TR 241

Coastal Oceanographic Use of the
U.S. Air Force Data Acquisition and
Processing Program (DAPP)

by
OscAR KARL Huu

Naval Oceanographic Office

September 1973

Provisional Technical Report

Prepared for the Office of Naval Research
Under Task Number NR 387-062, Geography Program
(Code 414), Terrestrial Sciences Division

GC NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHIC OFFICE
| Ey Washington, D.C. 20373
Va / TKR =H

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

ANLAQUAC LTA

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TR-241

4. TITLE (and Subtitle) 5. TYPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED

COASTAL OCEANOGRAPHIC USE OF THE U.S. AIR

FORCE DATA ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING
8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(e)

PROGRAM (DAPP)

7. AUTHOR(s)

Oscar K. Huh

10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK

PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
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9.

U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office
Washington, D.C.

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NR 387-062

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Office of Naval Research

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Unclassified

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Approved for Public release: Distribution Unlimited.

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ABSTRACT (Continue on reverse aide !f necessary and identify by block number)

The spaceborne infrared sensors (8-13 pum) of the Air Force meteorological Data Acquisition
and Processing Program (DAPP) have provided remarkable images of mesoscale sea surface thermal
patterns outlining currents, thermally distinct watermasses, and oceanic fronts. During 1971-72
the thermal outlines of the South Korean Coastal Oceanic Front, the Tsushima Current, the
Yellow Sea Warm Current, the China Coastal Current and the Liman Current were detected and
monitored with the 2 n.mi. resolution infrared DAPP imagery. The data are displayed ina

(Continued)

n
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JAN 73
S/N 0102-014- 6601 I
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series of 16 gray shades on photograph-like images covering an area of 1560X3000 n.mi. of the
earth’s surface. The images are transverse mercator projections at scales of 1:15,000,000 or
enlarged to 1:7,500,000 with a thermal resolution of 1.6°C. The outstanding characteristic of
this system are: 1. the high repetition rate of coverage (minimum of four time daily), 2. near

real time data availability, 3. high resolution (1/3 and 2 n.mi.) visual and infrared images, and

4. the global coverage. As in other infrared systems, cloud cover prevents sea surface observations
The high repetition rate, however, increases the probability of obtaining clear sky conditions and
most critically allows detection of rapid oceanic changes over large regions anywhere on the globe.

The availability of near real-time remotely sensed sea surface thermal data is a major break-
through for oceanographic and other ocean operations. The system provides a synoptic sea
surface thermal structure for direct incorporation into the conduct of operations within minutes

| of the satellite overpass. For example, DAPP operators, with HRIR data on effective radiation

temperatures and thermal patterns of the sea, can provide search and rescue units information on
water temperatures (survival times). In the case of ocean currents documented in marine atlases,
they can also provide probable direction and speed of drift. In the case of Operation NUGGET
RANCH (10 Oct. — 10 Nov., 1972) the synoptic HRIR data were used over the Sea of Japan to
suppliment simultaneous surface measurements, for making decisions on spacing and positioning
of ship tracks, to detect and position water masses, and to measure water mass boundary move-

| ments, rather than to substitute for standard oceanographic methods. Extensive aircraft, ship

| current meter and coastal observations were used to verify the oceanographic information content

| of these satellite observations. The field experiments clearly displayed the practical utility of both
the DAPP and this entire approach to determining oceanic variability. In the end, the DAPP data
were actually used to steer the entire oceanographic operation. It gave the near real-time synoptic
overview, the optimum perspective for operational decision making.

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CONTENTS

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DISTRIBUTION LIST

Figure 1.
Figure 2,

Figure 3.
Figure 4,
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.

Figure 8,
Figure 9.

Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Figure 12.

Figure 13.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Physical Oceanographic Features
VHR data, Yellow Sea, Korean Peninsula, and Western Sea of Japan.
25 Nov. 1971

VHR data, eastern Yellow Sea, Korean Peninsula, southwestern Sea
of Japan, 28 April 1972

VHR data, northeast Sea of Japan, Soviet Coast, Sakhhlin, and the
western portion of the Sea of Okhotsk. 13 April 1972

HRIR data, eastern Yellow Sea, Korean Peninsula, and western Sea
of Japan. 28 April 1972

HRIR data, Yellow Sea, Korean Peninsula, western Sea of Japan.
10 April 1972

HRIR data, China Coastal Current in the Yellow Sea. 1 April 1972
HRIR data, East China Sea. 27 November 1971

HRIR data, the Tsushima Current, Korean Peninsula and western Sea
of Japan. 27 Oct. 1972

Imagery of the South Coast of Korea. 10, 13, 27 Oct. 1972
Surface truth Oceanographic data. 16 Oct. 1972

DAPP temperature range setting for MI] (16 gray shades). Display
of HRIR data

Gray shade display of Sea Surface Thermal Structures

COASTAL OCEANOGRAPHIC USE OF THE U.S. AIR FORCE DATA ACQUISITION
AND PROCESSING PROGRAM (DAPP)

I, INTRODUCTION

This report has three objectives: fo introduce the coastal oceanographic capabilities
of the U.S. Air Force meteorological Data Acquisition and Processing Program, to briefly
define and illustrate a coastal oceanographic problem area for which it is most useful
(Figure 1), and to outline techniques for obtaining the most useful products. The valuable
characteristics of this remote sensing system are the global availability of high resolution
(1/3 and 2 n.mi.) imagery, (figs. 2-10) the high repetition rate (minimum of 4 times daily),
and the capability of the infrared sensors to detect thermally distinct surface waters and
oceanic fronts. This study is centered about the utility of the film products, the nearly
distortion free film transparencies of the visual range and infrared data available at scales

of 1:15,000,000 and 1:7,500,000 in near real time.

A major problem in studies of narrow continental shelf regions of the globe is the
detection and measurement of the influence of impinging offshore ocean currents on coastal
waters, Permanent or semipermanent currents, the major circulation elements of adjacent
ocean basins, are time-dependent features, meandering, repositioning, and even temp-
orarily disappearing in the course of an experiment or survey. These currents have fund-
amental role as the major source of both seawater and energy to either flush the continental
shelf of existing waters or drive the local coastal circulation. The position, orientation,
structure and strength of gradients along the landward wall or coastal front of an ocean
current, dre key indicators of mixing processes and the effects of the impinging ocean current.
These fronts, though difficult to observe or even detect by conventional methods, are
shown to be readily detected and their movement in time and space easily followed by
remote sensing methods.

Coastal fronts, and oceanic fronts in general, are important but poorly known structures
in the sea, The term "oceanic front" has been widely adopted by the oceanographic
community from analogy with atmospheric fronts (Griffiths, 1965). Uda (1938) in an early
but most definitive paper delved deeply into the structure and origin of oceanic fronts as he
sought to understand the nature and mechanism of their common surface effect, current
rips or "siome". He defined the latter as "A comparatively narrow stretched band, which
appears on the sea surface with singular rippling and is commonly accompanied by foams
and other drifting-bodies of various kind..." coinciding with the line of discontinuity
between two different watermasses or between currents. Uda classified siomes into three
types: the first caused by pure convergence at the sea surface, the second by upwelling
-or divergence, and the third by strong current shear. He also reports that they frequently
though not exclusively, occur near the margin of continental shelves and that they are
commonly the sea surface expression of the contact of waters of different colors, chiefly
yellow-green coastal waters and the deep blue-green oceanic water. Major ocean fronts
are common in deep ocean areas, where they occur as boundary zones between major
currents or water types (Defant, 1961, p. 453), Laevastu and Lafond, 1970). Griffiths
(1965) proposed the term "frontal system" for the entire boundary between two kinds of

water, reserving the word "front" for those small parts actually investigated. Since this
study focuses on a particular kind of oceanic front, the term "coastal front" will be used

for those oceanic fronts formed in the vicinity of coasts or continental shelves as a direct
result of local circulation or ocean basin boundary zone effects. Coastal fronts are

narrow linear zones with steep horizontal gradients of physical properties (temperature,
salinity, density, transparency, or color) at the sea surface separating different water masses.

The availability of near real-time remotely sensed sea surface data on oceanic fronts
and water masses to shipborne scientists is a major breakthrough in oceanographic operations.
The areal extent, differences in sea state, sea surface temperature, and the frequent presence
of slicks over oceanic fronts make them particularly excellent subjects for remote sensing
methods in oceanography. Temperature differences are readily detectable by aircraft and
satellite scanners. Coastal fronts with their turbidity/color as well as temperature gradients
are detectable on visual-range as well as infrared band sensors of aircraft and spacecraft,
making them prime targets for remote sensing methods. The near real-time synoptic data
permit optimum use of ship time and a most complete grasp of the areal structure and time
changes of the upper water column as expressed at the sea surface.

The need for synoptic temperature, salinity, and velocity data on the sea has been
expressed previously perhaps most vividly by the following authors; Sverdrup, Johnson,
and Fleming (1942) stated:

"In nature, laminar flow is rarely or never encountered, but instead turbulent flow
or turbulence prevails. By turbulent flow is understood a state in which random motion
of smaller or larger masses or the fluid is superimposed upon some simple pattern of flow...
as a consequence a snap-shot of the instantaneous distribution of velocity, temperature,
salinity, and other variables would show a most complicated pattern, but so far no means
has been developed for establishing this picture."

In a study of the exchange of Gulf Stream Water with North Carolina Shelf Water in
Onslow Bay, Blanton (1971) using hydrographic stations and single current meter mooring
came to the following conclusion:

"I feel that very little can be gained by additional hydrographic data of the kind
discussed here. We have a cursory understanding of the exchange process, but we are
completely in the dark on the time and space scales involved. Do the intrusions begin
as intense narrow currents at the shelf break that spread out once the water is forced
onto the shelf? Do they occur, instead as a broad "upwelling" over long lengths of
the edge of the shelf’? How long does an intrusion last? What factors really govern it
such as winds, state or shelf water, position of the Gulf Stream? How do intrusions
of Virginian Coastal Water complicate the model presented here ? It seems that all
these questions are beyond the scope of traditional shipboard oceanography. Synoptic
temperature and current data from key locations on the shelf are a logical next step in
a study of continental shelf processes."

In Blanton's case, time lapse remote sensing of the fronts between Gulf Stream, Continental
Slope, Virginia Coastal, and Carolina Shelf waters would be a major contribution to his

2

study. Now one can obtain time lapse synoptic imagery of sea surface temperature and
turbidity or color. Velocity might be derived from measurements of the displacement of
identifiable parcels of water. Sea surface salinity can not be determined remotely at the
present, but if salinities are associated with specific temperatures or turbidities they can
be mapped and tracked in a given region.

Il. THE SYSTEM

The U.S. Air Force System presently includes a classified space segment and several
earth based segments. Data Acquisition and Processing Program (DAPP) is the Air Force
land based segment consisting of a central acquisition and processing site and a number of
air-transportable land-sites. The present Navy segment of this system will consist of two
shipboard and two air-transportable land-based terminals next summer/fall followed by a
new ceniral data acquisition and processing site at Monterey next winter. As the Air Force
and Navy earth-based segments bear a number of similarities the Air Force DAPP will be
described. DAPP acquires, processes, displays and disseminates very high resolution re-
motely sensed data directly and on tape which is gathered from space. The Air Force as lead
agency has provided the following information and specifications necessary for data
utilization on an unclassified basis.

The sensors of the present system are mounted on two sophisticated satellites in near-polar,
sun-synchronous orbits at 450 n.mi. altitudes. The nodes (equatorial crossings) are ascending
south to north on the daytime side of the earth and descending on the nightime side. The
orbital period is about 100 min. and the satellites step around the equator at 25°-longitude
increments each successive nodal crossing. The spaceborne segment of the system consists of
scanning infrared sensors operating in the spectral range of 8.0-13.0, m and video (visual
range) sensors in the 0.4-1.1j2 m range. The infrared sensors scan the earth and it atmosphere,
recording the total effective blackbody emittance reaching satellite at the 450 n.mi. distance
in space. The visual sensors receive brightness levels of reflected solar illumination to transmit
albedo of the earth within the spectral range sensed. Both visual and infrared data are avail-
able as photograph-like imagery at 2 or 1/3 nautical mile maximum resolution formats, in
near real-time. The field of view of the scanning sensors gives a swath width of 1560 n.mi.
for each pass. In addition to the picture-like imagery, an 8-channel radiometer, furnishes
the DAPP with vertical temperature profiles of the atmosphere. The sensors and spacecraft
are designed to be capable of functioning at any local sun time. The DAPP receives space-
craft data sensed near dawn near noon, early evening, and near midnight local sun time
anywhere around the globe.

The DAPP satellite data are transmitted to earth via high speed (wide-band) data-links.
There are two kinds of receiving sites, permanent receiving sites in the United States that
relay data to the Air Force Global Weather Central, and mobile remote receiving sites for
direct local readout, transportable anywhere in the world. The mobile site equipments
including the tracking and receiving antenna, are contained in vans, for air or ship trans-
portability. The permanent receiving sites acquire tape recorded satellite data for the
entire globe encircling orbit, a 1560 n.mi. swath in a near polar orientation. The remote-
site receiver acquires only a direct readout of about a 3000 n.mi. segment of an orbit as
the satellite passes within line-of-sight. The Navy will add two shipboard readout mobile

recievers to fleet units, two more land based mobile receivers, plus a large central processing
site next year. The images presented in this report are exclusively from the mobile remote-
site receivers.

The sensors consist of two scanning radiometers. One is a two channel scanning radio-
meter for high resolution visual data (HR) and for high resolution infrared data (HRIR). It
employs one scanning mirror and a beam splitter which separates the incoming radiation by
allowing transmission of visual radiation (HR .4-1. 1p m) and reflection of the infrared
(HRIR 8-131 m) radiation. The second sensor is for very high resolution visual data (VHR)
and very high resolution infrared data (WHR), visual and infrared sensors with the same wave-
length bands as the high resolution sensor (HR). The spatial resolution of these sensors is a
function of geomety. When specifying resolution, reference is made to the maximum spatial
resolution at satellite subpoint, 2 nautical miles for the HR sensor and 1/3 n.mi. for the
VHR-WHR sensor. Spatial resolution is however a function of distance from satellite subpoint
and the resolutions degrade laterally to the extremities of each sweep or scan line to 14 n.mi.
for HR-HRIR and 2 n.mi. for VHR-WHR. The sensors produce an analog signal proportional
to the amount of incoming radiation. The analog signal is processed in two modes, it is
digitized and transmitted in real time to remote sites, and it is tape recorded in analog form
for later transmission to readout stations in the U.S.

The visual range sensors have sensor responses approaching zero at 0.4,1m and again at
1.12 m, with the peak of sensitivity at 0.842m. The half-power points are at approximately
0.57 and 0.972 m. Since the strictly visual range is from 0.4 to 0.7 m, a large part of what
the visual sensors detect is a reflection of near infrared energy. The sensor measures the
total radiation received in the full spectral range, and effectively integrates the sensor-
response equation. The analog output (video) signal is proportional to the area under the
sensor-response curve. The brightness level of this video data is thus proportional to the
total radiation in the range received while the amount of radiation at any given wavelength
may vary. The spectral response beyond the 0.7 m point is useful in enhancing the contrast
between vegetation and water, but some phenomena might become visible in the imagery
that would be invisible to the unaided eye.

The infrared sensors use the 8-132 m atmospheric "window", which is relatively trans-
parent to emitted radiation in this spectral range. This is an "imperfect window" however,
with data contaminated by normal atmospheric constituents: namely ozone, carbon dioxide,
water vapor, and aerosols. Of these contaminants, ozone and water vapor are most important.
This contamination causes a variable amount of the radiation emitted from the sea surface
| to be absorbed and scattered. Natural variations in the amount of ozone and its distribution
in the troposhere add only very small uncertainty to the infrared data. Water vapor has the
most serious effect on the accuracy of sea surface temperatures from the infrared sensors.
Nowhere in the 8-13, m range is the atmosphere completely transparent to infrared radia-
tion, but water vapor absorption is least from 9.5-10.52 m increasing away from this
narrow band.

The data from the HRIR sensors have been found to be a useful indicator of variations

in sea surface temperatures, and thus an important source of coastal oceanographic data.
The HRIR data, properly displayed provides a chart of sea surface temperature variations,

4

mapped on a tranverse mercator projection. The data may be displayed at the largest
scale of 1:7,500,000 along a swath of 1560 n.mi. astride the trace of the satellite sub-
point. The infrared data from the HRIR sensor contains internal calibration values using
deep space as the 0 level of power and a temperature-controlled sensor housing monitored
by thermistors calibrated to within 0.2°C as a calibration source. The noise equivalent
temperature difference is less than 1°C r.m.s. over the full temperature range. The
original analog signal covers the range of effective radiation temperatures from 210°-310°K.
Within this range the global sea surface emits radiation in only the 273°K (0°C) to 303°K
(30°C) portion and in any particular geographic region in only a fraction of that range.
The HRIR data can be displayed as imagery with 16 gray shade levels, each representing a
temperature interval of 1.6°C. In this way the sea surface emittance is mapped as a
series of gray shades on 9" photographic film (figs. 5-10), with a 1.6°C temperature
resolution. The sensor records the amount of radiation being emitted by the sea surface
minus atmospheric attenuation caused chiefly water vapor. The water vapor of the entire
atmospheric column absorbs the sea surface radiation and reradiates at a lower temperature
(assuming bulk of water vapor is colder than sea surface).

The sea surface temperatures detected by this sensor are from the top most radiating
layer of the sea surface of less than 0.1 mm in thickness (Clark, 1967). Sea surface effects
and the temperature gradient in the upper few millimeters of the sea may significantly
influence the detected temperatures in comparison with temperatures measured using con-
ventional surface measurement methods. Clark reports that vertical temperature drops of
from 0.5°C to 1.0°C across a few millimeters of water are not uncommon and that behind
a weather front the drop may be as large as 10°C. However, infrared "skin temperatures"
versus those obtained from the 3 meter depth ships hull mounted sensor during an experiment
in Oct-Nov 1972, resulted in a mean temperature difference of only .31°C in a sea state
2 (Beaufort scale) conditions. Slicks, sea state, foam, and spray also reduce infrared
emittance with respect to the representative sea surface temperature. However, the most
serious errors are introduced by clouds, smaller than the resolution of the sensors, which
contaminate the data but go undetected. Then, surface observations or higher resolution
remote sensing observations are necessary. Experiments comparing infrared effective
radiation temperatures with actual sea surface temperatures of the DAPP system under clear
sky conditions have shown differences ranging from 0-12°C, cooler than the surface
measurements. The errors were seen to be dependent on both the atmospheric conditions
and path length of the observation through the atmosphere (angular displacement of the
resolution element from the satellite subpoint). It is useful to observe that the spatial and
thermal resolution of the DAPP system in effect provides a "low pass filter" on sea surface
emittance. The scan spot values are effectively running average values of a small area
2-14 n.mi. in diameter, digitized into 1.6°C temperature ranges. This is a very coarse
thermal resolution with respect to sensor sensitivity and calibration. The data provide a
synoptic field of sea surface temperature values for direct incorporation into oceanographic
operations, within minutes of the satellite overpass. The complicating factors affecting
absolute values and geographic gridding must be rigorously considered when machine pro-
cessing digital values at higher resolutions. Studies of the digital infrared data subjected
to computer enhancement and gridding will be published at a later date.

The principle use of the video data is for geographic gridding of images and identification
of cloud-free areas. The coastal oceanographic use of video products is discussed in de-
tail in section III of this report. Only the VHR (1/3 n.mi. resolution video) was used in
this study, and it is available only for daytime, ascending node passes. During nightime
passes, the high sensitivity HR video data can be used for accurate gridding in clear sky
conditions, as city lights show up on the dark side of the earth.

The problems and process of gridding the data are described in the USAF DAPP Users
Manual. The film product is essentially a strip chart with the image of the curved earth
surface projected on a plane film surface. The display equipment rectifies the data (re-
ducing the cylindrical distortion of foreshortening at the edges) and compensates for devia-
tions of the spacecraft from normal attitude and altitude. Manual gridding according to
instruction in the users manual, can locate land or oceanic features to within about 3 n.mi.
along track and about 1.5 n.mi. across track near the data subpoint. Near the edge of
the data the error may increase to as much as 13n.mi. along track and 8 n.mi. across
track due to spacecraft yaw errors that cannot be compensated for in the display. The
accuracy can be improved by adjusting the grid using geographical references and clear
sky VHR data. However, when there is a yaw error the grid will be accurate at the geo-
graphic reference points, and error will increase away from those points.

In the following section procedures for coastal oceanographic use of the DAPP system
will be specified with examples of the products. Normal meteorological display modes do
not reveal the oceanographic information content of the DAPP system data.

II]. PROCEDURES FOR COASTAL OCEANOGRAPHIC USE
Display of Video Data (VHR)

The optimum display mode of the visual range data for oceanographic use is low-level
enhancement and expansion of the image. Enhancement of low-level reflections brings
out the maximum detail in the oceanic and terrestrial regions free of clouds. Expansion of
the film products to a scale of 1:7,500,000 versus the normal 1:15,000,000 provides
fullest use of resolution capabilities and the most accurate manual gridding. In this way the
best presentations of intricate coastline features in video and complex ocean thermal
patterns in infrared data are obtained. The uses of the video image are as follows:

@ determination of cloud free areas for the most reliable HRIR sea surface temperature
data,

@ detection of patterns of reflected light from the oceanic areas,

@ location of land mass features of the region for manual gridding and geographic
reference,

@ location of satellite subpoint track with respect to the area of interest.

The patterns of reflected light from oceanic regions have not been subject to field
checks or positively identified. Changes in video gain along the track during a pass,
significantly alter the amount of visual range reflection apparent from the sea surface.

Gain change may suddenly cause an apparent sea surface structure to be lost or acquired
in the image (fig. 2, note 1, line A). Tentatively, the reflection patterns attributable to
the oceanic effects are as follows:

1. Reflections from the Sea Floor in Shallow Water Areas - Many images of the Yellow
Sea suggest that the video data contain reflections from the bottom in areas with depths as
great as 10 fathoms. Persistence of position and form over many months suggest that these
features may be sea floor reflections, rather than suspended sediments moving over the
shallows (fig. 2), but this is unverified.

2. Reflection from Turbid Surface Waters in Deep Water Areas - Aircraft underflights
during the experiments off South Korea have shown turbid plumes and extensive coastal
turbidity along the southeast coast of the peninsula (see fig. 3). In this region the water
depths increase rapidly and reflections in DAPP data are obtained from the surface waters
in areas of 600 foot water depths.

3. Reflection from Areas of High Sea State and Extensive Whitecapping of Waves -
The development of substantial amounts of white foam by strong winds and high seas, when
combined with cloud free skies may produce more reflective areas on the sea surface, Very
sharp boundaries have been seen by aircraft between whitecapped and whitecap free areas
associated with oceanic thermal fronts. Figure 3 appears to have a series of patterns of
sea state differences, but no field verifications have been accomplished to date.

Display of Infrared Sea Surface Temperature Data (HRIR)

The temperature range of -2 to 30°C covers more than 90 percent of the surface temp-
eratures around the globe (Montgomery, 1958). This 32°C range is slightly less than one
third of the full range, 100°K, of the system. For any particular oceanic region (i.e.
linear distances of tens of miles) the temperature range is much less, more in the order of
a few degrees, with some regions up to ten degrees. Asa result of experiments in the
strong gradient areas off the Korean Peninsula, the following procedure was established for
obtaining synoptic sea surface thermal structure from the remote-site readout vans:

1. Infrared Data Display Brilliance Inversion Mode (MI1) - Use the 16 gray shades for
charting sea surface temperature patterns (fig. 12).

2. Temperature Range Expansion (X4 setting) - The system has a calibrated temperature
sensitivity range of 210-310°K. There are three temperature expansion settings,
X1, X2, and X4, which vary the range of temperatures over which the 16 gray
shades are spread. X1 covers the entire 100°K, X2 can cover any 50°K span, and
X4 any 25°K span of temperatures (fig. 12).

3. Brilliance Inversion Base Temperature Setting - This value determines the warmest
temperature included in the gray shade scale, of a particular display, and fixes
the temperature range which the 16 gray shades will cover. By setting a base
temperature of 298°K (0°C = 273°K, 25°C = 295°K) the X4 temperature range of
25°C is displayed in the range of 0-25°C, the interval of most sea surface temp-
eratures encountered (fig. 12). Slightly different settings of the base temperature
may be required to produce the highest quality images under different oceanic and
atmospheric conditions. By experimenting with several degree variations in base

temperature setting, it is possible to maximize the contrast between land and sea
and among the ocean thermal features.

4, Image Expansion - Data from each pass covers a region 1,560 nautical miles wide
which can be displayed at two scales, 1:15,000,000 or 1:7,500,000. At normal
scale the entire pass is displayed on 9" film at the scale of 1:7,500,000. How-
ever, magnification of expansion of the image is possible, allowing the observer
to view half of the full swath of data expanded to fill the entire width of the 9"
film at scale of 1:7,500,000. One can expand the center, left, or right halves

at any image.

The display of a sea surface temperature gradient is illustrated schematically in figure
13. On the ordinate, is a plot of satellite temperature and gray shade scales, with the
corresponding Celsius temperatures. The abscissa is distance in nautical miles from the
Korean coast. The trace is actual sea surface temperature data measured by a ship's hull
mounted thermometer 3 November, 1972. Shown at the top is the gray shade display of
this temperature gradient in the same manner it would show on satellite imagery. The
resultant image, a film product, is a chart (transverse mercator projection) of the sea
surface thermal patterns represented by 16 gray shades. (Note - the great improvement
for oceanographic use possible if a thermal resolution of 0.5°C were available vice the
1.6°C illustrated here).

Figure 5 is an example of these MI] and X4 data with 295°K as the base temperature.
The film product was used directly as a negative to produce the figures. The black areas
are colder than 270°K (0°C), the white areas are warmer than 295°K (25°C). The
representation of warm regions as lighter shades is the convention used in this work. Clouds
show up as black areas, and land masses show up as white during daytime passes and black
during nightime passes*, This convention allows rapid reproduction of thermal imagery
without production of a negative.

Specific recommendations for handling data acquisition at remote-site receivers are
as follows:

1. Produce a VHR film product (for ascending nodes) or an HR film product (descending
node pass) directly from the satellite and store the IR signal on tape.
2. During rewind of tape:

a. produce an Ml] gray scale test pattern so that the 16 gray shades and the
corresponding temperature intervals can be exactly identified on the HRIR
product.

3. Produce the MI] HRIR product from the tape recorded data.

The gridded visual data and the calibrated gray-scale wedge from the test pattern can then
be used in interpretation of the HRIR data.

* These infrared images are thus tonally inverted from the original rear real-time
products and the conventional meteorological displays.

The procedures and images presented here are the results of experiments with remote
site data in east Asia, principally the Yellow Sea, Sea of Japan, and the Sea of Okhotsk.
There exist many advantages of this region for experiments of this nature. The Sea of
Japan and Yellow Sea are marine basins of contrasting character. The Yellow Sea is a
shallow basin (maximum depth 100 m) of strong tidal current activity, major rivers and
deltas, and much runoff containing a relatively high suspended sediment load (fig. 1).
The Korean Strait (between Korea and Japan) is also of continental shelf depth, 203 m.
in the west channel and 108 m in the east channel with bottom dropping off steeply just
north of the strait. The Sea of Japan is a deep basin (3000 m), having small tide ranges
(< 15 cm), no major rivers, and is surrounded by narrow continental shelves. The Sea of
Okhotsk in winter has abundant sea ice, of which the VHR data provides excellent images

(fig. 4).

Strong thermal gradients occur in the surface waters of the Sea of Japan (fig. 9). In
the region off the east coast of Korea and in the Korean Strait (see Fig. 1) three and
sometimes four water masses occur, depending on season (Gong, 1971). The surface
temperature differences between them vary from 4-8°C. The Tsushima Current, a branch
of the Kuroshio (a western boundary current equivalent to the Gulf Stream), provides a
"jet" of warm surface water through the Korean Strait into the Sea of Japan (Figs. 5, 6,
and 9). The temperatures detected in this area by shipborne measurements ranged from
14-24°C (October, November 1972), The Tsushima Current waters here range between 20-
24°C, the Korean Coastal waters between 17-19°C, and the upwelling waters between
14-16° . These bodies of water had strong thermal gradients separating them in order of
2.4°C per nautical mile (see figure 11). Because of these steep gradients, fronts, frontal
waves, mesoscale cyclonic and anticyclonic eddies are sharply defined in this region by
the gross 1.6°C temperature bands represented by each successive MI] X4 gray shade.

In the Yellow Sea the horizontal thermal gradients are much weaker (figs. 6 and 7), due
to the smaller inflow of warm waters and vertical mixing accomplished by the strong tidal
currents.

The HRIR data actually mapped the surface extent of the ocean currents and fronts,
showing them outlined by the gray-shade patterns (see Tsushima Current, figure 5, 6,
Yellow Sea Warm Current, figure 6, and Yellow Sea Cold Current, figure 7). The DAPP
operators, with HRIR data on effective radiation temperatures of the sea can thus provide
search and rescue units information on water temperatures and in the case of known ocean
currents, probable direction of drift. During oceanographic operation NUGGET RANCH
(10 October - 10 November 1972) the synoptic HRIR data were used to supplement direct
sea surface temperature measurements, for decision making on spacing and positioning of
ship tracks, to detect and position water masses, and to measure water mass boundary
translocations, rather than to substitute for standard oceanographic methods.

The VHR data appear to show the ocean floor to depths of 10 fathoms (60 feet). If
this suspicion is sustained by future field tests the DAPP system may have some use in
detection and verification of ship reports of dangerous shoal waters in poorly surveyed
oceanic areas*, The detection of sea ice in the Sea of Okhotsk is illustrated in Figure 4.
ig However except for high repetition rate this function can better be performed by
higher resolution systems such as ERTS or various photographic systems.

9

Time-lapse imaging of ice (as well as surface isotherms) can detect motions and trajectories
valuable for safe ship navigation and measurements of oceanic circulation.

In summary, although designed for meteorological applications, the DAPP system has
inherent oceanographic capabilities, which will provide an important foundation of
information for development of a practical oceanographic satellite, and baseline synoptic
data on waters of the globe. This effort was designed to test the value to coastal oceano-
graphy of both the DAPP system and this entire approach. In the end the DAPP system was
actually used to steer an entire surface-truth operation. It gave a quick synoptic over-
view, the perfect perspective for operational decision making. This is a most useful
development in view of today's funding situation, where research vessels are being with-
drawn from service. It also coincides with a time when the coastal oceanographic com-
munity is concentrating on multiship synoptic studies and beginning to fully appreciate
the mesoscale turbulent structure of coastal regions as well as the open ocean. The
satellite remote sensing approach is the means to make optimum use of limited ship time,
to conduct "smart ship" operations in the sense that the investigator has time-lapse near
real-time synoptic data to direct his sampling program. This, perhaps will be one of the
most far reaching concepts derived from the work.

IV. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was funded by the Office of Naval Research, Geography Programs (Remote
Sensing) Code 414, under contract NR 387-062, as part of the Coastal Advection Research
Project at the Naval Oceanographic Office. Special appreciation is extended to Dr.
James S, Bailey of ONR, for initial access to the system and helpful constructive criticisms
during the progress of the study. Appreciation is extended to CDR.K. Ruggles and LCDR
W. Mitchell of Detachment FAMOS, Naval Weapons Engineering Support Activity (1971-
72) NAVAIR Systems Command for introduction and initial guidance on the DAPP. The
author gratefully acknowledges the help and support of Naval Space Systems Activity,
located at Space and Missile Systems Organization, Los Angeles, for guidance, special
clearances, and essential procurements of system related materials. Critical to the success
of this project has been the outstanding cooperation and highest standards of professionalism
displayed throughout this effort by U.S. Air Force Personnel of the 20th Weather Squadron,
SAMSO, and the Air Force Global Weather Central, Offutt, Nebraska.

10

V. REFERENCES

Blanton, Jackson, 1971, Exchange of Gulf Stream Water with North Carolina Shelf Water
in Onslow Bay during stratified conditions, Deep Sea Research, Vol. 18, pp. 167-178.

Clark, H.L. 1967, Some Problems Associated with Airborne Radiometry of the Sea,

Applied Optics, Vol.6, No. 12, pp. 2151-2157.

Defant, A. 1961. Physical Oceanography, Vol 1, 729 pp, Pergamon Press, London.

Gong, Yeong, 1971. A Study on the South Korean Coastal Front, The Journal of the
Oceanological Society of Korea, Vol. 6, No. 1, p. 25-36.

Griffiths, Raymond C. 1965. A Study of Ocean Fronts off Cape San Lucas, Lower California,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report, Fisheries No. 499, Wash. D.C.
53 pp.

Laevastu, T, and E.C. Lafond, 1970, Oceanic Fronts and their Seasonal Positions on the
Surface. Naval Undersea Research and Development Center, NUC TP-204, San Diego,
California, 16 pp.

Montgomery, R.B. 1958, Water Characteristics of Atlantic Ocean and of World Ocean,
Deep-Sea Research, Vol 5, pp. 134-148.

Sverdrup, H.U., M.W. Johnson, and R.H. Fleming, 1942, The Oceans, Their Physics,
Chemisty, and General Moles , Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1060p.

Uda, M. 1938, Research on "Siome" or current rip in the seas and oceans. Geophys. Mag.
oe S72

U.S. Air Force, 1971, Data Acquisition and Processing Program (DAPP) (U) Users Guide,
Vol 1, Classified publication with unclassified sections.

1]

ot
i

‘7
i‘ cate
ge ie

SOUTH —
KOREAN
COASTAL
WATERS

From: Gong, Kang, Cho, 1972
& U. S. NAVOCEANO

PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHIC FEATURES

FIGURE 1.

Figure 2 - VHR data, Yellow Sea, Korean Peninsula, and western Sea of Japan. Ascending
node, low enhance, expand center, of 4527/599, at 1504Z on 25 November 1971, 1/3 n.mi.
resolution video data.
NOTE: (1) gain change at Line (A) and variation in apparent intensity of reflections in
vicinity of Yangtse River Delta.
(2) Reflection of light from shallow water regions just seaward of the coastlines (B).

FIGURE 2.

Figure 2 = VHR data, Yellow Sea, Korean Peninsula, and western Sea of Japan. Ascending
node, low enhance, expand center, of 4527/599, at 1504Z on 25 November 1971, 1/3 n.mi.
resolution video data.

NOTE: (1) gain change at Line (A) and variation in apparent intensity of reflections in

vicinity of Yangtse River Delta.
(2) Reflection of light from shallow water regions just seaward of the coastlines (B).

3°OEl eS! 3°0S!

Vy - ne AaVIA WOJ13Y 8

WASAL AO

AIVIA WAH
eTUSaMIdze

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UH@NOH
10)

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UHEUYA Sh

)

) 2@quoso

-€ JAUSIA

ait
ARs ae “a f are eg,
we " Un abi : 4 ema, Me

eee,

i

fen

Hei
i 4

Figure 3 - VHR data, eastern Yellow Sea, Korean Paninsula, southwestern Sea of Japan.
Ascending node 0319Z, 28 April 1972, 5528/492, low enhance, expand center, 1/3 n.mi.
resolution video data.
NOTE: A. Gray shades outlining coastal turbidity.
B. Gray shades outlining reflection differences. The wind direction was from
SW, Il kts.
C. Lee shadow of Japanese Islands.

FIGURE 3

Figure 3 - VHR data, eastern Yellow Sea, Korean Paninsula, southwestern Sea of Japan.
Ascending node 0319Z, 28 April 1972, 5528/492, low enhance, expand center, 1/3 n.mi.
resolution video data.

NOTE: A. Gray shades outlining coastal turbidity.
B. Gray shades outlining reflection differences. The wind direction was from

SW, 11 kts.
C. Lee shadow of Japanese Islands.

3°eEl °0El a%eSl

equoso

r
1 \

\
KSI -

0a DMJ IU, >N7>

€ JAVON

Figure 4 - VHR data, northeast Sea of Japan, Soviet Coast, Sakhalin, and the western portion
of the Sea of Okhotsk. Ascending node 0147Z, 13 April 1972, 5528/279, low enhance,
expand cenfer, 1/3 n.mi. resolution visual range data.
NOTE: 1. The "granular" structure and fracturing of the sea ice in the Sea of Okhotsk
(east and north of Sakhalin). All of the drift ice seen is probably 50-90 cm thick
and the variation in shading is due to variation in ice concentrations (from 3
to 10 tenths) north of the ice edge.

2. West of Sakhalin, off the mouth of the Amur River, the landfast ice is mostly
white with the dark band against the coastlines representing snow water on the
ice and surface puddling of the ice itself.

3. The surface water flow patterns outlined by drift ice on the sea surface northeast
of Hokkaido.

4, In the Sea of Okhotsk the wind drift as a result of the Siberian High Pressure
System moves the ice southeastward creating the shore polynyas noted and
causing the ice strings along the eastern ice edge.

I40°E ISO°E

“*LANDFAST
“ICE

AGE: We
on,

FIGURE 4.

EB in the Sea of Okhotsk
eén is probably 50-90 cm thick
and the variation in ne is due 39 aie in\icé i ele
to 10 tenths)\north of the ice edge. uv
2. West of "oe ‘fin, OF the mouth of the Amur River, \ =i
white yar the dark gan against the coastlines representing snow
ice g a Surface ude jng of the ice itself.
3, ~ Thaussface water flew patterns outlined by drift ice c
of Hokkaido. | \ 391 Teazana4s
4, Aberran th
System roe the op sate egs! ae » ‘ noted
2auasing t penueess i Ags along the eastern ice ewe
i4\ ) {
} 391 TEAIGNAJ-—

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Z|
°0e

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oe
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a

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o
=
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fie

yl avait de

atl

Figure 5 - HRIR data, eastern Yellow Sea, Korean Peninsula, and western Sea of Japan.
Ascending node, 0319Z, 28 April 1972, 5528/492, expand center 2 n.mi. resolution
infrared data, Ml}, X4, 290°K. Contact print using film display of data as a negative.
NOTE: 1. Clouds displayed as black as a negative.
2. Korean Peninsula and other land masses sun warned to effective radiating temp-
eratures greater than the sea.
3. Thermal scar of Tsushima Warm Current east and west boundaries and trajectory
of warm waters in the Sea of Japan.

FIGURE 5.

Figure 5 - HRIR data, eastern Yellow Sea, Korean Peninsula, and western Sea of Japan.
Ascending node, 0319Z, 28 April 1972, 5528/492, expand center 2 n.mi. resolution
infrared data, Ml}, X4, 290°K. Contact print using film display of data as a negative.

NOTE: 1.
2.

3.

°eé

Clouds displayed as black as a negative.
Korean Peninsula and other land masses sun warned to effective radiating temp-

eratures greater than the sea.
Thermal scar of Tsushima Warm Current east and west boundaries and trajectory
of warm waters in the Sea of Japan.

3°eEl °0El 3°eS!

equoto

oe i *
=TUOAA JATZAOD

Cc 3 UL3SHOS

-¢ 3AU019

Wit

lh

OSA
i Ai
nl \!
iy

Figure 6 - HRIR data, Yellow Sea, Korean Peninsula, western Sea of Japan, Ascending
node, 0223Z, 10 April 1972, 4527/2532, expand right. MI1, X4, 291°K, 2 n.mi.
resolution infrared data, Contact print using film product directly as a negative. Clouds
displayed black, land masses displayed white.

NOTE: 1. Warm currents in the Sea of Japan and Yellow Sea
2. Strong thermal gradients in the Sea of Japan and weak gradients in the Yellow

Sea (a region of shallow water and strong tidal mixing).

I20°E__40°N

FIGURE 6.

Figure 6 - HRIR data, Yellow Sea, Korean Peninsula, western Sea of Japan. Ascending
node, 0223Z, 10 April 1972, 4527/2532, expand right. MI1, X4, 291°K, 2n.mi.
resolution infrared data, Contact print using film product directly as a negative. Clouds

displayed black, land masses displayed white.
NOTE: 1. Warm currents in the Sea of Japan and Yellow Sea
2. Strong thermal gradients in the Sea of Japan and weak gradients in the Yellow

Sea (a region of shallow water and strong tidal mixing).

3°0El °eSl vrok = =3°0S!

equotjo

34A32e -023M
OUIXIM

WAAR AO \KA2e
°cé

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Jf
Al
4

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AavIA ©
AT43Qo.
°

2qu0J9 a ”

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. aon

ay

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vie
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amine

i fy HH

Figure 7 - HRIR data, China Coastal Current in the Yellow Sea. Ascending node, 0309Z,

1 April 1972, 4527/2405, expand center, MI], X4, 291°K, 2 n.mi. resolution infrared

data.

NOTE: The China Coastal Current detected as a tongue of cold water extending from the
Gulf of Po Hai south along the western side of the Yellow Sea.

I2528

NS°E

ae

_=

Figure 7 - HRIR data, China Coastal Current in the Yellow Sea. Ascending node, 0309Z,
1 April 1972, 4527/2405, expand center, MI1, X4, 291°K, 2 n.mi. resolution infrared
data.
NOTE: The China Coastal Current detected as a tongue of cold water extending from the
Gulf of Po Hai south along the western side of the Yellow Sea.
EKGEST °0SI 3°?

Op
vi
\ Tee ae eae
J \ % Mm)
NAS WO YAN"

9 \

Ne

° eae
‘\eQuojs

DANA ASTOMNN F
°0El .Y JAUOIA

Figure 8 - HRIR data, east China Sea. Descending node, 1201Z, 27 November 1971,
3526/4043, expand center, MI], X4, 298°K, 2n.mi. resolution infrared data. Contact
print using film product as a negative.
NOTE: 1. Clouds and land masses displayed black (the latter due to night time terrestrial
cooling).
2. Absence of Yellow Sea Water Current seen on fig. 6.
3. Strong oceanic front between Yellow Sea - South Korean waters and the
Kurioshio warm waters.

I20°E i255 130° ISS2E

FIGURE 8.

Figure 8 - HRIR data, east China Sea. Descending node, 1201Z, 27 November 1971,
3526/4043, expan sate oie be 298K _e\2 nmi. rovolonion! iafcqred data, Contac 3°08)

black (the latter due to night time terrestrial

urrent seen on fig. 6.
ellow Sea - South Korean waters afid-fhee U

WAARG AD Ade? 1)

Kae WOLYAN

*e
.
ee,

athce “Cecccee, oe: ee

Se WA3IAOM HTUC?
a TUOAA JAT2A0D

-8 JAVON

Figure 9 - HRIR data, the Tsushima Warm Current, Korean Peninsula and western Sea of
Japan. Descending node, 1255Z, 27 October 1972, 3526/8824, expand right, Ml}, X4,
295°K, 2n.mi. resolution infrared data. Contact print using film product as a negative.
NOTE: 1. Distribution of warm water in Sea of Japan, outlining the flow from each channel
of the strait.
2. Strong thermal gradients off south coast of Korea.
3. Hydrodynamic features outlined by sea surface temperatures including:
(a) meanders of the front
(b) cyclonic gyre
(c) small anticyclonic eddy, ENE of Cheju do.

FIGURE 9.

Figure 9 - HRIR data, the Tsushima Warm Current, Korean Peninsula and western Sea of
Japan. Descending node, 1255Z, 27 October 1972, 3526/8824, expand right, Ml}, X4,
295°K, 2n.mi. resolution infrared data. Contact print using film product as a negative.
NOTE: 1. Distribution of warm water in Sea of Japan, outlining the flow from each channel
. Of the strait.
2. Strong thermal gradients off south coast of Korea.
3. Hydrodynamic features outlined by sea surface temperatures including:
(a) meanders of the front
(b) eee ee “OE!
(c) small an

enic eddy, ENE of Chej

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TEMPERATURE (°C)

SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE TRACE

ie [eee Deen eee | ee 1 1 aieee ae ee |)
2-1 2-2 2-3 254 2-5 2-7 2-9 2-11 2-13 2-15
OCEAN STATION NUMBERS JAPAN

KOREAN COASTAL WATER TSUSHIMA CURRENT WATER (TSUSHIMA)

2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-7 2-9 2-11 2-13 2-15

50;—-

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if

TEMPERATURE PROFILE (°C)

Figure 11

TEMPERATURE PROFILES WEST, CHANNEL, KOREAN STRAIT, I6 OCTOBER 1972

Surface Truth Oceanographic Data (Line of Stations No. 2),
Temperature profile obtained by the U.S.N.S. Silas Bent (TAGS-26).
Compare with HRIR Image 13 Oct. ’72, Figure 10, obtained three
days earlier.

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Department of Geography
1775 S. College Road
Columbus, Ohio 43210

Ministerialrat Prof. Dr. W.J. Aufm Kamp
Abtilung RU/FO 111

Bundes Ministerium Der Verteidigung
Postfach 161

D-5300 Bonn, West Germany

Dr. Francis P. Shepard
Scripps Institute of Oceanography
La Jolla, California 92038

Establissement

Principal Du Service

Hydrographique Et Oceanographique De
La Marine

29 283 Brest - Cedex

Commanding Officer

U.S. Army Engineering
Topographic Laboratory
ATTN: ETL-ST

Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060

Dr. Thomas K. Peucker
Simon Fraser University
Department of Geography
Burnaby 2, B.C., Canada

Dr. O.M. Shemdin and M.P. O'Brien
College of Engineering

University of Florida

Gainesville, Florida 32601

Dr. Edward B. Thornton
Department of Oceanography
Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California 93940

Director

Amphibious Warfare Board

U.S. Atlantic Fleet

Naval Amphibious Base

Norfolk, Little Creek, Virginia 23520

Dr. Dale F. Leipper
Department of Oceanography
Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California 93940

Library, Geological Survey of Canada
Room 350

601 Booth Street

Ottawa 1, Canada

Unit of Coastal Sedimentation
Beadon Road, Taunton,
Somerset, England

The Library

Department of Geography
University of Cambridge
Downing Place
Cambridge, England

Coastal Studies Institute
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge Lousisiana 70803

Dr. Robert Dolan

Department of Environmental Sciences
University of Virginia

Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

Office of Naval Research
Scientific Liaison Officer

Scripps Instituticn of Oceanography
La Jolla, California 92038

The Library

Royal Geographical Society
Kensington Grove

London, S.W. 1 England

Dr. Warren C. Tompson

Dept. of Meteorology & Oceanography
U.S. Naval Post Grad. School
Monterey, California 93940

Commanding Officer
Naval Caostal Systems Laboratory
Panama City, Florida 32401

Commanding Officer
Naval Air Development Center
Warminster, Johnsville, Pennsylvania 18974

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