COCHISE AND MOGOLLON SITES Pine Lawn Valley Western New Mexico PAUL S. MARTIN JOHN B. RINALDO ERNST ANTEVS FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY VOLUME 38, NUMBER 1 Published by CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM APRIL 29, 1949 COCHISE AND MOGOLLON SITES Pine Lawn Valley Western New Mexico J3 ft « 3 02 tf COCHISE AND MOGOLLON SITES Pine Lawn Valley Western New Mexico PAUL S. MARTIN Chief Curator, Department of Anthropology JOHN B. RINALDO Assistant in Archaeology, Department of Anthropology ERNST ANTEVS Research Associate, Department of Geology FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY VOLUME 38, NUMBER 1 Published by CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM APRIL 29, 1949 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM PRESS PREFACE From April to September of 1947, archaeological investigations were conducted in western New Mexico in the Apache National Forest, Catron County. Our nearest town was Reserve, New Mexico, about seven miles to the east. We worked in a valley that we call the Pine Lawn Valley (see map, Fig. 2), which lies between the San Francisco and Saliz Mountains (see Chap. IV). Our work in the Forest was carried on under a permit issued to Chicago Natural History Museum by the Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture. From Mr. R. B. Ewing, Forest Supervisor, Apache National Forest, Springerville, Arizona, and from Mr. Ray Swapp, Ranger of the Hood Ranger Station, we received co-operation and friendly assistance, for which we wish to express our gratitude. The 1947 investigations had two phases, one of which was an extensive archaeological survey and the other, intensive digging at several sites. The purposes of the survey were two-fold: (1) To hunt for non- pottery sites which would yield information concerning early man in America and the ancestral relationships of the SU site; and (2) to search for pottery sites in order to establish a more complete typo- logical sequence. The survey was conducted by Dr. John B. Rinaldo, who covered more than 100 square miles and discovered more than 100 sites. Mr. E. B. Sayles, of the Arizona State Museum, Tucson, joined Dr. Rinaldo for ten days and directed the search for non- pottery sites. Stone tools belonging to the Chiricahua stage of the Cochise culture were found in the banks of Wet Leggett Canyon (Twp. 7 S., R. 20 W., Sec. 14, 15, and 23, N.M.P.M. Catron County). Dr. Ernst Antevs, Globe, Arizona, spent a month in the Pine Lawn Valley and determined the dates of these early stone tools. His complete report on the results of his survey and his researches are contained in this monograph (Chap. IV). Excavations were carried on at four different sites. The name, phase, and location of each is as follows: 8 PREFACE (1) Promontory site, Pine Lawn phase (N.E. VA sec. 3, T. 8 S., R. 20 W., N.M.P.M.). (2) Turkey Foot Ridge, Three Circle phase (S.W. M sec. 34, T. 7 S., R. 20 W., N.M.P.M.). (3) Twin Bridges site, Three Circle phase (N.W. % sec. 26, T. 7 S., R. 20 W., N.M.P.M.). (4) Oak Springs Pueblo, Reserve phase (same location as Twin Bridges site). Reports on these excavations are also included herein. We wish to thank Mr. Stanley Field and Colonel Clifford C. Gregg, respectively President and Director of Chicago Natural History Museum, and the Board of Trustees, for their continuing interest in and appreciation of our field work. We take pleasure in thanking the members of the camp staff for their co-operation and assistance: Mr. George I. Quimby, Miss Mary Allee, Mrs. Martha Perry, Mr. Leonard G. Johnson, and Mr. W. T. Egan. Again we wish to acknowledge the invaluable help of Mr. E. B. Sayles, Curator, Arizona State Museum, Tucson, Arizona. Mrs. Mary Crackel, proprietress of Pine Lawn Camp, continued her generous assistance to us and provided us with electric current, water, and milk. We wish to thank the men who dug for us: Gregorio and Marcos Jiron, Ben Romero, and Ruben and Willy Serna. Dr. A. E. Douglass, Director of the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, Tucson, Arizona, and his assistants, Dr. Edmund Schul- man and Mr. T. L. Smiley, have undertaken to analyze our tree-ring specimens. Dr. Schulman visited camp and took borings of living trees in the Pine Lawn Valley. These borings will greatly aid in the problem of dating our wood, much of which was excavated during the summer. Miss Shirley Marshall, of the Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago, traced the maps and charts used in this report. CONTENTS PAGE List of Illustrations 13 List of Tables 15 I. General Remarks 17 Problems 20 II. Archaeological Survey in the Reserve Area 21 Method 22 Classification of Sites 23 Summary 25 III. Excavations, by George I. Quimby 26 Wet Leggett Site . 26 Promontory Site 27 Twin Bridges Site 29 Oak Springs Site 30 Turkey Foot Site 32 Back-Filling of the Excavations 33 IV. Age of Cochise Artifacts on the Wet Leggett 34 Place and Mode of Occurrence of the Artifacts 34 Geomorphology 34 Modern Climate 38 Vegetation and Fauna 43 Beds and Stratification 43 Conditions of Erosion and Deposition and Climatic Significance of Beds 48 Role of Plant-and-Soil Mantle 48 Modern Channel Erosion and Deposition 49 Old Channel Erosion and Deposition 50 Old Channel Filling 52 Soil-forming Processes 54 Summary 55 Stratigraphic Occurrence of the Artifacts 55 Climatic History and the Age of the Cochise Artifacts 56 9 10 CONTENTS PAGE V. Archaeology of the Wet Leggett 58 Artifacts 59 Affiliation of the Wet Leggett Artifacts 60 Manos .• 66 Metates 68 Projectile Point 72 Blades 72 Gravers 72 Flake Knives 74 Scrapers 76 Choppers 78 VI. Description of Architectural Details 81 Pine Lawn Phase 82 Promontory Site 82 Pit-house A 82 Pit-house B 86 Pit-house C 90 Pit-house D 94 Pit-house E 98 Three Circle Phase 102 Turkey Foot Ridge Site 102 Pit-house A 102 Pit-house B 106 Twin Bridges Site 110 Pit-house A 110 Pit-house B 114 Pit-house C 118 Pit-house D 122 Reserve Phase 126 Oak Springs Pueblo 126 VII. Artifacts 130 List of Artifacts , . 130 Discussion 130 Methods of Manufacture 131 Ground and Pecked Stone Tools 131 Chipped Stone Tools 132 Worked Shell 133 Bone Tools 133 Clay Artifacts 133 Functions of Artifacts 134 Comparison with Artifacts of Different Horizons 136 Manos 143 CONTENTS 11 PAGE Rubbing Stones 148 Pestles 150 Metates 152 Small, Metate-like Grinding Stones 156 Worked (Piki?) Slabs 158 Mortars 160 Stone Dishes 160 Polishing Stones 162 Hammerstones 164 Choppers 164 Abrading Stone 166 Pipes 166 Hoes 166 Projectile Points 168 Drills 168 Knives 170 Scrapers 172 Bracelet 176 Awls 176 Bone Die 176 Worked Human Bone 176 Data on Identifiable Unworked Bone Fragments 176 Worked Sherds 178 Animal Effigy 178 VIII. Pottery 184 Pine Lawn Phase 184 Three Circle Phase 184 Reserve Phase 188 Relationships of Principal Pottery Types in Mogollon Sites in Western New Mexico 190 Deductions from Graph (Fig. 71) 198 Comparison of Abajo Red-on-Orange and Mogollon Red-on-Brown 202 IX. Report on the Burials 205 X. Synthesis . . 207 Summary 207 Survey 207 Excavations 207 Inferences 209 Summary 219 Results 221 Estimated Dates for Pine Lawn Valley 221 Bibliography 223 Index 229 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TEXT FIGURES PAGE 1. Restoration drawing of Oak Springs Pueblo, Reserve phase . . Frontispiece 2. Map showing location of Pine Lawn Valley, New Mexico 16 3. Sketch of Pine Lawn region 35 4. Locations of sites and profiles on Wet Leggett 36 5. Panoramic view of Wet Leggett 37 6. Arroyo bank at Locus B, Wet Leggett Canyon 44 7. Location of artifacts at Locus B 45 8. Somewhat idealized north-south profile of beds at Locus B, with strati- graphic position of artifacts. Areal location of artifacts is shown in figure 7 46 9. Profiles of beds exposed in arroyo walls of Wet Leggett Canyon ... 47 10. Sequence of beds, climatic history, and age of Cochise artifacts .... 49 11. Gradient of Wet Leggett Valley from Locus A to Pine Lawn 50 12. Metate in situ at Station K, Wet Leggett Canyon 61 13. Manos, Wet Leggett Canyon 67 14. Metate from Station K, Wet Leggett Canyon 69 15. Metate in situ at Station F, Wet Leggett Canyon 70 16. Metate in situ at Station F, Wet Leggett Canyon 71 17. Blades, projectile point, and gravers, Wet Leggett Canyon 73 18. Flake knives, Wet Leggett Canyon 75 19. Scrapers, Wet Leggett Canyon 77 20. Choppers and a scraper, Wet Leggett Canyon 79 21. Map of Promontory site 80 22. Plan and sections of Pit-house A, Promontory site 83 23. Pit-house A, Promontory site 85 24. Plan and sections of Pit-house B, Promontory site 87 25. Pit-house B, Promontory site 89 26. Plan and sections of Pit-house C, Promontory site 91 27. Pit-house C, Promontory site 93 28. Plan and sections of Pit-house D, Promontory site 95 29. Pit-house D, Promontory site 97 30. Plan and sections of Pit-house E, Promontory site 99 31. Pit-house E, Promontory site 101 32. Plan and sections of Pit-house A, Turkey Foot Ridge site 103 13 14 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE 33. Pit-house A, Turkey Foot Ridge site 105 34. Plan and sections of Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge site 107 35. Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge site 108 36. Map of Twin Bridges site 109 37. Plan and sections of Pit-house A, Twin Bridges site Ill 38. Pit-house A, Twin Bridges site 113 39. Plan and sections of Pit-house B, Twin Bridges site 115 40. Pit-house B, Twin Bridges site 117 41. Plan and sections of Pit-house C, Twin Bridges site 119 42. Pit-house C, Twin Bridges site 121 43. Plan and sections of Pit-house D, Twin Bridges site 123 44. Pit-house D, Twin Bridges site 125 45. Plan and sections of Oak Springs Pueblo 127 46. Oak Springs Pueblo, looking north at Rooms A, B, C, and F 128 47. Oak Springs Pueblo, showing details of masonry and doorway between Rooms A and B 129 48-50. Manos 145-147 51. Rubbing stones 149 52. Pestles: a-d, multifaced type; e, angular type 151 53. Trough type metate, trough open at one end only 153 54. Trough type metate, trough open at both ends 154 55. Trough type metate and mano in situ, Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge site 155 56. Small, metate-like grinding stones 157 57. Worked slab 159 58. Stone dishes and mortar 161 59. Polishing stones 163 60. Hammerstones and choppers 165 61. Tubular pipes, hoe fragment, and abrading stone 167 62. Drills and projectile points 169 63. Knives (miscellaneous types) 171 64. Biface and random flake scrapers 173 65. Large random flake scrapers 174 66. Keel-shaped and end scrapers 175 67. Bone and shell artifacts 177 68. Animal effigy fragment and worked sherds 179 69. Pottery sherds: a, Abajo Red-on-Orange; column b, San Lorenzo Red-on- Brown; column c, Mogollon Red-on-Brown; column d, Three Circle Red-on- White; column e, Mimbres Bold Face Black-on-White . . . 185 70. Pottery sherds: a, Reserve Black-on-White; b, Mimbres Neck Corru- gated; c, Incised Corrugated; d, Reserve Fillet Rim; e, Smudged Decorated 189 71. Chart showing relationships of principal pottery types in Mogollon sites, western New Mexico 192-193 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 15 PAGE 72. Pottery: a, San Francisco Red barrel-shaped jar from Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge site; b, Alma Plain jar from Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge site; c, San Francisco Red bowl from Pit-house A, Prom- ontory site; d, Reserve Smudged bowl from Oak Springs Pueblo burial 197 73. Pottery: a, San Francisco Red barrel-shaped jar from Pit-house A, Promontory site; b, Alma Plain globular jar from Pit-house D, Twin Bridges site; c, Incised stone bowl from Pit-house D, Twin Bridges site; d, Alma Plain pitcher from Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge site. All miniatures 199 74. Pottery: a, Alma Neck Banded wide-mouthed jar from Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge site; b, San Francisco Red globular jar from Pit- house A, Promontory site 200 75. Wide-mouthed jars: a, Alma Plain, from Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge site; b, Alma Plain, from Pit-house D, Twin Bridges site; c, Alma Scored, from Pit-house C, Twin Bridges site; d, Alma Scored, from Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge site 201 76. Jars from Pit-house D, Twin Bridges site: a, Alma Plain; b, Three Circle Red-on-White 203 77. Burial 3 in situ, Room B, Oak Springs Pueblo 206 78. Chart showing the development of traits in the Mimbres Branch . 210-211 LIST OF TABLES 1. Temperature and growing season 39 2. Precipitation in inches 39 3. Frequency of occurrence of artifacts in pit-houses 180-183 4. Sherd analysis, Pine Lawn phase 186 5. Sherd analysis, Three Circle phase 190-191 6. Sherd analysis, Reserve phase 194-195 7. Sherd analysis, summary of all sites 204 8. Distribution of house features at SU site . . . ; 216-217 MONTICELLO O BLANOING O 1928-29 EXCAVATIONS LOWRY RUIN 1930-34 1938 EXCAVATIONS MEXICO Fig. 2. Map showing location of Pine Lawn Valley, New Mexico. 16 I. GENERAL REMARKS During the summer of 1947, we pursued our study of the archae- ology of the Pine Lawn Valley. Specifically, our efforts were directed toward solving several problems that are directly concerned with the origin and development of the Mogollon culture. We sought information that would help us understand the relationship of the Mogollon culture, as manifested in our area, to that culture as it existed in other parts of New Mexico and Arizona. In our classifications, pottery (when present) is the most im- portant item because it is the most sensitive criterion that we know of at present. Most of the stone implements are also helpful (espe- cially in the Cochise horizon) in setting up our taxonomic groupings, although some tools (polishing stones, hammerstones) are not useful because they are not specialized enough in shape or time. In our area, bone tools and likewise pit-houses are also helpful in our scheme in a limited way, especially when used in conjunction with pottery and stone tools. Thus it will be understood by the reader that the "Mogollon culture" is an invention of several archaeologists and is used here to describe houses, pottery, and tools that seem to be different in form from those found in ruins called "Anasazi" or "Pueblo." When we speak of the "Pine Lawn phase" we refer to an interval of time (ending about a.d. 500) and to specific pottery types, bone and stone tool types, and house forms, all of which we have deliberately and arbitrarily set up as classifications. From these, it is hoped to reconstruct the history of our region and to humanize our researches. We are not interested merely in presenting measurements or classi- fications; we hope to go beyond them. For that reason, we separate our observations and data from our conjectures and each section is carefully labeled so that the student will not go astray. A resume- of the taxonomic entity called the Mogollon culture is perhaps in order. In dealing with this subject, we place the Mimbres phase as a late development of the Mogollon classification. In 1907, Hough published a report on the antiquities of the upper Gila and Salt River valleys in Arizona and New Mexico. He not only conducted an archaeological reconnaissance over a large area, 17 18 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO but he also did some digging. Near Luna, New Mexico, only seventeen miles distant from Pine Lawn Valley, he discovered several pit-house villages. The pottery was mostly "fragments of coarse brown undecorated pottery" (Alma Plain?) and only a few fragments of "a peculiar creamy white ware with red-brown linear decoration." (Three Circle Red-on- White?) In several places (pp. 9, 25, 26) Hough suggests that the tribes formerly inhabiting the upper Gila-Salt River region "were distinct from the tribes of the neigh- boring regions and sprang from an original local source," and that the developments in sculptural forms pointed to southern influences. In other words, Hough recognized that the cultures of the upper Gila regions were different from those centering around Gallup and northward from there; and it must be remembered that the earliest sites that he saw we would now probably put in the Three Circle phase, and the latest ones in the Tularosa phase. Bradfield carried on excavations for several years in Mimbres Valley, and dug pit-houses as well as surface rooms. He felt that a "detailed study of the earliest periods of Mimbres cultural develop- ment will reveal interesting facts in the early period of Pre-Pueblo culture in the Southwest not yet thoroughly understood." (Brad- field, 1927, p. 559.) Whether Mr. Bradfield ever changed his mind about the ancestry of the Mimbres culture is not known, as he died before his final report had been completed. The Cosgroves (1932, p. 113) stated that Mimbres origins were unknown to them, although in the same report Kidder (p. xix) im- plied that from the point of view of the San Juan nucleus the Mimbres culture was peripheral. Kidder also stated in the same place that the Gila, and perhaps also Chihuahua, must be reckoned with as the theater of a development perhaps quite independent. Kidder's point of view was not unreasonable in 1932 because at that time only late Mogollon-Mimbres sites had been studied. It now seems fairly certain to us that the Mimbres culture is a "mixture" of the Mogollon and Anasazi assemblages. Gladwin (1934, pp. 221-227) briefly described the "Mogollon branch," which he had named the preceding year. So far as we know, Gladwin was the first to name and mention the Mogollon culture as such. Haury made the first published report on this subject (1936a, b). Here for the first time the Mogollon culture was set forth as a taxonomic entity that was different from the Anasazi and Hohokam classifications. GENERAL REMARKS 19 Many words both for and against the idea have been poured forth since the date of that publication. Those opposed to a Mogollon entity have rarely had much actual contact with Mogollon sites and materials. Every Mogollon expert with whom we have talked readily admits that Anasazi influences were strong in the Mogollon area after about A.D. 700. After studying our data and materials from four seasons' work in the Pine Lawn Valley, we are convinced that we are not chasing a phantom. It seems evident to all who have worked in the Mogollon area, including Nesbitt (Martin, 1940, p. 10), that Mogollon culture is a valid concept that corresponds to a reality. Enough work has been done now in the Mogollon area to show that we never shall have many traits to work with. The Mogollon culture, as we conceive it, is simple, relatively poor, and has only a few cultural traits: pottery, tools of bone and stone, and houses. If we arrive at any conclusions about the materials in ques- tion, we shall have to squeeze them out of the four traits just men- tioned. It is possible that later work, in caves especially, may disclose more traits. Haury named and defined three distinct non-Puebloan phases that were earlier than the Mimbres phase. He asserted that the early stages of the culture called Mogollon were neither Anasazi nor Hohokam (our work in a still earlier phase of the Mogollon cul- ture completely supports Haury's views of 1934) ; that the separate- ness of the Mogollon concept had much to recommend it; and that the "mixture" of Anasazi and Hohokam traits about A.D. 900, com- bined with the original Mogollon traits, produced what is known as the Mimbres phase. Nesbitt (1938) excavated, in the Pine Lawn Valley, some houses belonging to the San Francisco and Three Circle phases. He now agrees with our hypotheses concerning the Mogollon culture, al- though at that time (1938) he stated that the Mogollon culture, as currently known, did not represent a new basic pattern. Haury (1940) again attacked the Mogollon problem by excavating a series of houses in the Forestdale Valley, in east-central Arizona. The significance of the Bear Ruin (in the Forestdale Valley) lies in the nature of the cultural traits, which show a blending and hybridiz- ing of Mogollon and Anasazi elements. It seemed to Haury that the Bear Ruin represented a local and marginal aspect of the Mogollon culture and that its individuality was intensified by mixture with the Anasazi culture. As a result of his studies at the Bear Ruin in the Forestdale Valley, Haury advanced the hypothesis that the Mogollon culture 20 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO was an independent entity and that it may have been the under- pinning for later and higher cultural groups. In 1941, Haury dug twenty- three pit-houses in the Bluff site (Haury, 1942), Forestdale Valley, Arizona. The pottery and tools from this site show unmistakable marks of relationship with the SU site (Martin, 1940, 1943; Martin and Rinaldo, 1947) and are classified as Mogollon. Furthermore, this is the first "pure" Mogollon site to be dated (early portion of the fourth century A.D.). Interestingly enough, the traits found were more or less what Dr. Haury had guessed would turn up in an early Mogollon site. The most recent significant information pertaining to the Mogol- lon problem is presented by Sayles (1945) in a report on excavations in the San Simon Valley. There he found a cultural development that parallels the development in the Mimbres branch in pottery, in architecture, and, to some extent, in stone tools. The pottery and houses of his earliest phase, Penasco (formerly referred to by some archaeologists as "Cave Creek phase"), are similar in many respects to those of the Pine Lawn phase. The Mogollon develop- ment as described by Sayles for the San Simon district is complete, whereas in the Mimbres branch (exemplified by Mogollon 1:15, Harris, Starkweather, and SU sites; Haury, 1936a; Nesbitt, 1938; Martin, 1940, 1943; Martin and Rinaldo, 1947) there are some gaps. Sayles can demonstrate a complete taxonomic sequence from earliest Cochise times through to the Encinas phase, which is roughly equiva- lent to the Mimbres or Reserve phase. PROBLEMS When the Mogollon concept was announced a decade ago, there was much controversy over its validity. As now may be seen, there is a growing body of evidence to support the Mogollon hypothesis. While there are yet many problems to cope with, we now feel that the taxonomic concept of a Mogollon culture is better estab- lished. As a result of our four seasons' work in New Mexico, we believe that the argument concerning the separateness of the Mogol- lon culture is largely an academic one, in view of the large amount of data on hand. Details are lacking, but a few important land- marks have been pointed out, some of which appear in this report; for example, the relationship of the Mogollon culture to the Cochise complex; the simplicity of the earlier phases; the complete sequence of the San Simon branch; the trends in pottery development (which differ from the traditions of the Anasazi and the Hohokam) ; and the related trends in stone tools and in architecture. II. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE RESERVE AREA In accordance with the plans of the Chicago Natural History Museum Expedition, Dr. Rinaldo was sent out to New Mexico in April, 1947, to conduct an archaeological survey in the Reserve area with the primary purpose of locating any stage earlier than Pine Lawn phase, and any non-pottery horizon; and the secondary purpose of finding a large series of pottery-bearing sites which would present enough data to permit us to set up a complete local typo- logical sequence. On the basis of Haury's Mimbres Valley excava- tions for Gila Pueblo farther to the south, and Nesbitt's excavations of the Starkweather Ruin to the east, it had been assumed that the Red-on-Brown sequence would hold in the Pine Lawn Valley between the two localities; nevertheless it seemed absolutely necessary to investigate the local sequence in greater detail because the area lies so close to the consistently occurring Black-on-White sequence to the north and especially because no pottery of the Mogollon Red- on-Brown type had been found on the surface or in the excavations in the Pine Lawn Valley up to that time. Several earlier archaeological surveys had been conducted in the Reserve area but none of them was intensive enough to fulfill the purposes outlined for the present survey. The earliest archaeological survey in the Reserve area was made by Walter Hough for the Bureau of American Ethnology, which published the report of his findings in 1907 (Bulletin 35). However, this very extensive survey over- lapped our own only in the Tularosa River and Apache Creek drainages and did not touch upon the Leggett, Saliz and SU Canyon drainages most intensively surveyed this year; nor did Hough explore the reaches of the San Francisco River from Reserve up to The Box, where the river turns west toward Luna — another area explored this year. In 1931 Dr. Emil Haury and Russell Hastings, both then asso- ciated with Gila Pueblo, visited the major and more accessible sites in the vicinity. Finally, in 1941, Brigham A. Arnold conducted a very intensive archaeological reconnaissance survey of two relatively small areas situated in the Leggett Canyon drainage (Martin, 21 22 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO 1943, pp. 252-263). Although these surveys described numerous sites of the Reserve and Tularosa phases and a few of the Pine Lawn phase, there were no sites that might be placed with any probability in the Georgetown or San Francisco phases and very few of the Three Circle phase, thus leaving an unexplained gap in the local sequence. The area covered most intensively by the present survey extends from the Starkweather Canyon west to the head of Wet Leggett and Lost Springs canyons and south from Luna Mountain down the main Leggett drainage to the junction of Saliz and Leggett canyons. Somewhat less intensively the area down Saliz Canyon to the San Francisco River and the area up the San Francisco River from Re- serve to The Box and east to Apache Creek, including the Largo Canyon and Tularosa River drainages, was examined. Finally, such terrain features as cienagas and deep arroyos showing cut banks in the area north to Spur Lake and south to Cliff were examined with a view to finding evidences of early man. Mr. E. B. Sayles of Arizona State Museum and Dr. Ernst Antevs were partners at different times in the search for evidences of early man. What was found of this nature was due to their great knowledge, experience, and assistance. Before the excavation season started, Mr. Ruben M. Serna acted as local guide and assistant, and his intimate knowledge of local roads, trails, springs and terrain was very helpful. METHOD The rugged mountainous character of the terrain, the great size of the area to be covered, and the time allotted for the purpose did not permit investigation of the entire area on foot. A light truck was used wherever possible beyond the Pine Lawn Valley. The usual procedure was to drive the truck to a particular known group of ruins, or an area around a spring or cienaga to be explored; then a systematic search was made from there on foot. On discovering a site, we made a collection of pottery and artifacts, and entered on a card the pertinent geographical data (terrain, vegetation, etc.) and archaeological data (dimensions of ruin, probable number of rooms, pottery and artifact types, etc.). When feasible, we made a sketch map of the site on the back of the card. The pottery and artifacts were then put in a sack and tagged with the site number in sequence. At camp the sherds and artifacts were washed, counted and classified and the additional data gained therefrom was entered on the cards, which were then edited and typewritten. These cards are on file at Chicago Natural History Museum. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY 23 CLASSIFICATION OF SITES The sites found were grouped into five classifications: (1) non- pottery sites, (2) sherd areas and pit-house sites yielding only plain ware, (3) combined pueblo and pit-house sites, (4) small pueblo sites, and (5) large pueblo sites. One non-pottery site yielding stone artifacts only was found by Mr. E. B. Sayles and Dr. Rinaldo early in the season. This was named the Wet Leggett site because of its location in the banks of the Wet Leggett arroyo. This site is described in another section of this report. The plain ware sites might be classified as sites of the Pine Lawn phase. These sites were both plain ware sherd areas (without house depressions), and sites with noticeable, round, depressed areas that are almost certain to mark the location of pit-houses. The pottery found on such sites was Alma Rough, Alma Plain, and the early variety of San Francisco Red. Three of these sites seemed to be unusual in location and in having stone "walls," and these differences were thought to be possibly significant. They were all located on top of high, steep-sided, flat- topped mesas, one end of which was crossed by three or more "walls" or linear piles of lava boulders. In two cases these "walls" appeared to block off the least accessible end of the mesa, as if they were meant for crude fortifications. One of these sites on a mesa opposite Apache Creek is mentioned by Hough (Site 107, "Wall," p. 74, 1907), although his report de- scribes only one wall and makes no mention of the pottery types to be found there. Another site of this type (the Promontory site), was excavated during the course of the season and the prognosis that it belonged to the Pine Lawn phase proved to be correct. The excavations at this site are described in pages 81 to 101. At least a dozen sites of the Pine Lawn phase yielding only plain wares are known in the Reserve area. They range in size from the large SU site, which was a village of thirty or more houses, to small sherd areas showing but a single noticeable house depression. The second grouping of sites consisted of those with both pueblo ruins and pit-house depressions. We located eight sites falling in this category. The pueblo ruins on such sites were for the most part small, containing probably less than seven rooms. The pottery types found were Alma Plain, San Francisco Red, Three Circle Neck Corrugated, Reserve Smudged, Reserve Black-on- White, and Three Circle Red-on-White. However, two of these sites gave evidence of a longer time span of occupation by the presence of a 24 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO number of Tularosa Black-on-White and Upper Gila Corrugated sherds along with the Three Circle Red-on-White and Three Circle Neck Corrugated sherds. This assemblage of wares indicates a possible time span of occupation from Three Circle phase times to the Tularosa phase. Two pit-houses on one of these sites (Turkey Foot Ridge) were excavated and are described in another section (pp. 102-108). A third and larger grouping was that of small pueblo ruins. These were characterized by masonry ruins containing from two to seven rooms, and by the following pottery types: Alma Plain, San Francisco Red, Three Circle Neck Corrugated, Incised Corrugated, Reserve Smudged and Reserve Black-on-White. There were no kiva depressions associated with many of these sites. Thirty-four such small ruins were found. With two exceptions, which were sites on which Tularosa Black-on-White and Upper Gila Corrugated pottery was found in some quantity, all of these sites are believed to belong to the Reserve phase. One pueblo of this type (Oak Springs Pueblo) was excavated during the season and is described in this report (pp. 126-129). A fourth grouping of pottery sites is that of large pueblos con- taining from eight to twelve rooms. The pottery types characteris- tically associated with such sites in the Reserve area are as follows: Alma Plain, San Francisco Red, Upper Gila Corrugated, Mimbres Neck Corrugated, Reserve Smudged, Tularosa Black-on-White, Reserve Fillet Rim, Reserve Polychrome, and occasional intrusive Black-on-Red types (Puerco and Wingate Black-on-Red). Fre- quently large rectangular kiva depressions are associated with such ruins; others are surrounded by walls, grouped around plazas in an orderly fashion, or show other signs of community planning and activity. These are the ruins that were featured in Hough's report and are to be found most frequently along the larger permanent watercourses such as the San Francisco and Tularosa rivers. Those most easily accessible to the main roads and the towns have been badly pitted by pottery hunters. A few small obsidian triangular arrowpoints were found on such sites, as well as some tiny disk beads and an arrowshaft smoother. Such artifacts appear to be characteristic of the later sites. Fragments of troughed metates with one closed end were found on sites of all categories. Rectangular manos were found on both pueblo and pit-house sites. Basin-type metates were found only on sites of the Pine Lawn phase. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY 25 SUMMARY During the spring of 1947 an archaeological survey was con- ducted in an area within a fifteen-mile radius of Reserve, New Mexico, in order to find a non-pottery site yielding evidence of early man in America and to fill in gaps in the local sequence of pottery phases not revealed by the previous surveys and excavations in the Pine Lawn Valley. A non-pottery site was discovered that shows evidence of early man, and cave sites of some promise were also discovered. The sixty-seven pottery sites visited and described fall into four categories representative of different culture phases: (1) Plain ware sherd areas and pit-house sites probably of the Pine Lawn phase, repre- sented by twelve sites; (2) combined pit-house and pueblo sites yield- ing Three Circle Red-on-White and Reserve Black-on-White pottery, probably of the Three Circle and Reserve phases, represented by eight sites; (3) small pueblos of less than seven rooms containing Reserve Black-on-White pottery and probably of the Reserve phase, represented by thirty-four sites; (4) large pueblos with more than seven rooms and a rectangular kiva and with Tularosa Black-on- White pottery, of the Tularosa phase, represented by thirteen sites. No Mogollon Red-on-Brown pottery was found on the surface in the Pine Lawn Valley proper although a large pit-house village of the "small pueblo and pit-house" grouping, partially excavated during the season, revealed some Mogollon Red-on-Brown pottery in the houses. This site appears to give promise that the Red-on- Brown sequence found at Mogollon 1:15 and Starkweather will hold for the Pine Lawn Valley as well. III. EXCAVATIONS BY George I. Quimby During the 1947 field season Chicago Natural History Museum's archaeological expedition to the Southwest undertook excavations at five sites in Pine Lawn Valley of western New Mexico. Labor, obtained locally, consisted of five young men of Spanish-American tradition, who rendered excellent service. Tools and techniques used in the excavation of these sites were so similar to those described by Braidwood (Martin, 1943) that they need not be described here. In the following pages, the excavations are described briefly by site. WET LEGGETT SITE The Wet Leggett site presented a special problem of excavation that never was solved. The question was where to excavate. Chiricahua (Cochise) type artifacts exposed by erosion were scattered along the banks of Wet Leggett arroyo for about two miles. In many instances the artifacts were in situ and only partly exposed by erosion. These artifacts were unevenly distributed throughout the upper 100 cm. of a gray alluvial deposit that was extremely hard and compact. On top of the gray alluvial deposit was another alluvial stratum of ashy, dark-gray silt varying in thick- ness from a few centimeters to about one meter, although in some places erosion had completely removed this stratum. Preliminary examinations of upper Wet Leggett arroyo dis- closed two concentrations of artifacts in situ. These areas were designated Locus A and Locus B (fig. 4) and excavations were undertaken at both places. At Locus A it was planned to excavate in terms of ten-centimeter levels within two-meter squares. The grid system, however, was abandoned when it was discovered that location stakes could not be driven into the hard gray silt. It was then decided to explore Locus A by means of test trenches in which levels and positions of artifacts would be taken by instrument. Accordingly several trenches were begun, but even with the use of heavy picks the 26 EXCAVATIONS 27 progress of the excavation was extremely slow. In some instances the pick merely bounced off the hard silt; in others, the point of the pick penetrated the gray silt only a few centimeters. At best the silt was picked out in small clods that were then broken up. The difficulty of excavation and the absence of artifacts led to the abandonment of Locus A after two days of digging. Attention was then directed to Locus B, where the^ame procedure was repeated. In addition, tongues of land at the junction of the main and tributary arroyos were cut down. Again no artifacts were forthcoming, and the excavation was slow and very difficult. With mining equipment and techniques it might have been possible to undertake exploratory trenching in a satisfactory manner, but such a thing was out of the question. Therefore, the archaeological investigation of Wet Leggett was carried out in the following way: Artifacts exposed by erosion but still in situ in the steep walls of the arroyo were photographed. Then these artifacts were removed, with the aid of a geologist's hand-pick. As each specimen was removed, a metal surveying stake was driven into the hard gray silt to mark the position of the artifact. A catalogue description of the artifact was written in pencil on a paper tag, which was then fastened to each location stake. Then the location and elevation of each artifact was determined by instrument and plotted on the traverse map of the arroyo. No hearths, house structures or other evidence of actual dwelling area was found in the course of these investigations. At both Locus A and Locus B faces were cut by mattock in the banks of the arroyo so that clear profiles would be available for study by Dr. Ernst Antevs. Dr. Antevs also examined the location of each specimen found in situ and made profiles of all significant strata in the vicinity of a given artifact, usually before the artifact was replaced by a marker stake. The conditions prevailing at the Wet Leggett site call for a long- term plan of investigation. It was decided, therefore, to examine the site during each future field season and to collect and record the locations of additional specimens exposed by erosion. If, at some future time, hearths, dwellings, or other evidence of specific, localized habitation is found, excavation of that locus will be under- taken despite the hardness of the silt. PROMONTORY SITE The Promontory site, although confined to the top of a mesa, was extensive and contained numerous shallow depressions mani- 28 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO festing former pit-houses. Pottery sherds and stone artifacts col- lected in abundance from the surface of the site were types charac- teristic of the Pine Lawn phase. This phase was well known from the exhaustive investigation of the nearby SU site in previous years. Consequently, it did not seem advisable to excavate completely another large site of the Pine Lawn phase. It did, however, seem worth while to sample the promontory site in an attempt to find out: (1) if the entire occupancy of the site were in the Pine Lawn period; (2) if occupancy of a somewhat inaccessible mesa had any cultural significance discoverable by archaeological techniques; and (3) if there were observable temporal and spatial variations within the Pine Lawn phase. With these objectives in mind five pit-house depressions were selected for excavation. This selection was made in an attempt to obtain a reasonably adequate sampling of the site. The distribution of the excavated houses (fig. 21, map of Promontory site) shows that most of the site was tested in terms of this selection. It seemed preferable, as far as possible, to test the site by means of complete excavation of a few selected pit-houses rather than by indiscriminate test trenches in a large number of pit-houses. The data thus obtained by complete excavation would be more com- parable with data obtained in previous seasons as well as with data from other sites excavated during the current season. By maintain- ing the quantitative and qualitative standard already established, all of the data — past, present, and future — could be more easily manipu- lated in the laboratory analyses and interpretations. The method of excavation was the same as that used previously at the SU site. This method has been described by Braidwood (Martin, 1943); consequently it will only be outlined here. First, a particular pit-house is chosen for excavation. The pit- house is manifested superficially by a shallow, saucer-shaped depres- sion. This circular depression is then bisected by a narrow trench through the fill of the pit-house. The fill consists of washed-in soils and cultural detritus, and because it is darker in color and looser in texture it can be distinguished from the wall and floor of the pit- house. Thus the bisecting or cross trench is cut through this fill so that it extends from one wall to the other and from the surface of the ground to the floor in such a way that it does not damage the walls and original floor of the house. After the cross trench has been completed another trench is cut around the periphery of the house. The peripheral trench follows EXCAVATIONS 29 the original wall of the house and extends from the surface of the ground to the original floor. With the completion of the peripheral or wall trench the total trench configuration takes the form of a bisected circle. The next step in the excavation of the pit-house is to remove the two roughly semicircular blocks of fill isolated by the trenches. All of this fill is removed to a depth of about 10 cm. above the original floor of the house. The remaining 10 cm. of fill is considered the occupation floor and is removed separately. When the original floor of the house is reached it is cleaned of all traces of fill ; pits and postholes are also stripped of their deposits of fill. Finally, the fill is removed from the entrance passage and the pit-house is completely excavated. The recovery of the cultural materials goes hand in hand with the excavation of the pit-house. Before the excavation begins, all cultural debris is removed from the surface. Then, as the excavation proceeds, the cultural refuse is collected by unit of excavation. For instance, the materials recovered from the cross trench are kept separate from those found in the wall' trench, and the cultural re- mains found in the semicircular blocks of fill are collected separately from those found in the floor level. Thus each unit of excavation is a separate provenience. After a pit-house has been excavated completely it is photo- graphed from a portable tower designed for that purpose. In addi- tion the pit-house is carefully surveyed and maps are drawn of both the ground plan and the profile. After the mapping and photographing have been completed the pit-house excavation is back-filled. This is done to prevent erosion and to eliminate danger to cattle. The method of excavation outlined above was used on four of the five houses examined at the Promontory site. One pit-house was not completely excavated, partly because of its unusually large size and partly because of the complication produced by a big juniper tree near the middle of the house. However, considerable information about this house was obtained from the cross trench, the wall trench, and the entrance passage. TWIN BRIDGES SITE The Twin Bridges site was a small pit-house village located on the top of a gently sloping, narrow ridge (fig. 36). The preliminary 30 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO survey of the site revealed several very shallow circular depressions and a few sherds of Mogollon plain wares only, suggesting that the site might belong to the early part of the Pine Lawn phase or might, perhaps, be even earlier. However, the actual excavation produced decorated pottery and other traits which revealed that the site belonged to the later Three Circle phase of Mogollon. This site consisted of four pit-houses, two of them square, one nearly square, and one of irregular outline. The method of excava- tion was the same as that already described for the Promontory site with the exception, of course, that the peripheral or wall trench in a square pit-house was itself square, and the blocks of fill isolated by the cross trench and the wall trench were rectangular instead of semicircular as in a round pit-house. OAK SPRINGS SITE The pueblo ruin that constituted the Oak Springs site was located on the valley floor above Oak Springs arroyo. Before excavation, this ruin was manifested by a low, ovoid mound of lichen-covered boulders through which grew a large western pine tree. It was obvious that a considerable portion of the pueblo must have been damaged by the growth of the pine tree, but it also looked as though the northwestern part of the ruin were undamaged. Accordingly excavation was begun in the undisturbed portion of the pueblo. The first step in this excavation was the removal of the super- ficial boulders. When these had been removed, it was possible to ascertain in a general way the trend of the walls. Then a central pit was begun in the fill of what was believed to be a room and the sides of the pit were expanded until the walls of the room were reached. Then the excavation was continued downward until the floor was encountered at the base of the walls. Finally the stone walls and the dirt floor were cleaned by brushing. In this manner all of the fill was removed from one room. The fill removed from the room consisted of black, silty humus and numerous boulders from the fallen, upper walls of the pueblo. These boulders in the fill made the digging rather difficult. Pottery sherds and other artifacts were relatively scarce and culturally indicative of only one occupancy, the Reserve phase of Anasazi. Because of the scarcity of artifacts and their cultural uniformity and because of the difficulty of digging it was decided not to excavate the remaining rooms in terms of levels, but to continue the excava- EXCAVATIONS 31 tion exactly as it had been done in the first room. Should the need arise at any time, the excavation method could be changed to meet the new circumstances. With one room, A, completely excavated it was easy to locate two adjoining rooms, B and C (fig. 45), and then still another room, F. These three rooms were excavated by the same method as room A. The four rooms, A, B, C, and F, formed one line of an L-shaped pueblo (fig. 45). The rooms in the remaining line had been badly disturbed by the growth of a large pine tree and several junipers. Despite the disturbance, two more rooms, D and E, were excavated; the remaining room could be ascertained only by external trenching. The floors of the rooms were without pits or features of any kind with one exception. There were a number of small rocks scattered over the floor of room B and in the north end of the room there were three burials. These burials either were on the floor or were in pits that had been dug into the subsequent fill of the room. The floors were of brown gumbo and were level with the base of the walls. After the mapping and photographing of the pueblo had been completed, the floors were trenched to make certain that no features had been overlooked and that the floor rested on sterile gumbo. An outside trench along the west walls of Rooms A, B, C, and F showed conclusively that the pueblo originally had been partly sub- terranean. The soil profile in this trench, taken from the present ground surface to the base of the pueblo wall, showed the following: the top stratum of humus, 15 to 20 cm. thick, contained occasional sherds. Beneath this was a thin stratum of sterile humus about 15 cm. thick. Under the humus was sterile brown gumbo. The base of the pueblo walls and the floors of corresponding rooms were from 20 to 40 cm. beneath the surface of this sterile, compact gumbo. Consequently it seemed certain that the pueblo had been built partly underground. An extensive network of test trenches was dug east of the pueblo. In these trenches the sterile, brown gumbo was encountered at a depth of 15 cm. or less. The humus above the gumbo contained a few nondescript artifacts and numerous pottery sherds of Reserve phase types. The bank of Oak Springs arroyo, the top of which was 3 meters north of the pueblo, was liberally sprinkled with sherds that had washed down from above. Any dump or midden over the bank of the arroyo had been destroyed by erosion. 32 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO No evidence of a kiva was found, although a determined effort was made to find one in the vicinity of the pueblo. With the completion of the excavations the pueblo was photo- graphed, surveyed, and mapped. Then the rooms and trenches were back-filled. TURKEY FOOT SITE The Turkey Foot site was on the narrow crest of a steep, undulat- ing ridge shaped somewhat like a turkey's foot. Numerous saucer- shaped depressions indicated the presence of former pit-houses. Surface collections obtained in the preliminary examination of this site suggested occupancy by Mogollon people of the Three Circle period. It is interesting to note that the square Three Circle pit- houses are manifested by the same kind of saucer-shaped depressions that appear with the earlier circular pit-houses. The Three Circle period or phase was relatively unknown in the Pine Lawn Valley. Although a small Three Circle village (Twin Bridges site) had been excavated earlier in the season, it seemed desirable to obtain additional information. Moreover, there was the possibility, or perhaps hope, of locating some Georgetown or San Francisco houses to help bridge the gap between Pine Lawn and Three Circle. Also, because of the lateness of the season, there was time to excavate only one or two pit-houses. Taking all of these factors into consideration, it seemed most fruitful to spend the remaining time in excavating pit-houses at the Turkey Foot site. The method of excavation was much the same as that of the square pit-houses at the Twin Bridges site. However, while digging the cross trench and the square wall trench of Pit-house A, some sherds were found that possibly were indicative of periods both earlier and later than Three Circle. Consequently, it was decided to dig the remaining blocks of fill by levels to see if any stratigraphy could be obtained from the humus and cultural materials washed into the house after its abandonment. The results obtained by stratigraphic digging of a secondary deposit did not warrant the extra time and effort expended; consequently, the second pit-house examined was excavated in the customary way. This, however, entailed keeping separate the top levels, main body of fill, and floor levels in the two rectangular blocks isolated by the cross trench and the square wall trench. After excavation had been completed these pit-houses were photographed and mapped. Although there had been time to ex- cavate only two of the numerous pit-houses of the Turkey Foot EXCAVATIONS 33 site, considerable information had been obtained, and it was planned to continue the excavation of this site at the earliest opportunity. BACK-FILLING OF THE EXCAVATIONS To prevent erosion and to protect range cattle from accidents, it was necessary to back-fill all of the excavations. In previous seasons the back-filling was undertaken with the aid of a horse-drawn scraper. This time, however, a small garden tractor with plow and scraper attachments was used with considerable success, with one exception. The exception was the Promontory site, where the back-filling was done by hand because it was impossible to get the tractor to the top of the mesa. IV. AGE OF COCHISE ARTIFACTS ON THE WET LEGGETT PLACE AND MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF THE ARTIFACTS The Wet Leggett site is situated in west-central New Mexico at the intersection of 33° 42' N. Lat. and 108° 53' W. Long., eight miles west of Reserve and three miles northwest of Pine Lawn (Fig. 3). It is located in a small valley within the broad Pine Lawn Valley. It lies below the Wet Leggett spring that issues 25 feet above the foot of the San Francisco Mountains, a spring that makes the Wet Leggett into a tiny permanent brooklet for a stretch of 2.2 miles. The site extends between points one-third mile and one mile below the spring (Fig. 4). The main occurrences, Loci A and B, are in the upper part of the site area. The elevation ranges from 6,400 to 6,700 feet. The down-valley slope is 6 per cent. One metate was found 2.5 miles below the spring (profile K). After being lost or discarded at camp sites on the brooklet, the artifacts were embedded in gravel and silt. They have become ex- posed by modern gully erosion and are found in the arroyo walls. GEOMORPHOLOGY The geography and topography of the Pine Lawn region are shown on the Reserve Quadrangle of the United States Geological Survey and on the Forest Service map of the Apache National Forest. The Pine Lawn Valley is from three to four miles wide and some ten miles long, and extends in a southwest-northeasterly direction between the San Francisco and the Saliz mountains, which are 8,000 to 9,000 and 7,000 to 7,500 feet high, respectively. The valley ranges from 6,000 to 7,000 feet in elevation, has a midway divide at about 6,350 feet, and is drained to the San Francisco River by small inter- mittent streams that flow through deep and narrow canyons at both ends. The geology does not seem to have been studied, but judging from contiguous areas, namely, the Blue River region (Darton, 34 Fig. 3. Sketch of Pine Lawn region. 35 36 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO 1925, p. 261), the Mogollon Mountains (Ferguson, 1921, p. 174), and the western San Augustin Plains district (Powers, 1941, pp. 209-211), the bedrocks probably consist of Tertiary igneous and sedimentary rocks. Road cuts and erosion bluffs expose siltstones, sandstones, and conglomerates. Terraces and mesas are capped by f +B 1-ociis A 661tr\ \r-xtf«B' IX Locus B \s [T~~ eS^ 3 * soo 6 7 , 4J P'H. fi Vh 'U 72WWWCZ3 C M 3 «« _g 3 rj<(Ma>ooi-i 03 c C 09 CgT-HCgCg id (u . • . ' a) a> a bo c in Tf to to to to d co co co co co S3 CU -* tOU5 OOOi «> § 00 to E •-S X 3 t-NHCCW 0) E 2 t-oooiOioo (D S c t- t-OiCOCg +j a> § CO CO "^ *C **$ M C 3 ■* to E •-9 X 0) OONHTj^i > s t-oooiOioo < b d 00 i-i i-llOiO § rHIMCOi-H 3 a (M CO i-i *o to la t- oi s T* ■*}< lO U3 "<* s g a> ooooo o>oot-» ■S«" oooo^h i-a OOC-'tf TftO c CT3 o e£ ^ 4J °S ca a 0) j^ -*j Cg](D ;3 w •Sfi fiiC 2^ o a 2 Ph is o c 03 wwcot-oot-t- to •<*< tj< eg eg 1 oo tj4 co co os oo -^ eg lO CO Tf Oi t* -rf« eg th i— 1 1— i i-i t-h i— i Q oo o> eg o> us th eg t-( O t-H O t-H t-I tH fc tJ< to O Oi CO t-h Oi t-H O rH O T-H t-H O O 00 Oi CO 00 CO CO Oi T-H O t-H O t-H t-H O w «o eg oo t> oi «o t- CO Oi -<* CO lO «£> co co eg eg co eg eg 1-8 H(OC*H(D01 ■^ eg co eg -* eg eg i-s oo to t- 1> t- 1- us ooooooo S t- t- «o CO lO U5 CO ooooooo <3 t-H Oi tO Oi Oi «D O t-HOOOOOO § t- o o eg -«t th t> fe O O tH O Tt< Oi t-H Cg rH t-H rH tH O t-H t-B t* Oi O 00 ■>* Oi Oi t-HOtHOtHOO 0) n3 -4-3 ooooo woo OOK3 COOiO t- o -^ o oo to oo n< 00 t- t- U5 lO -«H< Tf _o CIS 43 03 Alpine Jewett Luna Hood Blue Alma Cliff 39 40 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO are the average summer maximum of 85°, the average summer minimum of 47°, and the averages of these figures and of the summer mean of 66°, that is, the mean summer day temperature of 76° and the mean night temperature of 57°. Temperatures near or below freezing, and about 100°, can be expected during all parts of the summer. Perhaps the most important temperature feature is the amount of the daily range, which averages 44° in June and about 34° in July, August, and January, and thus is one of the largest measured in the Southwest (cf. Kincer, 1928, p. 25; Smith, 1945, p. 68; Visher, 1946, p. 594). This extraordinary difference between the day maximum and the night minimum is mainly a consequence of the exceptionally dry air and clear sky, which let through high per- centages of the solar radiation by day and of the outgoing earth radiation by night. It may be partly a result of low-altitude tempera- ture inversions, that is, nightly formation close to the earth of a layer of air colder than the layers somewhat above the ground. Thus the radiation cooling by night may be increased by downflow of chilled heavy air from hills and plateaus into the valleys (Tre- wartha, 1943, pp. 29-31, 45-46), and the temperature maximum by day may be raised because the heating is confined to the thin air layer below the inversion level, which acts as a glass sheet and prevents the air from ascending and mixing (Haurwitz and Austin, 1944, p. 34). The growing season is the time between the last killing frost in the spring and the first in the fall, and these generally occur with a minimum shelter temperature above 32° F. and sometimes as high as 40° (Conrad, 1944, p. 95). t Because the length of this season varies considerably with local conditions, that at Pine Lawn can only be roughly estimated to last for about 120 days, or from the first of June to the end of September. It matches the growing season in northern New England and in northern Minnesota ("Climate and Man," U. S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 1941, p. 746). The precipitation records at some stations in the region surround- ing the Pine Lawn Valley are shown in Table 2. By interpola- tions from these data the average annual rainfall at Pine Lawn has been determined at 15.5 to 16 inches, or slightly less than at Luna and 1.5 inches more than at Hood Ranger Station, a mile west of Reserve. The rainfall regimen is characterized by a dry season from April to June, a marked rainy season from July to September, a faint fall minimum, and a faint winter maximum. Eight inches, or ARTIFACTS ON WET LEGGETT 41 50 per cent of the precipitation, fall during the growing season, from June to September. Somewhat over 7 inches fall from July to September, leaving 9 inches for the remaining nine months. About one-third of the annual amount comes in the winter half- year, from November to April, two-thirds from April to October. The average annual snowfall is some 30 inches. The 20 per cent heavier precipitation at Blue, fourteen miles west-southwest of Pine Lawn, shows that the Pine Lawn Valley lies in the rain shadow of the intervening mountains. Hood Ranger Station, located in the additional rain shadow of the Saliz Moun- tains, actually receives less summer precipitation than does Cliff, which is 1,368 feet lower. Summer rains occur mostly as local showers accompanied by thunder and lightning. Most of them are probably caused by forced rise of moist air over hills and mountains. Winter precipitation results mainly from migratory cyclones coming from the Pacific off southern California. With the exception of the San Francisco River and of short stretches below springs, the streams of the Pine Lawn Valley seem to flow only during periods of melting snow and heavy rains. In canyons and near the foot of the high San Francisco Mountains west and northwest of Pine Lawn seven springs are shown on the Forest Service map. During the dry July of 1947 the Wet Leggett spring, issuing just above the mountain foot, flowed uninterruptedly. At present its flow is artificially diverted just below the spring, but it re-enters the main arroyo one and one-quarter miles down the valley. The sediments in the small Wet Leggett Valley must be practically impervious, for a surprisingly large portion of the tiny flow passed the lower end of the valley at the abandoned old ranch, 2.2 miles below the spring, then sank into the stream bed. Below this point the bed was dry. In Thornthwaite's classification (1948, PI. 1) the climate is semi- arid, on the border of dry subhumid, and microthermal, and there is little or no water surplus in any season. In comparison to Chicago, Pine Lawn has 6° higher tempera- ture in January, 6° lower temperature in July, the same annual temperature, 12° smaller annual range, and more than twice as large daily range. Pine Lawn has one-half as much precipitation as Chicago, and the rainfall is decidedly more concentrated in the period from July to September. The growing season is 120 days as against 196 in Chicago. The most distinctive differences between the Pine Lawn climate and the Chicago climate are associated with 42 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO the year round moisture deficiency and with the dry air and the clear sky, which promote relatively cold nights and relatively warm days, a large daily temperature range, throughout the year, and which cause frost late in spring and early in fall, and a short growing season. In regard to dry-farming, the night temperature and the ground moisture in May-June, and the time of onset of the summer rains are particularly important. The average conditions are rather un- favorable, which means that the actual conditions often are dis- astrous. Each factor or a combination of them can be decisive. Killing frosts may occur during any part of the summer, and chilly nights without frost are injurious, for instance, to corn. The ground moisture may be low at the arrival of spring, precipitation from April to June may be negligible, and the summer rains may be delayed. As a consequence, the growing season, dependent on adequate soil moisture and precipitation as well as on frostfree temperature, may be too short. On the other hand, some years are much better than the average figures and dates suggest. It therefore deserves mention that maize is grown in Pine Lawn Valley at 6,150 to 6,350 feet elevation. During favorable summers a dwarf corn even matures at Luna at 7,050 feet altitude; but here maize has about reached its climatic limit, for it does not ripen every year, nor is it raised at all at Alpine at 8,000 feet. Similarly its limit is approached at Jewett Ranger Station, located twenty miles north-northeast of Reserve at about 7,400 feet, where mediocre corn crops are obtained during summers with a long frostless season and available moisture.1 There are no temperature data for Jewett Ranger Station, but at Luna the average temperature of June, July, and August is 62° F., the mean night temperature of the same months is 52.5°, and the growing season is 100 days. At Alpine the corresponding figures are 59° and 50° and 78 days. Thus the regional lower limits of temperature and of length of season for maize are determined within narrow limits. These limits may be near the absolute ones, for "practically no corn is grown where the mean summer temperature is less than 66° F., or where the average night temperature during the three summer months falls below 55°. . . . The region of greatest production [of corn] in the United States has a mean summer temperature of 70° to 80°, a mean night temperature exceeding 58°, and a frostless season of over 140 days." (Jenkins, 1941, p. 310.) 1 The data on corn have kindly been supplied by Forest Supervisor R. B. Ewing and Forest Rangers Dean M. Earl and Robert L. Diggs. ARTIFACTS ON WET LEGGETT 43 VEGETATION AND FAUNA The dominant tree in the Pine Lawn Valley is the western yellow pine (ponderosa pine), which in Arizona forms pure stands in the altitude zone of 6,000 to 7,500 feet (Nichol, 1937, pp. 183, 187), and whose lower limit is determined by deficient moisture (Pearson, 1931, p. 115). Since the yellow pine at Pine Lawn grows under an average precipitation of 16 inches a year and of 8.5 inches from May to September, while the normal minimum requirements are 20 and 9 inches, respectively, there must be some conditions tending to lower the moisture demands (Pearson, 1931, pp. 124, 120). One such factor may be few and light winds. At the Wet Leggett site, at about 6,600 feet elevation, there is a mixed forest in which yellow pine and juniper predominate. Native food plants of the region include oaks, currants, gooseberries, and many grasses. In Hart Merriam's life zone classification the Pine Lawn Valley should be included in the Transition zone, the zone of the open yellow pine forest, rather than, as is done by Vernon Bailey (1913, pp. 11, 25, 41; PI. 1), in the Upper Sonoran, the zone of pinyon pine and juniper. The most important food animals of the region are mule deer, white-tailed deer, black bear, rabbits, tree squirrels, ground squirrels, chipmunks, prairie dogs, wood rats, turkeys, quails, and doves (Vernon Bailey, 1913, p. 43, and 1931; Ligon, 1927; Naturalist's Guide, pp. 567, 570). BEDS AND STRATIFICATION The artifacts are found in the walls of modern gullies or arroyos, cut by the Wet Leggett and its tributaries. The depth of the gullies in the site area ranges from 2.5 to 7 meters and is mostly about 4.6 meters. The width of the arroyos is usually greater than their depth, the banks being steep to perpendicular. The sequences of the beds exposed in the arroyo walls at the artifact sites are presented in Figures 8 and 9. Also shown are five other characteristic profiles out of some twenty-five measured. These profiles represent the exposed beds on the Wet Leggett from one- third mile below the spring to 1.5 miles below Pine Lawn and allow correlation of the beds. The location of profiles A to J is shown in Figure 4, that of profiles K to N in Figure 3. At Locus B, Figures 6, 7 and 8, the general profile is this: d, 5 to 10 cm. rusty-brown silt with basalt pebbles. Present only at north end. c, 40 cm. dark gray, loose, ashlike silt with sharp sand grains and small pebbles. 44 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO i b8, b2, bl, 45 cm., 40 cm., and up to 120 cm., respectively, clayey, sandy, and pebbly silt. When dry, as the material was in July, 1947, it is firmly cemented by colloids and forms a silt rock, but lumps fall slowly apart in water. Beds b3 and bl are light gray when dry; bed b2 is dark gray, a, up to 1.5 meters gray to brownish gray silty, cobbly, and bouldery gravel; when dry firmly cemented by colloidal clay. Dr. Sharat K. Roy and Dr. Robert Wyant, of Chicago Natural History Museum, found the pebbles and sand grains in beds b and c Fig. 6. Arroyo bank at Locus B, Wet Leggett Canyon. to consist predominantly of quartz and orthoclase feldspar and to a minor degree of plagioclase, fluorite, hematite, biotite, tourmaline, and hornblende. The (principal) parent rock of bed b was probably a pegmatitic granite. When deposited, beds b and c may have had essentially the same texture or grain size as they have today.1 The dark color of the ashlike bed c, which is due to the incorporation of much humus, suggests a high ground-water table or flooding of the valley floor by water from spring and brook. Pronounced rusty iron mottling in the cemented bed b, resulting from alternating oxidation and 1 Dr. William P. Martin and Mr. Joel E. Fletcher of Tucson have given valu- able advice on the soil-forming processes in these beds. ARTIFACTS ON WET LEGGETT 45 reduction, shows that the water table has fluctuated (Kellogg, 1936, p. 26). The water has leached soluble constituents and has trans- ported others in suspension to lower levels. Thus bed c has lost material, and bed b has gained colloids and become sticky and com- pact, more firmly cemented. The soil may be either an intrazonal 4* + 7 A +6 +3 +4 +5 A 6635' +1 +" 5?n ■ liii V 'Z II 1 /Oft. 1 i 30 1 I 60 Fig. 7. Location of artifacts at Locus B. This area is shown in Figure 4. planosol (clay-pan), or a young intrazonal ground-water podzol (Soils and Men, 1938, pp. 975, 995, 1000, 1101, 1168, 1174). The podzolization, if any, has not gone far, for the ashlike layer is only slightly acid, and bed b is neutral. At numerous places from one-third mile below the Wet Leggett spring to within 0.6 mile of the highway (profile K) there is seen below the coarse gravel, bed a, a somewhat indurated, in places pebbly silt of sharp orange color (Fig. 9, D, I, K, bed t). This silt, which resembles the silt exposed in highway cuts two miles north 46 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO of Pine Lawn, is presumably of Tertiary age. It was eroded unevenly before the cobbly gravel was deposited. The cemented gravel and the cemented silt, beds a and b, are gray in the center of the valley down to about a mile below the spring, but below this point and toward the sides of the valley-fill, the color changes through yellowish gray and brownish gray to brown and red brown. This is probably due both to differences in the debris vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvVvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv Ft VV(?VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv _ -fr 3-^:- vr- IP ^ 3Ei -_^§>-_ 9 oc°oo o d°J^c tO Ft , , 50 wwv^~~ Fig. 8. Somewhat idealized north-south profile of beds at Locus B, with stratigraphic position of artifacts. Areal location of artifacts is shown in Figure 7. Artifacts: at point No. 11, metate; at No. 6, chopper; at No. 7, metate; at No. 3, mano; at No. 1, chopper; at No. 8, mano; at No. 4, projectile points; at No. 5, chopper and scraper. brought by the main stream and by the tributaries, and to gradually changing weathering processes with decreasing moisture. At nine places, distributed from Locus B to within 0.6 mile of the highway, there is an upper cobbly gravel, bed u (Figs. 8; 9, /, K; and 10). It seems to, consist of lenses, for the longest exposure is only 50 meters. The greatest observed thickness is 60 cm. The dark gray ashlike silt, bed c, which forms most of the ground surface, has been more or less eroded during the last decades and has a varying thickness up to 90 cm. It extends from Locus A for almost a mile downstream. From here, one-quarter mile below Natural Bridge, to the abandoned old ranch, 2.2 miles below the spring or 0.8 mile above the highway, the top bed is a dark gray clayey silt 30 to 60 cm. thick. The top bed is then dark brown for a mile, and still farther downstream is brown, clayey silt. Bed d is up to 15 cm. thick and consists here of brown pebbly silt, there of a pavement of red brown pebbles and cobbles of basalt. I I I I I I I I I I 4 o UJ u CO iVi'i'i's^S? 'I'l'i'l'l^Qo I.I.I.I.LI.I.I.fi-b'.o^^i'i i^ ' I W Pi ' \%WP- ^-W^ h1 h1 ^ i-1 ^ h1 S«3$2* ■ I'l -I'.l jfW1 siaM m m > > > l'l-'l-'l i"^°-l3"l °l'^iV^:^\l J ,1,1,1 J 8 |: : + I6i T^TJ 0< I'l'lV 4 *;-» > > r i Ji "o C * * ... c e g» £•§.2 ft w > a ^ «"* •sif rt «:3 o a) S .5 H "3 ~ M 3 2 rt _ ft C9 x ° 2 o> _ -O ^ ... to a) rr ^ 55 «•-' S ^ o g-s tn „ A .£ e w aT o * « O . £2 g S mo o 47 48 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO It was observed intermittently on the sides of the small valley from Locus A to a point one-half mile downstream. It is probably a down-wash associated with the modern erosion. The beds will be further discussed in the next section. CONDITIONS OF EROSION AND DEPOSITION AND CLIMATIC SIGNIFICANCE OF BEDS Role of Plant-and-Soil Mantle A carpet of live vegetation and of porous plant litter has an extraordinary ability to bind the soil, to retain the water of even excessive rains, and to keep it clear or free from mud which would clog pores and channels and prevent infiltration; and the underlying humus-charged topsoil is highly absorptive owing to its spongelike structure (Soils and Men, 1938, pp. 595, 609-610, 620-623). The effectiveness of a well-developed vegetation and soil in neutralizing heavy rains is strikingly illustrated on steep slopes in Utah and Idaho (R. W. Bailey, 1941). In contrast, an impaired plant-and-soil mantle even on a gentle slope sheds most of the water of hard showers and permits it to rush downhill, to wash away soil, and to collect into torrents. Con- sequently, most past and modern erosions in the semi-arid West may have been caused by a reduction of the plant cover so that it permits occasional hard rains to produce violent floods that tear up valley floors and stream beds (Rich, 1911, pp. 241-244; Bryan, 1941, p. 235). The modern impairment of the vegetation, in turn, may have been mainly brought about by overgrazing and activities of white man (Rich, 1911, p. 242; R. W. Bailey, 1941, pp. 245, 250; Thornthwaite, Sharpe, and Dosch, 1942, pp. 2, 123, 127), for in most regions the erosion followed shortly upon the extraordinary influx of livestock, and it began in southern New Mexico and south- ern Arizona during the 1880's (Bryan, 1925; Thornthwaite, Sharpe, and Dosch, 1942, pp. 102-107). During the past decades the erosion has been accelerated by recurring, intense droughts. In the past the thinning and other deterioration of the vegetation cover which permitted the erosion must have been caused by drought. Since in some regions the modern arroyo cutting began before the introduc- tion of cattle and sheep, Bryan (1941, pp. 232-236) and others ascribe the modern erosion also to increasing dryness, a climatic change unfavorable for the vegetation. In this view overgrazing becomes merely the trigger pull that set off the channel erosion. ARTIFACTS ON WET LEGGETT 49 f-/ A. s. ^ .H -5 -6 w a V V V V V V V Cltr/ta/ic a iooo —tooo V -2000- 5—3000 -4000 7^5000 •3 i ^ i r Fig. 10. Sequence of beds, climatic history, and age of Cochise artifacts. Modern Channel Erosion and Deposition The artifacts on the Wet Leggett were exposed by the modern erosion which in the site area has cut steep-walled gullies that are mostly 4 to 5 meters but locally 7 meters deep, and which usually are wider than they are deep. Below the road-crossing the channel is only about a meter deep, because the down-cutting is retarded by basalt sills at Pine Lawn and three-quarters of a mile below Pine Lawn. Above Old Ranch the channels are still being widened and deepened. 50 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO When the arroyo is running, fine-grained debris is carried far downstream, while pebbles, cobbles, and boulders are transported longer or shorter stretches or are merely lowered by under-cutting. Because of .decrease in the gradient and increase in the width of the arroyo, fairly large amounts of coarse material have been dropped between a point 0.3 mile below Old Ranch and Pine Lawn (Figs. 3, 11). Between the road-crossing and Pine Lawn there are, at intervals 1 1 1 1 II / _ A D H ' ' 1 2 i i OR. 11 1 ' i ii B. M. PL. - \s.3% -6600 \ • ' 6600 ~ -6500 , <5"%\v ■ -6400 ~^Z6% ' - -6 300 feet -6200 /?5F--^ 6300- -6; 00 /tnile I l i i 1 I 1 , i ! i1 i , ,.f , i i i : 1 1 Fig. 11. Gradient of Wet Leggett Valley from Locus A to Pine Lawn. O.R.= Old Ranch; B.M.= bench mark 6,175 feet; P.L.=Pine Lawn. Mileage counted from Wet Leggett spring. of 30 or more meters, fans of cobbles and boulders rising one-half to one meter above the general level of the stream bed. Most of these accumulations have been bypassed but some have been dis- sected by later floods. In the intervening main reaches the stream bed consists of preponderantly medium-coarse gravel, while in shelter of boulder fans some fine- textured material has been deposited. The present erosion in the Wet Leggett Valley, which naturally leaves a coarse-grained residue, is thus accompanied by deposition of largely heavy debris from one to three miles downstream. Old Channel Erosion and Deposition The old channel in the Tertiary (?) silt and its contained buried cobbly and bouldery gravel (bed a) in the Wet Leggett Valley record a past erosion and accompanying deposition (Fig. 10). This old erosion progressed far beyond the present stage of the modern one, for during it such coarse gravel as is now accumulating about four miles below Wet Leggett spring was deposited throughout the length of the valley up to Locus A, one-third mile below the spring. ARTIFACTS ON WET LEGGETT 51 The erosion, transportation, assortment, and deposition were influenced by several conditions. The valley was steep and the maximum length of the arroyo down to the sill at Pine Lawn was about four miles. In this reach the valley axis now drops 600 feet, and the gradient ranges from 8.3 to 1.5 per cent (1 per cent equaling 52.8 feet per mile; Fig. 11). The high waters were confined to the arroyo and deepened and widened the channel to accommodate the biggest floods, which did not overflow its banks. These conditions tended to cause concentrated, violent arroyo floods after unusually heavy rains. From observations of modern arroyo erosion the following pro- cedure may be concluded. The arroyo cutting began at the lower end of the valley and proceeded backward, and the channel was gradually degraded and widened. Coarse debris was let down or was transported and dropped in the lower section of the incipient arroyo and below it, just as in modern time; and the bed, or chain of fans, of coarse gravel grew mainly backward by matter added to its up-valley end. Though medium and fine- textured materials were dropped during falling flood stages on the inside of bends, in the lee of boulder fans, and in other comparatively quiet sections of the arroyo, most of these deposits were again picked up and swept farther downstream during rising stages or during exceptional floods. Then also boulder fans were dissected and in part removed. Since all the coarse gravel postulated a strong current and a confining arroyo for transportation, in the end little medium and fine-textured debris could remain in the short and steep arroyo. These partly theoretical conclusions seem to be supported by the normally abrupt transition from gravel to overlying silt. Only at Natural Bridge (Fig. 4, 1), in the lee of a gravel fan, is this silt decid- edly cobbly, suggesting deposition because of sudden slackening of swift current. This cobbly silt may or may not be contemporaneous with the gravel. Thus, as the head of the old Wet Leggett arroyo retreated by erosion, coarse gravel was dropped in the channel on the spot or some distance down-valley, and this debris bed, or chain of fans, grew upstream by back-filling, but little medium and fine-textured material was permanently deposited on top of the heavy gravel in any part of the arroyo. In other words, the coarse gravel bed a is practically the only deposit in the valley from the age of erosion. The erosion, assortment, transportation, and deposition were carried out by strong arroyo floods, permitted by a sparse vegetation, and 52 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO were in the last instance caused by a dry climate. The erosion and the gravel record a dry age. Old Channel Filling As mentioned, there is between two gravels at Natural Bridge a wedge of mixed debris containing numerous cobbles. This and other local, unassorted deposits might date from the age of erosion. The bulk of the material directly overlying the gravel, however, consists of fine silt or of silt with scattered pebbles (bed bl, Fig. 10). By its stratigraphic position at least the lower part of this bed is a channel fill, yet, because of its fine texture and considerable thick- ness it could not well have been deposited in a steep arroyo swept by violent floods. No such silt bed is forming in the modern arroyo. The old silt bed was in all probability deposited under changed conditions. Undoubtedly the arroyo floods had then relatively low crests and slow speed, and were comparatively small and gentle. This suggests that the vegetation mat had become adequate to absorb and retard much or most of the water of hard rains, and that grass, shrubs, and trees had invaded the arroyo, checking the water flow. Still, the accessibility of plentiful debris shows that the restoration of the plant cover was only partial. The arroyo filling was due to delivery of more debris than was removed from or transported through the arroyo. The filling may have begun at several places, as at the mouths of tributaries, on the inside of bends in the channel, at points where vegetation had got a foothold, and where the gradient was comparatively low and the channel wide. A detailed discussion of such procedures is given by Happ, Rittenhouse, and Dobson (1940, pp. 23-31). The fill-material was supplied by the main stream, tributaries, sheet wash, and slump- ing of arroyo banks; and it was deposited chiefly as fans, talus, and accumulations among and behind obstructions, such as shrubs, trees, and dams of driftwood and vegetable debris. The conditions of the arroyo filling, especially the recovery of the vegetation, suggest that the climate was in the process of changing from dry to relatively moist. At nine places in the arroyo walls from Locus B to station K, two miles downstream, there was observed an upper gravel, bed u, with a maximum thickness of 60 cm. and a greatest length of exposure of 50 meters (Figs. 8; 9, /, K; and 10). Since the arroyo walls else- where in the same reach presented only one gravel, the one discussed ARTIFACTS ON WET LEGGETT 53 above (bed a), the upper gravel does not form a continuous layer, but probably consists only of small patches or lenses. At Natural Bridge (station I), a point 0.8 mile downstream, and probably at Locus B the upper gravel forms down-valley tails of the tops of cobble fans, the intercalated silt being wedges (Fig. 8). In these cases, a strong current seems to have shaved off the crests of the fans and to have spread the cobbles and boulders a little. Perhaps other gravel patches had a similar origin. Though the gravel lenses are discontinuous, their similar position in the profiles strongly suggests that they were formed at about the same time, and are correlatives. Since the material is of small volume and at least in some cases from local sources, the gravel patches need not represent any length of time. They could have been formed during a single very exceptional flood down the healed, but not yet quite filled arroyo during the transition from a dry to a relatively moist climate. Still, there is perhaps a remote possibility that the gravel lenses record a dry age of some duration. After the upper gravel lenses u were laid down, the deposition of the silt bl was continued or resumed. When the channel had ceased to be a steep-walled, easily enlarged arroyo and was partly filled, it was no longer capable of containing the flood waters, which then spread over the low bordering land dropping the suspended silt load, as the flow was retarded by the grass carpet. In this manner the flooded area was slowly aggraded. At a point 70 meters above Locus B there are three dark gray zones, 20, 8, and 30 cm. thick and separated by 10 and 15 cm. of lighter silt; and at Locus B and a point 40 meters below station F there are single dark gray silt zones, 40 and 30 cm. thick, respectively (bed b2, Fig. 10). The dark gray coloring may be due to a high content of organic matter or humus and to excessive moisture and insufficient oxygen after the deposition (cf. Kellogg, 1936, p. 5; Soils and Men, 1938, pp. 892, 932, 938). Since no corresponding zones were observed elsewhere, the dark color may be limited to patches. These probably represent slight depressions that were sufficiently watered by spring and brook to form grass meadows, yet, owing to diverting alluvial dams, escaped being filled by silt. After some length of time, however, silt deposition was resumed, for the dark gray zones are overlaid by 45 to 75 cm. of light gray silt, bed b3. At a point 80 meters below station E and at G and J there are single dark gray zones, 10 to 15 cm. thick, at the top of the cemented 54 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO silt (bed bit, Fig. 10). They probably had an origin similar to those just discussed. A bluish tint at station G suggests reduced iron compounds as an additional color factor. The silt bed b is thus for the most part a single, homogeneous deposit that is only locally divisible into the subordinate beds bl to bJf.. The entire deposit was accumulated without marked inter- ruption during an age of climatic change. The climate had become moist enough to support a considerable vegetation, but it was still too dry to provide a fully protective plant cover, for plentiful debris was available to the waters of heavy rains. The climate was neither distinctly dry nor moist for the region. From Locus A to one-quarter mile below Natural Bridge, bed b is overlaid by a dark gray powdery, ashlike silt c. Though the two beds differ physically in a striking way, they are petrographically identical and have the same parent rock (see above). The loose silt has more humus, less fine sand, and practically no fine clay, while bed b has considerable colloidal clay which cements it into a firm rock when dry. Bed c was deposited under climatic conditions similar to those prevailing when bed b was deposited. Soil-forming Processes Since the ashlike silt c was laid down it has surely lost soluble constituents through leaching, and colloids through removal in suspension, through eluviation; and these materials have been largely incorporated in the underlying bed b. It is not certain, however, that these processes account for the entire difference between the beds, that the beds were formed in situ from the same geological deposit. It is possible that bed c was laid down after a time interval and that its material was already considerably leached and eluviated when laid down. Further study is necessary to determine which was the case. In any event, the loose silt was deposited a long time ago. The cessation of silt deposition in the upper part of the small Wet Leggett Valley indicates that the vegetative carpet had become adequate to halt erosion farther upstream; and the absence of later prehistoric erosion demonstrates that it remained so until destroyed by overgrazing some decades ago. Also the movement of solubles and of colloids from the ashlike silt c to bed b, the high content of humus in the former, and the predominantly gray colors of both, show that this part of the valley has been well watered by spring and brook since the deposition of bed c. Rusty brown mottling of bed b, ARTIFACTS ON WET LEGGETT 55 due to partial oxidation of iron compounds, indicates, however, that the ground water table, though generally high, has undergone fluctuations. The same climatic variations might be recorded in the top silt at station K below Old Ranch by alternation of dark brown and light brown layers, 5 to 15 cm. thick. Thus, the dark, humus-rich laminae may indicate moist ages with luxurious vegetation and little or no silt deposition, and the light, slightly humus-stained layers may mark relatively dry ages with aggradation. In this part of the valley some silt deposition may well have occurred after it had ceased next below the spring. These conditions, as well as the presence of much humus in the topmost meter of the silts below Old Ranch, show that the age since the deposition of the ashlike layer c — the prehistoric age — was most of the time relatively moist. Summary The old channel erosion and the accompanying deposition of coarse gravel, bed a, mark a long and pronounced dry age (Fig. 10). The deposition of the cemented silt b (bl to H) and the ashlike silt c indicates a climate that was neither decidedly dry nor moist for the region. Bed b was laid down without a marked interruption. Bed c either followed directly upon b or after a time interval of relatively moist climate. The age since bed c was deposited has mostly been moist. STRATIGRAPHIC OCCURRENCE OF THE ARTIFACTS The stratigraphic position of the Cochise stone artifacts is shown in Figures 8, 9, and 10. Figure 8 is a north-south profile at Locus B which has been idealized because the beds are sloping and uneven, the ground cut up by modern erosion, and the vertical and the hori- zontal scales in the figure are unequal. The profile shows the mean thicknesses of the beds, and the artifacts are indicated in relation to the nearest recognizable bed limit, not always at their absolute depth below the ground surface. The implements are distributed from 45 cm. down in the lower coarse gravel a (Fig. 9, E) to within 30 cm. of the top of the cemented silt bS (Figs. 8, No. 5; and 9, C). At Locus B their vertical range is a meter; in the ideal profile, Figure 10, it is 4 meters. A mano found at station E surely occurs in the lower gravel a, the only gravel at the place, and a metate at station H probably does so. This 56 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO metate occurs at a depth of 30 cm. in the bouldery gravel where it forms one bed, a short distance north of the point where it is divided by a wedge of cobbly silt. At Locus B the implement in the upper gravel is a metate, the lowest artifact in the silt is a chopper, and the highest ones are chopper, scraper, and projectile points (Fig. 8). CLIMATIC HISTORY AND THE AGE OF THE COCHISE ARTIFACTS In the region from central Texas to the state of Washington the records of stream erosion, lakes, dunes, glaciers, and vegetation suggest that the last few thousand years have for the most part been relatively cool and moist, and that the preceding age was decidedly warmer and drier (summaries and references in Hansen, 1947; Antevs, 1948). From the somewhat divergent conclusions of several Scandinavian students it appears that the age about 5000-2500 B.C. was the warmest part of the post-glacial in northern Europe, and that the age 6000-1200 B.C. had higher summer temperatures than the present. The transition from dry to relatively moist climate in the American West is roughly dated by the amounts of salts that were present, in 1887 to 1912, in the waters of Abert and Summer lakes in Oregon and Owens Lake in California, which have not over- flowed in postpluvial times. Since the salts have required some 4,000 years to accumulate (Van Winkle, 1914, pp. 117-123; Gale, 1915, pp. 259, 263, 264), it may be concluded that the modern lakes were reborn and the change to a relatively moist climate occurred about 2000 B.C. This date should probably be taken as the division line between the two distinct climatic ages, although the recognition of a separate transition age, comprising about 2500-1500 B.C., would be useful in the present case. The cool and moist age that began some 4,000 years ago has, of course, not been climatically uniform. A light drought early in the Christian era is suggested by a small erosion, its stratigraphic position, and the presence of a plain potsherd in southeastern Arizona (Sayles and Antevs, 1941, pp. 43, 44, 56). The same dry episode is possibly indicated by an unconformity in the Calamity formation in Trans-Pecos Texas (Bryan and Albritton, 1943, p. 486). A later, more severe drought has been recognized by erosion in northeastern Arizona (Hack, 1942, pp. 51, 58, 68), in southeastern Arizona (Sayles and Antevs, 1941, pp. 43, 56), in Trans-Pecos Texas (post-Calamity erosion; Bryan and Albritton, 1943, pp. 486- 487), and on the Texas High Plains ("renewed deflation"; Evans ARTIFACTS ON WET LEGGETT 57 and Meade, 1945, pp. 499-503). The erosion in northeastern Arizona is archaeologically dated at late Pueblo III time, or at ca. a.d. 1300; that in southeastern Arizona by potsherds in con- temporary beds at after a.d. 1200; that in Trans-Pecos Texas by El Paso Polychrome pottery in the overlying Kokernot beds from possibly A.D. 1200 to 1400; and the erosion on the Texas High Plains by sherds before A.D. 1300 or 1400. The erosions may thus have been caused by a single widespread drought, probably the so-called "great drought" of A.D. 1276-99 (1273-1300), which is indicated by narrow tree rings in many parts of the Colorado Plateau, but not by Douglass' best sequoia record from the west flank of the Sierra Nevada (Douglass, 1935, pp. 49, 64, and 1945, vol. 11, p. 28; Schul- man, 1947a). The most pronounced later drought on the Colorado Plateau and in southern California was from A.D. 1573 to 1593 (1571-97) (Schulman, 1946, p. 45; 1947b, p. 33), but this is not known to be recorded by erosion. The climatic sequence concluded from the evidence in the Wet Leggett Valley fits well into this climatic history of the greater region : The old channel erosion and accompanying gravel deposition represent the warmest and driest post-glacial age, 5000 to 2500 B.C. ; and the arroyo filling, or the deposition of the cemented silt b and perhaps that of the loose silt c, correlate with the transition from dry to moist climate, from about 2500 to 1500 B.C. (Fig. 10). Bed c might have been deposited either during the brief drought early in the Christian era or during that ca. A.D. 1300. However, since no potsherds have been observed either in this or in any other bed in the upper Wet Leggett Valley, its deposition during the later date is not probable. The mano in the lower gravel at station E, 0.45 mile below Locus A, was embedded a considerable time before the end of the gravel deposition, for this proceeded backward. If the metate at site H, 0.2 mile farther down-valley, really belongs in the lower gravel, it is still older. The Cochise artifacts in the Wet Leggett Valley, then, seem to cover the age from 3000 to 1500 B.C., to range in age from 5,000 to 3,500 years. V. ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE WET LEGGETT All material from this site was found in or on the banks of Wet Leggett arroyo, which is a tributary of the main Leggett drainage and forms with it the west-central section of Pine Lawn Valley. Here drought, over-grazing, a steep gradient, and other factors have contributed to the formation of a deep gulley that has cut through an accumulation of fill in an older small valley. Thus gravel lenses have been laid bare, silt layers cut through, and milling stones, scrapers, hand axes and other tools and utensils uncovered therein (see chap. IV). These artifacts, which are identified with the Pine Lawn Valley variation of the Chiricahua stage of the Cochise culture, are found in fine-grained deposits, several feet thick, consisting of light gray to dark gray firmly cemented beds, and in coarse gravel deposits. These materials overlie, contain, and underlie the artifacts and are in turn covered by an ashy gray silt from one to two feet thick. This silt may be at or near the surface, depending on how well the thin humus layer has been able to withstand the erosion on what is a fairly steep gradient. At the head of the arroyo there are two warm springs that drain partly into the arroyo and are partly diverted in a ditch. These are permanent springs and in all probability were running when the site was occupied. This Wet Leggett site was first noted by Mr. E. B. Sayles and Dr. John Rinaldo during an archaeological survey, in the course of which they checked cienagas, basins, arroyos, cut banks, and old springs for sites yielding stone artifacts but no pottery. An area within a radius of fifteen miles of Reserve was covered (see pp. 22-23). The smaller artifacts were collected at the time of discovery, and the larger artifacts such as metates left in situ. Then the arroyo was surveyed intermittently throughout the remainder of the season for other artifacts that might show up after the seasonal rains had started. Several days were spent in trenching two locations (Locus A and Locus B) where the major concentrations of artifacts appeared (see chap. III). These trenches were made at right angles to the course of the arroyo and were cut down to the sterile zone. In two other 58 ARCHAEOLOGY OF WET LEGGETT 59 instances, tongues of land at the junction of the main and tributary arroyos were cut down to a level below the artifact-bearing zone. No artifacts were found by this method. After the rainy season started, about forty more artifacts were discovered in place embedded in the cemented silts. The locations of these were mapped by means of rod and instrument and found to be at depths ranging from 30 cm. to 2.5 meters below the surface. The artifacts were scattered along the arroyo for a distance of approximately two miles, although most of them were found along the upper third of the arroyo toward the springs. ARTIFACTS The artifacts identified with this stage include manos and metates; tools made by percussion flaking, such as scrapers and hand axes; and a minor number of tools fashioned by pressure flaking. The manos are small, one-hand types. These are either roughly symmetrical and oval, or rectangular with rounded ends in outline. These implements have one or more slightly convex grinding sur- faces. The lower surfaces of all specimens are parallel to the upper surfaces. None are even slightly wedge-shaped in cross section. In general, their conformation suggests that they were used on metates of slab or basin type. The metates are large, thick slabs of stone of rather irregular shape in outline. They tend to be longer than they are broad. They show no marks of working except those from use. There are no marks of pecking or hammering on the edges or lower surfaces. The bottom surface is frequently angular, the upper or milling surface usually slightly concave, especially toward the center, and quite smooth. Occasionally there are marks of pecking or of hammering around the margins of the milling surface. One aberrant specimen (Fig. 12) was found at the lower end of the arroyo near its junction with the main Leggett canyon. This is a deeply troughed or basined metate with the trough open at one end only. The sides of the trough are incurved and the opening so constricted that this metate might be classified as an open basin type. The chipped stone implements from the site are hand axes (choppers), scrapers, knives, blades, projectile points, and gravers. The hand axes, or choppers, are of the plano-convex type. They are with one exception rough, angular cores with a portion of the crust left intact. All have been chipped by percussion chipping along one or more surfaces to form a sharp cutting edge. 60 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO The scrapers were made of both thick and thin primary flakes. The majority of these are plano-convex flakes with percussion chip- ping on the convex surface and secondary chipping (possibly from use) along one edge. A few are biconvex and have been chipped on all surfaces. The plano-convex types range from true scrapers to a type of implement that might be termed a flake knife, the biconvex types to a type of implement usually termed a "blade." One large flake core or nucleus was saved. Other cores were found, but it remained doubtful whether they were the products of natural agencies or a flint industry and they were left on the site. Small, thick, random plano-convex flakes were found that show some possible use as knives. Along one edge these flakes have some secondary chipping that appears to be the result of use. A few equally small, albeit thicker biconvex flakes were fashioned into blades, which show chipping on all surfaces and along all edges. One fragment has been chipped to a point. One projectile point was found — a short, stubby corner-notched point with a slightly concave base. It is fashioned of obsidian and shows secondary chipping on all surfaces. AFFILIATION OF THE WET LEGGETT ARTIFACTS Shortly after discovery, the Wet Leggett artifacts were tenta- tively identified typologically with the Chiricahua stage of the Cochise culture by Sayles, Antevs, and Rinaldo. However, it was recognized at that time that more certain identification awaited detailed study and comparison. In this analysis two aspects were considered: (1) a comparison of the proportions of chipped stone to ground stone implements (in this case primarily milling stones) ; (2) a typological comparison. The frequency of the tools in the Wet Leggett site was as follows : Manos 3 Metates 7 Projectile points 1 Blades 6 Flake knives 7 Scrapers 9 Choppers 3 Gravers 2 Cores 2 Total 40 This summary indicates that the ratio of chipped implements to ground stone implements is 4 to 1. This proportion is more fafb^&l * Fig. 12. Metate z'n «7m at Station K, Wet Leggett. 61 62 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO like that of the San Pedro stage of the Cochise culture than it is like that of the Chiricahua stage. In the San Pedro stage, chipped stone implements exceed ground stone implements in the ratio of 2 to 1, whereas in the Chiricahua stage almost five times as many ground stone tools are found as flaked tools. On the other hand, the propor- tion of the Wet Leggett tools is generally more like that of the San Pedro stage of the Cochise culture than it is like that of the Lake Mohave or Pinto Basin cultures of the Great Basin or that of the Folsom culture of the plains. In these latter cultures the ratio of chipped stone implements to ground stone implements is as great as 12 to 1. Therefore it is apparent that the Wet Leggett artifacts are most like those of the Cochise culture as a whole from the point of view of the relative numbers of ground and chipped stone implements. From the point of view of typology, however, the Wet Leggett material is more like that of the Chiricahua stage than like that of the San Pedro stage of the Cochise culture. For example, the metates are with one exception all of the shallow basin or slab type, like those most frequent in sites of the Chiricahua stage. They are also similar in a general way to Pinto Basin metates (Amsden, 1935, PI. 7a). The manos also are more like the Chiricahua handstones. They are not so asymmetrical as some of the Chiricahua specimens, but, like these, they are smaller, thinner, and lighter than the large, heavy, round, typical San Pedro type. Possibly the use of the smaller, lighter handstone is to be correlated with the use of a shallow basin metate, since the use of the large, heavy, round hand- stone may be correlated with the use of the deep basin metate (Sayles and Antevs, 1941, p. 24). Furthermore, they are like the handstones reported from Pinto Basin (Amsden, 1935, PI. 7), where the shallow basin metate was also used. On the other hand, the Wet Leggett artifacts more closely resemble the Cochise implements than the Pinto Basin tools. Resemblance to Basket Maker II handstones reported from White Dog Cave is about as close as that to the Pinto Basin handstones, but similarities to other manos reported from like horizons are only of the most general sort. The single projectile point found resembles most closely one of the points intrusive into the Chiricahua stage at Sonora F:10:31 (Sayles and Antevs, 1941, PI. XIc). There is also a resemblance to one of the Pinto Basin projectile points (Amsden, 1935, PI. 13n), which is shorter than most of the other Pinto Basin points illustrated ARCHAEOLOGY OF WET LEGGETT 63 as typical. Furthermore, even in this instance the resemblance is less close than to the Chiricahua stage point, because the Wet Leggett specimen, like the Chiricahua stage specimen, lacks the long stem or shank of the Pinto Basin points. One fragmentary blade resembles a pointed type illustrated from the Chiricahua stage (Sayles and Antevs, 1941, PI. Xd). However, the majority of the Cochise specimens are large, leaf- shaped, plano-convex flakes with sharpened edges somewhat like another specimen illustrated on the same plate (PI. Xc) as a plano- convex blade. All of the scrapers recovered were side scrapers and comparable with the Chiricahua type implements. No end scrapers have yet been recovered, but the total number of artifacts is relatively small. Some may possibly be found as more artifacts are uncovered. A small number of implements was recovered of a type that has been termed gravers. They are similar to implements illustrated by Amsden (1937, PI. XXXVIg, f) but they lack the extremely fine point of the Folsom gravers (Roberts, 1935, PI. 13). They have not been reported from the Cochise complex of southeastern Arizona. The choppers resemble those of the Sulphur Springs and Chiri- cahua stages and some of the San Pedro stage. Like these, they are plano-convex in cross section and have been chipped only along one edge. They lack the trimming around the edge of the more typical San Pedro choppers and many of the Pinto Basin and Lake Mohave choppers (Sayles and Antevs, 1941, PI. XVIa). Another deviation from the reported Cochise complex of chipped stone tools is the category of flake knives, or flakes with cutting edges. They have been reported from the Pinto Basin and Lake Mohave sites (Amsden, 1935, p. 40) and from Folsom sites (Roberts, 1935, p. 28). In summary, then, it might be said that the proportion of ground stone implements to chipped stone implements from the Wet Leggett site is more like that of the Cochise culture than like that of any of the other known Southwestern non-pottery horizons of equal age. Typologically, the Wet Leggett complex is most like that of the Chiricahua stage of the Cochise culture both in the ground stone implements and in the majority of the chipped stone implements, although in the chipped stone artifact types there are deviations that would set the Wet Leggett complex off as a variant of the Cochise culture. In these variations, as in some more general characteristics, it is like the Pinto Basin complex. Although the 64 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO archaeological evidence from the Wet Leggett site is relatively meager, it appears sufficient to indicate that the Wet Leggett com- plex represents an intermediate step between the main development of the Cochise culture on the one hand and the derived develop- ment of the Mimbres branch as manifested in the Pine Lawn Valley on the other. • DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF COCHISE ARTIFACTS MANOS (Fig. 13) (a) With single, flat, grinding surface; surfaces parallel; roughly oval, sym- metrical in outline 2 From Station 8, Locus B; Locus E Lengths, 13.0, 12.2 cm.; widths, 8.5, 6.8 cm.; thicknesses, 4.6, 5.4 cm. (b) With two slightly convex grinding surfaces; rectangular with rounded ends in outline; surfaces pecked 1 From Station 2, Locus A Length, 12.1 cm.; width, 9.6 cm.; thickness, 4.8 cm. 66 Fig. 13. Manos, Wet Leggett Canyon. Length of bottom specimen, 12.1 cm. 67 METATES (Figs. 14-16) (a) Slab, or shallow basin type; thick slabs roughly oblong or round in out- line; bottom surface angular and rough; upper surface slightly concave, smooth; margins of concavity frequently pecked 6 From Stations 7, 11, Locus B; Loci D, F, H, and J Lengths, 38.4, 35.6, 31.5, 29.7, 22.2 cm.; widths, 22.3, 19.6, 23.2, 20.4 cm.; thicknesses, 9.2, 8.8, 9.7, 7.7, 9.3 cm. (b) Open basin or trough type, trough open one end only, made from unshaped block of stone roughly oblong in outline, opening at lower end of trough slightly constricted; trough pecked; bottom and sides of trough concave . 1 From lower end of Wet Leggett arroyo Length, 47.4 cm.; width, 36.4 cm.; thickness, 13.4 cm. Dimensions of trough: length, 32 cm.; width, 19.2 cm.; depth, 4.8 cm. 68 Fig. 14. Metate from Station K, Wet Leggett Canyon. Length, 47.4 cm. 69 Fig. 15. Metate in situ at Station F, Wet Leggett Canyon. Length, 31.5 cm. 70 Fig. 16. Metate in szf » 3S#r: Fig. 46. Oak Springs Pueblo, looking north at Rooms A, B, C, and F. Arrow (50 cm. long) points north; meter stick in background. 128 129 VII. ARTIFACTS On pages 143-183 the details of the artifacts are given in outline form. For convenience in comparison, the artifacts have been grouped as follows:1 LIST OF ARTIFACTS Object Ground and Pecked Stone Number Handstones excavated Manos 86 Rubbing stones 27 Pestles 8 Milling stones Metates 20 Small, metate-like grinding stones 5 Mortars 2 Worked slabs 6 Polishing stones 62 Hammerstones 7 Stone dishes 2 Abrading stone 1 Pipes 3 Chipped Stone Projectile points 7 Knives 68 Scrapers 147 Choppers 4 Drills 5 Hoes 2 Shell Bracelet 1 Bone Awls 2 Die 1 Clay Worked sherds 20 Animal effigy 1 Total number of artifacts 487 DISCUSSION One of the major fields of inquiry in the study of the houses, pottery, and artifacts excavated in the Pine Lawn Valley was that 1 Based on field catalogue kept by Mary Allee. 130 ARTIFACTS 131 of changes in the Mogollon culture. As manifested in the artifacts, this field of interest was divided into three sectors: (1) the stability of the methods of manufacture; (2) the lack of profound change in the functions of the artifacts; (3) a comparison of the forms of the artifacts with those of various horizons both within and outside of the Pine Lawn Valley, to discover the changes that had taken place in the forms of the artifacts through time and to find the influence of trade or diffusion in bringing about these changes. METHODS OF MANUFACTURE A comparison of the stone and bone tools from our excavations in the Pine Lawn Valley reveals a remarkable similarity in the methods of manufacture of artifacts from both early and late sites in all parts of the valley. The two principal methods of working stone were (1) pecking and grinding, (2) chipping. A minor amount of polishing was also done. Bone tools were split, cut, sawed, ground, and polished into the desired shapes. Clay artifacts were molded and polished when wet, baked in the fire (and probably in the sun), and occasionally scraped and ground into shape. Ground and Pecked Stone Tools In general, we found more ground and pecked than chipped stone tools. In the choice between these two methods of manu- facture the nature of the available materials was apparently not a strictly limiting factor, because on occasion even basalt, a very difficult material to work, was chipped. The principal varieties of ground and pecked stone tools are manos, rubbing stones, pestles, metates and mortars, polishing stones, and pipes. The usual small pits and striations, the smooth and semipolished surfaces — indeed all the marks that are characteristic of these methods of manufacture — are to be found on artifacts of this category. However, some implements show less evidence of modi- fication of this sort than others. For example, it was characteristic that the oval or round manos with single grinding surfaces were altered only on the grinding surfaces by pecking and grinding. The edges and upper surfaces of such implements were left rough or smooth, whichever way they were found in their natural state. It is apparent from the fact that there is a fair degree of uniformity in the shapes of such stones that they were chosen because they happened to conform to certain suitable (and possibly culturally determined) shapes in their natural state. 132 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO Other types of manos and rubbing stones, particularly the rectangular or tabular forms with two grinding surfaces, manifest the other extremes in workmanship. These are more symmetrical in shape, and both the edges and grinding surfaces show the little crater-like pits that are the result of pecking with a hammerstone. Most of the original crust or patina of such stones has been removed. Like the majority of manos with single grinding surfaces, the metates show marks of having been worked only on their grinding surfaces. The same is true of all the metates, whether they are basin, trough, or slab types; only the basins, troughs, or grinding surfaces of each were modified. The bottom surfaces of such im- plements were characteristically rough and irregular. In this feature the mortars are also like the metates; for they too were unaltered except for the cup-shaped depression in one face of the naturally rough, round pebbles from which they were made. The least altered of all these ground and pecked stone tools are the small natural pebbles that were used as polishing stones. These show no preliminary modification whatsoever and indicate that very little discrimination was used in their selection except on the basis of size. The facets produced by use were the only alterations made in these tools. At the other extreme, on the basis of workmanship, are the pipes and mauls. The best of these implements were shaped on all of their surfaces by pecking and grinding. Most of them are sym- metrical and some have smooth surfaces. Chipped Stone Tools Characteristic chipped stone tools are projectile points, knives, scrapers, drills, and choppers. Many of the knives, scrapers, and choppers were little more than utilized flakes and cores. The scrapers are frequently merely thick flakes with the edges sharpened by a slight retouch, and the random flake knives were similarly fashioned of thinner flakes. These knives grade in degree of work- manship from utilized flakes into blades that show secondary chipping on all major surfaces. As might be expected, there is a wide variation on each horizon in the quality of the chipping. Furthermore, there is no noticeable improvement in chipping between the Pine Lawn phase projectile points and those from Three Circle phase houses. Although a number of the chipped stone artifacts show the finest of pressure flaking, a less refined percussion chipping appears to be more characteristic of the general run of chipped stone ARTIFACTS 133 tools. The hoes, like many other tools, show little modification from their natural state. They were fashioned from fairly thin natural plates of stone and are shaped only in outline by a rather coarse percussion chipping. Bone and antler flakers and hammerstones such as were found on the SU site were probably the tools used in the manufacture of the chipped stone artifacts. Worked Shell The shell artifacts such as bracelets show only one process of shaping — cutting or sawing, it is not clear which. The bracelets were cut from sections of shell of Glycimeris, a bivalve. The cut surfaces are smooth and straight, revealing a high standard of workmanship. Bone Tools Many of the bone implements show relatively deep diagonal scratches, striations, and grooves, such as would be made by cutting with a rather rough tool. Other surfaces, such as the edges of the dice and the tips of the awls, are smooth and polished. The awls were made of long bones (usually deer metacarpals) split lengthwise into halves or quarters. There are no marks left on the bones from this process to indicate how the splitting was done. After the bones had been split they were cut to the desired shape, as indicated by the scratches mentioned above and by the character of the notches on the notched bone awls. After they had been trimmed, their tips were ground down to a point on some abrasive stone such as sandstone or coarse-grained quartzite. Abrasive stones such as these were found at the SU and Promontory sites (see Martin, 1940, fig. 28, and this report, fig. 61). Possibly they were then polished by the use of a finer abrasive mixed with water and applied with a leather pad. Clay Artifacts The clay artifacts were probably made from the local clay, such as can be found on every one of the sites excavated. This could have been obtained either from the pit-house excavations or from gulley exposures. Experimental pottery vessels made from such clays bear a close resemblance to the plain pottery types found on the sites, and more detailed technical comparison of local clays and the local pottery confirms this theory (see Martin, 1943, pp. 240- 246). After grinding and the addition of the tempering materials (crushed rock) and water, the wet clays were modeled with the 134 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO fingers, as is evident from finger prints on some of the artifacts. The worked sherds and the animal effigy are all of red or brown oxidized wares fired in an open fire. The smooth edges of the worked sherds show that they were shaped by grinding. Possibly this was done by rubbing the edge of one sherd against the edge of another. The holes in the sherds that were perforated were possibly made with a stone drill. Experimental use of the stone drill on the native pottery types indicates that it would be an adequate tool for the purpose. FUNCTIONS OF ARTIFACTS A number of the artifacts show characteristic features and marks that tend to corroborate the concepts we have as to their use gained from the use of similar artifacts among historic groups. A few such characteristic indications of use are polished surfaces, striations, battered surfaces, facets, and beveled surfaces. In this regard the milling stones are the most interesting. The basin metates, for example, show on their grinding surfaces circular striations or polished oval areas which indicate that the manos were used with a rotary motion in the process of grinding on these metates. We have reason to believe that oval manos were used on the basin metates because manos of that shape are most numerous in houses that had such metates. Similar oval grinding surfaces and striations are to be found on the shallow basin metates and some of the slab metates, indicating a similar use of the mano with those types. The oval manos with convex grinding surfaces fit best in the concave grinding surfaces of the deep basin metates. Those with flat grind- ing surfaces are not quite so suitable for use on such metates and could be used with greater efficiency on the shallow basin and slab types. Moreover, the troughed metates frequently have striations that run lengthwise of the trough and indicate that the manos used with these metates were rubbed back and forth in these trough- shaped grinding surfaces. It seems probable that the oblong manos were used with the troughed metates because they have been found in association with such metates, fit with them, and are most num- erous in the later houses where the trough metates are found. For example, an oblong mano was found resting on the shelf of a troughed metate in Pit-house D, Twin Bridges site. Such manos are fre- quently of the "rocker bottom" type. Finally, use of a mano with a rotary motion in a deep basin metate would have a tendency to grind the corners off and make the ends of the mano round, whereas ARTIFACTS 135 use of the mano with a back and forth motion in a deep trough would have a tendency to grind off the ends until they were more nearly square. In general, the pestles from all the sites have roughly round, pecked and battered working ends, such as would result from pound- ing materials in the concave (and equally rough) cups of the mortars. The range in hammerstones comprises a graded series from fresh, sharp, angular cores to those that have the angles rounded off through prolonged use. Such stones were probably used as pecking stones to roughen the grinding surfaces of the metates and manos. A secondary use may have been as a tool for percussion chipping. Fresh slab metates were found with the grinding surfaces outlined by a pitted area such as might have been made with these stones. Occasional polishing stones on which only the faceted surface of the stone is polished smooth were probably faceted and polished through use. Such facets frequently comprise all of one surface of these implements. Among historic tribal groups such implements are used for polishing pottery and acquire similar facets from pro- longed use. There is also a rough correlation between the increased use of polished pottery and the number of polishing stones found. With the decline of Alma Rough and the increase in Alma Plain and San Francisco Red the number of polishing stones increases; but as soon as there is a fair increase in the use of textured wares the frequency of polishing stones decreases. In a number of instances at the SU site awls were found together in caches suggesting their use together as part of a set of tools. A "set" of this kind was found in a pit in Pit-house D, Promontory site. One of these awls has across the tip transverse grooves, which suggest use in separating the weft threads in weaving. On several other occasions artifacts were found in such associa- tion as to corroborate concepts we had as to their use. For example, in three separate instances manos were found in direct association with metates. In one instance (mentioned above), the mano was still in place on the metate; in the other two the manos lay directly beside and partly underneath the metates. These were all small oblong manos with trough metates. Of the several metates found standing in their original position, two were placed well inside the house toward the center and over to one side, and the others were placed near the lateral entryway. One metate, found in a burned house, had been left leaning up against the wall of the entrance passageway with the grinding surface turned toward the wall. 136 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO Although pestles were found in direct association with mortars at the SU site, this type of association was not found at the other sites in the Pine Lawn Valley. In relation to the functions of artifacts it should be noted that the distinctions made between several of the categories in the process of classification were quite arbitrary and were made simply on the basis of dimensions. For example, the largest oval polishing stones with single facets are actually indistinguishable from the smallest oval rubbing stones with single, flat, rubbing surfaces; and in like manner the largest rubbing stones of this category cannot be distinguished from the smaller oval one-hand manos with single, flat, grinding surfaces. There is little doubt that such implements were used interchangeably as rubbing stones and as one-hand manos with the metates. Some of these stones were found in direct associa- tion with metates at the SU site, but such instances are exceptional and it seems probable that they had another principal function. For a similar reason we can draw no absolute separation between some of the random flake knives and scrapers. They too were probably used interchangeably. However, to facilitate comparison with previous reports, the thicker, larger implements have been classed as scrapers and the thinner, smaller ones as knives. Further- more, the battered ends of certain manos and larger rubbing stones indicate that they were used as pestles or hammerstones as well as for manos with the metates. Also, the smooth, flat surfaces oc- casionally found on multifaced pestles suggest their use as rubbing stones or manos. Naturally such instances do not add to our certainty in applying semi-functional terms to the artifacts, and it is fortunate that they are as exceptional as they are. COMPARISON WITH ARTIFACTS OF DIFFERENT HORIZONS A sufficient number of specimens of the primary categories of artifacts were found on sites of each period to indicate that there was a remarkable consistency in their occurrence throughout the span of Mogollon culture. However it was equally evident from certain gaps in the secondary categories (e.g., oval, oblong, round manos) that certain types did not have an equal popularity through- out the history of the culture. In order to ascertain more about these changes in popularity of types of artifacts, a table (Table 3) was constructed showing the frequencies of bone and stone artifact types in the various houses. The houses were arranged in order as determined by phase designation and by the trends in pottery types (see chart, Fig. 71). ARTIFACTS 137 A number of significant changes were indicated by this method. For example, it was found that oval manos occurred with greater frequency in the early houses than in the later houses, whereas oblong manos occurred with greater frequency in the later houses and less often in the earlier houses. In so far as could be determined, all classes of rubbing stones increased in popularity from early to late times. Metates were also more numerous in most of the late houses, and furthermore certain definite trends could be noted in metate types. The basin type metate, for example, decreased in popularity from early to late, as did the "trough open at one end only" type, although to a lesser extent. The slab type metate increased numeri- cally to some extent, and the type with trough open at both ends was found only in houses of the Three Circle phase. Thus it may be seen that the basin type was most popular early, then decreased in popularity, with a correlated increase of the type with trough open at one end only, and this in turn was supplanted in popularity by the type with trough open at both ends. Meanwhile the slab type increased in popularity only as the total number of metates of all types increased. It was actually always the first stage or "raw material" of each metate as was shown by slabs on which oblong troughs or oval basin grinding surfaces had been outlined by pecking. A similar trend was observed by Haury (1936a, pp. 30-31, 70, 104-105) at the Mogollon Village and Harris sites as well as at Forestdale (Haury, 1940, pp. 99-101). The Cosgroves (Cos- grove, H. S. and C. B., 1932, pp. 35-37, Pis. 32-34) also describe a like trend in development at the Swarts ruin although on a later time level. Nesbitt (1938, pp. 100-101) notes a like trend at Stark- weather, and Sayles (1945, pp. 49-51) describes the same for the San Simon branch. Correlated with the increase in numbers of metates and manos is the decrease in the number of mortars and pestles found in the houses. These were particularly numerous in the houses of the early Pine Lawn phase at the SU site and appeared only sporadically in the houses of the late Pine Lawn phase at the Promontory site. No mortars were found in houses of the Three Circle phase, although a few pestles were recovered. On the other hand Haury (1936a, p. 38, PI. XV) reports plain stone bowls, very much like the stone vessels we have termed mortars, from Mogollon Village; and Nesbitt (1938, p. 108, PI. 45) reports the same for the houses of the San Francisco phase at Starkweather. Here the decrease in popularity is also indicated because as many mortars were found in one house 138 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO at the SU site as are reported from eleven houses excavated at the Mogollon Village (Haury, 1936a, p. 38). Some of the later forms at these sites are better finished on the exterior, and carved forms appear. We would agree with Roberts (1940, p. 119) and Woodbury (1939, pp. 75-76) that "mortars were more common in regions to the south and west than they were in the Anasazi province proper" and we would derive them from the pebble mortars of the Cochise culture. They occur both early and late in the Hohokam culture as manifested at Snaketown (Gladwin and others, 1937, p. 105). Apparently they do not occur so early in the Anasazi area; at least they have not been reported from Basket Maker sites, although they have been reported from Modified Basket Maker sites (Martin, P. S., 1939, p. 400). There is an apparent increase in the frequency of polishing stones from early to late in the Pine Lawn phase. This trend may be roughly correlated with the decrease in Alma Rough and the increase in the use of Alma Plain, San Francisco Red and other polished wares. However the increase does not hold for our houses of the Three Circle phase. The increase in the amount of textured wares (Alma Neck Banded, Alma Scored, and Three Circle Neck Corrugated) and the corresponding decrease in Alma Plain and San Francisco Red may account for this decrease in the number of polishing stones. Pipes increase in frequency slightly during the latter part of the Pine Lawn phase. The conical "cloud blower" type was found much less frequently than the tubular type. Tubular pipes were also more numerous at the Mogollon Village (Haury, 1936a, p. 38) and at Starkweather (Nesbitt, 1938, p. 104). Like mortars and pestles they have a southern distribution, although none have been found on Hohokam sites. The trend in the popularity of mauls is not well defined, although there appears to be some increase from early to late. Both oval full groove and the three-quarter groove types appear early in the Pine Lawn phase, but the rectangular full groove type was found only in our Three Circle phase houses and so probably did not come into use until after the Pine Lawn phase. The full grooved type with shouldered groove also appears in the Pine Lawn phase. Haury (1936b, pp. 105-106) reports both full and three-quarter groove types from the Georgetown, San Francisco and Three Circle phases, as does Nesbitt (1938, p. 127). The three-quarter groove maul, like the three-quarter groove ax, has a southern distribution (Woodbury, 1939, p. 76), but the full grooved maul has a widespread distribution throughout the Southwest and beyond. ARTIFACTS 139 Projectile points, in contrast to mauls, show a marked and well- defined increase in the later houses of the Pine Lawn phase, although this increase dwindles away in the Three Circle houses. Leaf-shaped points (which Haury terms triangular) appear scarcely at all in the earliest houses, but are as numerous as other types late in the Pine Lawn phase. This type of projectile point is reported from Mogollon 1:15 (Haury, 1936b, p. 42). The leaf -shaped points with convex base are slightly more common than those with straight base in the Pine Lawn phase. These also appear at Forestdale in the phase of that name (Haury, 1940, p. 106). Nesbitt (1938, PI. 47k) illus- trates a similar point from one of the Starkweather pit-houses. The larger lateral notched points appear in the earliest houses of the Pine Lawn phase, show some increase in popularity at the end of that phase, and are found sporadically even in the Three Circle phase houses of the Pine Lawn Valley. The diagonal-notched pro- jectile points with expanding stem were found only in occasional houses of the Pine Lawn phase. However this is the type that is most numerous at Mogollon 1 : 15 and the Harris site (Haury, 1940, pp. 42, 74) and is probably the typical point of the Georgetown and San Francisco phases. This type of projectile point is also illustrated by Nesbitt (1938, PI. 47a) from a pit-house of an equivalent time level. On the basis of the present evidence it appears that the lateral-notched type, the diagonal-notched expanding stem type, and the leaf-shaped type projectile points all appeared in the Pine Lawn phase. The former type predominated in that phase, while the latter two types gained in popularity in the later phases — George- town and San Francisco. Finally, according to the evidence reported by Nesbitt for Starkweather and to that supplied by the surface survey, these types in turn were supplanted by the small, triangular, side-notched projectile point with serrate edges. Both knives and scrapers are more numerous in the later pit- houses of the Pine Lawn phase than in the earlier houses, and there is a correlative gain in the various types of these artifacts. For example, both random flake knives and scrapers are found in larger numbers in the late Pine Lawn phase pit-houses than in the earlier ones. Bone awls show the most marked and uniform increase from early to late of any type of artifact found. Although only one type — that with the head of the bone unworked except for splitting — was found in significant numbers, all types show some increase from early to late. 140 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO The temporal distribution of the notched awl in the Pine Lawn Valley sites corroborates and adds to the evidence found by Haury (1936a, pp. 110-111) and Nesbitt (1938, p. 107). It is found fre- quently in the Pine Lawn phase. It was found at both the SU and Promontory sites and also in the Three Circle phase pit-houses on the SU and Turkey Foot Ridge sites. It has a temporal distribution from the Pine Lawn phase up to the Reserve phase. Geographically, its distribution is confined to the south (Haury, 1936a, p. 110); it occurs with greatest frequency in the Mimbres branch. However, it is not reported from the Forestdale branch or from the San Simon branch. One is reported from a late phase of the Hohokam at the Snaketown site, but Haury attributes this to the meeting of Mogollon and Hohokam (Gladwin and others, 1937, p. 154). Aside from questions of priority of origin, there are a number of traits that might be attributed to the Mogollon because they appear to have their center of distribution well to the south of the San Juan area. These are boulder mortars, multifaced pestles, pebble mortars, plain stone vessels, basin metates, three-quarter groove mauls and notched awls. These artifact types are reported sporadi- cally in sites north of the Little Colorado, usually only where there is other evidence of "southern" influence. Although they appear to be particularly typical of the Mimbres branch, with the exception of the notched bone awl, they have been found in sites of the San Simon and Forestdale branches as well. In the earlier phases of these branches the chopper might be added to the list. However, in the later phases, such as the Forestdale phase at Forestdale, the Encinas phase of the San Simon, and the Mimbres phase at Swarts, Mattocks and Cameron Creek, the three-quarter groove and full groove axes appear. In this connection the differences between the Mogollon metates with trough open at one end only and the analogous Anasazi metate, sometimes termed the "scoop" type, should be made clear because of their importance in marking a geographical transition in culture. It is possible that they are the result of two different methods of grinding on an approximately contemporary level. The trough of the scoop type has fairly straight parallel sides, whereas the analogous Mogollon type has curved sides that are frequently asymmetrical and not so close to parallel. The walls of the scoop type are more nearly vertical, the mouth of the trough is more open, less constricted, and the upper end is more rectangular and less rounded. On the contrary, the Mogollon type with trough open at one end only has ARTIFACTS 141 walls that curve in so that the mouth of the trough is sometimes quite constricted, and the upper end is more rounded. The scoop type metates are thinner, in both the average and the extremely thin specimens. These differences are most apparent in the material from the Bluff site, where the two types occurred together. The Mogollon type was found in the earlier pit-houses, the scoop type in later houses. However, this transition is also to be observed in the differences between metate types from the Bluff, SU, and Cave Creek sites. At the Bluff site (Haury and Sayles, 1947) the basin type metate is less frequent than it is at any of these other sites, and there is a corresponding resemblance of the trough "open at one end only" metate to the scoop type. At the SU site the number of trough type metates about equals the number of basin type, and an- other kind — the shallow basin or slab type — predominates. Here resemblances to an open basin metate are more marked, and re- semblances to the scoop type very difficult to see if they are present. However, something more like the scoop type comes in during the Three Circle phase in the transition to the trough metate. In the Penasco phase this trend toward the use of the basin type and the rotary grinding technique culminates. Here the basin type pre- dominates and the trough and slab types occur rarely. Other resemblances between the artifacts of the Pine Lawn phase, the Hilltop phase and the Penasco phase are unusually close, considering the distances separating the type sites of each. Re- semblances are so close in such traits as some mano types, boulder mortars, multifaced pestles, pebble mortars, scrapers, knives — in fact, the majority of traits — that those from one of these phases are practically indistinguishable from those of another. One rather minor difference was noted. In the Penasco phase material there is a tendency for most of the stone and bone artifact types to be the same as those of the San Pedro stage of the Cochise culture, whereas in the Pine Lawn phase the resemblance is closer to the artifacts of the Chiricahua stage. These resemblances are exemplified in the manos, or handstones. The typical Penasco phase handstones, like those of the San Pedro stage, are large, round, and thick, although other types occur. Typical Pine Lawn phase manos are smaller and more oval, like the Chiricahua manos. The large, thick, round manos found in the San Pedro stage or the Penasco phase are rare or lacking in the Pine Lawn Valley. Evidence of extensive trade was exceedingly rare in our excava- tions. No shell, such as was found at the SU site, was found at the 142 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO Promontory site. However, one fragment of a shell bracelet was found in Pit-house C, Twin Bridges site of the Three Circle phase. One bone die was found in Pit-house A at Promontory site. This trait occurs only rarely at the SU site or other Mogollon sites of comparable age and is believed to be a San Juan Anasazi trait because of its frequent occurrence in that area. These were the only evidences of trade found in the 1947 season in addition to the fragments of trade pottery that appeared in houses of the Three Circle phase. No more stubby awls or conical pipes such as were found at the SU site were recovered. On the whole it is apparent that the crafts manifested in the stone and bone artifacts were more stable than those manifested in pottery. Between the Pine Lawn and the Reserve phases the number of innovations and modifications in the stone and bone traits were few. In fact, very nearly the complete assemblage of traits repre- sented in the San Francisco phase were present in the Pine Lawn phase (although in different frequencies). The Pine Lawn phase in turn had very close resemblances in the stone categories to those of the Cochise culture. MANOS (Figs. 48, 49, 50) Manos with single grinding surfaces: (a) Oblong in outline, surfaces parallel, grinding surface convex 4 From Pit-houses A, C, Promontory; D, Twin Bridges; Room F, Oak Springs Pueblo Length: maximum, 19.2 cm.; minimum, 12.8 cm.; average, 16.7 cm. Width: maximum, 11.4 cm.; minimum, 7.9 cm.; average, 10.1 cm. Thickness: maximum, 7.8 cm.; minimum, 4.5 cm.; average, 6.7 cm. (b) Oblong in outline, surfaces parallel, grinding surfaces slightly convex. 11 From Pit-houses A, B, C, Promontory; B, Turkey Foot Ridge; D, Twin Bridges Length: maximum, 22.1 cm.; minimum, 14.9 cm.; average, 18.2 cm. Width: maximum, 12.5 cm.; minimum, 6.6 cm.; average, 10.6 cm. Thickness: maximum, 5.4 cm.; minimum, 2.1 cm.; average, 3.7 cm. (c) Oblong in outline, surfaces parallel, grinding surface flat (Fig. 48, c) . . 13 From Pit-houses C, Promontory; A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge; C, D, Twin Bridges; Room F, Oak Springs Pueblo Length: maximum, 23.5 cm.; minimum, 12.1 cm.; average, 18.4 cm. Width: maximum, 14.4 cm.; minimum, 9.3 cm.; average, 11.2 cm. Thickness: maximum, 8.7 cm.; minimum, 3.0 cm.; average, 5.3 cm. (d) Oblong in outline, wedge-shaped in cross section, grinding surface flat 4 From Pit-house A, Promontory; D, Twin Bridges Lengths, 17.4, 13.1 cm.; widths, 10.3, 9.8 cm.; thicknesses, 2.4, 2.7 cm. (e) Oval in outline, surfaces parallel, grinding surface convex (Fig. 48, b) . 10 From Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge; C, D, Twin Bridges; Room C, Oak Springs Pueblo Length: maximum, 19.5 cm.; minimum, 10.4 cm.; average, 14.8 cm. Width: maximum, 13.8 cm.; minimum, 7.1 cm.; average, 11.2 cm. Thickness: maximum, 8.2 cm.; minimum, 3.6 cm.; average, 6.1 cm. (f) Oval in outline, surfaces parallel, grinding surface slightly convex (Fig. 48, a) 5 From Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge Length: maximum, 21.4 cm.; minimum, 14.6 cm.; average, 17.2 cm. Width: maximum, 14.5 cm.; minimum, 8.4 cm.; average, 11.4 cm. Thickness: maximum, 7.0 cm.; minimum, 2.5 cm.; average, 4.9 cm. (g) Oval in outline, wedge-shaped in cross section, grinding surface flat (Fig. 49, c) 3 From Pit-houses A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge; D, Twin Bridges Lengths, 18.8, 18.6, 18.1 cm.; widths, 14.0, 11.9, 12.2 cm.; thicknesses, 6.7, 5.6, 7.4 cm. (h) Round in outline, surfaces parallel, grinding surface flat 3 From Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge; D, Twin Bridges Lengths, 9.5, 21.5, 12.4 cm.; widths, 9.4, 10.2 cm.; thicknesses, 5.4, 6.7, 5.1 cm. (i) Round in outline, surfaces parallel, grinding surface slightly convex. . 1 From Pit-house D, Twin Bridges Length, 12.8 cm.; width, 9.8 cm.; thickness, 6.7 cm. (j) Rectangular in outline, surfaces parallel, grinding surface convex. . . 2 From Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge Lengths, 9.5, 13.4 cm.; widths, 4.5, 8.3 cm.; thicknesses, 3.8, 6.1 cm. 143 MANOS — continued (Figs. 48, 49, 50) (k) Rectangular in outline, surfaces parallel, grinding surface slightly convex (Fig. 49, b) 6 From Pit-houses B, C, Promontory; B, Turkey Foot Ridge Length: maximum, 20.4 cm.; minimum, 13.0 cm.; average, 16.6 cm. Width: maximum, 12.2 cm.; minimum, 10.2 cm.; average, 11.1 cm. Thickness: maximum, 4.5 cm.; minimum, 2.9 cm.; average, 3.8 cm. (1) Rectangular in outline, surfaces parallel, grinding surface flat (Fig. 49, a) 10 From Pit-houses A, C, Promontory; A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge; A, Twin Bridges; Room B, Oak Springs Pueblo Length: maximum, 22.1 cm.; minimum, 13.3 cm.; average, 18 cm. Width: maximum, 13.1 cm.; minimum, 10.3 cm.; average, 11.6 cm. Thickness: maximum, 6.4 cm.; minimum, 3.2 cm.; average, 4.3 cm. (m) Square in outline, surfaces parallel, grinding surface flat 1 From Pit-house C, Promontory Length, 12.9 cm.; width, 10.0 cm.; thickness, 6.6 cm. (n) Turtleback type, rectangular to oval in outline, surfaces parallel, grinding surface convex lengthwise, slightly convex crosswise (Fig. 50, a) 3 From Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge; D, Twin Bridges Lengths, 15.4, 16.7, 17.2 cm.; widths, 12.2, 3.9, 11.4 cm.; thicknesses, 4.5, 5.9, 2.7 cm. (o) Irregular in outline, surfaces parallel, grinding surface flat (Fig. 50, b) . 4 From Pit-house C, Promontory; B, Turkey Foot Ridge; D, Twin Bridges Length: maximum, 18.8 cm.; minimum, 13.4 cm.; average, 15.6 cm. Width: maximum, 12.9 cm.; minimum, 10.1 cm.; average, 11.5 cm. Thickness: maximum, 9.3 cm.; minimum, 5.2 cm.; average, 6.9 cm. Manos with two grinding surfaces: (a) Round in outline, surfaces parallel, convex 1 From Pit-house D, Twin Bridges Length, 14.4 cm.; width, 11.7 cm.; thickness, 7.1 cm. (b) Oval in outline, surfaces parallel, slightly convex (Fig. 50, c) 2 From Pit-house D, Twin Bridges Lengths, 20.0, 16.0 cm.; widths, 13.5, 12.3 cm.; thicknesses, 4.2, 5.6 cm. (c) Rectangular in outline, surfaces parallel, flat 2 From Pit-house A, Promontory; C, Twin Bridges Lengths, 19.6 cm. (one fragment); widths, 13.5, 10.8 cm.; thicknesses, 5.2, 3.6 cm. (d) Irregular in outline, surfaces parallel, slightly convex 1 From Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge Length, 16.3 cm.; width, 14.2 cm.; thickness, 7.9 cm. 144 •v. a Fig. 48. Manos. Length of c, 19.2 cm. 145 Fig. 49. Manos. Length of c, 18.1 cm. 146 m i^H Fig. 50. Manos. Length of c, 20 cm. 147 RUBBING STONES (Fig. 51) Rubbing stones with single rubbing surfaces: (a) Oval in outline, surfaces parallel, rubbing surface slightly convex (Fig. 51, c) 10 From Pit-house C, Promontory; A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge; D, Twin Bridges Length: maximum, 11.0 cm.; minimum, 8.1 cm.; average, 9.5 cm. Width: maximum, 8.4 cm.; minimum, 4.8 cm.; average, 7.9 cm. Thickness: maximum, 7.8 cm.; minimum, 2.1 cm.; average, 4.6 cm. (b) Oval in outline, surfaces parallel, rubbing surface flat (Fig. 51, a) ... . 5 From Pit-houses A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge; B, D, Twin Bridges Length: maximum, 11.2 cm.; minimum, 8.1 cm.; average, 9.2 cm. Width: maximum, 8.4 cm.; minimum, 5.4 cm.; average, 6.6 cm. Thickness: maximum, 3.4 cm.; minimum, 2.2 cm.; average, 2.7 cm. (c) Roughly round in outline, surfaces parallel, rubbing surface flat 4 From Pit-houses A, C, Promontory; B, Turkey Foot Ridge Length: maximum, 10.2 cm.; minimum, 8.0 cm.; average, 8.8 cm. Width: maximum, 8.2 cm.; minimum, 6.7 cm.; average, 7.3 cm. Thickness: maximum, 3.9 cm.; minimum, 2.4 cm.; average, 2.9 cm. (d) Oblong in outline, wedge-shaped in cross section, rubbing surface flat. 1 From Room B, Oak Springs Pueblo, with Burial 1 Length, 9.2 cm.; width, 6.8 cm.; thickness, 2.3 cm. (e) Oblong in outline, surfaces parallel, rubbing surface slightly convex . . 2 From Pit-house C, Promontory; Room F, Oak Springs Pueblo Length, 11.2 cm.; width, 9.1 cm.; thickness, 7.5 cm. (one fragment) (f) Triangular in outline, surfaces parallel, single flat rubbing surface. . . 3 From Pit-houses A, C, Promontory; B, Turkey Foot Ridge Lengths, 10.3, 10.2 cm. (one fragment); widths, 5.7, 8.7, 6.4 cm.; thick- nesses, 2.9, 6.6, 3.8 cm. Rubbing stones with two rubbing surfaces: (a) Rectangular in outline, rubbing surfaces parallel, flat (Fig. 51, b) ... . 2 From Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge; D, Twin Bridges Lengths, 10.3, 11.9 cm.; widths, 8.2, 9.9 cm.; thicknesses, 4.0, 8.9 cm. 148 Fig. 51. Rubbing stones. Length of c, 9.2 cm. 149 PESTLES (Fig. 52) (a) Angular type, long angular stone, unaltered except for one end, which is round, pecked and battered 1 From Pit-house A, Turkey Foot Ridge Length, 15.3 cm.; width, 8.4 cm.; thickness, 5.7 cm. (b) Multifaced type, roughly round pebbles, with some pecked, flat sur- faces, and battered ends 7 From Pit-houses A, C, Promontory; B, Turkey Foot Ridge; D, Twin Bridges Length: maximum, 12.7 cm.; minimum, 8.9 cm.; average, 11.1 cm. Width: maximum, 10.4 cm.; minimum, 8.0 cm.; average, 9.1 cm. Thickness: maximum, 9.8 cm.; minimum, 6.9 cm.; average, 8.5 cm. 150 Fig. 52. Pestles: a-d, multifaced type; e, angular type. Length of d, 12.1 cm. 151 METATES (Figs. 53-55) (a) Slab type, large slab, generally oblong or oval in outline with flat or slightly concave upper surface; bottom and sides of slab un worked; grinding surface sometimes pecked 8 From Pit-houses A, B, C, Promontory; A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge Length: maximum, 48.1 cm.; minimum, 32.9 cm.; average, 40.5 cm. Width: maximum, 34.3 cm.; minimum, 24.7 cm.; average, 30.3 cm. Thickness: maximum, 8.8 cm.; minimum, 3.9 cm.; average, 5.9 cm. (b) Basin type with secondary depression, unshaped, roughly round block of stone with grinding surface worn to shallow depression; small cup-shaped hole in center of this depression; bottom and sides of boulder unaltered 1 From Pit-house D, Promontory (Fragment; no measurements) (c) Trough type ; trough open at one end only ; made from unshaped, rough- ly oblong block of stone; grinding surface trough-shaped; sides of trough curve slightly; bottom of trough slopes up steeply at closed end; grinding surface pecked 3 From Pit-house B, Promontory; A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge Length, 45.7 cm.; width, 34.2 cm.; thickness, 10.0 cm. Dimensions of trough: length, 30 cm.; width, 21 cm.; depth, 3.0 cm. (d) Trough type; trough open at both ends; made of unshaped blocks of stone roughly oblong in outline; one end of trough slopes up slightly; grinding surface pecked 8 From Pit-houses A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge; D, Twin Bridges Length: maximum, 49.8 cm.; minimum, 45.7 cm.; average, 46.2 cm. Width: maximum, 48.2 cm.; minimum, 25.7 cm.; average, 35.8 cm. Thickness: maximum, 16.7 cm.; minimum, 8.0 cm.; average, 10.9 cm. Width of trough: maximum, 23.2 cm.; minimum, 20.3 cm.; average, 22.2 cm. Depth of trough: maximum, 12.3 cm.; minimum, 2.0 cm.; average, 5.1 cm. 152 Fig. 53. Trough type metate, trough open at one end only. Length, 45.7 cm. 153 Fig. 54. Trough type metate, trough open at both ends. Length, 49.1 cm. 154 Fig. 55. Trough type metate and mano in situ, Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge site. 155 SMALL, METATE-LIKE GRINDING STONES (Fig. 56) Small slabs of stone, asymmetrical in outline, with single smooth, flat or slightly concave, grinding surface; bottom surface usually unworked; occasionally bottom beveled so that upper surface slopes 5 From Pit-house A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge Length: maximum, 27.5 cm.; minimum, 18.9 cm.; average, 23.5 cm. Width: maximum, 21.9 cm.; minimum, 14.4 cm.; average, 18.0 cm. Thickness: maximum, 7.7 cm.; minimum, 2.1 cm.; average, 4.3 cm. 156 Fig. 56. Small, metate-like grinding stones. Length of left specimen, 27.5 cm. 157 WORKED (PIKI?) SLABS (Fig. 57) Thin stone slabs; irregular in outline; upper surface smooth, flat; lower surface rough; edges occasionally worked 6 From Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge Length: maximum, 40.3 cm.; minimum, 38.7 cm.; average, 39.4 cm. Width: maximum, 36.3 cm.; minimum, 24.4 cm.; average, 30.3 cm. Thickness: maximum, 4.3 cm.; minimum, 2.3 cm.; average, 3.1 cm. 158 Fig. 57. Worked slab. Length, 38.7 cm. 159 MORTARS (Fig. 58) Pebble type; large, porous, roughly round pebbles with cup-shaped depression in one face 2 From Pit-houses A, B, Promontory Diameters, 15.4, 22.1 cm.; thicknesses, 8.6, 12.3 cm. STONE DISHES (Fig. 58) Roughly round or oval pebbles with smooth shallow depression worked in one face 2 From Pit-house A, Promontory Lengths, 7.6, 6.8 cm.; widths, 6.5, 5.5 cm.; thicknesses, 1.8, 2.1 cm. 160 Fig. 58. Stone dishes and mortar, a-b, stone dishes; c, pebble mortar. Diameter of c, 15.4 cm. 161 POLISHING STONES (Fig. 59) Small pebbles, oval or roundish in outline, with one or more flat, smooth, polish- ing surfaces 62 From Pit-houses A, B, C, D, Promontory; B, Turkey Foot Ridge; A, C, D, Twin Bridges; Room B, Oak Springs Pueblo Length: maximum, 8.4 cm.; minimum, 2.9 cm.; average, 5.4 cm. Width: maximum, 7.3 cm.; minimum, 2.1 cm.; average, 4.0 cm. Thickness: maximum, 5.3 cm.; minimum, 1.1 cm.; average, 2.2 cm. 162 Fig. 59. Polishing stones. Length of lower left specimen, 5.3 cm. 163 HAMMERSTONES (Fig. 60) Battered and pitted pebbles mostly of round and angular shapes 7 From Pit-houses A, C, D, Promontory; B, Turkey Foot Ridge Diameter: maximum, 11.4 cm.; minimum, 6.5 cm.; average, 9.9 cm. CHOPPERS (Fig. 60) Large, angular, core implements having one or more sides flaked to sharp cutting edge, frequently plano-convex in cross section, occasionally part of the original crust of stone left intact 4 From Pit-house C, Promontory; A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge Length: maximum, 11.4 cm.; minimum, 6.5 cm.; average, 7.8 cm. Width: maximum, 7.8 cm.; minimum, 5.7 cm.; average, 6.4 cm. Thickness: maximum, 6.6 cm.; minimum, 2.3 cm.; average, 3.5 cm. 164 Fig. 60. Hammerstones and choppers, a, c,e, hammerstones; b, d,f, choppers. Length of e, 6.5 cm. 165 ABRADING STONE (Fig. 61) Roughly oblong, coarse-grained stone with grooves in side and upper surface . . 1 From Pit-house C, Promontory Length, 9.6 cm.; width, 5.2 cm.; thickness, 3.4 cm. PIPES (Fig. 61) Cylindrical or tubular type, tapering slightly from larger bowl end to smaller stem end, greatest exterior diameter about one-eighth distance from bowl end; central bore through pipe smallest about one-third distance from bowl end ; one specimen with bore unfinished 3 From Pit-houses A, B, C, Promontory Lengths, 7.5, 13.4, 9.3 cm.; diameters, 3.2, 8.0, 4.6 cm. HOES (Fig. 61) Thin plates of stone roughly oblong in outline; edges chipped and beveled. ... 2 From Pit-house C, Promontory; B, Turkey Foot Ridge Length, 11.8 cm.; width, 5.9 cm.; thickness, 1.7 cm. (one fragment) 166 Fig. 61. Pipes, hoe fragment, and abrading stone, a-c, tubular pipes; d, hoe fragment; e, abrading stone. Length of e, 9.6 cm. 167 PROJECTILE POINTS (Fig. 62) (a) Corner-notched, expanding stem narrower than shoulder, straight base (Fig. 62, /, g, h) 3 From Pit-house C, Promontory; B, Turkey Foot Ridge; Room A, Oak Springs Pueblo Lengths, 3.8, 4.1, 4.1 cm.; widths, 2.3, 2.1, 2.4 cm.; thicknesses, 1.5, 0.3, 0.5 cm. (b) Short, leaf -shaped in outline; upper portion of edges slightly convex, basal portion of edges straight, straight base (Fig. 62, i, j) 2 From Pit-house A, Promontory Lengths, 2.3, 2.8 cm.; widths, 2.0, 1.9 cm.; thickness, 0.5 cm. (both same thickness) (c) Lateral-notched with slightly expanding stem narrower than shoulder, edges convex (Fig. 62, I) 1 From Pit-house E, Promontory Length, 3.1 cm.; width, 1.7 cm.; thickness, 0.5 cm. (d) Small, slender, lateral-notched point with slightly convex edges, stem broken off (Fig. 62, A;) 1 From Room B, Oak Springs Pueblo Length, 2.7 cm.; width, 1.3 cm.; thickness, 0.4 cm. DRILLS (Fig. 62) Long, slender, pointed flakes, biconvex in cross section, with secondary chipping on both surfaces and edges; taper from relatively wide thick base; one with broad flange base 5 From Pit-houses D, E, Promontory; A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge Length: maximum, 5.9 cm.; minimum, 2.4 cm.; average, 4.2 cm. Width: maximum, 1.7 cm.; minimum, 1.2 cm.; average, 1.5 cm. Thickness: maximum, 1.0 cm.; minimum, 0.4 cm.; average, 0.6 cm. 168 Fig. 62. Drills and projectile points, a-e, drills; f-l, projectile points. Length of i, 2.8 cm. 169 KNIVES (Fig. 63) (a) Random flakes; any convenient suitable thin flake slightly chipped along one edge; upper surface occasionally made flat by the removal of long thin flakes 63 From Pit-houses A, B, C, D, E, Promontory; A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge; B, C, Twin Bridges; Rooms A, B, Oak Springs Pueblo Length: maximum, 7.9 cm.; minimum, 2.1 cm.; average, 4.1 cm. Width: maximum, 4.7 cm.; minimum, 1.2 cm.; average, 2.5 cm. Thickness: maximum, 1.9 cm.; minimum, 0.3 cm.; average, 0.8 cm. (b) Thin concavo-convex flakes with one inward curving edge chipped through use 4 From Pit-house A, Promontory; A, Turkey Foot Ridge Length: maximum, 6.3 cm.; minimum, 4.1 cm.; average, 5.3 cm. Width: maximum, 4.3 cm.; minimum, 2.0 cm.; average, 2.7 cm. Thickness: maximum, 1.2 cm.; minimum, 0.6 cm.; average, 0.8 cm. (c) Blades with curved edges and secondary chipping on all major surfaces ... 1 From Pit-house A, Turkey Foot Ridge Length, 5.6 cm.; width, 2.2 cm.; thickness, 0.9 cm. 170 i 4 \: W i Fig. 63. Knives (miscellaneous types). Length of lower right specimen, 4.7 cm. 171 SCRAPERS (Figs. 64-66) (a) Convenient thick flakes with poorly directed retouch along one or more curved sharp edges; upper surface shaped by percussion chipping; secondary chipping on some specimens may be result of use 119 From Pit-houses A, B, C, D, E, Promontory; A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge; Rooms A, B, F, Oak Springs Pueblo Length: maximum, 6.7 cm.; minimum, 2.1 cm.; average, 4.5 cm. Width: maximum, 6.0 cm.; minimum, 1.8 cm.; average, 3.1 cm. Thickness: maximum, 3.1 cm.; minimum, 0.4 cm.; average, 1.3 cm. (b) Large, rough, thick, angular flakes with percussion chipping on one or more surfaces and frequently pressure chipping along one edge; cleavage surface usually unaltered 13 From Pit-houses A, C, D, Promontory; A, Turkey Foot Ridge; Room F, Oak Springs Pueblo Length: maximum, 11.7 cm.; minimum, 6.7 cm.; average, 7.7 cm. Width: maximum, 9.4 cm.; minimum, 2.7 cm.; average, 5.3 cm. Thickness: maximum, 3.7 cm.; minimum, 1.9 cm.; average, 2.5 cm. (c) Thick, keel-shaped implements, roughly leaf-shaped in outline, with percussion chipping on convex surface and secondary chipping at broad end and edges 12 From Pit-houses A, B, C, E, Promontory; A, Turkey Foot Ridge; Room F, Oak Springs Pueblo Length: maximum, 7.8 cm.; minimum, 3.2 cm.; average, 5.4 cm. Width: maximum, 6.1 cm.; minimum, 2.9 cm.; average, 4.2 cm. Thickness: maximum, 3.4 cm.; minimum, 1.2 cm.; average, 2.0 cm. (d) Thick biconvex flakes with secondary chipping on both surfaces and edges 3 From Pit-house C, Promontory Lengths, 6.4, 3.2, 4.5 cm.; widths, 4.2, 3.1, 2.4 cm.; thicknesses, 1.5, 1.1, 1.3 cm. 172 ■ * Fig. 64. Scrapers. Column a, biface; columns b and c, random flake. Length of bottom specimen, column a, 4.5 cm. 173 **». M Fig. 65. Large random flake scrapers. Length of lower left specimen, 10.6 cm. 174 Fig. 66. Scrapers. Columns a and b, end scrapers; column c, keel-shaped scrapers. Length of bottom specimen, column a, 5.6 cm. 175 BRACELET (Fig. 67) Thin, flat, semicircular section of shell (fragment) 1 From Pit-house C, Twin Bridges Width, 0.5 cm.; thickness, 0.2 cm. AWLS (Fig. 67) (a) Head of bone un worked except by original splitting; other end ground and polished to sharp point; have side notches; made from deer metacarpal split in half (Fig. 67, d, e) 2 From Pit-house D, Promontory; B, Turkey Foot Ridge Lengths, 25.3, 11.9 cm. (b) Head of bone removed, other end ground and polished to sharp point; made from quartered split long bone (Fig. 67, c) . . . 1 From Pit-house D, Promontory Length, 20 cm. BONE DIE (Fig. 67) Roughly rectangular piece of bone with one curved end and side; flat on one surface, slightly convex on other; flat surface scratched diagonally 1 From Pit-house A, Promontory Length, 6.8 cm.; width, 5.5 cm.; thickness, 2.1 cm. WORKED HUMAN BONE (Fig. 67) Tarsal with hole drilled into distal end 1 From Room B with Burial 3, Oak Springs Pueblo Length, 5.5 cm.; width, 2.3 cm.; thickness, 1.5 cm. DATA ON IDENTIFIABLE UNWORKED BONE FRAGMENTS* Promon- tory Homo sapiens 3 Lepus (sp.), possibly jack-rabbit Meleagris gallopavo (turkey) 3 Odocoileus hemionus (mule deer) 18 Odocoileus virginianus (white-tailed deer) . 2 Sylvilagus (sp.), cotton-tail Unidentifiable fragments 23 38 * Identification of the unworked bone and bone used in the bone implements was made by Mrs. Dorothy Foss, Department of Zoology, Chicago Natural His- tory Museum. 176 Number of Fragments Turkey Foot Twin Bridges Oak Springs 1 i 2 1 17 3 2 3 1 1 Fig. 67. Bone and shell artifacts, a, bracelet fragment; b, bone die; c-e, bone awls; /, perforated human tarsal. Length of c, 20 cm. 177 WORKED SHERDS (Fig. 68) (a) Small pottery disks with edges ground smooth (Fig. 68, a, e) 14 From Pit-houses A, B, D, Promontory; A, B, Turkey Foot Ridge; Rooms B, F, Oak Springs Pueblo Diameter: maximum, 4.9 cm.; minimum, 2.5 cm.; average, 3.6 cm. Material: Alma Plain (b) Rectangular worked sherds with edges ground smooth and corners rounded off (Fig. 68, c) 2 From Pit-house D, Twin Bridges Lengths, 2.8, 5.0 cm.; widths, 2.7, 5.0 cm. (c) Oval shape with edges ground smooth (Fig. 68, g) 1 From Pit-house A, Turkey Foot Ridge Length, 6.8 cm.; width, 3.5 cm.; thickness, 0.4 cm. Material: Three Circle Red-on-White (d) Keystone-shaped sherd with edges ground smooth; too small and flat for scoop (Fig. 68, d) 1 From Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge Length, 2.7 cm.; width, 2.4 cm.; thickness, 0.5 cm. Material: Alma Plain (e) Large pottery disk with edges ground smooth, perforated near center; possibly spindle whorl (Fig. 68, i) 1 From Pit-house B, Turkey Foot Ridge Diameter: 5.0 cm. Material: Alma Plain (f) Large, roughly rectangular sherd with edges ground smooth on three sides; deeply concave; possibly scoop (Fig. 68, j) 1 From Pit-house D, Twin Bridges Length, 15.1 cm.; width, 12.1 cm.; thickness, 0.3 cm. Material: Three Circle Red-on-White ANIMAL EFFIGY (Fig. 68) Quadruped of coarse, thickly tempered clay; head, two legs, and part of tail missing 1 From Room B with Burial 3, Oak Springs Pueblo Length, 5.2 cm.; width, 2.4 cm.; thickness, 2.8 cm. 178 Fig. 68. Animal effigy fragment (b) and wo/ked sherds. 179 S3 H 0 PB ■ hJ Oh 7, oo»o -co • rH • t— t— -C0rH ■ ■ • rH I— I T-H ooj -teo CJCO>J Mg- co co • • -00 t- rH CD CO ■ Tf t»< • • • • t-l£>CM t-co-^oooo • rH rH • »0 lO ■ T3 _ MT3 S'E 3—,'^S bo 3w3t;>.bo3cao3bOaiC U o o Q +J r? to B« fr) -B od X CD d 0 cV CD CJ 0 Et J3-C w bjc be 3 3 E o o lU H Eh E !- CO 312 OT 3 bo co C to ■s.s "E G OQEh oPhS 180 CO 05 ©tJ-> NHH cq •*PC^a ■ CO CM t-h CO CO t-H -t-KM -t-H T-H • T— I IM T-H -T-H • • - o o> o > t ri 3 _, 0) 3 !3l| 2 -a o> *> c 5, a w «« 8 fc< fc .-5 -u ;- o> „r E 3^-T3 E P.-H T3 £ct3 •/. - 0 ■ 0 c 2*^ 172 '^3 cS OPhPQ 181 O HH -,-t O K< Oh °5< (^ -"HTjIt-C^ -CO ■** C3 • 'CI ■TH -COCO -CM -t-H t- t-,-1 • COi-H - o ed c 3 t: M a QJ.2 rt s°° JJ tn go 73 S U3 U5 CO >-H i— I i-H 0) .-3 3 §5w? S"kS-tj 3 55 5? bo ►J _; M o £P3^ c c a> ai _ J3 bo 3 1 >.M3 ol o 3 Mart 3ii 3C rt^J Pitfp5H ro 55 a S3 °5< 15* ■CMCN • i-H i-H CO 'CO ■ C^ CO • oo oo ■ t- 1- ■OMNtClOHH fQ .-^(Tjt -OSOO^-I • '(MHH •1-HrH •-*-<* OJ CM Ol t-T-H i-l -,-1 • ■ON Cfl 03 3 « CO cu to C O) O C *J o •CJ2 w *» •5 « "" c-o.S £ > o » o > E o bo p CO M o> ?• = 3 P«S2 u a> 3 — H bo a 3J 2-c ^£•22 S co ci rt o "3 > > °i o3 r* ^-2 J3 Q> f- W l&s f.a-a B nS w bot:^-^ doug -JCOhJcO CO ,5 bo ■ 13 . id c B 9 a> e o t- CO O co E M 2tf J 2-|gMo o * d o CO '_ — — 183 VIII. POTTERY Four sites, representing the Pine Lawn, Three Circle, and Re- serve phases, were excavated in the Pine Lawn Valley in 1947, and 10,016 sherds were recovered. In this chapter, the pottery will be treated by phases under the headings "Painted" and "Plain." In addition to these descriptions we shall present the following: 1. A tabulation of frequencies and percentages of all pottery types from all excavated houses (Tables 4-7). 2. A chart showing the relationships of the principal pottery types in pit-houses of the Mimbres branch of the Mogollon culture (Fig. 71). POTTERY OF THE PINE LAWN PHASE A. Painted Wares. Painted pottery does not occur in this phase. B. Plain Wares. At Promontory site, four pit-houses were com- pletely dug and one was trenched. A total of 4,098 sherds was recovered. Three types of Plain wares were found: Alma Plain, Alma Rough, and San Francisco Red, Saliz variety (see Table 4 for details). A fairly complete description of these types has been given in previous reports (Martin, 1940, pp. 78-84, and 1943, pp. 236-249; Martin and Rinaldo, 1947, pp. 362-374). Excellent descriptions are also given by Haury (1936b and 1940). There are no new details to add to these descriptions. POTTERY OF THE THREE CIRCLE PHASE (Fig. 69) A total of 5,387 sherds was recovered from the six pit-houses that were assigned to the Three Circle phase (Turkey Foot and Twin Bridges sites; Table 5). A. Painted Wares. The three principal and characteristic types are the following: (1) Mogollon Red-on-Brown (Haury, 1936b). (2) Three Circle Red-on-White (Haury, 1936b). 184 Fig. 69. Pottery sherds, a, Abajo Red-on-Orange; column b, San Lorenzo Red-on-Brown; column c, Mogollon Red-on-Brown; column d, Three Circle Red- on-White; column e, Mimbres Bold Face Black-on-White. 185 186 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO Table 4. — Sherd Analysis, Pine Lawn Phase Promontory Site Trenches Fill Floor Total No. % No. % No. % No. % Pit-house A Alma Plain 698 68.97 271 59.04 378 77.31 1,347 68.73 Alma Rough 75 7.41 52 11.33 7 1.43 134 6.83 San Francisco Red . . 239 23.62 136 29.63 104 21.26 479 24.44 (Saliz variety) — — - — — Total 1,012 100.00 459 100.00 489 100.00 1,960 100.00 Pit-house B Alma Plain 413 84.11 413 84.11 Alma Rough 7 1.43 7 1.43 San Francisco Red . . 71 14.46 71 14.46 (Saliz variety) Total 491100.00 491100.00 Pit-house C Alma Plain.... :... . 211 86.48 185 75.21 202 79.21 598 80.26 Alma Rough 16 6.55 28 11.38 6 2.35 50 6.72 San Francisco Red . . 17 6.97 33 13.41 47 18.44 97 13.02 (Saliz variety) ■ Total 244 100.00 246 100.00 255 100.00 745 100.00 Pit-house D Alma Plain 152 59.84 103 66.88 184 73.31 439 66.62 Alma Rough 15 5.91 3 1.95 2 0.79 20 3.03 San Francisco Red . . 87 34.25 48 31.17 65 25.90 200 30.35 (Saliz variety) Total 254 100.00 154 100.00 251100.00 659 100.00 Pit-house E Alma Plain 83 63.36 88 78.57 171 70.37 Alma Rough 8 6.10 1 0.90 9 3.70 San Francisco Red 40 30.54 23 20.53 63 25.93 (Saliz variety) Total 131100.00 112 100.00 243 100.00 (3) Mimbres Bold Face (Cosgrove, H. S. and C. B., 1932; and Haury, 1936b). These three types, as identified by sherds, agree completely with Haury's descriptions (shapes, designs, color of paints, and treat- ment). Our Mimbres Bold Face differs somewhat from the same type as illustrated by Cosgrove (1932). The designs on the Pine Lawn Valley Mimbres Bold Face are crudely executed. The paint is usually chocolate brown or black, and the designs are similar to those of the ancestral type, Three Circle Red-on-White. There is certainly no doubt in our minds that Haury was correct when he stated that Mogollon Red-on-Brown gave birth to several other types, namely, Three Circle Red-on-White and Mimbres Bold Face Black-on-White. Our work confirms this thesis. Furthermore, it is very difficult for us to draw a hard and fast line, on the one hand, POTTERY 187 between some sherds of Mogollon Red-on-Brown and Three Circle Red-on-White, and, on the other hand, between sherds of Three Circle Red-on-White and Mimbres Bold Face. Furthermore, at the Swarts Ruin in the Mimbres Valley, it is fairly evident, from an analysis of designs, that Mimbres Bold Face Black-on-White developed into Mimbres Classic Black-on-White. While both these types occur in Pine Lawn Valley, their design relationship is not so clear. Some other types of painted pottery — San Lorenzo Red-on- Brown, Red Mesa Black-on-White, Reserve Black-on-White, Tula- rosa Black-on-White, Abajo Red-on-Orange — were found in the Three Circle houses but in negligible quantities (see Table 5). Attention is called to the Red Mesa Black-on-White pottery, a type that dates from about A.D. 900 (Gladwin, 1945), and to the Abajo Red-on-Orange sherd, a type that dates from about A.D. 750 (Martin, 1939) or A.D. 780 (Brew, 1946) to A.D. 870 (Martin, 1939) (see discussion of Abajo Red-on-Orange in this chapter, p. 202). Haury (1936a) dated the Three Circle phase at about A.D. 900- 1000. The presence of the two last-named pottery types tends to confirm this estimate. It might also be noted that Haury has conjectured that the scrolls found on Three Circle Red-on-White pottery may have been borrowed from the Hohokam people. We found nothing to confirm or contradict this guess. B. Plain Wares. The characteristic Plain wares are: (1) Alma Rough (Martin, 1940, 1943; Martin and Rinaldo, 1947). (2) Alma Plain (Haury, 1936b; Martin, 1940, 1943; Martin and Rinaldo, 1947). (3) San Francisco Red (Haury, 1936b; Martin, 1940, 1943; Martin and Rinaldo, 1947). (4) Alma Neck Banded (Haury, 1936b). (5) Alma Scored (Haury, 1936b). (6) Three Circle Neck Corrugated (Haury, 1936b). (7) Reserve Smudged (same as Reserve Plain [Nesbitt, 1938, pp. 97-98], except that Reserve Smudged has no fillets on rim). A full description of these Plain wares has been given by the authors cited above. The Pine Lawn Valley Plain wares are identical with those described by Haury, Martin, and Nesbitt. 188 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO POTTERY OF THE RESERVE PHASE (Fig. 70) In the Oak Springs Pueblo, which has been placed in the Reserve phase, 531 sherds were found in the six rooms. The scarcity of pottery from this site is remarkable (see Table 6 for details). A. Painted Wares. The three principal types are: (1) Reserve Black-on- White (Nesbitt, 1938, p. 138; Roberts, 1940, pp. 71, 138; Martin and Willis, 1940, pp. 165-176). (2) Mimbres Bold Face Black-on- White (Cosgrove, H. S. and C. B., 1932; Haury, 1936b). (3) Smudged Decorated; an unnamed and undescribed type; known only from 35 sherds; bowls; exterior, like Alma Plain; interior, a polished black; designs, confined to interior, are matt (compared to polished, smudged background), rectilinear, and resemble late Three Circle Red-on- White and early Bold Face Black-on- White designs. The designs are difficult to see in certain lights because the design elements are grayish black and are almost the same color as the background. The origin of Reserve Black-on- White is not known. Certainly the designs on it seem to be related to those on Chaco pottery. B. Plain Wares. The six principal types are: (1) Alma Plain (Haury, 1936b, 1940; Martin and Rinaldo, 1947; Martin, 1940, 1943). (2) Alma Rough (Martin and Rinaldo, 1947; Martin, 1940, 1943). (3) San Francisco Red (Haury, 1936b; Martin and Rinaldo, 1947; Martin, 1940, 1943). (4) Reserve Smudged (same as Reserve Plain [Nesbitt, 1938, pp. 97-98], except that Reserve Smudged has no fillets on rim). (5) Mimbres Neck Corrugated (Cosgrove, H. S. and C. B., 1932, p. 83). (6) Incised Corrugated (unnamed and undescribed type. Since we have no whole pieces, we can do no more than mention it.) A full description of these plain wares (except Incised Corrugated) is given by the authors cited. Reserve Smudged may have gradually replaced San Francisco Red. The pueblo in which the pottery of the Reserve phase occurred is Anasazi in character. The Reserve Black-on- White pottery also seems Anasazi. Although Anasazi traits may be detected in earlier Fig. 70. Pottery sherds, a, Reserve Black-on-White; b, Mimbres Neck Corrugated; c, Incised Corrugated; d, Reserve Fillet Rim; e, Smudged Decorated. 189 190 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO Table 5. — Sherd Analysis, Three Circle Phase Turkey Foot Ridge No. Pit-house A Alma Plain 872 Alma Rough 29 San Francisco Red (Saliz variety) . . 175 Reserve Smudged 15 Alma Neck Banded 29 Alma Scored 2 Three Circle Neck Corrugated 10 Rubbed Corrugated 1 Mogollon Red-on-Brown 13 Three Circle Red-on-White 47 Mimbres Bold Face Black-on-White 38 Mimbres Classic Black-on-White ... 2 Fill % No. Floor 70.72 238 2.35 0 14.19 33 1.21 0 2.35 5 0.16 1 0.82 0 0.08 0 1.06 6 3.82 19 3.08 18 0.16 0 % 74.37 10^31 1^56 0.32 1.88 5.93 5.63 Total No. % 1,110 29 208 15 34 3 10 1 19 66 56 2 71.48 1.86 13.39 0.98 2.19 0.20 0.64 0.06 1.22 4.25 3.60 0.13 Total 1,233 100.00 320 100.00 1,553 100.00 Pit-house B Alma Plain Alma Rough San Francisco Red (Saliz variety) . Reserve Smudged Alma Neck Banded Alma Scored Three Circle Neck Corrugated .... Incised Corrugated Indeterminate Corrugated San Lorenzo Red-on-Brown Mogollon Red-on-Brown Three Circle Red-on-White Mimbres Bold Face Black-on- White Mimbres Classic Black-on-White . . Reserve Black-on-White Tularosa Black-on-White Red Mesa Black-on-White Indeterminate Black-on-White .... Indeterminate Mimbres Black-on- White 1,121 3 122 98 19 > 6 33 1 1 1 11 33 47 4 1 1 1 25 23 Total 1,551 72.27 981 77.80 2,102 74.75 0.19 0 3 0.10 7.86 84 6.66 206 7.33 6.31 21 1.67 119 4.23 1.22 12 0.95 31 1.10 0.39 4 0.31 10 0.36 2.12 6 0.48 39 1.39 0.07 0 1 0.04 0.07 1 0.08 2 0.07 0.07 2 0.16 3 0.10 0.71 24 1.90 35 1.25 2.12 55 4.36 88 3.13 3.03 52 4.12 99 3.52 0.26 2 0.16 6 0.21 0.07 1 0.08 2 0.07 0.07 1 0.08 2 0.07 0.07 0 1 0.04 1.61 7 0.56 32 1.14 1.49 8 1,261 0.63 31 2,812 1.10 100.00 100.00 100.00 phases in the Pine Lawn Valley (for example, Georgetown, San Francisco and Three Circle), yet in the Reserve phase we can demonstrate stronger Anasazi influences. RELATIONSHIPS OF PRINCIPAL POTTERY TYPES IN MOGOLLON SITES IN WESTERN NEW MEXICO (Fig. 71) As we studied the sherd data from the 1947 dig and compared them with those of 1939, 1941, and 1946, we wondered whether it POTTERY 191 Table 5. — Sherd Analysis, Three Circle Phase — concluded Tvrin Bridges Fill Floor Total No. % No. % No. % Pit-house A Alma Plain 61 91.05 31 86.12 92 89.32 Alma Rough 0 0 0 San Francisco Red (Saliz variety) 0 1 2.78 1 0.97 Alma Neck Banded 0 2 5.55 2 1.94 Three Circle Red-on-White 2 2.98 2 5.55 4 3.89 Mimbres Bold Face Black-on-White 3 4.48 0 3 2.91 Abajo Red-on-Orange 1 1 .49 0 1 0 .97 Total 67 100.00 36 100.00 103 100.00 Pit-house B Alma Plain 37 80.43 22 84.61 59 81.94 Alma Rough 2 4.35 1 3.85 3 4.17 San Francisco Red (Saliz variety) 3 6.52 2 7.69 5 6.94 Alma Neck Banded 2 4.35 1 3.85 3 4.17 Mimbres Bold Face Black-on-White. . . 2 4.35 0 2 2.78 Total 46 100.00 26 100.00 72 100.00 Pit-house C Alma Plain 76 69.73 36 48.65 112 61.20 Alma Rough 9 8.26 0 9 4.92 San Francisco Red (Saliz variety) 5 4.59 8 10.81 13 7.10 Reserve Smudged 4 3.67 12 16.22 16 8.74 Alma Neck Banded 3 2.75 7 9.46 10 5.47 Three Circle Red-on-White 6 5.50 2 2.70 8 4.37 Mimbres Bold Face Black-on-White.... 6 5.50 9 12.16 15 8.20 Total 109 100.00 74 100.00 183 100.00 Pit-house D Alma Plain 476 77.52 28 53.85 504 75.68 Alma Rough 2 0.33 0 2 0.30 San Francisco Red (Saliz variety) 32 5.21 4 7.69 36 5.41 Alma Neck Banded 27 4.40 3 5.77 30 4.50 Three Circle Red-on-White 28 4.56 6 11 .54 34 5.11 Mimbres Bold Face Black-on-White. . . 48 7.82 11 21.15 59 8.85 Indeterminate Black-on-Red 1 0.16 0 1 0.15 Total 614 100.00 52 100.00 666 100.00 would be possible to place the houses in approximate chronological positions. In analyzing the pottery type percentages of the various sites, and in making, in particular, a comparison of the pottery type percentages of the Promontory site (1947) and the SU site (1939, 1941, 1946) it became evident to us that we were dealing with differences of a degree that might cover a span of time within the Pine Lawn phase. We had conjectured that all the houses at the SU site were not occupied at the same time, although the percentile differences be- tween the pottery types in the individual houses were not great. 192 — CM IO ID — CM Tfr a> cm 10 ^J- O — co cm tn — m 10 cm en ^" cm ro cm — oocD2r'jcocvjco^- 10 cm to in •u5 oo O CO O H co to o o CO CO CM o o T3 P. X X x x x X X X : : x : : x x : : : : x x : : : x x : : : x x : : x x X X X x : : x x x x x x : x : x x : : : x : : x x : : x x : : x : x > cS >- — * X g ° w © U3 W ?D i— I I i^ o ia O CO "3 <£> X x : x : : x x x X x : x : : x x : x x : x x : : x : : x : x x : x : : x : x x ft 13 ■a 2 x X >> .13 § O U O 216 'SB X H O < s « o ,Q X : x x : : x x : : x : x x : x : x : : x : x X X X X X : x x : : x : x x x x x x XJl < 09 < o fa o o m 00 H a < 2 : x : x : x : x : x : x fa fa o- X h x : t> : x * x X X X >. s M S o fl lO 1 0 c -c CT. X X x : x : : x x : x : x : x : x : x x : x X : x x X X : x x x : x x : : x : x x : : x : x x x x x x 3 3 eo to os mill « 1-1 T)l t- ► o o I- O eg ■*> 52 • w O • -u **■«-> o -i «» 2 ' ftl. r< I T ** *5 -i 3 s.fl. ^ bS8 O « * 1 PQ 217 218 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO After placing the SU houses in these three groupings, we scanned the map of the site to see if the houses of each group bore any geo- graphical or spatial relationship one to the other. We were unable to observe any such relationship. Do these three groups — Early, Middle, Late — point to sub- phases of the Pine Lawn phase? Since they are of a temporal nature as set up, they probably do represent sub-phases. We have, however, refrained from making any division of this sort beyond the informal groupings we have suggested. If we had at our command more data, and especially tree-ring dates, we should be in a better position to create such sub-phases. We don't know the life span of any of these three groups. We can only guess that it was fairly short, perhaps fifty years. It still seems clear to us that the SU site is older than the Promon- tory site. Arranging pottery data in a graphic form such as we have bor- rowed and adapted to our needs suggested other theoretical ways in which this method might be used. This method of manipulating ceramic data enables one to refine the history of the rise and fall of pottery types in any given cultural grouping and within phases. It also enables one to note interrela- tionships of cultural development, the influences that came in, the extent to which they took hold, and the ways in which they influenced the main stream of development. In short, one obtains a better understanding of the history of a given group of ceramic types. It permits one to observe sharp breaks or slow, steady evolution in that history. This graphic method of presentation does not tell one everything, but it does enable one to make other correlations and comparisons. Our chart lacks many things, but it yields a few examples of what we mean. Alma Plain was a very stable type — much more so than any painted ware — having a span of life at least 500 years in length. During that time several other wares came in and faded out again. While the color of the paste of Alma Plain remained more or less unaltered, the shapes changed somewhat during its lifetime. Were these changes in shapes brought about by outside influences and did other wares of the area have similar shapes? Alma Rough had a comparatively short life and when it died out it was immediately replaced by textured wares. A sudden occurrence of a new type or a rise in the popularity of a given type might be correlated with other simultaneous changes SYNTHESIS 219 in the culture — changes in architecture or introduction of new tools (for example, the grooved ax) — and all of these might be due to new ideas that have filtered into the area or (most unlikely) an "invasion" or a shift of population. If enough data were available (and we do not have enough for the Mimbres branch), such a presentation of pottery trends would be a very sensitive time scale and a better indication of change than the conventional treatment by phases. It presents, moreover, a realistic continuum that can not be obtained by thinking merely in terms of phases. These at best represent only high points or unconnected unit-blocks in a culture and do not give the student a feeling of continuity. On the other hand, if a sharp gap exists in the graph, one can quickly ascertain whether this is due to lack of enough digging in an area or whether some historical process or event had taken place. This event, which may represent a change in institutions, a step in human progress, an unrecorded drama, might otherwise go unheeded because our previous tools for measur- ing and interpreting culture change have been too gross. Since we do not have enough tree-ring dates for the Mimbres branch, this graphic method constitutes a more refined time scale than anything previously at our disposal. By means of this method it is now possible to take a single house, a single room, a refuse heap, or a site, and place it on this relative time scale. Can we correlate other changes in culture with changes in pottery trends? It is fair to assume that in the near future we shall have more dates for the Mimbres branch of the Mogollon culture. These dates may be derived from dendrochronology, from the newer C14 method, or from other possible physico-chemical methods, if these latter methods are perfected. When more dates have become available, we can set the scale of pottery changes against the framework of absolute chronology to see whether the rates of changes in pottery types have been constant through given periods. If we can note significant pottery differences, we may then ascertain how and at what rates houses, tools and other aspects of material culture have changed. Summary This graphic method of presentation is an approach which (1) is a refined archaeological sequence of pottery trends that may be useful in the absence of absolute dates; (2) enables one to assess the amount of cultural change as reflected in pottery in a given period 220 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO of time; (3) permits one to suspect or discern gaps in the data and in the evolutionary sequence with a consequent deeper under- standing of apparent gaps. These gaps may turn out to be true gaps in sequence, which can be filled in by excavating more sites, or they may represent periods of rapid change. If the data for trends in types of pottery are complete enough, one might be able to understand the history of the occupation of any village site — for example, the type and interior features of the houses and the number of houses that were occupied at any given time. This understanding may turn out to be a substitute for absolute chronologies and almost as satisfactory as if tree-ring dates were available for each house. * Even if we had tree-ring dates for every house — an unlikely possibility! — this graphic mode of showing pottery trends would be more than useful because it gives a more complete picture of the occurrences in a particular area or site at a given time. An understanding of the history of the Southwest is now at a point where refinements relating to cultural change are in order. In collecting the raw data for the section on pottery trends, we were appalled at the lack of raw data in published reports. Many authors omit sherd counts entirely; others merely give samples from a site; others publish only percentages from which one cannot judge the total number of sherds that were tabulated; still others present tables labeled "Distribution of Pottery Types" and in columns below give numbers, but whether these numbers are actual sherd counts, percentages, or numbers of whole vessels, one cannot tell. It is even difficult to obtain sherd counts from the archaeologist himself, since his notes are often hopelessly buried. And why should one have to write a dozen letters to obtain these data that may be important for future studies? This, then, is a plea for the publication of complete sherd counts by houses, by levels (if any were noted), by type, and in any other way that might be useful to a student in the future. The work involved in preparing such tables is not great, since presumably one makes some sort of tabulation in order to draw conclusions pertaining to stratigraphy and changes in pottery styles. Bury such tables at the rear of the report, in an appendix if you will, but publish them by all means. It is a pity that such complete and explicit tabulations of pottery counts are so rare in published literature on the Southwest. Two outstanding exceptions to this statement are the publication of Kidder (1931), and that of Beals, Brainerd and Smith (1945). SYNTHESIS 221 Tools of stone and bone are likewise usually too scantily tabulated. Some archaeologists list all the tools by sites, but not by houses or levels, if the latter existed. It would be most helpful in correlating trends in pottery, architecture, and tools to have the data listed in the most explicit manner. If this is done, a student may take any archaeological report and rework the data by techniques that may develop in the future. RESULTS The survey and excavations carried out during our 1947 season accomplished the following results which we believe to be significant: (1) A more complete definition of the Pine Lawn phase through an analysis of trends in popularity of house features, pottery types, and stone artifact types, as well as the extension of our knowledge of the later part of the phase as represented in the Promontory site. (2) The discovery in the Pine Lawn Valley of a Cochise site which is identified typologically with the Chiricahua stage and shows relationships both to the Chiricahua stage of southeastern Arizona and the stone artifacts of the Pine Lawn phase. This dis- covery consequently led to a hypothesis that the Chiricahua stage developed directly into the Pine Lawn phase, omitting most of the changes found in the San Pedro stage. (3) The delineation, by means of the surface survey, of the broad outlines of the cultural sequence in the Pine Lawn Valley, including the beginning of a definition of the Tularosa phase, as distinguished from the Reserve (or Upper Gila) phase. (4) Increase in our knowledge of the Three Circle phase through description of that phase in a time interval between that represented at the Harris Village and that of the Three Circle phase houses at the SU site. This interval was represented in the houses of Turkey Foot Ridge and Twin Bridges sites. (5) The delineation of the beginning interval of the Reserve phase as represented at Oak Springs Pueblo. ESTIMATED DATES FOR PINE LAWN VALLEY No tree-ring dates are yet available for any houses of the Pine Lawn, Georgetown, San Francisco, or Reserve phases in Pine Lawn Valley. It is hoped that some day some of the wood recovered from the valley will be dated, since Dr. A. E. Douglass and his as- sistants of the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, University of Arizona, Tucson, are analyzing it. 222 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO In the meantime, we have attempted to work out an estimated chronology, which we regard as imperfect but the best that can be made at the present time. In making up this tentative estimate of dates, we relied on all the typological evidence we had secured in four seasons of excavations and on the evidence from the following sources: Gladwin (1945), Haury (1936a and b, 1940, 1942), Haury and Sayles (1947), Nesbitt (1938), and Roberts (1940). Sequence of Phases and Estimated Dates for the Pine Lawn Valley Reserve A.D. 1000-? Three Circle A.D. 900-1000 San Francisco A.D. 700- 900 Georgetown A.D. 500- 700 Pine Lawn ?- 500 BIBLIOGRAPHY Amsden, C. A. 1935. The Pinto Basin artifacts. In E. W. C. and W. H. Campbell, The Pinto Basin Site. Southwest Museum Papers, No. 9, pp. 33-51. 1937. The Lake Mohave artifacts. In E. W. C. and W. H. Campbell, The Archeology of Pleistocene Lake Mohave. Southwest Museum Papers, No. 11, pp. 51-97. Antevs, Ernst 1941. See Sayles, E. B. and Antevs, Ernst 1948. The Great Basin, with emphasis on glacial and post-glacial times. III. Climatic changes and pre-white man. Bulletin of the University of Utah, vol. 38, No. 20 (Biological Series, vol. X, No. 7), pp. 168-191. Atlas of American Agriculture. United States Government Printing Office. 1936. Bailey, R. W. 1941. Land erosion — normal and accelerated — in the semiarid West. American Geophysical Union, Transactions, 1941, pp. 240-250. % Bailey, Vernon 1913. Life zones and crop zones of New Mexico. Bureau of Biological Survey, North American Fauna, No. 35. 1931. Mammals of New Mexico. Bureau of Biological Survey, North American Fauna, No. 53. Beals, Ralph L., Brainerd, George W., and Smith, Watson 1945. Archaeological studies in northeast Arizona. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. 44, No. 1. Bradfield, W. 1927. Notes on Mimbres culture. El Palacio, vol. 22, pp. 550-559. Santa Fe, New Mexico. 1931. Cameron Creek village. El Palacio Press. Santa Fe, New Mexico. Brew, J. O. 1946. Archaeology of Alkali Ridge, southeastern Utah. Papers, Peabody Museum of American Archaeologv and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. 21. Bryan, Kirk 1925. Date of channel trenching (arroyo cutting) in the arid Southwest. Science, n. ser., vol. 62, pp. 338-344. 1941. Pre-Columbian agriculture in the Southwest, as conditioned by periods of alluviation. Annals, Association of American Geographers, vol. 31, pp. 219-242. and Albritton, C. C. 1943. Soil phenomena as evidence of climatic changes. American Journal of Science, vol. 241, pp. 469-490. 223 224 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO Climate and Man. Yearbook of Agriculture, 1941. United States Department of Agriculture. Conrad, Victor 1944. Methods in Climatology. Harvard University Press. Cosgrove, H. S. and C. B. 1932. The Swarts ruin. Papers, Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. 15, No. 1. Darton, N. H. 1925. A resume of Arizona geology. Arizona Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 119. Tucson, Arizona. 1928a. Geological map of the State of Arizona. Arizona Bureau of Mines and United States Geological Survey. 1928b. Geological map of New Mexico. United States Geological Survey. Douglass, A. E. 1935. Dating Pueblo Bonito and other ruins of the Southwest. National Geographic Society, Pueblo Bonito Series, No. 1. 1945. Survey of sequoia studies. Tree-Ring Bulletin, vol. 11, pp. 26-32; ' vol. 12, pp. 10-16. Tucson, Arizona. Evans, G. L. and Meade, G. E. 1945. Quaternary of the Texas High Plains. University of Texas Publication 4401, pp. 485-507. Fenneman, N. M. 1931. Physiography of western United States. McGraw-Hill Book Company. Ferguson, H. G. 1921. The Mogollon district, New Mexico. United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 715, pp. 171-204. Ford, James A. and Quimby, George I., Jr. 1945. The Tchefuncte culture. Memoirs, Society for American Archaeology, No. 2. Menasha, Wisconsin. Ford, James A. and Willey, Gordon 1940. The Crooks Site, a Marksville period burial mound in La Salle Parish, Louisiana. Department of Conservation, Louisiana Geological Survey, Anthropological Study No. 3. Gale, H. S. 1915. Salines in the Owens, Searles, and Panamint basins, southeastern California. United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 580, pp. 251-323. Gladwin, H. S. 1934. A method for the designation of cultures and their variations. Gila Pueblo, Medallion Papers, No. 15. Globe, Arizona. 1945. The Chaco Branch. Excavations at White Mound and in the Red Mesa Valley. Gila Pueblo, Medallion Papers, No. 33. Globe, Arizona. , Haury, E. W., Sayles, E. B., and Gladwin, N. 1937. Excavations at Snaketown. Gila Pueblo, Medallion Papers, No. 25. Globe, Arizona. Gladwin, Winifred and Harold S. 1935. The eastern range of the Red on Buff culture. Gila Pueblo, Medallion Papers, No. 16. Globe, Arizona. BIBLIOGRAPHY 225 Hack, John T. 1942. The changing physical environment of the Hopi Indians of Arizona. Papers, Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. 35, No. 1. Hansen, H. P. 1947. Postglacial forest succession, climate, and chronology in the Pacific Northwest. Transactions, American Philosophical Society, vol. 37, pt. 1, pp. 1-130. Happ, S. C, Rittenhouse, G., and Dobson, G. C. 1940. Some principles of accelerated stream and valley sedimentation. United States Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin, No. 695. Harrington, M. R. 1933. Gypsum Cave, Nevada. Southwest Museum Papers, No. 8. Haurwitz, Bernhard and Austin, J. M. 1944. Climatology. McGraw-Hill Book Company. Haury, Emil W. 1936a. The Mogollon culture of southwestern New Mexico. Gila Pueblo, Medallion Papers, No. 20. Globe, Arizona. 1936b. Some southwestern pottery types, Series IV. Gila Pueblo, Medallion Papers, No. 19. Globe, Arizona. 1940. Excavations in the Forestdale Valley, east-central Arizona. University of Arizona Bulletin, vol. 11, No. 4 (Social Science Bulletin, No. 12). 1942. Some implications of the Bluff ruin dates. Tree-Ring Bulletin, vol. 9, No. 2. Tucson, Arizona. 1943a. The stratigraphy of Ventana Cave, Arizona. American Antiquity, vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 218-233. • 1943b. A possible Cochise-Mogollon-Hohokam sequence. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 86, No. 2, pp. 260-263. and Sayles, E. B. 1947. An early pit house village of the Mogollon culture. University of Arizona Bulletin, vol. 18, No. 4. Hibben, Frank C. 1941. Evidence of early occupation in Sandia Cave, New Mexico. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 99, No. 23. Hinds, N. E. A. 1943. Geomorphology, the evolution of landscape. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Hough, Walter 1907. Antiquities of the upper Gila and Salt River valleys in Arizona and New Mexico. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 35. 1914. Culture of the ancient Pueblos of the upper Gila River region, New Mexico and Arizona. United States National Museum, Bulletin 87. 1920. Exploration of a pit house village at Luna, New Mexico. Proceedings, United States National Museum, vol. 55, pp. 409-431. Howard, Edgar B. 1935. Evidence of early man in North America. Museum Journal, vol. 24, Nos. 2-3. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Jenkins, M. T. 1941. Influence of climate and weather on growth of corn. United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook of Agriculture, 1941, pp. 308-320. 226 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO Kellogg, C. E. 1936. Development and significance of the great soil groups of the United States. United States Department of Agriculture, Miscellaneous Publica- tions, No. 229. 1937. Soil survey manual. United States Department of Agriculture, Mis- cellaneous Publications, No. 274. Kidder, A. V. 1924. An introduction to the study of southwestern archaeology. Papers of the Southwestern Expedition, No. 1. Phillips Academy, New Haven, Con- necticut. 1931. Pottery of Pecos. Vol. I, The dull-paint wares. Papers of the South- western Expedition, No. 5. Phillips Academy, New Haven, Connecticut. 1932. The artifacts of Pecos. Papers of the Southwestern Expedition, No. 6. Phillips Academy, New Haven, Connecticut. and Guernsey, S. J. 1921. Basket Maker caves of northeastern Arizona. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. 8, No. 2. KlNCER, J. B. 1928 and 1936. Temperature, sunshine and wind. Atlas of American Agricul- ture. United States Government Printing Office. Landsberg, Helmut 1941. Physical climatology. Pennsylvania State College. Ligon, J. S. 1927. Wild life of New Mexico, its conservation and management. New Mexico State Game Commission, Santa Fe. Lobeck, A. K. 1939. Geomorphology, an introduction to the study of landscapes. McGraw- Hill Book Company. MacCurdy, G. G., Editor 1937. Early Man: an international symposium. J. B. Lippincott Company. Martin, Paul S. 1939. Modified Basket Maker sites in the Ackmen-Lowry area, southwestern Colorado, 1938. Field Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Series, vol. 23, No. 3. 1940. The SU Site, Excavations at a Mogollon village, western New Mexico. Field Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Series, vol. 32, No. 1. 1943. The SU Site, Excavations at a Mogollon village, western New Mexico. Field Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Series, vol. 32, No. 2. and Rinaldo, John B. 1947. The SU Site, Excavations at a Mogollon village, western New Mexico. Field Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Series, vol. 32, No. 3. and Willis, E. S. 1940. Anasazi painted pottery in Field Museum of Natural History. Field Museum of Natural History, Anthropology Memoirs, vol. 5. Martin, W. P. and Fletcher, J. E. 1943. Vertical zonation of great soil groups on Mt. Graham, Arizona, as correlated with climate, vegetation, and profile characteristics. Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin No. 99. Tucson, Arizona. BIBLIOGRAPHY 227 Naturalist's Guide to the Americas. V. E. Shelford, Editor. Baltimore. 1926. Nesbitt, Paul H. 1931. The ancient Mimbrefios, based on investigations at the Mattocks ruin, Mimbres Valley, New Mexico. Logan Museum Bulletin No. 4, Beloit College. Beloit, Wisconsin. 1938. Starkweather ruin. Logan Museum Publications in Anthropology, Bulletin No. 6, Beloit College. Beloit, Wisconsin. Nichol, A. A. 1937. The natural vegetation of Arizona. Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin No. 68. Tucson, Arizona. Paige, Sidney 1916. Silver City folio, New Mexico. United States Geological Survey, Geologic Atlas, Folio No. 199. Pearson, G. A. 1931. Forest types in the Southwest as determined by climate and soil. United States Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin, No. 247. Powers, W. E. 1941. Volcanic rocks of the western San Augustin Plains district, New Mexico. Journal of Geology, vol. 49, pp. 207-217. Reiche, Parry 1945. A survey of weathering processes and products. University of New Mexico, Publications in Geology, No. 1. Rich, J. L. 1911. Recent stream trenching in the semiarid portion of southwestern New Mexico, a result of removal of vegetation cover. American Journal of Science, vol. 32, pp. 237-245. Rinaldo, John 1941. Conjectures on the independent development of the Mogollon culture. American Antiquity, vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 5-19. Roberts, F. H. H., Jr. 1931. Ruins at Kiatuthlanna, eastern Arizona. Bureau of American Eth- nology, Bulletin 100. 1935. A Folsom complex. Preliminary report on investigations at the Linden- meier site in northern Colorado. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 94, No. 4. 1936. Additional information on the Folsom complex. Report on the second season's investigations at the Lindenmeier site in northern Colorado. Smith- sonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 95, No. 10. 1940. Archaeological remains in the Whitewater district, eastern Arizona. Part II. Artifacts and burials. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 126. Sayles, E. B. 1935. An archaeological survey of Texas. Gila Pueblo, Medallion Papers, No. 17. Globe, Arizona. 1945. The San Simon branch, excavations at Cave Creek and in the San Simon Valley. I. Material culture. Gila Pueblo, Medallion Papers, No. 34. Globe, Arizona. and Antevs, Ernst 1941. The Cochise culture. Gila Pueblo, Medallion Papers, No. 29. Globe, Arizona. 228 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO Schulman, Edmund 1946. Tree-ring hydrology of the Colorado River basin. University of Arizona Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, Bulletin No. 2. Tucson, Arizona. 1947a. An 800-year Douglas fir at Mesa Verde. Tree-Ring Bulletin, vol. 14, pp. 2-8. Tucson, Arizona. 1947b. Tree-ring hydrology in southern California. University of Arizona Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, Bulletin No. 4. Tucson, Arizona. Smith, H. V. 1945. The climate of Arizona. Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 197. Tucson, Arizona. Soils and Men. Yearbook of Agriculture, 1938. United States Department of Agriculture. Stallings, W. S., Jr. 1941. A Basket Maker II date from Cave Du Pont, Utah. Tree-Ring Bulletin, vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 3-6. Tucson, Arizona. Thornthwaite, C. W. 1948. An approach toward a rational classification of climate. Geographical Review, vol. 38, pp. 55-94. , Sharpe, C. F. S., and Dosch, E. F. 1942. Climate and accelerated erosion in the arid and semiarid Southwest, with special reference to the Polacca Wash drainage basin, Arizona. United States Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin, No. 808. Trewartha, G. T. 1943. An introduction to weather and climate. McGraw-Hill Book Company. Van Winkle, Walton 1914. Quality of the surface waters of Oregon. United States Geological Survey, Water-Supply, Paper No. 363. Visher, S. S. 1946. Average daily temperature range in the United States. American Meteorological Society Bulletin, vol. 27, pp. 594-597. Woodbury, Richard 1939. Ground and pecked stone artifacts (other than arrow shaft tools). Section C of preliminary report on the 1937 excavations, Be 50-51, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, edited by Clyde Kluckhohn and Paul Reiter. Uni- versity of New Mexico Bulletin, Anthropological Series, vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 58-79. INDEX Abajo Red-on-Orange, 187; comparison with Mogollon Red-on-Brown, 202; see also Pottery Abert Lake, 56 Abrading stone, 130, 166 Allee, M., 8, 130 Alma Neck Banded, 138, 187; see also Pottery Alma Plain, 18, 23, 24, 135, 138, 184, 187, 188, 196, 198; see also Pottery Alma Rough, 23, 135, 138, 184, 187, 188, 196, 198, 199, 209; see also Pottery Alma Scored, 138, 187, 198; see also Pottery Anasazi, area, 138, 202; culture, 17-20; metates, 140; pueblo, 188; trait, 142 Animal bones, 176 Animal life, 43, 176; see also Fauna Apache Creek, 21-23 Apache Mountain, 36 Apache National Forest, 7 Architecture, 20; description of details of, 82-126; see also Pit-houses Arizona, 56 Arnold, Brigham A., 21 Arrow points, 24; see also Points, pro- jectile Arrowshaft smoother, 24 Artifacts, 130; age of Cochise, 56; com- parison of Pine Lawn with other horizons, 136; description of Wet Leggett, 59; functions of, 134; occur- rence by pit-houses, 180-183; total number of, 130 Awls, bone, 130, 133, 135, 139, 140, 142, 176, 215; see also Bone, tools Axes, 140 Back filling, 33 Bailey, R. W., 48 Basin and range province, 36 Basket Maker, 62, 138 Beads, stone, 24 Beams, roof, Oak Springs Pueblo, 126; Promontory site houses, 90, 94; Turkey Foot Ridge site houses, 102, 106; Twin Bridges site, Pit-house D, 122 Bear, black, 43 Bear Ruin, 19 Beds, sequence of, 43 Blades, 59; Wet Leggett, 72; other Pine Lawn Valley sites, 170; see also Knives Blue River, 34 Bluff site, metates, 141; pottery and dates, 20, 202 Bone, tools, 17, 19; awls, 176; working of, 131, 133 Bones, animal, unworked, 176 Bracelet, shell, 130, 133, 176 Bradfield, W., 18 Braidwood, R., 26, 28 Brushy Mountain, 38 Bryan, K., 48 Burials, at SU site, 215; features of, 205; in Room B, Oak Springs Pueblo, 126 Calamity formation, 56 Cameron Creek, 140 Cave Creek site, 141 Channel erosion, 49 Channel filling, 52-54 Chihuahua, 18 Chipmunk, 43 Chipped stone tools, 59, 60, 62, 130, 132; see also Knives, Scrapers Chiricahua stage of the Cochise culture, 7, 26, 58, 60, 62, 63, 141, 207, 208, 221 Choppers, 59, 78, 130, 132, 140, 164 Chronology, estimated, 222 Classifications, of survey sites, 23 ; taxo- nomic, 17 Clay artifacts, 130, 133 Climate, modern, 38 Clusters of houses, 214 Cochise culture, 7, 17, 20, 26, 62-64, 138, 142, 207, 208, 221; artifact locations, 55, 57 Colorado plateau, 36 Corn, 42, 209 Cosgrove, H. S., 18, 137 Crackel, (Mrs.) M., 8 Currants, 43 Dating, 56, 57, 221, 222 Deer bone, 176 Deposition, 48; modern channel, 49; old channel, 50 Depressions, house, 23, 27 Dice, bone, 130, 176 Digging, 26, 30, 32; see Excavation 229 230 PINE LAWN VALLEY, WESTERN NEW MEXICO Digging crew, 26; see Labor Dillon Mountain, 36 Dishes, stone, 130, 160 Douglass, A. E., 8, 57, 221 Doves, 43 Drills, 130, 132, 168 Effigy, animal, 130, 178 Egan, W. T., 8 Elevation, Wet Leggett site, 34 Encinas phase, 20, 140 Erosion, modern channel, 48, 49; old channel, 50 Ewing, R. B., 7 Excavations, 26-33, 207 Fauna, 43; see also Animal life Fenneman, N. M., 36 Field, Stanley, 8 Fill, definition of, 29 Firepits, 82, 102, 110, 114, 118, 208 Flakers, 133 Floor, occupation, definition of, 29 Floors, in Oak Springs Pueblo, 31, 126; in pit-houses, 82, 86, 90, 94, 98, 102, 106, 110, 114, 118, 122, 126, 194, 209, 215 Folsom, 62, 63 Ford, J. A., 196 Forestdale, branch, 140; phase, 139, 140; Valley, 19, 20, 137 Foss, D., 176 Geomorphology, 34 Georgetown phase, 22, 138, 139, 190, 196, 198, 199, 207 Gila Pueblo, 21 Gladwin, H. S., 18, 222 Gooseberry, 43 Gravers, 59, 72 Gregg, C. C., 8 Grinding stones, small metate-like, 130, 156 Grooves in pit-house floors, 215 Ground and pecked stone, 130; tools, 131 Hammerstones, 17, 130, 133, 135, 164 Handstones, 130 Harris Village, 20, 137, 139, 196, 221 Hastings, Russell, 21 Haury, E. W., 18-21, 137, 138, 140, 184, 187, 195, 196, 222 Hilltop phase, 141 Hinds, N. E. A., 36 History, climatic, 56; Pine Lawn Valley, 208 Hoes, 130, 133, 166 Hohokam, area, 202; culture, 18, 20, 138, 140; traits, 19 Hood Ranger station, 7, 40, 41 Horse Mountain, 36 Hough, W., 17, 18, 21, 23, 24 House features, 209, 215 Houses, 208; see also Pit-houses Igneous rocks, 36 Incised Corrugated ware, 24, 188; see also Pottery Jiron, G., 8 Jiron, M., 8 Johnson, L. G., 8 Juniper, 43 Kidder, A. V., 18 Kivas, 24 Knives, 59, 60, 74, 130, 132, 136, 141, 170 Labor, 26 Lake Mohave, 62, 63 Lateral entrances, 82, 86, 98, 102, 106, 110, 118, 122, 135, 209, 215 Leggett Canyon, 21, 22 Little Colorado River, 140 Lobeck, A. K., 36 Locus A, 26, 27, 34, 48, 54, 58 Locus B, 34, 52, 53; excavation of, 26, 27, 58; occurrence of artifacts, 55, 56; profile, 43, 44, 46 Luna, New Mexico, 18, 21, 40 Maize, 42; see also Corn Mangas Mountain, 36 Manos, one-hand, 55, 59, 66; two-hand, 124, 130, 132, 134-137, 141, 143, 144, 215 Mantle, plant-and-soil, 48 Manufacture of artifacts, 131 Marshall, S., 8 Mattocks site, 140 Mauls, 132, 138, 140 Metates, 24; comparison, 140-141; de- scription, 152; Mogollon, 130-132, 134, 137; Wet Leggett, 55, 59, 68 Milling process, 134-135 Milling stones, 130, 134 Mimbres Bold Face Black-on-White, 186, 187, 196, 198; see also Pottery Mimbres Branch, 64, 140, 196 Mimbres Classic Black-on-White, 187 Mimbres culture, 18 Mimbres Neck Corrugated, 24, 188; see also Pottery Mimbres phase, 17, 19, 20, 140 Mogollon, culture, 17-20, 136; problem, 17-20; Village (1:15), 20, 25, 137-139, 196 Mogollon Red-on-Brown, 25, 184, 186, 187, 195, 196, 198, 202, 207 Mortars, 130-132, 136-138, 140, 141, 160 INDEX 231 Nesbitt, Paul, 19-21, 137-140, 187, 195, 196, 222 Oak, 43 Oak Springs Pueblo, 8, 24, 30-32, 126, 196, 207, 221 Old Ranch, 49, 50 Owens Lake, 56 Pecked and ground stone, 130-131 Penasco phase, 20, 141 Perry, (Mrs.) M., 8 Pestles, 130, 131, 135, 136, 137, 140, 141, 150, 151 Photographing, 29 Pine Lawn phase, 8, 17, 21-23, 25, 28, 30, 207, 208, 221; artifact trends and comparison, 137-142; pit-houses, 82- 101; pottery, 184, 191, 198, 199 Pine Lawn Valley, 7, 17-19, 22, 25, 26, 34, 41, 58, 140, 141, 207 Pinto Basin artifacts, 62, 63 Pinyon pine, 43 Pipes, 130-132, 142; conical, 138, tubu- lar, 138, 166 Pit-houses, 17, 20, 208, 209, 215; on Promontory site, 82-98; on Turkey Foot Ridge site, 102-108; on Twin Bridges site, 110-122 Pits, 82, 90, 94, 98, 106, 118, 215 Planosol, 45 Plant life, 43 ; see Vegetation Plateau province, 38 Plazas, 24 Podzol, 45 Points, projectile, 59, 60, 72, 130, 132, 139, 168; see also Arrow points Polishing stones, 17, 130-132, 135, 136, 138, 162, 163 Postholes, 82, 90, 94, 98, 102, 106, 110, 114, 118, 122, 215 Pottery, 17, 19, 22, 23, 82, 86, 90, 94, 98, 102, 106, 110, 114, 118, 122, 126, 184-204, 209, 218, 220; Alma Neck Banded, 138, 187; Alma Plain, 138, 184, 187, 196; Alma Rough, 138, 184, 187, 196; Alma Scored, 187, 198; Incised Corrugated, 24, 188; Mim- bres Bold Face Black-on- White, 186, 187, 196; Mimbres Classic Black-on- White, 187; Mimbres Neck Corru- gated, 24, 188; Mogollon Red-on- Brown, 184, 187, 196, 202; Red Mesa Black-on-White, 187, 190; Re- serve Black-on-White, 24, 187, 198; Reserve Fillet Rim, 24; Reserve Smudged, 24, 188, 198; San Francisco Red, 23, 184, 188, 198; San Lorenzo Red-on-Brown, 187; Three Circle Neck Corrugated, 23, 24, 187; Three Circle Red-on-White, 23, 184, 186, 187; Tularosa Black-on-White, 24, 25, 187 Prairie dog, 43 Precipitation, 40, 43; see also Rainfall Profile, soil, 43, 44 Projectile points, 59, 60, 72, 130, 132, 139, 168; see also Points, projectile, Arrow points Promontory site, excavation, 27-29, 207; location, 8; pit-houses, 82-101; pottery, 184, 191, 194, 196, 198, 201 Pueblo ruins, 23, 24 Puerco Black-on-Red, 24 Quail, 43 Quimby, G. I., 8, 196 Rabbit, 43, 176 Rainfall, 40, 41 Rate of change, 214 Reconnaissance, archaeological, 17 Red Mesa Black-on-White, 187; see also Pottery Reserve, New Mexico, 7, 21, 22, 25, 40 Reserve Black-on-White, 23, 24, 25, 187, 198; see also Pottery Reserve Fillet Rim, 24; see also Pottery Reserve phase, 8, 20, 22, 25, 58, 140, 142, 184, 190, 196, 198, 207, 208, 209, 221; Oak Springs Pueblo, 126-129 Reserve Smudged, 23, 24, 187, 188, 198 Roberts, F. H. H., 138, 222 Romero, B., 8 Roy, S., 44 Rubbing stones, 130-132, 136, 137, 148 Saliz Canyon, 21, 22 Salt River, 17, 18 San Augustin Plains, 36 San Francisco, Mountains, 34, 36; phase, 19, 22, 138, 139, 142, 190, 195, 196, 198, 199, 207; River, 21, 22, 24 San Francisco Red, 23, 24, 135, 138, 184, 187, 188, 198, 209 San Juan, Anasazi, 142; area, 140; nucleus, 18 San Lorenzo Red-on-Brown, 187; see also Pottery San Pedro stage, 62, 63, 141, 221 San Simon, Branch, 137, 140; Valley, 20 Sayles, E. B., 7, 8, 22, 23, 58, 137, 195, 207, 222 Schulman, E., 8 Scrapers, 59, 60, 76, 130, 132, 136, 139, 141, 172 Sedimentary rocks, 36 Sedation, pottery, 196 Serna, R., 8, 22 Serna W. 8 Shape, pit-house, 82, 86, 90, 94, 98, 102, 106, 110, 114, 118, 122, 126, 194, 208 Publication 627