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The Rural Science Series
L. H. BAILEY, Eprror
THE
COMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY
OF NORTH AMERICA
Che Rural Science Series
EDITED By L. H. BAILEY
THE Sor. King.
THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. Lodeman.
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. Wing. Enlarged and Revised.
THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND. Roberts.
THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING. Bailey. 20th Edi-
tion, Revised.
BUSH-FRUITS. Card. Revised.
FERTILIZERS. Voorhees. Revised.
THE PRINOIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. Bailey. Revised.
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. King.
THE FARMSTEAD. Roberts.
RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE. Fairchild.
THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING. Bailey.
FARM POULTRY. Watson. Enlarged and Revised.
THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. Jordan. (Now Rural Text-
Book.) Series Revised.
THE FARMER’S BUSINESS HANDBOOK. Roberts.
THE DISEASES OF ANIMALS. Mayo.
Tur Horse. Roberts.
How To CHOOSE A FARM. Hunt.
FORAGE CROPS. Voorhees.
BACTERIA IN RELATION TO CouNTRY LIFE. Lipman.
THE NURSERY-BOOK. Bailey. (Now Rural Manual Series.)
PLANT-BREEDING. Bailey and Gilbert. Revised.
THE FORCING-BOOK. Bailey, ;
THE PRUNING-BOOK. Bailey. (Now Rural Manual Series.)
FRUIT GROWING IN ARID REGIONS. Paddock and Whipple.
RURAL HYGIENE. Ogden.
DRY-FARMING. Waidtsoe.
LAW FOR THE AMERICAN FARMER. Green.
FARM BOySs AND GIRLS. McKeever.
THE TRAINING AND BREAKING OF HORSES. Harper.
SHEEP-FARMING IN NORTH AMERICA. Craig.
COOPERATION IN AGRICULTURE. Powell.
THE FARM WOODLOT. Cheyney and Wentling.
HOvuUSEHOLD INSEcTS. Herrick.
CITRUS FRUITS. Coit.
PRINCIPLES OF RURAL CREDITS. Morman.
BEEKEEPING. Phillips.
SUBTROPICAL VEGETABLE-GARDENING. Rolfe.
TURF FOR GOLF COURSES. Piper and Oakley.
THE PoTaTO. Gilbert.
STRAWBERRY-GROWING. Fletcher.
WESTERN LIVE-STOCK MANAGEMENT. Potter.
PEACH GROWING. Gould.
THE SUGAR-BEET IN AMERICA. Harris.
PORK-PRODUCTION. Smith.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONS UNDER IRRIGATION.
Thomas.
LANDSCAPE-GARDENING. Simonds.
COMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY OF NORTH AMERICA. Folger
and Thomson.
THE SWEET POTATO. Hand and Cockerham.
ane Jo
s
n
1
9UdDS YIOX Moa
N Us10}80M [vod y, —
e
=
[ “LV
Td
THE
COMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY
OF NORTH AMERICA
of BY’)
Jo Cy FOLGER
Assistant Secretary
International Apple Shippers’ Association
AND
S. M. THOMSON
Formerly Fruit Crop Specialist, United States
Department of Agriculture
IQew Work
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1921
All rights reserved
lb?
oie
1
%
CoPpyRiIcHT, 1921,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Set up and electrotyped. Published February, 1921.
So.agosgy7t
TO
EDWARD H. THOMSON
WHOSE VISION, ENCOURAGEMENT AND WISE COUNSEL
HAVE BEEN OF THE GREATEST AID IN THE
PREPARATION OF THIS WORK
THE AUTHORS
INSCRIBE THE BOOK
PREFACE
In collecting material for this work, the authors have
visited practically every important apple-growing county
in the United States; first in connection with a special
investigation of the cost of producing apples in important
regions, conducted by the Office of Farm Management,
United States Department of Agriculture; and later as
Fruit Crop Specialists engaged in organizing a system
for estimating important fruit crops and particularly
the commercial apple crop of the United States. The au-
thors were impressed with a need of this kind of book, as the
many published works on the apple have not dealt system-
atically with the commercial phase of apple-growing which
only recently has become a well defined industry entirely
separate from the home orchard. The whole subject of
propagation has been omitted, as this is now well treated
in separate books. The apple is approached in this book
from the point of view of commerce.
In the preparation of this work, credit is due to Roy E.
Marshall and Fred R. Motz of the Virginia Station for
aid in the chapter on pruning; to Prof. W. H. Chandler
of Ithaca, New York, for his advice and suggestions; to
E. H. Siegler and W. V. Cruess, and to many others
both in the Federal Department of Agriculture and the va-
rious state schools of agriculture and experiment stations.
vii
Preface
For the Canadian material, the authors are indebted to Mr.
C. W. Baxter, and for the Australian and New Zealand
material, to Mr. S. P. Vaughn of Tasmania, P. Val Kerr
of Victoria, and R. A. Clayton of New Zealand.
Tue AvTHORs.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
IMPORTANCE AND History oF THE APPLE INDUSTRY .
Decline of farm orchards .
Centralized plantings in favored cent
Outlook for the apple industry
Favorable factors
Increase in normlation
Movement to the city
Development of foreign market
Education and advertising . . .. .
Transportation
Distribution : :
Improved cultural memes :
Increase in the use of by-products. .
Future production
Unfavorable factors
Increased commercial oa :
Poor outlook for unfavored region .
Danger from boom development
Competition with citrus fruit .
Conclusions .
History of commercial Hon cenwane in fig iueted
States eM M A Agta as Tene! os
Scientific nee aeeaan CANT) MAP cme? Say Sane
CHAPTER II
Leapinc APPLE REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES .
RAPPER EL OE oh els ot cs fle > a5, eee, es jet, oe
Hudson Valley 4 5
ix
Contents
New England Baldwin belt . . .
The Champlain district :
New Jersey Bes
Delaware . .
Shenandoah- querand Meee
Piedmont district of Virginia
Minor regions in Pennsylvania, West ieee aad
Wirrinta)) os. "
Mountain region of North Cardlina :
Mountain region of Georgia
Ohio : ah ie
Southern ‘Ohis Hote Beunty denen. Rede
Minor regions in Ohio 2 eS
Kentucky . Baten» wey ie
Michigan .
Tllinois
Southern Tilinoia early apele een
Mississippi Valley region of Illinois
Southeastern Illinois . .
Ozark region . :
Missouri River renion :
Arkansas Valley of Kansas
Colorado :
New Mexico .
Utah
AVESENGAETA GIL Vr Lait o/s! eu a ata ee vat as
Washington . .
Yakima vatley :
Wenatchee North Central Washington district
Spokane district :
Walla Walla district
Oregon.
Hood River Valley
Rogue River Valley . GE Argue See PE ah
Other apple districts in pakke ath Rey ee
Idaho . ; at Page | :
Payette disener.
Boise Valley
Contents xi
PAGES
BE Coiahy Peel ee a Os eetE EUS igik rat Ret rai 75
Mewsstorm Seeman: nes ca Sei Paw ATO tion 75
California . Searle aa te eRe (OTE IO
Watsonville divitiet SO APNE SAN Pada Any PST A Ra ra (Ze hg
Sebastopol. apple.distriet :. 9.2. 2.06 ok ae 78
AUER SACEIOM Yn 252) We toiee! eV tees Dwg hat) ABST
Wisconsin Pt Waa Pes tal ee are uty SD gets. HIGERG
Minnesota Smeal tcnt MARPM RAD Mita Wyeth bee eh! alls Reha iy 80
Early apple regions. . ae dick has Rees: Ce BOeE:
New York and New England aah Peay) 81
New Jersey ofS ta PEN ee Aa! ae
Delaware : PME Eh ry 82
Southern and Middle ‘Nilantic States at hires 83
Piast, North: Central states.) 6.) eg: sole 83
SUTTER ar gee LSC Po rts a ee a a PMT Sn 83
Galiinenia: “Are the MRSS hates oe eid aru S884
CHAPTER III
CoMMERCIAL APPLE PropucTION IN CaNnapA, AUSTRALIA
PED TRRON EN PAAR ANDY (5) "01 hae as at eneae MOgP OR Re Ry BB299
Canada .. VARS FRASER oot eect eR BEE Oe
Nova patil ‘ . 86-88
Prince Edward Tehanid and New aeinawielk . 88-89
eG heya scot hbo OAs) kal val awreh s 89 _
Ontario .. . UMN IM enn) AAV Nei oy gai hich, pero
British Galnwbis Se ibe RUA Mies Fat: , nee ek UM ec ae
Australia and New Zealand ...... . 95-99
CHAPTER IV
Looauity AND SITE FoR THE CoMMERCIAL OrcHARD . . 100-132
Chodsing the Iscality' =... . . »'. . « 100-182
Western, New York 65° 625.0. ar. 100-108
PinuneneValioys.. Mes. se eal tie is TOL—f
Chariplain district (5 ee ie oe OOS
New England .. E44 eae 103
New Jersey-Delaware Penincala. ABO ee 104
xil Contents
Shenandoah-Cumberland region .
Piedmont region of Virginia 3
Southern Ohio Rome Beauty section .
Western a Coa ,
Tilinois ,
Ozark region . . ois a! "Nae oe
Missouri River cel
Western rae of Colorado .
Utah .
Idaho OSES oes Reece eer
Washington) si) sy se ie ee ee
Montana Sih Yes ct nah tee pe Mohiege. 3)
Oregon
California. i5y)Ac ions 1S eee
New Mexico : ;
Choosing the site for a enitetarn At
Raw versus planted land .
Time to buy
Syndicate projects .
Yields and varieties
Proximity to market . F
Distance from shipping station .
Bearing age of trees .
Diseases and insect pests .
Climatic influences
Size of farm
Necessary capital
Labor conditions
Social conditions SUS Aaa eee ae
Regional developments ..... .
Soil
CHAPTER V
Tue FarM-MANAGEMENT PHASES OF APPLE-GROWING
Farm organization in relation to the orchard .
Systems of tenantry
PAGES
- 104-105
- 105-106
106
- 106-107
107
- 107-108
- 108-109
109
. 109-110
. 110-111
. 111-112
112
- 419-113
- 413-115
115
- 116-132
116
117
_ 117-118
118
. 118-119
. 119-120
. 120-122
. 122-123
. 123-125
. 125-126
. 126-128
. 128-129
129
130
. 180-182
. 133-148
. 133-140
. 140-148
Contents
CHAPTER VI
EstTABLISHING THE APPLE ORCHARD .
Nursery stock
Systems of planting
Square system .
Hexagonal system .
Quincunx system
Planting distances .
Time to plant
Setting trees .
Heading trees :
Use of fillers and aeter-Ueope ?
CHAPTER VII
CULTIVATION OF THE ORCHARD .
Clean cultivation
Sod- or grass-mulch
Clean cultivation with pover oan
Cover-crops :
Value of Calentiods and methods
Implements E
The tractor in the spple Srétinkd
Truck . oA
CHAPTER VIII
TERIGATION: . > 4. « >
Choosing an irrigated aegeaete
Irrigating the orchard .
Quantity of water to peace:
Time to irrigate orchards .
Number of applications
Methods of irrigation
xiii
PAGES
. 144-154
. 145-147
. 147-150
. 148-149
. 149-150
150
| 150-181
151
. 151-152
. 152-153
. 153-154
. 155-171
. 156-157
. 157-158
. 159-160
. 160-162
. 162-165
165
165-171
Lia
. 172-185
. 177-180
. 181-183
. 181-182
182
” 4189-183
| 483-185
xiv Contents
CHAPTER Ix
PAGES
FERTILIZING THE COMMERCIAL APPLE ORCHARD . 186-205
Present practices in fertilizing . . 187-188
Value of stable manure sean . 188-189
Experiments with fertilizers . . »' oe f8o=a08
Research work of Kraus and Keraybill : . 189-191
Experiments in Pennsylvania . 191-195
Nitrate experiments by Lewis . . 195-198
Amount of fertilizer to a tree . . 198-199
Needs of irrigated regions . . 199-200
Nitrate of soda . . C 200
- Methods of applying Feeriiaere . 200-202
Pruning with reference to fertilizing : 202
Fertilizer tests . 202-203
General summary and Hee peeorencudie eee . 204-205
CHAPTER X
DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE APPLE AND THEIR ContTRoL 206-248
Important insect enemies of the apple . . 206-216
The codlin-moth . 206-210
San José seale . an . 210-211
Oyster-shell scale . . . ; 211
Apple aphids . 211-213
Plum curculio 213
Apple red bugs . ; 214
Apple-tree aeaatecmilay is 214
Round-headed apple-tree borer . 214-215
Cutworms Hilal a el 215
Bud-moth) 2 ee : : 215
The fruit-tree enerolle , . 215-216
Important apple diseases . 216-223
Apple-seab . 216-217
Apple-blotch . . 217
Sooty-blotch and fly- ~peck 217
Cedar-rust fice : 218
Bitter-rot . 218-219
Contents
Plister-canker 5°! GIG Dehn
MIG eTO RT ears ct ikon ena ee
ire bight as Whine’ shes Reale eT es
APOIO POREELE. |) ei), eo Meera ek Mae
Baldwin-spot ‘
Animal pests of the eh ‘
Meadow mice
Pine mice 4
Control of mice len poisoning
Spraying . :
Cost of caer
Spray equipment
Hired sprayers . sd he ‘
Regional spraying notes . . ... .
Dusting
Insecticides dey
For biting insects . :
For sucking insects, contact ae -
Spreaders for the aiflerent insecticides .
Fungicides
CHAPTER XI
Fruir Setting aNnD PoLLINaTION . . . . . .
Causes for the failure to set fruit . . . .
Essentials for a good pollinizer . . .. .
CHAPTER XII
BORING CANE) “CHINNING 4) (6%, 91:6.) 6 ini fer ae we
Types of training apple trees. . . .. .
Natural form Stk vi
Central leader Sees ;
Open center, or vase-shape
The double-headed type
The modified leader tree .
General treatment of young trees
After first season
XV
PAGES
. 219-220
. 220-221
. 221-222
. 222-223
223
. 223-226
. 223-224
- 224-225
. 225-226
. 226-235
. 228-230
. 230-232
. 232-233
. 233-235
. 235-238
. 238-247
. 239-241
. 241-246
. 246-247
. 247-248
. 249-257
. 250-255
. 255-257
. 258-283
. 259-268
260
261
. 262-264
. 264-265
. 266-268
. 268-270
. 268-269
xvi Contents
PAGES
ATCT SECON SEASON. ai! rele) lala orci alors 269
After third season. . - « « 269-270
Vegetative, transitory and Sea tee StHEes ows BTO-R76
Transition period © 4.) si..6:. ses he oe See
ihe. zruiting period;—".. ..’ 2. ieee 271
Fruit-buds . . bi lg ca eo a ea
Changing system 6f rare 2) hg eae
Bearing trees . . 274-275
Distribution and eaeeblinleoe of fruiane
TCO Ne eg a Da eg oh - ah i ee Oe
ime of pruning... 4.) 4. sa 2 ee
Beunime tools) 6). 6.) ass) el Skt ekne ee cee
UOC CPeSSIN ES «) s,s doves '\i oe 0k. Rees 278
Thinning .) .. as hotonline
Time and see ine a fae re
Costiof thinning. i) Lo) de ee 283
CHAPTER XIII
RENOVATION OF Otp OncHaRDS . . . . . . «© .« 284-290
General-treatment: .. |.) vs) js. sh!) 04 ol een
ARAM is 22 es iy) Vapugmie 184 ae eS 6 se
Spraying . . bh Ae sbckodem an ise Mie Whe hee ee 288
Soil management oo) oa) ekugd Raetent eh Pevl tug ieee
CHAPTER XIVi
HANDLING THE CROP 2) Ges) ecinwi vey ya Ce ew Se
Picking... . + « aoe
Contract Sone versus eday iehoe oh, a eae 294
Picking utensils 4!) as/2ssuletios (hci Sh ee
Packing |)’. . . . 296-312
Sorting and aon Dareled pice - « « 296-302
Orchard packing . . . . 297-298
Packing-houses for bareeled: panied . . 298-302
Handling the western box apple crop. . . 302-307
Orchard carriers . : 303
Sorting and packing the paeat panies . 3803-305
Contents
xvll
PAGES
Packing-house arrangement and operation 305-307
Mechanical sizers
Community eae amen
. 3807-308
308-312
Methods of operating podunini ts le
ing-houses
Packing-house Gonsiictan
Bulk shipments
CHAPTER XV
MARKETING AND STORAGE .
Selling on consignment
Selling to cash buyers .
The lump-sum cash Rese
Tree-run cash buyer
Codperative methods of selling
. 309-310
. 310-312
312
. . 313-338
. ). 313-314
. 314-316
: 315
. 315-316
. 316-322
Form of organization for Hie ecee ai associa-
tions
Pooling ;
Purchase of supplies
Distribution .
Commission-man
The broker .
Carlot operator .
Carlot distributor
Field of distribution
Foreign markets
Improved distribution nies
Grates... -
Physical iemdiina
Grades and standards
Standard package .
Inspection at point of origin .
Storage
Local vs. EN iene
Common storage
Handling and ealet methods as relating fa
storage
. 319-321
. 321-3292
; 322
. 322-3825
i 323
. 323-324
. 324-3825
5 325
. 325-329
glia he 4825-327
the United
. 827-329
4 329
. 329-333
. 330-332
. 332-333
. 333-336
. 3384-335
. 335-336
336
xviii Contents
Government agencies in marketing .
Crop estimates . Bina
Market and storage fopetts ahi Nile
Cooperative vs. individual effort. . .
e ° e .
CHAPTER XVI
PRAEGER ie vee hae ela i AN ce ribs ene
CHAPTER XVII
By-Propucts oF THE APPLE INDUSTRY. . .. .«
Evaporators J
Natural draft cvaparnioeeh
Forced draft evaporators .
Distillation types of evaporators
Canning, jelly manufacturing
Cider and vinegar .
CHAPTER XVIII
Cost oF PRODUCTION .
Importance of yields
Influence of size of orchard .
Effect of size and type of farm
Effect of climate and soil on cost of emgdiction! ‘
- os a. sO-Se
Influence of varieties
Accessibility to market .
Cost of materials :
Labor and cost production .
Orchard maintenance
Cost of pruning and enkh ieacenl
Soil management gists ts
Thinning
Harvesting costs
Conclusions
PAGES
. 336-338
337
. 337-338
338
339-347
. 348-356
. 3850-355
. 350-352
. 852-354
. 354-355
355-356
356
. 357-386
. 361-364
. 364-366
. 366-369
369-370
372
372
. 373-874
. 874-879
. 875-376
. 376-378
. 378-879
. 379-383
. 383-386
Contents
CHAPTER XIX
Varieties or APPLES. . ....
Summer varieties
Late varieties
1 gigi i
7 Ben Davis 2
Lea: inesap . =<
-~Rhode Island Greening
os onathan Ce
“York Imperial .
~ Rome :
_-~ Northern ae
_-— Yellow New how iiheuselb) Pippin)
Esopus Spitzenburg
/Grimes Golden .
(ta Stayman F
Delicious
» geen and Black Ben .
~. Yellow Bellflower
Russets
- Tompkins Hane 4
gparkansas rae ri Black Twig) .
Wagener. : ;
Arkansas Bice
. Willow Twig
White Pearmain (White Winter Pearman)
Red Limbertwig
Yates 4
Stark J
Hubbardston
._ Tolman Sweet .
’ Winter Banana
Missouri Pippin
~~ Northwestern Greening
~ Rambo Sagat Vk Wont hd a
emetioy: cys OS MN es
Red Canada
xix
PAGES
- 3887-457
- 394-395
. 895-426
396
397
398
. 3898-399
. 3899-400
400
401
. 401-402
. 402-403
. 403-404
. 404-405
- 405-406
. 406-407
407
407-408
. 408-410
. 410-411
411
. 411-412
. 412-413
413
414
414
415
415-416
. 416-417
417
418
| 418-419
419
419-420
. 420-421
421
XX
PAGES
Monmouth . 421-429
Collins ‘ ' 429
Pumpkin Sweet Pound Sweet ; . 422-4293
“Wolf River . ‘ . 423-424
Sutton ; 424
Ingram)...’ . 424-495
#Black antoner 425
Lady : 426
Karly and saat Danieties . 426-441
Oldenburg (Duchess) . . 426-427
Wealthy . : . 427-428
Yellow Tiaras 428
Twenty Ounce . : 429
Gravenstein . 429-430
McIntosh. . . 480-431
Maiden Blush (lade Pine: Red Cheek) . . 431-432
Fameuse (Snow) . 432-433
Williams Vee Early Red, Wollinase
. Favorite) . 433
“Benoni _ 433-434
onum (igen Bomar 434435
~ Red .Astrachan . 435
. Early Ripe . 435-436
lexander : 436
Starr . . 436-487
Red June (Caroline Red J une, Garang A une,
Carolina Red) : . . 487-488 ©
Chenango (Chenango Strawberry) . 438
Fall Pippin . : ‘ 439
Status of commercial varierien . 441-449 |
Age varieties begin to bear ; . 449-451
Relative productivity of varieties in full pee 451-452
Relative hardiness of commercial varieties . . 452-453
Varieties in greatest demand . . 4538-454:
Export varieties . F : 454
Varieties for the home Geers : . 454-457
459
INDEX
Contents
LIST OF PLATES
Puate I.— Typical western New York scene. Full bearing
trees forty to fifty years of age. . . . . Frontispiece “
FACING
. . . . PAGE /
Puate IJ.— Low-headed trees in a Virginia orchard . . 20”
Pzate III].— A typical commercial apple orchard in the
Missouri Valley, Kansas.
barrels.
System IV.
Renter furnishes: Owner furnishes:
1. Equipment, all labor and ma-_ 1. Farm and suitable dwelling.
terial costs up to harvest.
2. Labor and material costs for 2. One-half of picking labor.
picking, packing and han-
dling one-half of the fruit.
Renter takes: Owner takes:
1. One-half of picked fruit, packs 1. One-half of picked fruit, packs
and handles it according to and handles it according to
his own judgment. his own judgment.
Under the above system, the owner is allowed the privi-
lege of grading and packing out his own fruit while the
same privilege is reserved for the tenant. A modified
Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 143
form of the above is seen when the owner furnishes half
of the picking labor and half of all labor and material
costs incident to the harvesting of the fruit, taking one-
half of the crop, but allowing the tenant entire supervision
of the orchard operations.
A study of an equitable basis for tenantry has revealed
that when the tenant is furnishing all the labor he is en-
titled to a larger proportion of the crop in years of exceed-
ingly heavy production. Otherwise the owner reaps prac-
tically all the benefits of a large crop. Unfortunately,
low prices prevail in heavy crop years. With straight
share rentals in such years, the owner obtains a large
amount of fruit which even at low prices makes good re-
turns. If the tenant, however, receives low prices for his
fruit, he has insufficient margin to cover the heavy ex-
penditure in harvesting the landlord’s portion of the
crop. Some division of the labor and handling costs at
harvest time would seem more equitable.
Occasionally a long-term cash lease at a reasonable figure
ean be secured on somewhat run-down orchards in a fav-
orable locality. Frequently such an orchard is making
little or no returns and a cash offer will be attractive to the
owner. For the experienced man with little capital, a
long-term lease with a view to building up and increasing
the yields from such an orchard sometimes proves a profit-
able venture, particularly when the owner considers that
his orchard will be improved and for such a reason grants
an otherwise low cash rental figure. Some special induce-_
ment must be offered to a tenant, otherwise he can not
afford to devote his best energy towards building up a suc-
cessful orchard from which another will reap the ultimate
- reward.
CHAPTER VI
ESTABLISHING THE APPLE ORCHARD
THorovueH preparation of the land before planting is
exceedingly important if the apple orchard is to be well
established. Very often orchards are planted on pasture,
timbered, or sage-brush land where the soil has been un-
tilled. Timbered land, once cleared of stumps and brush,
usually lends itself well to early planting because of an
abundance of humus available for young trees. It is best
in nearly all cases, however, to anticipate planting by a
year or two in order thoroughly to subjugate the soil by
the growing of tilled or cover-crops. Soils which have.
been depleted in fertility or which are low in humus-con-
tent may be built up by the growing of such legumes as
alfalfa or clover. In the case of arid or sage-brush lands
reclaimed for irrigation, the soil is usually low in humus-
content. In such instances the growing of alfalfa for one
or two seasons will usually repay the orchardist for delay
in planting.
Deep plowing should precede planting in every case,
for once the trees are established, deep cultivation is likely
to injure the rooting system. Dynamiting is sometimes
recommended when a hardpan or thin stratum of rock
occurs near the surface, but ordinarily this practice is not
to be advised and such soils should be avoided. When
spring planting is to be employed, fall plowing is recom-
144
Establishing the Apple Orchard 145
mended, since it exposes the soil to the ameliorating in-
fluences of the winter and causes the destruction of many
insect pests and rodents. In the case of sod land, it is best
to plow and cross-plow in the fall, leaving the land rough
throughout the winter, working it up thoroughly with the
dise and harrow the following spring. When cover-crops
are grown to improve the soil, plowing is usually deferred
from fall until spring.
Land which is to be irrigated should be leveled and care-
fully laid off with irrigation ditches prior to planting,
since it is not easy to effect changes in the contour once
trees have been set.
NURSERY STOCK
Apple trees are propagated either by grafting or bud-
ding, the former being the most common method. No
attempt will be made to discuss methods of propagation
since it is usually advisable for the orchardist to buy his
trees from a reliable nurseryman rather than to propa-
gate them himself.
The purchase of nursery stock should receive most
eareful attention. The grower should consult with state
or government horticulturists or with successful growers
in order to establish the integrity of the firm with which
he proposes to deal. The orchardist should buy only the
best trees, dealing directly with the nursery and avoiding
tree peddlers. The purchase of inferior stock is always
poor economy.
All horticulturists do not agree as to the proper age of
trees to plant. However, the one-year whip is usually
most desirable, since it can be trained properly and has
146 The Commercial Apple Industry
more fibrous roots. Trees older than one year are often
poorly shaped.
It is advisable to purchase nursery stock well in advance
of planting in order than one may secure stock of desired
variety and quality. If trees are to be planted in the
spring, they may be purchased safely in the preceding fall
and “ heeled-in ” by the grower himself. On arrival, all
trees should be carefully inspected for disease, attention
being given particularly to infestation of scale or woolly
aphis, or the presence of crown-gall. If possible, a com-
petent inspector should pass on the stock to see that the
trees are healthy, vigorous, and of smooth bright bark.
One-year old whips should be about 5 feet tall and 34 inch
in diameter at the base. .
The subject of varieties is thoroughly discussed in
Chapter XIX. Selection should be confined to three or
four standard varieties for commercial planting.
Immediately on arrival, all trees should either be
planted or “heeled-in.” If trees arrive in freezing
weather, they should be left in the original package and
kept in a cool damp place until thawed out. Ordinarily,
however, the grower should avoid leaving the trees in the
original package lest they become seriously injured or
entirely worthless from drying out.
‘When planting is not to be done immediately, the
bundles should be cut open and the trees. unpacked and
‘“‘heeled-in” singly. Too much emphasis can not be
placed on the importance of “ heeling-in” the trees on
their arrival. In this operation, a trench is dug about 18
inches deep and the trees placed in the trench with their
tops slanting to the south at an angle of about 45 degrees.
Moist soil should be carefully worked in about the roots of
Establishing the Apple Orchard 147
the trees so that they will not dry out. Care must be taken
in order that the varieties will not become mixed.
SYSTEMS OF PLANTING (FIG. 2 )
The following are the three best-known planting
systems :
(1) In the square planting system, the rows run at right
angles and the trees are the same distance apart each
way. This method facilitates cultivation, spraying, har-
vesting, and other cultural operations.
(2) In the hexagonal system the trees are equally dis-
tant in every direction, being set in equilateral triangles
or alternate rows, so that the space between each group of
four trees is diamond-shaped. The hexagonal system does
not lend itself well to the use of fillers, but since all the
trees are equidistant there is an equal distribution of air,
light and soil. This system provides for about 15 per
cent more trees to the acre than could be planted on the
square plan at the same planting distance.
(3) With the quincunx system, the trees are set in
squares with a tree in the center. This latter plan is
adapted to plantings where fillers are used, it being possi-
ble to remove the tree in the center of the square without
disturbing the permanent planting system.
The symmetry of the orchard depends to a large ex-
tent on the evenness of the rows. When a large orchard.
is being set, it may pay to employ the use of a transit so
that the trees may be spaced with utmost accuracy.
This is not absolutely necessary, however, since more sim-
ple methods may be practiced, particularly with more
limited plantings. Whatever system of planting is fol-
lowed in laying out the orchard, the first trees should be
148 The Commercial Apple Industry
RECTANGULAR HEXAGONAL
Fic. 2.— The rectangular or square, the hexagonal or equilateral
triangle and the quincunx systems of planting. Planting-board of
type often used in setting illustrated at bottom of figure.
from 20 to 25 feet from the fence in order to afford room
for turning a team or tractor engaged in orchard operations.
Square system.
By laying off the base line parallel with the fence on
one side of the field and by placing stakes at regular im-
>
Establishing the Apple Orchard 149
tervals in this line, it will be possible to establish the
position of the trees in this first row. By establishing
another line at right angles to the first, it will be possible
with the use of stakes to sight across and establish par-
allel lines which will serve as guides in lining up the rows.
It is usually advisable to set a stake at the place for each
tree. Then after sighting across from the base lines,
it will be possible to determine the stakes which are not in
alignment. Figure 2 shows the three important systems
for laying out commercial plantings. Table VIII indi-
cates the number of trees to the acre under different plant-
ing distances and systems.
TaBLeE VIII.— NumsBer or TREES TO THE ACRE
Distance Apart Square Hexagonal Quincunx
16 x 16 170 196 303
18x 18 134 154 239
20 x 20 108 124 129
22 x 22 90 104 148
24 x 24 76 87 132
25 x 25 70 80 125
26 x 26 64 74 114.
28 x 28 56 64 100
30 x 30 48 55 85
SV AR a BY. 43 49 76
33 x 33 40 46 7
35 x 35 35 4] 65
36 x 36 34 39 60
40x 40 27 32 48
45 x 45 22 25 39
Hexagonal system.
The use of a wire triangle is recommended for planting
trees under the hexagonal system. Lach side of the tri-
angle should represent the distance between the permanent
trees. The wires should be connected at each angle by
means of rings. The triangle is then carried about by
150 The Commercial Apple Industry
three workmen, and if kept tightly drawn and held level,
stakes marking the exact site of the trees may be located
after the first base line along the side of the orchard has
been laid off.
Attention is called to the fact that in laying off planting
distances on uneven land, care must be taken in keeping
the measuring line level so that the distance between trees
does not include the slope of the land.
Quincunx system.
The quincunx being a modification of the square system,
may be laid off in the same manner as the latter. The
location of the center tree may be established by placing
an additional stake midway between the tree stakes in the
base line.
PLANTING DISTANCES
Close planting is a common tendency in laying out
commercial apple orchards. While planting distances
‘vary with the variety and with the region, it is seldom
advisable to space permanent trees closer than 30 feet
apart. Spreading trees such as Baldwin, Rhode Island
Greening and Arkansas (Black Twig) should be planted
at greater distances, not closer than 40 feet apart when
growth is vigorous. A great mistake was made in plant-
ing New York orchards closer than 40 feet. Varieties
such as Wagener, Yellow Transparent, and Twenty Ounce,
which have an upright habit of growth, do not require
extreme distances and may be planted as close as 30 feet.
In regions in which trees attain smaller size, the planting
distances of these upright growing trees may be reduced
Establishing the Apple Orchard 151
to 28 or even 25 feet. Orchardists should bear in mind,
however, that trees set too close together very seriously
handicap orchard operations, for branches interlock when
full growth is attained.
TIME TO PLANT
The time of planting depends entirely on local condi-
tions. all plantings may offer one distinct advantage if
the trees become established before winter sets in and are
able to start growth early in the spring. However, if the
winter is cold, dry, or otherwise unfavorable, the fall
planted trees may be seriously checked in their early
growth. for this reason spring planting is preferred in
most northern regions. In the southern latitudes, late fall
or early winter is usually considered safe.
If there is any question, it is safer to plant in the
spring as soon as the soil can be placed in good tilth.
Trees should be kept dormant until setting.
SETTING TREES
The use of the planting-board is important in securing
perfect alignment. (See Fig. 2.) Such a board is usu-
ally 4 or 5 feet long, 6 inches wide and 1 inch thick with
a notch in one side at the center and a hole in each end.
in using this device, the notch in the center is first placed
tightly against the stake which stands where the tree is
to be set. Other stakes are then driven through the holes
in either end and the board is later removed to permit the
digging of the hole. After the hole is dug, the board may
_ be placed over the pins and the tree set so as to occupy the
Same position in the notch as did the original stake.
152 The Commercial Apple Industry
A four-man crew is efficient when a large number of
trees are to be planted. Holes should be dug large enough
to accommodate the root system without crowding or
bunching the roots, also sufficiently deep to permit the
planting of the tree two or three inches deeper than it
stood in the nursery row. It is important that all broken,
bruised or interlacing roots be cut away at the time of
transplanting. Long roots should be cut back to about
six inches. After the tree has been located with the aid of
the planting-board, rich soil from the surface should be
worked tightly under and among the roots with the fingers.
The hole should then be filled about half full of dirt and
tramped. Hard lumpy soil should be avoided since it
dries out easily. The remainder of the hole should be
filled and the earth carefully tamped about the roots. A
few shovelfuls of loose dirt or a few forkfuls of loose
manure thrown about the tree is a last precaution to pre-
vent the loss of moisture and completes the operation of
planting. When strong winds prevail as in many local-
ities, it is important that the tree be leaned strongly
against prevailing winds. When large numbers of trees
are being planted, the roots should be covered with saw-
dust or placed in a tub of loamy soil mixed with water.
This precaution will prevent drying out of the trees when
they are being distributed for planting.
HEADING TREES
In transplanting, a large part of the root system of the
young tree is removed. In order to preserve the proper _
balance between the top and the roots, it is necessary that |
the former be cut back as severely or even more so than the —
Pratr IX.— Upper, Weeder in use in a Hood River orchard.
Lower, Type of float commonly used at Hood River after cultiva-
t= tion.
=?
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R
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bs
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Legh ee
' es
My
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Establishing the Apple Orchard 153
root system. Not only does this maintain the proper bal-
ance between root and top, but it permits the proper head-
ing of the tree. While no definite height is given for
heading, it is suggested that one-year apple whips should
be cut to about 24 inches at time of planting in order that
the proper shaped trees may be developed. Emphasis is
laid on the advantages of low-headed trees. Such opera-
tions as spraying, pruning, thinning and harvesting can
be done more economically and effectively when the bear-
ing surface is close to the ground.
USE OF FILLERS AND INTER-CROPS
The practice of planting “ fillers” to utilize the land
between young trees is common and may have the advant-
age of bringing early returns before the permanent orchard
attains bearing. Peaches or early bearing varieties of
apples such as the Yellow Transparent are used most com-
monly as fillers. The grower usually makes the mistake
of allowing these temporary trees to remain too long, with
the result that the permanent trees are crowded and their
productivity jeopardized. If the orchard is favorably sit-
uated for the production of peaches, the grower will find
that this fruit lends itself well to a system of fillers. Va-
rieties of apples such as McIntosh, Wealthy, Wagener,
Duchess and Yellow Transparent, which come into bear-
ing early, are adapted for use as fillers.
The growing of small-fruits between the rows, such as
_ strawberries, blackberries and raspberries, has been very
profitable in some regions. Notable among such instances
| is the Hood River Valley, well known for its strawberries
produced as an inter-crop in the young apple orchards.
154 The Commercial Apple Industry
Cultivated crops such as potatoes and tomatoes may prove
profitable as inter-crops, although care must be taken not
to encroach on the soil and water requirements of the young
trees.
}
CHAPTER VII
CULTIVATION OF THE ORCHARD
In this chapter will be discussed methods of tillage and
systems involving the use of cover-crops and sod-mulch, and
the use of the tractor in orchard cultivation.
No hard and fast rules can be laid down for soil man-
agement since conditions vary greatly in different regions,
but a number of principles should be followed everywhere.
Usually the correct system is worked out eventually by the
most successful grower in any community and it is by
following in a general way methods which by demonstra-
tion have established their efficiency that one may hope
for the best results.
In reacting from the neglectful practices of soil man-
agement which prevailed in many eastern orchards, the
western apple-growers for a period of years adopted a pro-
gram of intensive and absolutely clean cultivation. (See
Plate VII.) Conservation of moisture and stimulation of
tree growth were the two principal reasons for such a pro-
gram. Until 1915 absolutely clean cultivation was the
practice in all of the leading apple regions of the Pacific
_ Northwest. As the trees grew older, greater demands
were made on the scil and it became apparent that this
system of soil management led to a depletion of fertility
and failed particularly in maintaining the necessary hu-
mus-content. A rapid change occurred in the system of
soil management and at present a cover- or shade-crop sys-
| 155
156 The Commercial Apple Industry
tem has come into common use. Alfalfa seems best suited
to the irrigated orchard land of the West’ and although it
is spoken of there as a cover-crop, it is more properly either
an inter-crop or a sod-mulch, for it remains in the orchard
for several years and as a rule one or two cuttings are taken
off in the form of hay.
CLEAN CULTIVATION
Clean cultivation has many evils which are not at once
apparent. The most striking example occurred in the
Hood River Valley, Oregon, where clean cultivation was
practiced until about 1915 when the bearing orchards
began to show marked signs of lack of vigor, evidenced by
pale foliage, light yields of small fruit and poor annual
growth. The Hood River orchards made a marked recoy-
ery in the next two or three years, following wider use of
irrigation in growing leguminous cover-crops and on appli-
cation of nitrate of soda.
Except in special cases, continued clean cultivation can
have only disastrous results. Where there is sufficient
nitrogen and humus in the soil, there is no particular
objection to clean cultivation for a limited period of years.
Clean culture for a time unquestionably stimulates tree
growth and increases yields. It has been observed that
this practice is followed continuously in some of the best
paying and finest apple orchards in the United States.
Invariably, however, in such instances the original soil was’ |
unusually rich in humus and other plant-food and this |
reservoir has not been exhausted. It is better to maintain |
fertility, for once depleted its restoration is difficult.
In starting young orchards, clean cultivation is not
harmful for the first three or four years. In fact, it may .
Cultivation of the Orchard 157
be very beneficial and is probably advisable when inter-
crops are not particularly profitable. In certain seasons
and in certain regions, lack of sufficient moisture is a crit-
ical factor. Obviously the only method to follow in dry
years is to practice intensive cultivation in order to pre-
serve the soil-mulch so necessary for moisture conserva-
tion. Ordinarily regions in which such an extreme short-
age of moisture might take place would hardly be recom-
mended for apples, although dry years are likely to occur
in almost every section.
When clean cultivation is practiced, humus should be
supplied. Barnyard manure, when available, is the most
suitable form, since it not only supplies humus but nitrogen
and other elements of plant-food as well. Straw, shredded
cow fodder, or stubble clippings when scattered under trees
and incorporated in the soil, increase the humus-content.
Applications of the latter materials at the rate of 50 to 75
pounds each for trees under six years and from 75 to 150
pounds each for trees six to ten years will prove beneficial.
SOD- OR GRASS-MULCH
Many apple orchards of the United States are allowed
to remain in sod- or grass-mulch. The sod-mulch system
offers the line of least resistance and represents the least
expenditure of time and effort. It is particularly common
throughout eastern and middle west orchards. Its possi-
ble advantages are: (1) increased color of fruit; (2)
reduced cost an acre; (3) prevents hilly or mountainous
soils from washing.
The sod-mulch is probably the only practicable system
for certain hilly districts in New England and throughout —
the Piedmont region in Virginia where the orchard land
158 The Commercial Apple Industry
is too steep to cultivate and where clean cultivation would
result in bad washing. The natural vegetative growth
supplemented by fertilization in some instances and occa-
sional cultivation about trees serves to maintain the fertil-
ity of these soils.
The disadvantages of the sod-mulch system are: (1)
reduces yields; (2) reduces vitality and tree growth; (3)
provides harbor for mice, insects and diseases; (4) has
tendency to encourage general neglect; (5) reduces soil
aération ; (6) sheds rain.
In all cost-production studies, the question of yield
appears as the critical factor. It is not the acre cost of —
operation, but the barrel or box cost of production that
determines profit. If the yield can be increased, the cost
of production is usually materially decreased. Records
taken by the writers show that in general yields are re-
duced under the sod-mulch system.
While the sod-mulch may be depended on to return |
humus to the soil and commercial fertilizer may maintain
fertility, the lack of cultivation will undoubtedly be felt,
and as a general rule trees in sod-mulch have less vitality
‘and make less growth than those which are cultivated.
Some growers, notably one very successful grower in
_ western New York and many in southern Ohio, use the
sod-mulch system very profitably. It can not be con-
demned under all conditions but it unquestionably tends
to encourage general neglect of the orchard. The grower
with the sod orchard is not brought into such intimate
touch with his trees as the one who practices more intensive
culture and who is working about among his trees every
few days. Furthermore, the sod furnishes a harbor for
mice, insects and diseases.
y
7
Cultivation of the Orchard 159
CLEAN CULTIVATION WITH COVER-CROPS
The best general method of soil management for all
commercial apple regions, with two possible exceptions, is
clean cultivation with the use of a cover-crop. The two
general exceptions are: (1) western irrigated orchards
which at present are committed largely to the system of
leguminous inter-crop or perennial cover-crop; and (2)
orchards which are too hilly to permit of cultivation, such
as have been described for parts of New England and
Virginia.
The term “ cover-crop ” is correctly applied to a crop
sown in the late summer months, usually in July or
August, which is plowed under the following spring. By
cultivating the orchard until late summer, the grower is
using the best method for conserving the moisture and is
insuring other benefits to be derived from cultivation.
In sowing the cover-crop in the summer or fall, the
orchardist can check the growth of his trees and insure the
hardening of their growth before winter without robbing
them of the plant-food necessary to mature the crop. The
cover-crop acts as a protection during the winter months
and when plowed under in the spring increases the supply
of humus, improves the physical condition of the soil and
makes more plant-food available. This system of soil
management is most common in western New York where
mammoth red clover and vetch are the best suited
leguminous cover-crops and rye, buckwheat, oats, barley,
rape and cow-horn turnips are the widely grown non-
leguminous cover-crops. Leguminous cover-crops are
usually more desirable since they not only add humus, but
make more nitrogen available.
160 The Commercial Apple Industry
By combining cover-crops with cultivation, it is possible
to secure nearly all of the benefits to be derived from the
varying methods of soil treatment. Such a system is
designed to preserve and promote permanent soil fertility.
COVER-CROPS
There are two important kinds of cover-crops: (1)
leguminous, such as alfalfa, clover, peas, vetch and beans;
(2) non-leguminous, such as rye, rape and buckwheat.
These crops may be further subdivided into those which
live over the winter, such as clover, vetch and rye, and
those like rape, buckwheat and peas which die down in the -
fall. Leguminous crops are recommended at least once in
three years or more often, especially when trees are not
making sufficient annual growth and when foliage is pale.
As a general rule, they are preferable to non-leguminous
crops since they add nitrogen to the soil. Cover-crops |
which live through the winter protect the trees against |
winter-injury in the absence of snow and also prevent
the washing and leaching of soluble plant-foods.
Alfalfa is by far the most popular cover-crop in western
irrigated orchards where it has largely supplanted the
clean culture system. Vetch, clover and other cover-crops
are also recommended. Although alfalfa is known in the
West as a cover-crop, a distinction should be made between
the eastern cover-crop planted in the fall and plowed under
the following spring and the western cover-crop which is
left in the orchard for several years. In reality the west-
ern cover-crop is an inter-crop, but since its purpose 1s
primarily to benefit the orchard rather than to provide
immediate returns to the grower, the word cover-crop has
been retained. .
Culiwation of the Orchard 161
The benefits of a leguminous cover-crop as grown in the
West (alfalfa most common) are as follows: (1) supplies
nitrogen and humus — both limiting factors in the western
desert soils which have been reclaimed by irrigation ; (2) is
thought to have beneficial effect in controlling apple-rosette,
a physiological disease somewhat common in the West; (3)
provides a source of income — usually two cuttings of hay
are removed, the third being left. Whether this is the
best practice remains to be proved. Some investigators
maintain that the taking of two cuttings of hay removes
too much nitrogen. Much depends on what disposition is
made of the hay: whether it is fed and returned in form
of manure or sold off the farm; (4) improves texture of
soil; (5) promotes aération of subsoil after plants are
killed and the roots decay; (6) permits of deeper penetra-
‘tion of the roots.
Disadvantages of leguminous shade-crop system may be
summed up as follows: (1) shade-crops may rob trees of
water and other plant-food; alfalfa is particularly a close
feeder, likely to crowd young trees; it should be grown
only where water supply is ample and strip cultivation is
practiced among young trees; (2) alfalfa if once started
is difficult to eradicate; (3) in some regions, particularly
in the East, alfalfa is costly and difficult to start.
With alfalfa as a perennial cover-crop, soil management
includes a thorough discing in the spring. Time of seed-
ing varies with the region and should follow established
precedent. In passing from clean cultivation to shade
crops, the western apple-grower may swerve to the other
extreme and allow alfalfa or other crops to remain in his
orchard too long. Clover lends itself to short rotations
better than alfalfa, although it is less profitable. Im any
162 The Commercial Apple Industry
event, shade-crops should seldom be allowed to remain
more than four or five years. Cultivation for a year or
two will preserve a judicial balance.
The quantity of seed to the acre for cover-crops may vary
somewhat with the region. However, the following table
will serve as a rough guide:
TaBLeE [X.— QUANTITY OF SEED TO THE ACRE
Mammo thecloveritsers 4a es scien ee eee 10 pounds
Gommonwred. CLOVER, ocr a Gols oie ees One Ae 10 o
PAT STKE AC LOVET I oles ino Liem een oust eid tal oh Stare eine ae ey ee 8 -
GraMTSOn MELO VET ees craks cal Sicckay lolots ai end dene os eer ar eee aoa 15 rs
WAU MANIA ares shes eth Fee ay a Nate ae nl ae eee 20 “
WOW DERN Lear saitie Lie alate HiSile osbyt widheten cet eu ahcbaeteeds tore he
SCARS OCT C2 A ee Sem ORTTIETO RC GA Me ded Fe (Ores
Hairy or winter vetch ...... “sie epessishe miele aperiretets 50 .
SUMINMEN | Vettel seis elals ce. salepehledine AIO Ae eke eee 60 oe
Canada peasy: tac: a aliesyijsssus: soispvsirsucr eit eeeeePeneteiane S00
VMN NN Els ic slarsie lei bre aid iele lender chaetenckehdl ese (De a
BWW ea G moses les hi chohe es cus Cashaisvaroiereee eae ee eee 60 fe
RA POM ar Wey ch cher cvs vests ee: atime shelve evel e ehehel so ua teveoer Wena 6. i
PEUTMUT Stes esate Morey dicey aisss st sal eonctolsl sy okel oketeveyere alain nets 1 pound
VALUE OF CULTIVATION AND METHODS
The philosophy of tillage and its absolute necessity in
maintaining soil fertility need as much emphasis in apple-
growing as in any other phase of agriculture. Above all,
tillage is the principal determining factor in moisture con-
servation. It increases the availability of plant-food by
promoting the decomposition of organic matter ; it fines the
soil and thereby increases the feeding surface for the roots
and it promotes many favorable chemical and biological
activities. ;
Hard, lumpy, untilled soil will no more produce profit-
able apple trees than any other crop. The bad effects of
continued clean cultivation have been emphasized, but the
Cultwation of the Orchard 163
entire omission of tillage will be even more injurious than
too much cultivation.
Plowing every year or every other year is highly recom-
mended for all orchards except those in shade-crops or on
land unsuited for cultivation. The operation may be per-
formed either in the fall or spring. The only danger in
plowing is too great disturbance of root systems. For that
reason regular plowing is more advisable than plowing at
intervals of several years. Most commercial apple-growers
plow from 4 to 6 inches deep. The general use of cover-
crops makes spring plowing more common. Very often
discing is the first operation in the spring since it may be
done earlier than plowing. When clover or alfalfa is
grown in the orchard, plowing may not be advisable oftener
than every three years.
Early cultivation is essential to moisture conservation
and the soil should be worked as early in the spring as
possible. When water is not a critical factor and when a
cover-crop is grown, it is sometimes permissible to allow
the cover-crop to get a good start in the spring before turn-
ing it under. In plowing, the orchardist should plow
toward the tree one year and away from the tree in the
next in order to prevent the tendency toward ridging. As
stated above, when perennial shade-crops such as alfalfa
are being grown, plowing of course is not practiced. A
thorough discing in the spring is recommended, however,
_ for shade-crops and may take the place of plowing. (See
Plate VIII.) 3
After the first discing or plowing, frequent cultivation,
_ preferably every two weeks, is the program followed by
most successful apple-growers. By preserving a_ soil-
mulch until August, the critical drought period usually
The Commercial Apple Industry
164
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Cultwation of the Orchard 165
can be passed successfully. By that time it is difficult to
cultivate among laden trees. Furthermore, cover-crops
are usually sown in July and August and as early as June.
The various soil management systems are summed up
in Table X.
IMPLEMENTS (PLATE IX)
Various tools are employed by the successful apple-
grower. For plowing, a twelve- to fourteen-inch plow,
either single or with two or more bottoms, is a necessary
part of orchard equipment. For stony land the spade disc
is popular, although the cutaway is more generally used.
For late cultivation, various tools are employed. Spike
and spring-tooth harrows, drags and weeders of various
description are commonly utilized. In the West a light
spring-tooth harrow is very popular. The latter is an
excellent tool, stirs the soil well, and has many advantages.
Clod-mashers, drags or harrows may be equally effective
in pulverizing the soil. Special care and precaution
should be taken in working among trees to prevent injury.
THE TRACTOR IN THE APPLE ORCHARD
While the tractor has grown rapidly in popularity, use-
fulness and value for general farm operations during the
past decade, there is probably no other type of farming
for which it has proved more universally satisfactory and
profitable than for commercial fruit-growing when the
acreage is of sufficient size to warrant the investment.
There seems no question but that the tractor will event-
ually be used in nearly all of the large orchards and in
fact is being used in a great many to-day. In comparing
the efficiency of the tractor with horse labor, the tractor
has the following advantages:
166 The Commercial Apple Industry
1. The tractor does work more rapidly. Cultivation,
which comprises the major part of the work for which
draft power is required on the fruit-farm, is ordinarily
restricted to a comparatively limited period. As a tractor
works much more rapidly than a team, the orchard may be
thoroughly disced and harrowed in a comparatively short
time. The number of acres which a tractor will cover in
a day will vary greatly. It depends entirely on the make
and horse-power of the tractor, the skill with which it is
handled, the amount of turning necessary and the time lost
due to breakdowns, and the like. However, on the aver-
age, a tractor will till many times the area covered by a
team and do it much more thoroughly.
The tractor ordinarily does not move any faster than a
team, but it draws a much wider disc, harrow or other
tool. A good two-plow tractor will pull an eight-foot
double disc at the same rate that a four-horse team will
draw an eight-foot single disc. The tractor is, therefore,
doing the work of six to eight horses.
2. A maximum of work may be done at rush seasons by
use of the tractor. Since certain work must be done within
limited periods, there is frequently more or less difficult
in obtaining the necessary help just when it is nell
It is, therefore, desirable that the power plant be large
enough to permit one man to do a large amount of work
in a day and thereby reduce to a minimum the extra help
required. It is difficult to use more than a two-horse team
in an orchard, as a larger team usually proves unhandy
and unsatisfactory among the trees. In the case of large
acreages where no tractor is employed, it is often necessary
to keep a large number of men and horses at considerable _
|
:
Cultivation of the Orchard 167
expense, in order to permit rapid work in the proper
season.
3. The tractor has only overhead expense when not
in use, while it is necessary to keep and feed horses whether
or not they are working. Interest and depreciation on the
tractor, however, are no small items of expense. If the
whole farm is in orchard, a larger percentage of the draft
work can be done with the tractor than is usually the case
on general farms. When the orchardist buys a tractor, he
ean dispose of a larger percentage of his horses than can
the general farmer.
4, The tractor permits thorough work. Since the
tractor has so much more motive power than a team, it
ean draw tools which will cultivate much more deeply and
thoroughly. When thorough and deep discing is desired,
tractors are particularly advantageous. Many tractors
draw both a disc and harrow at the same time, the disc
following the harrow or vice versa as the grower may
desire. ‘This is not feasible when a two-horse team is used.
5. Less injury is caused the trees with tractor. There
is a greater danger of injuring the fruit on the lower limbs
in cultivating with teams than with tractors. Fruit-
growers who have used the tractor emphasize that it may
not only be more economical in cultivation, but that it is
superior to horses for work in large orchards. They claim
that the tractor does less damage to the branches and trees
than horses, partly because fewer trips are required to
accomplish a given amount of work and partly because the
greater width of the implement pulled by the tractor makes
ol — hal
' it unnecessary to travel as close to the trees as when horses
- are used.
168 The Commercial Apple Industry
6. A tractor may work close to trees. The tractor can
easily cultivate close to the tree row. In many cases prac-
tically all the work of cultivation can be done when the
tractor travels in the center of the row. It is sometimes
necessary that the motive power, whether horses or tractor,
must pass under the limbs and close to the trees, but even
in such cases the tractor does considerably less damage
than horses. A suitable type of tractor is not as high as
horses and furthermore may be equipped with guards to
raise the limbs gently while the machine passes underneath
without breaking the limbs or jarring off the fruit.
7. The tractor may be useful in doing other work than
cultivating. The usefulness of the tractor in many
orchards is not confined to cultivation. Growers who have
used tractors state that they save much time and expense
in pulling out trees which need to be removed because of
disease or crowding. A medium-sized tractor will pull
most trees without difficulty if a‘chain is fastened well up
on the stump or on some of the heavy limbs and then
hitched to the tractor. Some growers use the tractor in
the orchard for hauling manure, lime, spray materials, and
the like, and in rare eases the spray outfit. While the full
possibilities of the tractor have not been realized, it must
be remembered that if there are idle horses on the farm it
will not usually be profitable to employ the tractor for
work which two or three horses could do.
Tractors have proved popular and highly profitable with |
most orchardists who have used them. It is well to state,
however, that there are some disadvantages which many
growers have found and which should be given fully as |
|
|
much weight as the advantages.
1. The tractor is feasible only on a large farm. An
Cultivation of the Orchard 169
ordinary tractor at present is not adapted for use on the
small farm, particularly a small intensive fruit-farm. It
is not necessary that the orchard be large, but if the fruit
acreage is small a tractor will not be profitable unless con-
siderable general farm land is being operated in conjunc-
tion with the orchard. Orchards of less than 30 to 40
acres, unless connected with a general farm, will hardly
warrant the purchase of a tractor at present prices. There
should be at least twenty days’ work a year for a tractor in
order that it may be profitable. Four to 5 acres of plow-
ing or 18 to 20 acres of double discing may be considered
a day’s work for the average tractor. A two-horse team
will plow about 11% acres a day in the orchard and disc
from 6 to 7 acres.
2. A tractor represents a considerable investment. On ~
account of the initial cost of a good tractor, efficiency is
necessary if sufficient returns are made to pay such over-
head charges as interest, depreciation, upkeep, and the
like. A man of limited capital, particularly if he is oper-
ating a young orchard from which there is little cash
return, is likely to find a tractor a rather heavy burden
on his working capital.
3. Experienced labor is necessary to operate and care
for a tractor. While the use of such a machine may save
the labor of one or two additional men, it is important to
(
J
(
J
realize that the man who operates a tractor should be exper-
ienced and have some knowledge of machinery. When
traced back to their origin, it has been found that a great
number of complaints with reference to the use of tractors
‘are primarily due to the lack of experience and mechanical
knowledge on the part of the operator.
4, There is a heavy depreciation when tractors are care-
170 The Commercial Apple Industry
lessly handled. .When an expensive machine is operated
by men who have little interest in their work, it will rapidly
depreciate in value. Careless handling will ruin a good
tractor in a single season or even in a day. It is exceed-
ingly important, therefore, that care should be taken to
keep the machine properly oiled, and in good working
order.
5. When a tractor gets out of order, considerable time
may be lost. Even with experienced operators, break-
downs may occur, and if a part breaks which can not be
replaced short of the factory, days may be lost. The prin-
cipal criticism which many growers have against the trac-
tor is that some part is always breaking and that it requires
considerable time and expense for repairs. There is no
doubt that the average tractor has given considerable
trouble in this regard, especially when handled by inex-
perienced men.
6. Where the fences are near the trees, turning at the end
of the row is rather difficult on account of the wide culti-
vating implements commonly drawn by a tractor. This is
more particularly true of the early tractors than of the
modern machines recommended for orchard work. In
most cases, if the tractor is properly hitched to the imple-
ment, the turn can be made into the next row of trees. It |
is seldom necessary, however, that the turn be made into
the adjoining row, since the work of cultivation can nearly
always be carried on just as well by turning into the second
or third row each time, following the same method as is
frequently used in cultivating corn in order to avoid short
turns. Of course in terraced orchards or those planted in
irregular rows, this plan can not be followed. There is
Cultwation of the Orchard 171
nearly always a way to manage the turning if a little ingen-
uity is exercised.
In conclusion it may be said that the uses of the tractor
in fruit-growing have not yet been fully determined or
appreciated. At present tractors are being used in some
of the larger orchards of the Middle West, Northwest and
middle Atlantic states. They are becoming more and
more popular in connection with the operation of orchards
and on general farms of western New York. It seems
only a question of time until the tractor will largely dis-
place the team in cultivating the commercial orchard.
TRUCK
The use of the motor truck in connection with apple-
raising is growing in popularity as rapidly as that of the
tractor. When long hauls are necessary and the tonnage
of fruit is large, the motor truck has found great favor.
In general, the use of a truck will be profitable wherever
the purchase of a tractor is warranted and in many cases
in which a tractor is not profitable.
CHAPTER VIII
i IRRIGATION
Irrigation is the process of watering land by artificial
means and is widely practiced in the arid and semi-arid
apple regions throughout the western states.
The history of irrigation dates from the earliest times.
Egyptian and Babylonian records show clearly that irriga-
tion was known several thousand years z.c. Irrigation
in America was practiced in prehistoric times by Indian
tribes of the Southwest, but the first irrigation by English
speaking people of the United States was by the Mormons
near Salt Lake City, Utah. Under the guidance of Brig-
ham Young, the Mormons succeeded in turning the waters
from the canyons and streams into the desert and first
proved the possibilities of western irrigation. The history
of the western fruit regions in nearly every case dates
from the time that water was put on the land. The Wen-
atchee district as recently as 1900 was largely a barren
desert. Now it is one of the leading apple regions of the
world, producing 12,000 cars of box apples in 1919.
Irrigation as a factor in the commercial apple industry
of North America is confined to the apple-growing regions
west of the Mississippi and the Okanogan district of |
British Columbia. It is most widely practiced in the
Pacific Northwest. Practically all of the Idaho, Wash- |
ington, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico and much of the
172
Irrigation 173
Oregon commercial apple crop is grown under a system of
intensive irrigation.
The Hood River Valley of Oregon, while not an arid
region, employs irrigation in many of its orchards. The
Rogue River or the Medford district in Oregon was form-
erly a non-irrigated section but continued drought com-
pelled the practice of irrigation when possible. The only
important non-irrigated apple regions in the West are the
Watsonville and Sebastopol sections of California located
within a few miles of the coast.
The irrigated fruit regions differ in many ways from the
apple sections of the Central West and East. Some of
their most outstanding characteristics are:
1. Compactness. All irrigated fruit districts are very
intensive and compact. They are generally confined
within a certain limited and well defined area. The typ-
ical farms are small and the orchards average only about
ten to twenty acres. Often the orchard of one grower
borders directly on that of his neighbor, so that the plant-
ings in an irrigated valley appear as one large orchard
with but few breaks of land not in trees.
2. Productivity. Orchards in irrigated sections free
from frequent frost-injury bear larger annual crops, partly
because the water supply is largely under control.
3. Rapid tree growth. ‘Trees in irrigated districts grow
very rapidly and attain maturity early. Often trees at
ten years of age are practically in full bearing and in many
cases even at seven or eight years of age they bear very
heavily. Trees in the Wenatchee Valley attain maturity
in about one-half the time required for the same varieties
in the East.
4. Trees are set close together. The trees in the irri-
174 The Commercial Apple Industry
gated districts usually will average twice as many to the
acre as under the same conditions in the East; that is, a
ten-year-old orchard in Wenatchee will have from 80 to
100 trees to the acre, while in New York 40 to 50 trees
would be considered sufficient. A fully matured orchard
in the northwestern regions will usually contain as many
as 75 trees to the acre, while the New York growers claim
that 30 trees is sufficient. Thus the trees of the North-
west do not attain such large size although they grow more
rapidly and attain maturity more quickly.
5. Trees of the irrigated regions have a shorter life
than those under natural or un-irrigated conditions.
Although most irrigated sections are as yet young, there
are definite evidences that the irrigated orchard is much
shorter lived than the eastern plantation. Trees that
attain maturity at such an early age under artificial condi-
tions cannot continue to maintain vegetative vigor and
health indefinitely. As yet it cannot be said just what —
the life of an irrigated orchard under good management
may be, but from present indications it would seem that
thirty years would about mark the life of the average irri-
gated orchard. It is certain that trees are ordinarily most
profitable and at their best under irrigated conditions
between the ages of ten and twenty years.
6. Irrigated regions are usually free from fungus. Se-
_rious trouble only appears in the semi-irrigated regions like
Hood River Valley where the rainfall is as great as that in
western New York, but where orchards generally are under
irrigation, due to the rainfall coming at the wrong season
of the year. There is little fungus difficulty in the
famous Yakima and Wenatchee valleys of Washington or
in the irrigated districts of Idaho, Colorado, Utah and
‘JUotoyjNS Uoz,JO VIB SMOLING
n
ao1l[} Spivyoto sunod up “AaT[VA BULYVA IY} UL Svat} CesourA, pP[O 1eed-aaAy SUTIYVSTAIT —Yy TLVIg
Irrigation 175
New Mexico. In this connection, however, it might be
well to say that the codlin-moth is generally very much
more active and difficult to control than under eastern con-
ditions and particularly has this been true of late years.
7. Trees in irrigated regions require detailed care every
year. A grower in an irrigated district must pay strict
attention to his orchard if it is to survive or he is to
secure any profit out of it. It is absolutely necessary that
it be irrigated and if this highly important operation is
neglected for a single season, the orchard is ruined. Fur-
thermore, if the irrigating is left to inexperienced hands,
the trees are likely to be over-irrigated or under-irrigated
to such an extent that they will be injured permanently.
Great care also is necessary to see that the water is not
allowed to stand on the land or applied at the wrong time.
Under eastern conditions, none of these things is necessary,
so that orchards which have been neglected not for one
year but perhaps several, may often be brought back to
profitable bearing. This, however, cannot happen in the
Northwest. This partly accounts for the fact that the
average northwestern grower is as a rule more thorough
and scientific than the average eastern grower. The north-
western owner must be thorough or his orchard will not
live. The orchard under eastern conditions can usually
survive even if somewhat neglected.
8. In irrigated regions the fruit is usually graded,
packed, wrapped and boxed very carefully, while apples
under non-irrigated conditions, as a general rule, are not
graded or packed as carefully and are seldom wrapped.
With the exception of California, fruit in non-irrigated
regions is not boxed to any great degree. Fruit is never
barreled in irrigated regions. It may be said that in 90
176 The Commercial Apple Industry
per cent of all cases, irrigated regions produce boxed fruit
and non-irrigated regions barreled or bulk fruit.
9. Land in irrigated regions is expensive and the fixed
costs or overhead charges are high. Bearing orchard land
in the Wenatchee Valley is capitalized at nearly $2,000 an
acre. In fact, land in bearing orchards in nearly all irri-
gated districts is valued at $1,000 an acre or more. Fur-
thermore, interest rates in the Northwest, where these irri-
gated regions are located, are higher than in the East.
From 7 to 8 per cent in the Northwest is a common interest
rate which growers have to face. Thus it is important to
realize that orchards in irrigated districts, even though the
acreage is small, are often valued and actually capitalized
at a much larger figure than those of the Central West and
East which may be from two to three times their acreage.
10. Irrigated districts are as yet somewhat isolated,
while non-irrigated localities are close to important
markets. The great bulk of the fruit from irrigated —
regions has to travel from 1,000 to 3,000 miles to market.
Only a very high grade of fruit of superior marketable
quality can hope to compete successfully with fruit grown
in eastern districts. At present the northwestern grower
puts his fruit up in such good condition that he can put it
on the market in the heart of the barreled producing sec-
tion and sell it quite readily even if there is great barreled
competition. The difficulty of moving the fruit, due to car
shortages, has been a drawback to the Northwest fruit in-
dustry the past few years.
The above points are important in differentiating
between the characteristics of the irrigated and non-irri-
gated regions of the United States. There are many minor
ones, such as systems of orchard management which are
Irrigation 177
practiced in irrigated regions and which differ somewhat
from eastern conditions, but in general the above differ-
ences define quite clearly the characteristics of the two
types of orcharding.
CHOOSING AN IRRIGATED DISTRICT
Certain points are important to remember when selecting
an irrigated district. When the great orchard irrigation
projects of the West were widely advertised, men from
middle west and eastern farms and cities flocked to the
West and bought orchard land indiscriminately. They
paid, at first, too much attention to scenery and the adver-
tising pamphlets of the promoters. It did not seem to
enter their minds that such things as liability to frost
damage, air drainage, priority of water right and the loca-
tion of the land, as to whether it could be economically
irrigated or not, were of great importance. One of the
greatest mistakes which early investors made was in locat-
ing on land liable to seepage, that is, land on which alkali
showed up after a few years of irrigation, caused either by
direct irrigation of that particular plot of land or some-
times by the water seeping down from the tracts of land
higher up.
The definite points to consider when locating in the irri-
gated regions are:
1. The history of the region as regards frosts should be
studied. rosts have been the limiting factor in success-
ful production in many parts of Colorado, New Mexico,
Utah, and Idaho. More orchardists have failed through
frost damage in successive years than from any other single
factor affecting production. Certain parts of western
Colorado are so liable to frost damage as to render profit-
178 The Commercial Apple Industry
able fruit-growing impossible. Frosts seem to be very
local in these irrigated regions, that is, certain mesas or
limited areas are much more liable to damage than others.
The most notable example of how important it is to note
the lability to frost in these irrigated districts occurs in
the Grand Valley. A few miles above the town of Grand
Junction is located the town of Palisades, about which is
grouped a very intensive and highly specialized peach in-
dustry. Palisades lies in a very narrow part of the Grand
Valley on either side of which are large cliffs known as
the Book Cliffs. These radiate heat during the night which
together with better air drainage combine so that frosts
in the blooming season are rare. A few miles down the
valley and about Grand Junction itself, frosts are so com-
mon that fruit-growers have become somewhat discouraged.
Peach-growing on this account has been entirely elim-
inated. Destructive frosts seldom occur in the Wenatchee
Valley of Washington and rarely in the Hood River Valley
of Oregon.- They occur very frequently in most of the —
irrigated districts of Colorado, New Mexico, Idaho, Utah
and Montana and in some of the irrigated sections of
Oregon and Washington.
2. Land not liable to seepage should be chosen. In some
districts alkali has appeared on the surface of the soil and
the trees have lost their vigor and died. Thousands of
acres of land have been lost in the Grand Valley of Colo
rado through this cause alone and many have become bank-
rupt who started out with the rosiest prospect. Land in
trees which has gone to seep is hardly worth trying to re-
claim as far as saving the orchard is concerned.
It is extremely important that irrigated lands be well
drained so that water cannot stand on them for indefinite
Irrigation Vee
periods. It is also important that these lands lie so that
waste water from orchards which may be higher up or
“nearer the irrigation canal does not continually seep down
on to the land at lower levels.
To go fully into a discussion of alkali and the danger
and causes of its appearance would require a book in itself.
It is sufficient to state here that too great emphasis cannot
be placed on the problem of alkali soil and it is very im-
portant that the fruit-growers strive to avoid orchard sites
where it is present. Enough is known about the liabilities
of soils to seep at the present time so that any engineer
or topography expert familiar with the particular region
should be able to state quite definitely the relative danger
in this regard. Narrow valleys are much less liable to
be troubled with alkali than the broader and larger valleys.
There is no alkali in the Hood River Valley of Oregon
and the Wenatchee Valley of Washington and very little in
the Yakima Valley.
3. The third important point to be remembered in select-
ing soil for irrigation is to see that the land can be irrigated
economically. In numberless instances, orchards have
been set out on land above the main irrigation canal or on
Jand near no canal and dependence put entirely on pump-
ing systems or small private irrigation systems. In many
eases orchards irrigated in this way have succeeded;
however, in most cases irrigation is so expensive and
| water has so often been difficult to obtain at the proper
time, that in years of poor prices or light crops the grower
' has not been able to compete with orchards under system-
, atically installed and bonded irrigation systems. In cer-
7
tain limited sections, the annual water rent charge is as
high as $25 an acre. This is prohibitive. In most dis-
180 The Commercial Apple Industry
tricts it is between 50 cents and $2.50 an acre; $1.50 is
about the average annual charge. Aside from this, how-
ever, the original water right usually costs around $75 an
acre under private irrigation projects. Therefore, it is
extremely important when purchasing land to see that it
ean be irrigated economically and that the annual water
rent charge is not prohibitive, or if it is necessary to pump
the water one should carefully determine whether or not
this is feasible. There are of course artesian wells in some
of the more southern sections, but as they occur in so few
of the fruit districts they hardly enter the discussion here.
4. It is important to consider the priority of water right.
It often happens that growers are located at the end of
the irrigating system or canal and in eases in which the
water supply is scarce they sometimes have insufficient
water for their orchards. This has happened sometimes
in the Wenatchee Valley of Washington, where growers in
the lower part of the valley were insufficiently supplied
with water at the critical time. In other valleys of the
Northwest, many instances might be cited where the
grower has been forced to use the waste water from the
orchard of his neighbor in order to secure sufficient to
supply his own land. The buyer unacquainted with irri-
gation and irrigating systems, therefore, should look care-
fully into the probability of having guaranteed water
rights. One year without irrigation in most sections will
usually mean the destruction of the trees. There are many
other points to be considered, such as the proper slope for
easy irrigation.
It is impossible here to enter into the engineering fea-
tures of irrigation and one should have the advice of a
competent engineer in laying out the main laterals.
Irrigation 181
IRRIGATING THE ORCHARD
In the discussion of orchard irrigation, so many factors
enter into the problem, each of which is modified to a great
degree, depending on the soil, ages of trees and various
other conditions, that no set of rules can be laid down.
The three problems to consider in actually irrigating an
orchard are: amount of water to apply, when to apply it,
and the means of application.
Quantity of water to supply.
When water is abundant, there is always a tendency to
over-irrigate. It should be borne in mind that irrigation
is only supplemental to natural precipitation and every
effort should be made to conserve the natural moisture.
Excessive irrigation causes leaching of plant-food and is
injurious to the soil. The basis of water distribution is
variable. In general it may be said to vary from 35 to
100 acres to a second-foot. Expressed in acre-inches, the
average amount used in a year would cover each acre to a
depth of about 36 inches. This is augmented by the
normal precipitation which in most irrigated districts does
not exceed 10 to 12 inches per annum. The common unit,
for instance, for water distribution in the Wenatchee Val-
ley is the miner’s inch (one-fiftieth of a cubic foot a second).
The prevailing rate of distribution in this region is one
_ Ininer’s inch to two acres.
The water requirement of different soils is somewhat
variable. With a rich soil the water requirement is rela-
_ tively low, while with a leached soil it is high. The prac-
. tice of growing leguminous shade or cover-crops in irrigated
orchards (usually alfalfa) has appreciably increased the
182 The Commercial Apple Industry
water requirements. The Hood River Valley, with an
average rainfall of about 35 inches per annum, found
irrigation necessary, whenever cover-crops were grown.
Time to irrigate orchards.
In practice, the fruit-grower recognizes the need of
applying water by a slight change in the color and rigidity
of the foliage. It is unwise to wait until the trees begin
to show signs of wilting, since this delay may prove injur-
ious. It is equally unwise to pour on water just because
it is available. Over-irrigation should be guarded against.
It is generally thought that the amount of free water in
the upper three or four feet of soil should range between
6 to 10 per cent. or the inexperienced, the following
simple test is suggested : Soil samples should be taken from
a depth of about 3 feet. Measure out 6 pounds and 4
ounces (100 ounces) of soil, expose this to a bright sun for
the greater part of a day, and then re-weigh. The number
of ounces lost will correspond to the percentage of free
water. If the loss is less than 6 ounces the soil probably
should be irrigated. More than 10 per cent loss will indi-
cate a super-abundance of water. |
Number of applications.
‘ In the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, the first irriga- |
tion is usually given about the first of May, depending
on the soil, the slope, and amount of winter rains. A south |
slope requires water probably two or three weeks earlier
than heavy soil or a steep north slope. In Idaho, the
first application of water is usually about the first of June,
while in Hood River the water is turned on between June
first and fifteenth.
‘Irrigation 183
Correct timing of the first irrigation is exceedingly
important and will depend somewhat on the amount of
winter rains. It is thought that early irrigation tends
materially to reduce the June drop. If the trees are kept
growing vigorously, they will not usually suffer excessive
drop. ‘The spraying operations must be considered in rela-
tion to the time of irrigation in order that the soil may be
sufficiently dry to permit the hauling of the spray outfit.
It is desirable that the water supply be continuous rather
than intermittent in order that the grower may definitely
plan his work and not be kept waiting for water at critical
times.
The number of irrigations varies but will average from
four to five in a season, being made at intervals of twenty
to thirty days. A light sandy soil which is not retentive
of moisture must be irrigated every two or three weeks.
There is a noticeable tendency in late irrigations to
swell the size of the fruit. This practice detracts from its
keeping qualities and flavor. Excessively large apples
tend to go down in storage. Heavy late irrigations, fur-
thermore, increase loss from scald and bitter-pit. It is
best to irrigate heavily up until about August fifteenth
and then gradually taper off. Ordinarily no irrigation
should be made after September fifth.
METHODS OF IRRIGATION
Originally water was supplied to the western apple
‘ orchards through earthen ditches. With the increasing
‘ searcity of water, there has been a pronounced tendency
‘towards lining the main canals in order to make them
" water-tight and to install underground piping to distribute
water to the highest point in the orchard or along the high-
184 The Commercial Apple Industry
est ridge. The use of concrete or other underground
piping, together with standpipes, for carrying the water
to the upper end of the furrows is unquestionably the most
efficient system of distribution. Whether such an invest-
ment will prove economical depends on the scarcity of
water and the returns obtained from the land. The
earthen ditch or cheap wooden flume may be the more
economical.
The actual application of water to the soil is usually
accomplished by means of furrows or rills. The length
of the rills ordinarily varies from 200 to 600 feet, depend-
ing on the slope and character of the soil. With sandy
soils or steep slopes, the rills should be short and narrow
at the bottom in order that washing will not occur or over-
irrigation of the upper end of the tract at the expense of
the lower lands. With gentler slopes and heavy soil, the
furrows may be very much longer and also wider at the
bottom, in order to promote percolation. The depth of
furrows usually varies from four to six inches, although
there is a tendency towards deeper rilling, eight inches ©
being recommended by some in order that the first few
inches of surface soil may be kept partially dry. When |
the top of the soil is moist, there is excessive loss through |
evaporation. If the land is very steep, a very small stream _
is necessary in order to prevent washing. With light |
porous soils the furrows are made shallow, narrow at the |
bottom and relatively close together, the water being run
through quickly and under a heavy head of water. |
|
The number of furrows in a tree row varies from two
to six, five being the most common. (See Plate X.) The
irrigator tries to get the first row within three feet of the |
tree row and spaces the remaining ones at a distance of
Irrigation 185
three to four feet apart. Shallow rills require closer spac-
ing. ‘With very young trees, a furrow on either side of
the tree row is usually sufficient. This plan is also fol-
lowed with mature trees where a shortage of water occurs
in order to get over as much land as possible. Ordinarily
with full bearing trees, the entire surface of the land is
watered.
The most common implements for making furrows are
the six-foot cultivator, with the three shovels attached and
the single shovel plow. The latter implement is frequently
used for making the furrows close to the tree rows. A
single furrowing during a season usually suffices when the
orchards are in alfalfa, although occasionally the orchardist
finds it necessary to open up the rills late in the season.
Cultivation between irrigations entails the replacing of the
rills.
The operation of turning the water on the land is termed
a “set.” It is usually necessary to make several sets if
the orchard is large. The irrigator turns his entire head
of water into a few furrows and allows it to run from
twelve to seventy-two hours, varying with the type and
- condition of the soil. The water is allowed to run, until
_ by a slow lateral movement it saturates the soil between
the furrows. When the orchardist finds that sufficient
_ saturation has taken place, he turns the water into another
t
portion of the orchard and so on until the entire area is
. irrigated.
i
Flooding is practiced in a limited way and under this
system the water seeks its own course over a strip usually
» a few tree rows wide. This practice has been largely
superceded by furrowing.
CHAPTER Ix
FERTILIZING THE COMMERCIAL
APPLE ORCHARD
Ferrtiuizine is one of the many important orchard oper-
ations and one about which much has been said and writ-
ten, and yet few definite conclusions have been published.
Many state experiment stations and individuals have exper-
imented with orchard fertilizing from time to time and
much has been written about the values of different sys-
tems. In many eases, however, erroneous conclusions have
been drawn because of outside influences which intervened
to destroy the value of the experiment. For that reason
increased or decreased yields have been attributed to the
use of certain fertilizers, when as a matter of fact they
were due to other causes. As a result of the many contra-
dictory statements published on fertilizing, this important
orchard operation is the one practiced least systematically.
The wide difference in soil conditions complicates much
of the experimental data on this subject. Means and
methods of application practiced in the different regions
are also variable. In all experimental reports there are
some definite conclusions on which most investigators
agree. One point definitely brought out is the great value
of such nitrogenous fertilizers as nitrate of soda and stable
manure to nearly all orchard sections.
A prominent investigator of orchard fertilization is J.
P. Stewart, and long-standing and interesting experiments
186
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 187
have been conducted by the Pennsylvania State College
under his direction. The results of his work in general
are of great interest and are more applicable to the
eastern conditions under which they were obtained. Other
important experiments have been made by various state
experiment stations, particularly those of Ohio and Oregon.
C. I. Lewis and E. J. Kraus of Oregon have offered valu-
able contributions on this subject. Thorough investiga-
tions have been conducted by experiment stations in Ohio,
New York, New Hampshire, Virginia, Indiana and other
states.
PRESENT PRACTICES IN FERTILIZING
Before discussing the results and conclusions arrived
at by these and other investigators, it is of interest to note
the general practices followed throughout the different
commercial areas and the attitude of the average com-
mercial grower toward fertilizing. It is only within recent
years that the grower has given any great degree of atten-
tion to this important subject. However, as with spray-
ing, fertilizing is becoming more and more general and
necessary. As yet, however, great numbers of growers
do not realize its value. Many are content to allow their
orchards to bear very small or medium-sized crops when a
few dollars expended in the purchase and. application of
stable manure or commercial fertilizers would greatly in-
erease their returns at a minimum price a barrel or box.
It is only a question of time until the fertility of soils will
become depleted. It remains, therefore, for the minority
of growers, those few who use fertilizer, to convince or-
chardists generally of the great value and increased profit
_ to be derived from judicious use of various fertilizers.
188 The Commercial Apple Industry
Throughout the East and Middle West it is rather a
common practice to apply stable manure to the orchard.
This is particularly the case in western New York where
considerable stable manure is available for this purpose,
and where its value seems to be appreciated as much or
more than in any. other section. The value of stable
manure is recognized to a greater or less extent in most
of the important apple regions of the East and fruit-
growers usually apply to their orchards all the manure
which is readily available. As yet, however, many grow-
ers hesitate to go to any considerable expense in buying
manure from the cities in carload lots. In general, those
who have adopted the latter practice have found that it is
highly profitable. |
In the Far West, the practice of using stable manure is
not general. The orchards are small, highly intensive and
do not permit the keeping of much live-stock. For this
reason manure is not readily available. In western
orchards the general method of securing nitrogenous fertil-
izer is by growing leguminous shade and cover-crops. The
Hood River region in Oregon has probably used more
commercial fertilizer than any other western section.
In the southern Ohio Rome Beauty district, nitrate of
soda is employed extensively as an orchard fertilizer.
Annual applications vary from 3 to 9 pounds to a tree.
Nitrate of soda is used to'a greater or less extent in various
other eastern districts, but in no section is its application
so general as the Rome Beauty district of southern Ohio.
VALUE OF STABLE MANURE
Nearly all growers agree that the beneficial effects of
stable manure are apparent in increased tree growth and
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 189
fruit production. Stable manure not only supplements
the available plant-food, but has the additional advantage
of keeping the soil “alive” and of adding to its capacity
to conserve moisture. It makes the food already in the
soil more available and permits freer circulation of air.
It may be definitely stated that stable manure has given
uniformly excellent results in the various commercial dis-
tricts throughout the country. (Other fertilizers have not
been so widely tested.) Annual application of 8 to 10
tons to the acre in a well-managed orchard is usually sufhi-
cient to secure good annual crops, although a less amount
is very beneficial. Some growers prefer to make heavy
applications every three or four years, applying from 25
to 30 tons to the acre, or from 15 to 20 tons every other
year. A few New York growers are the most common
practitioners of this method. New York orchards with
their large and old trees can utilize profitably a very large
amount of plant-food.
Careful cost-accounting records taken on about 400 farms
in the western New York apple belt show that orchards
which are given annual applications of manure, and in
which leguminous cover-crops are grown, give the highest
annual yields and are the most profitable.
EXPERIMENTS WITH FERTILIZERS
Research work of Kraus and Kraypbull.
A discussion of fertilizing would not be complete with-
out a consideration of the work of Kraus and Kraybill,
who have made the most exhaustive research investigation
regarding the relation of plant vigor to cultivation and
nitrogenous fertilizer.
190 The Commercial Apple Industry
These investigators found that by dividing plants into
three groups a certain definite relation is brought out
between the nitrogen and carbohydrates present in the |
different groups. These groups are. divided as follows:
Group 1. Those plants which seem to be extremely vig-
orous but rarely bloom, and if they do bloom, set but little
fruit.
Group 2. Those plants which make a very fair growth
and seem to be in good vigor, bear very abundantly and
produce a large number of clusters, the blossoms of which
readily set fruit.
Group 3. Those plants which are less vigorous than the
second group, bloom profusely, but set fruit very sparingly.
A chemical analysis of the plants in these groups shows
that: (1) those of the first group always contain an abund-
ance of moisture and nitrogenous compounds; (2) those
in the second contain a relatively smaller amount of nitro-
genous compound as compared with the carbohydrates
(sugars and starches) ; (3) the plants of the third, group
contain still less of the nitrates and proportionately much
more of the carbohydrates than the second group. It is
shown rather conclusively from these experiments that
there must be a certain mathematical relation between the
nitrates and the carbohydrates in order to secure the best
results.
The results of these studies directly apply to the apple.
Examples of the first group are commonly found in trees
from one to seven years of age which have a great abund-
ance of nitrogen as compared with the amount of carbo-
hydrates, such a condition being encouraged by intensive
tillage, severe heading of trees or use of nitrogenous fertil-
izers. As a result, considerable wood growth but little
PiateE XI.— Insect pests of the apple. Upper, On left, apples
in proper condition for first codlin-moth spray; on the right too
late for effective spraying. Middle, Work of codlin-moth or
common apple worm in the apple. Lower, Young apples injured
by the fruit-tree leaf-roller, an insect prevalent in Fremont
County, Colorado, and often in New York and other barreled
sections.
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Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 191
fruit is secured. It is found by reducing tillage, pruning
and other stimulating operations, that one automatically
reduces the relative proportion of raw sap and nitrogen
and allows the increased leaf areas to manufacture more
concentrated food, such as sugars and starches. As a
result, such trees begin to form buds, produce fruit and
thereby pass into the second class.
In the third group or class of trees, the nitrates have
become much reduced in proportion to the carbohydrates.
As a result, the leaves become yellow and thin, the spurs
begin to die and the set of fruit is poor. The trees are
starving for nitrates amid plenty of sugars and starches.
This explains how a relatively small amount of nitrate
added in the spring often produces such remarkable results.
It once more restores the balance between the carbohydrates
and the nitrates. When a proper balance is seemingly
reached between these two, the proper vegetative growth
and fruitfulness is secured. Such trees then would be
classed in Group 2 and, therefore, approach the ideal con-
dition for fruitfulness. Every effort should be made to
maintain them in this condition. Good cultivation, the
growth of legumes or moderate applications of nitrate of
soda will usually serve to maintain the proper balance
between the nitrates and carbohydrates. Acid phosphates
may also be necessary.
Experiments in Pennsylvania.
In a series of experiments carried out under the direc-
tion of J. P. Stewart in Pennsylvania, the following con-
clusions seemed to be more or less definitely established :
1. It was found that nitrogen, of all food elements, was
192 The Commercial Apple Industry
the most influential in improving both annual yield and
growth.
2. In order to dispel any apprehension of great expense
involved in applying nitrate of soda, it may be stated that
during a ten-year period nitrate of soda was applied at a
cost of 9 cents a bushel of fruit produced, or 27 cents a
barrel; and as nitrate was figured at a war time cost of
$100 a ton, this shows that even with a very high price the
great increase in yield would soon pay for the fertilizer.
In these experiments, nitrate of soda was applied at the
rate of 4 to 8 pounds to a tree.
13. “It was found that nitrogen from commercial
sources or from stable manure proved more effective than
that from cover-crop as a rule.” Nitrogen from commer-
cial fertilizers and from stable manure was particularly
effective when accompanied with the proper cultural
methods.
4. “The addition of phosphorus or potash to nitrogen
applications has usually given larger returns than nitrogen
alone. The nitrogen and phosphorus combination has pro-
duced an average increase over the normal yields in two
experiments of 265 and 308 bushels per acre annually dur-
ing 9- and 10-year periods. This combination is also
proving important in one of the experiments in young
orchards. In at least three of the other bearing orchards,
however, the addition of phosphorus has resulted in no
important benefit.”
5. “ Neither phosphorus nor lime, when used alone, has’
shown any important influence on either yield or growth
in apples. Lime may often have some indirect value, how-
ever, through its favorable influence on leguminous covers
1 Quotations from State Coll. Bull., No. 153.
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 193
or intercrops, and possibly as an accompaniment of fertil-
izer applications. In the latter relation its chief effect
has been on growth. Phosphorus is also generally valu-
able in connection with leguminous covers.”
6. Potash, when applied alone, gave an increased yield
in some experiments, a material increase in a few, but in
some instances had an injurious effect. On account of the
impossibility of defining just what the soil needs without
experimentation, it is better to defer general use of potash
until definite evidence of its value is secured. This can
be done through a home experiment as outlined later in
this chapter.
7. “The red color in apples can not be increased mate-
rially by any kind of fertilization, although potash and
possibly phosphorus may sometimes assist very slightly.
These colors are directly dependent on sunlight and matur-
ity, with the latter occurring preferably on the tree.
Hence such influences as normal development, late picking,
light soils, open pruning, and mildly injurious or defoliat-
ing sprays are the chief practical means of increasing the
reds in fruits, while opposite conditions tend to decrease
them.”
8. “ The distinctly retarding influence of nitrogenous
fertilizers and manure on color is simply due to delayed
maturity, and is often an advantage in the case of the more
northern varieties, such as Baldwin, Hubbardston and
McIntosh, when grown in Pennsylvania. In such varie-
ties, the color reduction is readily overcome by deferring
the picking. With the York Imperial and similar, long-
' seasoned varieties, however, it may also be necessary to use
nitrogen more sparingly and to utilize the other direct
' aids to color as much as possible.”
194 The Commercial Apple Industry
9. “In these experiments, fertilization has usually had
very little influence on the average size of the fruit. This
is apparently because it acted primarily in increasing the
total amount of fruit and foliage on the tree, both of which
influences tended to decrease the average size of the fruit.
Manure, however, usually secured a fair increase in size,
probably chiefly because of its moisture-conserving effect.
The importance of moisture is evident from the fact that
water forms about 85 per cent of the average fruit. The
chief means of increasing the size of the fruit, therefore,
are proper thinning and moisture conservation.”
10. ‘‘ Evidence elsewhere indicates that the time of ap-
plication is important, especially for nitrogen. It ap-
pears that nitrogen carried in nitrate of soda may often
distinctly increase the crop of the current season if the
application is made at the right time. This time seems to
be about when the buds are beginning to open in the spring, ,
or slightly later. When the applications are made much
later than this, or when the slower-acting carriers of nitro-—
gen are used, such as dried blood or manure, no important
effects should be expected before the following year. The
later applications, however, are often used in steadying the
yields from year to year and hence should not be
neglected.” It should be borne in mind that the above
conclusions are more applicable to the East.
There is a variance in opinion among experimenters as
to how soon an appreciable influence is derived from
application of nitrate of soda. Some feel that if applied
well in advance of the bloom, it will materially increase the
set of blossoms the same season. It is more commonly
thought that since the morphology of the bud is determined
in the preceding season, the application of nitrate can have
|
;
i
;
|
|
|
Fertihzing the Commercial Apple Orchard 195
little or no effect on the set of blossoms of the current
season.
It has been found that many failures with potash and
phosphorus are due to a deficient nitrogen supply. It is
quite a common belief that if fertility is low all the ele-
ments of plant-food are needed, when very often the soil
is deficient only in one or two elements. Potash and phos-
phorus, if not actually required, may tend to check or bal-
ance any ill effects of nitrogen. Therefore, it is generally
recommended by Stewart that for the average orchard,
an application of 500 pounds to the acre of 6—8—5 fertilizer
be employed. This means a fertilizer carrying 6 per cent
of nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphorus and 5 per cent potash.
If commercial fertilizer is not used and stable manure is
available, it is recommended that about 8 tons of the latter
be applied annually to an acre, especially when the trees
indicate the immediate need of fertilizing. Commercial
nitrogenous fertilizer, especially nitrate of soda, is quicker
in action than manure, and the same is claimed for sul-
fate of ammonia. It is generally concluded that in case
of young trees stable manure is more satisfactory, as it
usually furnishes all deficient elements of plant-food
needed for growth. A good system for mature trees, under
middle western and eastern conditions, is to apply nitrate
of soda, 4 to 8 pounds, acid phosphate, 6 to 8 pounds, and
muriate of potash, 2 or 3 pounds toa tree. Of these fertil-
izers, nitrogen is the most important and likely to be most
needed.
_ Nitrate experiments by Lewis.
The Oregon experiments by Lewis have brought out
some additional conclusions with regard to the application
196 The Commercial Apple Industry
of nitrogen and at the same time have confirmed several
of the results obtained elsewhere. While Stewart recom-
mends 4 to 8 pounds of nitrate of soda to a tree, Lewis
advises 3 to 4 pounds. This difference in opinion, how-
ever, may be accounted for by the variance in conditions.
The Lewis recommendations refer to northwestern condi-
tions where the trees are much smaller than those of the
East, while Stewart’s findings are more applicable to the
older and larger trees of the East. The recommendations
and results emphasized by Lewis as applying particularly
to the northwestern conditions are as follows:
1. An application of 5 pounds of nitrate of soda quickly
restored devitalized trees.
2. The benefits of nitrate application were quickly
apparent, as shown in the dark green foliage.
3. Nitrates stimulated the wood growth.
4. Nitrate of soda produced much more attractive blos-
soms and a much better set, even in the current season
when application was made a month in advance of the
bloom. (Some experimenters disagree. )
5. A much larger percentage of the bloom set fruit on
fertilized trees than in the case of trees which had not
received this treatment.
6. There is a greater tendency for the fertilized tree to
bloom more annually and evenly.
7. It was shown very conclusively that nitrate of soda is
the cause of greatly increased yields.
8. Nitrate has a direct effect on the marketable quality
of the fruit, causing the specimens or individual apples to
become much larger than those on unfertilized trees.
This is somewhat at variance with Stewart’s conclusions
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 197
which were to the effect that the size of the fruit is little
affected by fertilizer.
9. The degree of color on red varieties receiving nitrate
was not as high on the whole as those which received none,
but good commercial color was easily secured unless
amounts of nitrate used were excessive.
10. It was found that up to a certain amount, the
response to nitrate of soda was in direct proportion to the
quantity of fertilizer used. However, 3 to 5 pounds to a
tree under normal conditions was more satisfactory than
larger amounts. Some applications in excess of 5 pounds
to a tree, although increasing the total fruit produced,
lowered the color to a point seriously detracting from the
commercial quality.
11. It was found that the influence of nitrate was more
marked in heavy crop years than in years of light produc-
_on, |
12. The benefits from the use of nitrate extended over
a period including two seasons from the date of applica-
tion.
13. The greatest benefit came from applying nitrate to
devitalized trees which had received continuous clean
tillage.
14. Best results were obtained when nitrate was applied
about a month before the tree bloomed.
It was found at the Oregon station that Yellow New-
town trees which received early fertilizing averaged 7.9
boxes to a tree while late fertilized trees averaged much
less. In the case of the Esopus (Spitzenburg), the early
fertilized trees averaged 10.83 boxes to a tree while the
late fertilized trees averaged much less. The results of
/
198 The Commercial Apple Industry
this experiment indicate that application must be made
early if appreciable effects are to be obtained the current
season. By comparing such experimental data as is avail-
able at the present time and from data secured from indi-
vidual growers in various parts of the country, the authors
recommend early application of nitrate of soda, preferably
a month before blooming. This recommendation applies
to both eastern and western conditions.
f AMOUNT OF FERTILIZER TO A TREE
The amount of fertilizer to be applied must necessarily
vary with the size, age and vigor of the tree. Although
nitrogen is likely to be the most needed element, if orchard
soils show general depletion, an application of acid phos-
phate 6 to 10 pounds to a tree and muriate of potash 2 to
3 pounds to a tree, as well as nitrate, is usually advisable.
Under northwestern conditions, 5 pounds of nitrate of soda
to a bearing tree is probably sufficient to restore fertility. —
Under eastern conditions where trees are older and fruit-
ing surface is greater, larger amounts are advisable, 6 to 8
pounds of nitrate of soda to a tree being usually recom-
mended. These amounts are for trees which show a dis- |
tinct need of fertilization. Lesser amounts will suffice |
where need is not so evident. If trees are healthy, but
are still making only small annual growth, if foliage tends |
|
to be pale green or yellow and also sparse in the late sum-
mer or fall, and if crops are only medium to light, it is |
highly probable that fertilization will be profitable and
particularly the application of nitrate of soda. To deter- |
mine the needs of the soil, some actual test should precede |
any wide general treatment. As a rule, young healthy
orchards do not require fertilizing. Older orchards will |
|
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard Vee
usually respond to moderate applications of nitrate of
soda, even though they may have no clear indication of the
need. In such cases, the amounts to be applied should
be reduced.
NEEDS OF IRRIGATED REGIONS
The importance of nitrogen as the limiting element of
plant-food is emphasized under western irrigated condi-
tions where the nitrogen-content of the soil is soon
exhausted unless replenished by the growing of legumes or
by application of manure or commercial fertilizer. The
system of clean culture with irrigation, practiced so exten-
sively at one time in the Northwest, caused more or less
rapid depletion of humus and nitrogen. The results of
this harmful practice became very evident in the famous
Hood River Valley of Oregon. In about 1915, the
orchards of this well-known region were producing rather
small annual crops; the foliage was beginning to take on
a yellow appearance, particularly in the non-irrigated
orchards where no leguminous shade-crops were grown.
It became apparent that some change in orchard manage-
ment was necessary to bring back the yields and vigor of
the trees tonormal. It was in these circumstances that the
value of nitrate of soda was demonstrated. While the
‘importance of nitrates as commercial fertilizers is recog-
nized in the Pacific Northwest, and particularly in Ore-
gon, the value of acid phosphate and potash commonly
recommended in the East in conjunction with nitrates has
not been established in the irrigated regions. In other
words, eastern orchards more commonly require general
‘fertilization, while northwestern plantings are not likely
]
if
200 The Commercial Apple Industry
to require anything but nitrogen. This need is being sup-
plied in part by the quite general practice of growing
leguminous shade-crops.
NITRATE OF SODA
Nitrate of soda as a fertilizer will be more and more
widely used. At first the commercial apple-growers looked
askance at this means of maintaining soil fertility, there
being a theory that once given nitrate of soda treatment a
tree would require continual stimulation. This theory has
been disproved, however, and a single application of nitrate
of soda may prove beneficial whether later applications are
made or not. Continued moderate application at intervals
of about two years may prove desirable, however.
Hood River, Oregon, has been mentioned as one region
in which this form of fertilization has proved profitable.
The value of nitrate of soda is also recognized in the
Ozarks, southern Indiana, western Michigan, in Virginia
and particularly in southern Ohio. Wherever the soil
is naturally deficient in nitrogen or where the nitrogen
has been exhausted through the planting of other crops,
this deficiency can and should be quickly remedied.
METHODS OF APPLYING FERTILIZERS
It may not always pay to apply commercial fertilizers
indiscriminately to all trees in an orchard. In other |
words, one may profitably single out trees which are in need |
of treatment and omit others.‘ In the average orchard, |
there will be many trees which are growing vigorously and
fruiting well. At the same time, there are likely to be
a
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 201
trees which are growing indifferently and not bearing well.
These latter are in need of fertilization. It is, therefore,
a good plan to go through the orchard and tag such trees
in the summer so that they may be manured or fertilized
the following spring according to their individual needs.
The common method of applying commercial fertilizer
is simply to scatter it broadcast under the trees from two
weeks to a month before bloom, care being taken not to
get it too close to the trunk. Application should extend
well out beyond the spread of the branches in order to
conform more closely with the usual distribution of the
feeding roots. Heaviest application should be made over
the area covered by the outer two-thirds of the branches.
Fertilizer may be left on the surface to be carried down by
the rain or it may be harrowed or lightly plowed into the
soil. Barnyard manure may be applied at almost any
time, although applications late in the growing season are
likely to over-stimulate wood growth. Winter dressings
are most common.
With nitrate of soda good results have been secured by
dividing the amounts to be applied into two parts, making
the first application about a month in advance of the bloom
and the second about a month after the fruit has set.
Favorable responses have been obtained from second ap-
plications as late as July. The rate of the second appli-
cation may vary, according to the size of the crop which
the tree is carrying, heavier application being profitable in
full crop years. The double application of nitrate of
soda is credited with a tendency toward steadying and
maintaining annual yield. In most regions this fertilizer
is scattered broadcast in dry form, largely on the area cov-
202 The Commercial Apple Industry
ered by the outer two-thirds of the branches. In a few
regions where spring rains are infrequent, liquid applica-
tions have proved advisable.
PRUNING WITH REFERENCE TO FERTILIZING
In connection with fertilizer studies, it has been found
that efforts toward building up the soil and improving
fruitfulness should be accompanied by regular and moder-
ate pruning throughout the entire tree. Excessive head-
ing back or heavy thinning of branches should be avoided
unless the trees have entered such a decline as to necessi-
tate the encouraging of heavy wood growth.
FERTILIZER TESTS
Tt is concluded from the foregoing discussion that soil
fertility is of utmost importance and should be carefully
maintained. Careful orchard management and the use of
commercial fertilizer when necessary should forestall the
depletion of plant-food. It has been emphasized that the
critical factor in soil fertility of leading apple regions is
available nitrogen supply. In regions in which yields are
low and trees show pale foliage and lack of vigor, it is
highly probable that the application of nitrogen fertilizer
will be profitable. It is simple to conduct a test with a
few trees and the results are quickly apparent. In many |
instances the increased yields will cover the added cost of
the fertilizer many times over. It is anticipated that _
nitrogen fertilizer will become more and more popular |
among commercial apple-growers.
A good orchard test is suggested by Stewart, although .
most commercial growers hesitate to go to the trouble of |
making it. The importance of testing fertilizers is appar- |
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 203
ent when one realizes the marked difference in results ob-
tained in separate experimental orchards. It is wise to
try fertilizing on a small scale before assuming any large
financial risks.
“This test should be located in a typical section of the
orchard and include not less than six average trees of the
same variety and age in each plot. It is also best to have
the trees in double rows whenever possible and the plots by
a single row left unfertilized. All trees should be labeled
and carefully measured at a fixed point on the trunk, and
the applications and exact records of both yield and growth
should be maintained for at least three years. Good in-
dications of an orchard’s needs may often be obtained in
much less time, but at least this period should be allowed.
(Rates are stated for each mature tree in bearing.)
1. Check (unfertilized).
2. Nitrate of soda, 5 lbs.
3. Nitrate, 5 lbs.; acid phosphate (16 per cent P, O;),
8 lbs.
4, Nitrate of soda, 5 lbs.; potash (50 per cent. K,O),
2 lbs.
5. Check.
_ 6. Acid phosphate, 8 lbs.; potash, 2 lbs.
7. Nitrate, 5 lbs.; acid pba hate, 8 lbs.; potash 2 lbs.
8. Misiire, 400 lbs.
9. Check.
“Other carriers, such as ammonium sulphate or dried
blood, may be used for the nitrogen; and bone meal or
possibly ‘floats’ may be used for the phosphorus. The
present materials are likely to be best in the absence of
cultivation, however, and they are also quicker in their
action as a rule.”
204 The Commercial Apple Industry
GENERAL SUMMARY AND SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS
(1). Cost production studies emphasize the importance
of high yields. Judicious fertilization is a direct method
of increasing yields.
(2). Nitrogen is the limiting element of plant-food in
most orchards. It can be supplied best in one of the
following ways:
(a) Barnyard manure, 8 to 10 tons to the acre an-
nually.
(b) Nitrate of soda, applied two to four weeks be-
fore bloom; 3 to 5 pounds to a mature tree
under western conditions; 4 to 8 pounds to a
tree under eastern and middle western condi-
tions. Amount varies with age, size and vigor
of tree.
(c) Growing of such leguminous shade- and cover-
crops as alfalfa, clover or vetch.
(3). Nitrogen tends domrtee to increase the size of —
the fruit, particularly on weak trees. It increases the
number a fruits more noticeably. It may reduce color
by checking maturity.
(4). Phosphorus and potash applied in conjunction
with nitrogen have given generally better results than
nitrogen alone. This has not been definitely established
under western and some eastern conditions.
(5). Potash may improve color to slight degree.
(6). The application of about 6 to 8 pounds of nitrate !
of soda; 7 to 9 pounds of acid phosphate and from 2 to 3
pounds of potash to a mature tree may be considered |
}
full treatment for soils generally depleted in fertility.
Local tests should be made before extensive application of
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 205
commercial fertilizer is made, since conditions vary exceed-
ingly in different orchards.
(7). Two to four weeks before bloom is the time rec-
ommended for applying nitrate of soda. Other fertilizers
may be applied at the same time. Method of application
is by broadcasting fertilizer principally on the area under
the outer two-thirds of bearing surface of tree.
(8). Over-application of commercial fertilizers is to
be avoided. Unfruitfulness is not always due to depleted
soil fertility. Tests in fertilization should be conducted to
determine needs.
(9). Barnyard manure is an excellent fertilizer for
apple orchards, particularly for young trees when rapid
wood growth is desired; also for old trees which need
stimulation to produce normal annual growth.
(10). Leguminous cover-crops are very important in
maintaining humus and nitrogen supply, and very often
obviate the necessity of applying commercial fertilizer.
(11). Some old orchards, particularly in western New
York, apparently do not respond to commercial fertilizers
but this does not mean that commercial fertilizers are not
valuable under most conditions,
CHAPTER X
DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE APPLE AND
THEIR CONTROL
In recent years much attention has been given to the
study of insects and diseases attacking the different fruits.
It is impracticable here to describe all of the pests which
are found on the apple and for fuller accounts the reader
is referred to the “‘ Manual of Fruit Insects” by Slinger-
land and Crosby and ‘‘ Manual of Fruit Diseases” by
Hesler and Whetzel.
IMPORTANT INSECT ENEMIES OF THE APPLE
The codlin-moth (Carpocapsa pomonella). (See Plate
XI.)
This insect, of European origin, is widely disseminated,
being present in practically all of the important apple
regions of the world. In the United States it is recognized
as the most serious insect enemy of the apple and is respon-
sible yearly for a great loss of fruit. The codlin-moth,
more commonly known as the “ apple worm,” feeds within
the fruit, causing the so-called “ wormy apple.” In the
early part of the season much of the wormy fruit falls
to the ground, but the fruit attacked later is not so likely
to drop. In regions in which this pest is abundant, many
of the apples as they near maturity are frequently
“stung.” This refers to the small shallow excavation
206
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 20%
through the skin made by the worms before they succumb
to the poison.
The seriousness of this insect is somewhat variable from
season to season and in different fruit-growing districts.
In the eastern states the codlin-moth can be controlled by
one to three thorough spray applications. In the Middle
West and in the arid fruit-growing regions of the West,
the insect is more difficult to control, often requiring six
to seven sprays. It thrives especially under the warm
dry climatic conditions of the West, whereas its develop-
ment in the East is retarded by the occurrence of rains and
periods of cool weather. The number of broods is in-
fluenced by weather conditions as indicated by the fact
that there are four broods in the Pecos Valley of New
Mexico while in Maine there is practically but one, the
second brood being very small.
The codlin-moth passes the winter in the worm or
larval stage, within a small silken cocoon which is nor-
mally spun beneath the loose bark of the trunk. By the
time the apples are in bloom, many of the worms have
changed to the pupal state, after which they further trans-
form and issue as moths. The eggs are deposited on the
leaves and sometimes on the fruit itself. The worms
hatch usually in six to ten days, depending on the weather,
and soon eat their way into the fruit if it is not properly
protected by poison.
Before proper control measures can be applied, it is
essential to know the life history of the codlin-moth. It
is important to have information on the number of broods
and the time when each brood is hatching in maximum
numbers. It will, therefore, be readily appreciated that
no one spraying schedule will be applicable in all fruit-
208 The Commercial Apple Industry
growing districts, but instead a spraying scheme that will
meet local conditions should be adopted.
The following suggestion will be helpful in controlling
the codlin-moth: (1) Arsenate of lead powder should be
used, 2 pounds of the paste to 50 gallons of water or
fungicide. (2) The importance of thorough spraying for
the calyx treatment can not be too strongly emphasized.
This application may be started when 85 to 90 per cent of
the blossoms have dropped and must be completed before
the calyces have closed. (See Plate XI.) The calyx cups
should be literally drenched to insure filling each one with
the poison. The spray should be applied with nozzles
throwing a coarse spray under a pressure of 200 to 225
pounds. The upper parts of the trees should be sprayed
from a tower. (3) In regions in which the codlin-moth is
serious, every effort should be made to reduce the first brood —
as much as possible. If necessary, three cover sprays
should be made for this brood: (a) Just before the worms
begin to hatch (three to four weeks after the calyx spray) ;
(b) as the worms are hatching in large numbers (ten to
twelve days after a); (c) as the late hatching first-brood
worms are appearing (ten to twelve days after b).
If the first brood is not practically eradicated, no sub-
sequent spraying will eliminate wormy and “ stung” fruit.
In order to catch the first-brood worms that have escaped
being poisoned, it would be well either to band the trees
or to employ the codlin-moth trap. A large proportion
of the first-brood worms transform in a few weeks to moths,
the females of which are capable of laying as many as 300
second-brood eggs. From this the fruit-grower will realize
the importance of killing as many first-brood worms as
possible. In spite of the above precautions, however,
-
PLate XII— San José scale: (a) natural size; (b) enlarged ;
(c) appearance of this pest in the apple.
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 209
some worms will escape both the poison and the mechanical
means of capture and it will, therefore, be necessary to
spray for the later broods.
The following spray schedules are suggested :
Schedule I (One spray). (1) Calyx spray.
Schedule II (Two sprays). (1) Calyx spray.
(2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1
Schedule III (Three sprays). (1) Calyx spray.
(2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1
(3) 8 to 10 weeks after 1
Schedule IV (Five sprays). (1) Calyx spray.
(2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1
(3) 5 to 6 weeks after 1
(4) 8 to 10 weeks after 1
(5) 12 to 14 weeks after 1
Schedule V (Six sprays). (1) Calyx spray.
(2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1
(3) 5 to 6 weeks after 1
(4) 6 to 7 weeks after 1
(5) 8 to 10 weeks after 1
(6) 12 to 14 weeks after 1
Maine to Connecticut: Frequently schedule I will suf-
fice, but if not schedules II or III should be em-
ployed.
New York to Virginia: In some fruit districts within
these states schedule I will give satisfactory commer-
cial control of the codlin-moth. Where it is more
abundant, schedules II or III will be necessary.
Ohio to Michigan: Usually schedule III will give satis-
factory control.
210 The Commercial Apple Industry
Illinois to Arkansas: There is considerable variation
in the relative infestation of the codlin-moth in these
states. In some fruit districts schedule III will suf-
fice, while in others schedules IV or V should be
employed.
Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah: The severity of
the codlin-moth in these states varies to a considerable
degree and the best spray schedule for each fruit-
growing district will depend on the local conditions.
In many of these districts, schedule V should be em-
ployed, supplemented by banding or the codlin-moth
trap.
Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California: In many of the
fruit-growing valleys in these states the codlin-moth is
a pest of first rank, requiring for best control schedule
V together with banding and the use of the codlin-
moth trap.
San José scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus). (See Plate
XII.)
The San José seale is one of the most common and inju-
rious apple pests. It is widely. distributed throughout
practically every commercial apple region. The mature
scale is gray in color, circular, and about the size of a pin-
head. ry i ‘
yon
‘ou
Fs (
. *
». &
Wf
j
bat a ;
4) na ‘ :
“A if FA
‘
> 4 ' }
F ;
| ° . '
479 J o
5 ;
j 4 “e
ay ae : : } ‘ y
HY ee 9 a Pe nee
4 ar te az SOLU es ‘
vi St AC Ae
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 221
low wet ground or near irrigation ditches are sometimes
susceptible to collar-rot.
In working about trees, care should be taken not to
scrape the bark or cause wounds at or about the collar.
Such wounds may permit the entrance of either sapro-
phytic or parasitic fungi.
Observations have been made of the successful removal
of infected or rotted tissues after which bridge-grafting
or the planting and grafting in of young trees about the
base of the trees has resulted in the saving of many collar-
rotted trees. The practice, while recommended for iso-
lated cases, is hardly advisable on a large scale. The
process is expensive and not always successful.
Fire-blight (Bacillus amylovorus).
Fire-blight or pear-blight is a bacterial disease which
affects both apples and pears and, while less serious on
apples, it is responsible for heavy loss in apple regions.
The disease is caused by microscopic bacteria working just
underneath the bark in growing tissues of the trees.
The presence of blight is generally evidenced during the
growing season by a wilting of the leaves and branches
above infected parts. The disease winters in hold-over
eankers which at the beginning of spring growth exude
drops of infected gum. Insects are attracted to the sweet-
ened gum and very often carry the germs with them from
flower to flower during the period of pollination. Bees
are well-known carriers of the disease and aphids very
often spread infection through feeding punctures. The
' first sign of blight in the spring is usually apparent when
the infected blossom-spurs begin to wither and die, result-
222 . The Commercial Apple Industry
ing in what is known as twig-blight. Confusion very
often results from the use of such terms as twig-blight,
blossom-blight and trunk-blight. In reality they are syn-
onymous, being merely different names to designate the
part of the tree infected.
_Fire-blight is more or less prevalent in all apple regions,
but has been particularly serious in the Pacific Northwest
on account of the presence there of susceptible varieties.
The Esopus (Spitzenburg) is more subject to bight than
any other leading commercial variety. Spitzenburg or-
chards in the Yakima Valley have suffered severely in bad
blight years. On the other hand, the heavy Spitzenburg
plantings in the Hood River Valley, Oregon, have been
very little injured. It is difficult to say just how far
local climatie and soil conditions affect the spread of this
disease, but unquestionably they are important factors.
Preventive measures consist in checking wood growth.
Blight works on tender succulent wood. Aphids unques-
tionably are active in spreading this disease and their con-
trol is important.
After infection, the removal of the diseased portion is
the only treatment. In the care of infected branches, the
cut should be made about ten inches below the last visible
sign of the blight. Wounds should be disinfected with
cyanide of mercury, 1 to 500; tools should be disinfected
with corrosive sublimate, 1 to 1,000.
Apple rosette. .
The apple rosette is a physiological disease more or less
prevalent in certain regions, particularly in the North-
west. The disease is evidenced by a shortening of the
terminal growth. Buds are crowded together by a failure
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 223
of the branch to elongate. The result is a whorl of leaves
at the tip and an absence of leaves along the side of the
limb, which lends to the branch somewhat the appearance
of a feather-duster. The exact cause of apple rosette is
unknown. Abnormal soil condition or insufficient nour-
ishment may be responsible. In the Northwest the sow-
ing of alfalfa in affected orchards has seemed to exert a
beneficial effect. Good orchard practice, designed to pro-
mote normal growth of the trees, seems the principal cor-
rective measure.
Baldwin-spot.
This form of fruit-pitting is probably a physiological
disease due to abnormal plant growth. More and more
emphasis is being placed on good orchard management
as a correction to such physiological affections. The
maintenance of soil fertility and correct soil management
are of particular importance. In the Pacific Northwest,
regular irrigation with neither too much nor too little water
is essential in controlling such diseases.
An internal browning has been more or less prevalent
in the Newtowns grown at Watsonville, California. Ex-
periments in controlling this latter disease have been con-
ducted for a number of years, but the disease is still puz-
zling to horticulturists.
ANIMAL PESTS OF THE APPLE
Meadow mice.
The field or meadow mouse has become a menace in
many orchard regions, particularly in the South where the
- sod-mulch provides harbor. The mice attack the trees by
224 The Commercial Apple Industry
gnawing the bark from the trunk at or near the surface of
the ground. Most of this injury is accomplished in the
winter under cover of snow, although it may occur any
time during the year.
The runways of meadow mice are found entirely on
the surface of the ground under weeds, leaves, brush and
similar litter. Ordinarily, orchard sanitation, including
the removal of trash and litter from about trees and fence
rows, will suffice to control this pest, although poisoning
may be necessary for bad infestation.
Pine mice.
The pine mouse is not dissimilar to the field mouse except
that it is smaller and reddish-brown instead of the charac-
teristic grayish-brown color of the field mouse. While the
field mouse is more widely distributed throughout the
country, the pine mouse is more injurious and more
greatly feared in regions where it is prevalent. The Vir-
ginias have suffered severe depredations in recent years.
In one Virginia county alone, it is estimated that the loss
from pine mice would amount to $300,000 annually. The
pine mouse works almost entirely below the surface of the
ground, feeding on the roots of the apple trees, girdling
the trunk at or below the surface of the ground and in
many instances tunneling along the roots and eating the
bark for a distance of several feet from the trunk of the
tree. While the field mouse usually works under cover
of snow and is particularly bad in years when a heavy
coating of snow remains on the ground for a considerable
period during the winter, the pine mouse works beneath
the surface of the ground and in all seasons of the year.
Its activity in most cases is not apparent until the tree
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 225
attacked begins to wilt and is beyond recovery. For bad
infestation by pine mice, the orchardist must introduce
and continue careful and thorough poisoning.
Control of mace by poisoning.
It is a good practice for the orchardist to carry a can of
poison about with him and as he discovers holes or run-
ways, to deposit a few of the grains of poisoned wheat in
the openings, covering the latter with trash or leaves in
order to make the trap more effective. Poisoning must
be done systematically. Badly infested orchards should
be first disced and cultivated in the spring. In poisoning
it is well to send two or three men down a single tree row.
By following a zigzag course and carefully looking for
runways or holes, effective and systematic poisoning may
be done. One man should easily cover from one to two
acres in this manner in a day. A careful orchardist in
an infested area should go over his orchard several times
a year.
Trees once girdled or partially so will soon die if
exposed to the sun or drying action of the wind. For this
reason the practice of poisoning should be accompanied
by a search for injured trees. If the wounds can be
covered by heaping fresh soil about the trunk, the tree
may be saved and later a permanent recovery may be
effected by bridge-grafting.
A good poison formula for control of these mice is as
— follows:
1%, ounce strychnine
134 pints water
4 pounds sugar
1%, peck wheat
226 The Commercial Apple Industry
Boil strychnine, sugar and water together for ten or
fifteen minutes, then add the wheat and boil a few minutes
longer. Remove the mixture from the fire and stir vigor-
ously until the wheat has become thoroughly coated. If,
on cooling, the mixture does not sugar, it may be necessary
to boil a few minutes longer. It is highly important that
the mixture be stirred vigorously in order that the poison
may be distributed and the grains of wheat properly
coated. The wheat will not ferment and may be kept
indefinitely. It is claimed that chickens are not affected.
SPRAYING
Spraying as known to-day has come into general prac-
tice only within the last fifteen or twenty years. The
development of the power sprayer has made practicable
the spraying of large commercial tracts and at the present
time no other single operation defines so clearly the dis-
tinction between commercial and non-commercial fruit-
growing. It is now generally accepted that spraying is
necessary to the production of strictly commercial apples.
It is unquestionably true that insect pests and diseases
are becoming more numerous and growers in new regions
may not reasonably expect their orchards to be immune
from the attacks of insects and diseases which thrive else-
where under similar conditions. With the present means
of communication and with increased number of host
plants, isolation becomes less and less a factor. Fortun-
ately, the increased energy of these attacks on apple trees
has been accompanied almost simultaneously with the
development of more effective spray control methods. No |
other orchard operation in the growing of commercial
apples requires such thorough study as does spraying, and
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 227
pays more on the investment, and yet no other practice is
more likely to be slighted. Growers are now coming to
look on spraying as a form of insurance and well thought
out spray programs are being adopted in every region.
While the last twenty years mark the period within
which spraying has come into general use in commercial
apple-growing, the history and development of spraying
plants dates back much further. There are authentic
records of trees having been “ syringed” in Europe as
early as 1763. The history of spraying indicates that
this practice was probably not unknown much earlier than
this date. In 1872 paris green was first recommended as
an efficient spray material to be used against the canker-
worm in southern Illinois. Eight years later probably
the first experiment in the control of the codlin-moth with
the use of an arsenical poison was conducted in Michigan
by Cook who reported having successfully used London
purple in spraying crab-apple trees. In 1892 and 1893
arsenate of lead was introduced largely as an outgrowth
of the gipsy moth control work. While greater emphasis
was laid on insecticides in the early history of spraying,
the development of suitable spray materials for fungous
diseases was almost simultaneous.
It is exceedingly difficult to describe exact methods of
spraying. Thoroughness is all important. Leaking
valves, leaking spray hose and faulty equipment should be
avoided. Spray applications should be made promptly
and at critical times, as delays are costly. For this reason
the equipment should be thoroughly gone over well in
advance of the season.
It is impossible to fix a definite spray program which can
be followed absolutely. Continued rain or other inclem-
228 The Commercial Apple Industry
encies may intervene. ‘The seasonal development of pests
and diseases varies greatly. The spray problem requires
individual study with careful regard for general principles
in control methods.
Cost of spraying.
The results of cost-production studies as applied to spray-
ing lack stability since labor rates vary greatly in different
regions and change from year to year even within a given
district. The cost of spray material suffers similar
changes. However, the amount of labor as expressed in
man and horse hours does not fluctuate greatly and affords
a reliable basis for comparison. The writers conducted
detailed cost studies in hundreds of orchards in various
regions of the United States and a number of important
points regarding the amount of labor involved and material
used were brought out. In the cost studies, a three-man
and two-horse crew operating a power spray outfit was.
taken as a basis. Dusting and the spray-gun were not
used.
It was found that such a crew sprayed on the average
of three to five acres of bearing trees in a ten-hour day.
It was noticeable that the northwestern growers sprayed
out more material in a day than those in other districts,
the average of Yakima and Wenatchee being 1,750 gallons
a day. The same size crew operating in western New
York averaged only 1,100 gallons a day. This disparage
ment in favor of the efficiency of the western spray crew
may be explained partly by the fact that the presence of
water in irrigating ditches greatly facilitates the reload-
ing of spray tanks and in this way increases the efficiency
of the spray crew.
j
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control \ 229
TABLE XI
SHowING Rate AND Cost or APPLYING SprAyY MATERIALS IN Six
OF THE LEapING APPLE REGIONS
H £
3 Ee S) ag
4 a 5 6
3B =| 2 val
3 8 3 E
E i E Z
Acres a day ... 3. 4,
Gallons a day.. 1150
Gallons an acre. 250
Gallons a tree.. 7.0
Average number
BPIDVS) 1. The trees are often structurally weak, due to the fact that
» the scaffold branches frequently issue from practically the same
; point, thus leaving weak crotches.
_ 9. Artificial supports are frequently necessary to avoid split-
‘ting at the crotches when the trees reach bearing age.
3. When one main or scaffold branch splits off, the other
i
h
264 The Commercial Apple Industry
scaffold branches are weakened at the crotches and further
breaking usually follows.
4. If one main branch splits off, the balance of the tree is
permanently injured.
5. The amount of bearing wood is limited.
The double-headed type.
In this type of leader tree, developed in New York and
West Virginia and in use there, two whorls of main
branches or scaffolds are used and the framework is formed
by six or eight branches arranged along two or three feet of
a strong central stem. If a one-year-old whip is planted,
the heading is done at about 24 to 36 inches, which leaves
the lowest scaffold branch about 20 to 30 inches from the
ground. After the first year’s growth and before growth
starts the following spring, three or at most four well dis-
tributed branches are selected and all others removed.
The remaining branches excepting the leader are headed
back to 14 to 16 inches in length. The leader or upright
branch is left with 16 to 18 inches of new growth.
After the second season’s growth has been made, two
secondary branches are selected on each primary branch
except the leader and the others are removed. These
secondary branches are then headed back to 18 or 20
inches in length. Long willowy branches are headed back
even more severely. The second year’s growth on the
leader is removed with the exception of the most upright
development and any short spurs. About 16 to 18 inches
of the new growth of the leader is left. This leaves the
leader extending 214% to 3 feet above the first scaffold. |
After the third season’s growth, the lateral main
branches and their secondary growth are handled in a
Pruning and Thinning 265
manner similar to that following the second season’s
growth, except that the heading back is less severe. It is
after the third year that the second story of scaffold
branches is started from the central leader at a distance of
about 30 to 40 inches above the first set of branches.
Three or four laterals are selected for this upper story and
the others are removed. The second story scaffold branches
are then treated like the first ones were two years earlier.
‘The upward growth of the leader is now suppressed and
the tree is continued with an open center. It is sometimes
advisable to add a third story.
| Advantages.
1. The system results in a strong tree since the lateral
‘branches are smaller than the central leader and therefore do
not form weak crotches, as are likely to occur when all of the
main branches are of equal size.
_ 92. The weight of the tree is distributed among six to eight
‘main branches well placed on a central trunk rather than among
‘three or four branches as is the case in open center trees.
38. The trees have a greater bearing surface than do open
‘center trees, since the space in the center is more completely
occupied.
4, Sufficient light and air are permitted to all parts of the
‘tree since on the discontinuance of the central leader above the
‘second scaffold the top then assumes some of the characteristics
.of a strictly open center tree.
' 5. A rather low spreading top is secured and atthe same time
a somewhat larger tree than under the open center system.
Disadvantages.
1. In practice there is a tendency for growers to leave too
many scaffold branches and thereby create a crowded condition.
. 2. There is danger of either the upper or lower set of scaffold
oranches becoming dominant unless the pruner uses skill and
zood judgment in maintaining the proper tree balance.
266 The Commercial Apple Industry
The modified leader tree.
In reacting from the two extremes embodied in the
strictly “ vase-shaped ” tree and the central leader type,
many commercial apple-growers in the leading producing
regions have adopted the “ modified leader” system, thus
appropriating the best features in both extreme types. As
the name implies, this system develops a tree of a modified
_ leader type.
Starting with a whip headed at 30 to 36 inches, four to
seven scaffold branches well distributed along a central
trunk after the fashion of an as-
cending spiral are permitted to re-
main and form the framework of
the tree. It is impossible to se-
eure all of these branches from a
single season’s growth, from two to
three being selected the first year
and the remainder later. The per-
manent framework may not be se-
: cured short of three or four years.
“Rie. 7——Mature Jon. ON Poimt to be rememberedias
athan tree with com- that scaffold branches should be
cae) type of frame- spaced well apart. Branches that
are only two or three inches apart
will be entirely too close when the tree reaches maturity.
Some growers prefer scaffold branches one foot apart.
(See Fig. 7.)
The leader is permitted to develop during the first three
or four years while the framework branches are being
selected. The first year’s growth will usually consist of an
almost upright branch together with several laterals. It
may be possible to select two or even three well distributed
/
Pruning and Thinning 267
scaffold branches after the first year. All others except
the leader are removed and the remaining branches are cut
back. In order that the leader may dominate for a time,
it is left somewhat longer than the other branches. On
vigorous trees as much as 40 to 50 per cent of the leader
is removed and from 50 to 60 per cent of the laterals.
The whole question of heading back*is a subject of varied
opinion which will be discussed later.
Additional laterals will develop during the second year.
One or two desirable scaffold branches may then be added
to the framework. The leader and selected laterals are
treated in the manner described for the year previous,
although heading back is usually less severe.
The system is continued during the third and if neces-
sary even-to a fourth or fifth year. When suitable scaffold
branches have been developed, the leader is removed and
there remains a tree with central trunk about six or seven
feet high along which are spaced three to six or even more
main laterals extending outward and upward in all direc-
tions at intervals possibly of 10 to 12 inches.
Advantages.
1. This system of training results in a strong tree since the
central leader is larger than the main or scaffold branches, thus
leaving strong unions, which are not likely to result in split-
ting.
2. The weight of the tree is distributed along a trunk and
among several main branches rather than among three or four
branches with no central axis as is the case in open center trees.
3.*The system encourages a good distribution of main
branches about and along the central axis.
4. Should one main branch break or be lost because of disease,
there is still a sufficient number from which laterals may be grown
to fill the opening and thus preserve the tree balance.
268 The Commercial Apple Industry
5. Trees trained in this manner have a large capacity for
fruiting.
6. Light and air are admitted to all parts, insuring fruit-spur
activity and highly colored fruit.
7. The resulting tree is low headed and spreading and per-
mits economical orchard operations.
Disadvantages.
1. More judgment is required in building this type of tree
than any of the others. Untrained labor cannot be trusted with
the shaping of the trees.
2. There is danger of some main branches, especially the
upper ones, outgrowing the lower ones, thereby suppressing the
latter to such an extent that they no longer serve as main or
scaffold branches.
3. When building the young tree, pruners are apt to leave
the leader too long or too short as compared with the laterals,
thus destroying proper balance.
GENERAL TREATMENT OF YOUNG TREES
The foregoing has been a general description of the dif-
ferent types of trees, but the reader has gained little infor-
mation as to what actually is done each year during |
the formative period of the tree. The amount of cutting
back and thinning out does not vary greatly with the type |
of training. A more detailed discussion for the modified |
leader tree will, therefore, serve for the other types as well. |
After first season. '
If there has been a vigorous growth of more than 30 |
inches, the scaffold branches are shortened to about 50 per
cent and the leader to 60 per cent. If growth does not |
exceed 20 inches, the leader is shortened to about 14 inches
and the laterals to 10 or 12 inches. When possible, the
——
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Pruning and Thinning 269
secondary laterals should be developed on the main scaffold
branches at a distance not closer than one foot or greater
than 20 inches from the trunk. When the scaffold limbs
make slow growth, it may be necessary to delay the develop-
ment of secondary branches by cutting back the scaffold
limbs to two or three buds.
After second season.
Heading back should be less severe after the second sea-
son’s growth. Some recommend leaving about 20 inches
new growth on the leader and about 15 inches on the secaf-
fold branches. Others think that very little heading back
should be done after this time regardless of the amount of
growth. There is a growing sentiment that trees should be
headed back very little after the second or third year. It
is of course necessary to check wayward and crossing
branches. Furthermore when growth is vigorous, heading
back may be necessary in order to encourage stockiness.
If long rangy growths are left, they will not be strong
enough to carry heavy loads of fruit in later years. Dur-
ing the first two or three years, certain of the main branches
may outgrow the others, in which case the stronger grow-
ing ones should be headed back more severely than the
weaker growing ones.
After third season.
The main laterals may be cut back lightly to about the
same length, slight predominance being given to the leader
if it is retained. When the modified leader type is
being followed, the third year may see the development
of a sufficient number of scaffold branches, If not, the
270 The Commercial Apple Industry .
leader is maintained for one or more years, at which time
it is removed in order to open up the center of the tree.
Small side shoots and fruit-spurs developing in the
middle of the tree during this time should be left. Such
wood is productive of early fruit. Furthermore, an abund-
ance of foliage and small twigs are necessary to protect the
main limbs from the sun and also to aid growth. There
must be plenty of foliage and twig growth if young trees
are to produce wood.
VEGETATIVE, TRANSITORY AND FRUITAGE STAGES
A tree may be said to pass through three distinct periods:
(1) formative period, (2) transition period, and (3) fruit-
ing period. The treatment, both in regard to pruning and
soil management, changes materially with each of these
periods. It is during the formative period that the tree
devotes its energies to the formation of wood growth. The
proper selection, distribution and training of scaffold
branches during this time determines the ability of the
tree to bear and carry heavy loads of fruit in later years.
The length of the formative period is usually from four to —
six years, depending on the region and treatment provided.
Transition period.
Although less distinct, this period is critical. Between
the fifth and eighth year the tree is undergoing a change
from vegetative to heavy fruit production. The exact age
will vary with the region, variety and treatment. Some
varieties may not pass through this period until they
become ten or twelve years old. Other varieties and par- _
ticularly when grown under irrigation begin to bear heav-
ily at six and seven years.
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Pruning and Thinning 271
_ Pruning during the transition period should be light
and should consist almost entirely of thinning out, with
little or no heading back. The thinning out should be
confined largely to the top and ends of the branches and to
shoot growths of the previous season. If the tree is becom-
ing too thick, two- and even three-year-old branches should
be removed.
Too often the small lateral lmbs and fruiting wood
toward the center of the tree are removed, thus forcing all
the fruiting area toward the tip ends of the limbs. Again,
tops frequently become so dense that the inside spurs slough
off due to lack of sunlight and air.
The fruiting period.
All pruning during this period is to develop and main-
tain a liberal supply of fruiting wood, well distributed
throughout the entire tree. This pruning will consist
largely of thinning out branches in order to maintain a
liberal supply of functioning fruit-spurs, and in order to
improve the quality of the fruit produced. Weak or way-
ward branches should be removed. The tree should be
kept open and shapely and in a vigorous growing condition.
Regular annual pruning is essential.
Fruit-buds.
Fruit-buds may be regarded as the actual fruit manu-
facturing machinery of a tree. In case of the apple, the
fruit is borne mostly on spurs which develop from lateral
buds on the shoots of the preceding season. In certain
varieties of apples, such as Jonathan, Gravenstein, New-
town and others, much of the first crop of fruit-buds is
borne terminally on shoots. Axillary buds are also borne
R72 The Commercial Apple Industry
on one-year-old wood, but on the side of the shoots instead
of at the tips. Spurs are nothing more than very short
branches on which terminal fruiting buds are borne every
alternate year, under favorable conditions. These buds
are usually developed from branches two years and older,
If fruit-spurs are properly cared for, they may live and
produce fruit-buds in alternate seasons for at least eight
or ten years.
All lateral buds of the shoots of any one season do not
develop into spurs the following year. Some of them grow
out into new or branch shoots, many others remain dormant.
Spurs are largely developed from the large, plump, vigor-
ous lateral buds.
Having developed a large number of spurs evenly dis-
tributed throughout the tree, it is absolutely essential to
conserve this fruiting wood. In a great many cases, the
fruiting machinery toward the center of a tree fails to
produce fruit. This is due principally to the lack of sun-
shine and: air, two factors on which a spur is entirely
dependent for its ability to function. The pruning, then,
should be with the idea of leaving spurs distributed
throughout the entire tree and of getting plenty of sunlight
and air to each individual spur. This can be accomplished
by thinhing out as opposed to heading back. It permits
more light to percolate through the tree and gives the
leaves in the center a better chance to manufacture the food
materials necessary for the formation of large strong fruit-_
buds.
Changing system of pruning.
After the form of a tree has once been established, it is
not considered advisable to change its type unless its form
Pruning and Thinning 273
may be modified without drastic pruning. An open center
tree, for example, should be continued as such. A modi-
fied leader should not be removed in
later years in order to develop an
open center tree. The type of train-
ing should be established during the
first three years and this same style
should be followed out year after
year.
Trees four to ten years old that
have been pruned with no definite
type in view often present some very
perplexing problems. The number
and proper distribution of scaffold
branches should be definitely chosen
and part of the most objectionable
branches removed the first year. In
cases where there are a dozen main Fic. 8.— Common
branches when half that number A uae rae
would suffice, it may be advisable to Rome Beauty un-
select only six for the permanent (°7, northwest con-
framework. The removal of the ob-
jectionable branches should be distributed over a period of
two or three years, however.
Young trees which have been neglected should be cut
back rather heavily to encourage the development of good
strong laterals near the base of the limb. When heading
back has been neglected and the result has been long rangy
branches with weak lateral development, it may be neces-
sary to cut back into two- or three-year-old wood. When
a good side branch is available, it is advisable to cut back
to the side branch instead of to a bud.
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itt
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274 The Commercial Apple Lndustry
Crossing and interfering branches should be removed.
If too many long parallel limbs have developed, part of
them should be taken out in order to allow the remainder
freer development. Two limbs which emerge from a com-
mon point usually result in a weak crotch, a condition
which can be overcome by unequal cutting, i. e. cutting one
limb heavier than the other.
Bearing trees.
A tree that has been handled properly up to the bearing
age, that has its framework well established, and its fruit-
ing machinery well distributed, will require little subse-
quent annual pruning. As previously described, the treat-
ment of a bearing tree, whatever the type, will consist
largely in thinning out the new growth near the tops or
outer parts of limbs to allow a good circulation of sunlight
and air. Wayward and crossing branches should be
checked or removed. .
Gardner, of the Missouri Experimental Station, ‘likens
the fruit-spur to a factory. He refers to the spurs as
little machines. The raw materials from which fruit is
produced come from the soil and air and are manufactured |
into a finished product by the leaves through the aid of
sunlight. The latter is classed as the cheapest, most
abundant and yet most valuable form of motive power.
The performance of every spur is dependent on a certain
amount of sunlight. (See Plate XVII.)
Each individual spur relies on its own leaves for the
manufacture of the starches and sugars which it uses. |
It cannot draw on other nearby spurs or on other parts
of the tree for maintenance. As the manufacture of food
materials is absolutely dependent on light, the production
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Pruning and Thinning 275
of fruit-buds and fruit is likewise dependent on sufficient
quantities of light.
Thinning out the top and outer portions, then, is the
most effective means of letting light in to each individual
spur, thereby distributing the motive power necessary to
develop activity within each individual spur and increase
the amount of fruit produced. The removal of a few
large limbs near the ground only leaves large holes and
open spaces. The cutting of lower limbs and those near
the body of the tree does not permit sunlight to enter into
the parts where it is most needed nor does it permit the
distribution of sunlight and air in sufficient quantities to
modify the functioning of fruit-spurs. Removing large
limbs leaves vacant spaces and admits sunlight in shafts
rather than allowing it to penetrate evenly throughout all
parts.
It is better to remove many small branches in thin-
ning the outer parts of trees. This leaves the outer fruit-
ing wood evenly distributed and still open enough to
permit the entrance of sunlight and air. The removal of
small branches requires time and makes it necessary for
the pruner either to use a ladder or climb well out near
the ends of the main branches, but this careful work will
prove profitable.
Distribution and establishment of fruiting wood.
Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the distribution
and establishment of functioning fruiting wood throughout
the entire tree. It is not uncommon to see trees which
have been stripped of all fruiting wood except near the
ends of the branches. For example, limbs 20 to 25 feet
long bear all their fruit from within 5 or 6 feet from the
276 The Commercial Apple Industry
tip, the balance of the limb being a “ boarder” and living
at the expense of the productive area. It is highly de-
sirable to have several well developed laterals along the
scaffold branches in order that the fruiting area may be
brought nearer the ground.
TIME OF PRUNING
No concrete rules can be laid down as to the best time
for pruning, as no one time will best meet all conditions.
Pruning in most sections may usually be practiced in any
favorable weather in the dormant season.
In the Virginias and sections of the Pacific Coast, prun-
ing is done from November to early April, while in the
New England and middle western states, most of the
work is during the spring months. Generally speaking,
a slight preference should be given to pruning in late
winter and early spring, because the wounds heal over more
readily. Many growers are prejudiced against pruning
when the wood is frozen. Some maintain that drying out
or dying back is likely to result from early winter prun-
ing, but the writers do not know of serious injury of this
nature in bearing trees.
If one has a large acreage to prune, he should start work
in the older trees in the early winter and reserve the
younger trees for the late winter and spring pruning.
Some growers hesitate to prune when growth is about to
start in the spring, feeling that injury may result from
bleeding. However, the writers know of no _ serious |
injury resulting from pruning apple trees at this time.
Summer pruning has received much attention in recent |
years but the results of investigations have been somewhat |
confusing. Summer pruning may be practiced to advan-
f
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Pruning and Thinning 277
tage in training the framework of a young tree. It may
also increase fruit production if timed correctly. How-
ever, So many varying factors affect the time element that
it is impossible to give exact dates at which summer
pruning may be done to increase fruit production. The
average grower should ‘refrain from inaugurating this
practice until a better understanding is had of its effects.
Water-sprouts and a few superfluous branches may be re-
moved to advantage during the summer months.
PRUNING TOOLS
The tool equipment will vary with the man and with
the type of work. In the eastern region practically all
of the labor is done with a small hand shears and a saw.
With these two tools, a pruner can do practically all that
will be required in bearing trees and most of the work in
young trees.
Cheap shears and those with coil springs are undesir-
able. The former are easily sprung and the latter easily
broken. The shears should be 7 to 9 inches in length,
the latter usually being preferred.
A saw on which the teeth are set to cut on the “ pull”
is less tiring to the pruner. Saws with teeth on both
edges are objectionable since they frequently injure the
bark. In some sections a swivel or hack saw is used.
This type is a modification of a butcher’s saw equipped
with swivels that permit very thin, narrow, fine-toothed
blades being set on the bias. It cuts rather slowly in the
case of large limbs, but is particularly good for small cuts
and for removing limbs in tight places. The cuts made
are clean and smooth.
Pole pruners, 6 to 10 feet in length, are useful in prun-
278 The Commercial Apple Industry
ing the tops of trees six to ten years old, but work with this
tool is slow and cutting lacks precision.
Lopping or wooden handled shears are popular for work
on young trees and also for working the lower parts of
old trees. However, their use becomes somewhat awkward
in the upper parts of bearing trees. The double leverage
type of “ loppers ” is desirable, 20 to 26 inches being the
preferred length.
WOUND DRESSINGS
Some difference of opinion exists among growers as to
the practicability of the use of dressings for protecting
wounds. Certain experiments have shown that undressed
wounds healed over more rapidly than dressed ones.
However, for nearly all wounds paint is most desirable,
white lead or white zine thinned down with linseed oil
having given the best results. Tar or creosote is some
times preferred for large wounds since these substances
are considered better preservatives than paint. The
heartwood of a large wound will have to stand many years
before it is completely healed over.
Wounds in vigorous growing trees heal over more read-
ily than those on trees of low vitality. The painting —
over of cuts less than one inch in diameter is not recom-
mended.
THINNING
Although practiced very extensively in some parts of
the country and particularly in the West, many growers
are slow to adopt thinning, and yet it is essential to the
production of high-class fruit. Once a grower has care
fully thinned his fruit for a few years, he needs no further
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Pruning and Thinning 279
proof of the fact that this is one of the most important
and profitable of all orchard operations.
For many years the apple-growers in the Wenatchee and
Yakima valleys, Washington, have made thinning a gen-
eral practice. Cost production studies indicate that the
largest yields and greatest profits have been secured from
well and carefully thinned orchards. The same may be
said for orchards in all other parts of the country where
this practice has been given a thorough trial. In the
Middle West and East, however, the grower who thins his
trees is the exception rather than the rule. The cost, to
gether with a lack of knowledge and appreciation of the
great benefits to be obtained from thinning, are the princi-
pal reasons which deter most growers from following this
practice. Unquestionably it involves considerable ex-
pense, particularly with a full bearing orchard in a heavy
crop year. A heavy outlay of expense in any single year
might be somewhat disappointing. Thinning is an oper-
ation incident to the production of high-class fruit. It
should not be sporadic, but should be practiced in every
heavy crop year. When fairly competent labor may be
secured at reasonable rates, it will be profitable. As the
competition in the growing of high-class apples becomes
greater, thinning will become more and more a general
practice in every commercial region in the country.
In listing the advantages of thinning it is found that it:
(1) increases size and quality of fruit; (2) reduces hand-
ling costs such as for picking and packing; (3). prevents
overbearing and promotes vigor of tree; (4) encourages
annual bearing; (5) increases average annual yield; (6)
reduces amount of cull and low-grade fruit since inferior,
diseased, or worm-eaten apples may be removed; (7)
ABON)) The Commercial Apple Industry
secures uniformity cf size and market quality of fruit;
(8) insures a high price for crop.
(1) The statement that thinning tends to increase the
size and quality of the remaining fruit will go unques-
tioned. Not only are the apples larger, but the color of
fruit on well thinned trees is noticeably better than on
overloaded ones. It is manifest that well developed speci-
mens of good size and color will be of a superior quality
and flavor.
(2) By reducing the number of apples to be picked and
handled at harvest time, the harvesting costs are materially
lowered. If apples are not removed at thinning time,
they must be picked at harvest at an even greater expense.
Many of the culls and inferior fruits can be removed in
thinning and this will not only tend to improve the quality
of the fruit, but will reduce the sorting cost at harvest
time.
(8) If trees are left overloaded, their vitality is im-
paired; branches are quite likely broken; and the pros-
pects for the next year’s crop are very much poorer than |
if the tree had been properly thinned. It is difficult to —
measure the exact value of thinning as affecting annual
yields and yet it is a notable fact that thinning unques-
tionably stimulates annual bearing. Many well thinned
orchards in the Northwest bear heavy crops annually while
most unthinned orchards tend to bear biennially.
(4) To claim that thinning reduces the tax on the
vitality of the tree and yet maintain that it actually in-
creases yield may seem contradictory. Unquestionably it
increases average annual yield and it is a fact that in-
creased size in fruit usually more than makes up for
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Pruning and Thinning 281
reduced numbers. Furthermore, by more even distribu-
tion the tree may better hold its load.
(5) It is possible in thinning to remove wormy, stung,
diseased or otherwise inferior fruits and in this manner
greatly reduce the percentage of cull fruit and in some
ways check the spread of the injury.
(6) Uniformity is one of the most desirable qualities
in marketable apples. Thinning, of all orchard opera-
tions, is the one which directly influences uniformity in
size and marketable quality of, fruit.
(7) When the grower is striving for an abundance of
highest quality fruit, thinning unquestionably pays. It
increases the percentage of high-grade fruit and thus in-
sures a higher net price. Cost of production a bushel will
be lowered even though cost an acre may be increased. If
a grower has expended heavily for spraying, pruning and
other operations, he can not afford to neglect thinning in
years when his trees tend to overbear.
Time and method of thinning.
Thinning should not be undertaken until after the June
or May drop, as in some of the more southern regions, has
occurred. When the apples are about the size of walnuts,
the natural thinning of the fruit has largely ceased and
artificial thinning may be begun profitably.
Often many growers have a market for early cull fruit
or sell it for by-product purposes. In such instances
thinning may be delayed until perhaps August, at which
time the cull or inferior fruit may easily be picked off.
Still other growers thin their apples by making several
pickings for commercial purposes, picking off the best
282 The Commercial Apple Industry
and most matured apples for market and allowing the
others to remain. Such practices can hardly be classed
under the head of thinning, although they may be profit-
able in some instances and may be practiced in addition to
early thinning.
The common practice in thinning is to start early after
the June drop and pull or clip off all apples according to
varying rules of spacing. Some growers leave the apples
at a minimum of 4 inches apart, others 6 inches and still
others 8 inches apart. This distance will depend largely
on the variety, its tendency to cluster, and whether or not
the apples of the variety are normally large or small when
mature. Generally speaking, spacing 6 inches is a safe
rule to follow.
Many varieties of apples have a tendency to produce
their fruit in clusters and often thinning the cluster to
one apple is practically all that is necessary. In any ease,
if systematic thinning can not be practiced, the clusters
should at’ least be thinned as this prevents much insect
injury and promotes general uniformity of the fruit. The
amount of thinning will depend on the individual tree,
the variety and the amount of fruit on the tree. No det
inite formula may be laid down. The usual method of |
thinning apples is to pick the fruit off by hand, sometimes _
putting it into a bag, but usually permitting it to drop on
the ground. Many growers, particularly in the North-
west, prefer thinning shears, of which several types are |
on the market. The Alenia to be gained in using thin-
ning shears is that the apples are clipped instead of pulled |
off and for this reason fruit-spurs are not likely to be
broken or damaged.
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Pruning and Thinning 283
Cost of thinning.
The cost of thinning will depend on several factors, such
as the variety, size of tree, kind of labor employed, method
used, size of the crop and the vigor of the tree. The
average man thins from three to twenty trees a day. In
the Northwest one hour to a tree is considered an average
amount. It must be remembered, however, that the
Northwest trees are much smaller and the fruit easier of
access than in the older orchards of the East and Central
West. In old orchards, heavy with fruit, from three to
five trees is a day’s work. It would not do to figure aver-
ages on this basis as often many trees do not need much
thinning. It requires about sixty hours an acre to thin
the better Wenatchee orchards. Very little thinning is
done in New York and Virginia, but if the trees in these
regions were thinned as systematically as in Wenatchee,
the amount of labor expended would be about the same to
the acre despite fewer trees. The average grower is safe
in assuming that it will pay him to spend on thinning an
amount equal to twenty-five cents a barrel for every barrel
of fruit produced. The operation usually costs less than
this amount.
CHAPTER XIII
RENOVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS
TuHRoveHovt the country and particularly in the east-
ern and central western states'are many thousands of
apple trees which at present have little or no commercial
significance. Many of these are in the old farm orchards,
the average of which includes at most but a few acres of
poorly kept and very often neglected apple trees. There
are, however, a great many orchards originally set out for
commercial purposes and later neglected. It is to this
latter acreage that the discussion on renovation will partic-
ularly apply.
Greatest. possibilities for renovation are offered in Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and the northeastern states, also in many
sections of the Middle West. In southern states the old
neglected orchards are for the most part of such small ©
size and are so inaccessible as to offer slight inducement
for successful renovation. The problem of renovation re-
quires exceptionally careful study if one is contemplating |
this method of entering the business of growing apples
commercially. In recent years many far-sighted individ-
uals have been able to purchase neglected apple orchards
and by renovation make much quicker returns on the |
money invested than would have been possible had a
young orchard been set out and the owner waited for the
latter to come into bearing. Such opportunities still ex- |
284
‘! Renovation of Old Orchards 285
ist. It is somewhat surprising in visiting well-known
commercial regions to see a large number of orchards which
receive little or no care, yet which under proper manage-
ment could be made to yield a profit. The above state
ment is not to convey the idea that it is profitable to at-
tempt the reclamation of all old farm orchards by the
process of renovation. Very many trees are beyond the
period when they may be reclaimed profitably.
It requires considerable experience and nicety of judg-
ment to determine what orchards may or may not be suc-
cessfully renovated. In the first place, it is essential that
the orchard should be large enough to meet the expense of
proper equipment such as the spray-pump, and to warrant
some detailed attention from the owner. It is doubtful
whether an orchard of less than five acres, or one in which
|many trees are missing, can ever be renovated successfully
-and put on a profitable commercial basis. Smaller or-
chards, of course, might well be restored for home use.
‘Commercial orchards to be renovated should include
-yarieties for which there is a demand. Plantings should
be accessible to market and labor. However, one might
' profitably restore an old orchard in a locality in which it
would scarcely be advisable to set new plantings. An
established orchard always enjoys an important advantage >
‘from being already in bearing.
~The following suggestions are offered with regard to the
_ process of renovating an old orchard and apply as much
to the home orchard as to commercial plantings:
* General treatment.
All dead wood: and cankers should be cut out and the
‘trunk of tree thoroughly scraped with a hoe or similar
;
5
286 The Commercial Apple Industry
tool, being careful not to injure the tender inner bark.
This scraping removes the hiding places for many orchard
pests. After scraping, some advise that the trunks should
be whitewashed. Unquestionably such treatment would be
beneficial, although it it not recommended as necessary.
In cutting large limbs, it is best to make two cuts, the
first about a foot above the last in order to prevent split-
ting or otherwise injuring the good wood below the final
cut.
It is well to disinfect large wounds with copper sulfate
or corrosive sublimate, after which a coat of asphaltum tree
paint or white lead is advisable to protect the tree against
decay and from the ravages of insects and diseases. When
small limbs and twigs are being headed, one should cut to
a lateral growth, otherwise the remaining stub dies and
decay follows.
The chances are that in old neglected orchards many
holes will be found in the trunks of the trees where limbs
have been broken or cut off in years gone by, where decay
has set in. Very often trees may be saved if the decayed
wood is thoroughly cleaned out. Occasionally such cavi-
ties are filled with cement, care being taken that all water
and wet wood is removed first. As a general rule, such
treatment is not practicable. |
|
|
Pruning. |
In shaping or pruning a tree after the dead wood has :
been removed, a number of precautions should be borne in
mind.
A common mistake in renovation is to sacrifice much of |
the fruiting area by removal of a large part of the top
with a view to bringing the head closer to the ground.
Renovation of Old Orchards 287
It takes several years to develop fruiting wood and it may
be advisable to thin out rather than remove the already ex-
isting fruiting wood.
ery often, however, because of excessively high trees,
severe cutting back and thinning out of the remaining tops
is necessary. Even in such instances it is unwise to re-
move too large a portion of the fruiting wood, even though
such wood may be found, as it very often is, at the tips of
the larger branches. The orchardist should encourage
lateral growth, but should avoid the sacrifice of too great a
part of the fruiting area. It is usually advisable to dis-
tribute the heavy pruning over a period of several years in
order to preserve the balance between the roots and the
top, and to prevent sun-scald on the larger limbs through
exposure to direct sunlight.
It is important that the outer parts and tops of all
trees should be well thinned by working from the top
and tips of the branches downward. This provides for
penetration of sunlight and allows distribution of fruiting
wood throughout the entire tree. It is common to see a
grower start with the lower trunk limbs and prune severely
as far as he ean reach conveniently, leaving the outer part
of the limbs to bear all the fruit. Ladders are almost in-
dispensable in thinning and heading back the tops.
Each limb should be treated somewhat as a separate tree.
Laterals should be thinned out and the remaining ones
spaced as on the trunk, special effort being made to bring
fruiting area nearer the ground. By thinning out the
brushy tops, water-sprouts may be encouraged farther
down on the main limbs. The following year the water-
sprouts should be thinned out to a distance of 18 to 24
inches apart and cut back severely so that they will throw
288 The Commercial Apple Industry
out laterals and eventually lower the fruiting area. In
pruning water-sprouts, the leader should be cut slightly
less than its laterals, a safe proportion being to cut the
leader 35 per cent and the laterals about 50 per cent.
Although it is advisable to distribute the heavy prun-
ing over a period of three years, the orchardist should
bear in mind that the heavy cutting of one main branch
does not necessarily produce the vigor necessary for fruit-
ing on the remaining limbs. If one branch is pruned
heavily, the water-sprouts will come on that particular
limb and not on the others. Therefore, a general mod-
erate pruning throughout the top, with careful attention
given to thinning out the smaller fruiting wood, will serve
to encourage fruiting generally throughout the tree and to
afford an opportunity for converting water-sprouts into
new fruiting wood in the lower part of the tree. System-
atic pruning must be followed for a period of several years
if renovation is to be made effective.
Spraying.
After pruning the next step in renovation is thorough |
spraying. Old trees are nearly always badly infested
with scale as well as with other insects and diseases. A
thorough application of lime-sulfur is a necessary clean-up —
measure. After the dormant winter spray, the same regu-
lar spray program should be followed as is necessary in
commercial orchards of the region. It is particularly im-
portant in the case of old trees to have a tower on the |
spray rig in order that the spray will reach the topmost |
branches. The importance of spraying can not be em-
phasized too strongly as essential to the proper renova-
tion of the orchard. (See Chapter X.)
Renovation of Old Orchards 289
Soil management.
Thorough cultivation is usually the first step in reno-
vation, although in come instances deep plowing may re-
sult in cutting off many of the feeding roots, especially
when an orchard has been in sod for some time and the
roots feed close to the surface. If the roots are too
greatly disturbed, the trees may be seriously weakened.
Thorough discing when possible is always safe and satis-
factory. Plowing is to be preferred if it can be done
without destroying too many of the roots. Early culti-
vation is best and should be performed as soon in the
spring as possible. After thoroughly working the soil, it
is very often advisable to sow a leguminous cover-crop
in order to supply humus and nitrogen when these two
essentials have become depleted.
In many instances inter-crops have been continuously
grown in old orchards with the result that the soil is de
eidedly lacking in one or more elements of plant-food.
When available, liberal applications of barnyard manure,
from 10 to 18 tons to the acre, will aid in restoring soil
fertility. When the soil seems generally weak and de-
ficient, an application of complete commercial fertilizer,
consisting of 6 pounds nitrate of soda, 8 pounds acid
phosphate and 3 pounds muriate of potash to a tree, may
be considered a very liberal treatment. Fertilizer ex-
periments emphasize the efficiency of nitrate of soda used
alone. A 5-pound application of nitrate of soda will be
generally profitable on weak trees. When commercial
fertilizer is applied in conjunction with manure, the above
amounts to a tree may be cut to about half.
In summarizing, the three important steps in orchard
290 The Commercial Apple Industry
renovation are: (1) careful pruning; (2) thorough spray-
ing; (3) thorough working of the soil with the possible.
addition of commercial fertilizer.
CHAPTER XIV
HANDLING THE CROP
Tue handling of the crop includes the operations from
the time the fruit is ripe until it is put on the market.
Special care is necessary in picking and packing in order
that the apples may reach the market in good condition.
PICKING (PLATE XVIII)
The time of picking varies greatly with the variety and
with the season. Other influences, such as age of trees and
eultural practices, may also affect the time of this opera-
tion. It is generally thought that fruit comes to maturity
earlier on older trees than on young ones; also that apples
grown on sod land should be picked sooner than those in
cultivated orchards. As a rule, over-maturity is to be
feared more than immaturity, although both conditions
may be disastrous. Maturity in most instances means
hard ripe and not eating ripe. Since the time of picking
has so much to do with the keepjng qualities of the fruit,
it is important that the ripening tendencies of each variety
be studied in every particular locality. The following
points should be taken into consideration in order to de-
termine the correct picking time for different varieties of
apples: 1. The ease with which the fruit separates from
the spur; 2. the red color; 3. size; 4. color of seeds; 5.
tendencies of certain varieties to drop.
291
292 The Commercial Apple Industry
1. One of the most valuable guides in determining the
time of picking is the ease with which the apple separates
from the spur. Much damage can be done if the apples
are picked too soon, for in such circumstances the picker
will probably destroy or break off many fruit-spurs.
The grower must sacrifice size if the fruit separates readily
from the spur, otherwise he may suffer from heavy drop-
ping or over-maturity of the fruit.
2. In most cases, the amount of color is the grower’s
guide in determining time of picking. In this connection
it should be remembered that in bright seasons the apples
have a tendency to color early and for that reason there is
the danger of picking too soon. In damp cloudy weather,
coloring may be checked and under such conditions there
is danger of waiting too long before harvesting. Very
often two pickings are advisable for such highly colored
varieties as Winesaps. If the better colored specimens
are harvested in the first picking, the remaining poorly
colored apples will benefit by greater exposure to the sun-
light. It must be habe that an added picking rep-
resents a considerable expense warranted only in the ease
of high quality crops, when the added color and size mean
a Pedeideranle increased price for the product. Investi-
gations ' have revealed that in the case of red apples the
ground color which underlies the red color or blush is the
most reliable indication of maturity. In immature fruits
this color is green. Before the apples are ready to pick,
the ground color should have turned to a white or very
light yellow. The dark yellow ground color indicates
over-maturity. The very common mistake of leaving such
1 Bull. 587, U. S. Dept. Agr.
|
Prate XVIII.— Showing method of picking practiced in Vir-
ginia, particularly in the Piedmont section where a crew of pickers
will commonly pick from a single tree. An inefficient method.
Handling the Crop 293
varieties as Jonathan and Esopus too long on the trees
results in a much shortened life for the fruit in storage.
3. For green varieties and particularly early green
apples, size is an important factor. The grower should
not wait for the yellow ground color, otherwise he will lose
through over-maturity of his fruit. If two pickings are
made, it will be found that the apples left on the tree
will quickly benefit in size by the removal of a portion of
the crop. It must be considered that size will vary accord-
ing to crop, age of trees, and season, so that no definite
idea of the proper size at which to pick can be given.
4, It has been recommended that apples should not be
picked until the seeds have turned brown. While the
color of the seeds may be taken as an indication of matu-
rity, it should not be considered as always reliable. The
seeds should always be brown before the apples are picked,
but the brown color of the seeds does not necessarily indi-
cate maturity. In other words, immature fruit may have
brown seeds.
5. Such varieties as McIntosh, Wagener, and Tomp-
kins King tend to drop before maturity, and Stayman,
Wealthy and Grimes to drop badly with the wind. The
grower should watch these tendencies and should regard
heavy dropping as an indication of need for immediate
picking.
No other operation in the physical handling is more
essential to the life of the fruit than careful picking.
The pickers should be impressed with the importance of
preventing bruises, punctures or abrasions of the skin,
since such injuries permit the entrance of serious storage
decay. The fungi which cause most of the storage decay
ean not injure sound fruit. Careless picking hands may
'
294 Lhe Commercial Apple Industry .
7”
pull off the fruit-spurs and seriously injure the tree in
climbing about or in carelessly manipulating the ladders,
Delays in picking and also delay before storage often in-
volve heavy loss. After the fruit has been picked, it
should be put in storage as soon as possible. Two or
three days’ exposure to warm sun in the orchard after pick-
ing will cause the apples to ripen rapidly and the life of
the fruit will be materially shortened. Immediately
stored fruit is always brighter and firmer than that which
is left in the orchard for several days after picking.
Contract picking versus day labor.
In connection with the operation of picking, it is im-
portant to consider the contract system as compared with
day labor from the standpoint of efficiency and economy.
The principal objection to contract labor in picking is the
danger of careless handling of fruit when the picker tends
to sacrifice carefulness for speed. Most growers have
avoided contract picking, although the practice is gaining
somewhat in popularity in some regions, particularly
where labor is.scarece. Cost production studies have re
vealed that the contract picker working by the piece will |
pick on the average of at least 25 per cent more apples in a |
day than will the day laborer. If competent labor can |
be secured and carefully overseen, contract picking may |
offer an opportunity for speed ae considerable saving in.
handling the crop.
Picking utensils.
Various types of picking utensils are in use and each |
has its advantages and disadvantages. The canvas bag,
suspended by straps from the shoulder and opening at
Handling the Crop 295
the bottom so that the apples may be rolled out into a
box or barrel, has become the most popular picking utensil
in the Northwest. Some criticism is voiced against the
picking-bag on account of the danger of bruising the fruit.
When the picker is climbing about on ladders, apples in a
bag may be knocked against the ladder or subjected to
more shaking or rolling about than if placed in pails.
The chief advantage of the picking-bag is that it leaves
both of the picker’s hands free for picking.
A pail with a canvas bottom which may be opened in
emptying possesses some of the advantages of the bag and
may afford better protection for the fruit. The round
half-bushel basket is a very popular picking utensil
throughout the East and Middle West. Its value may be
enhanced by lining the sides with corrugated paper or
padding the’ bottom to prevent bruising the fruit. Wire
hooks on the handles of pails or baskets will aid in the
hanging of these utensils on the ladder or tree.
If the picker is obliged to walk a considerable distance
to a sorting-table, as is the case where fruit is packed in
the orchard, a pail or basket is sometimes preferred to the
picking-bag, for in such instances the receptacles are filled
and left at the bottom of the tree to be carried later to the
packing-table. A waiter should be employed to carry the
fruit from the base of the tree to the orchard sorting-table,
since this workman will carry two or more baskets whereas
the picker will make the return trip with only one. Where
the crop is handled through the packing-house, receptacles
for the picked fruit should be distributed throughout the
‘orchard in order that the picker will not lose time in
emptying his bag or pail of fruit. In all cases, the picker
‘should be warned against allowing the fruit to drop into the
296 The Commercial Apple Industry
box or onto the table with
sufficient force to cause se-
vere bruising. A low or-
chard wagon with springs
is recommended for haul-
ing receptacles of loose
fruit. (See Fig. 9.) :
The pointed ladder is
the most efficient type for
pe “34 picking in among the
Fic. 9.— Slatted crate used very branches since it can be
generally in the eastern states for placed against a fork or
Bo a a from orchard to jimb without injuring the
* tree. Step-ladders with a
single prop are useful in picking from the outside limbs
or from small trees.
PACKING (PLATE XIX)
Since there are two somewhat divergent systems for
grading and packing the barreled and boxed apples, the
two general methods will be discussed separately.
Throughout the East and Middle West, much of the pack-
ing is done in the orchard although sheds are increasing |
in number and popularity in nearly every commercial ap-
ple region. Western growers early showed a preference |
for the packing-house, since very exacting labor and good
equipment are required in maintaining the high standard |
of the boxed pack.
Sorting and packing barreled apples
Until recently most of the barreled apple crop was
packed in the orchard with the aid of portable packing
Handling the Crop 297
equipment. The packing-shed is growing in popularity
throughout the East and Middle West, but many commer-
cial apple-growers still pack out their crop in the orchard,
and this operation, therefore, must be given separate treat-
ment.
Orchard packing.
When sorting and packing is done in the orchard, the
equipment usually consists of either a portable slatted
table or a canvas or burlap-top table.
Of the above two types, the slatted table is most com-
monly used. Very often these tables are equipped with
wheels in order that they may be moved about easily in
the orchard. The top of the average slatted sorting-
table tapers from three to four feet at one end to one to
two feet in width at the other end. The table also slopes
so that when the fruit is poured on at the wide end, it rolls
down past the sorters to the narrow end, and there is
lowered into the barrel by means of an apron. The upper
‘end of the table top should be padded heavily to prevent
‘bruising of the fruit. Leaves and brush drop to the ground
‘as the apples roll down over the slatted top. Sorters
stand at the side of the table, and when only one grade
‘is being packed out, as is usually the case, they remove
‘only the culls and rots. When two grades are being
‘packed, the additional grade is picked out as the fruit
ipasses over the table, and is placed in barrels alongside
the sorter. The packer stands at the lower end of the
table and feeds the apples into previously faced barrels, at
the same time assuming part of the responsibility for the
ngrade. ;
The slatted sorting-table is an example of cheap portable
298 The Commercial Apple Industry
equipment, but in its use there is danger that inferior
fruit will crowd past the sorter. Although the slatted
table is widely employed throughout the East and Middle
West, it seems probable that its place will be taken more
and more by the mechanical sizer or burlap-top table.
Some barrel apple-growers, and particularly those in-
terested in a more careful pack, employ the canvas or
burlap-top table, which is usually about three feet high,
three feet wide and six or eight feet long. The apples are
emptied directly from the tree onto the top of the table.
Sorters then grade out the fruit, usually placing it in
baskets or receptacles according to its grade. Under this
system, two grades are ordinarily packed out, the culls
being thrown to one side in a pile or placed in separate
barrels. The packer stands behind the sorter and fills
previously faced barrels with the fruit according to its
grade.
The use of canvas or burlap-top table facilitates more
eareful handling and sorting than the slatted-top table.
In the case of either, the picker usually carries his own
fruit directly to the table, although in some instances the
work of transferring fruit from the. base of the tree to
the packing-table is done by additional workmen. As
previously pointed out, the latter system is more efficient. |
Before discussing packing-house equipment, it should |
be mentioned that portable sizing machines have been
used to some extent in orchard packing.
Packing-houses for barreled apples.
While orchard packing still predominates, the vapid
increasing number of packing-houses throughout the bar-
rel apple states is a distinct sign of progress. Some ad-
Handling the Crop 299
vantages of a packing-house are: (1) Centralization of
packing operations, no time being lost in moving equip-
ment about the orchard; (2) packing may continue unin-
terrupted during inclement weather; (3) improved sizers
and other labor-saving devices may be installed econom-
ieally; (4) packages for the fruit are kept cleaner than if
handled in the orchard.
The eastern apple-grower has come to rely on cold
storage rather than common storage in holding his crop
for any length of time. For this reason, common storage
in connection with packing plants is not recognized as
such an important feature as in the West. The grower
either sells his winter apples immediately or places them
in cold storage. Therefore, the packing-shed in the bar-
reled apple industry assumes more the nature of a shelter
for centralized packing operations.
Eastern and middle western apple packing-houses might
arbitrarily be classified in three groups: (1) Those pro-
viding a mere shelter for either the inclined slatted-top or
canvas-top sorting-tables; (2) those which not only pro-
vide shelter for the packing operation, but which have a
small sizing machine and possibly certain other labor-sav-
ing devices; (3) the large improved packing-shed with a
daily capacity of 300 to 1,200 barrels of apples.
In the third class are the larger and best equipped
mechanical sizers, fitted with conveyer belts, improved
bins and other equipment calculated to insure the greatest
speed and efficiency in handling the crop. With such
packing-houses, the fruit is usually delivered from the
orchard on to a receiving platform or possibly directly on
to a receiving belt which carries it past the sorters and
delivers it directly into the sizing mechanism. The
300 The Commercial Apple Industry
sorters stand beside the conveyer and grade out the fruit
as it passes them. More improved sizers permit the grad-
ing and sizing of two and even three grades simultaneously,
The sorting is accomplished by dividing the grading belt
lengthwise with strips which serve as partitions to separate
the different grades. A separate set of bins is then re-
quired for each grade.
The machines now most commonly used throughout
the East size but a single grade, the fruit being sorted ac-
cording to one of the following two practices: (a) Only
culls and rots are removed, the remainder being allowed
to go into a single grade, in which case the smaller sizes
are packed out as No. 2’s and the larger sizes, usually
from 21% inches up, are called No. 1; or (b) not only are
culls removed but also a second grade based on quality,
the latter being diverted into a single bin without sizing.
The first grade then proceeds along the conveyer belt to
the sizing mechanism, the apples being delivered in bins
according to their respective sizes.
The growing tendency in the largest barreled apple dis-
tricts where careful grading is practiced, is to size the |
first grade to quarter inch sizes. This makes a more at-
tractive pack than one in which all sizes above a stated
minimum are packed into the same barrel. In addition
to the advantage of increased attractiveness of pack, the
more exact sizing makes possible the handling of the fruit
through more bins, and in this way eliminates congestion
in any one bin. However, unless the volume of fruit
:
handled is great enough to keep several packers busy when |
the apples are distributed among three or four bins, it is
not advisable to attempt such exact sizing.
In any of the above practices, the fruit is taken out of
Handling the Crop 301
its respective bin and placed in previously faced barrels.
An additional workman then nails and stamps the barrel
and places it in a position ready to be loaded on the cars
or hauled to the shipping station.
_ Some desirable features for the packing-shed under east-
ern and middle western conditions may be summed up as
follows: (1) It is highly desirable that the packing-
shed should be convenient to a railroad loading station.
In the case of community packing-sheds, it is always es-
sential that a site be selected where the fruit may be
loaded immediately on cars. In such cases, the roof
should slope to the back to permit of later additions to
the building. (2) Storage space should be provided for
-empty barrels. This may be done conveniently by pro-
viding a loft overhead with chutes for delivering the bar-
rels to the packing-table. (3) It is highly important that
attention be given to proper lighting. Light shafts over
the sorting-table may be necessary. It is impossible to
sort and grade fruit properly in darkened rooms. (4) It
is usually advisable that larger packing-sheds be equipped
with mechanical sizers. (5) Storage space should be pro-
vided for loose fruit so that the packing operation may
continue for a day or more without continued supply from
the orchard. There should be storage also for one or more
days’ run of packed apples so that it will be unnecessary to
ship odd lots of fruit. (6) An important point in pack-
ing-house arrangement is to provide a conveyer or some
means for preventing the culls from accumulating around
the packing-table. (7) A receiving platform should be
built at a convenient height for unloading fruit from
wagons. When mechanical sizers are used, it is advisable
‘to have the receiving platform at the same elevation as
302 The Commercial Apple Industry
the sizing machine. This obviates the necessity of lifting
the fruit in-feeding the sizer. (8) In passing through
the different *packing-house operations, the fruit should
continue in the same general direction. (9) Ample floor
space should be provided. Congestion greatly slows up
packing operations. (10) A building more nearly square
is better than a long narrow structure. (11) Building on
a hillside may permit fruit to be unloaded and packed on
the second floor. Packed fruit may then be stored on the
first floor and hauled out from the lower side of the build-
ing, and all fruit can be lowered to the basement by chutes
or reverse elevators where it can accumulate without in-
terfering with operations about the packing-table.
Handling the western box apple crop
The packing-house, whether it be a rude shelter or an
elaborately equipped plant, is a recognized necessity in -
handling the boxed apple crop. More exact grading and
sorting aré required for boxed apples and this labor may
be performed best in the centralized packing-house to
which the fruit is drawn from the orchard. As stated
above, common storage space is very often combined with
the packing-shed, particularly in the case of the commu-
nity packing-house. In such instances, the packing |
house serves a double purpose. It provides space not only
for the necessary packing-house equipment, but also for
storing a large portion of either the loose or packed fruit.
It is generally estimated that the packing-house should |
have storage for about one-third of its total output. In |
regions where ear shortage is likely to occur, this is a
Bead form of insurance.
There i is a most decided drift to the community packing
Handling the Crop 303
system in most western districts and under this plan,
large expensive packing-houses are practicable. The in-
dividual grower, however, commonly uses a lean-to shed
or small frame apple house frequently constructed with
a concrete basement. Enough space is usually provided
in the packing-house for storing a considerable quantity
of loose fruit which may be packed out in inclement
weather.
Orchard carriers.
In the boxed apple regions, the orchardist usually dis-
tributes loose boxes under the trees throughout the or-
chard so that the picker is not obliged to carry the fruit
away from the base of the tree. Lug boxes, made of
heavier lumber and slightly larger than the ordinary apple
box, have met with some favor as orchard carriers. As a
matter of economy, however, the western grower ordinarily
prefers to use the standard northwest box as an orchard
earrier, later using the same box as a package for the
graded fruit.
Low-wheeled orchard wagons are employed in haul-
ing the loose boxes to the packing-shed.
Sorting and packing the boxed apples.
The operation of sorting is logically divided into sizing
and grading for color, quality and freedom from blemishes.
As has been stated, the barrel apple crop has thus far
largely been’ packed out according to grades based on
size, although in some regions distinction is made between
the first and second grade according to color and quality,
and freedom from blemishes.
In the West, three standard grades are recognized and
304 The Commercial Apple Industry
e
are commonly spoken of as: (1) Extra Fancy, (2)
Fancy, and (3) C grade. Grading rules governing these
three grades vary slightly from year to year. In a gen-
eral way, however, only normal apples approaching physi-
eal perfection are specified as falling within the Extra
Fancy grade. Greater tolerance in the way of color re
quirements and blemishes is permitted in the Fancy grade,
although the fruit must be perfectly sound and of a high
marketable quality. The “C” grade permits poorly
colored or slightly misshapen fruit which is still sound.
In the Pacific Northwest, all three grades are wrapped
with paper, the diagonal pack being used.
It is customary to hire sorters by the day while packing
is by the piece. In the inter-mountain regions including
the states of Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, all grades
are not wrapped. In these states, a jumble or face and fill
pack is common except in the case of Extra Fancy apples.
It is interesting to know that in the movement for
standardization of grades and packs, less attention is being
given to grading by size and more according to quality
and physical perfection. This is particularly applicable
to the Northwest where the size of apples is clearly indi-
cated by the number stamped on the outside of the box.
The mechanical sizer, although growing in popularity
and more widely used in the West than elsewhere, is not
universal among all box apple-growers. It is generally
felt that a mechanical sizer is only practicable when the ©
crop amounts to 10,000 boxes or more. Many western |
growers still prefer to sort out their fruit from canvas or |
burlap-top tables similar to those used in the East and |
Middle West. Still others sort directly from the picking |
boxes as they are drawn to the packing-house. When hand |
|
:
- |
Handling the Crop 305
sorting is practiced, the sorters usually grade out the fruit
into three grades without regard to size, the sizing being
done by the packers.
which can be handled through a community packing-house-
with the greatest economy. (3) Community packing
houses should, scarcely without exception, be situated on a
railroad. (4) There must be a community spirit and
Handling the Crop 309
willingness to codperate among growers. (5) There
must be some uniformity in the character of the fruit
handled in order that there may be a common interest
among growers.
The following are some of the advantages in the com-
munity packing-house plan: (1) There is a possibility of
a greater standardization of grades. Apples packed up
under a single management will be more uniform in grade
than if packed under the direction of a dozen or more indi-
viduals. (2) Competent help may be attracted by longer
periods of employment. (3) By combining capital it
becomes possible for the growers to build modern packing
plants and equip them with all the labor-saving devices
without incurring too great overhead expense. (4) It
becomes economical to provide storage space as an insur-
ance against loss. (5) A saving of 3 to 5 cents a box and
10 to 15 cents a barrel is ordinarily effected in handling
the crop, particularly if supplies are purchased in quan-
tities for the members. (6) Community trucks may be
employed economically in hauling fruit to the packing-
house. (7) The grower may give his entire attention to
the packing operation instead of devoting his efforts to
finding a packing crew.
Methods of operating community packing-houses.
In most instances the grower hauls his fruit in loose
boxes or barrels to the community shed where it retains
the grower’s identity during the packing operation. The
cost of packing is pro rated by the barrel or box among
the contributing members. Sufficient fruit must be
handled to warrant the employment of a competent man-
ager.
310 The Commercial Apple Industry
An interesting plan has been evolved and is being oper-
ated successfully in certain parts of the West. Under
this method the grower’s fruit loses its identity, first
being weighed and credit being given for a certain amount
of fruit by weight. A sample is taken representing 3 to 5
per cent of each load and unbiased inspectors grade out
the sample to determine what percentage will fall within
the different grades. In this way, the grower of high-
grade fruit is protected and credited for his superior
product. The two principal advantages of this plan are
that it saves about one-third of the storage space in the
packing-house since each grower’s fruit does not have to
be packed by itself, and the growers know immediately into
what grades their fruit will pack out. The chief disad-
vantages are that much depends on the sample and the
fruit may not pack out according to tests which causes
dissatisfaction among members. The tendency is to
examine fruit too critically.
Packing-house construction.
Common storage plays such an important part in the
handling of the boxed apple crop that it should receive
separate, although necessarily brief, consideration in this
discussion. Very often and particularly under the com-|
munity plan, the packing-house serves also as a common
storage. It is a common practice in the Northwest to
pack the fruit on the main floor and store in the basement.
Occasionally only a portion of the building is insulated,
the remainder being used solely for the packing opera-
tions. In some instances, the packing-house is entirely
separate but adjoining a common storage.
In any event, it should be remembered that a room can-
Handling the Crop 311
- not serve as a common storage and at the same time be
‘ used for packing operations. Particularly is this true in
} the early fall when the day temperatures are high. At
' this time of the year, all doors and openings should be kept
tightly closed during the day. It is even suggested that
the doors be opened to admit fruit only in the early morn-
ing. It is still better to open no doors but admit the boxes
through a small opening fitted with canvas flap, as can
| be done if conveyers are used.
The hollow tile construction once so popular in the
‘Northwest is not entirely successful without other insul-
‘ators. In laying such tile, it is impossible to make all
joints perfect and for this reason the dead air space is
!lost. Cork is the most effective insulator but it is very
expensive. Eight inches of mill shavings used either in
frame or hollow tile construction is the most economical
and at the same time efficient insulator for the West. The
hollow tile has the advantage of being fire-proof.
Common storage has not been successful with fall var-
ieties such as the Jonathan, since their ripening period
occurs before nature’s cooling temperatures are obtained.
‘Such varieties should be shipped immediately or placed
in cold storage. The Delicious deteriorates and the Spitz-
-enburg tends to shrivel in common storage. On the other
hand, the Stayman, if stored unpacked, sometimes keeps
better in common than in cold storage on account of its
‘tendency to scald in the latter. A well constructed com-
‘mon storage, if propezly operated, can be safely used in
the Pacifie Northwest for holding most late varieties until
February and some into March.
The following are some of the points to be kept in
‘mind when holding or operating a common storage: (1)
312 The Commercial Apple Industry
The intake area should represent 1 per cent of the floor
space and the intake should occur below the false floor.
(2) Boxes may be piled six high if two or three feet air
space is left between the topmost box and the ceiling. (3)
Mill shavings tend to become wet and to rot out when used
in basement constructions. (4) Basement storage has
the advantage of being cheaper usually and more econom-
ical of ground since the packing-room is overhead. At
the same time, as stated above, mill shavings tend to rot
out and there is the extra labor in lifting fruit when it is
to be taken out of storage. (5) Eight inches of mill
shavings with one inch air space on either side is generally
recommended for the Pacific Northwest. (6) Since the |
success of common storage depends largely on ventilation,
attention must be given to the installation of false floors
and proper air intakes and outlets. |
Bulk shipments ai
In discussing the handling of the apple crop, no refer- |
ence has been made to bulk shipment. In the Middle |
West, particularly in the Ozark and in the Missouri |
regions, bulk shipments sometimes represent over one-half |
of the crop. Ben Davis and Grimes lend themselves to |
this method of handling. Bulk shipments are import
from Colorado and New Mexico.
In bulk handling, the apples are loaded loose into cars
previously bedded with straw. It should be remembered _
that these apples are strictly commercial and enter into |
competition with barreled stock. As might be expected,
there is little uniformity in the quality of the fruit mar-
keted in this way. ‘There is an urgent need for standard-
ization along such lines.
CHAPTER XV
MARKETING AND STORAGE
Born distribution and marketing are of prime import-
ance in the commercial apple industry. It is not sufficient
that the apple-grower shall spray, prune and cultivate his
trees so that they will produce high-class fruit, but he
‘must familiarize himself with the best systems of market-
ing in order that his crop may be disposed of in the most
satisfactory manner.
Much has been said of the codperative marketing system
for fruits. Little has been done in developing this system,
however, in the apple regions outside of the Pacific North-
'west. The eastern and middle western growers handle
‘their production largely by consignment, through brokers,
or sell directly to cash buyers. The apple-grower employs
'three common methods in disposing of his crop: (1) sell-
‘ing on consignment; (2) selling packed or graded fruit
‘to cash buyers, or selling the entire crop in the orchard
to “lump ” buyers; (3) selling under a codperative system.
SELLING ON CONSIGNMENT
| Many growers have practiced consignment with entire
‘satisfaction, although this method of marketing has been
‘the subject of some criticism. The personal element is
‘the determining factor. There are commission firms of
the highest integrity whose services and expert knowledge
313
314 The Commercial Apple Industry
of marketing can be made invaluable to the producer. A
grower should carefully investigate the standing of the
firm with which he proposes to deal.
Cash sales are desirable but in years of heavy produce-
tion and for the grower with miscellaneous and odd lot
shipments, consignment is sometimes the only alternative.
Not infrequently growers have established relations with
certain commission merchants and employ these same firms
year after year.
SELLING TO CASH BUYERS
At present the cash buyer is the dominant figure in the
marketing of the commercial apple crop. The legitimate
cash buyer performs a necessary service in the distribution
of the commercial crop. He buys for an established trade
and requires only a limited margin to insure a fair profit.
In most instances he is an experienced salesman, always
seeking to develop and open new markets. ‘The cash buyer
is a figure of growing importance in the apple industry.
Much has been said with reference to the popular
demand “direct to the consumer.” The fact remains,
however, that the middle-man performs an important
service in the distribution of any crop. It must be re-|
membered, furthermore, that even the present coopera)
selling organizations sail largely through brokers or to cash)
buyers on the market but operate in such circumstances
as to secure more consideration than individuals can com-
mand. Buyers must have profits commensurate with the
risk and sufticient to cover their overhead, and if they lose
in one operation they quite naturally must receive suf-|
ficient profit to make up for such losses.
The best and most satisfactory system for dealing with
Marketing and Storage 315
the cash buyer is to sell a certain grade of a variety at a
cash price, f. o. b. the car. The importance of contracts
should be emphasized even in cash sales. Verbal contracts
permit much misconstruction and misunderstanding. It
is always important that definite specifications should be
drawn up as to the grade and variety of the fruit, time
of delivery and method of inspection. Much can be gained
by a thorough understanding between the buyer and the
seller. Contracts are particularly indispensable when
business operations are conducted at long range.
The lump-sum cash buyer.
Under this head is described the system of selling the
entire crop on the trees to a buyer who packs and grades
out the fruit, assuming entire risk in handling the crop.
In general such a system of marketing is very unsatisfac-
tory. It is obvious that the buyer’s risk is necessarily
great and that he therefore must necessarily have a large
margin of profit. There is probably no other region in
which this system of marketing fruit is so widely prac-
ticed as in the Watsonville district or the Pajaro Valley of
California. Lump-sum buying strikes a blow at the com-
munity spirit by checking the development of a high
standard for the output of a region.
Tree-run cash buyer.
Throughout certain regions and particularly in western
New York, the tree-run buyer plays an important part in
the marketing of the apple crop. Under this system the
eash buyer offers a certain price a barrel for the grower’s
entire crop, culls and cider stock sometimes excluded.
The buyer then grades and packs out the fruit. Growers
316 The Commercial Apple Industry
of rather low-grade fruit are attracted to this system of
selling. However, the tree-run system of handling fruit
does not encourage the highest cultural methods and tends
to lower the grade of fruit produced. It should be dis-
couraged.
COOPERATIVE METHODS OF SELLING
Codperative handling and marketing has been most
widely attempted in the western states, both in the distri-
bution of citrus and deciduous fruits. Confronted with
the problems of rapidly increasing production, extreme
distance from market and high land values, the western
fruit-grower has realized the precariousness of highly
specialized farming and has felt the need of organization
and codperation more keenly than the eastern growers.
Heavy investment has made it impossible for him to turn
to other types of farming, and it has been in periods of
desperation when prices failed to meet the cost of pro-
duction that most comprehensive codperative movements
have been inaugurated. It should not be understood that
failure has constantly followed in the foot-steps of the
western fruit-grower, for years of good prices and large —
yields have brought excellent returns. The western —
grower in many instances has devoted his entire capital to
the production of fruit. Naturally he resorts to every
means within his power to stabilize and organize the indus- |
try on a profitable basis. When a period of low prices
prevails in the East or Middle West, the growers of these |
regions having more diversified farms give less attention
to the growing and marketing of their apple crop and |
more attention to their other enterprizes.
One of the largest cooperative fruit marketing organiza-
|
|
Marketing and Storage 317
tions in the United States, known as the California Fruit
Growers’ Exchange, was organized in 1905 for the purpose
of solving the complex marketing and distributing prob-
lems confronting the citrus-growers of southern California.
A similar organization exists among the Florida citrus-
growers and at present among the Georgia peach-growers.
Each of these organizations controls more than half of the
fruit production of its respective region.
It must not be understood that the apple industry is
exactly analogous with either the citrus or peach industry.
The citrus region of southern California is extremely
compact; the same is true of the Florida citrus district.
These two sections embrace comparatively few counties,
yet represent in production nearly the entire citrus crop
of the United States. The Georgia peaches are among the
first to reach the market and competition is limited largely
by the production from Texas, Oklahoma and Arkansas.
The apple crop which comes on the market at about the
same time from many regions represents a different
problem.
Codperative handling of apples has played a very
important part in the industry of the western irrigated
sections, notably in the Grand Valley of Colorado, in the
Yakima, Wenatchee and Spokane valleys of Washington ;
in the Hood River Valley of Oregon and in certain dis-
tricts of Idaho. It-has been difficult to follow the growth
and development of each of the many codperative organiza-
tions in the Northwest. Some have persisted and enlarged
their scope, while others have been abandoned. Many
more have failed than have succeeded. Very few of the
cooperative marketing organizations which were operative
a few years ago are in existence to-day. ‘There is always
318 The Commercial Apple Industry
the inherent individualism of farmers as a class to be con-
sidered and also their strong inclination toward inde-
pendent operation of their own business affairs.
There can be little argument advanced against codpera-
tion among fruit-growers, the question being as to just
how far this codperation will extend and what form it
will assume. The following are some of the necessary
elements for successful codperative marketing:
(1) There must be a community spirit in the region
which will prompt growers to act codperatively.
(2) There must be more or less compactness and con-
centration of planting. Growers operating scattering
orchards at a considerable distance from one another can
seldom be brought together under a cooperative plan.
There must be a sufficient quantity of fruit produced
within a more or less limited region. in order that the crop
may be handled economically under codperation. Many
cooperative organizations have failed on account of excess-
ive overhead expense.
(3) A desirable membership must be secured. One
danger with newly organized associations is that in their .
eagerness for new members they are likely to acquire a
quantity of undesirable fruit which must be handled by the
association. Rather than lose members and _ political
prestige, the management very often fails to enforce grad-
ing rules and thereby permits the low-grade fruit to deter-
mine the selling price.
In trying to bring too many growers under one associa-
tion, the organizers lose sight of the fact that only a small
percentage of the apple crop of the United States is pro-
duced in any one state or region. The advantage of
controlling a large percentage of the tonnage in any one
Marketing and Storage 319
district is not to be questioned, but too great importance
should not be attached to large memberships, particularly
if they are indiscriminately selected. From a practical
standpoint, the best organizations are those which have
grown gradually in membership and which have been
careful to exclude the grower of poor fruit. By having
only the cream of the output of any particular region, the
best returns are obtained for the growers.
(4) Distance from market is another important factor
which must be considered for successful codperation. An
apple-grower situated close to market who has exception-
ally high quality fruit, for which he has built up a special
market, will be less inclined to abandon his special trade
for membership in an association. On the other hand,
growers in more remote regions have favored codperation
Since it sets up machinery to relieve them of the entire
problem of marketing their own fruit for which they have
neither the experience nor training. In addition, it en-
ables them to have personal representatives in distant
markets.
Form of organization for cooperative associations.
There are two general forms for organizing codperative
associations: (1) stock corporation; (2) non-stock system.
Of these the non-stock system is the better. Rather
than sell stock and maintain a private corporation which
may drift into the hands of a few of the largest stock-
holders, it is better that each contributing member should
east a single vote in a purely non-profit or codperative
society. The voting power under this system might be
made to vary according to the amount of fruit shipped, but
as arule the one vote a member system is most satisfactory
320 The Commercial Apple Industry
and equitable. In emphasizing the advantage of the non-
stock system, it should be stated that such organizations
enjoy special benefits under legislation fostering codpera-
tive effort among farmers. ‘The activities of private stock
corporations may be curtailed by legislation designed to
prevent operations in restraint of trade.
Good business management is one of the prime prere-
quisites for the establishment of a successful codperative
organization. It is obvious that a sufficiently large ton-
nage of fruit must be handled to warrant the employment
of an experienced and competent manager. The board of
directors should exercise supervisory powers and should be
thoroughly in touch with the business operation of the or-
ganization. ‘Too often association managers have been se-
lected on account of their political activity rather than for
their training and experience in marketing fruit. It is
highly important that this manager should have ability as
a salesman; otherwise the advantages of codperative selling
may be lost.
Good business practices should be employed. A proper
accounting and auditing system should be installed and
those handling the funds should be bonded. It should be
possible for the directorate and management to know the
exact condition of the business at all times.
If a codperative organization is to enjoy stability, its
members must be bound under a specified contract to sell
their fruit through the association. One-year contracts
are usually satisfactory, although they may be made for
a longer term. On joining the association, each member
should be required to sign a contract whereby he agrees to
sell his fruit through the association. This contract must
Marketing and Storage 321
be legally binding. It is obvious that no well-organized
selling system can be developed unless the management
knows approximately the amount of tonnage which it will
be called on to handle.
Pooling.
The practice of pooling the fruit of different members
of an association and selling it under one brand has devel-
oped widely in the West. Uniformity in the quality of
the fruit in each pool is an absolute necessity to the suc-
cessful operation of such a system; otherwise the poor
fruit will bring down the price of the good and result in
dissatisfaction among members. In other words, the most
successful pools can only be brought about when the fruit
of the contributing members has been grown with similar
cultural methods and under similar climatic and soil
conditions.
The only criticism which may be brought against pool-
ing is that it may penalize the grower of exceptionally
fine fruit. This may be avoided, however, if careful grad-
ing rules are adopted and unbiased inspection is enforced.
Under a successfully operated pool, the grade of all fruit
may be raised rather than lowered, thus insuring the high-
est market price. Another distinct advantage under the
pooling system is in the protection which it affords an
individual grower against the sudden rise or fall in prices.
One shipment of fruit may be damaged in shipment, or
may be sold at a figure lower than later market prices.
This loss distributed over a large membership would not
be felt, but with an individual it might be disastrous. All
fruit cannot be placed on the market at the same time
322 The Commercial Apple Industry
and in effecting successful distribution the association may
employ the pooling system very satisfactorily in securing
an average high price for its fruit.
The central packing-house which is playing so import-
ant a part in the codperative handling and pooling of fruit
has been given separate treatment in Chapter XIV.
Purchase of supplies.
A most direct benefit to be derived from cooperative
organizations, and one which appeals very strongly to
growers, is the purchase of necessary supplies in large
quantities at low prices. This factor very often proves
the tie that holds the membership together in the face of
adversity, since it offers a concrete example of the advant-
age of dealing in quantities. Spray, materials, boxes or
barrels, and all supplies necessary in the production and
marketing of apples, can very often be purchased in quan-
tity by the association at.a great saving to its members.
In many instances these materials are advanced to the
grower in the form of credit, his crop having previously
been signed up with the association as security for such
advances. A double saving may result from the ability
of the association to buy materials on a cash basis and
extend credit to its members, by using their combined
security as a basis for lower interest rates on borrowed
capital than the individual might be obliged to pay.
DISTRIBUTION
Better distribution is the keynote in all successful mar-
keting efforts. The methods by which the grower gets
his fruit into commercial channels have already been dis-
cussed. In studying the machinery of distribution, there
Marketing and Storage 323
are four fairly well defined factors: (1) The commission-
man; (2) the broker; (3) the carlot operator; (4) the
earlot distributor.
Commission-man.
The commission-man is usually allowed 5 to 10 per
cent of the gross sales for his services. His incentive for
making satisfactory returns is his desire for retaining the
business of his patron. As emphasized elsewhere, the suc-
cess of this system of marketing depends entirely on the
personal element. It is obvious that the commission mer-
chant must know in advance of the quantity of goods he
will be called on to handle. Therefore, if this method is
employed, arrangements should be made as far in advance
as possible.
The broker.
The legitimate apple broker is one of. the important
‘factors in the distribution of the commercial crop. His
‘function is to negotiate sales between dealers or between
‘growers and dealers. ‘The commission-man handles the
‘consignment, keeps all accounts and deducts his commis-
‘sion. The broker does not handle the funds, but receives
‘a stipulated commission, say $10 to $15 a car for his
| services.
Theoretically, the broker represents both the seller and
buyer. He is supposed to advise the seller as to general
marketing conditions, or in other words take the place of
-a personal representative in the market. He is supposed
-also to help in making equitable settlement in case of dis-
-putes between contracting parties. The personal equation
jenters very largely into this situation. The grower would
324 The Commercial Apple Industry
do well to inform himself as to the integrity of the firm
with which he proposes to deal, and by establishing rela-
tions with reliable firms be able to insure best results.
The usual method of procedure in dealing with the
broker is as follows: The seller having a carload of a
certain grade of a variety will advise his broker of the
fact and of the price which he desires. The broker will
undertake to place the car and if successful will communi-
cate with the seller, instructing him to forward the fruit.
This method of handling really amounts to an f. o. b. sale, |
permission being given by the grower for inspection at |
destination. In case of a misunderstanding over grades, |
the broker is in a position to effect equitable settlemeni.
The grower bills his fruit: to the broker or to the buyer, |
attaching a sight draft to the bill of lading which is sent |
to a bank designated by the buyer. After inspection on
arrival, the buyer lifts the draft through his banker, |
thereby effecting a direct settlement with the seller.
Carlot operator.
The carlot operator plays an important part in the/
distribution of the commercial apple crop. He is usually
represented in important regions of production by cash
buyers, who contract fruit on his account. The carlot)
operator may sell again in carload lots, may place the!
fruit in storage on his own account or may distribute it to
the jobber or retailer. The amount of business handled by
carlot operators may vary from a very few cars to several |
hundred or even thousands, depending somewhat on the
field for distribution. The carlot operator for a city with’
a more or less limited field may be able to distribute suc-/
cessfully only a few cars. A large operator with head-|
Marketing and Storage 325
‘quarters in New York City may distribute his purchases
‘all over the world. The carlot operator usually has a
certain trade built up in a given region and buys to supply
‘this trade. His business resembles that of a wholesale
groceryman who carefully gauges the demands of his cus-
, tomers and buys to fill their needs.
i\Carlot distributors.
' In recent years, various forms of distributing agencies
have been established for the purpose of accomplishing in
ia measure for the whole country what a broker or commis-
‘sion merchant does for his immediate city or vicinity. By
handling a large volume of business, such agencies are en-
‘abled to build up a competent sales organization at a fairly
low overhead. Codperative marketing associations or in-
dividual growers frequently employ such selling agencies
usually on a flat fee, a package or occasionally on a per-
centage basis. or an additional charge the sales agency
sometimes does the necessary warehousing.
This type of sales service has many advantages. While.
growers or growers’ organizations are usually obliged to
sign up their crop in advance of the season, they are given
the privilege of confirming or rejecting orders as secured
ny the selling agency. Not infrequently carlot distribu-
tors help finance the crop by making advances to individual
zrowers during the growing season.
FIELD OF DISTRIBUTION
Voreign markets.
The extension and development of foreign markets is a
opular subject for consideration. The extent to which
‘his trade may be developed is of course largely a matter
326 The Commercial Apple Industry
of conjecture. If the high quality apple approaches a
luxury for many persons of this country, it indeed repre
sents a luxury for most foreign consumers. When trans-
portation, duty, insurance, interior freight and duty are
added to the original cost, the American apple can appeal
only to the well-to-do. Despite this, exportations to for-
eign markets in some years have approximated 10 per
cent of the total commercial apple crop of this country.
While the amount of export trade varies considerably with
the size of the crop and with general marketing conditions,
a study of the figures indicates a very considerable normal
increase in exportation of fresh apples in the past ten
years.
The United Kingdom has always been the principal
export market, absorbing normally over 80 per cent of all
export trade. Australia and even oriental markets have
been studied more recently with the view to effecting
wider distribution of the apple crop. These latter markets
are as yet of little importance in comparison with the
heavy European demand.
Business relations at long range are sometimes unsatis-
factory. But if this difficulty may be overcome, export
fields are promising. If this country, with its abundance
of fresh food stuffs, can absorb over twenty million barrels
of commercial apples annually, it seems reasonable that
foreign trade, particularly with thickly populated Euro-
pean countries, will afford an excellent outlet for at least.
10 per cent or more of the total production. Such an
outlet will always relieve the strain on local markets and/
will act as a safety valve for the excess supplies which)
might otherwise glut domestic trade.
Barreled and boxed apples were in general about equal yi
|
|
Prate XX.— Sizing and grading machines. Upper, Sizing ma-
chine with diverging spiral rollers. Middle, This machine sizes
the fruit through cups which enlarge as the belt moves along.
Lower, Grading machine equipped with sizing belts made of linked
rings. A common type used in many sections.
Marketing and Storage 327
represented in the export trade of the United States for
1919. Of the barreled apples, the Baldwin and Northern
Spy from New York and New England, York Imperial and
Ben Davis from the Shenandoah-Cumberland region and
Yellow Newtown or Albemarle Pippin from the Piedmont
of Virginia, have been the leading export varieties. Of
the western boxed apples, Yellow Newtown, Winesap,
Jonathan, Esopus and White Pearmain have been the most
prominent varieties for export.
Improved distribution within the United States.
The greatest opportunity in the field of distribution is
in the extension and development of domestic trade.
Attention has been called to the fact that the home orchards
generally throughout the United States have been dying
out and that the commercial industry is being centralized
in a few favored regions. The line of distinction between
commercial and non-commercial production is being more
closely drawn. The consumers are demanding a higher
elass product and on being furnished with this are increas-
ing their demand.
Not many years ago before the installation of general
cold storage facilities, the trade in small towns and even
the larger cities was supplied from the cellar of the gen-
eral farmer who grew a few more apples in his home
orchard than he had need for. These orchards in most
‘instances have been going backward; the trees are
unsprayed, the fruit is inferior in quality and unattractive.
Consumers are coming to demand a better product. It is
in supplying the demand in these smaller towns and
cities that the commercial apple-grower will find the great-
est opportunity for better distribution,
328 The Commercial Apple Industry
The secret of success in the distribution of the California
orange crop has been its sale in every cross-road village in’
the country. The production and sale of oranges in recent
years has increased much more rapidly than has popula-|
tion. By organized effort, wider distribution into the
smaller markets, the orange-growers have been marketing
a constantly increasing production. The same may be!
accomplished by the apple-growers and shippers if they)
will employ similar methods of advertisement and dis-|
tribution. 3
Whether the growers market their apples codperatively,
through private brokers or by private sales service, there!
must be campaigns of education and advertisement inj
order to effect distribution. The futility of trying to work.
out broad comprehensive plans for distribution when each|
grower or shipper acts independently is evident. Such!
plans lend themselves best to codperative effort. The bur-
den of expense incident to the working out of better plans,
of distribution must be widely distributed in order that
it will not fall too heavily on any one individual. |
The question of advertisement presents an interesting
field. Notable examples of the establishment of brands)
of commercial grades are seen in the efforts of different)
associations in the Pacific Northwest. By assessing each|
box sold under a given brand with a small charge fo
advertisement, large sums are secured to carry out adver-
tising campaigns. By limiting the varieties sold under a
given brand to those of high dessert quality, by including
only the highly desirable sizes and zealously enforcing
grading rules, shippers can develop a brand of superb)
marketable quality. Whether such a system can be recom-)
mended for general adoption remains to be seen. Such!
l
Marketing and Storage 329
advertisement has gone far in effecting better distribution
for the northwestern boxed apples.
Physical handling.
The same attention should be given to better physical
handling of apples as to better cultural methods. A
grower can not afford to devote his best energies in pro-
ducing high quality apples only to subject them to the
‘abuse of improper physical handling. The importance of
eareful orchard practices with reference to picking and
packing and immediate storage have been emphasized.
‘In addition the apples must be transported in cars, must
‘be handled in and out of storage and in all of these opera-
tions much can be done to improve present methods. The
idevelopment of new types of refrigerator cars, improved
‘methods of car loading and ventilation are of vital import-
‘ance to the apple-growers and shippers.
GRADES AND STANDARDS
The movement for uniform grades and standards should
be considered by every apple-grower. Probably no other
‘phase of the marketing problem is receiving greater atten-
tion at this time than that of standard grade and pack.
A Certainly no other movement can do more in stabilizing the
‘appl industry.
It is generally agreed that the standardization of grade
jal pack isa Cgpenmeee ata function. There is, however,
“a variance of potion as to methods of enforcement. State
and federal legislation has been formulated with the view
towards promulgating certain definite rules which shall
specify the character of fruit to be sold under established
330 The Commercial Apple Industry
standard grades. These rules are intended to act as a
standard of measure, whereby the buyer may judge the
character and the contents of the closed package of apples.
In other words, the label on the package of apples is to.
be made to tell the truth. ‘The difficulties of promulgating,
a set of rules which will please every one or even a major-
ity is at the outset a difficult problem. Furthermore, once
promulgated it is exceedingly difficult to secure the enforee-|
ment of such a set of rules.
Standard package.
Obviously the first step in standardization is the estab-|
lishment of uniform packages. This has already been}
effected to a great extent by the adoption of the dual stand-
ard, i.e. the standard barrel and the standard box. Per-|
sons are accustomed to think of commercial apples in)
terms of barrels and boxes. In a geographic way, line of
distinction between barrel apple-producing areas and box)
apple-producing areas has been closely drawn. For Col-+
orado and states west, the box is the almost exclusive pack-
age, while for the eastern and middle western apple crop)
the barrel is almost exclusively used.
From time to time different packages have been intro-
duced, but their popularity has been more or less tempor
ary. Various crates have been recommended for western
low-grade apples and in certain seasons a considerable
portion of the New York crop has moved out in bushel!
baskets. The five-eighths-bushel hamper is very popula
in the early apple regions of New Jersey and Delaware,
In many ways the smaller package enjoys a distinct advan
age, and while the barrel will probably remain the stand+
ard package for eastern and middle western apples, it is
Marketing and Storage 331
not improbable that the growers will find it advisable to
market a part of their crop in smaller packages in order
to attract the smaller purchaser.
The bulk handling of apples should receive separate
consideration. In normal years, at least half of the pro-
duction of the Ozark and the Missouri River region is sold
in bulk. Recently bulk handling has featured in the move-
ment of the apple crop from Colorado and New Mexico.
Middle western growers maintain that the bulk handling
of a certain grade of apples is an efficient system since
it enables them to sell a portion of their crop to a class
of trade which would otherwise be unable to buy commer-
cial apples. The middle western grower further main-
tains that after carefully bedding a car with straw, he is
able to load apples in bulk without severe bruising. It
must be remembered that this bulk movement from the
West is essentially competitive with the barreled crop.
Many state laws have been enacted looking towards the
establishment of uniform grades and standards for com-
mercial apples. For the most part, these laws are inac-
tive on account of lack of funds for their enforcement.
Washington has devoted as much effort along these lines
‘as probably any other state, unless it is New York. The
‘Washington grading laws provide for an annual meeting of
sapple-growers, at which time uniform grade specifications
ware adopted for the ensuing year. In other words, no
shard and fast rules are laid down for a period of years and
ithe specifications are subject to change each year at the
‘Majority will of the growers. Obviously, a law which
‘would be applicable for all states, and furthermore which
could be enforced, would have to be rather general. Such
a law, however, would tend to keep poorly graded fruit
332 The Commercial Apple Industry
out of commercial channels and would, therefore, work to
the benefit of the strictly commercial growers in the highly
intensive regions. It is not criminal to grow low-grade
fruit, but such fruit should not be misbranded or should
not sell under false colors to the detriment of the producer
of high-grade apples.
The question of ‘‘ facing ” the barrel pack is one over
which much discussion has arisen. “ Facing” refers to
the practice of placing select apples on the top layer in
order to give a good appearance to the pack. This does
not enter into the problem of box standards, since inspec-
tion may be made at the top, bottom, or side of the box.
While it may be legitimate to arrange the top layer so as
to give a neat appearance to the barrel pack, a real stand-
ard grading law would surely require the contents of the
barrel to be uniform.
The project of establishing uniform grades and stand-
ards enlists much active support and at the same time is
the subject of much controversy. Generally speaking,
every concerted move towards a standardization of grade |
and pack will work to the benefit of the strictly commer-
cial apple-grower and will serve to make a closer distine- |
tion between the commercial and non-commercial crop.
For that reason every conscientious effort in working out |
uniform grades and standards seems meritorious.
Inspection at point of origin.
Many prominent apple-growers are insistent on govern-
ment inspection at point of origin. A common reason
for low returns to the grower has been the poor condition
of the fruit at the time of its arrival at market. Further-
more, there are always changes in transport to be reckoned |
Marketing and Storage 333
with. Federal and state governments may be potent fac-
tors in controlling evils which exist under the present sys-
tem of fruit inspection.
Some apple-growers think inspection at point of origin
should entirely supplant that at the place of arrival. In
other words, it is maintained that all sales should be made
f. o. b. and that the purchaser should assume the risk
after the apples have been shipped. While inspection at
point of origin is unquestionably a highly desirable step
and will go far toward better understanding between
grower and dealer, it seems hardly probable that the buyer
will assume all risk incident to the transportation and
delivery of the fruit without a rather large margin com-
mensurate with the risk.
The report of an unbiased government inspector would
be of great value to any one interested in the purchase or
sale of apples. Such inspection at point of origin and
particularly at place of destination would establish the
damage, if any in transit, and would do much in effecting
satisfactory business dealings. If the shipper could be
reliably informed as to the exact condition in which his
fruit arrives at destination, it would materially aid in
studies affecting proper handling methods.
STORAGE
The storing of apples is intimately associated with prob-
lems of marketing and yet it is a subject of such complex-
ity as not to permit of complete treatment without thor-
ough scientific discussion involving the practice of storage-
house construction and methods of management. Only
brief consideration can be given to storage in this work,
_ however.
334 The Commercial Apple Industry
The effects of improved storage have been far reaching.
It is obvious that a practice which will prolong the market-
ing period of any seasonal commodity will have a great
influence in its distribution. The possibility of storing
fruit has also had an important influence on our leading
commercial apple varieties. Formerly only a few of the
very late keeping sorts were available for distribution dur-
ing the late winter and early spring months.
Under the present system of handling through storage,
it is possible to prolong the life of more delicate and _
higher quality varieties and in this way greatly stimulate.
the demand for apples late in the season. The greater
part of the commercial apple crop will always be placed
in storage for periods of varying length and a general
knowledge of the principles involved is of much import- |
ance. The difference between common and cold storage |
is generally understood. The former method depends on |
natural atmospheric temperatures and the latter on arti-
ficial cooling.
Life processes of the apple do not cease at the time of
picking and it is important to retard these processes by
getting the fruit into storage with as little delay as possible.
A day or two of exposure to the warm sun may shorten
the life of the fruit very materially. Emphasis has
already been placed on the desirability of transferring the
fruit from the orchard to the packing-house as quickly
after picking as possible.
Local vs. distance storage.
Cold-storage plants were formerly situated near the
larger markets. In recent years, however, there has been
a growing tendency towards the establishment of cold- |
Marketing and Storage 335
storage plants in the regions of production. Storage at
the point of origin has one distinct advantage. By keep-
ing the fruit here the shipper or grower is not committed
to any particular market, but may hold his fruit or ship
to such market as he may see fit. By holding a portion of
the crop in regions of production, the strain on transporta-
tion facilities at harvest time is very materially reduced.
Storage for at least half the crop, particularly in areas of
large production, seems to be recognized as a necessary
provision. If the grower or shipper has a well established
market, it is advisable for him to store his fruit in or
near that market rather than hold it at point of origin.
In this way his product is available for quick delivery
under favorable marketing conditions in quantities to meet
the demand and is not exposed to the dangers incident to
traffic. |
As stated above, cold-storage plants are for the most
part situated in the eastern states. Large plants are
located through western New York and provide excellent
facilities for handling the barreled crop of this region.
Here it is possible for the grower to haul his fruit imme-
diately to the cold storage. At the same time he enjoys the
advantage of being in close touch with the eastern market-
ing conditions.
Common storage.
Common storage has as yet played only a small part in
the handling of the eastern apple crop. In the Pacific
Northwest, however, this form predominates and is an
important factor in the handling of the crop from that
Tegion.
No attempt will be made to discuss in detail the relative
336 The Commercial Apple Industry
merits of different types of common storage construction.
The success in managing in the early fall depends on atten-
tion given to the opening of vents and doors during the
night and closing of them during the day. If the storage
rooms are not kept separate from the packing-rooms, the
purpose of the cooling system is largely defeated.
Small storage plants on individual farms or in connec-
tion with community organizations are becoming more and
more common. By having separate rooms for packing or
using the basement only for storage, a combination pack-
ing- and storage-house may be constructed economically.
The grower may then feel greater sense of security in
knowing that he will have several weeks or even months in
which to dispose of his fruit. Common storage can never
supplant cold-storage and its efficiency will vary some
what with the season. As an economical and somewhat
more temporary method of prolonging the marketing pe
riod of commercial apples, it is serving an important need.
Handling and cultural methods as relating to storage.
There is a growing belief that general health and vigor
of the trees has a greater influence on the keeping qualities
of fruit than has been generally recognized. However,
the development of scalds and spots and the deterioration
in storage is most frequently traced back to over-maturity
or under-maturity or rough handling of the fruit. One
advantage in home storage is that the evidences of these
troubles may be brought home more forcibly to the grower.
GOVERNMENT AGENCIES IN MARKETING
While the greatest effort in improving marketing condi-
tions has been exerted by the growers and shippers them-
|
|
Marketing and Storage 337
selves, very important steps have been taken in this direc-
tion by various agencies in the United States Department
of Agriculture, notably the Bureau of Crop Estimates and
the Bureau of Markets. Certain phases of the market
ing problem, such as inspection, the issuance of crop fore-
easts and market reports, lend themselves best to govern-
mental agencies. It is impracticable for the individual or
even groups of individuals successfully to study all phases
of marketing work.
Crop estimates.
The need for reliable crop forecasts is imperative if the
grower is to determine the price which he might reasonably
expect for his fruit. The perishability of the apple as
compared with more stable crops accentuates this need. It
is obvious that the government is best fitted to carry on
such investigations and can, by the issuance of reliable
forecasts, render an important service to the commercial
apple-grower.
Market and storage reports.
The second very important service which properly can
be rendered by a governmental agency is the issuance of
reports showing the distribution of the crop. By compre-
hensive investigation it is possible for the government to
issue reports showing the point of origin and destination
of each carload of commercial apples. Shippers and
growers alike will be enabled to use this information in
seeking out untouched markets. Since the keynote in
better marketing is the extension of distribution to small
towns and cities, it may be seen that the result of such
338 The Commercial Apple Industry
investigation will be an invaluable guide to better distribu-
tion.
The value of unbiased market reports which will afford
the growers and shippers alike the benefit of telegraphic
news service as relating to the price and marketing condi-
tions of apples in the different centers is already recog-
nized.
COOPERATION VS. INDIVIDUAL EFFORT
The government has at all times encouraged and fos-
tered codperative spirit among growers. Despite this co- |
operative effort, it must be recognized that by the issuance |
and dissemination of reliable crop forecasts and reports, —
and by its market news and inspection service, the govern- |
ment is making the individual more independent and more
able to conduct his business than formerly. Just what |
the effect of these divergent tendencies will be remains to |
be seen. For the exceptional grower, the man with un- |
usual business acumen, it may mean that he will be en-
abled to conduct his individual business independently to |
his greatest satisfaction. On the whole, however, the bene-
fits of codperation are not to be denied and will doubtless
continue to play an increasingly important part in mar-
keting.
|
|
———
LL
"4
CHAPTER XVI
YIELDS
Goop yields are absolutely essential to insure profit
from any orchard enterprise. The most detailed care may
be given to an orchard, but if it is made up of poor yield-
ing varieties or if the soil or climate is not suitable for
production, good care is only time and money wasted.
In the first place, it is important to secure good yielding
varieties. Most standard varieties of the present day
yield fairly well, but many new and untried yet widely
advertised sorts are very poor annual bearers. Ben Davis,
Baldwin, Winesap, Stayman, Jonathan, York, Rhode
Island Greening, and Rome Beauty are old and standard
varieties, the high yielding qualities of which are well
known. Yellow Newtown and Yellow Bellflower are
heavy bearing in certain sections, particularly in the
Watsonville district of California. In Virginia the light
bearing Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin) and the
Arkansas (Black Twig) are not being planted as extens-
ively as the more prolific York Imperial and Stayman.
Among earlier varieties, Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy,
Gravenstein and Maiden Blush are classed as reliable
bearers. Yellow Transparent does well in some sections,
but yields light crops in other regions. Northern Spy
“requires a score of years to come into profitable bearing,
while the famous Delicious, despite its many excellent
qualities, in some sections is only a moderate cropper.
339
340 The Commercial Apple Industry
When trees of good yielding varieties are brought to
bearing age, careful record should be kept of annual yields,
particularly acre yields. One hundred barrels of commer-
cial fruit to the acre is a good average although trees well
cared for can often be made to average 200 barrels under
normal growing conditions. If an orchard is only
averaging from 50 to 100 barrels to the acre (many do not
average 50 barrels to the acre), care should be taken to
find out the limiting factor. Light yields may be due to
a lack of nitrogen or other element in the soil, to lack
of pollination, or to poor orchard management. Improper
pruning, thinning, spraying or soil management are as
often the cause of low yields as the variety of the trees, —
the season or natural fertility of the soil. Many theories
are advanced relative to the development of fruit-buds
and fruiting wood, but it is difficult to generalize on this
subject.
Good orchard management is for the purpose of secur-
ing heavy yields and no study as to the cause of high or |
low yields would be complete without a consideration of
practically every orchard operation. In analyzing the
cause of low yields, one should consider first soil fertility.
The growing of leguminous cover-crops or the application
of such fertilizers as nitrate of soda may be necessary to
maintain healthy normal growth of the trees. Thinning
will tend to stimulate annual bearing as well as greatly to
increase the amount of market quality fruit of any year.
Pruning should be considered in relation to its effect
on yields. Many advocate summer pruning for fruit.
Under certain conditions it probably stimulates fruit pro-
duction, but it has not met with wide favor generally.
Moderate annual pruning in the dormant season is the
:
Yields 341
best practice. Thinning and fertilization are much
neglected and this accounts for many of the low yielding
orchards. Results are not secured by performing one
orchard operation thoroughly and neglecting another.
Proper pruning, spraying, thinning and an abundance of
available plant-food should insure large commercial crops
under normal conditions.
Tn studying yield, one should consider not only the per-
formances of individual trees or orchards in a given region,
but more particularly the average yield on well managed
orchards typical of the region. Soil fertility and good
orchard management do not entirely determine yields.
Unfavorable weather at blooming time occurs more fre-
quently in some regions than in others and very often
greatly reduces annual yields. There are certain areas,
particularly in the more mountainous parts of the country,
where on the average one crop out of every four or five
is wiped out or severely damaged by hail. It is easy to
understand how the profits of good crop years may be
almost wiped out by total failures in other years.
In the Wenatchee district of the Northwest, a total fruit
crop failure is unknown, while in regions like the Ozarks,
the Ohio Valley and the Missouri River region, Michigan
and in fact most eastern sections, very light crops and
even failures are not infrequent. Most of these failures
are due to frost damage, or to unfavorable weather at
blooming time which prevents pollination. The frequency
of light crops and failures is exceedingly important.
For a period of ten years, the Northwest has had an
average of nearly 80 per cént of a full apple crop, while
for the same period Missouri, Illinois and the middle
western states have had scarcely 50 per cent of an apple
342 The Commercial Apple Industry
crop. Michigan, New York and New England have
shown an average crop condition of about 5 to 10 per
cent higher than the Central West, while the crop condi-
tion in the Virginias has averaged 10 per cent higher
than that of New York. New Jersey and Delaware usu-
ally end the season with a condition of about 60 per cent,
or 25 per cent less than the Northwest. Thus it is seen
that the chances for a good crop are the greatest in the Far
West and are next in the middle Atlantic states, third in
New York and the northern states, and poorest in the
Central West. The low average crop condition in the
Central West is largely due to the damp and unfavorable
weather which often occurs during blooming time to pre- —
}
vent pollination and a good set of fruit.
The following table refers to western New York condi-
tions and shows the average yield on about fifty commer-
cial orchards in each county over a series of five to eight
years. Considerable care was taken in obtaining these —
figures in order that they might accurately represent the
average performance of full bearing commercial orchards
in western New York. The table does not include yields _
from unsprayed or neglected plantings, but represents the —
production of those orchards which are being cared for.
It will be noted that Wayne County shows a larger per-
centage of cull fruit than any other. This is largely due
to the fact that Wayne County is the center of the dried
apple industry and much of its fruit which would ordi-
narily be barreled in other counties is used for drying
purposes. The portion of the crop used for by-products
varies considerably from year to year.
Yields 343
TABLE XIV
TABLE SHowina AveRAGE ANNUAL YIELD ON THE Bearina Com-
MERCIAL ORCHARDS OF WESTERN NEw York
Barreled Yield. Cull Yield (Barrels).
ties.
i, Por sere. | Persentiot | por acre, | Pet conto
%o
MHWHe ... 2.0... 33
BMPETHICIO. 6 o's sis)s ois.s 21
MOHTOC: ....5..6% 22
MMICANS ... 0.0. 23
MOBOATS ......... 21
All counties ..... 24
The, average yield of apples of commercial grade in
western New York is 84 barrels to the acre, while in the
Wenatchee Valley of Washington it is between 500 and
600 boxes of packed fruit (165 to 200 barrels). The
average yield for the Yakima Valley is between 400 and
500 boxes while that for the Hood River Valley is between
250 and 400 boxes to the acre. The average yield in Idaho
is between 300 and 400 boxes to the acre. In good crop
years, the southern Idaho orchards yield nearly as well
as those in the high producing valleys in Washington.
However, Idaho’s average is reduced on account of occa-
sional crop failures in years of frost-injury. Killing
frosts are not uncommon in New Mexico and Utah.
In comparing these yields with those of eastern orchards,
it should be remembered that the figures refer only to
_marketable fruit and do not include culls, the percentage
| of which is much lower in the Northwest than in most
eastern regions where orchards are not given such intensive
care. The average yield of 84 barrels to the acre for
| western New York is more than that throughout the Kast.
344 The Commercial Apple Industry
Taking one year with another most of the middle western
orchards will not average over 50 barrels to the acre.
Michigan orchards bear about as well as those in western
New York, while the Hudson Valley and New England
trees average somewhat less in annual production. Yields
in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and the Shenandoah region
compare favorably with those of western New York, while
yields in the Piedmont of Virginia will average lighter,
due to the greater prevalence of unfavorable weather con-
ditions at blooming time and also to the fact that most
of the orchards are mountainous and cultivation is seldom
practiced.
One point to be remembered in comparing northwestern
yields with those of eastern orchards is that practically all
yield records of the Northwest were taken on trees from
eight to fifteen years old, while in the East yield records
were from trees from twenty to forty years old. On the
other hand, there are about twice as many trees to the
acre in the Northwest as in western New York and in most
all other eastern regions with the exception of Delaware,
the Ohio Valley, the Piedmont district of Virginia and
Carolina and a few other limited regions where the trees
are either of early varieties or have not as yet attained
great size. Yields given for the Northwest, although for
comparatively young trees, are very nearly a maximum for |
that region. As trees become older, some will necessarily
be pulled out on account of close planting. Furthermore, |
under northwestern conditions trees attain full bearing at
about ten or twelve years.
The possibilities of any section may be determined by |
searching out the most successful growers and securing a
en
——
Yields 345
reliable record of yields in both good and bad years. Cer-
tain growers in western New York have harvested 200 to
300 barrels to the acre from their orchards for a series of
several years. Such high yielding orchards may be found
about Geneva, Brockport and other towns, but their num-
ber is very few. In the Wenatchee Valley a few growers
obtained as high an average as 1,000 boxes to the acre.
Such yields usually occurred on Rome Beauty or Ben
Davis orchards, however. The famous Watsonville dis-
trict of California is another section where annual yields
of 1,000 boxes to the acre are not uncommon on the heavy
redwood soils of the Pajaro Valley. Orchards which
yield fruit in this amount in certain years are found
throughout the Middle West, but it is very seldom that
average yields approach this figure even in the most care-
fully cared for orchards.
In studying the yielding possibilities of any orchard,
the following points should be considered:
The size of the tree.— Relative size and vigor of the
tree for a given age indicates the time required for trees
to attain maturity in any given region.
Soil conditions.— The nature of the soil should be
noticed, whether or not it is heavy or light, weak or strong,
and how well it is adapted to tree growth and fruit pro-
‘duction.
The frequency of frost-injwry.— Regions are often so
‘situated as to render them very susceptible to frost. Cer-
tain areas in nearly all sections are particularly suscept-
ible to frost damage.
Unfavorable conditions at blooming time.— Not only
frost but other unfavorable weather conditions often occur.
346 The Commercial Apple Industry
Cold wet weather which prevents pollination is largely re-
sponsible for low yield in certain sections. The history
of the region should be carefully noted in this regard.
Total crop failures— The number of crop failures in
the last ten years in any locality should be carefully noted,
for it is reasonable to assume that a like number will
occur in the next ten years. This consideration is highly
important and will also serve to avoid the danger of draw-
ing too favorable conclusions from exceptional perform-
ances of orchards in any particular year.
Relative freedom from diseases and insect pests.— The
probability of seab or bitter-rot infection should be noted
or the presence of any destructive disease or insect which
may greatly cut down the crop even after the fruit has set
well. Bitter-rot sometimes injures crops in the Virginia
Piedmont district. Severe infestations of codlin-moth late
in the season often cut the crop in the dry or irrigated
western districts. Cedar-rust frequently does heavy dam-
age to the York Imperial crop of the Shenandoah Valley.
Apple-blotch often greatly injures the apple crop of the
Middle West, while the prevalence of apple-scab rena i
the market quality of the apple crop of New York and |
Michigan uncertain. Every region has certain troubles,
but it is well to be on the lookout for them and to note |
the success with which they are being controlled.
The likelihood of hail damage.— Such regions as the ©
Piedmont of Virginia and to a lesser degree the Shenan-
doah-Cumberland district of Virginia, West Virginia,
Maryland and Pennsylvania are often visited by hail.
The same is true of the higher altitudes of Colorado and |
other regions where fruit is grown at considerable alti-
tudes. Hail damage seems to be more prevalent through-
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Yields 347
out the apple regions of the South than in the northern
states.
Bearing tendencies of varieties common to the region.—
Varieties differ so markedly in bearing tendencies that
one should consider this factor before passing judgment
on any particular region. Often high quality varieties,
even though bearing lighter crops, are fully as profitable
as the heavier bearing varieties which are inferior in
market quality.
Average annual yield.— It is very important to rely on
an average yield and disregard acre or tree performances
in any particular year. Only averages of several com-
mercial orchards over a series of at least five years will
indicate the relative productivity of different regions. It
is best to select the naturally productive sections for it is
no more difficult to rise above the average in a high-yield-
ing region than it is in a naturally low-yielding one.
The importance of large yields is further brought out
under cost of production. Not only is the gross income
increased with larger yields but the cost of production a
barrel or box is greatly lowered. The average grower will
find his net profits greater if he will practice more intensive
methods of culture not counting the initial cost so much
as the net results. |
)
CHAPTER XVII
BY-PRODUCTS OF THE APPLE INDUSTRY
Tue by-product industry has been of great importance
for many years and has assumed added significance since
the advent of national prohibition. The apple leads all
other fruits in popularity for by-products, the amount used
in 1919 exceeding 700,000 tons of green fruit. A large
proportion of this was made into vinegar and sweet cider
and about 150,000 tons of green fruit were dried, making
25,000 tons of dried fruit. Frequently nearly one-half
of the dried fruit is exported as compared to less than
one-tenth of the fresh fruit.
The by-product industry, on a commercial scale, has
recently assumed large proportions in the Northwest and |
the Virginias. In former years it reached and still aa
tains its greatest importance in western New York and |
California. Jn northwest Arkansas also, the manufac-
ture of apple by-products is an important industry. Dried |
apples within recent years have been in great demand. |
The prices have risen several times those of a decade ago.
California to-day takes the lead in intensive apple drying.
About 10,000 tons were dried in the two counties of Santa
Cruz and Sonoma in 1919. This means that the green |
apples used for this amounted to 60,000 or 70,000 tons or
nearly a million barrels.
By-Products of the Apple Industry 349
always been the center of the dried apple industry.
Many parts of the country are now taking up the dried
apple business and a large proportion of the total apple
production is being dried. In California, the Northwest,
New York, the Virginias and in Arkansas, the industry
is on a large commercial scale. The mountainous parts
of the southern states, particularly North Carolina, pro-
duce several hundred thousand pounds of dried apples
annually. In these states, they are sun-dried on the
small mountain farms, the apples being grown almost
wholly in old uncared for orchards. The Buckingham
apple has long been a favorite in Carolina for drying pur-
poses. Several varieties are used for drying in California
but the Yellow Bellflower leads all others. New York
dries the Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening.
Nearly all driers of the West are commercial, while in
the East the small home driers have long been adhered
to. Western New York has several large commercial
driers but the great bulk of the Wayne County dried apple
production comes from the home driers of which this
county contains hundreds.
The by-products industry promises to put apple-growing
on a more staple and less speculative basis. Formerly,
the grower depended almost wholly on the price a barrel or
box of commercial fruit. At present if this price does
not warrant putting the apples up in packages or contain-
ers, they may be disposed of at by-product plants at a
profit. Prohibition has been the important factor de-
termining the 1919 increase in by-product uses and prices.
At the present time, about 20 per cent of the apple crop
of the United States goes to the by-product plant or is
made into cider. In California, almost 50 per cent of the
350 The Commercial Apple Industry
total crop is dried, while in Wayne County, New York,
about 30 per cent is dried. Wenatchee and some of the
northwest districts, on account of their ability to produce
exceptionally high-grade fruit, send less than 10 per cent
to by-product factories. Arkansas, Colorado, many parts
of the Middle West, Virginia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
New York and New England, will, no doubt, increase the
percentage of fruit sold for by-products. This will tend
to eliminate low-grade fruit from the market. The out-
look for the future is bright and the by-product industry
has not yet begun to attain full possibilities. It is only
within the last three or four years that it has been im-
portant or a factor in the apple industry of the Northwest.
It rose from a production of almost nothing five years ago
. to 70,000 tons in 1919 in the state of Washington. Much
more detail might be entered into relative to this industry.
EVAPORATORS
In this connection, a full description of all the different
types of evaporators cannot be undertaken and but little |
more than mention can be made of the different designs —
in use or in course of construction. In general, evapora-
tors may be placed in three classes: natural draft evap-
orators; forced draft evaporators; and distillation types, |
including vacuum evaporators. |
Natural draft evaporators.
Most of the fruit evaporators in use in New York and
other eastern states, in Oregon, Washington, and even in |
California for the evaporation of apples, are of the natural
draft type. The driers of this group require no fan or
motor for operation; any type of fuel may be used; they |
By-Products of the Apple Industry 351 ©
are simple in construction and operation and not expensive
to build or operate. They have survived the test of time
extremely well, although it would seem that for Californian
conditions at least, they may be replaced by the more
modern air blast types. Some of the natural draft evap-
orators are:
The kiln evaporator is commonly used in California and
the East. It is usually constructed in two stories. The
upper story houses the drying floor which is usually 20
feet by 20 feet and is made of narrow wooden strips with
Y, or 3% inch spaces left between them to permit passage
of hot air. Over the drying floor is a steep four-sided roof
which has at its apex a large ventilator for the escape of
the spent air. The prepared fruit is placed on the floor
and turned by a fork or scoop shovel during drying, a
practice which does not add to the appearance or cleanli-
ness of the product. The lower floor contains the heating
system. This consists of a wood, coal or oil-burning
furnace connected to a number of turns of large heating
pipes; usually the whole lower story is almost filled with
these pipes, giving a very large radiating surface with
consequent efficient utilization of heat. The heated air
rises from the pipes through the floor grating and thus over
the fruit. |
The stack or tower evaporator is the most commonly
used at Watsonville, California, where it is successful.
The trays of fruit are placed on run-ways in cabinets or
“stacks” above a fire-pit; the trays being stacked one
above the other. The heated air rises directly through the
trays, in this way differing from the tunnel drier. The
bottom of each stack or chamber is open, while the top
consists of an inverted hopper connecting to the ventilator.
s
352 The Commercial Apple Industry
There are many better types of evaporators and its use is”
not strongly recommended.
Cabinet evaporator is heated by steam coils but other-—
wise is very similar to the stack evaporator in construction
and operation. It has been used recently in New York
and Canada for vegetable and apple drying.
Ceramic oven.—The ordinary bake-oven principle has”
been successfully applied in California. This type of
drier should permit of fuel economy as it is constructed
throughout of brick and fire brick. There is practically
no fire risk and radiation losses should be small.
Electrically heated driers.—Small evaporators for home
use have been designed in which an electric current passing
through resistance wires furnishes the necessary heat.
The drier is of the stack type. Except where electricity
is extremely cheap, it is doubtful whether such machines
would prove profitable, although a machine of recent de-
sign appears to have great possibilities. |
Forced draft evaporators.
Most of the new driers on the market belong to this class.
The number of different forms is very great and is con-
stantly being added to. Their one common characteristic
is the forced air circulation. Outside of this one feature,
they are of almost every conceivable design.
Horizontal tunnel.—tIn general, this type consists of a
long chamber or tunnel resting on the ground with an air
heating system and fan so arranged that the heated air
may be blown or drawn over the trays. Usually the trays
are carried on trucks which enter the cooler end of the
tunnel and which leave the tunnel from the hotter end.
Great variation exists in the methods of heating the air.
By-Products of the Apple Industry 353
The older types used steam pipes, a system which permits
exact regulation of the temperature and permits also of
“boosting ” the temperature of the air as it passes through
the tunnel. Those who have used both steam and direct
heat, however, prefer the latter because it is claimed to be
more economical of fuel. Some heating systems are very
similar to those used in the kiln, stack and tunnel types,
consisting of a sheet metal furnace attached to radiating
pipes, the air being heated by being drawn over the heated
metal surfaces. In another form of heater, the air is
forced through large pipes held in a fire-box much after
the fashion of boiler flues. The most interesting develop-
ment, however, is the use of the gases of combustion
directly in drying, thus doing away with all stack loss of
heat. Many machines, of different designs, have recently
come to the attention of the public. At present, stove dis-
tillate, a more expensive fuel than crude oil, must be used
in this style of heating device to avoid bad odors, soot, and
the like. Whether the saving in fuel, therefore, counter-
balances the difference in price of distillate and of crude
oil is an open question. If it does not more than equal
this difference, the saving in fuel cost is more apparent
than real.
> Stack type of air blast drier—Some commercially built
evaporators consist of several stacks or tiers of trays placed
one above the other and hot air is forced upward through
and over the trays. Whether it is a more logical type than
the horizontal blast remains to be seen.
Continuous evaporators have been developed success-
fully for vegetable drying, soap chip drying, kelp drying,
and the like, but have not worked out well for fruits, be-
cause of the bruising of the fruit and its sticking to the
354 The Commercial Apple Industry
belts or conveyers. Essentially, the drier consists of sev-
eral superimposed metal cloth conveyers or canvas belts
in a long tunnel. The material to be dried enters the
tunnel on the upper belt, traverses the length of the tunnel,
drops to the second belt, and so on until it may travel back
and forth five to seven times at such a speed that it emerges
from the lower belt dry. If such a machine could be built
successfully for fruits, it would doubtless greatly reduce
labor costs. It has possibilities and will bear further
study and development.
Distillation types of evaporators.
In these evaporators the water is distilled from the fruit
and the vapors are condensed.
Atmospheric pressure machines.—In this type the driet
is not placed under a vacuum but is, however, rather
tightly closed to the outside air. In one form the fruit
travels on belts over steam coils. The heat from the coils
drives the moisture from the fruit. The vapor passes
over water-cooled pipes and is condensed, giving an area of
reduced pressure toward which the vapors continually
flow. In another type the air and gases of combustion
from a furnace heat the fruit and carry the moisture to
condensers. This evaporator is really a combination of
the distillation and air blast forms.
Vacuum driers.—Insofar as quality of dried product is
concerned, the vacuum drier is in a class by itself. No
other drier compares with it in its ability to produce dried
fruits of fresh flavor, color and aroma. There are two |
reasons for this, one being the practical absence of air in
the vacuum drier, a fact which accounts for lack of oxida-
tion, and a second reason for its superiority is the low
:
|
|
By-Products of the Apple Industry 355
temperature of drying. Temperatures of 100 to 120 de
grees Fahrenheit may be used successfully and rapid evap-
oration obtained. In its commercial form, the drier usu-
ally consists of a strong boiler plate chamber with shelves
for trays and fitted with steam pipes. To this chamber is
connected a vacuum pump and vapor condenser. The
air is removed by the pump, the water is driven from the
fruit by the steam pipes and is condensed in the spray or
other form of condenser. A continuous vacuum drier has
recently been built and is a most remarkable machine.
Vacuum driers possess great possibilities, probably more
than any other evaporator in use, but have not been gen-
erally adopted because of their, high cost. When such a
machine can be produced at a moderate price, it will revo-
lutionize present ideas of evaporation.
CANNING,. JELLY MANUFACTURING
The canning apple industry has only recently attained
considerable importance. This phase of the by-product
business is growing very rapidly in the Shenandoah dis-
trict of Virginia and West Virginia and in Adams County,
Pennsylvania. Considerable apples are also canned in
New England, the Middle West and in New York. The
Northwest has also taken up the canning industry, but in
California, apple by-products are still limited largely to
dried fruit. In various parts of the country, advantage
has been taken of existing breweries or distilleries in con-
verting them into canning or cider plants. Most of the
work in the big canning plants is done by machinery, al-
though it is usually necessary to have the fruit gone over
last by hand help in order to detect bits of core or pieces of
skin left near the calyx or stem. The process of canning
356 The Commercial Apple Industry |
is much the same as in the case of other fruits and it is
impossible to enter into detail here.
Apple jelly is now being manufactured on a consider-
able commercial scale. It is often made by adding sugar
to cider, 100 pounds of cider with 20 pounds of sugar mak-
ing about 40 pounds of jelly. The refuse from cider and |
vinegar mills or apple pomace is often employed for mak-
ing jelly, the pectin found in this apple pomace being the
ingredient used. All kinds of fancy and concentrated by-
products are made from apples and the scope and uses of
these various apple by-products promises to enlarge greatly.
CIDER AND VINEGAR
Cider and vinegar manufacture still absorb most of the
apples used for by-products. Enormous quantities are
annually made into cider both in the large commercial
cider mills and in the smaller mills in the non-commercial
regions. Large vinegar plants with storage capacity for
millions of gallons have been established in Virginia,
West Virginia, New York, New England, the Central
West and the Northwest. Considerable difficulty has been
encountered with the prohibition law in the manufacture
and sale of cider, but it seems fairly certain that rulings
will be obtained which will always permit the manufac-
ture of sweet cider. In some of the large cider and vine-
gar plants where double presses are used, an average of
over 9 gallons of cider to 100 pounds of apples is obtained.
CHAPTER XVIII
COST OF PRODUCTION
THosE regions which are able to produce and market
apples at the lowest relative cost will survive the keenest
competition. Every grower instinctively endeavors to put
his fruit on the market as economically as possible, yet
only a very few keep accounts of sufficient accuracy to
arrive at even an approximation of their actual cost of
production. If the individual grower is unable to give
accurate cost production figures, it becomes apparent that
the relative cost of producing apples in different regions
ean only be obtained by detailed and thorough study of
the items and operations. :
It was the privilege of the authors to study the cost of
producing apples in eight of the leading apple states of
this country. In the course of this study, extending
through several seasons, hundreds of detailed orchard sur-
vey records were taken, covering every item and operation
which would influence cost of production. It required
only a brief study to determine the lack of attention which
this important subject was receiving at the hands of the
average grower. Many growers would starve under their
present lax methods of management if they were wholly
dependent on apples, or were it a case of clean-cut com-
petition with the survival of the fittest.
The manufacturer can not long survive if he does not
give close attention to production costs. He must not only
357
358 The Commercial Apple Industry
know the total cost of production, but also the various
items of which it is comprised. Only by knowing these
ean he be prepared intelligently to lower his cost items.
The same principle applies to the apple-grower.
An important point in such a study is to determine
which operations are profitable and which are not. A.
grower should not attempt to lower his costs blindly. He
must be thoroughly acquainted with the various items of
expense in order that in attempting to lower cost he will
not cut corners in the wrong direction and thereby lower
production. To neglect fertilizing, thinning, spraying or
such important operations would be a case of lowering
cost in the wrong direction. It would usually pay to
spend more on some of these operations in order to increase
production, and thereby lower cost of production a unit.
It is merely a case of spending wisely. Those who argue
against the necessity of knowing the various costs of pro
duction do so through selfish motives or through ignor-
ance.
The survival of any fruit district depends on its ability
to produce fruit in competition with other sections. Cer-
tain regions by virtue of their extremely favorable location
with respect to soil, climate and economic conditions, are
firmly established and will always remain prominent in
the commercial apple industry. Other regions lacking
some of the necessary qualifications can never succeed.
Tn a third class are the marginal districts which lack some
of the more desirable qualifications, and yet which in cer
tain years compare very favorably with the best regions.
For example, a locality subject to frost might in some
years produce a very profitable crop and yet over a period
Cost of Production 359
of years the crop failures would greatly reduce the average
returns.
In considering the marginal regions it is necessary to
recognize that in a period of low prices they will be the
first to suffer in the process of elimination.
Only systematic and careful analysis of the factors en-
tering into and influencing the cost of production will
indicate which region will survive and which will fail.
Growers have made profitable returns on orchard land at
$1,000 to $2,000 an acre in some regions, while others have
failed on $100 land in other places.
_ Cost production varies not only among regions, but
among individual growers of the same district. It has
been found that it costs some growers 50 per cent more a
barrel or box to harvest their crop than it does their more
alert neighbors. Some operations, such as spraying, thin-
ning and proper soil management, are exceedingly profit-
able within certain limits. Without reliable information,
the grower can not tell what operations are paying him
best on the investment. Often the most expensive opera-
tions are the most profitable.
Cost production figures reveal the regions which are
best adapted to the commercial production of apples, em-
phasize the value and relative importance of different cul-
tural methods, show the size of orchard which the grower
can operate most economically, indicate the most profitable
varieties, and in short reveal all of the best principles in
orchard selection and management.
The factors which enter into the cost of production are
divided into labor costs and costs other than labor.
The labor costs include both man and horse labor and are
360 The Commercial Apple Industry
further subdivided into maintenance, or growing labor
costs, and handling labor cost. The growing cost includes
all the labor required up until the time the apples are
ready to pick, while the handling cost includes the labor
of picking, packing, and the like, until the apples are put
in storage or on board car.
Costs other than labor take in material and fixed costs.
Material costs include manure, spray material, fertilizer,
cover-crop seed, barrels, boxes, and the like. The fixed
costs comprise all overhead charges, such as interest on
investment, taxes, the orchard’s share of insurance, inter-
est, depreciation on equipment, and apple buildings.
Of these main groups of costs, the labor is most likely
to be the limiting factor in successful production. Fixed
costs are particularly important in the Northwest on
account of high land values.
The various cost items comprising labor, material, and
fixed costs are enumerated in Table XV.
TABLE XV.— Cost ITemMs IN APPLE PRODUCTION
LaBor Costs Costs OTHER THAN LABOR
Material
Handling
Picking
Hauling barrels
and shooks
Hauling to pack-
Maintenance
Taxes
Insurance
Equipment charge
Apple house depre-
Fertilizer
Manure
Spray material
Box or barrel
Manuring
Pruning
Disposal of brush
Plowing
Cultivating ing-house Labels, paper, etc. ciation
Sowing mulch crop | Packing Interest
Handling mulch Sorting Water rent
crop Foreman
Propping Nailing or head-
Thinning ing
Spraying Other packing-
Miscellaneous house labor
Haul to station
Tt is not enough merely to learn the cost items, but one
should go further and study the influences which determine
Cost of Production ‘ 361
them. Such factors as availability and kind of labor,
location as to soil, climate, transportation, size of orchard,
size and type of farm, varieties and most of all yields,
directly influence costs. These are to be particularly con-
sidered before they become established in any given re-
gion, for once fixed the growers may find it impossible to
overcome them should they be unfavorable.
IMPORTANCE OF YIELDS
Yield is the all-important item in determining the cost
production a unit. The subject of yields has been given
Separate treatment elsewhere (see Chapter XVI) but is
of such great importance as to require particular empha-
sis. 60 “ Sean! SO ee
matsonville, California .......5........-- Ral iis i/o aa
MEIN UOIOTACO 5. <2) Sette eee Bie ae Py PPlor see
Seeeaonew York: (day labor) i). .......-...2-20 eens ZOPnR
Western New York (contract labor by barrel) .......... 2D tee
RG IStYICt OF VITGINIA 1... ke des LOW yas
ORIG) Ceres es Aaicia yale Soiete ec nn mn ee ees ee aise LLG ya
The orchards in the Piedmont district of Virginia are
usually on hillsides and for that reason picking is more
difficult. Furthermore, the question of yields is involved.
However, it may be seen from the above that it is not im-
| possible for cheap labor to be the most expensive. There
is as much complaint over labor costs in the South as in
‘any other part of the country. In regions of general
farming, labor is usually cheaper than in specialized sec-
tions since it can be employed profitably for a longer
374 The Commercial Apple Industry
season. General farming permits the employment of
month labor at a lower wage than must be paid for day
labor. On the other hand, labor in general farming com-
munities is not likely to be as skilled as where apple-grow-
ing is the most important industry. The efficiency of
labor is an important factor in the cost of production.
ORCHARD MAINTENANCE
Labor is the most important item in orchard mainte-
nance, which involves such operations as pruning, ol
vating, thinning and spraying. It will be seen from the |
following table that maintenance labor costs vary widely
in different regions according to the intensity of the cul- |
|
tural practices.
TABLE XX
MAINTENANCE Laspor Cost iN SEVEN ImporTANT APPLE REGIONS |
Hours per Acre.
Cont | ae icle
Region. of
Man. | Horse. | labor.
per
bushel.
Western’ New Yorks......... 77 63 |$49.70} 252 bu.
Wakime ty alleys. iis o.d cise a: 214 91 | 134.30} 432 bx.
Wenatchee Valley........... 230 96 | 143.80] 593 “
HOOD PERAVER Nay seke ceaic de ine 142 82 88.51] 320.
Southern Wlaahonas cates ee. eer/ F2|\ PLO VO} pes
Western Colorado........... 161 76 | 103.30) 284 “
California (Watsonville Dist.) 89 54 | 60.70| 226 “
1 Man labor rates in these regions varied from 40 to 50 cents an
hour while horse labor was figured at about 30 cents an hour.
The above table is a summary of the maintenance labor
costs on approximately 700 commercial apple orchards in
various parts of the United States. Detailed orchard
Cost of Production 375
records and yields covering a period of five years are the
basis for these figures which reveal some very surprising
facts. Particular attention is called to the variation in
amount of man and horse hours expended in maintaining
orchards in different regions. The amount of labor does
not change materially and is, therefore, a better guide than
labor costs which do vary with labor rates. Maintenance
labor is that expended in the following operations: Man-
uring, pruning, disposal of brush, plowing, cultivating,
sowing mulch crop, handling mulch crop, propping, thin-
ning, spraying, irrigation and miscellaneous.
Western New York growers expend annually only 77
man hours and 63 horse hours an acre in these operations.
Apple-growers in Wenatchee do not use many more horse
hours to the acre, but expend three times the amount of
man labor an acre than is given for western New York
orchards. That such intensive methods are profitable is
shown by the increased yields and high marketable quality
of fruit produced. After spending $94 an acre more in
maintenance, the Wenatchee grower, by increased yields,
is able to keep his maintenance costs at a figure only 414
cents a bushel greater than the New York grower.
It is interesting to note that the amount of horse labor
to the acre does not vary greatly in the different regions,
while the man labor varies 300 per cent, being greater
in the Northwest where such intensive practices as thin-
ning and irrigation require man labor, but little or no
horse labor.
Cost of pruning and brush disposal.
The following table will serve to show pruning practices
and costs in several important regions:
376 The Commercial Apple Industry
TABLE X XI
PRUNING AND BrusH DisposaL — RELATIVE TIME AND Costs Iv
DIFFERENT REGIONS
Man Horse Cost Cost
Region. hrs. per | hrs. per of o
acre acre labor | bushel
Western New York........... 31 6 | $14.20 .06
MaMa chen ec cw eecoi ot ae, Seine 64 11 35.30 .08
Wenatchee tear ris cits b vcyc) sets cts 52 14 30.20 .05
TIQOG RIVEEA tastes one eke 30 7 15.60 .05
Southernveldahomesemoeas an sees 58 9 31.70 .09
Colorado Mica Pelee oc a ee 62 1] 34.30 NZ
California (Watsonville Dist.) 31 U 17.60 .08
In all apple regions, pruning usually represents at
least one-fourth of all labor expended up until the time
of picking. Although the northwestern growers spend
more labor to the acre in pruning, it must be remembered
that there are nearly twice as many trees to the acre as in
such regions as western New York. Cost production
studies reveal that the importance of pruning is generally
recognized. The amount of pruning necessary varies
widely with the variety. In the Hood River Valley, the
Yellow Newtown and Esopus Spitzenburg which predom-
inate in this region do not require nearly as much pruning
labor as the more vigorous or rampant growing varieties. —
Pruning cost a bushel of marketable fruit produced |
averages from 5 to 8 cents, of which about 2 cents is rep- |
resented by the cost of handling brush. |
ti
Sotl management.
Different systems of soil management make the cost of
this operation exceedingly variable. One would imagine
with the general intensive cultural methods of the North-|
west that soil management would represent a considerable
cost item in this region. As a matter of fact, the value
Cost of Production 377
of the shade crop usually grown in the orchard more than
pays for the cost of soil management plus irrigation in
the Northwest. Under the old systems of clean cultiva-
tion, the northwest grower expended from $15 to $20 an
acre in soil management. By growing alfalfa as a shade
erop and taking off one or two cuttings, he makes about
enough to pay soil management costs. Some of the best
authorities maintain that in taking off two or more cut-
tings of alfalfa, the grower is depleting soil fertility. It
is to be questioned whether it is advisable to remove more
than one cutting.
For eastern and middle western orchards, with the ex-
ception of those in sod mulch, soil management involves
about the same amount of labor to the acre as does pruning,
since about 25 per cent of all the labor spent in growing
apples up until harvest is in cultivation or other labor on
the soil. Western New York growers expend about 13
man hours and 28 horse hours to the acre in soil manage-
ment.
The greatest saving in sod mulch orchards in the East
is in the absence of any expense for soil treatment. How-
ever, this saving is usually more than lost in decreased
yields.
It is of interest to note the number of acres one man
and team will cover a day with the ordinary cultivation
tools.
TxBLE XXII.— Acres sa Day ror ONE MAN Aanp Two HorseEs
Irrigated Eastern
Regions. Regions.
378 The Commercial Apple Industry
The northwestern grower covers a less number of acres
a day with each cultivating tool than does the eastern
grower. This is partly explained by the fact that there
are practically twice as many trees to the acre in the irri-
gated sections, thus necessitating more care than in the
East. ‘The orchards in the irrigated sections are often
inter-planted with shade crops as alfalfa, and in such cases
operations like plowing and discing necessarily require
considerable time and labor.
Thinning.
The practice of thinning varies so greatly that a study
of the extent and cost of this operation in several different
regions will be of particular interest.
TasLE X XITI.— TuHinnine PRACTICES AND Costs
Cost.
per
Region. per
bushel.
Western New York.............
WWiallctin aa ie Sere tet bie ei
A sharp contrast is brought out when the average amount,
of thinning in such regions as western New York is com-|
pared with the heavy thinning in the Northwest in such)
districts as Wenatchee Valley. The average New York,
grower expends only 4 hours an acre in thinning his apple’
crop. The average Wenatchee grower devotes 53 hours|
labor to the acre in thinning, but when the cost of this
Cost of Production 379
labor is distributed over the average yield, it amounts to
less than 5 cents a box. When one considers the higher
annual yields and the greatly improved quality directly
due to thinning, it may readily be seen that to omit thin-
ning is to cut costs in the wrong direction.
From the standpoint of economy, the writers are con-
vinced that not only will thinning improve quality, but
that it will actually lower cost of production by increasing
annual yields.
Spraying.
The cost of spraying is discussed in Chapter X.
HARVESTING COSTS
Harvesting costs include all the labor and material costs
incident to picking, packing and delivering fruit to the
station. These represent from 40 to 50 per cent of the
cost of producing apples. It might be stated here that
fixed costs, such as interest on investment, represent about
20 to 25 per cent, while maintenance costs for such opera-
tions as thinning and spraying, represent from 25 to 30
per cent of the total cost of production.
In Table XXIV is shown the amount of labor neces-
sary for harvesting crops in several different regions and
also the cost a bushel for labor and material incident to
harvesting. It is seen that all harvesting costs make up
from 45 to 50 per cent of the total cost of production.
It is interesting to note that labor cost for harvesting
boxed apples is but little greater than for barreled apples,
while five years ago it was nearly 100 per cent greater.
‘Labor rates have increased more proportionately in the
‘barrel apple regions than in the box sections. It now costs
‘most barrel sections nearly 25 cents a barrel for picking.
380 The Commercial Apple Industry
TABLE X XIV.— TotaL Harvestine Cost
(Cost refers to marketable fruit only.)
Labor &| Per cent.
Yield bara Material] of total
Region. per k cost per cost of
sere, | Pushel. | paces | Fina
Western New York.......... 252 bus.| $.2235] $.4402 50
Wakdna ye hears cietenettt see eioetel 432 bxs. PAE .5600 47
Wienatchees meine srtcies heron: eis} 2775 5600 48
FTOOG PRIVCT cree eke eine o20n .2801 5251 45
Southern? idahorseeas che. «el ones 2775 5600 49
Western Colorado............ 284 << 2775 .5600 45
California (Watsonville Dist.) | 226 “ .2650 .5050 48
Other harvesting and packing labor, aside from the pick-
ing, averages about 1.8 barrels to a man an hour. This is
the case in New York, the Middle West, and commercial
sections of Virginia. The western grower figures that he
is repaid for any extra cost in handling and packing his
crop by increased returns for his fruit. The secret of his
success on the market has been due to this intensive effort.
Table X XV _ shows fixed costs, including charges for |
interest on investment, for several important apple regions.
The fixed costs, as before stated, comprise those annual
TaBLE XXV.— Tota Fixep Costs |
Region.
Western New York.
Walkaimiay ae 2 eee
Wenatchee ........
TWood River... dee
Southern Idaho....
Western Colorado...
California —
(Watsonville Dist. )
Cost of Production 381
charges, the acre cost being little affected by the size of the
crop. Fixed costs include taxes, depreciation, insurance,
and interest on investment. Of these, interest on invest-
ment is by far the most important. This item alone
reaches $154 annually in the Wenatchee Valley, a cost
which is a good price for land in many sections. Western
New York had an interest cost an acre of only one-sixth
this amount. The high yields of the Wenatchee Valley,
however, tend to overcome this high interest charge. Fig-
ured on the bushel basis, the interest charge at Wenatchee
was 26 cents a bushel as compared with 10 cents a bushel
in New York state. This fixed cost has not increased in
most apple sections since 1914, while labor rates have ad-
vanced about 100 per cent and cost of material rose sharply
in 1920.
Hood River, Oregon, has an annual acre interest charge
of $75 less than that for the Wenatchee Valley. Return-
ing to the interest cost a box, it is seen that Hood River is
charged with 25 cents a box as compared with only 26
cents for Wenatchee. This serves to show very emphati-
eally that high costs a box or barrel are to be considered
irrespective of fixed costs an acre, for yields directly de-
termine fixed cost a box or barrel.
On the other hand, it is important to remember that any
saving in fixed cost is direct. This may be effected in the
judicious purchase of land. It is always poor economy
_ to grow apples on poor land, but at the same time orchards
are over-capitalized in many regions and the grower of
limited means will sometimes find his fixed cost so high
in a series of poor years that he will not be able to sur-
vive the hard times. It should be repeated that once these
fixed costs to an acre are established, they can not be low-
382 The Commercial Apple Industry
ered and can only be met successfully by increasing and
maintaining yields.
Much more detail might be entered into in a discussion
of the cost of production in the various regions. It is con-
stantly changing with the price of labor and materials. It
is important to cut out all unnecessary expense in connec-
tion with the orchard and pay strict attention to yield of
high quality fruit. However, expenses to the acre should
not be spared if it decreases expense a box or barrel. Al-
most universally the grower who spends most on his or-
chard when invested in a systematic way, such as proper
pruning, fertilizing, thinning and spraying, produces
apples at a less cost a box or barrel than the grower who
tries to save dimes by lack of sufficient attention to the
orchard and loses dollars by lack of a good yield.
When selecting an orchard or site, it is extremely im-
portant that probable cost of production be studied and
taken into account. The limiting factor which determines
the success or failure of a region may be climate, soil,
transportation, topography, labor, cost of materials or one
of many other things. Above all, it is most important
to remember that large annual yields of high quality fruit
will overcome most unfavorable factors. In fact, high |
yields are in themselves proof that most factors are either
favorable or, if unfavorable, may be overcome. Yields
should be based on an average of at least five years. Mis-
leading statements as regarding yields are often wilfully
made in various commercial publications for advertising
purposes. Acreage averages should be used and not tree
averages. One is likely to draw erroneous conclusions |
from the performance of individual trees. |
If cost production figures are based on the average an- |
Cost of Production 383
nual yields for bearing commercial orchards in a com-
munity, the results will indicate the relative success of the
average grower. By intelligent handling, the progressive
grower usually finds no difficulty in rising above the com-
munity average. If the average man is making a good
profit, the exceptional grower should made a still better
one.
Table X XVI is a summary of all costs and is based on
1919 conditions. The cost a box varies from $1.05 in
California to $1.25 in Colorado. The northwest irri-
gated regions vary in cost of production from $1.15 to
$1.20 a box. Average western New York costs amount
to $2.62 a barrel f. 0. b. All these costs are based on yields
of marketable fruit. Cull apples are not credited. How-
ever, as these orchards represent those producing fruit
for the commercial box or barrel market, the percentage
of cull fruit is small. In fact, the average annual credit
from the cull fruit has been found in most instances prac-
tically to balance the annual orchard depreciation. These
two more or less variable and uncertain factors, may, in
general then, be said about to balance.
Orchard heating is another cost which sometimes occurs
in certain regions but this cannot be given consideration
as it is now seldom practiced in apple orchards and is
very generally discredited. The high cost has been found
to make it prohibitive and unprofitable in most cases and
particularly in western Colorado where at one time it was
| widely practiced.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Cost of production in any region depends primarily
on the yield of marketable fruit. It varies inversely with
The Commercial Apple Industry
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Cost of Production 385
yields; the higher the yield, the lower the cost of produc-
tion a unit.
2. Maintenance practices such as spraying, pruning
and cultivating, greatly influence yield. As a general
rule, increase in maintenance costs to the acre means a
decrease in cost a box or barrel. It is poor economy to
neglect orchard practices which are necessary to high yields
of good quality fruit.
8. The average commercial grower in the United
States could effect a considerable saving in his cost of pro-
duction if he spent more time in thinning his fruit. At
the present time only growers in the Pacific Northwest
thin extensively. Even there this operation could be prac-
ticed more systematically with profit.
4. Growers with mature orchards or those reaching ma-
turity can in many cases greatly increase annual yields
and thereby lower cost of production, if they will give more
attention to soil management and fertilization. No phase
of fruit-growing is of more importance than the mainte-
nance of soil fertility.
5. The relative acre value of apple orchards should be
determined largely by average annual yields. Low yields
with excessive fixed costs limit successful production in
many widely advertized regions.
6. The cost of production is exceedingly variable de-
pending so largely on yield, labor rates and overhead costs,
all of which are so variable that no definite figure which
will hold can be given. However, it has been found that
under 1919 conditions box apples could not be put in the
ear for less than $1.20 a box, while barreled apples ordi-
narily averaged about $2.50 a barrel, f. 0. b., in cost of pro-
‘duction. The cost of boxes was figured at 22 cents, of
386 The Commercial Apple Industry
barrels 60 cents. Labor was figured at 40 to 50 cents
the hour and materials were charged at the 1919 rate.
Changes should be made accordingly. Increased price of
packages brought the 1920 cost of production of boxed ap-
ples to about $1.30 and of barreled apples to about $3.50.
CHAPTER XIX
VARIETIES OF APPLES
Tue proper selection of varieties should be given careful
consideration by the commercial apple-grower since this
may determine the success or failure of his enterprise.
Hundreds of varieties of apples are grown in the United
States and many hundreds of others are described in
pomological lists. It is interesting to note, however, how
relatively few varieties make up the commercial apple
production of the United States. Twelve varieties repre-
sent nearly 80 per cent of the commercial apple crop of
the United States. Such a limited list would probably
include Ben Davis, Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening,
Winesap, Jonathan, Northern Spy, Yellow Newtown,
York Imperial, Delicious, Stayman, Grimes and Wealthy.
These varieties are not of recent origin, but are almost
without exception old and well established sorts known to
the commercial grower for generations.
Baldwin has been known since the middle of the eigh-
teenth century, while Ben Davis was propagated over one
hundred years ago. Jonathan was first exhibited in 1829,
while Northern Spy kas been famous for its high dessert
‘and market qualities for over one hundred years. Rhode
Island Greening was highly recommended as long ago as
1800 and the same is true of Tompkins King. Yellow
‘Newtown has been prized for its good qualities for almost
387
388 The Commercial Apple Industry
two centuries, while the good qualities of the Winesap
apple were known as long ago as 1817. Oldenburg
(Duchess), the planting of which has become very exten-
sive in recent years, is a very old European variety which
was introduced in this country as long ago as 1835.
Yellow Bellflower, one of the leading varieties of Cal-
ifornia and well known throughout the country, has been
noted for its dessert quality for one hundred years. Stay-
man, which is ordinarily classed as new, bore fruit as early
as 1875. Grimes was a commercial sort in 1800. Esopus
Spitzenburg was grown in the Hudson Valley over a cen-
tury ago. The Delicious is about the only variety of
recent origin which has grown to great popularity and
forced itself on practically all the commercial markets.
This brief discussion serves to emphasize how hard it is
for any variety to become well known in commercial chan-
nels without many years of thorough trial and an acquaint-
anceship with the public. It further serves to emphasize
how really few kinds survive. It is said that approxi-
mately 7,000 varieties of apples have been described in
pomological publications since 1804. Of these, very few
are of commercial importance to-day. This does not pre
clude the possibility of developing new and better kinds,
but the commercial grower has found it profitable to limit
the number of his varieties and allow others to experiment
with new or doubtful ones.
In every region, from four to six well-known varieties
have proved most profitable, and it is the safest plan to
select three or four from this list and plant new varieties
only in limited quantities. In the early history of com-
mercial apple-growing, it was necessary to experiment with
untried varieties since no one knew exactly what ones
Varieties of Apples 389
were best adapted to the different regions. Most of this
pioneer work has been done, however, and it is no longer
necessary to take chances with strange varieties.
In a discussion of varieties, the question of relative
flavor of the same sort grown in different regions arises.
An interesting investigation has been conducted by the
Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agri-
eulture, which reveals that there is essentially no difference
in chemical constituency between normal specimens of
apples of the same variety grown in different regions.
The percentage of water content and solid matter is prac-
tically the same. This investigation, of course, did not
pertain to the physiological or cell-structure of the apples,
and it may be true that some difference exists in this
respect.
A western apple forced by unwise irrigation, or picked
green, will not compare with the choicest specimens of
eastern apples. One region may grow one or two varieties
to great perfection in quality and flavor, while another
will grow superior apples of some other kind. New York
has its Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening; Virginia its
York Imperial, Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin) and
Winesap; the central states their Ben Davis, Jonathan
and Wealthy; the West its Delicious, Jonathan, Winesap,
and so on.
Seed selection and hybridization have been responsible
for the improvement of many cultivated plants and for the
discovery of many new varieties, but not so for the culti-
-yated fruits. Practically all varieties of fruit are the
result of chance discovery of seedlings. The apple does
| not come true to seed, but is propogated by grafting a cion
| or bud from a known variety on a seedling root. Plant-
390 The Commercial Apple Industry
breeding is a much discussed subject and the layman may
conceive that new varieties of apples are being developed
by this method. As a matter of fact, the experiments thus
far conducted in crossing different varieties of apples have
been very inconclusive and unsatisfactory.
New varieties are being constantly discovered and very
often widely advertised. Some are worthy and some are’
not. The most noted new variety is the Golden Delicious
which is being planted very extensively and in the next
decade will appear in most of the commercial markets.
Wherever tried, it has proved productive and highly profit-
able. The grower may experiment but should not plant
new varieties extensively before they have been firmly
established, or have proved profitable. High quality var-
ieties are very often the most profitable, but occasionally
they prove undesirable on account of their tendency toward
shy bearing. The Ben Davis apple, on account of its
high annual yield, has proved more profitable over a period
of years than some of the better quality varieties. The
public, however, is becoming more fastidious in its selec-
tion, and in the competition between high and low quality
apples some of the latter are being crowded out. |
Seldom do two varieties ripen at exactly the same time, |
and with a maximum of four or five leading kinds there is _
usually a sufficiently long harvest period to permit of the |
most economical harvesting practice. Buyers and even
cooperative organizations insist on a limited number of |
varieties, and prefer them in carlots. The grower with a |
miscellaneous list of varieties is the last to sell his crop,
whereas the one with two or three kinds of uniform size
and color has a decided advantage in the market. The
farmer planting a home orchard selects a few trees of each |
}
f
|
grown as a
1s
the Northwest. Alfalfa
in
Spitzenburg orchard
shade crop and two or three cuttings are taken off.
PLaTe XXIII.— Seven-year old
Varieties of Apples 391
of several varieties, in order that he may have a continuous
home supply during the late summer, fall and winter
months. The average commercial grower does well to
select three or at most four varieties. This choice should
not be difficult. Certain regions are adapted to well-
known varieties. The consuming public is familiar with
the name and quality of these and has come to demand
them. Were one to plant an orchard in western New
York, the varieties should be largely Baldwin and Green-
ing, with possibly some Twenty Ounce, Duchess or
Wealthy. Delicious, King David and others may prove
profitable, but Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening have
stood the test of trial. Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening,
Ben Davis, Northern Spy and McIntosh are successfully
grown in the Hudson Valley, although proximity to New
York City might warrant planting one or two varieties of
summer apples, such as Oldenburg, Gravenstein or Will-
iams. In the Champlain district of northern New York ©
and Vermont, the Fameuse, McIntosh and Northern Spy
are suited to these northern latitudes. Across in New
England the Baldwin, Northern Spy and Rhode Island
Greening predominate, with McIntosh, Fameuse, Wealthy
and others following in importance.
In Virginia, the commercial crop virtually consists of
six varieties, Albemarle Pippin (Yellow Newtown), Ben
Davis, York Imperial, Winesap, Stayman and Delicious.
In the Ohio Valley, Rome Beauty and Ben Davis lead;
in Michigan, the leading varieties are Northern Spy and
Baldwin. In the Ozark. region Ben Davis, Gano and
Jonathan predominate. Western states have a somewhat
larger list of leading kinds. Each district has a host of
other varieties, but geographic distribution of the really
~
392 The Commercial Apple Industry
important sorts is comparatively simple and it should not
be hard to determine for any one locality the varieties
which really have proved successful. It is by no means
intended that prospective growers should select only from
the few kinds named below, but rather than risk untried
varieties it might be wise to select from such old ones
and those best adapted to the particular locality.
The following are some of the standard varieties grown
successfully, and recommended for planting in the various
regions:
Western New York —
Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Ben Davis or Gano,
Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, Twenty Ounce.
Hudson Valley —
McIntosh, Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin, Wealthy, Old-
enburg, Northern Spy.
Vermont and Champlain District —
McIntosh, Northern Spy, Fameuse, Wealthy, Gravenstein.
New England —
Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, McIntosh, Wealthy, —
Gravenstein, Williams Early Red.
New Jersey —
Stayman, Oldenburg, Winesap, Williams Early Red,
Wealthy, Yellow Transparent, Starr. \
Delaware —
Stayman, Gano, Yellow Transparent, Williams Early Red,
Wealthy.
Piedmont of Virginia —
Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin), Winesap, Stayman,
Grimes (top worked). :
Southern Pennslvania — ei
Stayman, York Imperial, Grimes, Oldenburg (Duchess), |
Yellow Transparent.
Shenandoah Valley of Virginia —
Stayman, York Imperial, Ben Davis or Gano, Grimes,
Varieties of Apples 393
Winesap (in southern end of valley), Yellow Transparent,
Oldenburg (Duchess).
Mountain Region of North Carolina —
Stayman, Winesap, Ben Davis or Gano, Delicious, Arkansas
(Black Twig), Bonum.
Mountain Region of Georgia —
Yates, Terry’s Winter, Stayman, Arkansas, Yellow Trans-
parent, Delicious.
Southern Ohio —
Rome Beauty, Ben Davis, Grimes, Stayman, Oldenburg
(Duchess), Yellow Transparent, Wealthy.
Northern Ohio —
Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Northern Sny, McIntosh,
Oldenburg (Duchess), Yellow Transparent, Wealthy.
Tllinois —
Wealthy, Oldenburg (Duchess), Red June, Yellow Trans-
parent for extreme southern part of state. Jonathan,
Stayman, Delicious, Gano and Grimes (double worked) for
south central and western Illinois.
Ozarks —
Jonathan, Stayman, Winesap, Gano, Black Ben, Grimes
(double worked), Yellow Transparent.
Missouri River Region —
Ben Davis, Gano or Black Ben, Jonathan, Winesap,
Wealthy.
Michigan —
Northern Spy, Ben Davis, Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening,
McIntosh, Wealthy, Oldenburg (Duchess).
Western Colorado —
Jonathan, Winesap, Gano.
Wenatchee and Yakima Valleys —
Jonathan, Winesap, Delicious (Red and Golden), Stayman,
Rome Beauty, Yellow Newtown, Grimes, Winter Banana.
Hood River Valley, Oregon —
Yellow Newtown, Esopus (Spitzenburg), Ortley.
Pajaro Valley, California —
Yellow Newtown, Yellow Bellflower.
The varieties which will be discussed individually in
394 The Commercial Apple Industry
this chapter may assist in outlining in more detail the
geographic distribution of the commercial sorts. It is
interesting to note how many of these most desirable vari-
eties are not new discoveries, but are over a hundred
years old.
SUMMER VARIETIES
The question of summer varieties requires separate
treatment. In their selection, the proximity to markets
is an important factor. The great perishability of early
apples limits their production to such regions as have access
to ready markets.
It is sometimes suggested that the commercial grower
may well have a number of varieties ripening at different
times in order to supply the demands of local or nearby
markets throughout a long season. In some instances
this may be advisable, particularly in the case of small
growers in the vicinity of large cities, who do most of their |
own work and where the orchardist or a member of his
family markets the fruit locally. The extra expense of
harvesting apples in small quantities is a strong argument
against too wide diversification. |
The growing of summer varieties has proved very profit- |
able to many growers who are so situated that their fruit.
reaches the market in advance of that from other regions |
and to growers who cater to local and special markets. A
light soil which warms up early is essential.
It is difficult to draw a sharp line between summer, fall)
and winter varieties. A variety may be known as a fall.
sort in one section and as a winter in another. It is prob-|
ably safer to make an arbitrary distinction based on har- |
vesting dates rather than on varieties. Summer kinds in-|
Varieties of Apples 395
clude those normally consumed before September 15th; fall
varieties, those normally disposed of by November 15th;
and winter sorts those consumed after November 15th.
Were there only the two classes, summer and winter, it
might be well to include among summer varieties those
which are consumed normally before October 15th.
Winter varieties are usually considered as those com-
monly held in storage. The dates of ripening of the same
variety in different regions sometimes works to the advant-
age of the earlier sections. One instance of the kind is
found in the Pecos Valley of New Mexico, where Jon-
athans mature earlier than in the other western apple
districts. For this reason, New Mexico Jonathans have
a distinct advantage in the Texas markets. Variation in
ripening dates is further exemplified in such northern
states as Wisconsin and Minnesota, where varieties con-
sidered in some sections as strictly summer apples do not
ripen until fall. The Oldenburg (Duchess) is an exam-
ple of this kind. The Baldwin apple, generally known,
and particularly in New York and New England, as a
strictly winter variety, is considered a fall apple in some
parts of Maryland and Virginia.
LATE VARIETIES
The following varieties, divided into early and late, are
arranged in their order of importance in total commercial
production. They are discussed from a commercial stand-
‘point, with reference to their adaptation and distribution
throughout the different apple regions of the United
States. No consideration was given to home orchard pro-
duction in establishing order of importance.
396 The Commercial Apple Industry
Baldwin (Plate X XT).
Approximately 50 per cent of the commercial apple
production in New York and New England consists of
Baldwins. This variety is said to have originated as a
chance seedling in Massachusetts in about 1740. While
its culture is largely confined to these states, to Michigan
and the northern parts of Ohio and Pennsylvania, it is
the leading commercial apple in the United States. The
question of selecting Baldwin for commercial planting
outside of this region should be considered very carefully,
but within these confines it is almost invariably a wise
choice.
In more southern latitudes, the fruit ripens early and
tends to drop prematurely, while in northern New York
and upper New England the wood sometimes winter-kills.
The tree is strong, large and vigorous, the many old Bald-
win orchards in western New York testifying to its long-—
evity. While somewhat late in coming to full bearing, and
once matured inclined to biennial bearing, in total pro-—
duction the Baldwin tree is one of the heavy bearers, and
in commercial importance it stands preéminent. The
ideal Baldwin soil is a fine sandy loam underlaid by plas-
tic light clay or heavy silt loam. The fruit is of good
quality, stands shipment and keeps comparatively well, |
although it sometimes develops Baldwin spot both before
and after picking. The Baldwin crop is shipped almost
exclusively in barrels and much of it is used for culinary
}
I
purposes. The selling price, while not the highest, is
usually firm. The variety figures prominently in the ex-
port trade.
Varieties of Apples 397
Ben Davis.
The Ben Davis comes next to the Baldwin in commercial
importance on account of its wide distribution. It is
thought to have originated in the southern states about
1800 and has been a leading commercial variety for many
years, particularly in Missouri and Arkansas where, with
the Gano, it represents from 60 to 80 per cent of the
commercial production. The Ben Davis apple has played
an important part in nearly every commercial apple-grow-
ing region in this country, and thrives in nearly all but the
most northern states. The tree is strong and vigorous,
with upright form, and seldom breaks under heavy loads.
It comes into bearing early and yields large annual crops.
Unquestionably Ben Davis production is rapidly on the
decline. Very few trees of this variety are being planted
anywhere in the country. Its susceptibility to the Illinois
blister-canker has been the cause of heavy loss in trees all
through the Ozarks, Missouri River region and Illinois.
This susceptibility seems the one weakness in the tree.
The fruit ranks lowest in dessert quality of all leading
varieties, yet for cooking, shipping, and keeping qualities,
it stands among the best. Ben Davis is important in the
Northwest where it is boxed. In the Ozarks and Middle
West it is shipped both in bulk and in barrels, and in
eastern states, principally Virginia, it is largely barreled.
It is adapted to a very wide range of soils, perhaps more
so than any other standard variety. Despite low prices,
Ben Davis has unquestionably been a profitable apple on
account of its large annual yields. From a strictly mone-
tary standpoint, and over a long period of years, commer-
cial growers rank Ben Davis among their best paying
sorts.
398 The Commercial Apple Industry
Winesap.
This old and well known apple is one of the most import-
ant commercial varieties. It is growing in popularity and
its production has been greatly increased in recent years.
It is particularly adapted to the Piedmont section of Vir-
ginia and to the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys in Wash-
ington, where it is the leading variety. In the Missouri
River region, at the intersection of Nebraska, Missouri,
Iowa and Kansas, and also in southern Illinois, the Wine-
sap production is increasing.
Excellent qualities of both tree and fruit make the Wine-
sap a good commercial variety for the regions named. It
is not grown commercially in New York or New England.
The tree is vigorous, not particularly susceptible to any
disease or insect pests, and does best on light rich soils. It
comes into bearing early and is an annual cropper. The
fruit tends to grow small in some sections and the tree
does not thrive on heavy clay or low wet soil. Winesap
apples are a stable product. They hang on the trees well,
are excellent keepers, and sell well from storage. Arkan-
sas, Arkansas Black, and Stayman Winesap are seedlings
of the old Winesap.
Rhode Island Greening.
Rhode Island Greening, originating in Rhode Island
about two centuries ago, is second in importance to Baldwin
in New York state and its distribution throughout the
northeastern part of the United States coincides largely
with that of the latter variety. The Greening fits in well —
with the Baldwin in a farm management scheme, since it —
ripens somewhat earlier and very often produces a crop
during the light year for Baldwins.
Varieties of Apples 399
The tree is large, vigorous and productive, but given to
biennial bearing. It prefers a fertile surface soil of grav-
elly or sandy loam, underlaid by a well drained clay loam.
The apple-scab fungus is one of its worst enemies. Com-
mercial plantings are almost exclusively in New York,
New England, Ohio, Michigan, and the more northern
parts of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The apples are
rather large and grade out well. The storage limit is
usually February or March.
Jonathan.
Jonathan is a seedling of the Esopus Spitzenburg, and
originated at Woodstock in Ulster County, New York. It
was first described in 1826 and named after Jonathan
Hasbrouck, who first called attention to the variety. The
stronghold of the Jonathan as a commercial apple is in the
middle western and western states. There are few com-
mercial plantings of this variety east of the Mississippi.
Jonathan is the leading sort in both Colorado and Idaho,
and is important in Washington, Utah and New Mexico,
being grown under irrigation in large commercial quanti-
ties in all five states. The high quality and brilliant red
coloring adapts it particularly to the boxed apple industry.
Trrigation overcomes its tendency towards small size. The
Jonathan has rather extensive distribution through the
Middle West, particularly in the loess soil region, along
the Missouri River at the intersection of lowa, Missouri,
Nebraska and Kansas. Here it is a barreled apple.
In quality the fruit ranks high. The: tree, although
inclined to a somewhat drooping willowy habit of growth,
is vigorous and yields well as it is adapted to rich soil.
Under irrigation it is sometimes subject to fire-blight,
= a 3
oe
400 The Commercial Apple Industry
although not to such an extent as the Esopus Spitzenburg.
The fruit brings high prices but is inclined to develop the
Jonathan spot in storage. It is usually consumed before
February and is the first of the leading varieties to be
moved from the western irrigated regions. Normal har-
vest period is September 10th to 20th.
York Imperial.
York Imperial originated shortly after 1800 near York,
Pennsylvania. It was propagated before 1830 by Jon-
athan Jessop under the name of Johnson’s Fine Winter
which it still retains in many remote parts of the South.
The commercial production of York Imperial is largely
confined to the valley of the Shenandoah, in Virginia, and
to the Cumberland Valley in Pennsylvania, centering in
Frederick County, Virginia; Berkeley County, West Vir-
ginia; Washington County, Maryland; Franklin and
Adams counties, Pennsylvania. Outside of these and
adjoining counties, the distribution of York Imperial is
scattering and relatively unimportant, being chiefly in the —
Middle West. In the district defined, however, this var-
iety is preéminent and contributes large quantities of
commercial apples. |
Although tending to bear biennially, it yields heavy
crops and is the most reliable variety in the Shenandoah- —
Cumberland region where it has long been one of the
leading export apples. It has a preference for heavy
clay and limestone soils. The fruit is oblique, or lop-
sided, and is inclined to scald in storage. The fruit is
also very susceptible to cedar-rust. The normal season
ends in February.
Varieties of Apples 401
Rome.
_ The Rome Beauty, a native of the Ohio River Valley,
was first planted on the farm of Alanson Gillette at Proc-
torville, Ohio, in 1817, and was known as Gillett’s Seed-
ling until 1832. It has sprung to great prominence in
southern Ohio and in the irrigated districts of the Pacific
Northwest. The tree is vigorous, bears early, is suscept-
ible to few diseases and insect pests, seldom breaks with
a heavy load, and yields heavily in the Northwest.
The Rome Beauty, although not of the highest quality,
ranks as a good commercial variety in its proper regions.
It is especially desired for baking. The fruit stands up
exceptionally well in storage, keeping as late as May. It
is occasionally criticized for lack of color at maturity, but
seldom lacks good size. Extensive plantings are not found
outside of the Pacific Northwest and the Ohio Valley, but
in these regions it has proved very profitable.
Northern Spy.
The Northern Spy originated at East Bloomfield, New
York, in a seedling orchard planted by Herman Chapin
about 1800 and was recognized by the American Pomolog-
ical Society in 1852. It has a rather wide distribution
throughout the northeastern part of the United States, but
is declining in importance as a commercial variety. Mich-
igan has as large a percentage of Northern Spys as any
state, unless it should be Vermont, although production in
the former state is many times that of the latter. The
“Spy” is generally grown throughout New York, and
is a farm orchard variety in many districts. It is adapted
to the northermost counties of the latter state and is widely
402 The Commercial Apple Industry
grown in Canada. New York leads in commercial pro-
duction of ‘“ Spys” in this country, followed by Michigan.
The tree is considered hardy and vigorous, although
somewhat susceptible to the apple-scab. Its root system is
very often used as a stock for other less vigorous varieties.
One of its principal disadvantages is the lateness at which
it comes into bearing. When properly matured, the North-
ern Spy is a high quality apple and a good keeper, but as a
commercial variety it should be grown on heavy soils, as it
is deficient in quality when grown in sandy soils. It is
not adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions, pre-
ferring cooler regions. It matures too early south of Penn-
sylvania to be profitable commercially.
Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin) (Plate XXIT).
This variety is one of the oldest in America and one with
very interesting historical association. The origin is
credited to Long Island, in the early part of the eighteenth
century. Although first grown in New York, New Jersey
and Pennsylvania, its wider cultivation occurred in the
Piedmont section of Virginia, particularly in Albemarle
County, to which locality it is especially adapted and where
it afterwards became known as the Albemarle Pippin.
The Newtown is reported to have been exported to Eng-
land as early as 1759 and since that time has commanded
the highest prices on the English market. It is generally
known as an export apple for which it is particularly
adapted on account of its late keeping qualities.
The principal commercial regions for the Newtown are:
the Piedmont section of Virginia, particularly Albemarle
and Nelson counties; the Hood River and Rogue River
valleys in Oregon; the Pajaro or Watsonville section in
Varieties of Apples 403
California; and the Wenatchee and Yakima valleys, in the
state of Washington. The Pajaro Valley, in Santa Cruz
and Monterey counties, California, leads in total produc-
tion of Yellow Newtown apples, having produced 1,700,-
000 packed boxes in 1919. These were practically all
grown within a radius of ten miles of the town of Watson-
ville. Oregon is second. Both states, and possibly Wash-
ington, take precedence over Virginia from the standpoint
of quantity produced. It may be seen that the Yellow
Newtown apple is somewhat exacting in its soil and clim-
atic requirements, since the bulk of its commercial produc-
tion in the United States comes from the six or eight coun-
ties described above. It is a good commercial variety,
keeps well, and commands the highest export prices. Its
tendency is towards shy bearing, however, and it is partic-
ularly susceptible to apple-scab and bitter-rot and to
anthracnose in the Hood River Valley. The selling price
of the fruit has made it profitable in the regions described,
despite somewhat low yields. Virginia and Hood River
“ Newtowns ”’ are of particularly high quality.
The tree is a rather slow grower and does not come into
full bearing as early as some varieties. The fruit is solid
green at harvesting, developing a yellow color late in the
season. As stated above, the Newtown is exacting and its
selection for extensive planting should only follow careful
investigation of the adaptability to a particular region.
Esopus Spitzenburg (Plate XXIIT).
The Esopus, known more commonly in commercial dis-
tricts as Spitzenburg, originated at Esopus, Ulster County,
- . °
New York, over one hundred years ago. It is an import-
ant western boxed apple extensively grown in the Wen-
404 The Commercial Apple Industry
atchee and Yakima valleys, Washington, and in Hood
River and Rogue River valleys, Oregon. Aside from dis-
tribution in western irrigated sections, it is grown in quan-
tity in the Hudson and Mohawk vallevs of New York, and
in a more limited way in western New York.
The Spitzenburg rivals the Newtown in the Hood River
Valley and ranks among the leading varieties in Wenatchee
and Yakima. Fire-blight has exacted heavy tolls from the
Spitzenburg plantings, in both the Yakima Valley and the
Rogue Valley, Oregon, and for this reason the variety has
grown into disfavor. The fruit is excellent from the stand-
point of dessert, cooking and keeping qualities. The tree
is inclined to shy bearing, however, and must be protected
carefully from disease and insect infestation. It is more
susceptible to fire-blight than any other commercity vari-
ety. Except in the Hood River Valley and possibly one
or two other districts, it is not generally looked on by com-
mercial growers as very profitable. One of the most notice
able characteristics of the Esopus is its peculiar habit of
tree growth, in the form of long pole-like branches which
are difficult to control in pruning.
Grimes Golden.
Originating in West Virginia, and mentioned as a com-
mercial variety as early as 1800, the Grimes Golden has
rather wide distribution throughout the state of its origin,
Virginia, Maryland, Ohio Valley, middle west and western
states. Important commercial quantities are produced in
Washington, West Virginia, Maryland, the Ozarks, south-
ern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri River region.
The fruit is unsurpassed in quality, regular in its cylin-
drical form, and uniformly a rich golden yellow. The
‘ Varieties of Apples 405°
skin is subject to scald in storage, but the flesh keeps well.
The tree is not sufficiently hardy to withstand rigorous win-
ters and is also subject to collar-rot, the latter tendency
being one of its chief weaknesses. When planting, it
should always be double worked so as to overcome this tend-
ency. ‘The Grimes is an important commercial variety in
Missouri, a somewhat refreshing comparison with the pre-
ponderance of Ben Davis in this region. In some sections
the fruit tends to be small, but invariably it is high in
quality, a strong recommendation for its use in home
planting and also in certain commercial areas.
Stayman.
Among the newer varieties, the Stayman Winesap
stands out as one of the most worthy and one which is
growing in popularity in many parts of the country. The
origin is credited to a seedling from old Winesap produced
at Leavenworth, Kansas, in 1866, which bore fruit first in
1875. In many ways, it resembles the old Winesap,
although the coloring of the fruit is less brilliant. It is
grown extensively in the Northwest, where it has proved
a good yielding and profitable variety, its selling price
improving as it has become better known. Old Winesap
is looked on with greater favor, however, by most commer-
cial growers in the Northwest.
The Stayman is one of the softest of the winter varieties,
yet a good keeper. It tends to drop somewhat at maturity.
Extensive plantings have recently been made in Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and the Virginias. It is also adapted to
the apple sections of the Carolinas and Georgia, having a
Somewhat wider range than old Winesap in this respect.
Stayman production will unquestionably increase many
406 The Commercial Apple Industry
times since it 1s proving a popular variety in the eastern
regions described. The tree is vigorous, comes into bearing
early, and is the old Winesap in many ways. The fruit
lacks some of the keeping qualities of the parent variety.
Delicious.
The Wenatchee and Yakima valleys in Washington are
at present producing most of the Delicious apples which
appear on the market, although extensive young plantings
oceur in the East, particularly in Virginia. The variety
is of recent origin, being credited to Iowa, but having been
planted more extensively in the Northwest than any other
region. While as yet untried in many sections, it has
proved profitable in certain irrigated districts of the West.
The tree is vigorous, grows to good size, and is free from
any inherent weakness. The fruit is large, oblong conical,
with five knob-like protrusions at the calyx end. This
peculiarity gives it a distinctive appearance. The color is
yellowish-red, usually striped, but sometimes more or less
deep solid red. Its normal season for use ends in March,
when the flesh tends to become somewhat dry and mealy.
Otherwise it is a very good keeper. The Delicious apple
has become very popular as a high class dessert apple on
account of its very distinctive and pleasing flavor. It is
the favorite fruit-stand apple in eastern cities and tops the
boxed apple market in price. Its popularity with the con-
suming public is demonstrated by the high price which it
commands.
Obviously the determining factor in the selection of this
variety for commercial planting is yield. Some beautiful
specimens have been produced on young trees in southern
and eastern states, but whether it will prove a profitable
Varieties of Apples 407
variety when generally planted outside of demonstrated
irrigated regions remains to be seen. Performance records
of full bearing commercial orchards will be the only safe
guide. High quality apples are very often fastidious in
their requirements for commercial success, but this variety
is certainly worthy of a thorough trial.
Mio and Black Ben.
Gano was first brought to notice in Missouri about 1880.
In nearly every respect the Gano is so closely identified
with the Ben Davis in its distribution and general charac-
teristics that brief treatment is sufficient. The fruit is
somewhat smaller and more highly colored than the Ben
Davis. The Black Ben, given as a separate variety, is con-
sidered by many as essentially the same as Gano, although
it may differ slightly in some respects. Gano and Black
Ben are now given preference in planting over Ben Davis
in most regions.
Yellow Bellflower.
Yellow Bellflower, if not declining, has at least experi-
enced very little increased production in recent years. It
is a leading variety in the Pajaro Valley, or Watsonville
district of California, where it ranks next to the Yellow
Newtown in importance. It is here that a very consider-
able proportion of the total commercial crop of this variety
in the United States is grown, 800,000 boxes being packed
out in 1919, and an equal amount dried.
The Yellow Bellflower is an old variety. In 1817 Coxe
reported that the original tree which was very old at that
time, was still standing at Crosswicks, Burlington County,
New Jersey. Scattered plantings are still found in the
408 The Commercial Apple Industry
states of Maine, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio and
Michigan, but these are confined to old orchards. The
tree grows to large size, particularly in the Pajaro Valley.
Fruit is usually large but varies greatly in size, a detract-
ing feature from a commercial standpoint. Its tender skin
necessitates care in spraying and in handling.
Russets.
Russet is the name ordinarily given to a great number of
different varieties of russet apples. The Roxbury and the
Golden Russet are most commonly found on the market
and most widely grown. They have long been in general
cultivation. Others of very limited production are Eng’
lish Russet, Perry Russet, French Russet (Pomme Grise),
Hunt Feaceey Long gee Russet and American Golden.
Russet. Of theta, English Russet and Perry Russet are
much the most Sane cee although Pomme Grise is very
well known in Quebec, Canada.
The Roxbury is supposed to have originated at Roxb
Massachusetts, about 1620. It is the most popular russet
apple and is especially adapted toenorthern localities, New
York and New England. It has proved a reliable cropper
in western New York, where it ranks next to Northern
Spy and above Tompkins King in commercial importance. —
It does not seem well adapted to the South. The fruit is |
usually above medium to large and variable in form, the
sides often being unequal or the form elliptical. It keeps
until May or June in common storage and often may be
held two years in cold storage. It is of good quality, but :
since the cold storage has come into general use, other
more generally favored varieties have detracted from its
popularity and young plantings are practically unknown.
Varieties of Apples 409
The Golden Russet ranks next in importance in the
United States. It is of English origin and has long been
generally disseminated. It is found extensively in the
older orchards in western New York and parts of New
England. Many trees of this variety occur in Pennsyl-
yania, Ohio and scattered through the home orchards of
the Middle West. The Golden Russet is an excellent stor-
age variety and is often exported. It is also in demand for
shipment to southern markets. The tree is smaller than
that of the Roxbury Russet and generally less productive.
The fruit also is smaller but uniform in size and less var-
iable in shape. ‘The flesh is more sub-acid, finer grained
and of richer flavor than the Roxbury.
The English Russet is of unknown origin. It is one
of the leading, if not the leading, variety in Westchester
and Putnam counties, New York, and is generally dis-
seminated throughout the Hudson Valley and southern
New England. Many carloads of this variety are grown
in Westchester County every year, although the orchards
are not very well taken care of. The tree may be distin-
guished from the Golden Russet by its straight growing
habit with erect shoots. According to Beach, the Golden
Russet trees are more vigorous, spreading, irregular and
bushy than the English Russet. The skin of the Golden
Russet does not take a polish while the English Russet
does. There are also differences in form of fruit. The
flesh of the English Russet is inferior in flavor and of
lower quality than the Golden Russet. It is not being
planted and although a good keeper will soon be eliminated
commercially.
Perry Russet is quite different from those described
above. Its origin is unknown although thought to be
410 The Commercial Apple Industry
Rhode Island, as it was originally called Rhode Island
Russet. It first came to commercial attention at Perry,
Wyoming County, New York, and in Onondaga County,
New York, where trees over one hundred years old still
stand.
Tompkins King.
The Tompkins King, commonly called King, first came
to attention at Jacksonville, Tompkins County, New York,
However, it appears to have originated near Washington, |
Warren County, New Jersey, being brought to New York
by Jacob Wycoff in 1804, who gave it the name King, |
This variety is one of the most popular of the New York
varieties and has long been known and highly prized in |
the commercial markets of the country.
The fruit is large to very large and is fairly uniform in |
shape and size. It has a beautiful red color and is excel- |
lent in quality for either dessert or culinary purposes. It !
is well adapted for marketing, both for fancy and general
trade and usually sells at an advance over more standard |
varieties in both home and foreign markets. In season it |
is best in late fall or early winter and is seldom kept in |
cold storage until after February. It does not retain |
flavor after midwinter. Tompkins King is generally cul- |
tivated throughout western New York and has proved |
profitable, particularly when planted on fertile well drained |
soils or when top-worked on thrifty hardy stock. There |
is often considerable loss in windfalls, on account of the |
large size of the fruit. :
The variety is less susceptible to apple-scab than either |
Baldwin or Rhode Island Greening. The principal dis- |
advantages of the Tompkins King as a commercial sort are |
Varieties of Apples 411
that it is rather unproductive, lacks hardiness, is short lived
and rather hard to grow. In many parts of the country
the tree is very subject to sun-seald, winter-injury and
collar-rot, and the fruit is subject.to water-core. Certainly
this is a variety of the highest quality, and local conditions
must determine whether it can prove profitable in the face
of inherent weaknesses in the tree.
Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig).
Arkansas, a seedling of the Winesap, originated in Ark-
ansas and began to be propagated by nurserymen about
1868, since when it has become widely disseminated. Of
late years this variety has been planted very extensively in
Virginia, North Carolina and some parts of the Middle
West. It is also found commercially in the Northwest.
It keeps well in cold storage and is in season from Decem-
ber until May. “Black Twig” is a large red apple,
rather uniform in size and only medium in quality. It
brings a good price in the market, but is not recommended
for extensive commercial planting as it is rather slow com-
ing into bearing and is not a very good annual bearer. On
strong soils it has a tendency to excessive wood growth
and to, encourage fruitfulness shallow soils are preferable.
It has been much advertised and propagated, but is hardly
living up to expectations and is inferior to many other
standard kinds.
Wagener.
_ The Wagener has attained commercial importance in
comparatively recent times. It was first brought to public
attention in 1847 as being a new variety of considerable
merit. The seedling trees from which the original Wag-
412 The Commercial Apple Industry
ener tree sprang were bought by Abraham Wagener in 1796
and planted on his place, now included in the village of
Penn Yan, New York. Wagener has never attained any
commercial importance east of Michigan, although within
recent years it has been planted very extensively in the
western part of that state. The other extensive plantings
are largely confined to the northwest apple regions. In
the Spokane district of Washington, Wagener is a leading
variety, although in other western irrigated regions it is
losing favor. The fruit is in season from October to Feb-
ruary and keeps fairly well in common storage, although
likely to scald in cold storage, particularly if the fruit has
not been well thinned.
The tree is vigorous, comes into bearing early and is a_
fairly reliable cropper. On the other hand, it is short
lived, rather dwarfish in form, and a slow grower as it
attains full size. The fruit should be thinned, otherwise
it does not attain good market qualities. The Wagener is
recommended as a valuable filler to plant between rows
of longer lived trees, but not for general permanent
planting.
Arkansas Black.
The Arkansas Black, one of the most beautiful apples, |
has come into considerable prominence commercially |
within the last few years. It originated in Benton County,
Arkansas, and first bore fruit about 1870. It attains its
greatest commercial importance in the Northwest where it |
is boxed, particularly in the Wenatchee Valley of Washing-
ton, and to a lesser degree in the other irrigated regions. |
It is also grown in the Ozarks, but not to any great extent. |
Several young plantings occur in the East, particularly in
Varieties of Apples 413
the Piedmont district of Virginia, and it is being recom-
mended by experiment stations for planting in North
Carolina and Virginia.
The tree is vigorous, with long slender branches, and is
very regular j in shape. It is hardy and grows to great size.
The fruit in regions where this variety is adapted attains
_a large size, keeps well and commands a high price, going
on the market very late in the spring. The color of the
fruit is red, deepening on the exposed side to a purplish red
or black. Tt is one of the most beautiful of all apples and,
although the trees require considerable time to come into
bearing, they bear fairly heavy crops when fully matured.
Willow Twig.
The Willow Twig draws its commercial importance from
old plantings in a few limited areas. Before the advent
of cold storage, it was known as a desirable variety for com-
mercial use on account of its very long keeping qualities.
Otherwise, it never has gained commercial favor. Its
origin is uncertain, but it is thought to have been in cul-
tivation for over a century. Extensive plantings are in
Calhoun County, Illinois, also in the northern Panhandle
region of West Virginia, particularly in Hancock County.
The fruit is in season from January to May, but like many
other long keeping varieties it is not of very good quality.
The tree is a strong grower, and bears early and regularly.
The fruit is not attractive although it is uniform in size
and shape. The prevailing color is red with contrasting
green showing through the stripes. The Willow Twig is
not generally recommended for commercial planting, but
limited plantings have proved profitable, largely on account
of the late keeping qualities.
414 The Commercial Apple Industry
White Pearmain (White Winter Pearmain).
The White Winter Pearmain is well known to the boxed
apple and fruit-stand trade. It retains considerable com-
mercial importance in western Colorado, California and
the northwestern irrigated regions. The origin of this
variety is obscure and for a long time it was confused with
several kinds of Pippins. In 1858, however, it entered
the American Pomological Society catalogue as White
Winter Pearmain. It is a favorite dessert apple and is in
season from December to March.
The tree is vigorous and rather long lived. The fruit is
uniform in size and shape and inclined to be roundish or
conic in form, somewhat ribbed, but symmetrical. The
skin is pale yellow with a shade of brownish red. The
flesh is firm, fine grained and of superior aromatic flavor.
It is not recommended for commercial planting outside of
the irrigated districts in the West.
Red Limbertwig.
The widest distribution of the Red Limbertwig is in the
southeastern states, particularly the Carolinas and Georgia.
In North Carolina it is of much commercial importance —
and is the leading variety. Beach gives the Red and the
Green Limbertwig as separate varieties, and it is probably
the former that is so widely cultivated in the mountains ©
of western North Carolina, although different strains,
spoken of sometimes as the Royal, Sparger, Brushy Mount
ain or Improved Limbertwig, are credited to this region.
Here it is a rather deep red apple; a good keeper, and well
adapted as a commercial variety. The tree is vigorous and
bears well, but has little distribution in other regions.
Varieties of Apples 415
Yates.
The Yates is quite widely distributed over the Piedmont
section of the South, but nowhere in the United States is
it grown in any commercial quantities outside of Georgia ;
here it is undoubtedly the leading commercial variety and
in many ways one of the most satisfactory. It is well
known in New Zealand and Tasmania. It seems partic-
ularly adapted to Georgia conditions, and is a very heavy
producer, bearing fairly regularly heavy annual crops.
The tree is thrifty and healthy, and comes into bearing
quite early. The fruit has long keeping qualities, is very
hard and firm, and can be handled in a careless manner
and still retain a good appearance. It is small in size and
not of the highest quality. The Yates is very well known
in southern markets, but practically unknown in the North.
It is a profitable commercial variety for Georgia, but is
not recommended for planting in most regions on account
of its small size and lack of acquaintance with the consum-
“ing public.
Stark.
Stark is found particularly in the commercial orchards
of Maine, New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, and dis-
tributed somewhat throughout the Central West. It was
first brought to notice in Ohio and is said to have orig-
inated in that state. This variety has received favorable
notice.in a great many regions and was offered by most
of the nurserymen about 1890. It is not increasing in
‘popularity, however, on account of poor quality.
The tree is thrifty, hardy, a reliable cropper and very
productive. The fruit is smooth, uniform and keeps well.
416 The Commercial Apple Industry
The skin is often pale in color and not attractive, some-
times having but very little red coloring, yet at times under
favorable conditions being nearly covered with red. The
fruit stands handling well because it is very firm and has a
thick tough skin. It keeps till June in ordinary storage
and for that reason is regarded as a good apple for export
trade. The variety has a wide range of adaptibility in
regard to soil and climate and is recommended for planting
in cases where orchards are long distances from market
and the climate is rather severe. Many other varieties of
its season are much superior in quality and this will pre
vent the Stark from attaining any great popularity.
Hubbardston.
The Hubbardston, which originated at Hubbardston,
Massachusetts, has long been known to the commercial
grower. Kenrick, as long ago as 1832, recommended that
it was one of the most desirable varieties for Massachusetts.
The commercial importance of the Hubbardston, although
considerable, has never been great in any one region. It
is a fairly good variety for commercial planting in the
more northern sections of the country, but varies remark-
ably in market quality, size and color, smoothness of skin
and flavor. For this reason, it is known locally in many
places by other names. Normally it ripens between the
autumn and the late winter varieties, comes into bearing .
early, is a heavy cropper and fairly annual bearer. It is
somewhat susceptible to winter-injury and apple-canker
and seems to be more satisfactory when grafted on to more
hardy varieties such as Northern Spy. The quality of the
fruit is excellent for dessert, but is excelled by many other
varieties for culinary purposes. It is an uncertain keeper,
Varieties of Apples 41?
varying greatly in this respect according to tne regions
where grown. The fruit from western New York keeps
better apparently than that from the Hudson Valley. The
crop should usually be thinned since there is a tendency for
a considerable portion of the fruit to be undersized and
poorly colored. The Hubbardston soon loses its flavor in
common storage. Few authorities now recommend it for
commercial planting, although where well adapted it would
seem valuable for planting as a filler.
Tolman Sweet.
The Tolman Sweet is probably the best known sweet
apple grown for commercial purposes, and one which
deserves even more attention than is at present given to it.
Tt has long been grown throughout New England, New
York, Michigan and more northern states, although its
origin is unknown. The Tolman Sweet is best known
commercially in the New England states.
The tree is vigorous, upright, open, with long branches
and a form adapted to bearing an abundance of fruit. It
is exceptionally productive, long lived, and very hardy, in
fact one of the hardiest of all varieties. It comes into
bearing at an early age and the fruit hangs well on the
tree, is very uniform in grade and suffers little in loss
from culls or drops. The fruit, although medium or below
‘medium in size, is attractive for a yellow apple and is
highly esteemed for certain culinary purposes, especially
pickling, boiling, and baking. It is recommended as a
good commercial variety, although as yet the market for it
is rather undeveloped. Like the Russet it is highly
prized for cider and its other good qualities are worthy of
attention.
418 The Commercial Apple Industry
Winter Banana.
Winter Banana originated near Adamsboro, Indiana,
about 1876, and was first introduced by a nursery in Mon-
roe, Michigan, in 1890. This variety has been widely dis-
seminated especially in the Northwest, where it has
attained much commercial importance. There are consid-
erable young plantings of it throughout the East.
The fruit is large, clear pale yellow in color except for
a pinkish-red blush. The Winter Banana is a dessert
apple depending on the fancy trade demand for its pop-
ularity. It is classed as a winter apple, but matures rather
early and should be eaten before January first as it loses
much of its flavor after that date. The tree is productive
and well thought of in the Virginias and southern Penn-
sylvania districts, although on account of the delicacy of
the fruit it is not recommended for very extensive com-
mercial planting. It is a good apple for the home orchard
and limited commercial planting.
Missouri Pippin (Plate XXIV).
The Missouri Pippin originated at Kingsville, Missouri,
from seed planted about 1840. After 1860 it began to be
widely disseminated through Missouri, Kansas, and the
middle western states and is to-day one of the well known
market apples in the Middle West. It has been planted
extensively in northwest irrigated districts, particularly
among the earlier plantings, but has lost favor in the West
in recent years. It is not being planted in commercial
orchards of any region at the present time.
The principal advantage of the Missouri Pippin is that
it comes into bearing very early and yields heavily. The
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Varieties of Apples 419
fruit has a good color, but is second rate in quality and re-
quires considerable thinning to bring it up to good market
quality. It is in season from October to April. This va-
riety is not grown throughout the East and is not now rec-
ommended for commercial planting in any part of the
country.
Northwestern Greening.
_ The Northwestern Greening originated in Waupaca
County, Wisconsin, and was first introduced by E. W.
Daniels in 1872. It is widely disseminated through .the
north central states and is one of the leading varieties in
many sections. It is also planted to a considerable extent
in some of the larger orchards of the Shenandoah-Cumber-
land district and some of the irrigated sections of the
Northwest where it finds little favor, however. It is
not grown commercially in New York or the New Eng-
land states.
The Northwestern Greening is a large green apple,
highly attractive in color, but lacking uniformity. It is
especially adapted to planting in cool regions since the tree
is very hardy. The fruit has rather poor culinary quality,
but rather high market qualities. In the Shenandoah-
Cumberland region, this variety yields well, goes on the
market early and brings high prices. The tree is hardy,
vigorous and productive. It is recommended for planting
in a limited way commercially in the north central states
and parts of the Kast.
Rambo.
The Rambo is an old variety, the origin of which is
unknown. As long ago as 1817, however, it was much
420 The Commercial Apple Industry
cultivated in Delaware, Pennsylvania and New Jersey.
The Rambo is grown in considerable commercial quantities
throughout parts of Ohio and the Central West. It is
found also among the old orchards of the East. It is
surpassed by several varieties both for culinary and dessert
purposes. It is attractive when well colored, being a bright
red with yellow ground color, but very often this red color
is largely lacking. Under ordinary conditions, much of
the fruit is not of very good market quality. The tree is
more or less subject to winter-injury and breaks easily
under a heavy load of fruit. The Rambo is decreasing in
commercial importance in competition with better sorts.
Ortley.
The Ortley has recently attained prominence in the
boxed apple regions. It is one of the important varieties
of the Hood River Valley, that section producing about
100 cars in 1919. It is grown considerably in other west-
ern irrigated sections. It is highly prized as a dessert
apple and is well known to the fruit-stand trade. Ortley
is one of the leading varieties in Tasmania and Australia.
It long ago lost popularity among growers of the East, but
now seems to be gaining in favor in the West. It is an old
New Jersey variety, described by Coxe under the name of
Woolman’s Long Pippin and was first named Ortley in
1825 when specimens of this variety were sent to London.
In the East it is not found outside of the home orchards,
and is rarely planted commercially except in irrigated
regions. It is a large pale yellow apple of the Yellow
Bellflower type and seems to attain better flavor in more
southern and western climates. Ortley is not a very heavy
Varveties of Apples 421
_ eropper and the fruit is rather easily bruised and tender.
It is especially valuable for dessert use.
Red Canada.
This is a red winter apple, belonging to the same group
as Baldwin and Esopus. It is thought to have originated
in New England and was described by pomologists about
one hundred years ago. The principal commercial plant-
ings of this variety occur in Michigan where it is known
as Steel’s Red. It is well adapted to general and special
markets and brings high prices. It should be grown on
fertile or sandy soils, where it develops high flavor, color,
and market quality. It is not adapted to the South. In
ordinary storage, it will keep until January or April. The
principal disadvantages of this variety are that it is a
rather shy bearer, lacks hardiness and is but a moderate
grower. It is not recommended for commercial planting
and will not prove as profitable as more standard and
heavier cropping varieties.
Monmouth.
Monmouth reaches considerable commercial importance
only in the irrigated districts of Washington, particularly
the Yakima Valley where it is known in the markets by
the name of Red Cheek Pippin. It is a native of Mon-
mouth County, New Jersey, and has long been in general
cultivation throughout the East and Central West. It is
grown principally oply in the home orchards, there being
few commercial plantings outside of the Northwest.
In season it ripens in common storage by November,
while in cold storage its season may extend to January.
The tree is hardy, long lived, comes into bearing moder-
422 The Commercial Apple Industry
ately young and is a fairly reliable cropper. The fruit is
of good market quality, but if not well thinned there is
likely to be considerable loss in low grade fruit. The fruit
is medium to large. Its skin is yellow, faintly shaded with
red and in the case of highly colored specimens the fruit
has a pinkish-red blush. ‘The variety is not important
commercially.
Collins.
The Collins originated about 1865 near Fayetteville,
Arkansas, and has only recently been introduced to com-
mercial growers. It is grown considerably as a commercial
variety in northwestern Arkansas, but is not generally
recognized in any other district. The tree is a good
grower, hardy, and has a reputation of being productive.
The fruit is large, of excellent keeping quality and is in
season from January to June. The flesh is white, rather
coarse, only moderately juicy, and rather lacking in flavor.
Highly colored specimens are bright, dark red, with a
contrasting clear yellow ground color. The Collins has
some attractive market qualities, but is not generally
recommended for commercial planting. There seems no
doubt that Ben Davis is a more worthy and reliable crop-
per and is of equal market quality. Collins does not bid
fair to displace any other commercial variety.
Pumpkin Sweet (Pound Sweet).
Pumpkin Sweet, more commonly knowh as Pound
Sweet, is one of the best known, easiest grown and most —
attractive of the sweet varieties. It originated in Con-—
necticut and has been known in New York for about three-
“ Varveties of Apples 423
quarters of a century. It is not grown commercially
except in western New York and more northern localities.
The fruit is large to very large. Well colored specimens
become very yellow and sometimes are faintly bronzed on
the exposed cheeks, but are never marked with red.
Pumpkin Sweet is esteemed as one of the best sweet
apples for baking, canning, and stewing with quinces, and
is prized by some for dessert on account of its peculiar
flavor. It usually sells well in special markets and there
is a limited general demand for it. The fruit is in season
from October to January, but does not keep well in com-
mon storage. The tree is a strong grower, long lived,
hardy and productive. It thrives particularly well in
gravelly or sandy loam, with well drained subsoil. There
is often considerable loss from water-core and from wind-
falls, although other than this the loss from culls or under-
sized apples is usually small. The variety is recommended
only where the market demands a sweet apple.
Wolf River.
Wolf River is a variety of the Aport group, resembling
the Alexander in form and color, although averaging larger
in size. It has largely superseded the Alexander in the
north central states, although both apples are popular in
these regions on account of their extreme hardiness. The
variety originated near Wolf River, Fremont County, Wis-
consin, and was entered in the American Pomological
Society lists in 1881. The tree is very hardy, a good
grower, but a light cropper. The fruit is very large and
often somewhat irregular in form. Flesh is coarse, tender,
juicy, but low in quality. Wolf River apples sometimes
sell well on local markets because of their attractive appear-
424 The Commercial Apple Industry
ance. The tree is not generally recommended for planting
either in home or commercial orchards on account of poor
quality, light yields and unprofitableness. However, many
northern Michigan and Wisconsin growers have found this
variety very profitable.
Sutton.
The Sutton, originating in the town of Sutton, Massa-
chusetts, was first brought to notice by the Worcester
County Horticultural Society in 1848 and was included in
the American Pomological catalogue in 1877. It has not
attained commercial importance until late years. At the
present time, it is being planted quite extensively in the
Hudson Valley and some parts of New England, and its
dissemination seems to be on the increase. It has been
grown in Michigan under the name of Morris Red.
The Sutton tree closely resembles the Hubbardston, of
which it is supposed to be a seedling, but is much more
vigorous and healthy. The fruit is of uniform size, sym-
metrical, has a beautiful red color and is excellent for
dessert. The variety is especially adapted to the Hudson
Valley where fancy trade apples are grown. The tree is a
strong grower and productive but has a tendency to bear
biennially. Sutton is not generally recommended for
planting on any extended commercial scale and should be
grown only in those regions near city markets where the
fancy trade varieties are in greatest demand.
Ingram.
Ingram was originated by Martin Ingram, near Spring-
field, Missouri, about 1850. It has attained considerable
commercial importance throughout the Ozarks. Large
Varieties of Apples 425
plantings have been made in the more southern sections of
Missouri. The tree is fairly vigorous, but is likely to
bear small fruit unless thinned. The fruit is of medium
quality and its chief asset is its good keeping auality. In
spite of much advertising, it has not proved very popular
and is not now recommended for commercial planting. It
does not warrant an important place in commercial
orchards, even in Missouri.
Black Gilliflower.
This variety is generally known to the trade and appears
in market quotation as Gilliflower or Gills. It originated
in New England prior to 1800 and has long been a market
sort in a very limited way. There are very few orchard
blocks of Gilliflower in the country, but it is widely dissem-
inated in both home and commercial orchards, particularly
in New York and New England. The tree is hardy, vig-
orous and long lived.
The fruit is of medium size and very uniform in size,
shape and color. It is a dessert apple which is very dis-
tinct in color, form and flavor. The color is green, usually
completely covered with red, which becomes very dark or
almost black. The flesh has a peculiar flavor and aroma,
but soon becomes dry and mealy. The fruit is often
borne on the ends of the twigs which makes harvesting
difficult. It usually brings a high price and particularly
in southern markets, on account of its peculiar aroma,
flavor, and attractive color. The Gilliflower is preferred
by some to all other varieties as a dessert apple, but its
popularity is very limited. It is not recommended for
commercial planting, except in a very limited way. It
is a good variety for the home orchard.
426 The Commercial Apple Industry
Lady.
The Lady apple is known to have been in cultivation for
well over three hundred years and is thought to have orig-
inated in France. It is often seen on fruit-stands more
for decoration than for eating purposes. It is a strikingly
beautiful little apple, especially adapted for decorative pur-
poses. It grows in profusion in many parts of the coun-
try, particularly in the Piedmont district of Virginia
where it is produced commercially in limited quantities.
Limited plantings are also found in New York state and
the Northwest. The Lady apple often tops the market in
price, having sold on the New York markets for as high
as $25.00 a barrel when standard sorts were bringing
about one-fifth as much.
The variety seems to do best in Virginia where it grows
to perfection. In size it is not much larger than a crab-
apple and it is very expensive to grow and harvest. On
the whole, it is not to be considered more profitable than
the more’ standard varieties. Furthermore, it is not
recommended for general planting since a few acres would
practically flood the market for this type of fruit. Prop-
erly handled it may be held in cold storage far into the
summer, but there are few demands for it after the holiday
season. The tree is moderately vigorous. The fruit is
exceedingly small, somewhat lacking in uniformity; flesh
is white, tender, juicy, and of high dessert quality.
EARLY AND FALL VARIETIES
Oldenburg (commercial name, Duchess).
Oldenburg is probably the leading early variety grown
in the United States. It is one of the most valuable of
Varieties of Apples 427
Russian apples and was introduced into this country from
England by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society about
1835. The extreme hardiness of this variety proved its
worth and was responsible for the introduction of other
Russian sorts. It is superior in hardiness to the Baldwin,
Rhode Island Greening and Northern Spy.
The tree is easily grown, requires little pruning and is
an early and heavy bearer. The variety is widely known
throughout the North and East, and particularly in the
region bordering the Great Lakes. It is in Wisconsin,
Michigan and New York that it assumes greatest com-
mercial importance. Oldenburg is produced in carload
lots in these states and particularly along the Ontario Lake
shore in western New York where there are many plant-
ings of commercial importance.
The fruit is medium to large and is uniform in shape
and size, with firm, crisp, juicy flesh. It hangs on the
tree well. When properly grown and handled, it stands
‘shipment well. The fruit brings good prices and is unsur-
passed for its culinary qualities. It is one of the most
valuable early apples for commercial purposes.
Wealthy.
Wealthy originated as a seedling at Excelsior, Minne-
sota, from seed of the Cherry Crab obtained from Maine
about 1860. It is one of the most important of the hardier
varieties adapted to the cold climates of the northernmost
states. It has wide distribution, particularly in northern
Illinois, northern Iowa, Wisconsin, and Michigan, being
one of the leading, if not the leading, variety of these
‘regions. In New York and Maine, it is grown in consid-
erable commercial quantities but in these states it is of
428 The Commercial Apple Industry
less relative importance as compared with other varieties.
Wealthy is an early sort highly prized in New Jersey and
Delaware.
The fruit is bright red, of large size and of good market
quality, selling well in most markets. It is normally con-
sumed before November and is essentially a fall apple,
although it may be kept into the early winter in cold stor-
age. Criticism is sometimes made of the Wealthy on the
ground of uneven ripening and tendency to considerable
variation in size and lack of color, but with good care it
has proved profitable in the regions described above. It
is especially adapted for planting as a filler.
Yellow Transparent.
Yellow Transparent was imported from Russia by the
United States Department of Agriculture in 1870. It
has since been disseminated from coast to coast and is now
the leading very early commercial variety. It is grown
extensively, particularly in Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
West Virginia, the Ohio Valley and especially in the early
apple districts of Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio and various
other states.
Since it is about the first apple on the market, it is
sought for dessert and is highly prized for culinary pur-
poses. It grows to good size, is productive and takes on a
good clear yellow color before becoming over-ripe. The
crop ripens over a period of three or four weeks and more
than one picking is usually necessary. Yellow Transpar-
ent brings a good price on the market and thus far has
proved very profitable commercially.
Varieties of Apples 429
Twenty Ounce.
The Twenty Ounce has proved one of the most popular
of fall varieties for commercial planting. Its origin is
unknown, but it was first brought to attention when fruit
grown in Cayuga County, New York, was exhibited before
the Massachusetts Horticultural Society about seventy
years ago. It is one of the most important fall varieties
grown in New York, being particularly important in Mon-
roe and other western counties in the Lake Shore region.
The fruit is large and attractive, being green and later
yellowish with broad stripes and splashes of red. In New
York it is in season from September to early winter, while
in New Jersey and Delaware it comes on the market in
August. The Twenty Ounce keeps very well for a fall
variety and stands shipping well. It is usually handled
without going into cold storage, although it may be kept
until midwinter in storage. The fruit is fairly uniform
in size, is of good marketable quality and is well known in
eastern commercial markets where it brings good prices.
The tree is vigorous, with erect main branches, but more
or less willowy and drooping laterals. The trunk and
larger limbs are especially subject to sun-scald and canker.
Closer planting may be practiced than with Baldwin,
Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy, York, or other var-
ieties, which attain considerable size. Twenty Ounce is
recommended for commercial planting in Delaware, New
Jersey, and many parts of New England and New York.
Gravenstein.
Gravenstein was introduced into this country from cen-
tral Europe early in the nineteenth century. It is of
430 The Commercial Apple Industry
much commercial importance for a variety of its season,
which in the Northeast is from September to November.
The largest commercial plantings of this variety are in
Sonoma County, California, which ships annually about
500 cars of boxed Gravensteins. Gravensteins are grown
in a limited way through the other far west and northwest
districts. Commercial plantings also occur in New Jer-
sey, Delaware, the Hudson Valley, New England and are
particularly important in Nova Scotia. The fruit is
found on the New York market during the autumn in
large quantities.
Gravenstein is of very attractive appearance and of
excellent quality. It is practically unexcelled for culin-
ary purposes and is highly prized as a dessert apple, being
usually in strong deniand and commanding good prices.
There is likely to be considerable loss from dropping since
the fruit does not color evenly and requires two or three
pickings. The tree comes into bearing moderately early
and is a fairly reliable cropper. It is large, vigorous, and
hardy, and adapted to many climates. The Gravenstein’s
place as a commercial variety is assured.
McIntosh.
The McIntosh belongs to the Fameuse group and is
adapted to a wide range of localities, although the districts
where it grows commercially are limited. It originated as
a chance seedling on the McIntosh farm in Dundas County,
Ontario. Allan McIntosh began its propagation about
1870. Its dissemination and cultivation is on the increase.
In season it varies from an early fall apple in the South
to late fall or early winter apple in Canada. In New York
Varieties of Apples 431
it begins to ripen about October first. The fruit is very
attractive in appearance and the flesh is tender, perfumed
and delicious. It may be kept in cold storage until the
first of the year. The fruit is susceptible to scab and has
a tendency to ripen unevenly and to drop. The trees are
generally hardy, come into bearing young and have a tend-
ency to biennial bearing. The variety is grown commer-
cially in northern New York, Vermont, particularly on
Grand Isle, in Lake Champlain. Considerable commercial
plantings are in the Hudson Valley, southern New Hamp-
shire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, where it does par-
ticularly well. It is the leading commercial variety of
_ the Bitter Root Valley of Montana and is grown in the
commercial orchards of Idaho, Washington and British
Columbia. It usually commands a very good price in the
market and is highly prized, especially for dessert pur-
poses. Nearly all McIntosh apples enter commercial
channels.
Maiden Blush (Lady Blush, Red Cheek).
Maiden Blush is one of the most widely grown of all fall
apples and is found to some extent in practically all the
central, eastern and southern apple-growing states. It is
grown in considerable commercial quantities in northwest
Arkansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana and Ohio, and to a
lesser extent commercially in New York and the Atlantic
seaboard states. It was well known in the Philadelphia
market over one hundred years ago.
The tree is medium in size and moderately vigorous,
comes into bearing young and is a reliable cropper.
Maiden Blush is a standard market variety and usually
432 The Commercial Apple Industry
sells above those of its class. It is good in quality and is
valued for many uses. It makes very white evaporated
stock.
In season it varies from a summer apple in the Ozarks
to a fall apple in the North, keeping until December 15th
in New York. The fruit is a beautiful pale yellow color
with crimson cheek, which adds to its popularity. Its
disadvantages are that it is not a particularly good ship-
per and keeper, and ripens somewhat unevenly, with a
tendency to drop. Its place in the commercial orchard
is assured, although its production is not likely to in-
crease.
Fameuse (Snow).
The Fameuse is thought by some to be of French origin.
It was grown in Quebec at a very early date, possibly as
long ago as 1600. It has long been recognized as an
important commercial variety and is one of the most valu- —
able dessert’ apples of its season. It is well distributed
throughout the northern states, particularly Michigan,
New York, and New England, and is especially adapted to
cold climates. Fameuse is grown commercially princi-
pally in the Champlain district of New York and Ver-
mont, the St. Lawrence Valley, and in the commercial dis-
tricts of Wisconsin, Michigan and eastern Canada. It is
found in home orchards in many northern localities. It
is well known in the market and during its season, which
is from October to January, it is in good demand and
usually commands high prices.
The fruit is particularly susceptible to apple-scab fun-
gus. It is small to medium in size. The flesh is white,
very tender, aromatic, juicy, and when ripe is mildly sub-
Varweties of Apples 433
acid. The skin is bright red, deepening to an almost
purplish black. The tree is hardy and vigorous. The
Fameuse is not being extensively planted in the United
States, its place being largely taken by the McIntosh.
Williams (Williams Early Red, Williams Favorite).
Williams originated in Roxbury, Massachusetts, nearly
175 years ago. It was brought to the notice of the Massa-
chusetts Horticultural Society and named Williams in
1830, and was entered in the American Pomological
Society catalogue in 1854.
It is one of the most valuable varieties for the commer-
cial market and is being planted to a considerable extent
throughout New England, the Hudson Valley, New Jer-
sey, Delaware and Maryland. It is also recommended for
planting throughout the South. In season it varies from
September 1st in New England to July 1st in Carolina.
Williams is a large bright red apple of very attractive
appearance and with a pleasant, mild sub-acid flavor,
unless over-ripe, when it becomes dry. It comes into
bearing early and yields fair to good annual crops which
bring high prices in the home commercial market. The
apple is highly prized for export. It is recommended as
a good variety to plant where an early commercial sort is
desired.
Benon.
Benoni is an eariy apple of commercial importance in
the Middle West. It originated at Dedham, Massachus-
etts, and was introduced about 1832. It is a fine dessert
apple of excellent quality, inclined to be conical in shape.
The flesh is yellow, fine grained, crisp, juicy, and pleas-
434 The Commercial Apple Industry
antly sub-acid. It begins to ripen early in August and
extends into September. The tree is large and vigorous
and comes into heavy bearing moderately young and yields
good biennial crops. Its commercial production in earload
quantities is mostly confined to the early apple section of
southern Illinois, particularly Johnson and Union counties
where it ripens the first of July. Its production is not in-
creasing and it finds little favor in the East.
Bonum (Magnum Bonum).
Bonum is well known in the Piedmont district of Vir-
ginia and North Carolina. It is highly prized in these
states as a commercial variety and invariably commands
good prices. It originated in Davidson County, North
Carolina, early in the last century, but has never been dis-
seminated to any extent outside of the Piedmont region.
It is important commercially in several North Carolina
counties and particularly in Rappahannock and Patrick —
counties, Virginia, where it is planted in solid blocks and
produced in carload lots.
The tree is moderately vigorous and comes into bearing
early. The fruit is of medium size, superior quality, with
yellow skin, mostly covered with crimson and dark red.
The flesh is white, often stained next to the skin. It is
tender, juicy, and has a peculiar aroma. It is highly
prized as a dessert in the southern markets.
Its season extends from September to about December
1st. This is a profitable variety only in certain regions
and does not yield as heavily as the more standard sorts.
It also has a tendency to drop and has a short picking sea-
son. Its place in the commercial orchard is assured, |
although it will never be grown in considerable quantities
Varieties of Apples 435
on account of its season. It is very valuable for home
orchards of the South.
Red Astrachan.
Red Astrachan, one of the best known and most widely
disseminated varieties, originated in Sweden and was
known in England as early as 1816. It was introduced
in this country in 1835 by the Massachusetts Horticul-
tural Society. The variety is well known commercially
in Monmouth County, New Jersey, in Delaware and to a
limited extent throughout the northern tier of states as far
west as the Missouri River. It is a beautiful early sum-
mer apple, of medium size, yellow, largely covered with
light and dark red stripes, very often a bluish bloom. It
is highly prized for culinary and dessert purposes.
The tree is medium in size, a strong grower, moderately
long lived, an early bearer, and a reliable cropper. It is
necessary to make several pickings as the fruit ripens very
unevenly and there is likely to be considerable loss from
dropping. The Red Astrachan is not very uniform in size
and is a poor shipper. It is well suited for local trade
demand, but not at all for distant shipping. Red Astra-
chan is so common throughout the home orchards that local
markets are generally well supplied. Commercial plant-
ings are not generally recommended.
Early Ripe.
This is a well known early commercial variety particu-
larly adapted to New Jersey, Delaware and Pennsylvania,
where it has attained considerable commercial importance.
It is one of the leading commercial apples of New Jersey.
The tree is large, vigorous, and a fairly good cropper,
436 The Commercial Apple Industry
although it has a tendency to biennial bearmg. Fruit is
medium, fairly uniform in size, rather inclined to be con-
ical, irregular and broadly ribbed, with short thick stems,
Its season is July and August. Early Ripe trees come into
bearing young and are well adapted as fillers or for perm-
anent planting in certain regions. Some large orchards of
this variety are in southern New Jersey and in the inten-
sive apple sections of Delaware. It is recommended for
planting in these distrcts.
Alexander.
This apple is of the Aport group introduced from Russia
to England in 1817, later to this country where it is only
grown in limited commercial quantities. The tree is usu-
ally exceptionally hardy, vigorous and moderately produc-
tive. It is subject to blight in some localities. Its season
in the North begins in September and extends through Oc-
tober. It is often in strong demand in the market and
has proved: a highly profitable variety for those who have
grown it in a commercial way. One of the best commer- _
cial orchards of this variety is at Hilton, New York. It
is particularly adapted to northern climates and is widely
grown in Canada.
The fruit is large and uniform in size, attractive, red
striped, medium in quality and suitable more for culinary
purposes than for dessert. It brings high prices but since
the demand is limited it is*not recommended for commer-
cial planting excent in a small way, or as a filler.
Starr.
The Starr is an early variety of commercial importance
only in sections of New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland.
Varieties of Apples 437
_ Rather extensive plantings are in the district about Bur-
lington County, New Jersey. The original tree was found
on the grounds of Judge J. M. White at Woodbury, New
Jersey, and was first propagated by William Perry in 1865
under the name of Starr.
The tree is moderately vigorous, comes into bearing
young and has a reputation of being a good annual bearer.
The fruit is. large, very attractive for a green or yellowish
apple, very good in quality and especially for dessert use.
It is highly prized for the early market and is one of the
leading commercial varieties of southern New Jersey. Its
season is July to September. At the present time, most
of the fruit of the Starr is shipped in hampers or in five-
eighths-bushel baskets. The Starr is recommended for
commercial planting in New Jersey, but not in New York
or more northern districts.
Red June (Carolina Red June, Carolina. June, Carolina
Red).
Red June is a southern apple, supposed to have origin-
ated in North Carolina. It has long been known commer-
cially and is grown in many sections, particularly in south-
ern Illinois and in various early apple districts of the
southern states, as well as to a limited degree in New
Jersey and Delaware. Red June tops the early market in
price in many sections and is particularly important in
southern Illinois production. The fruit has a very at-
tractive deep red color, is inclined to be oblong, with un-
equal sides, but is fairly uniform in size and shape.
The tree bears well, is remarkably vigorous and has an
upright habit of growth, with short, straight, slender
twigs. The fruit ripens very unevenly so that several
438 The Commercial Apple Industry
pickings are necessary. This variety is well suited for
early fancy trade demand, and although it requires consid-
erable care will prove profitable when grown in proximity
to early markets.
Chenango (Chenango Strawberry).
_ The Chenango, commonly called Chenango Strawberry
or Strawberry, was first brought to attention in Chenango
County, New York. This variety has long been a favorite
in home orchards and special markets. In dessert and eul-
inary qualities it is unsurpassed. It has a very character-
istic aroma and flavor which it still retains when cooked.
Under favorable conditions the tree is a heavy bearer,
usually biennial. The fruit begins to ripen in southern
Illinois, where it is grown in considerable commercial
quantities for shipment, about the last of July and the rip-
ening period continues for several weeks. It should thus
have several pickings. In New York and New England,
where it is a favorite home orchard variety, it does not be-
gin to ripen before September.
The tree is hardy, long lived and an early bearer. ‘The
fruit varies in size from small to very large. It is yellow-
ish white, striped with red, and usually elongated, oblong
conic in form, although it is particularly subject to varia-
tion in quality and form, trees in the same orchard often
producing widely different types. It is one of the most at-
tractive apples, is unsurpassed as a home orchard variety
and has proved very profitable when grown in limited quan-
tities for special local markets. It is usually marketed in
hampers or baskets. The fruit ripens too unevenly and is
too variable in size for a standard variety. It is also a
very poor shipper.
Varieties of Apples 439
| Fall Pippin.
The origin of the Fall Pippin is unknown, but it is cer-
tain that the variety has been cultivated for many genera-
tions since there are trees in New York orchards which are
now over one hundred years old. Although a good variety
for the home orchard, the Fall Pippin is not widely grown
or recommended outside of the Hudson Valley and certain
limited areas.
The fruit is very large, tends to ripen unevenly, but
when fully ripened has an attractive yellow color and a
peculiar flavor. The flesh is tender, rich, and of fine
quality, being excellent both for dessert and culinary pur-
poses. The apple is desired by the export and by fancy
trade, particularly in the vicinity of New York. Its sea-
son is from September to January. The tree is large,
vigorous, hardy, and very long lived, but the fruit and foli-
age are especially subject to attacks of apple-scab fungus
and thorough preventive measures are necessary in order
to grow the Fall Pippin successfully. While not recom-
mended for general planting, this variety would doubtless
prove profitable in the more northern regions where there
is a local or fancy trade demand.
All the foregoing varieties are grown commercially to
a greater or less extent. There are other sorts such as
Early Harvest, Smith’s Cider, Smokehouse, Fallawater,
Swarr, Sweet Bough, Westfield, and a great many others
which are well known to the home orchardist, and widely
listed in nursery catalogues, but which are not important
commercially in any part of the country, and for this
reason are not described in this discussion. It might be
well to mention that such varieties as Lowry, Virginia
440 The Commercial Apple Industry
Beauty, King David, Opalescent and certain others are be-
ing planted with considerable success in certain localities.
Lowry and Virginia Beauty are in favor in parts of Vir-
ginia and North Carolina, while Opalescent is found in
Ohio. King David is quite widely disseminated and is
being planted considerably. English Codling, Cham-
plain, Pennock or Pelican are found in a commercial
way in Monmouth County, New Jersey. Golden Deli-
cious has not yet attained commercial prominence but in a
decade will no doubt be one of the best prized apples.
The varieties which have been given detailed description
will represent practically the entire commercial crop of the
United States. The first twelve described represent nearly
80 per cent of the entire commercial production of this
country. This serves to emphasize the importance of rec-
ognizing and planting only such varieties as are of some
commercial importance or promise. Hundreds of other
inds might be named which appear in nursery catalogues,
butthe greater portion of these are valueless either as
home ‘orchard varieties or for commercial planting.
There\.are many new and much advertised varieties
which are not discussed for as yet they are of little or no
commercial importance and several years’ trial will be nec-
essary to determine their true value. However, there is
plenty of opportunity for new varieties if they are really
superior to the standard sorts of to-day and experiment
stations are doing valuable work in developing apples of
superior quality. Before planting any new variety on a
large commercial scale, it should be very highly recom-
mended by at least two or three experiment stations which
have given it a thorough trial. Golden Delicious is one
Varieties of Apples 441
of these very new varieties which certainly is worthy of
a thorough trial commercially.
STATUS OF COMMERCIAL VARIETIES
It is of importance to discuss the relative status of the
various commercial varieties and the reasons for their in-
erease or decline.
Commercial varieties the production of which is on the
increase, and the outstanding reasons for this:
Variety.
GIES 0) ol
2. Stayman ..... iar Mate aes iat
;
8. Delicious .......
' 6. Williams Early Red
7. York Imperial ......
8. Oldenburg (Duchess)
Reasons for increase in com-
mercial orchards.
Early bearer, high in color, fine
in flavor, good shipper.
Good size, fine keeping quality,
very productive, agreeable
flavor.
--Quality par-excellence, attract-
ive appearance, fancy trade
demand.
Productive, hardy, excellent
quality, regular bearer.
--Good size, uniform, attractive
appearance, productive, excel-
lent cooking and baking qual-
ities.
Fancy trade demand both local
and export, attractive appear-
ance, good quality, good ship-
per.
Very productive, excellent cul-
inary and shipping qualities.
Fine culinary qualities, hardy
tree, fruit uniform in size and
shape, early bearer, produc-
tive.
442 The Commercial Apple Industry
Reasons for increase in com-
Variety. mercial orchards.
Os Garas ei eya aerate alaletern iol atete Excellent quality — both dessert
and culinary, fancy trade de-
mand.
10> Melaitosh®, Shige Gas pace Attractive appearance, excellent
dessert qualities, fancy trade
demand, very hardy.
dd Wealthy: 2i'eo oi Nee\siG ceca ayarone Uniform in size and_ shape,
hardy, productive, early and
reliable cropper, excellent
market quality.
12. Yellow Transparent ....... Very early, productive, excellent
culinary qualities, attractive
appearance.
13. Arkansas (Black Twig) ...Large size, attractive, excellent
for baking, fairly productive.
14. Arkansas Black .......... Large and most attractive ap-
pearance. Extremely good
keeper and shipper.
15, Winter Banana .......... Early bearer, fine appearance,
high quality, fancy trade de-
mand.
16. Golden Delicious ......... A new variety being recently
planted, productive, high qual-
ity. combining many qualities
of Grimes and Delicious.
The above varieties owe their popularity to widely dif-
ferent reasons. Delicious, McIntosh, Grimes and Winter
Banana are in demand by the fancy trade on account of
their excellent dessert quality. With the exception of
Grimes, they are as yet used little for culinary purposes.
Arkansas Black, although of rather inferior quality, is
utilized by the fancy trade late in the season. ‘The other
varieties are more in demand by the general trade. The
disadvantage which some of the apples have in quality
Varieties of Apples 443
of the fruit is overcome by hardiness of tree, and by ship-
ping and keeping qualities. Certain varieties are decreas-
ing in some sections and increasing in others. Arkansas
(Black Twig) is out of favor with so many growers that its
continued popularity is questionable. York is increasing
in popularity only in the Shenandoah and Cumberland
Valley districts of the Virginias, Maryland and Pennsyl-
vania. Stayman is almost universally on the increase.
The production of the following varieties is practically
stationary, the new plantings about taking the place of
those which are going out: Baldwin, Rhode Island Green-
ing, Yellow Newtown, Gravenstein, White Winter Pear-
main, Northwest Greening, Twenty Ounce, Gano, Wag-
ener, Maiden Blush, Alexander, Benoni, Bonum.
Of these, the Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening and Yel-
low Newtown are very important commercial varieties and
will remain so. The reason why they are not on the in-
crease is due to the fact that the new plantings, although
very large, are not sufficient to overcome the decline in
production of the thousands of old orchards throughout the
East. Yellow Newtown is increasing in the Northwest.
Other varieties are decreasing in some sections and increas-
ing in others. Gravenstein is growing in a strictly com-
mercial way in New Jersey, California and parts of New
England. Wagener, although in much favor in the
Spokane district of Washington, parts of Michigan and
other limited sections, is losing popularity in western
Colorado, Wenatchce and Yakima valleys, and is now
planted only to a very limited extent in the East.
Gano is planted much less than formerly and is classed
by most persons with the Ben Davis, although Black Ben
is being grown quite extensively. Due to many young
d44 The Commercial Apple Industry
plantings, Gano and Black Ben are increasing in produc-
tion in the Northwest and boxed apple states.
The White Pearmain and Northwest Greening are im-
portant varieties in particular localities. They tend to
hold their own.
Maiden Blush is widely disseminated and brings good
prices in the commercial market. It is not on the increase,
due to the limited demand for its class of fruit and the
great number of old trees of this variety which are going
out.
Alexander and Benoni are grown only in a limited way
commercially, and are striving to hold their own against
the Duchess and Yellow Transparent.
Twenty Ounce is in favor in certain sections of New
York, New Jersey and Delaware, but its susceptibility to
canker has checked planting.
Bonum, important in certain southern markets, and of
superior quality, is at present largely dependent on Rap-
pahannock and Patrick counties, Virginia, and western
North Carolina for its continued commercial importance.
The following varieties are declining in commercial im-
portance and in another generation many of them will have
disappeared from the commercial orchards. Many ot
these varieties are among the most important in the
country, but they evidently are not as generally profitable
as others which, for various reasons, excel them in a com-
bination of qualities.
Variety. Reasons for decline in com-
mercial orchards.
A BOM (BVI). tate eerie ninieie.° Low quality, susceptible to
blister-canker.
13.
Varveties
Variety.
. Northern Spy
. Esopus (Spitzenburg)
. Tompkins Kin
. Roxbury and
Russet
. Missouri Pippin
. Tolman Sweet
Mebamouse ... 26s sss
». PSULIS CL e Ce Ree baat ieee
. Smokehouse sen
Smith Cider
is iousite catia tie ae
Golden ’..:..
PeEUbbardston! 2.s-so ss s.s/ s
ey
. Yellow Bellflower .........
ey
of Apples 445
Reasons for decline in com-
mercial orchards.
Slow to come into bearing; high
cost of production.
.. Very suspectible to disease, es-
pecially _fire-blight, light
bearer.
Tree short-lived, fruit inclined
to water-core, high cost of
production.
Former popularity due to long
keeping quality in common
storage; place now taken by
apples of superior market
quality; difficult to harvest.
Loses flavor in storage, tends to
bear much undersized and
poor colored fruit.
.-Short lived tree, fruit of third
rate quality and small in size.
Decline due to fact it is a sweet
apple; deserves more atten-
tion.
.. Susceptibility to apple-scab,
place in market being taken
by McIntosh.
Requires great care in handling,
not regarded as a satisfactory
cropper on most soils in the
East.
Does not color well, poor quality.
.- Difficult to develop fruit of good
eolor and quality. Other var-
ieties much better suited to
culinary uses.
Does not rank high in market
quality, and does not develop
in size in many regions.
446 The Commercial Apple Industry
14.
15.
16.
ar
18.
19.
20.
21.
92.
23.
24.
25.
26.
Reasons for decline in com-
Variety. mercial orchards.
Willow Twig .............Poor quality. Has declined
since advent of cold storage.
Red Limbertwig .......... Only fair quality, market price
below the average, place taken
by superior cold storage varie-
ties.
Westfield (Seek-no-further) Fruit variable in color, usually
lower in price than other
commercial varieties, lacks
culinary qualities.
Black Gilliflower ......... Does not hold flavor, difficult to
harvest, limited demand.
Ralls (Genet or Geniton)..Requires much thinning, rather
small in size, poor appearance.
Fall Pippin ..............Very susceptible to apple-seab,
ripens unevenly, lacks storage
qualities
Rambo ...........+.+++-..Leading commercial varieties
are superior in quality and
uses, does not keep well in
storage.
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