FESTIVALS, ETC. 129
to be under six nor above ten years of age, and free from bodily defects. The period of service lasted thirty years, at the end of which they were allowed to marry. While in the service of the goddess, they enjoyed many privileges, such aa freedom from parental control, a particular seat at shows, the right of liberating any criminal whom they accidentally met, the attendance of a lictor, &c. They were subject to the PontifexMaximus, who severely punished them for letting out the sacred fire, and for unchastity ordered them to be buried alive. The Vestals were clad in a white robe, and their heads were adorned with fillets [infidce).
THE SALII were priests of Mars Gradivus, twelve in number. Patricians, appointed by Numa to guard the J.wdZe, or sacred shield, which fell from heaven, and the eleven others of similar make which were kept in the temple of Mars, and carried in procession, with dancing and singing, by the Salii, annually on the first of March.
THE LUPERCI were priests of Pan ; they went in proces- sion, dressed in goat-skins, on the Lupercalia or festivals of Pan, to the Palatine, where they sacrificed to the god.
THE GALLI were the eunuch priests of Cybele, whose worship was introduced at Rome from Phrygia, B.C. 204.
THE FRATRES ARVALES were twelve in number, who superintended the yearly rural sacrifice of purification.
PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, FESTIVALS, «&c.
The worship of the gods consisted of prayers, vows, and sacrifices. Public prayers were ofiered by the chief magis- trates after a form prepared and recited by the priests ; these prayers were often accompanied by vows [void). It was usual for persons who had been in great danger during a voyage, on landing, to hang up their clothes in the temple of Nep- tune, with a tablet [votiva tabula), on which was depicted a representation of the event.
Sacrifices {sacrificia) formed the chief part of the public
130 PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, FESTIVALS, ETC.
worship of the Eomans, whose customs were in this matter much the same as those of the Greeks. The victim [hosiia^ victima), without blemish before being sacrificed, was deco- rated with garlands {mitce, infulce), and sometimes its horns were gilded ; it was then led to the altar by the popa, or attendant, where the animal's head was sprinkled with roast barley meal, mixed with salt [mola salsa), and afterwards slaughtered, and its entrails {exta) inspected by the harus- pices, the better parts strewed with meal, wine, and incense, and burnt on the altar, and a solemn banquet prepared. The lustratio was a purification in which the victim was lead round the object intended to be purified. (For libatio, vide page 104.) The most common sacrifices at Rome were the suovetaurilia, consisting of a pig, a sheep, and an ox.
The places dedicated to the worship of the Romans were either buildings, or sacred spots consecrated by the Augurs : e. g. templa, cedes sacrce, fana, deluhra, sacella, cediculce; liici.
Days among the Romans were either devoted to religious observances, dies festi, or to business, dies profesd. The ferice or festivals, in which the Romans ceased from political transactions, law-suits, &c., were divided into publicce and privatce ; the former being again divided into fei'ice staiiva; or immoveable, ferice conceptivce or moveable, and ferice im- perativce, fasts held by command of the magistrate : the ferice privatce were kept by families in commemoration of birth- days, &c.
The chief ferice stativce were the Lnpercalia to Pan, 15th of February ; Matronalia, celebrated by matrons for various causes, 1st of March ; Megalesia, or feast of Cyhele, mother of the gods, 4th of April ; Parilia or Palilia, in honour of Pales, deity of orchards, 21st of April ; feast of the Bona Dea, attended by the vestal virgins and women only, 1st of May ; feast of Castor and Pollux, with the Transvectio Equitum, an annual procession of the Equites or Knights, 15th of July ; Saturnalia, feasts of Saturn, the most celebrated of the fes- tivals, when all orders devoted themselves to mirth and revel- ling ; the feast commenced on the 19th, afterwards 17th, of December, and lasted several days.
GAMES. 131
GAMES.
The games of the Romans were either stated {stafi), and votive, or extraordinary, which were celebrated in con- sequence of vows, or at the funerals of private persons. The games were of three kinds: I. Ludi Circenses; II. Gla- diator ii, shows of Gladiators ; III. Scenici, dramatic en- tertainments.
The Ludi Circenses, so called from being celebrated in the circus {maximus), were of Etruscan origin. They com- menced with a procession, and consisted of: I. Cursus, chariot or horse-races ; 2. Ludus Trojce, a sham fight or tournament on horseback; 3. Pugna equesiri^ et pedestris, a representa- tion of a battle ; 4. Certamen gymnicum^ consisting of the TtivtaBljQv of the Greeks (Lat. quinquertmm) ; viz. saltus, leap- ing; cursus, running; lucta, wrestling; pugilatus, boxing; discus, throwing the quoit or discus ; and the pancratium ; 5. Venatio, hunting, i. e. the combats of wild beasts, either with one another or with men hired for the purpose, or with condemned criminals or captives ; 6. Naumachia, a represen- tation of a naval engagement ; the Naumachiae were either exhibited in the amphitheatres (suflGicient water being brought in to float the ships), or in buildings erected for the purpose.
Gladiatorii. The shows of gladiators were also of Etrus- can origin, and were first introduced at Rome in the Forum Boarium, B.C. 2G4, by order of M. and Decimus Brutus, at the funeral of their father. Though at first only confined to funerals, the shows of gladiators afterwards took place at public festivals, and combats were exhibited by the chief Roman magistrates and emperors till the time of Constantine, by whom they were abolished. The combatants were at first either slaves, captives, or condemned criminals, and some- times free men, who hired themselves out; but during the empire, even Senators and Equites fought in the arena.
The gladiators were instructed by a lanista in the use of the various weapons, and previous to the actual combats a prcelusio or sham battle took place, when the gladiators were matched by pairs, and used blunt Avooden swords {rudes), which were also given them on their discharge.
132 GAMES.
The several kinds of gladiators were : 1. Andabatce, who wore helmets which covered the face, and consequently they fought blind-folded ; 2. Catervarii, who fought in companies ; 3. Essedarii, who fought from chariots ; 4. Mirmillones (so named from having the image of a fish (utop/wvpoj) on their helmets), usually matched with retiarii or Thracians ; 5. Re- tiarii, who fought with a "fuscina," or three-pointed lance [tridens), and a net {rete), with which they endeavoured to entangle their adversaries, and despatch them with the tri- dent ; 6. Samnites, who used the oblong shield [scutum) and the usual armour of the Samnites ; 7. Thraces, armed like the Thracians, with a round shield and short dagger [sica). When a gladiator was wounded, the people shouted habet, " he has got it," and the vanquished one lowered his arms in token of submission ; but his fate depended on the people, who pressed down their thumbs [poUicem preinere)^ if they wished his life to be spared, and turned them up [vertere) as a signal for death. The combats usually took place in the Amphitheatrum, a large building, in form a complete oval, the centre space of which was called the arena, from being sprinkled with sand ; the most celebrated was the Amph. Flavium or Coliseum, built by Vespasian and Titus, which had raised seats, capable of containing 87,000 spectators.
The S c e n i c i, or stage plays, were introduced from Etruria, about B.C. 364. They were performed in theatres [theatra), large semicircular buildings, fitted up with benches or seats [cunei), which rose one above another ; the fourteen foremost rows next the stage being occupied by the Equites ; the whole of the space for the public was called cavea. The orchestra was a semicircular space in front of the spectators, assigned to the Senators, foreign ambassadors, &c. The Scenici were of three kinds : Comoedia, Comedy ; Tragcedia, Tragedy ; Mimus, Pantomime. The dramatic pieces were purchased by the ^diles, and the recitation was accompanied by flutes, and the actors usually wore masks, personce. Vide Greek Theatre (page 116), to whjch, on the whole, the Roman cor- responded.
MILITARY AFFAIRS. 133
MILITARY AFFAIRS.
Conscription and Period of Service, &c.
The Romans were a nation of warriors, and thus fnjm the earliest period they had an organized military establishment. In the early times, the army consisted of 3000 infantry and three centuries of cavalry [Equites). "When Servius TuUius divided the people, he formed the better class of citizens into eighteen centuries of Equites. The infantry then consisted of five classes, and were divided into seniores, for the defence of the city, and juniores, for service abroad.
Every citizen was compelled to enlist when the public ser- vice required: the age of enlisting was from seventeen io forty- six, and the time of service twenty campaigns of one year for the infantry, and ten for the cavalry; these services were looked upon as honourable, and ten years of either infantry cr cavalry service was a qualification for the magistracy. At first, none of the poorest citizens [proletarii) or freedmen performed military serVice, except on urgent occasions. Ma- rius, B.C. 107, first chose soldiers without reference to pro- perty, in still later times citizens were exempted from com- pulsory service, and under the Emperors the army consisted chiefly of foreigners. In the times of the Republic, four legions of soldiers were raised, two for each Consul; but this number gradually increased, and was greatly augmented by allies.
The Consuls, at the yearly conscription, required all those who had reached the military age to appear on the Campus Martins, or at the Capitolium, for the purpose of en- rolling their names. The selection was made by the Military Tribunes, after which an oath {sacramentum) was adminis- tered. Persons sufiering from bodily infirmity were exempted from service ; but soldiers conscribed on a sudden emergency [tumultuarii or suhitarii) were allowed no exemption. Soldiers who had served their time were called emeriti, and received a discharge, missio, but sometimes were again called out or 12
134 MILITARY AFFAIRS.
induced to re-enlist, and were then termed evocaii. The pay of the common soldiers was J denarius a day ; the centurion received double this sum ; the Equites were allowed a horse at the public expense, and an annual sum for its keep (Vide page 118).
Divisions of the Army.
After the levy was completed, and the oath administered, the troops were formed into legions ; each legio was divided into ten coliortes, each cohort into three manipuU, and each manipulus into two centurice. To each legion belonged a body of cavalry (300 in number), divided into ten turmce or troops, each turma containing three decurice. The number of men in a legion varied at different times, generally from 4000 to 6000 infantry, and from 300 to 400 cavalry. The soldiers were divided into the hast at i (forming the first line, so called from bearing the hasta, a long spear, which was afterwards laid aside, and the pilum used instead), the prin- cipes (men of middle age in the vigour of life, who formed the second line, originally the first), the triarii, old soldiers, who formed the third line; they were also called pilani, from the pilum or javelin they used. The other kinds of soldiers were : 1. Velites, swift and light-armed soldiers, em- ployed in outpost duty when the Komans were encamped; 2. Funditores, slingers ; 3. Sagittarii, archers ; 4. Ferentarii and Rorarii, light-armed soldiers.
Arms.
The defensive arms were: 1. scutum, an oblong shield, made of wicker-work or wood, joined together with iron and covered with hide, and having an iron boss in the centre ; 2. clipeus, a large shield of a circular form ; 3. galea, the helmet, made of brass or iron, and surmounted by a crista or crest ; 4. lorica, a coat of mail or cuirass, generally made of leather, covered with plates of iron or of chain ; 5. thorax, a breast-plate (more in use than the lorica) ; 6. ocreas, the greaves for the legs, made of metal lined with leather.
MILITARY AFFAIRS. 135
The offensive arms were: 1. gladius or ensis, a sword, gene- rally straight, with a two-edged blade; 2. pila, javelins pointed with iron ; 3. hastcB, long spears.
The light-armed soldiers, velttes, mentioned above, used a small shield called jparma.
Officers.
The command {imperium) of the army was intrusted to the chief magistrates ; first to the Kings, and afterwards to the Consuls, Prastors, and Dictators. The principal officers under these were : 1. Legati, nominated by the Consul or Dictator, and approved of by the Senate. 2. Trihuni Miliium, elected by the Consul or Dictator ; latterly, b. c. 362, partly by the people ; to each legio there were at first three, but afterwards six Tribunes, who were relieved every two months. 3. Centuriones, chosen by the Tribunes according to merit from the common soldiers ; each maniple had two, a prior and posterior. The Centurions had under them Optiones, or Succenturiones, and Signiferi, or standard-bearers.
The troops of allies [avxilia) were commanded by Prce- fecli.
The cavalry was commanded by a Prcefectus alee, and the turmce had each three Decuriones (or officers often), who had under them Optiones or deputies.
The military cloak of the General was called paludamentum or clilamys, and was of a scarlet colour (the latter was also a travelling-dress). The sagum was the common military cloak of the soldiers.
The Romans, when on a march, every night constructed an encampment, which they fortified with a palisade {vallum)^ trench [fossa), and mound [agger). The camp was generally a parallelogram, and had four gates, prcetoria, decumana, principalis dextra, and sinistra.
The signals were given by wind-instruments : buccTna (a trumpet, bent almost round), corrm (a horn similar to the buccina), tuba (a straight trumpet) in the infantry, and lituus (the clarion) in the cavalry.
136 MILITARY REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS, ETC.
The Order of Battle.
The army was usually drawn up in three lines, Tiastah, principes, and triarii, placed at certain distances, and divided into maniples or cohorts, the open spaces being occupied by {velUes) light troops. The legions were in the centre [media acies), and the cavalry and allies formed the wings [cornua). Sometimes a different order of battle was necessary, and the troops were formed into the cuneus or wedge, the orhis or globus, a round body, and the testudo, a compact body em- ployed in sieges, the whole of the men being covered with their shields, as with a roof.
The standards, signa, gave the signals for the movements of the army ; each maniple had one, the ancient signal of which was a handful of hay on a pole. The standard of the legio was a spear, hasta, with the figure of an animal upon it : from the consulship of Marius, b. c. 104, a silver eagle with extended wings became the standard of the legio.
The engines used in storming towns, &c., were : 1. Aries, a battering ram, consisting of a beam, to one end of which was fixed a mass of iron, in the form of a ram's head ; 2. Bob- lista, an engine for projecting stones, &c. ; 3. Catapulta, used for throwing darts ; 4. Vinea, a shed (pushed forward on wheels), under which generally hung the aries ; 5. Turris, a wooden tower, lofty enough to overtop the walls of the city, against which it was usually wheeled upon an artificial mound [agger). It was faced with iron or wet hides, to pro- tect it from fire, and consisted of several stories [tabulata), on which slingers, catapults, &c., were placed.
MILITARY REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS. TRIUMPH. OVATION.
Besides a share in the booty taken from an enemy, the Roman soldiers received as rewards garlands of leaves or flowers. The principal were: 1. Corona civica, a crown of
NAVAL AFFAIRS. 137
oak-leaves, presented to one who saved the life of a citizen ; 2. Corona castrensis, given to the soldier who first forced an entrance into an enemy's camp ; 3. Corona muralis, for him who first scaled the walls of a besieged city ; 4. Corona obsi- dionalis or graminea (grass), given to the commander who had relieved a besieged city, or an army surrounded by an enemy ; 5. Corona oleagina (olive-leaves), presented by their commanders to soldiers who had distinguished themselves. The other rewards were weapons of honour, Tiasta pura; vexilla, standards ; phalerce, trappings ; aurece torques, gold chains ; armillcB, bracelets, &c., &c. The military punish- ments were deprivation of pay, degradation of rank, to be beaten with rods, to be scourged and sold as a slave, to be stoned, to be beheaded, &c., &c.
The highest honour a general could obtain was a triumph, and to be saluted as Imperator by his army. To be honoured with a triumph, it was necessary that the general should in a just war have extended the bounds of the empire, and de- stroyed more than 5000 enemies in one battle. On a triumph being decreed, the procession proceeded from the Campus Martins to the Capitolium, and consisted of musicians, oxen for sacrifice, the spoils taken in war, models of the captured cities, the captives, the lictors (their fasces being wreathed with laurel), and the general {dux) dressed in purple embroi- dered with gold [toga picid et tunica palmaid), crowned with a laurel wreath, and in an ornamented chariot drawn by four white horses, followed by the victorious army. There was also an inferior sort of triumph, ovatio, in which the general entered the city on foot, crowned with a wreath of myrtle, and sacrificed a sheep.
NAVAL AFFAIRS.
For the names of the various parts of a ship, tackling, &c., the reader is referred to Greek Antiq., "Naval Afiairs," page 12*
138 PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS.
113, where the corresponding Latin names are given. The Roman navy consisted of naves longce, triremes, quadriremes, quinqueremes ; lighter vessels, actuarioe, liburnce, vide page 113 ; onerariw, ships of burden or transports. The Romans in their engagements attempted to set fire to the enemy's ships, or seize and board them by means of corvi, ferreoR mor nus, and harpagones, grappling irons, &c. Sometimes towers or castles were built on their vessels, from which arrows and other missiles were discharged. The vessels were often manned by slaves, freedmen, and the lowest class of citizens. The admiral, dux, prcefectus classi, was usually a Consul, and his ship was called navis prcetoria.
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS.
Dress.
The dress of the Romans consisted of the tunica, a woollen garment, which was generally without sleeves, and reached a little below the knees. A long tunic with sleeves was con- sidered effeminate. The tunic was fastened round the waist by a belt, cingidum. The Senators wore a tunica laticlavia, with a broad purple stripe wrought in the cloth; and the Equites or Knights a tunic with a narrow stripe, tunica- angusticlavia. A dress called suhucula was generally worn under the tunica. The toga, the distinguishing part of the Roman dress, was an outer gown or mantle, thrown round the body so as to cover the left arm, and leave the right partly exposed, and forming a fold, sinus, on the breast; these folds, when collected in a knot or centre, being called umbo. The colour of the toga was white {alba, pura). Can- didates for office wore a toga whitened by the fuller [toga Candida).
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 139
Magistrates wore the toga prcetexta, bordered with purple ; and generals in a triumph an embroidered toga, picta or pal' mata, having palm-leaves worked on it. The toga praetexta was worn by young women until they were married, and young men till they were seventeen years of age, when the latter assumed the toga virilis ; this ceremony was performed with great solemnity in the Forum. The pcenula was a gar- ment used chiefly as a travelling-cloak. In later times, the lacema, a kind of great-coat, was worn above the toga, with the cucuUus, a cowl or hood ; similar to the lacei'na Was the l(^7ia. The stola was a female dress worn over the tunica, and fastened by a girdle ; over the stola was worn the palla, corresponding to the toga of the male sex.
The coverings of the feet were calcei, shoes, when abroad, and solece, sandals, which only covered the sole of the foot. The shoes of the soldiers were called callgce, of comedians, socci, and of tragedians, cothurni.
The head was uncovered, except in bad weather or when on a journey, when the pileus, hat, or gaUrus, cap, was worn.
Rings [annuli), set with precious stones, were very much worn by the Romans ; the Senators and Equites used golden rings, the Plebeians iron ones.
Meals.
The first meal taken was the jentaculum, or breakfast ; ifi this followed the prandium, or luncheon, taken about noon : coena, or dinner, was the next and the principal meal of the Romans ; it was taken in the evening, and consisted of three courses, the first gustatio, antecoena, or promulsis, the second or principal course caput coence, and the dessert menscB secundce or hellarin. The guests reclined, according to their rank, on couches {lecti), generally three, summus, medius, imus, at each table, thus : —
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A supper, commissatio, was sometimes taken after the coena. Wine, though rarely drunk in early times, came afterwards into general use, but was sometimes mingled with water or cooled with snow. The best Italian wines were vinum CcecU' bum, FaZernum, Massicum, Calenum, Albdnum, Surrentinum, Sellnum., &c. ; the foreign were vinum Chium, Leshium, Leu- cadium, Coum, Bhodium, Naxium, Mceonium, &c. The wines were brought to table in jars, amphorae, and mixed with water in a bowl, crater, whence it was poured into pocula, cups.
Private Houses. Baths.
Though at first mere cottages, the houses of the Romans in after-times were built in a style of great elegance, and orna- mented with marble pillars, elegant furniture, pictures, vases, candelabra, &c.
The principal parts of the Roman houses were : 1. Vesti- bulum, an open space before the doors, enclosed on three sides by the building ; 2. Ostium or janua, the door or en- trance, with the limen, threshold, j)ostes, door-posts, /ores or valvce, the actual doors ; 3. Atrium, or cavum (edium, the prin- cipal apartment : in the centre of the roof was an opening, eomjpluvium, from which the rain-water fell into a cistern
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 141
( 'mplumum) in the floor ; this impluvium, which also denoted the aperture in the roof, was ornamented with statues, &c. ; 4. AlcB^ the wings or small apartments on each side of the atrium; 5. FerisiyUum, adjoining the cedium, a partially open court-yard surrounded by columns, and ornamented with shrubs and flowers ; 6. Cuhicula or dormitoria, bed-chambers ; 7. Triclinia, dining-rooms; 8. (Eci and exedrce., saloons; 9. Pinacotheca, or picture-gallery ; 10. Bihliotheca, library ; 11. Coenacula, rooms on the second story. The floors, sola, were frequently laid in mosaic, and the inner walls, parietes, lined with slabs of marble and pictures. The windows, fenestrce, were closed with wooden shutters; and in the time of the Emperors with transparent stone [lapis specidaris, mica) and glass (vitrum). The ceilings were flat, and divided by the intersection of the beams and planks into hollows [lacunaria, laquearia), which were often carved and gilt.
Baths, halnece, thermcB. The Romans at first used baths but seldom, and only for health and cleanliness ; but after- wards as a luxury. They were taken after exercise, and pre- vious to the principal meal, coena, and sometimes after eat- ing, to promote digestion. The principal parts of the public iJiermce were: 1. Vestihulum, in which the servants waited, and the halneator, or keeper, received the quadrans paid by each visitor ; 2. Apodyterium, or undressing-room ; 3. Frigi- darium, the cold-bath; 4. Tepidarium, the tepid-bath, or a chamber heated with air; 5. Ctddarium, the warm-bath, warmed by hypocausta, heating-apparatus. After bathing, the Romans made use of instruments called strigiles, or scrapers, for removing the oil with which they were anointed, and the impurities of the skin, and lintea, towels.
Amusements.
The Romans before bathing took various kinds of exercise, one of which was tennis, played with a small ball, pila, or with the folUs, an inflated ball of leather. During the in- tervals of drinking, they played at various games of chance, among which were ale a, dice, played with tali (huckle-bones)
142 PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS.
sometimes numbered on four sides (1, 3, 4, 6) and the ends left blank, or with iesserce, dice made of ivory, bone, or wood, and numbered on six sides, as with us ; at first three dice were used, but afterwards two. The dice-box was called fritillus. The board, alveus, alveolus, or abacus, was divided by twelve lines, and was frequently used for playing with two sets of latrunculi or draughtsmen, fifteen on each side ; this game, Indus duodecim scriptorum, nearly agreed with our backgammon, and the Indus calcidorum was similar to chess. At drinking-bouts [commissationes) a president was chosen by throwing the dice, named magister vel arbiter bibendi, or rex convivii.
Funerals.
The Romans, like the Greeks, paid great attention to funeral rites, as they believed the souls of the unburied could not enter the abodes of the dead. On the death of a friend, the nearest relative closed the eyes and mouth of the deceased, and called on him by name [conclamare), exclaiming liave or vale ; the corpse was then washed and anointed with oil and perfumes by slaves, who belonged to the undertakers, libiti- narii, and a small coin was placed in the mouth of the corpse to pay the ferryman of Hades (Charon) ; the body was then clothed in its shroud (the best toga the deceased had worn when alive ; magistrates in the prsetexta), and laid out in the vestibule, with feet towards the door, and a branch of cypress was placed in front of the house. The corpse was usually carried out for burial on the eighth day after death. The funeral procession was formed of musicians {cornicines, &c.), mourning women {prceftcce), who sang a dirge {inimi sometimes attended), slaves; and persons bearing the ima- gines (representing the ancestors of the deceased) preceded the corpse, which was carried on a couch [lectlca or feretrum), followed by the relatives of the deceased. If the deceased were a noble, the procession stopped at the Forum, where a laudatio was delivered. The corpse was then carried off and buried {humare, sepelire), or burned {cremare) on a pile of wood [pj/ra or rogus), sprinkled, when burning, with in-
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 143
cense, &c. "When burnt down, the embers were soaked with wine, and the bones and ashes of the deceased collected and placed in an urn {urna), which was deposited in a tomb {sepulclirum). The mourning and solemnities continued for nine days, at the end of which a sacrifice, Novendiale, took place, and games and shows of gladiators were sometimes held in honour of the deceased.
Names.
To mark the different gentes and familise, and to distin- guish individuals of the same family, the Roman citizens had three names: the first [prcEnomen], as Quintus, indicated the individual; the second {nomen), as Horatius, the ^ens or clan; the third [cognomen), as Flaccus, the siirps or familia, family. A fourth name [agnomen) was sometimes added, for some illustrious action or remarkable event, e. g. Scipio was called Africanus, from the conquest of Carthage and Africa. The daughters bore the name of the gens, Cor- nelia, Julia, Livia, TuUia, &c. The following are some of the contractions used for the praenomina : Ap., Appius ; A., Aulus; C, Caius; Cn., Cneius; D., Decimus; K., Kasso; L., Lucius ; M., Marcus ; M'., Manius ; N., Numerius ; P., Pub- lius; Q., Quintus; Ser., Servius; Sex., Sextus; Sp., Spurius; T., Titus ; Ti., Tiberius.
ANCIENT GEEEK WEITERS.
POETS. Epic.
IIOMER flourished about b. c. 900. Birth-place uncertain, seven cities contended for the honour.* "Works : Iliads twentj- four books ; Odyssey, twenty-four books.
HE8I0D, born at Ascra, in Boeotia. Flourished about B.C. 800. AVorks extant: ©toyovca, Theogony ; 'Atrnitj 'HpaxXc'ouj, Shield of Hercules ; and 'Epya xol 'Hftipot, Works and Days.
Tragic*
^SCHYLUS, born at Eleusis, in Attica, b.c. 525 ; died at Gela, in Sicily, b. c. 456, aged sixty-nine. Works : seventy tragedies, of which only seven are extant, viz. ; Prometheus Chained, Seven Chiefs against Thehes, The Persians, The Suppliantiy Agamemnon, The Choephorce, The Eumenides.
SOPHOCLES, born at Athens, b.c. 495 ; died in his nine- tieth year, b. c. 406. Works : 130 plays, of which only seven are extant, viz. : Antigone, Electra, Trachinice, Ajax, Philoc- tetes, (Edipus Tyranniis, (Edipus in Colonus.
1 " Septom urbes certant de stirpe insignis Homeri,
Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodes, Argos, Atbenac."
2 The DHhyrambs, or choral hymns chanted at the Dionysia (vido Antiq.), fi'st assumed the form of Tragedy, when Thespis, about B.C. 535, introduced between them the representation Spa/ia i-etaoSiov, of a story or plot by a single actor {InoKpiT/ji), who was separated from the chorus, and played many parts in succession, ^schylus added a second actor, and thus founded the dialogue. Sophocles introduced a third actor.
(144)
ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 145
EURIPIDES, born at Salamis, b.c. 480; died at Mace- donia, b.c. 406, in his seventy-fifth year. He is said to have written ninety-two plays, by some; by others, seventy-five, nineteen of which have reached us, viz. : Medea, Elecira, Orestes, Ipliigenla in Aulis, Iphigenia in Tauris, Andromache, Trojan Captives, Hecuba, Ion, The Suppliants, Children of- Hercules, Phoenician Damsels, Raging Hercules, Alcesiis, Hip- pclytus, Rhesus, The Bacchanalians, Helen, The Cyclops.
Comic.
ARISTOPHANES, born at Athens, about b.c. 444; died about B.C. 380. "Works: fifty-four plays, of which eleven remain perfect: Acharnians, Knights, Clouds, Wasps, Peace, Birds, Thesmophoriazusce, or Feasts of Ceres, Li/sistrata, Frogs, Ecclesiazusce, or Female Orators, Plutus.
The other writers of the "Old Comedy of Greece" were Epicharmus, born b.c 540; Phormus, about b.c. 480; Crates, B.C. 450; Cratinus, b.c. 445 ; Eupolis, b.c. 434.
The poets of the "Middle Comedy" were Antiphanes, b.c. 380 ; Eubulus, Alexis, Anaxandrides, and Araros, b. c. 375 ; Timocles, b.c. 336. Of the "New Comedy" were,
MENANDER, born at Athens, b.c. 342, educated under Theophrastus ; died b.c. 291. Works: upwards of 100 come- dies, of which only fragments remain.
PHILEMON, born at Soli or Syracuse, flourished about B.C. 330. Works: ninety-seven comedies, of which onlyfrag- mentfl are extant; the other writers were Philippides, Di- philus, Apollodorus flourished b.c. 336 to 300; Posidippus, B.C. 289.
Lyric.
ANACREON, born at Teos, in Ionia, about b. c. 563 ; died, aged eighty-five, about b.c. 478. Works: Of five books, sixty- eight poems and fragments are extant ; many of the odes are considered spurious.
SAPPHO, born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, flourished about B.C. 610. Her poems formed nine books, of which only fra^ ments are extant. 13
146 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS.
ALC^US, born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, flourished about B.C. 604. He is said to have been the inventor of the "bar- biton," or harp. Of his -works, only a few fragments of ■war- songs remain to us.
PINDAR, born at Thebes, *in Boeotia, B.C. 522; died, pro- bably in his eightieth year, B.C. 442. Works: Upinicia, or triumphal odes describing the four national games of the Greeks ; four books entire, and numerous fragments, remain.
The other lyric poets, fragments of some of whose works we have, are Alcman, b. c. 670 ; Stesichorus, b. c. 612 ; Simo- nides, b.c. 540; Bacchylides, B.C. 452.
Pastoral.
THEOCRITUS, born at Syracuse, flourished b.c. 284-280. Works : Thirty poems known as Idyls, twenty-two epigrams, and a few fragments, are extant, which may be divided into pastoral, lyric, epic, mimetic, and epigrammatic.
BION, born near Smyrna, flourished about b.c. 280. Of his works, fragments are alone extant.
MOSCHUS, born at Syracuse, flourished about b.c. 250. Of his works, only four of his Idyls, an epigram, and threo small fragments, are extant.
PROSE WRITERS.
Historians.
HERODOTUS, born at Halicarnassus, in Caria, b.c. 484; died subsequent to b.c. 408, exact period unknown. His history, which embraces a period of about 240 years (from the time of Cyrus), is divided into nine books, called by tho names of the Muses.
THUCYDIDES, born at Athens, b.c. 471; died in exile, probably at Scaptesyle, in Thrace, b. c. 391, aged eighty. Works : History of the Peloponnesian War, in eight books, which he brought down to the twenty-first year, and Xeno- phon concluded to the twenty-eighth.
ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 147
XENOPHON, bom about b.c. 445, educated in the school of Socrates ; died about b. c. 359, beyond ninety years of age, probably at Corinth. Works: Anabasis, in seven books; Hellenica (the continuation of the history of Thucydides), in seven books ; Cyropcedia (memoirs of Cyrus), in eight books ; Memorabilia, in four books ; Agesilaus ; The Athenian Re- public; The Lacedcemonian Republic; De re Equestri ; Hip- parchicus ; Cynegeticus ; Hiero ; Apology of Socrates; Sym- posium ; (Economicus.
POLYBIUS, born at Megalopolis, in Arcadia, about b.c. 203 ; died b. c. 121, in his eighty-second year. Work : A Universal History, in forty books (of which only five remain entire), commencing b.c. 220.
DIODORUS SICULUS, born at Agyrium, in Sicily, flou- rished B.C. 60-30. Work : A History of Egypt, Persia, Syria, Media, Greece, Rome, and Carthage, in forty books, of which fifteen and some fragments are extant.
DIONYSIUS OF HALICARNASSUS flourished b.c. 29-7; Work : Antiquities of Rome, in twenty-two books (of which eleven now remain), comprising the History of Rome for 312 years down to b.c. 264.
PLUTARCH, born at Chaeronea, in Bceotia; died about A.D. 140. He was sent on an embassy to Rome, where he opened a school. He was honoured by Trajan with the ap- pointment of governor of lUyricum. Works : Lives of RluS" trious Men, Moralia.
Orators.
PERICLES, born at Athens, about b.c. 499; died B.C. 429. The first Greek orator, surnamed, from the grandeur of his style, the Olympian.
LYSIAS, born at Athens, b.c. 458; died b.c. 378, aged eighty. Of his orations, thirty-four are extant, remarkable for their purity of style.
ISOCRATES, born at Athens, b.c. 436; died b.c. 338, in his ninety-eighth year, being unable to survive the blow the liberty of his country received at the battle of Chaeronea.
148 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS.
As Isocrates was prevented by timidity from addressing the national assemblies, he opened a school in Athens, where he distinguished himself by the number, character, and fame of his pupils. Only twenty-one of his orations have come down to us ; he is said to have written sixty.
DEMOSTHENES, born at Athens, b.c. 382; died at Ca- lauria, by poison, b. c. 322. Of his orations, which have been always celebrated as the most perfect models of eloquence, sixty-one are extant, viz. : seventeen political orations, forty- two judicial, and two show speeches.
IS-iEUS flourished about b.c. 360.» He was the instructor of Demosthenes. Works : sixty-four orations, of which eleven are now remaining.
^SCHINES, born b.c. 389; died at Samos or Rhodes, B.C. 314. Works: nine epistles and three orations, of which the orations alone are extant.
The other Greek orators are Demades and Hyperides ; they flourished about b.c. 335.
Medical Writers.
HIPPOCRATES, born in the island of Cos, about b.c. 460; died at Larissa, in Thessaly, b. c. 357, in his 104th year. Of his works, more than sixty in number, the majority being written by his disciples and followers, only a few are genuine : Pracenotiones, OT Prognosiicon ; Apliorismi; De Morbis Popu- laribus, or Epidemiorum ; De Ratione Victus in Morhis Acutis, or De Diceta Aciitorum; Be Acre, A^is, et Locis; De Capitis Vulneribus.
GALEN, born at Pergamum, a. d. 130 ; died about a. d. 200. Works, under the name of Galen: eighty-three Treatises [genuine) ; nineteen, genuineness doubted ; forty-five spunous ; nineteen Fragments ; fifteen Commentaries on the works of Hippocrates.
ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 149
MATHEMATICIANS.
EUCLID flourished at Alexandria, in the time of the first Ptolemy, B.C. 323-283, and was the founder of the Alexan- drine Mathematical School. Works extant: The Elements, in thirteen books, the fourteenth and fifteenth being added by Hypsicles; The Data, containing 100 propositions; The Division of the Scale; a Treatise on Optics, &c.
ARCHIMEDES, born at Syracuse, b.c. 287; slain at the taking of Syracuse, b. c. 212. Works extant : On Equipon- derants and Centres of Gravity ; The Quadrature of the Para- bola; On the Sphere and Cylinder; The Dimension of the Circle; Spirals; Conoids and Spheroids; Tlie Arenariu.s; On Floating Bodies; Lemmata. Archimedes is said to have con- structed engines used for military and naval purposes, and many machines, among which was the water-screw ; but his most famous invention was a kind of orrery, representing the movements of the heavenly bodies.
GEOGRAPHERS.
STRABO, born at Amasia, in Pontus, about b.c. 54; died about A. D. 24. Works : a work on Geography, in seventeen books ; this is entire, with the exception of the seventh book. Strabo wrote a history, in forty-three books (in continuation of that of Polybius), which is lost.
PAUSANIAS, born in Lydia(?), flourished about a. d. 170. Works : Periegesis, or Itinerary of Greece, in ten books.
FABULIST.
iESOP flourished about b.c. 570. He was originally a slave, but received his freedom from ladmon, his master. The Fables now extant in prose, attributed to iEsop, are said to be spurious. 13*
160 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS.
SATIRIC WRITER.
LUCIAN, born at Samosata, in Syria, about a.d. 120; died about the end of the century. Works : Dialogues, comprising The Dialogues of the Gods, twenty-six in number; Jupiter Convicted; Vitarum Audio, or Sale of Philosophers ; The Fishermen, &c.; The Dialogues oftJie Dead, comprising Icaro- Menippus, Charon, &c.
CRITIC.
LONGINUS flourished about a. d. 250. He opened a school at Athens, in -which he taught philosophy, criticism, rhetoric, and grammar; but afterwards went to the East, where he became the tutor of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, on whose capture he was put to death, a. d. 273. Work : On the Sub- lime, Ilfpt 'T4ovj, a great part of which is extant.
PHILOSOPHERS.
THALES, iJie Ionic Philosopher, born at Miletus, b. c. 636 ; died about b.c. 546. One of the founders in Greece of the study of philosophy. He maintained water was the first principle of all things.
PYTHAGORAS, born at Samos; flourished b.c. 540-510. He travelled in Egypt and the East, and finally settled at Crotona, in Italy, whence he is called the Italic Philosopher. The whole discipline of his sect is represented as tending to a lofty serenity and self-possession. They believed in the ti-ansmigration of souls ; and it was one of their maxims, that " every thing should not be told to every body ;" hence all that was done and taught by the members was kept a pro- fi>und secret to all but themselves.
ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 151
SOCRATES, born near Athens, b.c. 469; died B.C. 399. Socrates was the first who turned his thoughts to the subject of Ethics ; in discussing which, he employed the dialectic or interrogative system, termed from him the Socratic. Not- withstanding his efforts to promote the welfare of mankind, he was accused of corrupting the Athenian youth, and was sentenced to drink poison.
PLATO, born at Athens, b.c. 429 or 428; died b.c. 347. lie was the founder of the Academic School, and in hia writings are preserved the doctrines of Socrates, whose dis- ciple he was. The writings of Plato have come down to us complete ; they are in the form of dialogues, which are closely connected with one another, and may be divided into three series.
ARISTOTLE, born at Stagira, in Macedonia, b.c. 384; died B. c. 322, at Chalcis, in Euboea. He was the founder of the Peripatetic School, so called, either from his delivering his lectures in the shady walks (rtsptrtatot) surrounding the Lyceum, or while walking up and down (rtfptrtaT'wv). His numerous writings comprise works on, 1. Dialectics and Logic; 2. Theoretical Philosophy, Mathematics, Natural His- tort/, &c. ; 3. Practical Philosophy or Politics, Ethics, &c. ; 4. Works on Art.
ZENO, the founder of Stoic Philosophy, born at Citium, in Cyprus. Birth and death uncertain. Flourished about b. c. 280. After many years' study, and having sufiSciently deve- loped his peculiar philosophical system, he opened his school in one of the Porticoes at Athens [Stoa Poecile), and hence his disciples were called Stoics. The Stoic philosophy recog- nised real good only in virtue, and enjoined a life in accord- ance with nature.
EPICURUS, the founder of the Epicurean School, born in the island of Samos, b.c. 342; died b.c. 270. He is said to have written 300 volumes, of which the principal was a work on Nature, in thirty-seven books. The theory of the Epicu- reans represented pleasure as constituting the greatest hap- piness, and must therefore be the chief end of man.
ANCIENT EOMAN WEITBRS.
POETS.
N. B. — The chief works of the writers are mentioned, though all may not come under the same classified heads.
Epic.
ENNIUS (Quintus Ennius), born at Rudise, in Calabria, B. c. 239. He lived on intimate terms with Scipio Africanus, and died B.C. 169, aged seventy. The Romans regarded Ennius as the "father of their poetry." Work: Fragments only extant, though Ennius wrote Annates (i. e. a history of Rome, from its foundation to his own times), an epic poem, in eighteen books.
VIRGIL (Pub. Virgilius Maro), born 15th of Oct., b.c. 70, at Andes, a small villa^ near Mantua ; educated at Cremona and Mediolanum [Milan) ; died 22d of Sept., b.c. 19, in his fifty-first year, at Brundusium [Brindisi). Works : j^neid, in twelve books ; Bucolics, ten short poems (Pastorals) ; Georgics, an agricultural poem, in four books.
SILIUS (C. S. Italicus), born about a.d. 25; died about his seventy-fifth year. Work : Punica, in seventeen books.
LUCAN (M. Annoeus Lucanus), born at Corduba, in Spain, A. D. 39 ; died a. d. 65, in his twenty-sixth year. Work : The Pharsalia, in ten books, alone extant.
VALERIUS FLACCUS flourished in the reign of Vespa- sian; he was a native of Padua, and died a.d. 88. Work: Argonautica, an unfinished poem, in eight books.
STATIUS (P. Papinius), born at Neapolis, about a.d. 61; died about a. d. 96. Works : Thebaid, in twelve books ; Silvcef a collection of occasional poems, in five books.
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ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 153
Elegiac.
OVID (P. Ovidius Naso), born at Sulmo, in the country of the Peligni, 20th of March, B.C. 43. He was descended from an ancient family, and enjoyed the favour of Augustus, by whose edict (a.d. 9) he was suddenly exiled, without even a trial, to Tomi, a town near the mouths of the Danube, where he died, in the sixtieth year of his age, a.d. 18. Works: Amoves, three books ; Epistles, twenty-one in number ; Ars Amatoria; Remedia Amoris, one book; Metamorplioses, fifteen books ; Fasti or Roman Calendar, twelve books, six only ex- tant; Tristia, five books (written at Tomi) ; Epistolce ex Ponto, four books ; Minor Poems ; Nux, or The Complaint of the Nut-tree ; Ibis, a satire, &c.
TIBULLUS (Albius Tibullus), born about B.C. 54; died about B. c. 18 ; was of the Equestrian order : his patron was Messala. Work : Elegies, four books ; the genuineness of several poems in the third and fourth books is doubted.
PROPERTIUS (Sex. Aurelius), born about b.c. 51; year of death unknown. He enjoyed the friendship of Maecenas, Virgil, and Ovid. Work : Elegies, four books.
Lyric.
HORACE (Q. Horatius Flaccus), born at Venusia, in Apu- lia, Dec. 8, B.C. 65. His father was a collector of taxes, and paid the greatest attention to his son's education, who fre- quented the best schools at Rome, and visited Athens to com- plete his education. He lived on most intimate terms with Maecenas, a Roman knight, and obtained the patronage of Augustus. Horace died Nov. 17, B.C. 8, aged fifty-six. Works : Odes, five books ; Satires, two books ; Epistles, two books ; a poem, De Arte Poetica.
CATULLUS (Valerius Catullus), born at Verona, b.c. 87; died about b.c. 47. Works extant: 116 poems, on various topics, composed in difilerent styles and metres.
154 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS.
Tragic.
LIVIUS ANDRONICUS, the earliest Roman poet. Frag, ments of his work are extant.
SENECA (L. Annseus, vide infr.). Ten of his tragedies are extant ; they are written in iambic senarii, interspersed with choral parts.
Comic.
PLAUTUS (T. Accius Plautus), born at Sarsina, a village in Umbria, about B.C. 254; died B.C. 184, aged seventy. "Works : twenty-one Comedies, of which twenty are extant.
TERENCE (P. Terentius Afer), born at Carthage, B.C. 195 ; died b. c. 159, in his thirty-sixth year. Works : six Comedies, viz.: l.Andria; 2. Hecyra ; S. Heauton-timoroU' menos, or "the Self-tormentor;" 4. Eunuchus ; 5. Phormio; 6. Adelphi, i. e. " the Brothers." He is said to have trans- lated 108 of Menander's Comedies when he went to Greece.
Didactic.
LUCRETIUS (T. Lucretius Carus), born at Rome, b.c. 95; perished by his own hand, b.c. 51, in his forty-fourth year. Work : De Eerum Nafurd, in six books, containing upwards of 7400 lines.
SATIRISTS.
HORACE, vide supra.
PERSIUS (A. Persius Flaccus), born at Volaterrae, in Etruria, 4th of Dec, a.d. 34; died 24th of Nov., a.d. 62, aged twenty-seven. Work extant : six Satires.
JUVENAL (Decimus Junius Juvenilis), born at Aquinum, in the reign of Claudius. "Works extant : fifteen Satires.
ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 155
EPIGRAMMATIST.
MARTIAL (Marcus Valerius Martialis), born at Bilbilis, in Spain, a. d. 43. He resided for thirty-five years at Rome, where he obtained the patronage of the Emperors Titus and Domitian. He died at Bilbilis, about a.d. 104. Work: Epi- grammata, fourteen books.
FABULIST.
PH^DRUS, originally a slave, brought from Thrace or Macedonia to Rome, but eventually became a freedman of Augustus. Work: The Fables of JEsop, translated, with some alterations, into Latin iambics.
HISTORIANS.
C^SAR (Caius Julius Csesar), born 12th of July, b.c. 100; murdered 15th of March, b.c. 44, being stabbed, in the Senate- house, with twenty-three wounds : among the conspirators was his intimate friend Brutus. Works: Commentarii de Bella Gallico, in seven books (an eighth is added by another hand) ; and Commentarii de Bello Civili, in three books. The books JDe Bello Alexandrino, Africano, and Hispaniensi, are spurious.
CORNELIUS NEPOS flourished in the time of Julius Caesar. Work extant : Vitce Excellentium Imperatorumy a short biography of twenty-two Grecian and two Carthaginian generals.
SALLUST (C. Sallustius Crispus), born B.C. 86, at Amiter- num, in the Sabini ; died b. c. 34. Works : Catillna, a his- tory of Catiline's conspiracy ; Jugurtha, a history of the wars of the King of Numidia ; Historice, fragments alone extant.
LIVY (Titus Livius), born at Patavium, b.c. 59; died A.D. 17. Work : History of Borne, from its foundation to the
156 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS.
death of Drusus, b.c. 9, in 142 books, of which thirty-five are extant, viz., books 1-10, and 21-45, besides fragments and notices of contents [Epitomce).
VALERIUS MAXIMUS flourished during the time of Ti- berius. Work: Fadorum Dictommque Memorahilium lihri ix., a collection of facts and anecdotes, &c.
TACITUS (Caius Cornelius Tacitus), born a.d. 57, at In- teramna(?). Works: D6 Situ, Moribus, Populisque Genna- nice ; Agricola, a biography of his father-in-law ; Historic^ ; Annales, a history of Rome, from the death of Augustus to that of Nero ; Dialogus de Oratoribus [t ).
CURTIUS (Quintus Curtius Rufus) flourished in the reign of Vespasian (? ). Work : De Rebus Gestis Alexandri Magni^ m ten books, of which two books are wanting.
SUETONIUS (Caius Suetonius Tranquillus) flourished during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. Works extant : Vitce xii. Imperatorum ; De lUustribus Grammaticis ; De Claris RTietoribus.
FLORUS (Lucius Annaeus Florus) flourished in the time of Trajan (? ). Work : Epitome de Rebus Gestis Ro7na7iorum, fbur books.
JUSTIN (M. Junianus Justinus) flourished under the An- tonines. Work : An abridgment of the Historioe Philippicas of Trogus Pompeius, in forty-four books.
EUTROPIUS flourished under Constantino and Valens. Work : Breviarium Historice Romance, in ten books.
ORATOR, &c.
CICERO (Marcus TuUius Cicero), born b.c. 106; murdered B.C. 43, at the instigation of the Triumviri. Works : of Ora- tions, fifty-six are extant. Rhetorical works : De Inventione, or Rlietorica ; De Oratore, three books ; Brutus, or De Clans Oratoribus ; Orator ad Brutum, or De Optimo Genere Dicendi; Topica, a work on evidence ; De Fartione Orator ia; De Optimo Genere Oratorum. Philosophical works: De Republica, in six
ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 157
books, of which Somnium Scipionis has been preserved ; De Legihus, three books ; Academica, divided first into two, and aftervrards into four books, one of which, and a fragment of the second, we possess; De Finibus Bonorum et Mdlorum, five books ; Disputatioius TiisculancE, five books ; De Natura Deo- rum, three books ; De Divinatione, two books ; De Fato, a fragment ; Cato Major sive de Senectute ; Lceliiis sive de Ami- cUia ; Paradoxa Stoicorum ; De Offidis, three books. Epis- tolary writings : Epistolce ad Diversos, sixteen books ; Epis- iolce ad T. Pomponium Atticum, sixteen books ; Epistolce ad Quintum Fratrem, three books.
EPISTOLARY WRITERS.
ATTICUS (Titus Pomponius Atticus), born B.C. 109; died in his seventy-seventh year, b. c. 32. He corresponded with
CICERO (vide supra).
PLINY (Caius Plinius Csecilius Secundus, surnamed the Younger), born a.d. 61; died a.d. 114. Work: Epistolce, in ten books. Of his Orations, the Panegyricus on Trajan is alone extant.
WRITERS ON PHILOSOPHICAL SUBJECTS, &c.
SENECA (Lucius Annaeus Seneca), born about a.d. 1; died A.D. 65, in the reign of Nero. Works: 124 Letters on PhilosopMcal Subjects ; Qucestiones Naturales, seven books.
CICERO (vide supra).
Natural History.
PLINY (Caius Plinius Secundus Major, the Elder), bom A. D. 23 ; died in the eruption of Vesuvius, a. d. 79, aged fifty- six. Work : Historia Naturalis, in thirty-seven books, alone remains of his numerous writings. 14
158 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS.
Agriculture.
CATO (Marcus Porcius Cato Censorius), born B.C. 234; died B. c. 149, aged eighty-five. Works : A Treatise on Agrir cullure, the most ancient Latin prose work extant ; OrigineSf a history of Kome from B.C. 753-151.
VARRO (Marcus Terentius Varro), born B.C. 116; died B.C. 28. Works: De Lingua Latina, a fragment; De Ee liustica, a fragment alone extant.
COLUMELLA (Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella), con- temporary of Seneca. Work : Be Re Eusiica.
Architecture.
VITRUVIUS (Marcus Vitruvius PoUio), born at Verona ; flourished in the time of Caesar and Augustus. Work: De Architectura, in ten books.
Medicine.
CELSUS (Aulus Cornelius Celsus) flourished in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. Work: De Medicina, in eight books.
Grammar and Criticism.
QUINTILIAN (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus), born a.d. 40; died about a. d. 118. Works : InstHutiones Oratorice, in twelve books ; a collection of Declamations is by some also ascribed to Quintilian.
AULUS GELLIUS flourished in the time of the Anto- nines. Work : Nodes Atticce, in twenty books, of which the eighth is wanting.
SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY.
I. The ionic SCHOOL, founded by Thales, from
WHICH sprung:
1. THE SOCKATIC SCHOOL, founded by Socrates. Disciples : Xenophon, ^schines, Phsedo, Euclid, Plato, Alci- biades, &c.
2. CYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus. Flou- rished about B. c. 370.
3. MEGARIC or ERISTIC SCHOOL, founded by Euclid of Megara, B.C. 399.
4. ELI AC or ERETRIAC SCHOOL, founded about b.c. 395, by Phaedo of Elis, whose doctrines were similar to those of Socrates.
5. THE ACADEMIC SECT, founded by Plato.
6. THE PERIPATETIC SECT, founded by Aristotle, succeeded by Theophrastus, Straton, Lycon, Ariston, &c.
7. THE CYNIC SECT, founded by Antisthenes. Dis- ciples : Diogenes Crates, and Hipparchia, his wife.
8. THE STOIC SECT, founded by Zeno, succeeded by Cleanthes, Ariston, Antipater, &c.
II. The ITALIC SCHOOL, founded by Pythagoras,
FROM WHICH sprung:
1. THE ELEATIC SCHOOL, founded by Xenophanes. Flourished b.c. 540-500. Disciples: Parmenides, Zeno, both of Elea, in Italy, Democritus, Protagoras, &c.
2. THE HERACLITEAN SECT, founded by Hera- clitus. Flourished b.c. 513.
3. THE EPICUREAN SECT, founded by Epicurus.
4. THE SCEPTIC SECT, founded by Pyrrh^on.
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TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS.
ATHENE, the Capital of Attica, is said to have been founded by Cecrops, about b. c. 1556 ; it was called from its founder Cecropia, and afterwards Athenae (at 'A^jJmm), in honour of Minerva ('AQjji^), the protectress of the city. It was divided into two parts, 1. THE ACROPOLIS, or UPPER CITY {axportoUi, KsxpoTiCa, ij orw rtoXtj), and THE LOWER CITY (j7 xafw TtoUi). The Acropolis or Citadel was a steep rock, about 150 feet high, 1150 feet long, and 500 feet broad, surrounded by a wall, and approached from the W. by the Propylsea (rtpomvXata), a colonnade of Pentelic marble. The summit was covered with temples, statues, &c. The most beautiful of the temples were, 1. the Parthenon, sacred to Athene, with a statue of the goddess by Phidias, thirty-seven feet high, and carved in gold and ivory. 2. Erechtheum, or temple of Neptune, with the temple of Athene Polias and the Pandroseum. Between the Par- thenon and Erechtheum stood the colossal bronze statue of Athene Promachos (seventy feet high, whose helmet and epear were first visible from the sea), cast by Phidias.
THE LOWER CITY was built in the plain round the Acropolis, and was surrounded by walls ; the chief gates of which were: the Thriasian or Dipylon, leading from the inner to the outer Ceramicus and the Academia; and the Pirgean gate, leading to the Pirseeus. The chief districts: Colyttus, on the N. of the Acropolis; Melite, on the E. ; Limnae, on the S.; Ceramicus (Kfpa|M£cxoj, or the "Potter's Quarter"), in the W.
Hills; Areiopagus, W., and Pnyx, S.W., of the Acro- polis. «
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TOPOGRAPHY OP ATHENS. 161
The chief buildings of the Lower City were: 1. The Temple of Olympian Zeus COkvixtcUiov), founded by Pisistratus; 2. The Temple of Theseus {©yjanov), erected by Conon, and was used as a sanctuary for slaves ; S.JldvOsov^ a temple dedicated to all the gods, a magnificent building, supported by 120 marble pillars; 4. The Temple ofthe Eight Winds (vide page 172), surmounted by a weather- cock; 5. The Odeum ('QSftov), built by Pericles, and origin- ally intended for musical festivals, but afterwards used as a court of justice ; 6. The Bouleuterion, BcAAsv-tripiov, or Senate-house; 7. The Prytaneum, UpvTfavslov, or place of assembly of the Prytanes (vide Gr. Antiq.); 8. The Great Theatre of Dionysus, S.E. ofthe Acropolis; 9. Por- ticoes (St'ooc), or covered walks, in which seats (t'lcSpac) were placed. The Porticoes were sometimes adorned with paintings by the best masters, as, 10. The Pcccile {atoa 7iowi%ri), N.W. of the Acropolis, adorned with frescoes of the battle of Marathon; 11. 'Ayopat, corresponding to the Fora at Kome, places both for public assembly and all matters of traffic and public business; 12. The Pnyx {Tlvv%), W. of the Acropolis, the place in which the ancient assemblies were held.
Without the City: TheAcademia, where Plato taught; The Cynosarges, where Antisthenes taught; The Ly- ceum, where Aristotle instructed his disciples, the Peri- patetics; The Stadium, for public games.
14*
TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME
ROMA, the Capital of Italy, is said to have been a colony from Alba Longa, and to have been founded by Romulus, B.C. 753. The original city comprised only the Mons Pala- tinus ; it was surrounded by walls, which followed the line of the Pomoerium, a kind of symbolical wall, the course of which was marked by stone pillars. On the increase of tho inhabitants of the city, one hill after another was occupied, to the number of seven (vide pages 28, 168). Servius TuUius divided the city into four regiones or districts, which re- mained unchanged till the time of Augustus, who divided the city into fourteen regiones.
THE FORA AND CAMPI. The Forum was an open space of ground of an oblong form, in which the people met for the transaction of business, or used for markets. The prin- cipal Fora at Rome were: 1. Forum Romanum, or simply the Forum (the narrow or upper end of which was occupied by the Comitium) ; it was surrounded by public buildings, and adorned with statues of celebrated men, &c. 2. Forum Julii or Caesaris. 3. Forum Augusti. 4. Forum Tra- jan i. The CAMPI were large open spaces of ground^ covered with grass, planted with trees, and adorned with works of art. The chief was the Campus Martins, or " Plain of Mars," where the Roman youth exercised.
There are said to have been 215 streets in Rome; Visa and Yici were the broad streets, and Angiportus the narrow streets. The finest street was the Via Sacra, from the Colosseum to the Forum. The Suburra was a crowded dis- trict, between the Esquiline, Quirinal, and Viminal.
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TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 163
TEMPLES. Of these, there are said to have been 400 in Rome, the chief of which were: 1. Templuin Jo vis, or Capitolium, built on the Capitoline Hill. It was com- menced by Tarq. Priscus, and dedicated B.C. 507. Three times was it burnt down, and as often rebuilt, but with far greater splendour than before, by Domitian, about a.d. 81. The building was in the form of a square, 200 feet each side ; it was approached by 100 steps, and contained three temples (ccZZcb), consecrated to Juno, Jupiter, and Minerva. In the building were kept the Sibylline Books, and there the Con- suls, upon entering office, sacrificed, and took their vows. THE ARX, or Citadel of Rome, was situated near the Capitol, on the N. summit of the Capitoline Hill. 2. The Pantheum, in the Campus Martins, built by Agrippa, B.C. 27; it is still extant, and used as a Christian church {Santa Maria della Rotonda). It is the largest circular build- ing of antiquity, and in form resembles the Colosseum, Re- gent's Park. The numerous temples were dedicated chiefly to Jupiter, Juno, Mars, Janus, Saturn, Fortuna, &c.
The principal of the CIRCI, or places for chariot and horse- racing, was the Circus Maximus, between the Palatine and Aventine Hills; it is said to have contained seats for 385,000 persons.
Among the THEATRES, the chief were: 1. The Thea- trum Pompeii, the first stone theatre built in Rome (b.c. 55) ; 2. Th. Marcelli. Of the AMPHITHEATRES, the Amphiteatrum Flavium, or Colosseum, was the most magnificent ; it was commenced by Vespasian and com- pleted by Titus, a. d. 80 ; it furnished seats capable of con- taining 87,000 persons.
THERMS. These buildings were distinct from the com- mon Bain eae or baths, as, besides baths, they contained places for athletic games and sports, public halls, porticoes, libraries, &c. ; the chief were: 1. Thermae Antonini; 2. Th. Dio- cletiani; 3. Th. Constantini; 4. Th. Caracallae.
THE BASILICA were numerous at Rome; they were buildings which served as courts of law, or places of meeting for merchants and men of business THE PORTICOES
164 TOPOGRAPHY OF EOME.
were covered walks, supported by columns, used as places of recreation or of public business.
Of THE CUKIiE or Senate-houses, the chief was Curia Hostilia, in the Forum ; it was used as the place of assem- bly for the senate until the time of Caesar. The other chief buildings were the Palaces (e.g. Palaiium, Domus Aurea Keronis)', the Triumphal Arches {Arcus Fahiamis, Ar. Till, Ar. Trajani, Ar. Constantini) ', Aqueducts {Aqiia Appia, Aq. Marcia, Aq. Julia, Aq. Claudia); Monuments {Mausoleum Augusti, M. Hadriani). Of the Columns were: Col. Rostrata, in the Forum, in honour of the naval vic- tory of Duilius, B.C. 260; Col. Trajani, 117 feet high, now surmounted by a statue of St. Peter.
Of THE ROADS leading out of Rome, the principal were :
1. Via Appia, from the Porta Capena to Brundusium;
2. "Via Flaminia, or Great North Road from the Porta Flaminia; 3. ViaAurelia, the Great Coast Road through Etruria and Liguria from the Porta Janiculemis.
GEEEK AND ROMAN DIVISION OF TIME.
GREEK.
In early times, the Greeks divided their years by the recur- rence of the seasons, the rising and setting of the constella- tions Orion, the Pleiades, &c. Afterwards, having adopted the lunar month of about twenty-nine days and thirteen hours as a division of time, they endeavoured to adjust this to the solar year of 365 days five hours and forty-nine minutes, so that the seasons should regularly occur at the same periods of the calendar year, and that the end of the year should not be in the middle of a month. As the twelve lunar months contain only 354 days, intercalary or additional months {fjitjvti ifi^oUixot) were inserted to make up the defi- ciency. The errors of the early calendars of Thales, Solon, and Cleostratus, were rectified by Meton, who, B.C. 432, introduced a cycle of nineteen years, at the end of which period the position of the earth, with reference to the sun and moon, became the same. Calippus, and after him the celebrated Hipparchus (c. B.C. 150), corrected the slight inaccuracies of Meton's system. The cycle of Hipparchus consisted of 304 years, with 112 intercalary months.
The twelve Attic months contained thirty and twenty-nine days, alternately ; the former termed full {rtxripdi), the latter hollow (xocxot), months. Their names, derived from the va- rious festivals held in them, were, Exa-r'o/MiSatwr, ^li-taytitvtMVy BcwySpojUtwi', Motftaxfj/ptwv, Hvwi^Mv, ^AvOsstrjpuav, IlocSiiSsuVt Tafti^Uuiv, 'EkoJ^r^^oXiuv, Mowvxt'i^v, ©apy»;Xiwv, Sxi/j/jo^opwar.'
» The following rough memorial lines will aid the memory in remem- bering the Attic months : —
'Ex — Msta — FsitvC — Boij — IXm — Mai^axfrjfiv — Iloasiduip ra» — 'AvBsat — '^Eka^ij [\ MdwiX'^ — ©apy — Xxipo^,
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166 GREEK AND ROMAN DIVISION OF TIME.
The days of the month were divided into three decades qt sets of ten days, numbered from one to ten : thus the first of each decade (i. e. our first, eleventh, and twenty-first) was termed respectively, rtpioi*?; (sc. r^fiipa), latdfisvov or apxoixevou {fir^vos) — TtpJ^t*] ifii 8ixa or fiiawvtoi — rCpJitr] irt' alxd&c, ^dCvovtoi, Xjjyovt'oj, &c. But in the last decade the days were often reckoned backwards ; thus the first was called Ssxatrj ^oCvov- foj, &c. The first day of the month was also termed 'Novixrjvia. {new moon), the last Iviq xai via, as belonging both to the old and the new month.
The three Homeric divisions of the day were : 1. >Jw$ (morning), afterwards divided into rtpui and Tt^fjOovaris tiji dyopaj ; 2. fiisov i^fiap or ftsarjiu-^pla. (midday) ; 3. Ssi}^ (after- noon), afterwards divided into rtpwta and o-^^ia.
At Athens the years were called after the chief Archon (frtwwjuoj), at Sparta after the first Ephor, at Argos after the priestess of Juno. So at Carthage after the Sujffetes, at Crete after the Proto-cosmus, and at Kome after the Consuls.
Timseus of Sicily (c. B.C. 260) introduced the calculation by Olympiads, or periods of four years, commencing from B.C. 776 (vide Chronology). Thus, b. c. 775 would be the second year of the first Olympiad, B.C. 772 the second Olym- piad, &c. But as the Attic year began at the summer solstice, with the month Hecatombaeon (June and July), the first half of the first Olympiad would be the latter half of b. c. 776, and the latter half of the Olympiad the first of b.c. 775.
ROMAN.
The Koman year was prohahly at first divided into ten months, beginning with March. To this division, which is ascribed to Romulus, Numa is said to have added the two months January and February, to have assigned 355 days to the year, and to have adopted a cycle similar to Meton's Julius Cassar, b.c. 46, employed Sosigenes, of Alexandria,
GREEK AND ROMAN DIVISION OP TIME. 167
and Flavius, a scribe, to revise the calendar. The intercalary months were set aside, the solar year was composed of 365 days, and a leap-year inserted every four years. But, as this did not provide for the accumulation of the excess of minutes and seconds. Pope Gregory, a.d. 1582, ordered ten days, be- tween Oct. 4 and 15, in that year to be omitted. This " new style" was not recognized in England till a.d. 1752. The " old," or " Julian style," is still used in Russia.
The names of the Roman months are Januarius, Februa- rius, Martius, Aprilis, Mains, Julius, Quintilis and Sextilis (changed to Julius and Augustus, in honour of the two first Caesars), September, October, November, December. The number of days in each month was the same as our own ; but they were divided into Calends, Nones, and Ides. The Calends were the first of every month. In March, May, July, and October, the Nones fell on the 7th, in the other months on the 5th. The Ides were always eigJit dsLja after the Nones, i. e. on the 13th or 15th. If the day of the month was not one of these three divisions, it was expressed by its distance from the following Calends, Nones, or Ides, as the case might be. Thus, the 31st of December was termed pridie (the day before) Calendas Januarias. But, as the Romans reckoned in both the days to and Jrom which they calculated, Dec. 30 would be the third day before the Calends of January, usually expressed ante diem tertium (or a. d. iii.) Kal. Jan. The Romans (as well as the Greeks) used water- clocks {clepsydrcB) and sun-dials {solaria) to measure the divisions of the day.
The Consular sera was used in public affairs. In the time of the Caesars, the aera "ab urbe condita" (A. U. C), from the founding of Rome, dated by Varro B.C. 753 (by Cato, B.C. 752), was employed by historians and others.
MISCELLANEA.
HILLS OF EOME.
1. Palatinus, first occupied by the Latins.
2. Capitolinus, occupied by the Sabines, afterwards united to the Latins.
3. Coelius, occupied by the Etruscans.
4. Quirinalis, occupied by the Sabines, afterwards united to the Latins.
5. Aventinus, added by Ancus Martins, who also erected a fort on Janiculum, on the right bank of the Tiber.
6. Esquilinus, added by Servius TuUius.
7. Viminalis, added by Servius Tullius.
KINGS OF ROME.
1. Romulus,
2. Numa Pompilius,
3. TuUus Hostilius,
4. Ancus Marcius,
5. L. Tarquinius Prisons,
6. Servius Tullius,
7. L. Tarquinius Superbus,
B. c. B. 0.
reigned 753—716, 37 " 715—672, 43 " 672—640, 32 " 640—616, 24 " 616-^78, 38 " 578—534, 44 " 534—510, 25 (168)
years.
MISCELLANEA. 169
|
TWELVE ( |
O^SARS. |
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1. Julius, |
B.C. |
.45— |
B.C. 44. |
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2. Augustus, |
« |
30— |
A.D. 14. |
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3. Tiberius, |
A.D |
.l^U- |
" 37. |
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4. Caligula, |
<( |
37— |
" 41. |
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5. Claudius, |
(( |
41— |
" 54. |
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6. Nero, |
(( |
54— |
" 68. |
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7. Galba, |
<( |
68— |
" 69. |
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8. Otho, |
Jan. |
15 |
69— Apr. |
16, |
" 69. |
|
|
9. Vitellius, |
Jan. |
2, |
(( |
69— Dec. |
22, |
" 69. |
|
10. Vespasian, |
Dec. |
22, |
u |
69— |
" 79. |
|
|
11. Titus, |
(( |
79— |
" 81, |
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12. Domitian, |
(( |
81— |
" 96. |
SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD.
1. The Colossus of Rhodes.
2. The Sepulchre of Mausolus, king of Caria.
3. The Palace of Cyrus.
4. The Pyramids of Egypt.
5. The Statue of Jupiter at Olympia.
6. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus.
7. The Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
SEVEN SAGES OF GREECE.
1. Thales, of Miletus.
2. Pittacus, of Mitylene.
3. Bias, of Priene.
4. Solon, legislator of Athens.
5. Cleobulus, of Rhodes.
6. Periander of Corinth (some say Myson), of Laconia.
7. Chilon, of Sparta.
15
170 MISCELLANEA.
THE TWELVE LABOURS OF HERCULES.
1. The Fight with the Nemean Lion.
2. The Fight with theHydraofLerna, near Argos.
3. The Capture of the Brazen-footed Stag of Arcadia.
4. The Destruction of the Erymanthian Wild Boar.
5. Cleansing the Stables of Augeas, king of Elis.
6. The Destruction of the Stymphalian Birds.
7. The Capture of the Cretan Bull.
8. The Capture of the Mares of Diomedes, king of Thrace.
9. The Seizure of the Girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons.
10. The Capture of the Oxen of Geryon.
11. Obtaining the Golden Apples of .the Hesperides.
12. Bringing the Three-headed Dog Cerberus from the lower regions.
THE NINE MUSES.
1. Clio, muse of History.
2. Euterpe, Lyric Poetry.
3. Thalia, Comedy.
4. Melpomene, Tragedy.
5. Terpsichore, Choral Dance.
6. Erato, Erotic, or Amorous Poetry.
7. Polyhymnia, Rhetoric, Eloquence.
8. Urania, Astronomy.
9. Calliope, Epic Poetry.
THE THREE GRACES,
Aglaia (Splendour). Euphrosyne (Joy). Thalia (Pleasure).
MISCELLANEA. 171
THE THREE HORJ^, OR GODDESSES OF THE ORDER OF NATURE, &c. (Hesiod).
Eunomia (Good Order). Dike (Justice). Irene (Peace).
THE THREE FATES,
Clotho, ■)
Lachesis, >- for attributes, vide Parcse.
Atropos, 3
THE THREE FURIES,
Alecto.
Megaera.
Tisiphone.
THE THREE JUDGES OF HELL.
Minos, formerly king of Crete.
Rhadamanthus, son of Zeus and brother of Minos.
-^acus, son of Zeus, famed for his Justice and Piety.
THE FIVE RIVERS OF HELL.
Styx.
Acheron.
Cocytus.
Phlegethon.
Lethe.
172 MISCELLANEA.
THE WINDS.
N., 'ArtapxtCai, Sepiemtrio.
N.E., Katxtaj, Bopioi (usually N. wind), Aguilo,
E., ^Artr^'KM'tr^?, Subsolanvs.
S.E., Evpoj, Eurus, Vnlturnus.
S., NoVoj (prop. S.W.), Auster.
S.W., At'^/, Africus.
W., Zi^vpoj (prop. N.W.), Zeplujrus, Favonius.
N.W., 'Apyta-trii, Xxi^v, Corns or Caurus.
^Efrjolai, northerly winds which blew in the summer.
lapyx, W. or N.W. wind, which blew from Apulia.
Atabulus (Hor.) a scorching wind of Apulia.
THE ROMAN CALENDAR.
For the purposes of administering justice and holding the assemblies, all the days of the year were divided by the Romans into dies fasti and nefasti. The former [dies fasti) were the days on which the praetor was allowed to administer justice ; they were marked in the calendar by the letter F. ; the latter [dies nefasti) were days on which neither the courts of justice nor comitia were allowed to be held. Some days, however, might be partly fasti as well as nefasti, in which case they were marked in the calendar thus, Fp. (i. e. fasius primo), or Np. (i. e. nefastus primo).
The Nundince (ninth days) were originally market-days, on which the country-people came to Rome to sell the produce of their labour. The nundinaj were ferioi or sacred days for the populus, while they were real business days for the
MISCELLANEA.
173
plebeians {dies fasti), for many years, until the dies fasti and nundinas coincided.
|
Days |
Mar |
, May, July, 1 |
Jan. |
, Aus-.. Dec. 1 |
Apr |
. June. Sep.. i |
Feb. ^ days, in |
|
|
of the month. |
Oct., 31 days. |
31 days. |
JNov.,30days. |
Leap-year 29. |
||||
|
1 |
Kalendis |
Kalendis |
Kalendis |
Kalendis |
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|
2 |
61 |
4 )^ Ante 3 / Nonas |
4) Ante 3 /Nonas |
4 1 Ante 3 / Nonas |
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3 |
5 I Ante |
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|
4 |
4 [Nonas |
Pridie Nonas |
Pridie Nonas |
Pridie Nonas |
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5 |
3j |
Nonis |
Nonis |
Nonis |
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|
6 |
Pridie Nonas |
8" |
81 |
81 |
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7 |
Nonis |
7 |
7 |
7 |
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|
8 |
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6 |
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6 |
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6 |
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|
|
9 |
7 |
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Idus |
5 " |
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6 |
Ante |
4 |
4 |
4 |
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|
11 |
5 " |
Idus |
3j |
3j |
3 |
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12 |
4 |
Pridie Idus |
Pridie Idus |
Pridie Idus |
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|
13 |
Sj |
Idibus |
Idibus |
Idibus |
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|
14 |
Pridie Idus |
19- |
18^ |
16 |
||||
|
15 |
Idibus |
18 |
17 |
15 |
||||
|
16 |
17~ |
1 |
17 |
16 |
14 |
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|
17 |
16 |
16 |
15 |
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13 |
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|
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15 |
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12 |
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10 9 8 |
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4 |
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das Martias. |
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3 |
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Pridie Kalen- |
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|
81 |
Pridie Kalen- |
Pridie Kalen- |
das (of the |
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das (of the |
das (of the |
month follow- |
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month follow- |
month follow- |
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ing |
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1 |
15
GKEEK CHEONOLOGY.
B.C.
1856. Foundation of Argos: of Athens, 1556. 1194. Trojan War commences. 1124. iEolic migration: Ionic migration, 1044. 1104. Return of the Heraclidae.
1045. Death of Codrus, last king of Athens. Medon, first Archon. 884. Legislation of Lycurgus. 776.*Coroebus gains the victory in the foot-race at the Olympian
games. 743. First war between the Messenians and Lacedosmonians commences : ends with the defeat of the Messenians, 723. 734. Syracuse founded by Archias of Corinth. 683. Creon, first annual Archon elected at Athens. 668. End of second Messenian War; begun 685. 664. Sea-fight between Corinthians and Corcyrceans, most ancient
recorded. 624. Dracon legislates at Athens. 595. Crcesus, king of Lydia, bom; Cirrhssan or Sacred War
commenced. 594.*Solon legislates at Athens as Archon. 586. Cirrhceans vanquished and Pythian games celebrated.
The Seven sages flourished about this time. 585. Death of Periander.
572. War between Pisa and Elis, ended by subjection of Pisaeans. 560.*PisiSTRATUs usurps the government of Athens. 559. Cyrus begins to reign in Persia, and the Median empire
ends ; it had existed 149 years. Death of Solon. 546. Sardis taken by Cyrus. 548. Temple of Apollo at Delphi burnt. 538. Babylon taken by Cyrus. 535. Thespis first exhibits tragedy. 531. Pythagoras, the philosopher, flourished. 527. Death of Pisistratus.
52L Death of Cambyses, and accession of Darius to the throne of Persia.
GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 17ft
B.C.
614. HiPPARCHus, tyrant of Athens, slain.
610.*irippiAS flees from Athens. Ten tribes instituted by Cle-
ISTHENES.
499. lonians revolt, and, assisted by the Athenians, burn Sardis.
494. Sixth and last year of the Ionian revolt. lojiians defeated in a naval engagement near Miletus.
493. Persians take the islands Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos. MiLTiADES comes from the Chersonesus to Athens.
492. Mardoxius, the Persian general, invades Europe and unites Macedonia to the Persian empire.
491. Darius sends heralds to Greece.
490.*Datis and Artaphernes, the Persian generals, invade Eu- rope, take Eretria in Euboea, and land in Attica, but are defeated at Marathon by the Athenians, under Miltiades.
489. Miltiades endeavours to conquer Paros, but is repulsed. He is accused, and being unable to pay the fine is thrown into prison, where he dies.
485. Xerxes, king of Persia, succeeds Darius.
483. Aristides ostracised.
481. Themistocles (the chief man at Athens) persuades the Athenians to build a fleet of 200 ships to resist the Persians.
480. Xerxes invades Greece. Battles of Thermopylae, and Arte- misium; Athens taken by Xerxes ; battle of Salamis; Xerxes' fleet destroyed.
479. Mardoxius, the Persian general, winters in Thessaly, in the spring occupies Athens, and is defeated by the Greeks under Pausaxias at the battle of Platcea, in Sept. ; Persian fleet defeated ofi" Mycale on the same day.
478. Sestos taken by the Greeks. History of Herodotus termi- nates. Themistocles fortifies Athens.
477.*Commencement of the Athenian ascendency.
471. Themistocles banished by Ostracism for ten years, and goes to Argos. Pausaxias convicted of treason and put to death.
468. Mycenae destroyed. Aristides dies.
466. CiMOX overcomes the Persians at the river Eurymcdon, in Pamphylia. Themistocles flies to Persia.
465. Death of Xerxes, who is succeeded by Artaxerxes. Thasos revolts ; subdued by Cimon, 463.
464. Earthquake at Sparta. Helots and Messenians revolt.
461. Cimon marches to assist the Lacedaemonians ; his offer of assistance declined; the Athenian troops sent back, and CiMOX ostracised, but recalled, 456. Pericles chief man at Athens.
460, First year of Egyptian war, which lasts six years, till 455.
457. Battles between Athenians and Corinthians; Athenians de- feated by Lacedcemonians at Tanagra. Longi Muri com-
176 GREEK CHRONOLOGY.
B.C.
menced by the Athenians completed, 456, in which year battle of (Enophyta.
455. Messenians overcome by the Lacedsemonians. Tolmides, the Athenian general, settles the Messenians at Naupactus, and sails round the Peloponnesus, inflicting much injury.
450. Five years' truce between Athenians and Peloponnesians.
449. War with Persia renewed. Cimon dies. Athenians victo- rious at Salamis in Cyprus,
448. Sacred War between the Delphians and Phocians for posses- sion of the oracle and temple. The Lacedaemonians assist the Delphians, the Atlienians the Phocians.
447. The Athenians defeated at Goronea by the Boeotians.
445. Megara and Euboea revolt from Athens. Lacedaemonians invade Attica. Pericles recovers Euboea. Thirty years' truce between Athens and Sparta.
440. Saraos revolts from Athens, but is subdued by Pericles.
439.*ATHENS AT THE HEIGHT OF ITS GLORY.
435. Corinthians and Corcyrasans carry on war ; Corinthians de- feated in a sea-fight.
432. Corcyrasans, assisted by the Athenians, repulse the Corin- thians. Potidsea revolts from Athens.
•iZl.^First year of the Peloponnesian War. The Thebans make an attempt upon Plataea. — 430. Plague rages at Athens. — 429. Potidffia surrenders to the Athenians. Plataea besieged. Pericles dies. — 428. Fourth year of the war — Mitylene besieged. — 427. Mitylene taken by the Athenians, and Les- bos recovered, which had revolted the year before. Plataea surrendered to the Peloponnesians. — 425. Spartans in the island Sphacteria surrendered to Cleon. Demosthenes takes Pylos. — 424. NiciAS ravages the coast of Laconia, and cap- tures Cythera. Brasidas marches into Thrace. Athenians defeated by the Thebans at Delium, at which Socrates and Xenophon fought. — 423. Ninth year of the war — Truce for one year. Thucydides banished in consequence of the loss of Amphipolis. — 422. Brasidas and Cleon fall in bat- tle.— 421. Truce for fifty years between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians. — 419. Alcibiades marches into the Pelo- ponnesus.— 418. Athenians send an army into the Pelopon- nesus, which is defeated at the battle of Mantinea. — 415. The Athenians send an expedition against Syracuse, com- manded by NiciAS, Alcibi.adks, and Lamaciius. Alcibi- ades is recalled, but escapes and takes refuge with the Lacedaemonians. — 414. Second campaign in Sicily ; the Athenians invest Syracuse, to the assistance of which Gy- Lippus, the Lacedaemonian, is sent. — 413. Attica invaded and Decelea fortified by the advice of Alcibiades. Third
GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 177
B.O
campaign in Sicily — Demosthenes, the Athenian general, sent to the assistance of the Athenians. The Athenian army and fleet destroyed. Nicias and Demosthenes surrender and are put to death. — 412. Lesbians and Chians revolt from Athens. Alcibiades sent to Persia to form a treaty. A treaty is formed with Tissaphernes. The Athenians use the 1000 talents deposited in the temple for emergencies. — • 411. Twenty-first year of the war. Democracy abolished at Athens, and the council of the Four Hundred appointed. Alcibiades recalled from exile by the army and by the vote of the Athenian people. Mindarus, the Lacedaemonian admiral, defeated at Cynossema. — 407. Alcibiades returns to Athens. Lysander, the Lacedaemonian general, defeats Antiochus, the lieutenant of Alcibiades, by sea at Notium. Alcibiades banished. — 406. Callicratidas succeeds Ly- sander, and is defeated by the Athenian fleet oflf the Ar- ginussce islands. — 405. Lysander defeats the Athenians off ji^gospotami, and takes or destroys nearly the whole fleet.
A^.* Twenty-eighth and last year of the Peloponnesian War. Athens taken by Lysander, and the government intrusted to the " Thirty Tyrants," who held their power for eight months. Death of Alcibiades.
403. Thrasybulus and his party obtain the Piraeus, whence they carry on war against the " Ten," the successors of the *' Thirty," and obtain possession of Athens in July ; though the contest was not ended till Boedromion (September). Thucydides returns to Athens, having been exiled twenty years.
401. Expedition of Cyrus against his brother Artaxerxes IL : Cyrus is slain in the battle of Cunaxa. The Greek allies commence their return home, usually called the "Return OF the Ten Thousand." First year of the war of Lacedce- mon and Flis, which lasted three years.
399 The Lacedaemonians send Thimbron to assist the Greek cities in Asia. Thimbron superseded by Dercyllidas in the autumn.
396. Agesilaus supersedes Dercyllidas. He winters at Ephesus.
895. Second campaign of Agesilaus. He defeats Tissapher-
NES.
394. Agesilaus recalled from Asia, to march against the Greek States who had declared war against Lacedaemon. He de- feats the allied forces at Coronea. Conon, the Athenian admiral, gained a victory over Pisander, the Spartan, off Cnidus. Xenophon fights against his country at Coronea^ and is banished from Athens.
893. Sedition at Corinth. Pharnabazus and Conon ravage the coasts of the Peloponnesus.
178 GREEK CHRONOLOGY.
B.C.
392. The Lacedseraonians, under Agesilaus, lay waste the Co- rinthian territory.
390. The Persians side with the Lacedgemonians. Conon is im- prisoned, Thuasybulus, the Athenian commander, is de featedand slain at Aspendus. Long walls at Athens re- built.
387. The peace of Antalcidas.
386. Plataea restored.
385. Mantinea destroyed by Agesipolis.
382. First year of the Olynthian War : the Lacedaemonians com- manded by Teleutias. Ppkebidas, the Spartan general, seizes Cadmea, the citadel of Thebes.
379. Fourth and last year of the Olynthian War. The Cadmea recovered.
378. The Athenians form an alliance with Thebes against Sparta. First Expedition of Agesilaus into Bceotia.
376. The Lacedasmonian fleet overcome off Naxos.
374. The Athenians, jealous of the Thebans, conclude a peace with the Spartans. Timotheus, the Athenian, takes Cor- cyra. War with Lacedsemon renewed.
373. Lacedaemonians attempt to take Corcyra, but are defeated.
371. Congress at Sparta, and a general peace concluded, from which the Thebans were excluded. Spartans invade Bceotia, but are defeated by the Thebans under Epaminondas, at the battle of Leuctra.
369. First invasion of the Peloponnesus by Thebans. Second invasion, 368. Third invasion, 366.
365. War between Arcadia and Elis. Battle of Olympia, 364.
362. Fourth invasion of Peloponnesus by Thebans. Battle of Mantinea. Epaminondas slain.
361. A general peace with all except the Spartans. Agesilaus goes to Egypt, but dies in the winter while preparing to re- turn home.
360. War between the Olynthians and Athenians, for the posses- sion of Amphipolis.
359. Accession of Philip to the throne of Macedonia (aet. twenty- three).
357. Chios, Rhodes, and Byzantium revolt from Athens. First year of the Social War. The Phocians seize Delf hi. Com- mencement of the Sacred War.
356. Birth of Alexander. Potidoea taken by Philip.
355. Third and last year of the Social War.
352. Philip enters Thessaly, expels the tyrants from Pherce, and makes himself master of Thessaly. Attempts to pass Ther- mopylce, but is prevented by the Athenians.
348. Olynthian War continued.
347. Olynthus taken, and destroyed by Philip.
GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 179
B.C.
346. Philip brings the Sacred War to a close, after it had lasted
ten years. 343. TiMOLEON completes the conquest of Syracuse, and expels
Dioni/sius, having sailed from Corinth for this purpose in
344. 342. Philip's expedition to Thrace. Demosthenes' Orations. 339. War renewed between Philip and the Athenians. 338. Philip defeats the Athenians and Thebans at the baitk of
Chceronea, and becomes master of Greece. 336.*Murder of Philip, and accession of Alexander (set.
twenty). 335. Thebes revolts, and is destroyed by Alexanber. 334. War commenced against Persia. Alexander defeats the
Persian Satraps at the Granicus. 333. Alexander subdues Lycia, collects his forces at Gor-
dium in the spring, and defeats Darius at Issus in the
autumn. 332. Alexander takes Tyre and Gaza, and marches into Egypt,
and orders Alexandria to be founded. — 331. Marches
through Phoenicia and Syria, crosses the Euphrates, and
defeats Darius at Arhela or Gaugamela. 330. Darius slain by Bessus.
329. Alexander crosses the Oxus and Jaxartes, defeats the Scy- thians, and winters at Bactra. 327. Alexander conquers Sogdiana; marries Roxana, a Bac-
trian princess ; returns to Bactria, and invades India. 326. Alexander returns to Persia, and sends Nearchus with a
fleet to sail from the mouths of the Indus to the Persian
Gulf. 325. Alexander reaches Susa ; and Babylon, 324. 323.*Alexander dies at Babylon in June, after a reign of twelve
years and eight months. The Greek states wage war
against Macedonia {Lamian War). 322. Battle of Cranon, and end of the Lamian War. 316. Antigonus becomes master of Asia. 315. Seleucus, Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus wage war
against Antigonus. 312. Fourth year of the war. —311. A general peace. Roxana
murdered. Seleucus recovers Babylon, .^ra of the Se-
leucidae begins. 308. Ptolemy's expedition to Greece. 306. Ptolemy defeated by Demetrius, son of Antigonus, in a
sea-fight, off Salamis in Cyprus. 303. War in Greece carried on by Demetrius against Cas- sander. 301. Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia: Lysimachus and Seleucus defeat
Antigonus and Demetrius.
180 GREEK CHRONOLOGY.
B.C.
295. Demetrius takes Athens, and, 294, makes an expedition
into Peloponnesus. Becomes king of Macedonia. 294. Civil War in Macedonia, between Antipateb and Alex- ander. 290. Demetrius takes Thebes, and, 289, carries on war against
Pyrbhus. 287. Demetrius driven from Macedonia, and his kingdom divided. 281. Lysimachus defeated and slain at the battle of Corupedion. 280.*Seleucus murdered. Rise of the Achaean league. Pyr-
RHus crosses into Italy. 279. The Gauls, under Brennus, invade Greece. 273. Pyrrhus invades Macedonia, and expels Antigonus. 272. Pyrrhus dies. Antigonus regains Macedonia. 227. Cleomenes, king of Sparta, wages war against the Achaean
League. 221. Antigonus obtains possession of Sparta. 220. Social War commences. — 217. Third and last year of the
war. 211. Treaty between Rome and the ^tolians. — 208. Philip
marches into the Peloponnesus to assist the Achseans. 200. War between Philip and Rome. Philip defeated at the
battle of GynoscephalcB, 197. 192. Antiochus affords assistance to the ^tolians. 167. One thousand of the principal Achceans sent to Rome. Romans
victorious. 147. Macedonia becomes a Roman province. \iQ.* Corinth destroyed by MuMMius. Greece becomes a Roman
province.
EOMAN CHEONOLOGY.
B.C.
753.*Foundation of Rome on the Palatine Mount, 21st of April, according to the era of Varro. Cato gives b. c. 752 ; Poly- bius, B.C. 750 ; Fabius Pictor, B.C. 747.
753-716. Romulus, the first Roman King, reigned thirty-seven years. Senate consists of 100 "Senatores." Wars with FidencR and Veil.
715-672. NuMA PoMPiLius, the second King, reigned forty-three years. Institution of religious ceremonies, and regulation of the year.
672-640. TuLLUS Hostilius, third King of Rome, reigned thirty- two years. Destruction of Alba, and removal of inhabitants to Rome.
640-616. Ancus Martius, fourth King of Rome, reigned twenty- four years. Origin of Plebeians, consisting of conquered Latins settled on the Aventine. Ostia founded.
616-578. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, fifth King, reigned thirty- eight years. Great public works imdertaken. The Senate increased to 300.
578-534, Servius Tullius, sixth Roman King, reigned forty-four years. Rome surrounded by a stone wall. Institution of thirty Plebeian tribes.
534-510. Tarquinius Superbus, seventh and last Roman King. Expulsion of the Tarquins, and establishment of a republic.
509.*Consuls elected. Death of Brutus. First treaty with Car- thage.
608. War with Forsena, limg of Clusium.
601. Institution of Dictatorship and Magister Equitum.
498. Battle of Lake Regillus : Latins defeated.
494. Secession of the Plebs to Mons Sacer.
493. War with the Volscians, and ca;pture of Corioll—^91. Gobi- OLANus goes into exile.
483. War with Veii.
477. Slaughter of the 300 Fabii at the Crefiiera.
471. Lex Publilia passed.
465. War with the iEquians.
16 (1")
182 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY.
B.C.
458. Dictatorsliip of Cincinnatus, who relieves the Koman array
shut ill by the Volscians and jEquians. 454. Three Commissioners sent to Greece, to prepare a code of
laws. 451.*Decemviri appointed. Laws of ten tables promulgated;
increased by two, 450. 449. Death of Virginia. Decemvirs deposed. 445. Lex Canuleia passed, and connubium between Patricians and
Plebeians permitted. 444. Tribuni Militum with Consular power. 443. Institution of Censorship.
440. Famine at Rome. Prsefectus Annonse appointed. 438. Inhabitants of Fidcmce revolt. 426. War with Veil. Fidence destroyed. 421. Number of Quaestors increased from two to four. 407. Truce with Veil (made 425) expires. 406. Pay decreed to the soldiers by the Senate for the first
time. 405. Siege of Vcii. It lasts ten years; ends 396, Veil being taken
by Camillus. 899. A pestilence at Rome. — 398. An embassy sent to consult the
Oracle at Delphi. 391. Camillus banished. Gauls enter Etruria. 390. Rome taken by the Gauls, llomans defeated at the battle of
Allia. Camillus recalled, and appointed Dictator. 367. Licinian laws passed. One of the Consuls to be chosen from
the Plebeians. Camillus conquers the Gauls. 865. Death of Camillus. 861. Invasion of the Gauls. T. Manlius kills a Gaul in single
combat, and is surnamed Torquatus. 356. Pirst Plebeian Dictator elected. — 351. First Plebeian
Censor. 348. Treaty with Carthage renewed. 343. First Samnite War. Valerius defeats the Samnites. 840. Latin War. 337. First Plebeian Prietor. 326. Second Samnite War. 321. Roman army surrendered to the Samnites at the Caudine
Forks, and sent under the yoke. 300. Lex Ogulnia passed, increasing the number of Pontiffs and
Augurs. 298. Third Samnite War. Samnites defeated at Bovianum and at
Volate?rcB, by the Etruscans. 295. Battle of Sentinum; Samnites, Umbrians, Etruscans, and
Gauls defeated. 290. Conclusion of the Samnite War, which had lasted ftfty-three
years.
ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 183
B.C.
281. Pyrrhus arrives in Italy to assist the Taren tines against the Romans.
280, Romans defeated by Pyrrhus near Heracleia ; and, 279, near Asculum.
278. Pyrrhus in Sicily. Romans successful in Southern Italy.
275. Pyrrhus totally defeated near Beneventum.
272. War in Southern Italy concluded,
264.*2%e First Punic War. Cons. Claudius crosses over into Si- cily and defeats the Carthaginians and Syracusans.
262. Agrigentum taken after a siege of seven months.
260. Fifth year of the First Punic War. Duinus, the Consul, gains a naval victory over the Carthaginians.
256. The Romans victorious in Africa.
255. Regulus, in Africa, takes Tunis and overcomes the Cartha- ginians^ but is afterwards defeated and taken prisoner.
250. Fifteenth year of the war. — Great victory of Metellus at Panormus. Regulus sent to Rome to solicit peace.
247. Hamilcar appointed to the command of the Carthaginians. Hannibal born.
241. Twenty -fourth and last year of the First Punic War. — Naval victory of C. Lutatius, off the -Agates. Peace made Avith the Carthaginians. Sicily becomes a Roman province.
229. Death of Hamilcar in Spain. He is succeeded by Has-
DRUBAL.
225. War with the Gauls. Fourth and last year of the war, 222. 219. Hannibal takes Saguntum, and winters at Carthago Nova. 2\?).*Sccond Punic War. — Hannibal reaches Italy from Spain in
five months. He defeats the Romans at the battles of the
Ticinus and the Trcbia. Scipio carries on the war in
Spain. 217. Hannibal defeats Flaminius at the battle of the Trasymene
Lake, and marches into Apulia. 216. Romans defeated at the battle of Canned. 215. Marcellus overcomes Hannibal near Nola. The Scipios
successful in Spain. 212. Seventh year of the war. — Hannibal takes Tarentum, and
Marcellus takes Syracuse. The two Scipios defeated in
Spain. 208. The two consuls are defeated by Hannibal near Venusia.
Hasdbubal crosses the Pyrenees and winters in Gaul. 207. Hasdrubal marches into Italy, is defeated on the Metaurus^
and slain. 206. Scipio becomes master of Spain. — 204. Hannibal worsted
near Croion. Scipio crosses over into Africa. 203. Carthaginians defeated, Syphax taken prisoner. Hannibal
leaves Italy for Africa. 202 Scipio defeats Hannibal at the decisive battle ofZama.
184 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY.
B C.
201,* Eighteenth and last year of the Second Funic War. Peace with Carthage.
200. War renewed with Philip of Macedon,
197. Philip defeated by Flaminius at the battle of CynoscephalcCf and peace concluded.
] 96. Flaminius proclaims the independence of Greece.
191. War with Antiochus, who is defeated at ThermopylcB.
190. L. Scipio, the consul, crosses into Asia and defeats Antio- CHUS at the battle of Magnesia.
183. Death of Hannibal and of Scipio Africanus (exact date not settled).
171. War with Perseus.
168. Fourth and last year of the war. Perseus defeated by ^MiLirs Paulus at the battle of Pydna,
149. Third Punic War. — The Consuls land in Africa.
lA&.*FouTth and last year of the Third Punic War. — Varthage de- stroyed by Scipio.
143. Numantine War commenced. — 140, 138 and 137. Numantinea successful.
133. Numantia taken and destroyed \>j Scipio.
129. Death of Scipio Africanus (set. 56). Death of C. Grac- chus, 121.
111. Jugurthine War. — 106. Sixth and last year, Jugurtha cap tured, Marius commander.
102. Battle of Aquce Seztice. — Marius defeats the Tlewfowea. Ser- vile War arises in Sicily.
101. Marius and Catulus, Pro-con., defeat the Cimbri at Campi Raudii. 90. Marsic or Social War. — 89. Romans successful, Asculum
taken. S8.*End of the Marsic War. Sulla appointed to command the army against Mithridates, which occasions the civil war of Marius and Sulla. Sulla marches upon Rome, pro- scribes Marius and his party. 87. Sulla crosses into Greece to conduct the war. Marius and CiNNA, the Consul, enter Rome and murder their oppo- nents. 86. Marius dies (ffit. seventy). War continued against Mith- ridates. Archelaus defeated in Boeotia. 84. Mithridates and Sulla conclude a peace. 83. Sulla returns to Italy and continues the civil war against
the party of Marius. The Capitol burnt. 82. Sulla, victorious, is appointed Dictator. Prseneste cap- tured. 78. Death of Sulla (set. sixty).
75. P. Servilius Vatia, the Pro-consul (sent against the Pirates on the S. coast of Asia Minor, 78), conquers the Isaurians.
ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 185
B.C.
'^4. War with Mithridates renewed. Lucullus appointed general.
73. MiTHRiDATES defeated by Lucullus, near Cyzicus. Com- mencement of the war in Italy against the Gladiators under Spartacus.
71. Mithridatic War continued. Mithridates flees into Armenia, to Tigranes. Spartacus, the leader of the Gladiators, de- feated.
69. Lucullus invades Armenia, and defeats Tigranes.
6G. Mithridatic War intrusted to Cn. Pompeius.
65. Catiline's first conspiracy.
63. Death of Mithridates. Catiline's second conspiracy disco- vered and crushed by Cicero the Consul.
62. Catiline defeated and slain.
61. Pompeius, having returned to Italy, triumphs.
60. C. J, C^SAR victorious in Spain. C^sar, Pompeius, and Crassus establish the first Triumvirate.
58. C^sar undertakes his first campaign in Gaul. Defeats the Belgse, 57 ; crosses the Rhine, and invades Britain, 55 ; second expedition into Britain, 54.
54. Crassus marches against the Parthians. — 53. Defeat and death of Crassus.
51. C^SAR subjugates Gaul, his ninth campaign.
49. Commencement of the Civil War between Pompeius and Cjesar.
48. CiESAR lands in Greece, and defeats Pompeius at the battle of Pharsalm. Pompeius murdered before Alexandria (set. 58). Alexandrine War.
47. C^SAR, Dictator, concludes the Alexandrine War ; marches into Pontus, and conquers Pharnaces.
46. C^SAR defeats the partisans of Pompeius at the battle of Thapsus. He reforms the Calendar.
45. Battle of Munda in Spain. CiESAR defeats the sons of Pom- peius, and is made Consul for ten years, and Dictator for life.
44. C^SAR assassinated, on the 15th of March (aet. fifty-six). Civil War of Mutlna against Antony.
43. Second Triumvirate formed by Octavianus, Antonius, and Lepidus.
42. War in Greece. Battle of Philippi, and death of Cassius. Second battle of Fhilippi, and death of Brutus.
36. Defeat of Sex. Pompeius. Lepidus ceases to be a Triumvir.
34. Dalmatians defeated.
33, A rupture takes place between Octavianus and Antonius, and both prepare for war.
81. Antonius defeated at the battle of Actium, 2d of Sept.
30.*Death of Antonius (set. fifty-one) and Cleopatra. Egypt be- comes a Roman province. Octavianus soltj ruler of thb 16*
186 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY.
B.C.
Roman Empire. He returns to Rome from the East, and celebrates three triumphs, Dalmatian, Actian, Alexandrine.
27. OcTAViANUs takes the title of Augustus, and accepts the government for ten years.
25. The Temple of Janus shut a second time.
23. Death of Marcellus.
20. Ambassadors sent to Rome from India.
12. Death of AoRiPPA.
10. Augustus returns to Rome from Gaul, -vrith Drusus and Ti- berius. 9. Drusus sent against the Germans. Dies.
A.D.
4. Tiberius adopted by Augustus, and sent to carry on war against the Germans.
12. Tiberius returns to Rome from Germany, and triumphs.
14. Census taken, the citizens are 4,197,000. Augustus dies at Nola in Campania (set. seventy-six), and is succeeded by Ti- berius (set. fifty-six).
16. Gebmanicus continues the war in Germany, and triumphs, 17. Returns to Rome.
19. Germanicus visits Egypt, and returns to Syria. Dies (aet. thirty-four). The Jews are banished from Italy.
23. Death of Drusus, poisoned by Sejanus.
31. Fall and execution of Sejanus.
33. Agrippina and her son Drusus are put to death.
37. Death of Tiberius (set. seventy-eight), having reigned twenty- three years. Caligula succeeds (aet. twenty-five).
39. Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee, deposed, and succeeded by Agrippa.
40. Caligula in Gaul. His expedition to the ocean. He returns to Rome.
41. Caligula slain (get. twenty-nine). Claudius succeeds (set. fifty). Germans defeated by Galba.
43. Expedition of Claudius into Britain. Returns to Rome, and
triumphs, 44, 49. Claudius (his wife Messalina having been put to death in 48)
marries Agrippina. 54. Claudius poisoned (set. sixty-three) ; reigned fourteen years.
Nero succeeds (set. seventeen). 59. Agrippina, the mother of Nero, is murdered by his order.
61. Insurrection in Britain under Boadicea.
62. Nero divorces Octavia, and marries Popp^a Sabina, tho wife of Otho.
64. Great fire at Rome. First persecution of the Christians.
65. Piso's conspiracy discovered and suppressed.
66. Nero goes to Greece. The Jewish war begins.
67. Nero in Greece. Vespasian conducts the Jewish War.
ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 187
A.D.
68. Nero kills himself (set. thirty). Galba succeeds.
69. Galea slain, Jan. 15 (set. seventy-three). Otho succeeds, Jan. 15, and died April 16 (a5t. thirty-six). Vitellius pro- claimed at Cologne, Jan. 2 ; reigned till his death, Dec. 22 (set. fifty-four). Vespasian (set. sixty) proclaimed at Alex- andria, July 1. On the death of Galba, the Civil War be- tween Otho and Vitellius commenced. The troops of Otho defeated at the battle of Bedriacum ; the generals of Vespa- sian meanwhile invade Italy, take Cremona, and march upon Rome. The Capitol burnt. Vitellius slain, 22d of Dec.
70.*Vespasian proceeds to Italy, leaving Titus his son to carry on the Jewish war. Jerusalem taken, after a siege of five months.
71. Triumph of Vespasian and Titus. Temple of Janus closed.
78. Agricola in Britain.
79. Death of Vespasian, June 23 (set. sixty-nine). Titus suc- ceeds (set. thirty-eight). Second campaign of Agricola in Britain. Eruption of Vesuvius.
80. Great fire at Rome. Colosseum completed. Third cam- paign of Agricola.
81. Death of Titus, Sept. 13 (set. forty). Domitian succeeds (set. thirty). Fourth campaign of Agricola in Britain. Fifth campaign, 82 ; sixth, 83 ; seventh, 84. Agricola re- called to Rome, 85.
96. Domitian slain, Sept. 18 (set. forty-four). Nerva Emperor
(set. sixty-three) ; died Jan. 25, 98 (set. sixty-five). 98. Trajan (set. forty-one) ; died Aug. 8, 117 (set. sixty), having reigned nineteen years.
117. Hadrian (set. forty-two; died July 10, 138 (set. sixty-two), having reigned twenty-one years.
138. Antonius Pius (set. fifty-one); died Mar. 7, 161 (set. seventy-four), having reigned twenty-three years.
161. M. AuRELius (set. thirty-nine) ; died Mar. 17, 180 (set. fifty- eight), having reigned nineteen years.
180. CoMMODUS (set. nineteen); slain Dec. 31, 193 (set. thirty- one), having reigned thirteen years.
193. Pertinax (set. sixty-six); slain Mar. 28, 193, having reigned three months. Julianus (set. fifty-six) ; reigned from Mar. 28 to June 1. Septimus Severus (set. forty-six); died Feb. 4, 211, at Eboracum, York, (set. sixty-four), having reigned eighteen years.
T. 7 'T 7 T
GREEK INDEX
A.
ayKvpa, 113. ayopa(, 161. dywvEj, 108. aSvTov, 103. a^wrta^ 105. a^^vato, 107. 'A0^rJ7, 69. 'AW;7f, 72. aJ;C/«^> 112-
OKdvTlOVf 112.
cLKpaTicrixa, 114. aKp6uo\is, 160. aX/ia, 108. iXr^pff, 108. afKpiKTvovia, 102. avdppvaii, 106. avappvtt), 104. dvStoT^fna, 106.
*AvOiCTTipi<iv, 165.
avrXoj, 113. a^/v;;, 112. "" AirapKTias, 172. aTzap^rj, 104. •iTraroupta, 106. 'AiTT^Xtwrf/j, 172. 'ApyEffT^J, 172. apSdviov, 115. dpfioirayarai, 101. 'Api??, 68. apr)Trjpf.s, 103. upiaroVf 114. "Aprepii, 70.
ap^uv, 98. 'A(7*cA^n-(off, 70. dffn/j, 111. dri^^a, 103. a{]\aia, 116. aiA<5f, 108. ^AtppoSirri, 70.
B.
/JaffcXeuf, 98, 99. j8fX»/, 112. BorjSpopitiv, 165. Boptaj, 172. /JouXEur^ptov, 161. i3ouX;J, 100.
lipoxos, 103. /Jw/irff, 103.
r.
ra//>;Xtwv, 165. yipovTCi, 101. ytpovaia, 101., FttTa, 71.
n, 71.
ypapfiuTcvi, 99.
A.
ia(pvfi(p6pta, 106. ^EtXjvdv, 114. Jtjrrvov, 114. ^£X0tV, 114. Scapoi, 103. S^papxoi, 99.
Avp^fnpt 69.
^5//ot, 99.
StaiTr/Tai, 101. ^lauXoj, 108. ^uV-TrXorj, 114, ^jovuo-ja, 106. Ai6vv(TOS, 71. bioKog, 108. SoKipaaia, 101. J(5X«;t"f> 108. ^d/ios, 103. hdp-Rtia, 106. (^dpffov, 114. ^(Jpu, 112. ^ouXet'a, 103. ^ovXoi, 98. ^pdfiof, 108.
E. cyx°f> 112.
lyjcuxXov, 115. iSwXia, 113. fl'Xwrty, 98. 'E.KaTopPaitav, 165b {Kardppr}, 104. tKarovTapxia, 112. iKK\T]<Tia, 100. *EXa077;3oXiwv, 165* fXcvaivia, 106. IpjSoXov, 113. 2v5£Ka, 99. i-ifidTai, 114. (jTiffrdrrig, 100. iiriaroXcvi, 114. nru)vvpoif 98.
(189)
190
Iptrat, 114. il>eTiioi, 113. 'Ep[JtTii, 69. "Epw?, 71. laOrji, 115. 'Ecrria, 69. £i;0i5ri7, 101. Ef'fitvidcs, 71. 'Er^/irtat, 172. E^pof, 172. f<pe.<TTpls, 115. f^f'rat, 102. ttpoptiov, 100. £(popoi, 99, 'Ewj, 71.
Z.
Z£uf, 68. Zi(pvpos, 172. ^tya, 113. ^uytraj, 113.
H. {]\ialaf 101. jl\ia(TTaif 101. iiviox^oi, 111. "Hpa, 69. 'Hp;?, 69. ^p(jja, 116. "H^atoTOf, 68.
e.
OaXaiilraif 113. Od^afioff 113. 0ttv«rof, 103. eapyjyXtwv, 165. Biarpov, 116. BconpSTToi, 104. OeaiioOiTai, 98, 99. Ocffixocpdpia, 107. dncravpds, 103. Opavtrat, 113. Bpavoi, 113.
GREEK INDEX.
Bv/iiXri, 116. 0uocr<c<5o«, 103. 0i;pf<5j, 112. Gwpaf, 111.
I. J^ptij, 103. 'leptiov, 104.
'llltXTLOV, 115. inirap^oi, 112. JffTTcTj, 111, 112. IffTJOV, 113. JffTOf, 113.
K.
Kat>c«'af, 172. KaXddiov, 107. KaraffTpwjiaTa, 113. KcKprnniay 160. KfpaTat, 113. KcpafitiKlig, 160. Kfpora, 112, 113. Kfpva, 104. KioveSt 116. «X(Vat, 114, 115. KvrifiiSeSf 111. Kddopvoi, 115. acojAov, 117. KOVToi, 113. #cd/3DJ, 111. KOVpCWTlS, 106.
Kpdvoi, 111. KpTjnlScSf 115. Kp(5vof, 75. KV0£pv^Tris, 114. Kvvtrj, 111. icu^wv, 103. irurat, 113.
A.
XiOoiSoXla, 103. A«'^^, 172.
XoyfToi', 116. Ao«/3ai, 104. Xd^oj, 111. A(;;^ot, 112. X<5;^;oj, 112.
i/iatiiaKTTjptdVf 165. jxavTUs, 104. /itXiroiirra, 115. fisadKotXa, 113. Mfrayftrvtwv, 165^
lifTOlKOl, 98. HET(i>TTOV, 113.
/i^/3a, 104. H6pai, 112. Mouvu;!^<c5v, 165. ixvar^pia, 106.
N. vaiSia, 116. vadf, 103. va«5ap;:^of, 114. vaurai, 114. vonoOiirat, 99. Ndrof, 172. vovjirjvia, 166.
|«>of, 103, 112.
o.
33oXds, 115. 'O^uffffcuff, 94. o?a^, 113. o<i/b)i/o7rdXoi, 104. dtaroi, 112. oluiviarai, 104. 6X*fa(5£?, 113. 8X(co(, 114. oixcpaXos, 111. ^rtipoTTdXoj, 104. imaddio/jLOs, 103.
GREEK INDEX.
191
htrXirai, 111. hrtXirris, 108. dp^rjaTpa, 116, daTpaKia/ios, 102. ovXo^vraif 104. ovpd, 112.
n.
nayKpuTioVf 109. rdXv, 109. nuAXus, 69. navaOfivaia, 107. irt^oi, 111. TrAavot, 104. JTEXf/a^ff, 105.
■KtXtKVS, 112. irfXraffrat, 111, 112.
vi\Tn, 111, 112. ■mfiTtdi, 112. TtivradXov, 108. irEVTrjKdvropoi, 113. trepiKeipaXaiaf 111. TtcpioiKOi, 98. •trcpiiiXovs, 114. T^yJdXiov, 113. iridoiyia, 106. jrlXoi, 115. TrXarai, 113. :r\tvpai, 113. rXoTa, 113. TTVii^, 161. rd<5«, 113. voiKiXr], 161. noXifiapxoSf 98, 112L. ffoXjrat, 98. no(Tf£^fc5v, 165. noo'££^wv, 68. rpd^o^of, 103. vpdthpoi, 100. rf.d0£(rts, 115. itpdvaoi, 103. TrpoTTiiXata, 160. irpoffK^viov, 116. irpvyivrif 113.
iTpvTaveia, 100. Trpurartlor, 161. TrpuraVfif, 100. Trpiipa, 113. IIuavEi/'taiv, 165. TTvynij, 108. TTuXa/a, 101. s-?p, 103.
S. ffai/if, 103. crjKdSf 103. arjfiaTa, 104. UKrjvfl, 116. 'SKippo^opuov, 165. 2/ftpwi', 172. ffdXoj, 108. SrapTiaT-ai, 98, airetpVf 113. (rn-ov6a«, 104. ardStov, 108. (rraupdff, 103. arJjXai, 116. CT^Xri, 103. ariynaTaf 103. CToai, 161. oT(5Xap;\;of, 114. aroXfi, 115. arparriyoi, 112. orpar^ydf, 114. arparid, 112. OTf)oyyi;Xai, 113. a(j>ev56vr], 112. G^oivia, 113.
T.
Ta^lapxoi, 112. ra^f, 112. TtlXtVOS, 103. Tipara, 104. TtaaapaKovra, 102. To^evftara, 112. Td|ov, 112. TOTreta, 113.
rpdnc^ai, 116. Tpd<pT]^, 113. rpipuyv, 115. rpi^papxos, 114. Tpira, 116. rpdniSf 113. rpoTtoif 113. Tpo')(6i, 103, TtJ;^^, 71.
Y.
viripai, 113. vTToPoXeis, 117. v-Kol^paTa, 115.
<paiv6Xris, 115. ^aXayl, 112. ^dpnuKtv, 103. (pdpos, 115. ^opTijyoi, 113, ^uy;?, 103. ^uXai, 102. ^vAap;!^oj, 99, 112.
X.
^eipoTovia, 100. ^^jrwi/, 115. "^iTmviov, 115. ^^Xaiva, 115. ;;^Xa//uf, 115. ;^oaj, 104, 116. ;^<5£f, 106. Xotvt^, 103.
Xopo-yos, 117. Xyrpoi, 106.
ip/l(PiaiJia, 100. ■vl/^^ot, 100. ;//tXo/, 111.
n.
li^EJOV, 161.
I ,< : > :t
INDEX
A.
Abacns, 142. Absyrtus, 86. Academia, 161. Academic Sect, 159. Acarnania, 38. Accensi, 122. Acestes, 95. Achaia, 40. Acheron, 75. Achilles, 91. Actuariae, 138. Acropolis, 160. Admetus, 75. Adonis, 76. Adrastus, 87. ^acus, 76. ^dium, 140. iEdiles, 122.
Curules, 122.
Cereales, 122.
iEetes, 85. ^geon, 77. ^gyptus, 64, 65. Aello, 79. ^neas, 95. .aEolia, 49. JEolus, 70. -ffiolian league, 52. ^rarium, 120. Machines, 14S. ^schylus, 144. -^sculapius, 70. ^soD, 85.
/Esop, 149. ^tolia, 38. Africa, 63.
Propria, QQ.
Africus, 172. Agamemnon, 89, 92. Agenor, 86. Agger, 135. Aglaia, 72. Agora, 144. Ajax, 92. Albania, 57. Alcaeus, 129. Alcestis, 76. Alcyone, 82. Alcman, 130^ Alecto, 71. Alexander, 89, 95. Alveolus, 126. Alveus, 126. Amazones, 76. Ammon, 70. Amor, 71. Amphiaraus, 87. Amphitrite, 70. Amphorae, 140. Anacreon, 129. Anaxandrides, 129. Anchises, 95. Ancile, 129. Andabatae, 132. Andromache, 95. Andronicus (Livius), 154.
Augustus Clavus, 119. Annuli, 139. Antenor, 95. Antigone, 87. Antilochus, 92. Antiphanes, 129. Apis, 70.
Apodyterium, 141. Apollo, 69. Apparitores, 122. Apulia, 29. Aqueducts, 164. Aquilo, 172. Aquitani, 17. Aquitania, 18. Arabia, 55. Araros, 145. Arcadia, 42. Arches, Triumphal,
164. Archimedes, 149. Arena, 131. Argo, 85. Argolis, 41. Argonautae, 85. Argus, 80, 85. Aria, 60. Ariadne, 76. Arianus, 60. Aries, 136. Aristophanes, 145. Aristotle, 151. Armenia, 67.
Min»r, 61«
(192)
Arx, 163. Asia, 46.
Minor, 47.
(Seven Churches
of), 52. Assaracus, 88. Assyria, 59. Astraea, 70. Atabulus, 172. Athamas, 85. Athena, 69. Atlas, 76. Atrium, 140. Atropos, 75, Attica, 40. Atticus, 157. Augures, 127. Augurium, 127. Aulaea, 116. Aurora, 71. Auspices, 127. Auspicium, 127. Ausonia, 23. Auster, 172. Automedon, 92. Auxilia, 135.
B.
Babylonia, 58. Bacchus, 71. Bacchylides, 146. Bactria, 60. Bactriana, 60. Baetica, 16. Ballista, 136. Balneae, 141. Balneator, 141. Basilicae, 163. Batansea, 55. Belgae, 17. Bellerophon, 76. Bellona, 71.
17
INDEX.
Bion, 146. Bithynia, 48. Boeotia, 39. Bona1)ea, 130. Boreas, 172. Briareus, 77. Briseis, 90. Britannia, 44. Bruttium, 30. Buccina, 135.
C. Cadmea, 86. Cadmus, 86. Caesar, 155. Caesars,the Twelre,169, Calcei, 139. Calceus lunatus, 120. Calchas, 89, 92. Caldarium, 141. Calends, 167. Caliga3, 139. Calliope, 73. Calypso, 77. Campania, 29. Campi, 162. Campus Martius, 162. Cappadocia, 51. Capitolium, 163. Capaneus, 87. Caria, 50. Carina, 113. Carmania, 61. Carni, 26. Cassandra, 89, 95. Castor, 77. Castra, 136. Catapulta, 136. Cato, 158. Catullus, 153. Catervarii, 132. Caurus, 172.
193
Cavea, 117, 132. Celaeno, 79, 82. Celsus, 158. Celta9, 17. Censores, 123. Centauri, 77. Centuriae, 134. Centuriones, 135. Ceramicus, 160. Cerberus, 77. Ceres, 69. Cestus, 108. Chaldaea, 58. Charon, 77. Chimasra, 76. Chiron, 77. Chlamys, 135. Chryseis, 90. Chryses, 90. Cicero, 156, 157. Cilicia, 50. Cingulum, 138. Circe, 77. Cirei, 163. Circus, 163. Cistae, 121. Clepsydrae, 167. Clio, 73. Clipeus, 134. Clotho, 75. Cocytus, 77. Cognomen, 143. Coelus, 75. Coena, 139. Cohortes, 134. Colchis, 56. Columella, 158. Columns, 164. Colyttus, 160. Comitia, 121.
— Curiata, 121.
Centuriata, 121.
194
INDEX,
Comitia Tribute, 122. Comissatio, 140. Compluvium, 140. Conscription, 133. Consules, 123. Co-optetio, 128. Cornu, 135. Coroebus, 96. Corinthia, 42. Corona Civica, 136. Castrensis,
137.
Muralis, 137.
Obsidionalis,
137.
Graminea, 137.
Oleagina, 137.
Corvi, 138. Cothurni, 117, 139. Crater, 140. Crates, 145. Cratinus, 145. Creon, 88. Cueullus, 139. Cunei, 132. Cuneus, 136. Cupido, 71. Curatores, 123. Curiae (Senate-houses),
164. Curiae, 118. Curio, 118. Curiones, 128. Cursus, 131. Curtius, 156. Cybgle, 83. Cyclades, 43. Cyclopes, 78. Cynic Sect, 159. Cynosarges, 161. Cyprus, 62. Cyrenaic Sect, 159.
D.
Dacia, 32. D^dalus, 78. Damnum, 126. Danaides, 84. Daphne, 78. Dardanus, 88. Decemviri, 128. Decretum, 120. Decuriae, 134. Deiphobus, 88, 96. Delta, 64. Demosthenes, 148. Deucalion, 78. Diana, 70. Dictator, 124. Dies Fasti, 172.
Festi, 130.
Nefasti, 172.
Profesti, 130.
Dike, 72.
Diodorus (Sieulus),
147. Diomedes, 92. Dionysius, 147. Dionysus, 71. Theatre of,
161. Diphilus, 145. Dirse, 71. Dis, 72. Discessio, 120. Dithyrambs, 144. Dormitoria, 141. Dorian (States), 51. Doris, 38, 50. Dryades, 73.
E.
Eleatic School, 159. Electra, 82, 93.
Eliac School, 159. Elis, 40. Elysium, 78. Emeriti, 133. Endymion, 78. Ennius, 152. Ensis, 135. Epaphus, 80. Epeus, 91. Epicharmus, 145. Epicurean Sect, 159, Epicurus, 151. Epirus, 38. Equites, 118, 133. Erato, 73. Erebus, 78. Erechtheum, 160. Eretriac School, 159. Ericthonius, 88. Eristic School, 159. Essedarii, 132. Eteocles, 87. Etruria, 26. Eubulus, 145. Euclid, 149. Eumenides, 71. Eunomia, 72. Euphrosyne, 72. Eupolis, 145. Euripides, 145. Europe, 13. Europa, 78, 86. Eurus, 172. Euryale, 79. Eurydice, 81. Eurysaces, 92. Eurystheus, 79. Eurytion, 82. Euterpe, 73. Eutropius, 156. Evocati, 134. Extispices, 128.
INDEX.
195
p.
Familia, 143. Fates, 171. Fauni, 71. Favonias, 172. Fenestras, 141. Ferentarii, 134. Feriae, 130. Feretrum, 142. Fetiales, 128. Flaccus (Valerius), 152. Flamines, 128. Flora, 71. Florus, 156. Follis, 141. Fora, 162. Fores, 140. Fortuna, 71. Forum, 162. Fossa, 135. Fratres Arvales, 129. Frigidarium, 141. Fritillus, 142. Funditores, 134. Furise, 71, 171.
G. Gaea, 71. Galatia, 51. Galea, 134. Galen, 148. Galerus, 139. Galilee, 54. Gain, 129. Gallia, 17.
Belgica, 19.
Cisalpina, 25.
Togata, 25.
Cispadana, 25.
Transpadana, 26.
Ganymede, 72. Ge, 71.
Gedrosia, 61. Gellius (Aulus), 158. Genius, 71. Gentes, 143. Germania, 20. Gigantes, 79. Gladiatorii, 131. Gladius, 135. Glaucus, 96. Globus, 136. Gorgones, 79. Graecia, 34. Gratiae, 72, 170. Gymnicum (Certamen) 131.
H. Hades, 72. Haemon, 88. Hamadryades, 73. Harpagones, 138. Harpyiae, 79. Haruspices, 128. Hastas, 135. Hastati, 134, 136. Heaven, 75. Hebe, 72. Hecate, 72. Hecaton Cheires, 84. Hector, 96. Hecuba, 88, 96. Helena, 89, 93. Helenus, 91, 96. Helios, 72. Hell (rivers of), 171.
(judges of), 171.
Hellas, 34. Helle, 85. Heptanomis, 64. HeraclidaB, 79. Heraclitean Sect, 159. Hercules, 79.
Hercules (labours of),
170. Herodotus, 146. Hesiod, 144. Hesione, 88. Hesperia, 23. Hesperides, 79. Hipparchus, 165. Hippocrates, 148. Hippodamia, 82. Hippolyte, 80. Hippomedon, 87. Hispania, 15. ,Histria, 26. Homer, 144. Horace, 153. Horse, 72, 171. Hostia, 130. Hyades, 80. Hygea, 72. Hygiea, 72. Hymen, 72. Hymenseus, 72. Hyperion, 80. Hypermnestra, 84, Hypocaustra, 141. Hyrcania, 60.
I.
lapetus, 80. lapyx, 172. Iberia, 56. Ides, 167. Idomeneus, 93. Ignobiles, 119. Ignominia, 126. Illyricum, 22. Illyris Groeca, 33. Bus, 88. Imagines, 142. Imperator, 137. Impluvium, 141.
196
INDEX
India, 62. Infamia, 126. Infulas, 130. Intercessio, 125. lo, 80. Ionia, 49.
Ionian (States), 51. Iphigenia, 90. Irene, 72. Iris, 72. Isaeus, 148. Isauria, 50. Isis, 72. Ismene, 87. Isocrates, 147. Italia, 23. lulus, 95. Xxion, 80, 83.
J.
Janua, 140. Janus, 72. Jason, 80, 85. Jentaculum, 139. Jocasta, 87. Judaea, 53, 54. Judicia, 126. JuBO, 69. Jupiter, 68. Jus Imaginum, 119. Justin, 156. Juvenal, 154. Juventas, 72.
L.
Labdacus, 86. Laoema, 139. Lachesis, 75. Laconia, 41. Lacunaria, 141. Lsena, 139. Lalus, 86.
Lanista, 131. Laocoon, 91. Laodamas, 88. Laodamia, 97. Laodice, 89, 93. Laomedon, 88. Lapithae, 80. Laquearia, 141. Lares, 73. Latium, 28. Latona, 80. Latrunculi, 142. Latus clavus, 120. Laudatio, 142. Latinus, 95. Lavinia, 95. Lecti, 139. Lectica, 142. Leda, 80. Legati, 135. Legio, 134, 136. Lethe, 80. Libatio, 104. Libitinarii, 142. Libya, 66. Lictores, 122. Liguria, 25. Limen, 140. Limnae, 160. Lituus, 128, 135. Livy, 155. Locris, 38. Longinus, 150. Lorica, 134. Lucan, 152. Lucania, 30. Luceres, 118. Lucian, 150. Lucretius, 154. Ludi Circenses, 131. Ludus Trojse, 131. Lugdunensis, 18.
Luna, 73. Lupercalia, 130* Luperci, 129. Lusitania, 16. Lustratio, 130. Lycaonia, 51. Lyceum, 161. Lycia, 50. Lycomedes, 91. Lydia, 49. Lysias, 147.
M.
Macedonia, 32. Machaon, 93. Maeonia, 49. Magister Equitum, 124 Maia, 80, 82. Manes, 73. Manipuli, 134. Manumissio, 119. Manua (Ferreae), 138. Mars, 68.
Gradivus, 129.
Martial, 155. Matronalia, 130. Mauritania, 67. Maximus (Valerius),
156. Medea, 81, 86. Media, 59. Medusa, 79. Megaera, 71. Megalesia, 130. Megaric School, 169. Megaris, 40. Melite, 160. Melpomene, 73. Memnon, 96. Menoetius, 85, 93. Menander, 145. MSnglaus. 89. 93.
INDEX.
197
Mensa, 140. Mercurlus, 69. Meriones, 93. Merope, 82, 87. Mesopotamia, 67. Messenia, 41. Meton, 165. Mezentius, 95. Minerva, 69. Minos, 81. Mirmillones, 132. Mnemosyne, 84. Moesia, 31. Moirae, 75. Mola salsa, 130. Momus, 73. Mopsus, 85. Morpheus, 73. Mors, 126. Moschus, 146. Mulcta, 126. Musae, 73, 170. Mysia, 49.
N. Naiades, 73. Napaeae, 73. Narbonensis, 17. Narcissus, 81. Nations (Seven Hea- then), 55. Naumachia, 131. Naves Longae, 138.
Praetoria, 138.
Nemesis, 73. Neoptolemus, 91, 93. Nephele, 85. Nepos (Cornelius), 155, Neptune, 68. Nereides, 73. Nereus, 73. Nestor, 93.
17*
Niobe, 81. Nobiles, 119. Nomen, 143. Nones, 167. Noricum, 21. Novendiale, 143. Numidia, 67. Nundinae, 172. Nymphae, 73.
0.
Oceanldes, 73. Oceanus, 74. Ocreae, 134. Ocypete, 79. Odeum, 161. (Edipus, 86. CEnotria, 23. Oileus, 85, 92. Onerariae, 138. Ops, 83. Optimates, 119. Optiones, 135. Orbis, 136. Orchestra, 116, 132. Orcus, 72. Oreades, 73. Orestes, 90. Orion, 81. Orpheus, 81. Osiris, 74. Ostium, 140. Ovatio, 137. Ovid, 153. Ovile, 121.
P.
. Paenula, 139. Palaestina, 53. Pales, 74. Palilia, 130. Palla, 139.
Palladium, 88, 91. Paludamentum, 135. Pamphylia, 50. Pan, 74.
Pancratium, 109. Pandarus, 96. Pandora, 81. Pandroseum, 160. Pannonia, 22. Pantheon, 161. Pantheum, 163. Paphlagonia, 49. Parcae, 75, 171. Parietes, 141. Parilia, 130. Paris, 88, 96. Parma, 135. Parthenon, 160. Parthenopaaus, 87. Parthia, 60. Pater Patratus, 128. Patres, 119.
Minorum Gen-
tium, 120.
Majorum Gen-
tium, 120. Conscripti, 120.
Patricii, 118. Patroclus, 90, 93. Pausanias, 149. Pax, 74. Pegasus, 81. Peleus, 89. Pelops, 92. Penates, 74. Penelope, 94. Pentathlon, 131. Peraea, 55. Periboea, 87. Pericles, 147. Peripatetic Sect, 159. Peristylium, 141.
198
INDEX.
Persephone, 74. Perseus, 82. Persia, 60. Persius, 154. Personee, 117, 132. Phaedrus, 155. Phaethon, 82. Philemon, 145. Philoctetes, 91, 93. Phlegethon, 82. Phocis, 39. Phoebe, 74. Phoebus, 74. Phoenicia,. 53. Phoenix, 93. Phorcys, 83. Phormus, 145. Phrixus, 85. Phrygia, 51. Picenum, 27. Pierides, 82. Pila, 135, 141. Pilani, 134. Pileus, 127, 139. Pindar, 146. Pirithous, 82, 85. Pisidia, 50. Plato, 151. Plautus, 154. Plebei, 118. Pliny, 157.
(Younger), 157.
Plutarch, 147. Pluto, 72, 74. Plutus, 74. Pnyx, 160, 161. Pocula, 140. Poecile, 161. Podarces, 88. Polites, 89.
Pollicem premere, 132, vertere, 132
Pollux, 82. Polybius, 147. Polybus, 87. Polydorus, 86, 89, 96. Polyhymnia, 73. Polymnestor, 96. Polynices, 87. Polyphemus, 82, 94. Polyxena, 89, 96. Pomona, 74. Pontifex Maximus,
127. Pontifices, 127. Pontus, 49. Popa, 130. Populares, 119. Porticoes, 161, 163. Posidippus, 145. Postes, 140. Potameides, 73. Praecones, 122. Praefectus, 124, 135.
classii, 138.
Praeficas, 142. Praelusio, 131. Prsenomen, 143. Praetor, 124.
Peregrinus, 124. Rhea, 83.
Urbanus, 124. Rhesus, 90.
Proserpina, 74. Proteus, 75. Prytaneum, 161. Psyche, 82. Pulpitum, 116. Puppis, 113. Pyra, 142. Pyrrhus, 91, 94. Pythagoras, 150. Python, 82.
Q. Quadriremes, 113, 138. Quaesitores, 126. Quaestores, 125. Quintilian, 158. Quinqueremes, 113, 138. Quinquertium, 131.
R.
Ramnenses, 118.
Ramnes, 118.
Refuge (Cities of), 55.
Retiarii, 132.
Rex Sacrificulus, 128.
Rhadamanthus, 83.
Rhaetia, 21.
Prandium, 139. Priam, 88, 96. Priapus, 74. Principes, 134, 136. Pro-Consul, 124. Procurator, 125. Proletarii, 133. Prometheus, 82. Propertius, 153. Pro-Praetor, 125. Propylaea, 160. . Prora, 113. Proscenium, 116.
Roads, 164. Rogus, 142. Roma, 162. Rome (Hills of), 168.
(Kings of),
168. Rorarii, 134. Rostrum, 113. Rudes, 131.
Sabinum, 27. Sacrificia, 129.
INDEX.
199
Sages (Seven), 169. Sagittarii, 134. Sagum, 135. Salii, 129. Sallust, 155. Samaria, 54. Samnites, 132. Samnium, 28. Sappho, 145. Sarmatia, 32. Asiatica,
56. Sarpedon, 97. Saturnalia, 130. Saturnia, 23. Saturnus, 75. Satyri, 83. Scena, 116. Scenici, 131, 132. Sceptic Sect, 159. Scribae, 122. Scutum, 134. Scythia, 61. Selene, 73. Sella Curulis, 124. Senatores, 119. Senatus, 119, 120. Consultum,
120. Seneca, 154, 157. Septemtrio, 172. Servi, 119. Servitus, 126. Ship (Tackling of,
Ac), 113. Sibylline Books, 128. Sica, 132. Sicilia, 30. Sicyonia, 42. Signa, 136. Signiferi, 135. Sileni, 83.
Silenus, 75. Silius, 152. Silvanus, 75. Simonides, 146. Sin on, 91. Sirenes, 83. Sisyphus, 83. Socci, 139. Socrates, 151. Socratic School, 159. Sogdiana, 61. Sola, 141. Solaria, 167. Sol, 72. Solese, 139. Sophocles, 144. Sparti, 86. Spectio, 127. Sphynx, 83, 87. Sporades, 44. Stadium, 161. Statins, 152. Sterope, 82. Stesichorus, 146. Stheno, 79. Sthenelus, 94. Stoic Sect, 159. Stola, 139. Strabo, 149. Strigiles, 141. Strymo, 88. Styx, 83. Subucula, 138. Subitarii, 133. Subsolanus, 172. Succenturiones, 135. Suetonius, 156. Suovetaurilia, 130. Susiana., 59. Susis, 59. Syria, 53. Syrinx, 74.
T.
Tabella, 121. Tacitus, 156. Tali, 141. Talio, 126. Talthybius, 94. Tantalus, 83. Tarraconensis, Iflu Tartarus, 72, 83. Taygete, 82. Tecmessa, 92. Telamon, 85, 92. Tellus, 71. Templa, 130. Temples at Rome, 163, Tepidarium, 141. Terpsichore, 73. Terence, 154. Terra, 71. Tesserae, 142. Testudo, 136. Teucer, 88, 94. Thales, 150. Thalia, 72, 73. Theatres at Rome, 163. Theatrum, 116, 132. Thebais, 65. Themis, 75. Theocritus, 146. Thermae, 141, 163. Theseus (Temple of)
161. Thessalia, 37. Thetis, 75. Thracia, 34. Thraces, 132. Thorax, 134. Thucydides, 146. Tibullus, 153. Timocles, 145. Tiphys, 85.
|
200 |
INDEX. |
|
|
Tiresias, 87. |
Tunica, 138. |
Vesta, 69. |
|
Tisiphone, 71. |
Pilmati l^Y |
Vestibulura, 140, 141. |
|
Titanes, 84. |
. Vise, 162, 164. |
|
|
Titienses, 118. |
Via Sacra, 162. |
|
|
Tityus, 83. |
138. |
Viatores, 122. |
|
Toga, 138. |
Turmae, 134. |
Victima, 130. |
|
Picta, 137, 139. |
Turnus, 95. |
Vincula, 126. |
|
Praetexta, 123, |
Turris, 136. |
Vindelicia, 21. |
|
139. |
Tuscia, 26. |
Vinea, 136. |
|
Virilis, 139. |
Tydeus, 87. |
Vinum, 140. |
|
Candida, 138. |
Tydides, 92. |
Virgil, 152. |
|
Trabea, 128. |
Typon, 84. |
Virgines Vestales, 128. |
|
Transtra, 113. |
Tyrrhenia, 26. |
Vitruvius, 158. |
|
Transvectio Equitum, |
Vittae, 130. |
|
|
130. |
U. |
Vota, 129. |
|
Triarii, 134, 136. |
Ulysses, 94. |
Votiva Tabula, 129. |
|
Tribuni Plebis, 125. |
Umbo, 138. |
Vulcan, 68. |
|
Militum, 126, |
Umbria, 27. |
|
|
135. |
Urania, 73. |
W. |
|
Tribus, 118. |
Uranus, 75. |
Winds (Temple of), 161. |
|
Trinacria, 30. |
Wines, 140. |
|
|
Trinundinum, 121. |
V. |
|
|
Tripolitana, 66. |
Vallum, 135. |
X. |
|
Triremes, 113, 138. |
Varro, 158. |
Xenophon, 147. |
|
Triton, 84. |
VeUtes, 134. |
Xystus, 109. |
|
Troas, 49. |
Venatio, 131. |
|
|
Troilus, 89, 97. |
Venetia, 26. |
Z. |
|
Tros, 88. |
Venti, 172. |
Zeno, 151. |
|
Tuba, 135. |
Venus, 70. |
Zephyrus, 172. |
|
Tumultuarii, 133. |
Vertumnus, 75. |
Zeus (Temple of), 16L |
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From Prof. J. A. Spencer, JV. Y. I am delighted with Dr. Schoedler's " Book of Nature ;" its tone of healthful piety and reverence for God's word add a charm to the learning and deep research which the volume everywhere manifests.
From W. J. Clark, Esq., Georgetown Female Seminary, D. C. As far as I have examined, it has afforded me great pleasure. It is the most valuable compendium of the subjects of which it treats with which I have ever met.
From W. H. Allen, President of Girard College, Philadelphia. Though a very comprehensive book, it contains about as much of the details of natural science as general students in this country have time to study in a regular academical course ; and I am so well pleased with it, that I shall recom- mend its use as a text-book in this institution.
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BLANCHAllD AND LEA'S EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. NEW AND MUCH IMPROVED EDITION — (Lately Issued.)
PHYSICAL "geography
BY MARY SOMERVILLE. A New American, from the Third and Revised London Edition.
WITH NOTES AND A GLOSSARY,
BY W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M.D., U. S. Navy. In one large royal 12mo. volume, of nearly six hundred pages.
The subject of Physical Geography is one of which the acknowledged importance is rapidly forcing its introduction into all systems of education which pretend to keep themselves on a level with the improvements and requirements of the age. It is no longer considered sufficient to drill the scholar into a mechanical know- ledge of the names of rivers and mountains, and the territorial divisions of tha earth's surface. A want is now felt of an acquaintance with the structure of tha globe, externally and internally, and of the causes and effects of the variations of land and water, forest and desert, heat and cold, tides, currents, rain, wind, and all the other physical phenomena occurring around us, which have so direct and immense an influence upon the human race. This is all summed up in "Physical Geography," which may be regarded as the resume of all that is known on the natural history and present state of the earth and its inhabitants — the practical application of the principles of which are elucidated by the minute inves- tigations of the scientific observer. This vast and interesting subject has been successfully grappled by Mrs. Somerville, who in the present volume has set forth, in a picturesque and vivid style, a popular yet condensed account of the globe, in its relations with the Solar System; its geological forces; its configuration and divisions into land and water, mountain, plain, river, and lake; its meteorology, minex-al productions, vegetation, and animal life; estimating and analyzing tha causes at work, and their influence on plants, animals, and mankind. A study such as this, taken in conjunction with ordinary political geography, lends to tha latter an interest foreign to the mere catalogue of names and boundaries, and, iu addition to the vast amount of important information imparted, tends to impress the whole more strongly on the mind of the student.
Eulogy is unnecessary with regard to a work like the present, which has passed through three editions on each side of the Atlantic within the space of a few years. The publishers therefore only consider it necessary to state that the last London edition received a thorough revision at the hands of the author, who introduced whatever improvements and corrections the advance of science ren- dered desirable; and that the present issue, in addition, to this, has had a careful examination on the part of the editor, to adapt it more especially to this country. Great care has been exercised, in both the text and the Glossary, to obtain the accuracy so essential to a work of this nature; and in its present improved and enlarged state, with no corresponding increase of price, it is confidently presented as in every way worthy a continuation of the striking favor with which it has been everywhere received.
From Lieutenant Maury, U. S. iV,
National Observatory, Washington. I thank you for the " Physical Geography ;" it is capital. I have been reading it, and like it so much that I have made it a school-book for my children, whom I am teaching. There is, in my opinion, no work upon that interesting subject on which it treats— Physical Geography— that would make a better text-book in our schools and colleges. I hope it will be adopted as such generally, for you have Americanized it, and improved it in other respects.
From Samuel H. Taylor, Esq., Philips' Academy, Andover, Mass., Feb. 15, 1854. We have introduced your edition of Mrs. Somerville's " Physical Geography" Into our school, and find it an admirable work.
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BLANCIIARD AND LEA'S EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS.
SHAW'S ENGLISH LITERATURE-(Lately pubUshed.)
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.
BY THOMAS B. SHAW,
Professor of English Literature in the Imperial Alexander Lyceum, St. Petersburg.
SECOND AMERICAN EDITION.
WITH A SKETCH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE.
BY HENRY T. TUCKERMAN, Esq.
In one large and handsome volume, royal 12mo., of about five hundred pages. Extra cloth, $1 15; half bound in leather, $1 25.
The object of this work is to present to the student, within a moderate compass, a clear and connected view of the history and productions of English Literature. To accomplish this, the author has followed its course from the earliest times to the present age, seizing upon the more prominent " Schools of Writing," tracing their causes and effects, and selecting the more celebrated authors as subjects for brief biographical and critical sketches, analyzing their best works, and thus presenting to the student a definite view of the development of the language and literature, with succinct descriptions of those books and men of which no edu- cated person should be ignorant. lie has thus not only supplied the acknow- ledged want of a manual on this subject, but, by the liveliness and power of his style, the thorough knowledge he displays of his topic, and the variety of his subjects, he has succeeded in producing a most agreeable reading-book, which will captivate the mind of the scholar, and relieve the monotony of drier studies.
From Prof. J. V. Raymond, University of Rochester. Its merits I had not now for the first time to learn. I have used it for two years as a text^book, with the greatest satisfaction. It was a happy conception, admirably executed. It is all that a text-book on such a subject can or need be, comprising a judicious selection of materials, easily yet effectively wrought. The author attempts just as much as he ought to, and docs well all that he attempts; and the best of the book is the genial spirit, the genuine love of genius and its works which thoroughly pervades it, and makes it just what you want to put in a pupil's hands.
From Prof. J. C. Pickard, Illinois College. Of "Shaw's English Literature" I can hardly say too much in praise. I hope its adoption and use as a text-book will correspond to its great merits.
From A. B. Davenport, Esq., BrooUyn, JV. T. The work of Shaw and Tuckerman on English and American Literature par- ticularly interested me. It is truly a multum in parvo. I know not where one can find so much information condensed upon the topics on which it treats as is to be found in this work. Either as a text-book, or for higher classes in reading, it is worthy of general adoption.
From Prof. J. Munroe, Oberlin Coilege.
I have examined it carefully, and value it highly. It fills a place not occupied
by any other book with which I am acijuainted. It will probably be introduced
in this institution as a text-book preparatory to the study of English literature.
BLANCHARD AND LEA'S EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. TEXT-BOOK OF SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY -(Just Issued.)
OUTLINES OF SCRIPTURE~GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY;
niastrating tlie Historical Portions of the Old and New Testaments.
DESiaXED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE READINQ.
BY EDWARD HUGHES, r.R.A.S., F.G.S., Head Master of the Royal Naval Lower School, Greenwich, &c
BASED TJPOX COLEMAN'S HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE BIBLE.
■With twelve handsome colored Maps.
In one very neat royal 12mo. volume, extra cloth.
The intimate connection of Sacred History with the geography and physical features of the various lands occupied by the Israelites, renders a work like the present an almost necessary companion to all who desire to read the Scriptures understandingly. To the young, especially, a clear and connected narrative of the events recorded in the Bible, is exceedingly desirable, particularly when illustrated, as in the present volume, with succinct but copious accounts of the neighboring nations, and of the topography and political divisions of the countries mentioned, coupled with the results of the latest investigations, by which Messrs. Layard, Lynch, Clin, Durbin, Wilson, Stephens, and others have succeeded in throwing light on so many obscure portions of the Scriptures, verifying its accuracy in minute particulars. Few more interesting class-books could therefore be found for schools where the Bible forms a part of education, and none, per- haps, more likely to prove of permanent benefit to the scholar. The influence which the physical geography, climate, and productions of Palestine had upon the Jewish people will ha found fully set forth, while the numerous maps present the various regions connected with the subject at their most prominent periods.
From Prof. Samud H. Turner, iV. Y. Thedagicdl Seminary.
It appears to contain, in a compressed form, a vast deal of important and
accurate geographical and historical information. I hope the book will have the
wide circulation which its merits entitle it to. I shall not fail to recommend it
so far as opportunity offers.
From Eev. Samuel Findley, President of Antrim College, Oliio, Feb. 18,1854. We have long needed just such a book, and as soon as possible we shall make it one of the text-books of our college. It should be a textrbook in all our theolo- gical institutions.
From Rev. Elipludet Nott, President of Unim College, N. T., Feb. 20, 1854. Few more interesting class-books, where the Bible is used in Schools, can be found than the "Outlines of Scripture Geography and History;" and it will prove, in families where the Bible is read, a valuable auxiliary to the under- standing of that blessed volume. It is therefore to be hoped that it will receive that patronage which it so richly deserves.
From Prof. E. Everett, New Orleans, Feb. 20, 1854. I have studied the greater portion of it with care, and find it so useful as a hook of reference, that I have placed it on the table with my Bible as an aid to my daily Scripture readings. It is a book which ought to be in the hands of every biblical student, and I cannot but hope that it will have a wide circulation To such as desire to borrow, I answer, " I cannot loan it, for I am obliged to refer to it daily!"
BLANCHARD AND LEA'S EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS.
HERSCHEL'S ASTRONOMY.
OUTLINES OF ASTRONOMY.
BY SIR JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL, Bart., F.R.S., &c.
A KEW AMERICAN, FROM THB FOURTH AND REVISED LONDON EDITION.
In one handsome crown octavo volume, with numerous Plates and Wood-cuts.
The present work is reprinted from the last London edition, which was care- fully revised by the author, and in which he embodies the latest investigations and discoveries. It may therefore be regarded as fully on a level with the most advanced state of the science, and even better adapted than its predecessors, as a full and reliable text-book for advanced classes.
A few commendatory notices are subjoined, from among a large number with which the publishers have been favored.
From Prof. D. Olmstead, Yale College. A rich mine of all that is most valuable in modern Astronomy.
From Ftof. A. Caswell, Brown University, R. I. As a work of reference and study for the more advanced pupils, who are not yet prepared to avail themselves of the higher mathematics, I know of no work to be compared with it.
From Prof. Samuel Jones, Jefferson College, Pa., May 28, 1853. This treatise is too well known, and too highly appreciated in the scientific world to need new praise. A distinguishing merit in this, as in the other pro- ductions of the author, is that the language in which the profound reasonings of science are conveyed is so perspicuous that the writer's meaning can never be misunderstood.
Frmn Prof. J. F. Crocker, Madison College, Pa., May 17, 1853. I know no treatise on Astronomy comparable to " Herschel's Outlines." It is admirably adapted to the necessities of the student. We have adopted it as a text-book in our College.
From Prof. James Curley, Georgetown College, May 24, 1853. As far as I am able to judge, it is the best work of its class in any language.
From Prof. N. TiUinghast, Bridgewater, Mass., May 12, 1853. It would not become me to speak of the scientific <nerits of such a work by such an author ; but I may be allowed to say, that I most earnestly wish that it might supersede every book used as a text-book on Astronomy in all our institu- tions, except perhaps those where it is studied mathematically.
We now take leave of this remarkable work, which we hold to be, beyond a doubt, the greatest and most remarkable of the works in which the laws of astronomy and the appearance of the heavens are described to those who are not mathematicians nor observers, and recalled to those who are. It is the reward of men who can descend from the advancement of knowledge to care for its dif- fusion, that their works are essential to all, that they become the manuals of the proficient as well as the text-books of the learner. — Athenceum.
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UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY
D Baird, James Skerrett Shore
80 The classical manual
BI6 1855