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ILLINOIS STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

John C. Fry*, Chief

ILLINOIS MINERALS NOTE 53

COAL RESOURCES OF ILLINOIS

M. E. Hopkins and J. A. Simon

URBANA, ILLINOIS 61801

JANUARY 1974

*Vl

ILLINOIS STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

3 3051 00005 9042

COAL RESOURCES OF ILLINOIS*

M. E. Hopkins and Jack A. Simon

COAL RESERVES IN ILLINOIS

Illinois is blessed with abundant coal, the fuel that at present represents the nation's best hope of becoming more self-sufficient in energy production in the future. Coal -bearing Pennsylvanian rocks underlie about 65 percent of the state of Illinois (36,806 out of a total of 56,UOO square miles), appearing in all or parts of 86 of the state's 102 counties (fig. l) .

Compared to the other states, Illinois is in an enviable position in regard to coal reserves (table l). It has the largest reserves of bitu- minous coal of any state and is surpassed in total reserves only by North Dakota and Montana, which have large quantities of lower rank lignite and subbituminous coals. Although large quantities of reserves in the western states lie at shallow depths, a significant amount are coals that lie too deep for strip mining but still would be difficult to mine by underground methods .

Long-term and continuing studies of Illinois coal reserves by the Illinois State Geological Survey have amassed a fund of data on Illinois coal reserves that is extremely detailed and comprehensive. An- estimate of Illi- nois coal reserves was published in 1952 and has been supplemented by more re- cent material for various parts of the state. Coal reserves have been esti- mated for 79 Illinois counties (Cady et al. , 1952; Clegg, 196l, 1972; Hopkins, 1968; Reinertsen, I96U; Searight and Smith, 1969 ; Smith, 1957, 1958, 196l, 1968 Smith and Berggren, 1963). In October 1973, h6 mines were operating in the state — 21 underground and 25 strip mines. Preliminary figures show Illinois produced about 61,31^,107 tons of coal in 1973.

*From a paper presented at the First Annual Illinois Energy Conference at the University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, June 13-15, 1973.

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Area where No. 6 Coal is IOOO ft or more in depth

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Fig. 1 - Operating coal mines as of October 1973. (Source: Illinois Department of Mines and Minerals.)

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The latest estimate of reserves of coal in the ground is 1^8,172, 5^0 ,000 tons (table 2). Included are coals more than 28 inches thick if they are more than 150 feet deep, and more than 18 inches thick if they are less than 150 feet deep. Thinner coals are not included in the reserves. This estimate is based on data developed in Cady's 1952 study and on additional information de- rived from exploratory drilling conducted in recent years. It makes no deduc- tion for coal mined since the later reports were published. The new informa- tion has significantly increased the estimated reserves — more coal has been added to the reserves than has been removed by coal mining since 1952, at which time reserves were estimated (Cady, 1952) at more than 137 billion tons.

In Illinois, about lU percent of our total coal reserves is found in seams lying less than 150 feet deep (table 2) , and much of that coal is econom- ically strippable with present equipment. The remaining coal reserves that have been mapped lie between 150 and 1500 feet deep, the deeper reserves occur- ring in the deepest part of the Illinois Basin in Cumberland, Jasper, Richland, Clay, and Wayne Counties (fig. l).

Changing technology and economic conditions determine how thick a coal must be to be considered commercially minable at any given time, and these factors vary in different parts of the state at any one time. For example, al- though relatively little coal as thin as 18 inches has been mined in Illinois, one major strip mine in the state is now mining coal that will average only slightly more than 18 inches. Furthermore, although it is technologically pos- sible, very little strip mining in the state has yet removed more than 100 feet of overburden, but what thickness of overburden will ultimately be practical to mine in Illinois has not yet been clearly defined. Although some coal no more than 30 inches thick has been mined underground, such operations have generally been very small. In years past, sizable underground operations have mined coal 3 to h feet thick, but the coal mined in present large-scale operations is generally thicker.

An important aspect of Illinois coal reserves data compiled by the Illinois Geological Survey is the detail in which they are given. Thicknesses recorded for each county are now making it possible to estimate current reserves of given minimum thicknesses above the l8-inch and 28-inch minima we mentioned previously. On a statewide basis, for example, if 5*+ inches were the minimum thickness specified, total in-ground reserves would be reduced by 50 percent, because only 50 percent of all Illinois coal reserves are estimated to be 5^ inches or more thick.

For many years various agencies estimating reserves have assumed that 50 percent of the coal is lost or rendered unminable in underground mining. Al- though individual mines now generally exceed 50 percent recovery, the estimate is still valid when counties or larger areas are considered, for in Illinois only oil pool areas heavily drilled for oil and gas have been excluded from reserves estimates. Many surface features (cities, towns, superhighways, and similar areas) will also render coal unavailable for underground mining. There are, of course, several other factors that must be considered in determining minability of coal, including mining conditions and a variety of economic factors.

Technology designed to increase recoverability, with due regard to minimizing environmental damage, should be encouraged. The coal left in the ground in mined areas constitutes a loss of an important source of energy.

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- 8 -

In evaluating coal reserves of any area, how the reserves are de- fined is of major importance. In Illinois , for example, if a minimum thick- ness of 5*+ inches for all types of mining (about 50 percent of total reserves mapped to date) and the figure of 50 percent recovery were accepted, only about 25 percent of the nearly 1^8 billion tons of coal would be estimated as recoverable.

Whatever assumptions may be made for estimating recoverable coal reserves, Illinois compares very favorably with all other states having bi- tuminous coal reserves because of its generally thicker, more continuous, and relatively flat-lying seams .

Ac knowl edgme nt s

Much of the statistical data used in the preparation of this report was gathered from the Illinois State Department of Mines and Minerals Annual Coal Reports and from the Minerals Yearbooks of the U.S. Bureau of Mines. A more detailed report covering much of the same subject material was submitted in February 1970 by Jack A. Simon as testimony before the Illinois Commerce Commission. The present report brings the data of this earlier report up to date and discusses the relation of coal in Illinois to current problems, par- ticularly those related to the current energy shortage.

COAL QUALITY

Rank

Illinois coals are all of high-volatile bituminous rank. The rank for each coal increases from northwest to southeast , ranging from high-volatile C (the lowest rank of bituminous coal) in northwestern Illinois, through high- volatile B in the central and southern parts of the state, to high-volatile A in extreme southeastern Illinois (Cady, 1935; Bamberger, 1971). Natural mois- ture contents range from about 20 percent in the northwest to about 5 percent in the southeast. Heating value (on an as-received basis) of Illinois coal ranges from about 10,500 to more than 13,000 Btu per pound, with the older coals of any area generally having higher heating values than younger coals. No systematic variation in ash content has been discerned. Most coals that are being or have been mined are reported to contain between 5 and 15 percent ash (as-received basis), with an average of about 11 percent.

Sulfur Content

The sulfur content of coal has recently assumed great importance as regulations concerning air quality have limited the use of high-sulfur coals. Sulfur occurs in coal in three forms: organic sulfur, which occurs in the or- ganic compounds in the coal; pyritic sulfur, which is found as iron sulfides (FeS2) that may be finely disseminated in the coal in microscopic grains, or

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found in nodules, in lenses, in bands, and perhaps on cleat (fracture) faces; and sulfate sulfur, which normally occurs in relatively minor amounts in fresh coal.

Total sulfur in Illinois coals has been reported to vary between 0.5 and 6.0 percent (dry basis), with occasional samples having a higher sulfur content. The average total sulfur content of ^73 face-channel samples from Illinois mines reported by Gluskoter and Simon (1968) was 3. 57 percent. They also reported an average of 1% times as much pyritic sulfur as organic sulfur in the same coals. Face-channel samples, excluding mineral bands over three- eighths of an inch thick, are believed to approximate the coal seam after mod- erate preparation.

Coals in certain well defined areas of Illinois have a significantly lower sulfur content than coals in the rest of the state, a condition than can be related geologically to variations in the roof strata immediately overlying the coal. Most of the relatively high-sulfur coals (those with 3 to 5 percent sulfur on a dry basis) are overlain by either black shale, limestone, or fos- siliferous shale, all of which have at least one thing in common — they contain animal fossils that indicate they were deposited in marine waters. Conversely, every important known occurrence of Illinois coal that has a significantly low sulfur level is overlain by nonmarine gray shale in which plant fossils predom- inate. The gray shale separates the coal from the overlying marine unit, usu- ally black shale or limestone. A fairly sharp change in sulfur content nor- mally occurs between areas with marine roof and those with nonmarine roof. When the gray shale exceeds 20 feet thick, the total sulfur content of the coal is normally less than 2.5 percent and commonly averages about 1.5 percent. The

nonmarine shale is usually associated with a river-laid sandstone unit that replaces the coal in a long, sinuous band, or "sandstone channel."

Areas of low-sulfur coal have been mapped (Gluskoter and Simon, 1968; Hop- kins, 1968) and are shown in figure 2. Total reserves (i.e., total in ground) in these areas for the Herrin (No. 6) Coal and the Harrisburg (No. 5) Coal Members amount to U.8 billion tons, or 3.2 percent of the total reserves of the state (table 3). About 65 percent of the coal in the so-called "Quality Circle" low-sulfur area, principally parts of Williamson, Franklin, and Jef- ferson Counties, has been mined out, and the remainder is under development by five large underground mines. Most of the production goes to the metallur- gical coke market. Other areas of low- sulfur Herrin Coal are the "Troy Area," lying principally in Madison and St. Clair Counties, and the "Hornsby Area" in east-central Macoupin County. In

Sulfur content

Harrisburg (No 5) Cool Member- estimoted I to 3%, ov 2.0%

Cool missing or split

POPE* T HARDIN *\

(

1 SvVv

-.S MASSAC \

Pig. 2 - Low- sulfur coal areas in Illinois that have been mapped.

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TABLE 3— ILLINOIS LOW-SULFUR RESERVES IN GROUND

Coal	County	Millions of tons
Herrin (No. 6)	Clinton	23
(< 2.5# S,	Franklin	3 07
av. 1.5#,	Jackson	37
dry basis )	Jefferson	580
	Macoupin	396
	Madison	21+5
	Perry	35
	St. Clair	381
	Williamson	59
	Total	2,063
Harrisburg	Edwards	5^
(No. 5)	Franklin	2i+3
(< 2.5# S,	Hamilton	563
av. a. 2$,	Saline	627
dry basis )	Wabash	262
	Wayne	89
	White	626
	Williamson	27^
	Total	2,738
	Total Illinois	low-sulfur reserves 4,801*

* 3.23 percent of total coal reserves of Illinois.

these three areas slightly more than 2 billion tons of coal in the ground con- tains an estimated average of 1.5 percent total sulfur. The Troy and Hornsby areas are not being mined at present , although the Troy area has been mined in the past .

Less is known about the average sulfur content of the low-sulfur Harrisburg (No. 5) Coal, but it is thought that the belt extending from Mt.Car- mel in Wabash County to Harrisburg in Saline County contains about 2.7 billion tons of coal with an average sulfur content of about 2.0 percent; some of the coal contains as little as 1.0 percent sulfur. This low-sulfur coal area has been mined only in Saline County, where it has been extensively worked. A new mine has just begun production in this low-sulfur coal in Wabash County.

Low-sulfur coals occur in other less well known areas in Illinois, but their extent is either relatively small or not enough data are available to permit their delineation. However, no additional large occurrences of min- able low-sulfur coals are likely to be found, particularly in the better known minable seams , because the relatively abundant subsurface data reveal no ex- tensive areas of coal under nonmarine gray shale, the geologic indicator of low-sulfur coal.

The 1970 production of coal in Illinois is shown in table U, accord- ing to sulfur content. Nearly 27 percent of the coal contained less than 2.5 percent sulfur, whereas more than 73 percent of the coal exceeded 2.5 percent sulfur.

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IMPORTANCE OF COAL TO ILLINOIS

Coal is by far the largest mineral resource in Illinois and it has the highest annual mineral production value. With the present energy short- age facing this country, judicious use of this important commodity, with due regard for environmental quality, is vital.

Coal production (fig. 3) in Illinois in 1972, from 59 mines in 22 counties, totaled 65,521,394 tons and was about equally divided between sur- face and strip mines. This was the largest production since 1948, following which year production declined to a low point in 1954. Since 196l , the trend of the state's coal production has been generally upward, although some fluc- tuation has occurred in recent years.

The 1972 coal production had a value of more than 402 million dol- lars (at $6.14 per ton) and constituted almost 50 percent of all Illinois min- eral production (fig. 4) . Petroleum, the second most valuable mineral resource in Illinois, had a value of more than 121 million dollars in 1972 (figured at $3.1+7 per barrel), or 14.9 percent of the state's total mineral production value,

The value of a basic raw material to the economy is only partially expressed by its actual value. Basic raw materials generate or support other industries that convert the raw material to consumable products. Also involved are the various industries that provide materials and services to the basic in- dustry and to the people employed. Coal, for instance, is by far the most im- portant single commodity carried by our railroads, both in tonnage and in reve- nue.

PRODUCTIVITY AND EMPLOYMENT

Illinois mines, among the most productive in the world, are large and highly mechanized. Illinois mines (both strip and underground) have

TABLE 4— ILLINOIS COAL PRODUCTION BY SULFUR RANGE AND CUMULATIVE TOTALS AT EACH RANGE*

Sulfur				Cumulative
content		Cumulative	Total tons	% of
if)	Tons	tons	(*)	total tons
1.0 - 1.49	8,823,114	8,823,114	13.8	13.8
1.5 - 1.99	3,997,656	12,820,770	6.3	20. 1
2.0 - 2.4-9	4,162,803	16,983,573	6.5	26.6
2.5 - 2.99	14,508,072	31,491,645	22.8	49.4
3.0 - 3.^9	17,610,333	49,101,978	27.6	77-0
3.5 - 3.99	8,751,686	57,853,664	13.7	90.7
4. 0 and over	5,936,555	63,790,219	9-3	100.0

*Source: Midwest Coal Producers Institute ( I97O)

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100

75

ILLINOIS

—i — i — i 1 — i — i 1 — i — i 1 — i — i 1 — i — i 1 — i — r-

1948 1952 1956 I960 1964 1968 1972

Percentage of production by stripping

Underground and strip production from Illinois coal mines

Pig. 3 - Illinois maintains a good balance between strip and underground mining. In the nation as a whole, strip mining has steadily increased.

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900

800-

1948 1952 1956 I960 1964 1968

Value of mineral production in Illinois

100

c a> o

i_

9>

0_

50-

25-

1948

972

NON-FUEL MINERALS

PETROLEUM AND PRODUCTS

1952

1956

COAL

I960

1964

1968

1972

Percentage of mineral value accounted for by various commodity groups in Illinois

Fig. 4- - Coal is the most important mineral commodity produced in Illinois. (Source: U. S. Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbooks.)

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35
c 2 30	/^
o t=> 25	yS
a> pi	STRIP MINES /
20 c o E	:	■~^^^ ^
Yield per	ALL MINES ^^~^\^^^ X.
5	■■ — • r UNDERGROUND MINES ■ i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i 9">i

1948 1952 1956 I960 1964 1968

Trends in labor productivity in United States coal mines

1972

UNDERGROUND MINES

_l ■ ' L.

1948 1952 1956 I960 1964 1968

Trends in labor productivity in Illinois coal mines

1972

Fig. 5 - Illinois has consistently led the United States as a whole in productivity per man in both strip and underground mining. (Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbooks.)

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consistently been ahead of the national average in productivity per man (fig. 5). Only during 1971 and 1972 has the national average for strip mine labor productivity exceeded that in Illinois. The decline is probably related to such factors as the enactment in 1967 of a new reclamation law and to the in- creasing depth of overburden in Illinois mines. Illinois strip mine produc- tivity per man-day declined in 1968 but rose again in 1971.

The over-all reduction in productivity per man in Illinois and through- out the country has two causes, both of which arose at about the same time. First, the increasing awareness of the need for protection of the environment diverted manpower from mining to activities such as strip mine reclamation, acid-water treatment or containment facilities, and the prevention of contin- ued exposure of refuse material to the environment, adversely affecting pro- ductivity. Second, the Health and Safety Act of 1969 affected production in underground mines. A steady increase in productivity for many years had cul- minated in the highest productivity reported for the country as a whole, 15.6l tons per man per day in 1969. The rate dropped nationally to 12.03 in 1971 and is expected to be below 12 for 1972. In Illinois, productivity of under- ground mines has dropped from almost 23 tons per man-day in 1969 to slightly less than 19 in 1971, although Illinois underground mines still have the high- est productivity per man-day of all the coal-producing states. Strip mine productivity has more or less leveled off for the nation as a whole, but -has dropped considerably for Illinois.

Illinois mines are large producers, averaging over 1.1 million tons per mine for the year 1972 (fig. 6). The average mine size (measured in out- put) has increased rapidly in Illinois, especially since 1958, and the number of mines has consequently declined markedly from 350 mines in 1950 to the pres- ent kQ. The national average has increased only slightly. In 1971 there were some 5,1^9 coal mines in the country — only 6U of them in Illinois. These 6k mines, constituting only 1.2 percent of the total number of mines in the United States, accounted for 10.6 percent of the total production, attesting to the efficiency of this industry in Illinois.

In 1972 the total number of men directly employed in the coal mining industry in Illinois was 11,237. Of these, 7,870 were employed by underground mines and 3,367 by strip mines. Mining activities employ men in 22 counties; distribution of the 11,237 employees by county is shown in figure 7. Three con- centrations of mining occur — in western Illinois where operation is principally by surface methods, in west-central Illinois where three very large underground mines are located, and in southern and southwestern Illinois, the largest area, where both underground and strip mining methods are employed.

USES OF ILLINOIS COAL

Most projections for the future use of energy in the United States point to a substantial increase in the need for coal, for the generation of electrical power now and conversion to gas or liquid fuels later. Table 5 is one such projection (Dupree and West, 1972), and many of the others are simi- lar (Risser, i960). This projection forecasts a need for almost one billion

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350

100-

1948

UNITED STATES

1 '1952' '

1 I9561 '

I960 1964

Trends in overage output for the coal industry in Illinois and the United States

1 1 I 1 r

1968 1972

Fig. 6 - Because many of the smaller mines in Illinois have been closed, the average out- put per mine in Illinois has increased markedly, far more dramatically than the average for the United States as a whole. (Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines Miner- als Yearbooks. )

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0

50 to 99 I I to 49

Number of Employees More than 1000 500 to 999 100 to 499

20 40

Miles

Fig. 7 - Pattern of employment in the Illinois coal industry, by counties, 1972. (Source: Illinois Department of Mines and Minerals 1972 Coal Report.)

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TABLE 5— PROJECTED DEMAND FOE U.S. COAL BY POWER-CONSUMING SECTORS*

(millions of tons)

Coal supply	1971+	1975	1980	1985	2000
Household and commercial	14.6	12	11	4	—
Industrial	164.6	I69	175	190	247
Electrical generation	331.6	384	460	613	755
Synthetic gas	—	—	19	86	308
Export Total	58.0 568.8	636	_I5_ 740	_8J 980	108 1,418

* Source: Dupree and West, 1972. t Actual figures.

tons of coal in 1985 and almost 1^ "billion tons in 2000. U.S. production in 1971 was only 569 million tons; in 1972 it was 595 million tons.

In 1972 more than 32 million tons of coal, 25 million from Illinois, were consumed in Illinois for the generation of electrical energy (tables 6 and 7)» almost 77 percent of all coal used in the state. The amount is pro- jected to increase substantially as the demand for electrical energy continues to soar (Risser, 1970). Much of the increased demand for electricity will be met by electricity generated by nuclear energy, but, even if the development of nuclear capacity progresses as hoped, a substantial increase in coal con- sumption will still be needed.

At present, two principal sources supply steam coal for Illinois power plants, the Illinois Basin mines (including those of Indiana and western Kentucky) and the western subbituminous mining area in Wyoming and Montana, from which about six million tons are reportedly coming into the Chicago area annually. The western coal is low-sulfur coal, and, although of lower heating value than midwestern or eastern coals, is becoming increasingly important in the central part of the United States. Several new power plants will be using this coal in Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and other states.

A large percentage of low-sulfur coal produced in Illinois is used by steel companies for blending with higher rank coals to produce metallurgi- cal coke. The coal with the lowest sulfur content produced from the relatively low-sulfur coal mines is generally committed to this market.

SOME COAL-RELATED PROBLEMS

Sulfur Emission

Illinois faces several problems related to its most abundant energy resource (Risser, 1973a,b). One immediate problem is that present and proposed

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state and Federal regulations on emissions of sulfur dioxide prohibit the use of most Illinois coal unless most of the sulfur it contains is removed.

Although the Illinois Geological Survey has done extensive research to determine the possibility of reducing the sulfur content of coal and has achieved substantial reductions in total sulfur, no methods have been devised to lower the sulfur to the level that proposed regulations require (Helfinstine et al. , 1971 and in press; Deurbrouck, 1972). Pyritic sulfur, which makes up about 60 percent of the total sulfur in our coals, is the most amenable to re- duction by conventional gravity techniques of coal cleaning, but, even when the coal is reduced to relatively fine sizes (minus three-eighths of an inch) , gen- erally only about half of the pyritic sulfur is removable (about one-third or less of the total sulfur in the coal). There is some variation in the "clean- ability" of Illinois coals, but, since a significant portion of total sulfur is organic, only a very small portion of Illinois coal can be cleaned to 0.7 per- cent total sulfur — the approximate level that regulations will require.

Extensive research has been conducted throughout the country on methods of removing sulfur dioxide and cleaning stack gases from large units, such as those found in power plants. Some processes are currently undergoing full-scale plant tests in Illinois, as well as in a number of other states.

TABLE 6— ILLINOIS CONSUMPTION OF BITUMINOUS COAL FROM ALL PRODUCING DISTRICTS, INCLUDING ILLINOIS, IN THE UNITED STATES*

(net tons)

			Commercial
	Electric	Coke	and	Industrial
Year	utilities	plants	domestic	and misc.	Total
I960	19.13^,000	2,948,000	6,570,000	10,053,000	38,705,000
1961	19,182,000	2 , 774 , 000	5,696,000	9,827,000	37,479,000
1962	20,380,000	2,874,000	5,803,000	10,202,000	39,259.000
1963	20,924,000	2,798,000	5,288,000	10,076,000	39,086,000
1964	22,995,000	3,309,000	4,809,000	10,353,000	41,466,000
1965	25,180,000	3,608,000	4,558,000	11,010,000	44,356,000
1966	27,808,000	3,626,000	4,263,000	10,685,000	46,382,000
1967	29,497,000	3,449,000	4 , 074 , 000	9,690,000	46,710,000
1968	28,221,000	3,069,000	3,312,000	8,863,000	43,465,000
1969	30,393,000	3,713,000	3,077,000	8,061,000	45,244,000
1970	29,453,000	3,688,000	2,591,000	6,579,000	42,311,000
1971	27,930,000	3,347,000	1,871,000	5,141,000	38,289,000
1972	32,294,000	3,243,000	1,415,000	5,076,000	42,028,000

* Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines Mineral Industry Surveys, Annual and Quarterly Distribution Reports.

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TABLE T— ILLINOIS CONSUMPTION OF BITUMINOUS COAL FROM ILLINOIS MINES*

(net tons)

			Commercial
	Electric	Coke	and	Industrial
Year	utilities	plants	domestic	and misc.	Total
i960	14 , 97^ , 000	499,000	3,078,000	8,289,000	26,840,000
1961	16,439.	ooot	2,526,000	8,082,000	27,047,000
1962	16,720,000	755 . 000	2,558,000	8,437,000	28,470,000
1963	17,670,000	801,000	2,316,000	8,513,000	29,300,000
1964	19,706,000	922,000	2,203,000	8,565,000	31,396,000
1965	22,115,000	1,170,000	1,959,000	8,903,000	34,147,000
1966	25,058,000	1,513,000	1,889,000	9,113,000	37,573,000
1967	26,825,000	1,468,000	1,831,000	8,386,000	38,510,000
1968	25,539,000	1,200,000	1,362,000	7,618,000	35,719,000
1969	26,622,000	1,538,000	1,141,000	7,102,000	3 6,403,000
1970	25,688,000	1,618,000	1,015,000	5,657,000	33,978,000
1971	22,204,000	1,424,000	723,000	4,189,000	28,540,000
1972	25,329,000	1,288,000	630,000	4,084,000	31,331,000

* Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines Mineral Industry Surveys, Annual and Quarterly

Distribution Reports. t Mineral Industry Distribution Report for 1961 combines utilities coal

consumption with coke and gas plant consumption.

The National Academy of Engineering/National Research Council, stud- ied and reported on the abatement of sulfur oxide emissions from stationary- sources in 1970. The report stated "...contrary to widely held belief, com- mercially proven technology for control of sulfur oxides from combustion pro- cesses does not exist [on a scale considered for demonstration or larger]." A recent report prepared for the Federal Interagency Committee on Evaluation of State Air Implementation Plans by the Sulfur Oxide Control Technology As- sessment Panel (S0CTAP, 1973) indicated that technological problems in con- trolling sulfur dioxide emission would be solved sometime in 1974. However, not all task force members agreed with that optimistic projection.

Despite claims made by some manufacturers, prior to and since the NAE/NRC study, that their equipment could effectively remove sulfur dioxide, we feel the conclusion of the committee is still true. The level of work on this problem is such, however, that one or more successful processes for re- moving sulfur dioxide from flue gases will be developed soon. One process in Japan has been in successful operation on a full-scale plant for about a year. Various technical observers have reported that this operation does not meet U.S. needs, but some qualified observers have indicated the process could be applied. Close analysis of the scrubbing agent used, the nature of load, oper- ation at full capacity, disposal of wastes, and costs will determine if the process can be used in the United States.

- 21 -

Whether the cost of any of the promising techniques will prevent their acceptance will be determined after technical feasibility has been demonstrated. It is unlikely that any single process will be applicable to all installations, and time will be required to design, manufacture, and in- stall any device in the wide variety of plants to which it may be applicable.

Liquefaction and Gasification

Another major area of research in the past 10 years has been the liquefaction and gasification of coal. Extensive efforts on pilot-plant scale are being planned and conducted to produce gas of pipeline quality (about 1000 Btu per cubic foot). The relatively good mining conditions, the extensive reserves of relatively thick coals, the moderate water potential, the availability of pipelines, and the presence of underground gas storage facilities suggest that Illinois would be an ideal location for such devel- opments. However, such gas, which is essentially sulfur free, will probably not be available much before 1980. Furthermore, the gas probably will be too expensive for electric power generation.

Conversion of coal to low-Btu gas at a power plant for on-site use is being planned in the United States. As the process would include the re- moval of sulfur from the gas, its successful development holds much promise for installations that could employ this technique, providing economics prove favorable .

Manpower

Many have recognized that if demands for coal to meet utility needs and to serve as a raw material for gas and liquid fuels increase greatly, the nation will find it difficult to obtain and train the highly skilled manpower required for modern coal mine operations, particularly for underground mining. The largest part of our Illinois reserves, as noted previously, must be mined by underground methods.

Because of the potential of this valuable resource for meeting future energy requirements, it is important that the trained manpower force we now have should not be allowed to disperse. The present trained corps of miners will be an essential nucleus for the much larger work force that will certainly be re- quired before the end of the decade.

New Mines

One considerable problem related to obtaining fuel resources to meet our energy needs is the time factor involved in the planning, exploration, de- sign, and construction of the new mines that will be needed. There appears to be a reluctance to invest in the opening of new mines in areas such as Illinois where permission to use high-sulfur coal may not be forthcoming in the near fu- ture. Lead times of at least from 2 to h years are required for construction of large strip mines , and 3 to 5 years are needed for construction of large un- derground mines. This required lead time and the present hesitancy to begin new mines will have an adverse effect on potential coal production in the next sev- eral years.

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Alternate Strategies

An unpublished report of the Task Force for Sulfur Dioxide Control Technology, prepared in 1971 for the Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality, suggested strategies for improving ambient air quality in the imme- diate future, in case sufficient low-sulfur fuels are not available and until various sulfur dioxide control processes have been perfected. The procedures include :

1. Stock piling of available low-sulfur fuels for use only when meteorological conditions are adverse, and use of available higher sulfur fuels during periods when weather conditions permit wide dissemination of gases.

2. Shut-downs or reduced operations of plants for which low- sulfur fuels may not be available, even on emergency basis, when meteorological conditions are adverse.

3. Use of tall stacks, which, while not reducing total emis- sions, can reduce level of concentration in ambient air.

k. Shift of power generation from stations where meteoro- logical conditions are adverse to other stations that have favorable conditions.

In closing, we cannot ignore the place of other fuel resources, in- cluding oil, natural gas, and nuclear energy. It is our firm belief, however, that future competition among fuels will be relative to where each fuel will be used, rather than what fuel will be displaced. In the near- and long-term future, we shall need to draw on all of our available fuel resources. While nuclear energy will be used increasingly for generation of electricity, we agree with others that there will also be a greatly increasing demand for coal, at least to the end of the century.

We have vital energy resources in Illinois. It is hoped that we can use them wisely and well.

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REFERENCES

Cady, G. H. , 1935 » Classification and selection of Illinois coals: Illinois Geol. Survey- Bull. 62, 354 P.

Cady, G. H., et al . , 1952, Minable coal reserves of Illinois: Illinois Geol. Survey Bull. 78, 138 p.

Clegg, K. E., 196l, Subsurface geology and coal resources of the Pennsylvanian System — Sangamon, Macon, Menard, and parts of Christian and Logan Counties, Illinois: Illinois Geol. Survey Circ. 312, 28 p.

Clegg, K. E., 1972, Subsurface geology and coal resources of the Pennsylvanian System in De Witt, McLean, and Piatt Counties, Illinois: Illinois Geol. Survey Circ. 473, 25 P.

Damberger, H. H. , 1971j Coalif ication pattern of the Illinois Basin: Econ. Geology, v. 66, no. 3, p. 488-4911.

Deurbrouck, A. W., 1972, Sulfur reduction potential of the coals of the United States: U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 7633, 289 p.

Dupree, W. G., Jr., and J. A. West, 1972, United States energy through 2000: U.S. Dept. Interior, 80 p.

Gluskoter, H. J., and J. A. Simon, 1968, Sulfur in Illinois coals: Illinois Geol. Survey Circ. 432, 28 p.

Helfinstine, R. J., N. P. Shimp, J. A. Simon, and M. E. Hopkins, 1971» Sulfur reduction of Illinois coals — washability studies. Part 1: Illinois Geol. Survey Circ. 462, 44 p.

Helfinstine, R. J., N. F. Shimp, M. E. Hopkins, and J. A. Simon, in press, Sulfur reduc- tion of Illinois coals— washability studies. Part 2: Illinois Geol. Survey Circ.

Hopkins, M. E., 1968, Harrisburg (No. 5) Coal reserves of southeastern Illinois: Illinois Geol. Survey Circ. 431, 25 p.

National Academy of Engineering/National Research Council, 1970, Abatement of sulfur

oxide emissions from stationary combustion sources: NAE/NRC , Washington, D. C, 75 P-

National Air Pollution Control Administration, 1969. Control techniques for sulfur oxide pollutants: U.S. Dept. Health, Education, and Welfare, NAPCA Publication AP-52.

Reinertsen, D. L., 1964, Strippable coal reserves of Illinois. Part 4 — Adams, Brown, Calhoun, Hancock, McDonough, Pike, Schuyler, and the southern parts of Henderson and Warren Counties: Illinois Geol. Survey Circ. 374, 32 p.

Risser, H. E., i960, Coal in the future energy market: Illinois Geol. Survey Circ. 310, 15 P.

Risser, H. E., 1970» Power and the environment — A potential crisis in energy supply: Illinois Geol. Survey Environmental Geology Note 40, 47 p.

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Risser, H. E., 1973, Energy supply problems for the 1970s and beyond: Illinois Geol. Survey Environmental Geology Note 62, 12 p.

Risser, H. E., 1973, The U.S. energy dilemma: The gap between today's requirements and tomorrow's potential: Illinois Geol. Survey Environmental Geology Note 64, 64 p.

Searight, T. K. , and W. H. Smith, 19^9» Strippable coal reserves of Illinois. Part 5B — Mercer, Rock Island, Warren, and parts of Henderson and Henry Counties: Illinois Geol. Survey Circ. 439, 22 p.

Simon, J. A., 1970. Comments on fuel resources and pollution in the power generation in- dustry: Unpubl. information testimony for Illinois Commerce Commission, Docket No. 55321, 46 p.

Smith, W. H. , 1957, Strippable coal reserves of Illinois. Part I — Gallatin, Hardin,

Johnson, Pope, Saline, and Williamson Counties: Illinois Geol. Survey Circ. 228,

39 P.

Smith, W. H. , 1958, Strippable coal reserves of Illinois. Part 2 — Jackson, Monroe,

Perry, Randolph, and St. Clair Counties: Illinois Geol. Survey Circ. 260, 35 p.

Smith, W. H. , 1961, Strippable coal reserves of Illinois. Part 3— Madison, Macoupin,

Jersey, Greene, Scott, Morgan, and Cass Counties: Illinois Geol. Survey Circ. 311,

40 p.

Smith, W. H. , 1968, Strippable coal reserves of Illinois. Part 6 — La Salle, Livingston, Grundy, Kankakee, Will, Putnam, and parts of Bureau and Marshall Counties: Illi- nois Geol. Survey Circ. 419, 29 p.

Smith, W. H. , and D. J. Berggren, 1963, Strippable coal reserves of Illinois. Part 5A — Fulton, Henry, Knox, Peoria, Stark, Tazewell, and parts of Bureau, Marshall, Mer- cer, and Warren Counties: Illinois Geol. Survey Circ. 348, 59 P»

Sulfur Oxide Control Technology Assessment Panel (SOCTAP), 1973, Final report on projected utilization of stack-gas cleaning systems by steam-electric plants: Washington, D. C, April 15, 93 p.

Task Force for Sulfur Dioxide Control Technology, 1971, Report on abatement strategies for sulfur dioxide emissions from stationary sources: Unpubl. rept. to Illinois Inst, for Environmental Quality, submitted September 1971, 86 p.

SELECTED LIST OF SURVEY PUBLICATIONS

MINERAL ECONOMICS BRIEFS SERIES

5. Summary of Illinois Mineral Production in 1961. 1962.

11. Shipments of Illinois Crushed Stone, 1954-1964. 1966.

12. Mineral Resources and Mineral Industries of the East St. Louis Region, Illinois. 1966.

13. Mineral Resources and Mineral Industries of the Extreme Southern Illinois Region. 1966. 17. Mineral Resources and Mineral Industries of the Springfield Region, Illinois. 1967.

19. Mineral Resources and Mineral Industries of the Western Illinois Region. 1967.

20. Mineral Resources and Mineral Industries of the Northwestern Illinois Region. 1967.

21. Illinois Mineral Production by Counties, 1966. 1968.

22. Mineral Resources and Mineral Industries of the Northeastern Illinois Region. 1968.

26. Evaluation of Fuels — Long-Term Factors and Considerations. 19&9-

27. Illinois Mineral Production by Counties, 1968. 1970. 29. Directory of Illinois Mineral Producers. 1971 .

INDUSTRIAL MINERALS NOTES SERIES

13. Summary of Illinois Mineral Industry, 1951-1959. 1961.

17. Pelletizing Illinois Fluorspar. 1963.

19. Binding Materials Used in Making Pellets and Briquets. 1964.

20. Chemical Composition of Some Deep Limestones and Dolomites in Livingston County, Illinois. 1$

21. Illinois Natural Resources — An Industrial Development Asset. 1964.

23. Limestone Resources of Jefferson and Marion Counties, Illinois. 1965.

24. Thermal Expansion of Certain Illinois Limestones. 1966.

26. Binders for Fluorspar Pellets. 1966.

27. High-Purity Limestones in Illinois. 1966.

29. Clay and Shale Resources of Clark, Crawford, Cumberland, Edgar, Effingham, Jasper,

and Vermilion Counties. 1967*

30. Lightweight Bricks Made with Clay and Expanded Plastic. 1967.

31. Clays as Binding Materials. 1967.

32. Silica Sand Briquets and Pellets as a Replacement for Quartzite. 1968.

34. Neutron Activation Analysis at the Illinois State Geological Survey. 1968.

35. Computer-Calculated Lambert Conformal Conic Projection Tables for Illinois (7-5-Minute

Intersections). 1968.

36. Beneficiation of Kaolinite Clay from Silica Sand Washings. 1968.

37. Peat and Humus in Illinois. 1969.

38. Kankakee Dune Sands as a Commercial Source of Feldspar. 1969*

39- Alumina Content of Carbonate Rocks as an Index to Sodium Sulfate Soundness. 1969» 10. Colloidal-Size Silica Produced from Southern Illinois Tripoli. 1970.

41. Two-Dimensional Shape of Sand Made by Crushing Illinois Limestones of Different Textures.

1970.

42. An Investigation of Sands on the Uplands Adjacent to the Sangamon River Floodplain:

Possibilities as a "Blend Sand" Resource. 1970.

43. Lower Mississippi River Terrace Sands as a Commercial Source of Feldspar. 1970*

44. Analyses of Some Illinois Rocks for Gold. 1970.

45. Clay and Shale Resources of Madison, Monroe, and St. Clair Counties, Illinois. 1971»

46. Sideritic Concretions in Illinois Shale, Gravel, and Till. 1972.

47. Selected and Annotated List of Industrial Minerals Publications of the Illinois State

Geological Survey. 1972.

ILLINOIS MINERALS NOTES SERIES (The Illinois Minerals Notes Series continues the Industrial Minerals Notes Series and incorporates the Mineral Economics Briefs Series)

48. Illinois Mineral Production by Counties, 1970. 1972.

49. Clay and Shale Resources of Peoria and Tazewell Counties, Illinois. 1973.

50. By-Product Gypsum in Illinois — A New Resource? 1973.

51. Illinois Mineral Production by Counties, 1971. 1973.

52. Fuels and Energy Situation in the Midwest Industrial Market. 1973.