s
363.78
A7CGP
1998
CommefciaT 8C Government
STATF DOCUMENTS COLLECT
AUG 0 y 2004
MONTANA STAia LlbRAf^Y
1515 E. 6th AVE.
HELENA. MONTAr''^ 59G'
STATE OF MONTANA • DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
HELENA, MONTANA
JANUARY 1998
'^Lr^P^^
INTRODUCTION
All pesticide applicators are required to know basic safety and handling rules for
pesticide use. The purpose of this "Basic Pesticide Training Manual" is to help
individuals wishing to become applicators learn those facts.
Applying pesticides requires many special skills and responsibilities. It is an important
occupation on its own and an indispensable part of many other occupations. Those
who apply pesticides or supervise pesticide applicators must be sure pesticides are
handled and applied properly and safely. It is necessary to identify pests and then
select the best method or methods for their control. For personal safety, as well as that
of co-workers and family, it is essential to understand the hazards of pesticides and
how to avoid injury. Protecting tlie environment is also a major concern. Additionally,
it is important to be familiar with all state and federal laws regulating the use, storage,
transportation, application, and disposal of pesticides.
Tliis is the basic or core manual for all pesticide applicators and dealers. This manual
is to be used by all applicators who wish to be licensed or certified in any Montana
pesticide applicator category. Applicators will also need to review other manuals
appropriate to their specific applicator category(ies), the Montana Pesticide Act, and
the Act's associated Administrative Rules of Montana (ARM 4.10.101-1808).
To simplify information, trade named products and equipment have been mentioned.
No endorsement is intended, nor is criticism implied of similar products or equipment
which are not mentioned.
Developed by the Montana Department of Agriculture:
Technical Services Bureau, Agricultural Sciences Division
Heidi Hart
Laura Hinck
Kim Jolinson
Barbra Mullin
David Rise
Donna Rise
Kari Smith
Dan Sullivan
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2011 with funding from
IVIontana State Library
http://www.archive.org/details/commercialgovern1998mont
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I PESTICIDE LAWS AND REGULATIONS
I Federal Laws and Regulations 3
I State Pesticide Laws and Regulations 6
I Commercial Applicator Licensing Categories 10
I Administrative Procedures 15
I Montana Agricultural Chemical Ground
Water Protection Act (MACGWPA) 17
I Montana Water Quality Act (MWQA) 19
I Montana Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act 19
I Montana Solid Waste Laws 20
II PESTICIDE RECORD KEEPING
I Dealer Records 21
I Dealer Pesticide Reports 21
I Applicator Records 22
I Applicator Pesticide Reports 23
I Incident Reports 23
I Notification by Applicators 24
III THE WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD (WPS)
I WPS Terminology 25
I The Worker Protection Standard Goals 26
I Pesticide Labeling 26
I Employer 's Responsibilities 27
I Regulation of the WPS 28
IV THE PESTICIDE LABEL
I Reading The Label 29
I Format of Labels 30
I Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) 35
V PESTICIDE APPLICATION: FORMULATIONS AND EQUIPMENT
I Pesticide Formulations 43
I Spray Additives 47
I Viscosity Modifiers 48
I Compatibility of Pesticides 49
I Types of Ground Equipment 50
I Accessory Equipment 52
I Maintenance of Ground Equipment 60
I Aerial Equipment 61
VI CALIBRATING PESTICIDE EQUIPMENT
I Sprayer Calibration 72
I Ground Speed Measurement 72
I Amount of Pesticide Needed Per Tank 73
I Adjuvants (Surfactants) 74
I 1/128 Calibration Method 74
I Calibration of Aerial Equipment 77
VII PESTICIDE, STORAGE, TRANSPORTATION, AND DISPOSAL
I Pesticide Fire and Explosion Hazards and
Precautionary Guidelines 81
I Pesticide Storage 82
I Transportation of Pesticides 83
I Disposal of Pesticides and Their Containers 85
VIII TOXICOLOGY OF PESTICIDES
I Tests for Determining Toxicity 89
I Health Hazards of Pesticides 92
I Acute Pesticide Effects on Humans and
Recognition of Their Signs & Symptoms 94
I How Pesticides Enter the Body (Exposure) 96
IX PROTECTIVE PESTICIDE EQUIPMENT
I Wovens, Nonwovens and Coated/Laminated Suits 99
I Protective Clothing Characteristics 104
I Classification, Description & Limitations of Pesticide
Respiratory Protection Devices 107
I Other Features to Consider 1 10
I Care and Decontamination of Clothing 112
X FIRST AID IN THE EVENT OF PESTICIDE POISONING
^ First Aid 115
I General Treatment 115
I Specific Treatment 116
XI PESTICIDES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
I Pesticide Fate 119
I Pesticide Residues in Food and Water 123
I Pesticide Residues in the Environment 124
I Surface Water 125
I Ground Water 125
I Best Management Practices 127
XII FISH AND WILDLIFE
I Nontarget Effects of Pesticides 129
I How Does Exposure to Wildlife Occur? 130
I How Do Pesticides Affect Wildlife? 130
I Biological Magnification 132
I Habitat Alteration and Loss of Food 132
I Reducing Risk to Wildlife 132
I Endangered Species and Pesticides 134
XIII INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
I Principles oflPM 138
I Tools of 1PM 139
GLOSSARY 141
ABBREVIATIONS & MEANINGS 151
III
CHAPTER I
PESTICIDE LAWS AND REGULATIONS
% Federal Laws and Regulations
Insecticides and fiingicides were the first pesticides to be regulated with the enactment of the
Insecticide Act of 1910. The 1906 Pure Food Law was expanded in 1938 to include regulations
governing the use of pesticides on food. In 1947, the 1910 Insecticide Act was replaced by the
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA).
FIFRA - Enactment of FIFRA expanded the scope of pesticide regulation. New regulations required
that all pesticides moved in interstate commerce be registered by the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA), that pesticide usage be safe, and that all pesticides be properly labeled by
manufacturers. The intent of labeling is to ensure the safety of the public by requiring proper product
use instructions. Packaging and safety regulations were added to FIFRA through several pieces of
legislation from 1950 to 1970.
In 1970, federal responsibility for regulating pesticides under FIFRA was transferred from USDA to
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The 1972 amendments to FIFRA gave EPA
principal authority to control pesticides, to register and inspect producing establishments, and to
certify applicators using pesticide products designated as restricted use. The amendment also
extended federal registration of pesticides to include those distributed or used within states. FIFRA
was again amended in 1978. The 1978 amendments required EPA to establish criteria for data
submission requirements in support of product registration. EPA stipulated that data submitted to
support an original product registration could not be used to support registration of other products
for a period of 10 years. More importantly, the 1978 amendments gave states primacy with regard
to enforcement of pesticide laws, provided that states have established an EPA approved plan for
such activities.
Amendments to FIFRA in 1988 are referred to as "FIFRA Lite". These amendments established a
five phase re-registration process for all pesticides registered prior to November 1, 1984, based on
pesticide active ingredients. Assessment of fees by registrants was set to generate $14 million per
fiscal year to support personnel and resources necessary for re-registration activities in a timely
manner. Regulations were also published for pesticide container design, promoting safe storage and
disposal of pesticide containers, and prescribing procedures and standards for removal of pesticide
residues fi'om such containers. The following summarizes some of the more important provisions of
FIFRA.
Registration - The distribution, sale, offering or holding for sale, shipment, delivery or receipt within
any state of any pesticide which is not registered with the EPA is prohibited. To register a pesticide,
the applicant files a statement that includes a copy of the labeling, the claims to be made for the
pesticide, directions for its use, and the complete formula of the pesticide.
EPA has the authority to cancel a pesticide's registration if it is later determined that the directed use
of the pesticide poses a serious hazard to humans or the environment. A registrant can appeal an
EPA cancellation notice through a process of public hearings and review by a scientific advisory
group. Suspension of a pesticide registration, unlike cancellation, stops interstate shipments
immediately, but can be initiated only when the product presents an imminent danger. The EPA
Administrator may issue a "stop sale, use or removal" order when it appears that a pesticide violates
the law or its registration has been suspended or finally canceled.
FIFRA, as amended, requires the registration of all pesticide producing establishments. Information,
which includes the types and amount of pesticides produced, distributed and sold, must be submitted
upon registration of the firm and annually thereafter.
In 1996, the Food Quality Protection Act amended FIFRA. Amendments included the establishment
of a system for reviewing pesticide registrations and tolerances on a 15-year cycle, authorization for
EPA to suspend pesticide registrations immediately under emergency conditions, and requirements
that EPA develop criteria for reduced-risk pesticides and expedite their registration.
Classification of Pesticides - The 1972 amendments required that all pesticides be classified as
general or restricted use.
A General Use pesticide is defined in FIFRA as one which will not generally cause
unreasonable adverse effects on the environment when used in accordance with its labeling.
Such pesticides normally are available to the public without a license.
Restricted Use pesticides are defined as those which may generally cause unreasonable
adverse effects on the environment, including injury to the applicator. Those pesticides
placed in the restricted category may be used only by or under the supervision of certified
applicators or under such other conditions as EPA may require to protect humans and the
environment.
If the EPA Administrator determines that some pesticide uses should be general use and that other
uses should be restricted use, the administrator must register it both general and restricted use. It is
essential, however, that the directions relating to its general uses be clearly separated and
distinguished from those directions relating to its restricted use.
Classification of Pesticide Applicators - The 1972 amendments define two classes of applicators,
commercial and farm (private). EPA was directed to establish separate standards for each type of
applicator.
A farm (private) applicator is defined in FIFRA as a certified applicator who uses or
supervises the use of any restricted use pesticide for the purpose of producing any agricultural
commodity on property owned or rented by the applicator or his/her employer. Montana
regulations allow only the application of general use pesticides on property of an immediate
or adjacent landowner, if applied without compensation other than trading of personal
services between producers.
A coitimercial applicator is defined in FIFRA as a certified applicator (whether or not he/she
is a farm [private] applicator) who uses or supervises the use of any restricted usq pesticide
for any purpose or on property other than as provided by the definition of farm (private)
applicator. Certified applicators may be classified in one or more applicator categories.
Certification of Applicators - States are expected to develop and administer applicator certification
procedures based on standards of competence which meet or exceed those prescribed by EPA, The
State of Montana certification program was originally approved by EPA in 1976. An amended
certification plan was submitted to EPA in 1986 and was approved in June 1987.
Farm (private) applicators wishing to purchase and apply restricted use pesticides must first
become certified. Certification may be achieved by (1) attending a pesticide training course and
completing an ungraded exam at the end of that training course or (2) by taking the Farm
Applicator's Examination without the benefit of the pesticide training course. A score of at least
70% is required for certification if this option is chosen.
Commercial applicators must demonstrate practical knowledge of the principles and practices
of pest control and safe use of pesticides by taking a graded examination. Exams are based on
manuals available fi"om the Montana Department of Agriculture (MDA). Written testing is based
on examples of problems and situations appropriate to the particular category or subcategory of
the applicator's certification. A score of at least 70% is required for licensing to apply general
use pesticides. A score of at least 80% is required for a certified license to apply restricted use
pesticides.
Standards of Competency for Commercial
Applicators - All commercial pesticide applicators
must receive training in each component of the
training standards. However, the content and
emphasis may vary depending on the types of
activities carried out under a particular license. For
example, practical knowledge of drift problems
should be required of agricultural applicators, but not
of seed treatment applicators. The latter, however,
should be particularly knowledgeable of the hazards
of and the safety precautions necessary for working
with treated seed.
Montana Commercial Pesticide
Applicator
Training Standards
♦
Labels and Labeling
♦
Safety
♦
Environment
♦
Pest Identification and Biology
♦
Pesticide/Chemical Control
♦
Equipment
♦
Calibration
^ Laws and Regulations 1
FIFRA has outlined general types of applicator
categories, but gave states the right to further specify applicator categories and to define the specific
applications of each applicator category. Further explanation and description of Montana applicator
categories may be found in the licensing section under state regulations.
Penalties - FIFRA provides for criminal and civil penalties to be assessed for violations of provisions
of the Act. Civil penalties are assessed administratively by EPA on those persons and/or companies
who violate any portion of the Act. Any manufacturer, commercial applicator, dealer, or distributor
may be fined up to $5,000 for each offense. Farm (private) applicators or others not mentioned
above are given a written warning and/or a fine of up to $500 for the first offense. However, on
subsequent offenses, a farm (private) applicator may be fined up to $1,000. Fines for civil offenses
may be determined and imposed by the Regional EPA Administrator. Persons assessed a civil penalty
must be given notice and be provided the opportunity for a hearing.
Criminal penalties are more serious
violations of the law and are usually
decided in courts. Persons or companies
and farm (private) applicators who
knowingly violate the provisions of the
Act may be found guilty of
misdemeanors. In this case, the key
phrase is "knowingly violates."
Conviction of companies or commercial
persons under this category will be
subject to a fine of up to $25,000 or one
year in prison, or both. Farm (private)
applicators who are found guilty of
misdemeanors under this portion of the
law may be fined up to $1,000 or
imprisoned for 30 days, or both.
If the EPA Administrator is unable to
collect the fine levied as a civil penalty,
he may turn the case over to the U.S.
Attorney General who can then take the
case to the U.S. District Court.
I State Pesticide Laws and
Regulations
At the federal level, FIFRA sets the laws
and regulafions governing pesticides and
dictates the enforcement necessary under
those laws and regulations. States are
given primary enforcement authority
when they have adopted adequate state
laws and regulations and have adequate procedures for enforcing state law, keeping records, and
making reports of all enforcement activities State laws and regulations may not be less restrictive,
but may be more restrictive, than the federal laws and regulations established under FIFRA. Montana
FIFRA VIOLATIONS
Selling a restricted use pesticide to a person not
certified to purchase such products
Using a pesticide in a manner inconsistent with its
labeling
Selling a pesticide that is not registered or for
which the registration was canceled or suspended
Selling a pesticide that makes claims that are
different or is different in composition from that
which was submitted at the time of registration
Selling pesticides which are not colored or discolored
as required by EPA
Selling adulterated or misbranded pesticides or
misbranded devices
Altering, defacing or detaching a pesticide label
Failure to keep required records or to allow
inspection, copying or sampling
Providing a false guaranty
Advertising a restricted use pesticide without giving
the information that it is a restricted use product
Using an experimental pesticide contrary to the
provisions of the experimental use permit
Violating any stop sale, cancellation or suspension
order
Producing pesticides without registering as a
pesticide producing establishment
Failure to keep records of pesticide production
Falsification of any application for registration,
report, or record or any data submitted to EPA
Using pesticides in tests on humans unless they are
fully informed
has established a cooperative agreement with EPA and has assumed the primary responsibilities of
administering FIFRA programs.
In 1947, Montana adopted its first pesticide law, entitled the "1947 Insecticide, Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act." This Act was administered by the Department of Health and required registration
of all economic poisons (pesticides) in Montana. This law was repealed July 1, 1971. Since then,
several other laws affecting the use of pesticides have been enacted.
Montana Pesticides Act (MPA) - The Montana Pesticides Act (MP A), Title 80, Chapter 8, Sections
80-8-101 through 80-8-306, MCA, enacted by the 43rd Legislature in 1971, is administered by the
MDA.
The MPA is comprehensive in its regulation of the sale and use of pesticides. The Act may be
subdivided into three major areas of responsibility: registration of pesticides, licensing of pesticide
applicators, operators, and dealers, and enforcement and administrative procedures.
Registration of Pesticides - All pesticides must be registered by the EPA. All EPA registered
pesticides must also be registered with the MDA before they may be legally offered for sale or used
in Montana. Montana also registers pesticides formulated within the state. The annual registration
fee is $150.00 per pesticide product registered All registrations expire each year on December 3 1
following the date of issuance and must be renewed annually.
Montana must register all federally registered pesticides upon receipt of such registration from the
registrant. The MDA has the authority to impose additional restrictions on the use and application
of pesticides within the state. The state may restrict application of certain pesticides to type of
applicator, time and place. The MDA may suspend or cancel the registration of a pesticide whenever
it does not appear that the product or its labeling comply with the MPA or scientific evidence proves
that the product endangers humans or the environment.
The MDA is given the authority to sample, inspect, and make analysis of pesticides distributed within
Montana to determine whether such pesticides are in compliance with the MPA. Pesticides not in
compliance may be embargoed if they are:
^ adultered or misbranded,
^ not registered,
^ fail to bear a proper label,
^ a white powder pesticide and are not colored as required.
Embargoed pesticides cannot be removed, disposed of or sold without MDA permission. Embargoed
pesticide products which are brought into compliance with the law will have the embargo removed.
If the product cannot meet the provisions of the MPA, it is disposed of at the expense of the claimant.
Special Registrations. The MDA may also register pesticides under Sections 24C and 18 of FIFRA.
Section 24C (Special Local Need) and Section 18 (Specific or Emergency Exemption) registrations
generally require supplemental labeling. It is the responsibility of the dealer to make sure that this
labeling accompanies the product when sold. It is the responsibility of the applicator to have this
labeling in his/her possession when the product is applied.
For more detailed information concerning the registration of pesticides refer to sections 80-8-201
through 80-8-202, MCA of the MP A.
Licensing Provisions - Commercial applicators are individuals who by contract or for hire apply by
aerial, ground, or hand equipment, pesticides to land, plants, seed, animals, waters, structures, or
vehicles. Individuals not having financial interest in the business and who are only responsible for the
daily mechanical maintenance of pesticide application equipment are not classified as commercial
applicators.
A license for commercial applicators is required annually. The license is valid from the date of
issuance through December 3 1 each year. It must be renewed each calendar year BEFORE applying
pesticides. Before granting a license, the MDA requires each commercial applicant to provide proof
of financial liability, pay a licensing fee of $75 (fee subject to change in 1 999 depending on the
Pesticide Disposal Program), and pass the basic examination and specific category examinations with
a 70% or better for general use pesticides and a 80% or better for restricted use pesticides.
* A licensed commercial applicator is a pesticide applicator who has passed the basic
examination and specific category examinations with a 70% or better for applying general
use pesticides.
-*• A certified commercial applicator is a pesticide applicator who has passed the basic
examination and specific category examination with a 80% or better for applying restricted
use pesticides.
Applicants for a commercial pesticide applicators license shall be required to provide, on forms
approved by the MDA, financial responsibility in the form of
^ liability insurance policy,
^ surety bond or
^ certificate of deposit.
For commercial application of pesticides, the financial responsibility shall be one thousand five
hundred dollars ($1500) for aerial applicators and five hundred dollars ($500) for ground applicators.
Financial responsibility must be maintained throughout the licensing period. Aerial applicators must,
in addition, meet all the requirements of the Federal Aviation Agency and the Aeronautics Division
of the Montana Department of Transportation before a license is issued. The MDA may also establish
licensing and examination requirements for commercial operators by regulation. Commercial
applicators are responsible for all pesticide related actions by their employees.
8
All license holders must recertify every four years. Licensed applicators have the option of
recertifying by re-examination or by attending Montana Department of Agriculture (MDA) approved
training. Recertification training is available through the MDA on a pre-determined schedule or by
attendance at MDA-approved industry sponsored training. All commercial applicators who choose
to recertify by training must attend training equivalent to 1 2 recertification credits (hours) during the
recertification period. Commercial pesticide applicators wishing to recertify by examination may
contact the MDA in Helena or one of the MDA field offices.
Operators - Employees of licensed or certified applicators using pesticides and not holding their own
license must be licensed as an operator. Licensed operators may not apply pesticides beyond one
hundred (100) miles of the applicator. The applicator pays a fee of $25 per operator for the first two
applicants and $10 thereafter, per each additional operator. An operator's license may be obtained
in the following ways:
♦ pass a MDA examination with a score of 70% or better,
♦ attend a MDA training course, or
♦ receive training from a certified and/or licensed applicator.
Operators are required to be licensed annually and must be renewed each calender year BEFORE
applying pesticides. They may renew their license by receiving training from a certified and/or
licensed applicator or attend a training course approved by MDA and submitting the application fee
and application.
Government operators must meet all of the above standards for commercial operators except
government operators can only operate within their respective governmental boundaries regardless
of the number of miles from the government certified and/or licensed applicators's business location.
Nonresidents - Nonresidents applying for a license in Montana, in addition to meeting the above
requirements, must file a written Power of Attorney designating the Secretary of State as their agent.
This permits a service of process to be made in the event of suit brought against the nonresident. The
Power of Attorney will be written to provide effective jurisdiction by the courts of Montana over the
nonresident applicant. Nonresident corporations may appoint a resident agent in lieu of appointing
the Secretary of State as their agent.
Government Agencies - Government employees applying pesticides are subject to the provisions
of the MPA and its regulations. Supervisors and/or applicators of government sponsored pesticide
spray programs will be required to obtain a government applicator license. All applicants for this
license will be required to pass an examination. A provision allows a governmental agency to pay
the annual applicator's fee of $75 for each of its first four employee applicators or dealers. The
agency shall then pay an annual fee of $20 for each additional employee applicator or dealer up to a
$600 limit. The license allows the applicator to apply pesticides for agency use only. One licensed
applicator or licensed operator is required for each pesticide equipment unit operated by government
agencies. Federal agencies are exempt from pesticide applicator license fees.
I Cominercial Applicator Licensing Categories
Agricultural Plant Pest Control: An applicator who applies pesticides to an agricultural
crop or rangeland. Agricultural Plant Pest applicators must demonstrate practical knowledge
of crops grown, their specific pests, and the pesticides used for their control. Practical
knowledge is required concerning pesticidal activity in soil and water, pre-harvest intervals,
re-entry intervals, phytotoxicity, potential for environmental contamination, non-target injury,
and community problems resulting from the use of pesticides in agricultural areas.
Agricultural Animal Pest Control: An applicator who applies pesticides to animals
(livestock) or places where animals are confined. Agricultural Animal Pest applicators
applying pesticides directly to animals must demonstrate practical knowledge about those
animals and their associated pests. A practical knowledge concerning specific pesticide
toxicity and residue potential is also required, since host animals are frequently used for food.
Further, the applicator must know the relative hazards associated with such factors as
pesticide formulation, application techniques, age of animals, stress, and extent of treatment.
Agricultural Vertebrate Pest Control: Vertebrate applicators must demonstrate practical
knowledge of vertebrate pests and the pesticides used for their control. They should possess
practical knowledge of the cyclic occurrence of certain pests and specific population dynamics
as a basis for planning pesticide applications. The applicator must demonstrate a practical
knowledge of control and application methods which will minimize the possibility of
secondary problems, such as unintended eflFects on wildlife or hazards to humans, pets, and
other domestic animals.
Forest Pest Control: An applicator who applies pesticides to forests, forest nurseries and
forest seed producing areas. Forest Pest Control applicators shall demonstrate practical
knowledge of the types of forest, forest nurseries, and seed production in Montana and the
pests involved. They should possess practical knowledge of the cyclic occurrence of certain
pests and specific population dynamics as a basis for planning pesticide applications. A
practical knowledge of the beneficial organisms and their vulnerability to the pesticides to be
applied is required. Because forest stands may be large and frequently include natural aquatic
habitats and harbor wildlife, the consequences of pesticide use may be difficult to assess. The
applicator must therefore demonstrate practical knowledge of control methods which will
minimize the possibility of secondary problems, such as unintended effects on wildlife. Proper
use of specialized equipment must be demonstrated, especially as it may be related to
meteorological factors and adjacent land use.
Ornamental & Turf Pest Control: An applicator who applies pesticides to ornamental trees,
shrubs, flowers and turf. Ornamental and Turf Pest Control applicators shall demonstrate
practical knowledge of pesticide problems associated with the production and maintenance
of ornamental trees, shrubs, plantings, and turf. Applicators must understand the potential
phytotoxicity as a result of drift and from persistence beyond the intended period of pest
10
control to a wide variety of plant materials. Because of the frequent proximity of human
habitation to application activities, applicators in this classification must demonstrate practical
knowledge of application methods which will minimize or prevent hazards to humans, pets,
and other domestic animals.
Seed Treatment & Elevator Pest Control: An applicator who applies pesticides or
fijmigants to seeds or seed storage areas and uses pesticides in or around the elevator seed
storage facilities. Applicators in this category must demonstrate practical knowledge of the
types of seeds requiring pesticidal protection and application requirements and factors, such
as seed coloration, carriers, and surface active agents which influence pesticide binding and
may affect germination. They must demonstrate practical knowledge of hazards associated
with handling, sorting and mixing, and misuse of treated seed, such as introduction of treated
seed into food and feed chains, as well as proper disposal of unused treated seeds.
Applicators must be able to demonstrate proper use of grain fumigants to protect seeds,
knowledge to assure safe handling, application techniques, worker exposure and protection
considerations, and re-entry standards into fumigated structures.
Aquatic Pest Control: An applicator who applies pesticides to any standing or running
waters. Applicators in this category must have knowledge of the aquatic environments in
which pesticides may be used to maintain or improve the health or desired condition of that
environment. They must have practical knowledge concerning potential pesticide effects on
plants, fish, birds, beneficial insects, and other organisms which may be present in aquatic
environments. Aquatic Pest Control applicators must demonstrate practical knowledge of
various water use situations and the potential of downstream effects. Applicators shall
demonstrate practical knowledge of the principles of limited area application. Aquatic Pest
Control applicators must also demonstrate practical knowledge of the secondary effects which
can be caused by improper application rates, incorrect formulations, and faulty application of
pesticides used in this classification. To be certified. Aquatic Pest Control applicators must
attend a MDA sponsored training program. Persons in this category may be certified as
commercial, government or farm (private) applicators.
Right-of-Way Pest Control: An applicator who applies pesticides to public roads, power
lines, pipelines or railway right-of-ways. Right-of-Way Pest Control applicators shall
demonstrate practical knowledge of a wide variety of environments since rights-of-way can
traverse many different terrains, including waterways. They shall demonstrate practical
knowledge and ability to recognize target plants. They shall also demonstrate practical
knowledge of the nature of herbicides, recognize the need for containment of these pesticides
within the right-of-way areas, and understand the impact of their application activities in the
adjacent areas and communities.
Public Health Pest Control: An applicator who applies pesticides in public health programs
to control pests having medical and public health importance. Public Health Pest Control
applicators must demonstrate practical knowledge of vector-disease transmission as it relates
to and influences application programs. A wide variety of pests are involved and it is essential
11
that they be recognized. Life cycles and habitats must be understood to develop control
strategies. These applicators shall have practical knowledge of a great variety of environments
ranging from stream habitats to those conditions found in buildings. They should also have
practical knowledge of the importance and employment of non-chemical control methods,
such as sanitation, waste disposal, and drainage.
Demonstration & Research Pest Control: An applicator who demonstrates to the public
the proper use of pesticides or an applicator who conducts field research of pesticides.
Demonstration and Research Pest Control applicators demonstrating the safe and effective
use of pesticides to others will be expected to meet comprehensive standards reflecting a
broad spectrum of pesticide use. Many different problem situations will be encountered in
the course of activities associated with demonstrations. Practical knowledge of problems,
pests, and population levels occurring in each demonstration situation is required. They
should demonstrate an understanding of pesticide organism interactions and the importance
of integrating pesticide use with other control methods. In general, it would be expected that
applicators doing demonstration pest control work possess a practical knowledge of all the
standards detailed in the Montana Pesticide Act - Administrative Rules of Montana (ARM)
4.10.204. In addition, they shall meet the specific standards required for classifications a
through g of ARM 4. 10.205 applicable to their particular activity. Persons conducting field
research or method improvement work with restricted use pesticides are expected to know
the general standards required for classifications a through j of ARM 4. 10.205, applicable to
their particular activity, or alternatively, to meet the more inclusive requirements listed under
"Demonstration".
Industrial, Institutional, Structural and Health-Related Pest Control (PCO): An
applicator who applies pesticides in, on or around food handling and manufacturing
establishments, human dwellings, institutions, industrial establishments, including warehouses
and any other structures and adjacent areas, for the protection of stored, processed or
manufactured products. These applicators must demonstrate a practical knowledge of a wide
variety of pests and their life cycles, types of formulations appropriate for their control, and
methods of application that avoid contamination of food, damage and contamination of
habitat and exposure of people and pets. Since human exposure includes babies, children,
pregnant women, and elderly people, applicators must demonstrate practical knowledge of
the specific factors which may lead to hazardous conditions for these individuals, including
continuous exposure in the various situations encountered in this classification. Because
health-related pest control may also involve outdoor applications, applicators must
demonstrate practical knowledge of environmental conditions particularly related to this
activity.
Wood Product Pest Control: Any applicator using pesticides to preserve wood. Wood
Product Pest Control applicators must demonstrate practical knowledge of the specific wood
preservative products used in their operation (creosote, pentachlorophenol, inorganic
arsenicals, copper naphthenate). They shall be knowledgeable about the protective clothing
12
and equipment requirements, as well as the requirements for proper care and disposal of work
clothing and equipment. They must be aware of the prohibitions against eating, drinking and
smoking and other potential avenues of worker exposure while applying wood preservative
chemicals. Applicators must demonstrate practical knowledge of application techniques which
prevent direct exposure to domestic animals and livestock and prevent contamination of food,
feed or drinking and irrigation water by such pesticide applications. They must demonstrate
practical knowledge of hazards of handling treated products as well as the requirements for
proper disposal of pesticide waste. They must be familiar with the Consumer Awareness
Program (CAP) which is implemented through the use of Consumer Information Sheets
(CIS's) provided to the end users of such treated products (the consuming public).
Livestock Protection Collar (LPC): Livestock Protection Collar applicators are certified
to apply collars containing sodium monofluroacetate (Compound 1 080) to sheep for the
control of coyotes that prey on domestic sheep. The LPC, placed on the throat of sheep,
targets predatory coyotes by keying on their tendency to attack prey at the throat and
puncturing the LPC in the process. To be certified, applicators must attend specific training
on the LPC and, by field demonstration and examination, demonstrate a knowledge of
predator biology and identification, alternative methods of coyote control, sheep management,
safety practices in handling Compound 1080, nontarget wildlife hazards, and the protection
of endangered species. Persons in this category may be certified as commercial, government
or farm (private) applicators.
Sodium Cyanide (M-44): M-44 applicators are certified to used sodium cyanide in the M-44
device for the control of coyotes, fox and wild dogs that prey on livestock and poultry.
Capsules containing sodium cyanide are used in a spring operated mechanism called an M-44
device. The sodium cyanide is ejected into the mouth of a coyote when the coyote bites and
pulls on the device, releasing a spring powered plunger. To be come certified, applicators
must attend specific MDA training on the M-44 device; and through field demonstration and
examination, demonstrate a knowledge of predator biology and identification, alternative
methods of coyote control, livestock management, safety practices in handling sodium
cyanide, nontarget wildlife hazards and the protection of endangered species Persons in this
category may be certified as commercial, government or farm (private) applicators.
Special Utility: Special Utility applicators are persons employed by a utility company who
apply wood preservation pesticides using pole wraps or conduct weed control using soil
sterilants or herbicides on property or rights-of-way owned or managed by the utility
company. Applicators in this category must demonstrate a knowledge of commonly used
wood treatment products and their use in pole wraps. They shall also have knowledge of
personal protective clothing and equipment, methods and procedures to prevent the off site
movement of wood preservatives and soil sterilants, particularly by runoff in surface water
and leaching to ground water, and practical knowledge of disposal of waste pesticides and
containers.
13
School Pest Control (School IPM): School Pest Control applicators include any applicators
using or supervising the use of pesticides in the school environment including but not limited
to school yards, buildings, playing fields, and other property under the jurisdiction of the
school district. School Pest Control applicators must demonstrate a practical knowledge in
the principles of integrated pest management (IPM) and a knowledge of pesticides registered
for use in the school environment, in addition to the knowledge required by applicators in the
Industrial, Institutional, Structural, and Health-Related category.
Regulatory Pest Control: Regulatory pest control applicators shall demonstrate practical
knowledge of regulated pests, applicable laws relating to quarantine and other regulation of
pests, and the potential impact on the environment of pesticides used in suppression and
eradication programs. Factors which influence introduction, spread, and population dynamics
of relevant pests must be understood. In the case of some federal agency applicators, their
knowledge shall extend beyond that required by their immediate duties since their services are
frequently required in other areas of the country where emergency measures are invoked to
control regulated pests, and where individual judgments must be made in new situations.
Regulatory Pest Control - Mosquito Abatement . A governmental applicator who applies
pesticides to control mosquitos.
Regulatory Pest Control - Predator. A governmental applicator who applies pesticides
to control predators for the protection of domestic livestock or endangered species.
Regulatory Pest Control - Quarantine: A governmental applicator who applies
pesticides to control vectors of diseases that affect the public health.
Regulatory Pest Control - Rodent. A governmental applicator who applies
pesticides for the control of field rodents on publicly owned property.
Regulatory Pest Control - Weed. A governmental applicator who applies pesticides
to public roadways or right-of-ways for the control of weeds.
Dealer Licensing - The MPA requires that all pesticide dealer outlets have an individual licensed to
sell pesticides in Montana. Pesticide sales and field personnel not under the supervision of a dealer
must also be licensed. Dealers are required to pass an examination with a score of 75% or better
before a license is granted. To become licensed, dealers must submit an application to the MDA with
a $75 licensing fee (fee subject to change in 1999 depending on the Pesticide Disposal Program) each
calender year. It is a violation of the Montana Pesticides Act for a dealer or his/her employees to sell
pesticides prior to becoming licensed.
Retail Sale of Pesticides: Retailers may only sell pesticides which are designated for use for home,
yard, gardens and lawns. The MDA has restricted retail sales of pesticides to those products which
do not exceed specified quantities, in gallons or pounds, and those having a concentration considered
sublethal to humans or animals.
14
Farm (private) Applicator Licensing - Farm (private) applicators who need to use a restricted use
pesticide on their own property for an agricultural use must obtain a license (permit) from the
Extension Service. To obtain a permit, farm applicators must pass a Farm Applicator Exam or attend
a training course and complete an ungraded quiz. Farm (private) applicators must follow federal
record keeping required by the USDA for restricted use pesticides. A farm (private) applicator does
not require a commercial applicator license when he/she:
1) applies general use pesticides to his/her own land,
2) is not engaged in the business of applying pesticides for hire, and
3) operates his/her equipment only in the vicinity of his/her own property.
The farm (private) applicator permit is issued for 5 calendar years and the fee for the permit is $50
(fee subject to change in 1999 depending on the Pesticide Disposal Program).
Revocation of License - The MDA may refuse to grant, or renew, or may revoke a license or permit
when the MDA has determined that the licensee or holder of the permit is not qualified to use or
apply pesticides, is determined to be legally blind, or has committed any of the following;
>■ Made false or fraudulent claims, misrepresenting the effect of materials or methods
to be utilized,
>" Applied illegal materials,
>■ Operated in a faulty or careless or negligent manner,
>■ Operated faulty or unsafe equipment,
>■ Refijsed or neglected to comply with provisions of FIFRA or the MP A,
>• Used or applied a registered pesticide inconsistent with its label or labeling,
>■ Refused or neglected to keep and maintain application records,
>■ Made false or fraudulent records or reports,
>■ Operated equipment without a permit or license, or
>■ Used fraud or misrepresentation in making application for license or permit or
renewal of a license or a permit.
Decisions of the MDA relating to issuance or revocation of licenses or permits may be appealed.
Report of Loss or Damage - A person suffering loss or damage resulting from the use or application
of any pesticide by any person shall, within 30 days from the time the occurrence of the loss became
known to him/her, file with the MDA a verified report of loss. Refer to section 80-8-301, MCA of
the Pesticide Act for a fijU description of requirements.
I Administrative Procedures
Rules and Regulations The MDA has the authority to adopt by reference, without a public hearing,
regulations adopted under FIFRA. The MDA may also, after public hearing, adopt rules and
regulations necessary to carry out the provisions of the MP A.
Emergency Power - The MDA may declare an emergency when an event exists that requires
immediate action with regard to the registration, use or application of pesticides. The Director may,
without notice or hearing, issue necessary orders to protect the public from adverse affects of
pesticides. The emergency period may not exceed the time prescribed by the Montana Administrative
15
Procedure Act. However, in this period of time, a regulation may be passed to control the pesticide
following the emergency period.
Public Hearings - The MDA must hold a public hearing when adopting new rules and regulations,
except when adopting federal regulations. Specific procedures for rule making and hearing functions
shall be conducted in accordance with the Montana Administrative Procedure Act.
Public Information - The MDA may publish or make available information on the registration, use
and sale of pesticides in Montana, provided that such information will NOT disclose such operations
as selling, production or use of pesticides by any person.
Investigation and Enforcement Authority - The MDA, upon reasonable cause, has the authority
to enter upon private and public premises and property, at reasonable times, with a warrant or consent
of the owner to inspect or investigate:
>• Equipment,
>• Actual or reported adverse effects caused by pesticides in humans, crops, animals,
land or other property,
>■ Records on the selling or use of pesticides and the person's stock of pesticides,
>■ Storage and disposal of pesticides,
>• Sample pesticides being applied or to be applied,
>■ The use and application of a pesticide,
>■ The environment alleged to have been exposed to pesticides and to collect and analyze
environmental samples,
>■ Compliance with pesticide Worker Protection Standards and labeling, including handlers
and workers,
>• Compliance with pesticide groundwater and Environmental Protection Agency
endangered species standards and labeling, and
>■ Compliance with licensing, labeling, permitting, and certification requirements.
The MDA is authorized to investigate all incidents involving the application, sale, introduction, or use
of registered pesticides or compounds capable of acting in the manner of pesticides when the incidents
have a reasonable potential to adversely affect the public environment or persons. The investigation
or inspection authority provided for in this section may be exercised over persons not possessing a
required license or permit.
Violations - Applicators must follow all federal and state laws, regulations, labels, and record keeping
requirements. Failure to do so constitutes a federal, state or federal and state violation. Violations
may be subject to penalties, both civil and criminal. Any person convicted of violating provisions of
the MPA and its regulations is guilty of a misdemeanor. Temporary and permanent injunctions may
be obtained to restrain individuals from violating or continuing to violate any provisions of the MPA.
The MDA also has the authority to initiate civil penalties. In considering significance of a major
violation and assessing civil penalties, the MDA will consider all the circumstances surrounding the
violation and the degree of care which was implemented.
16
I Montana Agricultural Chemical Ground Water Protection Act (MACGWPA)
The Montana Agricultural Chemical Ground Water Protection Act, Title 80, Chapter 1 5, MCA is
administered jointly by the Departments of Agriculture and Environmental Quality. This law
establishes Montana policy protecting water resources and the use of agricultural chemicals. Both
agencies will:
• protect ground water and the environment from impairment or degradation due to the
use of agricultural chemicals;
• ensure that agricultural chemicals are properly and correctly used;
• provide management of agricultural chemicals which will prevent, minimize and mitigate
their presence in ground water; and
• provide education and training of agricultural chemical applicators and the general public
on ground water protection, agricultural chemical use, and the use of alternative
agricultural methods.
Water Quality Standards - The Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) is responsible for the
adoption of ground water quality standards for agricultural chemicals for which federal standards
exist and for those agricultural chemicals whose presence has been verified in ground water Upon
request from the MDA, DEQ shall develop or request EPA to develop a standard for agricultural
chemicals for which there is no existing standard. Water quality standards are used by both agencies
in assessing potential threats to human health from consumption of contaminated ground water.
Monitoring - Both the MDA and DEQ are required to conduct monitoring of ground water
resources to determine:
1) whether residues of agricultural chemicals are present in ground water, and
2) the likelihood of an agricultural chemical entering ground water, based on sufficient valid
scientific data to reasonably predict the behavior of a particular agricultural chemical in
the soil.
Both the MDA and the DEQ review and evaluate monitoring and sampling data jointly. The
departments, in cooperation, determine the appropriate response to contamination Such
determinations are based upon water quality standards, water classification (i.e. how the water is
used) and risk to human health, based on consumption patterns.
Management Plans - The MDA is responsible for the development of management plans which
provide for the protection of ground water resources through the management of agricultural
chemicals. The MDA published the Montana General Agricultural Chemical Ground Water
Management Plan (GMP) in 1994.
The GMP sets the basis upon which all state specific management plans are based on Specific
management plans will be developed and implemented when any of the following conditions occur:
>■ The level of an agricultural chemical in ground water is at or above 50% of the standard,
>■ A definite trend of increased presence of an agricultural chemical in ground water is
scientifically validated;
17
>■ An agricultural chemical has been determined to have migrated in the ground water from
the point of detection;
>• EPA proposes to suspend or cancel registration, prohibits or restricts the sale or use in
the state, or otherwise initiates action against an agricultural chemical because of ground
water concerns and when EPA's action, restriction, or prohibition will be implemented
unless the state develops an adequate management plan; or
>■ An agricultural chemical possesses properties that indicate it has the potential to migrate
to ground water and it is being applied on areas with vulnerable ground water.
All management plans will be specific to the agricultural chemical in question and will be
geographically defined. The MDA must consider the current and potential beneficial use or uses of
the ground water included in or affected by the plans. The MDA must also consider the benefits of
appropriate agricultural chemical use when developing any management plan.
All plans will have, at a minimum, 1) requirements to prevent ground water impairment that are based
on ground water use, value and vulnerability and which address all applicable aspects of the chemical
use; and 2) requirements to prevent or minimize fijrther presence of the agricultural chemical in
ground water that provides for the protection of the current and fiature beneficial use of the ground
water.
Management plans may also include any of the following elements:
geographical use restrictions;
ground water and environmental characterization;
best management plans and practices;
identification of high priority ground water;
certification, licensing, training and education requirements for pesticide applicators;
identification of application setback areas around water wells where activity restrictions
may be implemented;
agricultural chemical application rates and timing use restrictions;
alternative pest management techniques;
alternative soil fertility practices; and
EPA requirements.
All management plans must be adopted as administrative rules and are enforceable under the Montana
Ground Water Act.
Commercial Fertilizer Ground Water Management Plans - If the MDA or the DEQ determine
that residues from commercial fertilizer are present in the ground water or when EPA implements a
program to protect ground water from fertilizers, a commercial fertilizer ground water management
plan may be developed.
Enforcement and Investigations - The MDA has the authority to:
>• investigate conditions relating to compliance with agricultural chemical labels,
management plans, monitoring requirements, ground water protection requirements
and to investigate violations of plans or compliance orders;
18
>• gain access to and copy any records required by the MDA;
>• establish and inspect monitoring equipment; and
>• sample ground water or soil.
The MDA may issue a compliance order to any person(s) violating a standard or any other
requirement of the MACGWPA. The MDA may require cleanup of any agricultural chemical that
has been accidentally or purposely dumped, spilled, misused or unlawfully used that has contaminated
or has a significant probability of entering ground water.
Administrative Civil Penalties - Persons violating the MACGWPA may be assessed an
administrative civil penalty of up to $1,000 for each offense for commercial applicators and up to
$500 for farm (private) applicators. Assessment of a civil penalty may be made in conjunction with
any other warning, order, or administrative action. When determining an appropriate administrative
civil penalty, the MDA shall consider the effect of the person's ability to continue in business, the
gravity of the violation that occurred, the degree of care exercised by the offender, and whether
significant harm resulted to public health, agricultural crops, livestock, or the environment.
Judicial Civil Penalties - Persons who unlawfully violate any order, specific agricultural chemical
ground water management plan or any provision of MACGWPA shall be subject to a judicial civil
penalty not to exceed $10,000. Each occurrence constitutes a separate violation.
Criminal Penalties - Violations of the MACGWPA committed intentionally by any person(s) are
subject to a fine up to $25,000 for each day the violation continues or imprisonment for up to 1 year
or both. Following an initial conviction under this section, a subsequent conviction subjects a person
to a fine of not more than $50,000 for each day the violation continues or imprisonment for not more
than 2 years, or both.
> Montana Water Quality Act (MWQA)
The Montana Water Quality Act (MWQA) is administered by the DEQ. The purpose of this Act is
to provide additional and cumulative remedies to prevent, abate, and control the pollution of state
waters. MWQA outlines the responsibilities of the DEQ in the development of water quality
standards, water resource use and quality classifications, and non-degradation rules as they relate to
surface and ground water resources of Montana. Also contained within the MWQA are the
Emergency Powers of the DEQ (ARM 16.20.1025) which contain the procedures that must be
followed when there are spills or unanticipated discharges of pesticides or other toxic substances that
would lower the quality of any ground waters of the state below Montana ground water quality
standards. Under the Water Quality Act, it is unlawfijl to pollute any state waters, or to place or
cause to be placed any wastes, in a location where they will cause pollution of state waters.
I Montana Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act
The Miller Amendment (1954) of The Montana Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act requires that any raw
agricultural commodity be condemned as adulterated if it contains pesticides for which there is no
established tolerance or for which established tolerance limits are exceeded.
19
I Montana Solid Waste Laws
The Montana Solid Waste Management Act prohibits the disposal of any solid waste in any location
not licensed as a solid waste disposal site by the DEQ. Refuse is defined as "all putrescible and non-
putrescible solid industrial wastes." In this context, some pesticides are included within the definition.
Any person found violating this act is guilty of a misdemeanor.
20
CHAPTER II
PESTICIDE RECORD KEEPING
Applicator and dealer records of pesticide sales and use are important to provide a history of your
operation. Meaningful records will also serve to protect your business and assist in evaluating
expenses, profits, and in maintaining an inventory.
There are many different record keeping systems which may be used by applicators and dealers.
These systems may range from field notes and records, to office sales, use and inventory records, to
the use of computerized records.
I Dealer Records
The Montana Pesticides Act - Administrative Rules of Montana (ARM) 4.10.504 requires the
following for dealers:
All pesticide dealers, including pharmacists, veterinarians, and certified pharmacies are
required to maintain shipping, purchase or invoice records of all pesticide products received.
A complete and accurate record of all restricted use pesticides purchased and sold also must
be maintained. All records must be kept for two (2) years.
Each sale of a restricted use pesticide for the records must include:
^ the company name on the label;
^ the complete trade name or the EPA registration number;
^ the volume sold;
^ the license or permit number of the certified applicator or dealer;
^ the date; and
^ the name of the certified applicator or purchaser.
I Dealer Pesticide Reports
Beginning in 1990, each dealer selling general and restricted use pesticides must submit a summary
report to the MDA containing the above information every fifth year. The summary report will be
for that one year only and is due by January 31 of the following calendar year. For example, sale
records will be required for the year 2000 Those records will be due January 31, 2001 . Standard
forms provided or approved by the MDA must be used to submit the report. If no restricted or
general use pesticides are sold during the time period requested by the MDA, that must be
documented to the MDA.
Sales of retail pesficides are exempt from the record keeping and reporting requirements of this rule.
For further information on records of retail pesticides can be found in ARM 4. 10.502 (2).
21
Records required by dealers, pharmacists, veterinarians, and certified pharmacies are subject to
inspection by authorized employees of the MDA during normal business hours. Dealers are required
to submit the records (a copy or the original) to the MDA upon written request.
I Applicator Records
The Montana Pesticide Act - Administrative Rules of Montana (ARM) 4.10.207 requires the
following for applicators:
All licensed, certified-licensed, commercial, public utility, government applicators, and
certified non-commercial applicators are required to keep and maintain operational records
for two (2) years. A record must be kept of every application performed by either an
applicator or operator and must include:
>■ The name of the applicator or employee applying the pesticide.
>• The date of application.
>■ The time of application (be specific).
>■ The location must include the property owner's or lessee's name and address,
>• The county or counties where the pesticide was applied, and specific application site
(township, range and section number) or local identifiable landmarks. Right-of-way
and similar applications may reference identifiable landmarks.
>■ The equipment used: the same piece of equipment may be listed once and
thereafter referenced. If more than one piece of equipment is used, they may be
listed once by description and then by number.
> The pesticide(s) used, with the company or manufacturer's name, trade name, the
EPA registration number or type of formulation.
>■ The rate of application used, including the amount of diluent sprayed on an area
(example: 1 pint of product/5 gallons of water per acre).
>- The size of area treated (acres, trees, livestock, square feet or yards, etc.) or for
structural, seed, or wood product applications, the type of treatment.
>- The primary pest(s) involved (do not use general terms, such as weeds and bugs).
> The crop or site treated and the stage of crop development, if applicable.
>■ The weather conditions, such as the temperature, wind velocity and direction.
Seed treaters Olid wood product treaters are only required to maintain records on the volumes
of pesticides applied and the following must also be included in the records:
□ The name of the applicator or employee applying the pesticide.
□ The date of application.
□ The pesticide(s) used with the company or manufacturer's name, trade name, the
EPA registration number and type of formulation.
G The rate of application used.
□ The volume applied
□ The type of treatment used.
22
Applicators using two or more pesticides in a tank mixture must record all data as required
for each pesticide in the tank mix. Application records must be completed within 24 hours
of the actual pesticide application.
Applicator records are open to inspection by authorized employees of the MDA during all
business hours. Applicators are required to submit copies of their records or any portion of
the records when requested, in writing, by the MDA.
I Applicator Pesticide Reports
The MDA requires applicators to submit an accurate report of their use of restricted and general
classified pesticide use every fifth year, beginning in 1990. Required reports will be for that year only
and must include a summary of pesticide use by:
♦ county,
♦ month,
♦ total acreage,
♦ amount of the product used,
♦ crop or site treated,
♦ the company name and trade name of product(s) used, and
♦ the EPA registration number or the type of formulation.
Reports need to be submitted to the MDA by January 3 1 of the following year. Standard forms
provided or approved by the MDA must be used to submit the report. If no application of general
and/or restricted use pesticides are made during the fifth calendar year, that will also need to be
documented to the MDA by the January 3 1 due date.
Farm (private) applicators are exempt from the record keeping requirements by the State of Montana
except for those applicators licensed in aquatic, M-44, and 1080 collar categories. However, the
USDA does require farm applicators to keep records of restricted use pesticides for at least two
years. These records include applicator name and license number, product/trade name, EPA
registration number, amount applied, crop sprayed, size of site, date, and specific location.
I Incident Reports
An applicator who, through his/her own actions or omissions, or the actions or omissions of his/her
employees, causes or allows any pesticide to drift, run off or otherwise escape onto another person
or property must file a written report to the MDA within forty-eight (48) hours of the incident. The
report will include:
♦ specific location of the incident,
♦ name of the pesticide involved,
♦ type of formulation,
♦ method of application, and
♦ name and address of the person whose land, person or property was subjected to
the unintentional pesticide application.
23
In addition, if the pesticide is classified as either Extremely Toxic or Highly Toxic to people or
animals, the applicator or operator must immediately stop his/her application and notify the landowner
whose land, person, or property was subjected to unintentional pesticide application and immediately
notify the MDA.
I Notification by Applicators
Applicators applying EPA restricted pesticides shall notify the owner, lessee or manager of the
property of all precautions and restrictions before applying the restricted use pesticide. The
applicator, if requested, is required to provide a copy of the label to the owner, manager or lessee.
Applicators applying EPA restricted pesticides in an easement or right-of-way situation are not
required to notify any person if the applicator is employed by or specifically contracted by the person
holding or managing the easement or right-of-way.
24
CHAPTER III
WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD (WPS)
In 1992 the EPA revised the Worker Protection Standard (WPS) for
agricultural pesticides. The standard is designed to limit farm workers'
exposure to pesticides, reduce adverse health affects when exposure occurs,
-rxy^^~ JTJY ^"d educate workers about the hazards associated with occupational
^^jSj^^^r pesticide use.
^pr The standard affects anyone who uses pesticides in the production of
agricultural plants on farms, forests, nurseries and greenhouses. Owners and
operators of these work sites, whether they employ a part-time person to hundreds of employees,
must comply with all provisions. Owners, including farmers and their immediate families, are exempt
from some of the requirements; however, they must comply with worker protection requirements
specified by pesticide labels.
The WPS was revised in August of 1992 and gradually implemented over the next 3 years. It became
fiilly effective January 1, 1995. After October 23, 1995, no agricultural use pesticides may be sold
without the proper WPS labeling. Today everyone covered by the WPS must be in complete
compliance.
I WPS Terminology
Agricultural Worker - Anyone who performs tasks related to cuhivation and harvesting of plants on
farms or in greenhouses, nurseries, or forests.
Pesticide Handler - Anyone who mixes, loads or applies crop chemicals, or who cleans, adjusts and
repairs contaminated equipment, flags and assists with application and performs a few other
specialized jobs.
Persotml Protective Equipment (PPE) - Specific protective garments required by the pesticide label
to apply the pesticide or for early entry activities.
Restricted Entry Intervals (REI) - The period of time worker entry is restricted after application of
a pesticide. REI's can range from 4 hours for some low risk pesticides to 72 hours.
Immediate Family - Includes spouse, children, stepchildren, foster children, parents, stepparents,
foster parents, brothers, and sisters.
25
I The Worker Protection Standard Goals
The WPS uses three approaches to promote safe pesticide handling and application:
>■ Eliminating or Reducing Pesticide Exposure - Restricted-entry intervals (REI'S) have
been established for all agricultural pesticides. REI'S on the pesticide label inform the
employer how many hours must pass before agriculture workers can enter a treated site.
Early-entry handlers and workers must wear the personal protective equipment (PPE)
listed in the Agricultural Use Requirements box on the pesticide label.
>■ Minimivng Damage if Exposure Occurs - Employers must supply pesticide handlers and
agricultural workers with an ample supply of water, soap, and towels for routine
washing. The employer must make transportation available to a medical care facility and
provide information about the pesticide(s) to which the worker or handler may have been
exposed.
>■ Informing Employees About Pesticide Hazards - All agricultural workers are to receive
pesticide safety training and have access to a pesticide safety poster. Pesticide handlers
must be informed about label safety information and a centrally located listing of recent
pesticide treatments must be posted on the establishment.
I Pesticide Labeling
Agricultural pesticides covered by WPS will have a "Agricultural Use Requirements" statement in
the "Directions for Use" section of the pesticide labeling on REI'S and PPE for that product. The
example at left is: dicamba
AGRICULTURAL USE REQUIREMENTS
Use this product only In accordance with its labeling and with the
Worker Protection Standard 40 CFR part 170. This Standard
contains requirements for the protection of agricultural workers on
farms, forests, nurseries, and greenhouses and handlers of
agricultural pesticides. It contains requirements for training,
decontamination, notification and emergency assistance. It also
contains specific instructions and exceptions pertaining to the
statements on the label about personal protective equipment (PPE),
and restricted-entry interval. The requirements in this box only apply
to uses of this product that are covered by the Worker Protection
Standard.
Do not enter or allow worker entry into treated areas during the
restricted entry interval (REI) of 12 hours.
PPE required for early entry to treated areas that is permitted
under the Worker Protection Standard and that involved contact with
anything that has been treated such as plants, soil, or water, is:
Coveralls
Waterproof gloves
Shoes plus socks
Protective eyewear
sodium salt
Herbicide)
(Banvel SGF
The Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR) is a
codification of the general and
permanent rules published in
the Federal Register by the
Executive departments and
agencies of the Federal
Government. Title 40 CFR
Part 170 (WPS) contains a
standard designed to reduce
the risks of illness or injury
when using pesticides. The
How to Comply manual
published by the EPA
condenses the information in
the CFR to help the employer,
26
handler, worker, etc. understand and comply with the WPS. The How to Comply manual is available
through various agricultural safety equipment catalogs, from the local County Extension Offices, and
Montana Department of Agriculture (MDA).
I Employer's Responsibilities
• Information at a Central Location - The following information must be centrally located
and easily seen:
Pesticide Application List-
♦ location and description of the area to be treated,
♦ product name, EPA registration number, and active ingredient(s)
of the pesticide,
♦ time and date the pesticide is scheduled to be applied, and
♦ restricted-entry interval for the pesticide.
Emergency information and telephone numbers.
A pesticide safety poster.
DANGER PELIGRO
PEsncsEs PEsnciius
KEEP OUT
NO ENTRE
Pesticide Safety Training - Each pesticide handler and agricultural worker must be
trained in general pesticide safety and will be issued an EPA-approved training card. The
EPA handler and worker cards are valid for 5 years and must be carried by pesticide
handlers and agricultural workers while on the job site
• Decontamination Sites - Establish a decontamination site within Va mile of all agricultural
workers and pesticide handlers. Decontamination sites must provide the following:
Agricultural Worker decontamination sites
♦ Water - enough for routine washing and
emergency eye flushing; at least one gallon
for each worker.
♦ Soap and single-use towels.
Pesticide Handler decontamination sites
♦ Water - enough water for washing the entire body in case of emergency, at least
three gallons for each handler.
♦ Soap and single-use towels.
♦ Clean change of clothes, such as one-size-fits-all coveralls
Employer Information Exchange - Before any application, the commercial applicator
must make sure the employer is aware of the following information about the pesticide(s)
applied:
♦ location and description of area to be treated,
♦ time and date of application,
♦ product name, EPA registration number, active ingredient(s), and REI,
♦ if the product label requires both oral warnings and treated area posting, and
♦ all other safety requirements on labeling for workers or other people.
27
Before any application, the employer must make sure the commercial applicator is aware
of the following information;
♦ specific location and description of all areas where pesticides were applied,
♦ where a REI is in effect, and
♦ restrictions on entering those areas.
• Emergency Assistance - When any pesticide handler or agriculture worker who may have
been injured by pesticide(s) needs to be promptly transported to an appropriate medical
facility and the following information made available to the medical personnel:
♦ product name, EPA registration number, and active ingredient(s),
♦ all first aid and medical information from the pesticide label,
♦ description of how the pesticide was used, and
♦ information about the victim's exposure.
• Anti-retaliation - Employers are prohibited from retaliating against a worker or handler
who attempts to comply with the WPS.
» Regulation of the WPS
In Montana, WPS is enforced by the MDA. The Field Services Bureau of the Agricultural Sciences
Division has seven inspectors throughout the state who enforce this federal law. Routine inspections
and compliance assistance inspections are conducted to ensure that those who are covered by the
WPS are in compliance. They investigate all pesticide exposure complaints. If it is found that an
employer is not complying with the WPS, appropriate enforcement actions may be initiated by the
MDA. Enforcement actions will vary from a Notice of Violation or warnings for minor violations,
such as not having a safety poster, to civil penaUies for serious violations, such as not providing
emergency assistance when an individual has been exposed to pesticides
28
CHAPTER IV
THE PESTICIDE LABEL
FIFRA requires specific information to be printed on the container labels of registered pesticides.
This provision is made to provide instructions for the proper and consistent use of pesticides by
applicators. The label is any information written, printed or graphic matter on or attached to the
pesticide or device or any of its containers or wrappers printed on or attached to a pesticide
container.
Labeling refers to all written, printed or graphic matter information about the pesticide provided by
the manufacturer, including the label and supplemental literature, such as leaflets, flyers, and
pamphlets accompanying the pesticide or device at any time.
Occasionally, revised labels are sent out to replace the label attached to the container. Legally, any
labels must be in your possession at the time of application. The label is a legal document and must
be followed Failure to do so may result in the assessment of civil or criminal penahies. By reading
the label carefully and following label directions, misuse of the pesticide is less likely and potential
injury to people, animals, or the environment is reduced. The most valuable time spent in pest control
is the time taken to read and follow the label.
The importance of reading the label cannot be over stressed. Labels are placed on pesticide
containers for the applicator's information and protection. If the label is read and understood prior
to purchase or use of a pesticide, the possibility of a pesticide accident occurring is minimized.
The pesticide label is the final result of a registration process and reflects the risks and benefits of a
given pesticide to the user. Industry spends several million dollars on research to develop a label for
a single pesticide product before that product is ever marketed. Because of this expense, the
registrant has a significant economic stake in seeing that the product is used as the label directs, both
to ensure the product is effective and that there are no adverse effects as a result of its use.
Therefore, pesticides have labels with specific instructions in terms of safety, storage, disposal, and
use.
I Reading The Label
^^ Before buying a pesticide, read the label to determine:
♦ whether it will control the identified pest of concern,
♦ whether the pesticide can be used safely under the application conditions anticipated
(site, climate, equipment, etc.),
♦ where the pesticide can be used (on specific crops, on turf, in water, etc.),
♦ how much pesticide to buy for the area being treating in order to prevent a surplus, and
♦ personal protective equipment (PPE) requirements.
29
Before mixing the pesticide, read the label to determine:
♦ what protective clothing should be worn,
♦ compatibility with other pesticides or products,
♦ how much pesticide to prepare, and
♦ the mixing procedure.
'^ Before applying the pesticide, read the label to determine:
♦ what safety equipment is required,
♦ when to apply the pesticide,
♦ how to correctly apply the pesticide,
♦ whether there are any restrictions on the use of the pesticide that must be considered, and
♦ if application can be made without violating designated re-entry, harvest, grazing or re-
cropping intervals.
^^ Before storing or disposing of the pesticide or pesticide container, read the label to determine:
♦ where and how to store the pesticide,
♦ how to dispose of any surplus pesticide, and
♦ how to clean and dispose of the pesticide container.
I Format of Labels
FIFRA establishes the regulations for formatting the pesticide labels and prescribes what information
they must contain. All pesticide products have a consistent label format. FIFRA requires that certain
statements appear on specific locations on the pesticide label. This provides the reader with ready
access to specific information and increases the understanding of the proper use of pesticides. Some
packages are too small to have all of the necessary information printed on them, so manufacturers
may attach supplemental labels to containers, often enclosed in a plastic pouch and glued to the side
of the container. Paper packages may have supplemental labels inserted under the bottom flaps.
*See Figures 1 (page 36) and 2 (page 37) to locate the numbers on the generic labels. *
Restricted and General Use Statements
A restricted use pesticide label identifies its classification with a restricted use statement. The
restricted use statement must appear at the top of the fi'ont panel. Any pesticide classified for general
use on certain crops and restricted use on others must be labeled separately. The primary difference
between the General Use and Restricted Use Pesticide labels is the presence of the "Restricted Use
Pesticide" block at the top of the center panel. Use of products with a restricted use label requires
certification for both private and commercial applicators.
A [la] general use pesticide does not have the "Restricted Use Pesticide" block at the top of the
label and may or may not be labeled with the words "General Classification" below the heading
"Directions for Use".
30
ill Trade Name or Product Name
A trade/product name is the name the manufacturer has given to the product and is the name used
for advertising and promotion purposes. Examples: Tordon 22K, Roundup, Assert, Dursban, etc.
3 I Ingredients
Pesticide labels list the percentage of active and inert ingredients by weight. [3a] Active Ingredients
are the part of the pesticide which will kill pests or prevent damage by them. The [3b] Common
Name is a well-known, simple name of a pesticide accepted by the Pesticide Regulation Division of
the EPA and will be after the words "Active Ingredients". For example, Tordon 22K has a common
name of picloram and Roundup has a common name of glyphosate . However, common names and
trade/product names may not be the same. Occasionally, a chemical name may not have a common
name. [3c] Chemical Names describe the chemical structure of a pesticide and are derived by
chemists based on international rules for naming chemicals. The chemical name(s) will be after the
common name and are comprised of the active ingredient(s) and are often complex Examples:
4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicolinic acid is Tordon' s chemical name and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
is 2,4-D Amine's chemical name. [3(1] Inert Ingredients are all components of the formulation that
do not have pesticidal action. They may be totally harmless or they may have toxic, flammable, or
other characteristics that may pose other safety or environmental problems.
If a pesticide contains more than one active ingredient, the percentage of each will be given. Inert
ingredients need not be listed separate or specific and may be grouped together.
Example: Curtail label
Active In^edients:
Clopyralid: (common name)
(chemical name) 3,6-dichloro-2-pyridinecarboxylic acid, monoethanolamine salt 7.5%
(chemical name) 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, triisopropanolamine salt 38.4%
Inert Ingredients 54.1%
TOTAL 100.0%
A [3e] pound per gallon statement will appear directly below the main ingredient statement if the
product is liquid. However, this example of an Ally label is a dry flowable product and does not have
this statement.
Ill KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN is required on each pesticide label regardless of
classification or toxicity. [See Chapter VIII - Toxicology of Pesticides]
31
Ilill Signal Word and Toxicity Classification
An important part of every label is the signal word The word "Danger" accompanied by the word
"Poison" and a skull and crossbones, or the word "Danger" used alone indicates that the pesticide is
highly toxic or poses a dangerous health or environmental hazard (Toxicity Category I). If a pesticide
is assigned to Category I on the basis of its oral, dermal, or inhalation toxicity, the word "Poison" and
the skull and crossbones must appear in close proximity to the signal word. "Warning" indicates
moderate toxicity (Toxicity Category II) and "Caution" means low toxicity (Toxicity Category III).
Part of the registration process assigns each pesticide to a toxicity category and prescribes which
signal word must be used on the label.
Pesticides are classified into four broad categories of toxicity. Specific signal words give an
indication of the toxicity of that product to humans.
# A category I pesticide is identified by the signal word "DANGER or DANGER -
POISON." These pesticides may cause toxic effects on contact with the skin or may be
extremely corrosive to skin and eyes. The following table indicates that category I
pesticides are the most toxic if swallowed. It takes just a taste to a teaspoonflil of some
category I products to be lethal. Example: Parathion
• A category EI pesticide is identified by the signal word "WARNING." A lethal dose
is approximately a teaspoon to a tablespoon of a pesticide Example: Diazinon
• A category III pesticide is identified by the signal word "CAUTION." A lethal oral
dose is one tablespoon to a pint. Example: Tordon
# A category IV pesticide must bear on the front panel the signal word "CAUTION".
The LD50 is the determining factor between category III and IV. Example: Dial
Antibacterial Kitchen Cleaner
SIGNAL WORD
TOXICITY CA TEGOR Y
LD„ ti Itu amouni of pesticide, measurtd ta mnn^rmms per kOogrvm (mg Kg} ofboOy weight,
Otai wm km one-half of Ou exposed popuUtton
Oral
common measuring unit
Dermal
i-'lANGER-KMSON
high to\w»i>
V* - 50
taste to \ tsp.
0 - 2or
WARNING
11
moderate toxicity
50 - 500
tsp to Tbsp
200 - 2,000
CAUTION
III
low toxicity
500 - 5.000
1 oz to 1 pt
2.000 - 20.000
CAUTION
IV
relatively nontoxic
over 5.000
more than 1 pt
over 20,000
32
1 1 Precautionary Statements
Precautionary statements are used to describe the hazards associated with a chemical. Always read
and follow the instructions given in a precautionary statement. Three areas of hazard may include:
[6a] People and Domestic Animals - This section tells what hazards exist to humans or
domestic animals through the route(s) of exposure and the precautions to be taken to avoid
accident, injury or damage.
[6b] Environmental Hazards - This section indicates if the pesticide is toxic to nontarget
organisms, such as honey bees, fish, birds, or other wildlife, and may contain information on
how to avoid environmental contamination.
[6c] Physical and Chemical Hazards - This section explains special physical and chemical
hazards, such as risks of explosion if the chemical is exposed to sparks or hazards from fumes
in the case of a fire.
ipl Additional Information
This statement must appear on those products that have the precautionary labeling which appears on
side panels rather than all on the front panel.
i||i Registration Numbers
The EPA assigns each pesticide a registration number. The phrase "EPA Registration No." or "EPA
Reg. No." must precede the registration number. This number identifies both the registrant and the
product. For example: EPA Reg. No. 62719-6; '62719' identifies DowElanco as the Registrant and
'6' identifies the product as Tordon 22K Herbicide.
^ I Establishment Numbers
A label must also have an EPA establishment number. The establishment number is a code which
identifies the actual establishment that formulated the product and the location of the establishment
site of manufacture or repackaging of a pesticide. Example: EPA Est. No. 464-MI-l . '464' identifies
DowElanco as the establishment, 'Ml' indicates the establishment is located in Michigan, and ' 1 ' tells
the reader, it is the first formulating plant in that state operated by DowElanco.
10
Contents
All labels must list (by weight or liquid volume) the net contents of the product.
Manufacturer
Pesticide labels always contain the name and address of the manufacturer, registrant, person or firm
registering the product. Use this address if you need to contact the manufacturer for any reason (if
the registrant is other than the manufacturer, the label should indicate both parties).
Example: DowElanco Chemical Company, Indianapolis, IN 46268
33
12 I Statement of Practical Treatment
The statement of practical treatment tells what to do in case of pesticide exposure. It describes what
emergency first aid measures to take when the pesticide contacts skin, splashes into eyes or if dust
or vapors have been inhaled. This statement may also include a Note to Physicians statement.
Example: Monitor 4 Spray
Note to Physicians: Methamidophos is a cholinesterase inhibitor. Measurement of blood cholinesterase
activity may be useful in monitoring exposure. If signs of cholinesterase inhibition appear, atropine sulfate
is antidotal. 2-PAM (Protopam) is also antidotal and may be used in conjunction with atropine, but should
not be used alone.
|| lii I Directions for Use
The directions for use list all the target pests that the pesticide has been registered to control, plus
the crops, plant species, animals, or other sites where the pesticide may be used. The directions may
also include special restrictions that must be observed, such as crops that may or may not be planted
in the treatment area and restrictions on feeding crop residues to livestock or grazing livestock on
treated plants. These instructions tell how to apply the pesticide, how much to use, where to use the
material, when it should be applied, and also include the pre-harvest interval for all crops, when
appropriate. The pre-harvest interval is the time, in days, required after application before an
agricultural crop may be harvested. Always follow these directions. It is a violation to use pesticides
in a manner inconsistent with the label.
EPA requires all pesticide labels with agricultural uses to have an [13a] Agricultural Use
Requirements statement. This statement is to remind employers to comply with the Worker
Protection Standards (WPS), Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 170, to reduce the
risk of pesticide-related illness and to provide information on the safe handling of pesticides. The
label requires employers to inform agricultural workers and/or pesticide handlers about the following:
♦ personal protective equipment (PPE),
♦ restricted-entry interval (REI), and
♦ notification to workers about pesticide applications.
14 1 Misuse Statement
itiiiiiiWiriva
The misuse statement must appear on all products and state, in general terms, that it is a violation
of Federal Law to use the product in a manner inconsistent with the label.
Ifejijiy Category of Applicator Statement
A statement restricting the use of a product to a particular category of applicator may appear on some
products in various locations on the label. For example, Diazinon 4E Insecticide - Recommended
for Commercial/Industrial Use Only. All Restricted Use Pesticides will indicate that use of that
product is by certified applicators or their licensed operators.
34
I X6 I Stora£e and Disposal Directions
Directions for proper storage and disposal of the pesticide and empty pesticide containers are another
important part of the label. Some pesticides have special requirements. For example the Roundup
label states the product should be stored where the temperature remains above 10° F to keep it from
freezing. Improper storage may cause a pesticide to lose its effectiveness or may cause an explosion
or fire. Pesticides must always be stored out of the reach of children and animals. Storage areas
should be locked and posted.
Proper disposal of unused pesticides and pesticide containers is essential to reduce human and
environmental hazards. Disposal of pesticides is governed by federal, state, and local regulations.
Specific information may be obtained from the MDA, if it is not included on the pesticide label.
» Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
Chemical manufacturers must also provide material safety data sheets (MSDS) through dealers and
other chemical distributors. MSDS's convey health and safety information about the product that
may not appear on the pesticide label. For most chemicals, the MSDS supplements and expands on
information provided on the label.
Important information provided on MSDS's includes product identification, hazardous ingredient
identification, physical property information (appearance, odor, solubility, volatility, etc.), fire and
explosion hazard data, reactivity data (reactions with other products), health hazard data, directions
for safe handling and use, physician statements, protective gear requirements, and disposal
information. The health hazard data section may be especially helpftjl because it describes acute and
chronic health effects as well as listing primary routes of exposure.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Hazard Communication Standard, also
known as "Worker Right-to-Know," is intended to protect our nation's workers through
dissemination of chemical safety information on labels, MSDS's, and training programs. This law
requires that MSDS's be made available and accessible at all times to employees in their work area.
35
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■ Physical incompatibility is difficult to evaluate and is often caused by the additives
rather than the pesticides being incompatible. The results of physical compatibilities are
varied. A common one is the formation of precipitates in the mixture that can plug screens
and nozzles. Another occurs when the activity of an emulsifier is stopped. Mixtures may
then separate or form large droplets within the tank.
>■ Chemical incompatibility occurs when chemical reactions occur that destroy the
effectiveness of one or more pesticides. For example, fijngicides or adjuvants that are
strongly alkaline may decompose synthetic organic insecticides and change their activity.
Precipitates may occur that will plug screens and spray nozzles. Formulations may be altered
so that they no longer contact or adhere to the target. Reactions may occur which cause the
formulation to be toxic to plants or phytotoxic. Chemical incompatibilities cannot always be
recognized in the spray tank.
>■ Timing incompatibility - Pesticides must be applied at the most susceptible development
stage of the pest for greatest effectiveness. When spraying a mixture of two or more
chemicals, it may be difficult to time the application to the most susceptible stage of the
various pests.
>■ Water incompatibility - Water is the most common carrier for pesticides. Water
hardness (high amounts of calcium) may alter the formulation of a pesticide making
application difficult or less effective. Generally, waters that are "soft" should be utilized as
carriers. Applicators should determine the hardness of water in their area prior to mixing one
or more pesticides. Water may be softened chemically, thus preventing problems in mixing
pesticides.
49
Points to Consider When Mixing Chemicals
♦ The compatibility of the various chemicals must be known before the materials are
combined.
♦ As a general rule, do not mix herbicides with insecticides.
♦ Follow all label directions carefully. The use of tank mixes not specifically stated on the
label is discouraged by most manufacturers.
♦ Combinations containing lime or having a high alkalinity are harmful to synthetic organic
chemicals. Most organophosphates and carbamates are subject to alkaline
decomposition.
♦ The use of oils and petroleum solvents in combination with organic chemicals may increase
phytotoxicity.
♦ Most dinitro miticides may become phytotoxic if mixed with oil.
♦ Organophosphates combined with dinitros may cause burning of foliage.
♦ Consult all available sources before utilizing combinations.
Compatibilities of various chemicals can be checked by referring to a compatibility chart in the Farm
Chemicals Handbook. Some chemical companies also print compatibility charts.
Caution is imperative to any applicator wishing to check unknown compatibilities. Chemical or
phytotoxic compatibilities cannot be observed. Keeping the above points in mind, physical
compatibilities can be checked by mixing small amounts of chemicals in jars. These mixtures should
be observed initially and after one hour for any adverse changes such as settling, precipitates,
gumminess, separation, etc.
Pesticide labels will often list compatible and incompatible chemicals. If not, it is permissible by the
FIFRA to mix pesticides or pesticides and fertilizers. This should be done with caution. Contact
the MDA Pesticide Specialist in your area for assistance.
I Types of Ground Equipment
The five basic classes of ground application equipment include hydraulic sprayers, air sprayers,
foggers and aerosol generators, power dusters, and hand held equipment.
•/ Hydraulic sprayers deliver the pesticide under pressure by a pump to one or more
nozzles. Hydraulic sprayers are of 4 basic types:
Multip/e-purpose sprayers provide versatility for a variety of farm problems. Spray
pressure is adjustable and can provide, for example, 40 pounds for weeds or 400 pounds
or more for spraying fruit trees. Tank size ranges from 50 to 200 gallons. Sprayers are
skid or wheel mounted and powered by auxiliary engines or a PTO. Spray is dispensed
through a hand gun or field boom.
Small general use sprayers are useful for small spraying jobs that are too large for hand
equipment. They are useful in greenhouses, large gardens, and golf courses. Tank
capacities vary up to 25 gallons. Power is from a Vi to 2 horsepower engine that
50
provides a wide range of pressures (50-500) psi. Spray is dispensed through a hand gun
or short boom. Sprayers are usually mounted on a hand-operated cart; some can be
attached to a garden tractor.
Low-pressure, low-volume sprayers are commonly used in Montana crops. They can be
mounted directly on equipment or are equipped with wheels. Sprayer tanks hold up to
250 gallons. Power is usually from the tractor PTO but may be supplied by an auxiliary
engine. Operating pressure is up to 100 pounds and spray is dispensed through a field
boom. Some sprayers, the Spray Coupe for example, are self-propelled.
High-pressure, high-volume sprayers are used by fruit growers and truck farmers in
order to obtain good penetration and coverage in tall growing trees and dense crop
growths. These sprayers are essentially the same as multiple-purpose sprayers except
that larger engines provide up to 1000 pounds of pressure. Tank sizes are also larger and
range up to 600 gallons.
%/ Air sprayers (also known as ultra-low volume, concentrated blower, air-blast, and air-
mist sprayers) are used for spraying orchards, large shade trees, and field crops. Pesticides
are applied in concentrated form using relatively small volumes of water in contrast to
hydraulic sprayers. Labor involved in loading is saved and pesticide runoff is reduced. A
low-volume pump delivers the liquid spray under low pressure to the fan where it is
discharged into an air stream in small droplets by a group of nozzles or shear plates. Pump
pressures range from 50 to 400 psi. and fans deliver from 5000 to 25,000 c.f m. or air
velocities of 100 to 150 m.p.h.
%/ Foggers or Aerosol Generators are designed primarily for control of mosquitoes and
flies in large buildings, parks, resorts, or communities. These machines disperse fine particles
of pesticides into air, as fogs or mists, where they remain for a considerable time period. Fogs
and aerosols are produced by either thermal (heat) or mechanical methods or a combination
of both. Aerosol equipment is not practical for most agricultural pesticide applications
(especially herbicides) because of their tendency to create drift problems.
Air currents assist in moving the pesticide to the target area, taking advantage of the principle
of air inversions. Applications are usually made at night when wind, temperatures and
humidity conditions are more likely to be optimal
t/ Power dusters are powered by engine or PTOs Like air blast sprayers, dusters also
utilize air streams from a centrifijgal fan to carry the pesticide to the target area. They may
have single or multiple outlets Dusters may be impractical for application of some pesticides,
especially herbicides, because of the drift hazard
•/ Hand application equipment is designed primarily for application of pesticides in small
areas like homes, gardens, businesses, or yards. This type of equipment includes hand pump
atomizers, aerosol dispensers, compressed air sprayers, knapsack sprayers and dusters.
51
The hatuiptimp atomizer uses a hand operated pump to force an air stream over the tip
of a siphon tube Pesticide is sucked from the tube and atomized in the air stream. The
intermittent type sprayer produces a spray only on the forward motion of the pump. The
continuous sprayer delivers a continuous spray because pressure is produced in the tank.
These sprayers are commonly used to control flying insects in the home. They have
nearly been replaced now by aerosol dispensers.
Aerosol dispensers or "bug bombs" are probably the most common type of applicator.
The pesticide and a propellant are forced, under pressure, through an atomizing nozzle.
Many household pest sprays are dispensed as aerosol bug bombs.
Compressed air sjyrayers are designed to hold 1 to 3 gallons in the tank. A hand pump
is used to pressurize the tank and to deliver the pesticide, under pressure, to the nozzle.
Spray patterns and droplet size can be regulated by nozzle type. Solutions, emulsions,
or suspensions of pesticides can be utilized at pressures which range from 30 to 50 psi.
The use of CO2 cylinders in place of the hand pump may be utilized to achieve correct
pressure.
Knapsack hand sprayers are carried on the back and usually have a capacity of 5 gallons.
A hand operated piston or diaphragm pump provides the pressure (30 to 100 psi) to
expel the pesticide.
Duster hand sprayers range from small self-contained units to those mounted in
wheelbarrows. Air velocity for dispensing the dust is created by a plunger, hand crank,
or belt attached to a fan or blower.
I Accessory Equipment
Nozzle Types and Selection
Proper selection of nozzle type and size is an important part of pesticide application. The nozzle
determines the amount of spray applied to a given area, the uniformity of the applied spray, the
coverage obtained on sprayed surfaces and the amount of drift that may occur. The choice of nozzle
type is determined by field conditions and a knowledge of the characteristics of the different types of
nozzles. Selection of nozzle type is dependent on the type of application being conducted. Most
pesticide applications will use one of the following nozzle types:
Regular Flat-Fan nozzles are recommended for most broadcast spraying of herbicides and some
insecticides where foliage penetration is not required. When applying herbicides with flat-fan nozzles,
the pressure should be between 1 5 and 30 pounds per square inch (psi) and never over 40 psi. Flat-
fan nozzles are normally spaced 20 inches apart, with boom heights varying from 1 7 to 23 inches.
Nozzles produce a fan shaped spray pattern with tapered ends and are available in several spray
angles. The tapered ends of the pattern have lower volumes which require overlapping of adjacent
patterns for uniform coverage. The spray patterns should overlap about 30 percent and the nozzles
should be rotated approximately 1 2 to 15 degrees off the boom line to prevent the patterns from
infringing on each other and destroying the uniformity of coverage.
52
Flooding Flat-Fan nozzles are used for applying herbicides and mixtures of herbicides and fertilizers.
This nozzle produces a wide angle flat-fan pattern that is generally not as uniform as the regular flat-fan
tip. Spray is concentrated in the center of the pattern, followed by a small interval of less spray and then
another heavy concentration on the outer edges. Therefore, the best distribution is achieved when the
nozzle is mounted at a height to obtain at least double coverage, or 100 percent overlap. To get the right
overlap, the sprayed area from one nozzle must be twice the spacing of the nozzle from another nozzle
on the boom. For example: If flood nozzles are placed on 40 inch centers, the sprayed area on the
ground from one nozzle must be 80 inches to get 100 percent overlap. Because of the wide spray angle,
these nozzles can be widely spaced on the boom and carried close to the ground to reduce drift. The
best drift reduction with flood nozzles is achieved when they are operated within a pressure range of 8
to 25 psi with the nozzles angled 10 to 15 degrees in the direction of travel. Pressure changes affect the
width of the spray pattern in this nozzle more so than in the regular flat-fan nozzle.
Even Flat- Fan nozzles apply an even coverage across the entire width of the spray pattern. They
should be used only for banding pesticides over the row and be operated between 1 5 and 30 psi. Width
is determined by adjusting nozzle height. The wider the nozzle spray angle, the lower the height needed
to spray a desired band width.
Hollow Cone nozzles are used primarily when plant foliage penetration is essential, such as orchard
applications, for effective insect and disease control where drift is not a major concern. At pressures of
40 to 80 psi, these nozzles produce small drops that penetrate plant canopies and cover the undersides
of leaves more effectively than other nozzles. If canopy penetration is not required, the pressure should
be limited to 40 psi or less. The most commonly used hollow cone nozzle is the two-piece disc-core
hollow cone spray tip. The core gives the fluid a swirling motion as it is metered through the disc orifice,
resulting in a circular hollow cone spray pattern. For adequate coverage of a row crop, one to five
nozzles can be used per row, depending on plant size.
Whirl Chamber Hollow Cone nozzles have a whirl chamber above the conical outlet. These nozzles
produce a hollow cone pattern with fan angles up to 130 degrees and are used mainly on herbicide
incorporation kits. The recommended pressure range is 5 to 20 psi.
Raindrop® Hollow Cone nozzles are designed to produce very large drops in a hollow cone pattern at
pressures of 20 to 60 psi. When used for broadcast application, the nozzle should be rotated 30 to 45
degrees from horizontal to obtain uniform distribution.
....v.-assiK-3
o
:a
t O I
Regular flat-fan
nozzle pattern
Flooding flat-fan
nozzle pattern
Even flat-fan
nozzle pattern
Hollow cone
nozzle pattern
53
Nozzle Materials
Nozzle tips are available in a variety of materials. Brass tips are the most common and are the most
economical for limited use. However, they wear rapidly when used to apply abrasive materials, such
as wettable powders, and are corroded by some liquid fertilizers. Plastic (nylon) tips are resistant to
corrosion and abrasion, but are subject to swelling when exposed to some solvents. The best tips are
stainless steel, hardened stainless steel, and ceramic. Ceramic is the best and most wear resistant of
all tip materials, but also the most expensive. Stainless steel tips have excellent wear resistance with
either corrosive or abrasive materials.
Nozzle Numbering and Coding
Unfortunately, there is not a uniform system of nozzle numbering. Each manufacturer will indicate
flow rate, spray angle, and other information by number and letter codes. Flow rates are measured
in gallons per minute (GPM) at a standard pressure of 40 psi using water. For fijrther reference,
nozzle manufacturers' catalogs and bulletins provide an excellent source of information.
Handgun Discs
Handgun equipment generally have discs rather than nozzle tips. Discs have a uniform system of
numbering. The spray or cap number represents the diameter of the orifice in increments of 1/64 of
an inch. For example, No, 3 disc has an orifice 3/64 inch in diameter. Larger orifices deliver coarser
droplets at higher rates. To determine the proper disc size for your operation, consult manufacturers'
charts.
Nozzle Flow Rate or Capacity
The flow rate of a nozzle is increased by larger metering passages and exit orifices. Flow rate is also
affected in varying degrees by pressure, liquid density, and liquid viscosity.
>■ Flow rate varies in proportion to the square root of the pressure. As pressure increases,
so does pesticide flow rate. For example, to double the flow output, pressure would have to
be quadrupled.
>- As the pesticide density becomes greater, flow rate is reduced,
>■ Effects of viscosity on flow rate are complex, but generally, flow rate decreases as liquids
become more viscous.
Many applicators may not be interested in the above factors but they should be aware of their effects
on flow rate. The above effects on nozzle flow rates illustrate the importance of calibrating when
changing nozzle size, pressure, or spray mixture.
Spray Angle and Pattern
Pressure and liquid viscosity influence spray angle and pattern.
Pressure - A minimum pressure is required to develop a proper spray pattern, usually 10 to
1 5 psi. Lower pressures tend to produce a distorted spray pattern. When pressure is too
great, the nozzle will begin to atomize the spray and the pattern will be changed.
Applicators can make the mistake of operating at excessive pressures in order to make
the spray reach further. Actually the opposite effect may occur as the spray atomizes,
the pattern changes, and drift may occur. A nozzle with a larger orifice should be used.
54
Liquid Viscosity - Viscosity is the only liquid property that has a significant effect on spray
patterns. An increase in viscosity produces a narrower pattern and smaller spray angle.
At very high viscosities, the spray may become a straight stream.
Atomization & Droplet Size
The range of droplet size is affected primarily by the nozzle orifice size and pressure. Each nozzle
produces a variety of droplet sizes, the majority centered around one size. Droplets are measured
in micrometers or microns where 25,400 micrometers equal one inch. Volume Mean Diameter
(VMD) is also used as a measure of droplet size. VMD is that droplet diameter whose volume, if
multiplied by the number of droplets, will equal the total volume of the sample. To give an idea of
droplet sizes, the following chart is included.
Category
Droplet Size
(micrometers)
Fog
0.1-50
Aerosol
1.0-50
Mist
50- 100
Fine Spray
100-400
Coarse Spray
Greater than 400
Droplet size is influenced by:
Nozzle rating and design is the primary factor influencing droplet size. As nozzle capacity
and metering passages increase in size, the average droplet generally becomes larger. Spray
angle ratings also affect droplet size. Wider spray angles are associated with finer droplets.
Pressure - As pressure increases, more droplets of a smaller size tend to be produced. A limit
is eventually reached where increasing pressure has little effect in reducing droplet size.
Liquid Viscosity - As viscosity of a fluid increases, droplets become coarser. Increases in
pressure will counteract the effects of viscosity.
Surface tension - Liquids with a higher surface tension are more difficult to atomize. The
effect of surface tension is generally minor compared to viscosity.
Pumps
The sprayer pump is the heart of the system. Pumps vary in capacity, operating speed and pressure,
and resistance to corrosion and wear. Capacity, which is affected by speed and pressure, should be
large enough for high application rates. Pumps should provide for agitation if the sprayer does not
have a mechanical agitator. Manufacturer's performance tables can assist you in selecting the proper
pump. Some of the commonly used pumps are:
55
Centrifugal pumps commonly operate from a PTO and must be operated at high speed (3000 to
6000 rpm) to obtain adequate capacity. High output occurs at normal operating pressures (30-90
psi). They are not self-priming and must be located below the fluid level if a priming system is not
used. They are resistant to wear and can pump wettable powders or other abrasives. In operation,
liquid enters at the center of a rotating impeller with vanes molded in a spiral configuration. Liquid
is forced along the vanes by centrifugal force and out a discharge hose.
Turbine pumps exhibit the same advantages and disadvantages as centrifijgal pumps. The primary
differences are closer tolerances and additional fins. The optimum operating speed is 1000 rpm
and can be operated directly from a 1000 rpm PTO shaf^. A step-up drive is necessary for a 540
rpm PTO shaft. The impeller, nylon or cast iron, is a construction of many closely aligned turbine
blades. The housing constricts around the blades at the exit port which forces the liquid from the
pump.
Rollerpumps are inexpensive, short-life pumps useful in a variety of situations. Operating pressure
varies from 30 to 200 psi and outputs can reach up to 50 GPM. Higher pressures and operating
speeds decrease pump life. These pumps are suitable for wettable powders but their abrasive
nature shortens the pump life. The number of rollers varies from 4 to 8 depending on pump
capacity. They are constructed of nylon, rubber, teflon or polypropylene plastic. In operation, a
slotted rotor holds cylinder shaped rollers in an eccentric housing. As the rotor spins, the rollers
are held against the housing by centrifijgal force. Fluid is drawn into the entry port and held in the
spaces between the rollers and the housing. At the exit port, the smaller space between the rotor
and housing forces liquid into the exit port.
Piston pumps - Piston pumps are designed to operate at high pressures, ahhough they may also be
operated at low pressure. For most agricultural uses, 500 to 600 psi is normal, although some
pumps may produce up to 1000 psi. Output is nearly proportional to pump speed which, depend-
ing on the pump design, may vary from 300 to 1800 rpm. Output from piston pumps is low,
varying from maximums of 3 GPM to 25 GPM, depending on size, number of pistons, and operat-
ing speed. When spraying with pressures of 100 psi or more, a piston pump will provide the best
long-term reliability. Most high pressure sprayers designed for such uses as ornamental tree spray-
ing, livestock spraying or washing equipment are equipped with piston pumps. Piston pumps are
expensive but well constructed and a long service life can be expected. They stand up to abrasive
materials and worn parts can be replaced. Piston pumps are driven by a PTO or auxiliary engine.
An eccentric camshaft moves the piston, fluid enters and is forced from one way valves in the
piston housing. To smooth the pulsating discharge of liquid, a surge tank or pulsation damper is
required.
Centrifijgal pump
56
Roller pump
Piston pump
The following three pumps see little current use with agricultural sprayers:
^ Gear pumps - These pumps incur a high wear rate, cannot be reconditioned, and
must be discarded after they are worn.
^ Diaphragm pidtnps - The pumping action in a diaphragm pump is produced by the
movement of a flexible diaphragm. Liquid is drawn into one chamber on the
downstroke and forced out of another on the upstroke. The diaphragm is resistant
to wear by abrasives but may be attacked by certain chemicals.
^ Flexible Impeller pumps - These pumps have a series of rubber vanes attached to
a rotating hub. The pump housing squeezes the hub as the rotor turns, forcing the
liquid from the exit port. Since the paddles will not return to the extended position
if the pressure is too high, a pressure relief valve is not needed They are inexpensive
and the rotors are easily replaced. They are not suitable for abrasives but work well
as low pressure transfer pumps.
Pressure Regulators
3^Pressure Relief Valves maintain a constant pressure to the nozzles despite variations in
engine speed. This spring loaded valve allows excess fluid to be bypassed into the tank and,
when the boom is shut off, the entire pump output is routed to the tank. These valves are
used with roller and piston pumps.
^'Unloader Valves are recommended for high pressure situations as with piston pumps.
When pressure becomes greater than the pressure setting, excess fluid is rerouted to the tank.
Each time the nozzles are shut off, the unloader valve opens and routes the pesticide to the
tank. Line pressure between the unloader valve and the nozzle(s) remains at operating
pressure, allowing immediate use when spraying is resumed. The pressure of the liquid
flowing through the unloader valve back to the tank is very low, saving fuel and pump wear.
Some unloader valves, when properly adjusted, can serve as a partial relief by-pass valve.
^'Throttling Valves (manually controlled) distribute and/or restrict the excess pump output.
By opening or closing the throttling valve(s) in a spray system, pressure is decreased or
increased. Throttling valves are used with centrifijgal and turbine pumps.
Strainers and Screens
Screens and strainers remove foreign materials that might clog nozzles, wear pumps, or interfere with
valves. Screens mesh size refers to the number of openings per linear inch. The higher the mesh size
number, the finer the screen
>Tank Screens are coarse screens that remove lumps of unmixed material and other large
foreign materials when the tank is filled.
^'Line Strainers are generally placed between the tank and the pump. They are an
intermediate size, 10-80 mesh, and are necessary to prevent rust, scale, sand, or other small
particles from entering and damaging the pump.
57
>Nozzle Screens fit inside the nozzle body and provide final screening of the liquid to protect
the nozzle tips fi'om plugging. Screens are commonly made of stainless steel or brass and
have a mesh size smaller than the nozzle aperture. When spraying wettable powders, slotted
strainers are recommended to prevent the buildup of suspended solids.
Clogged screens will cause erratic spray patterns, improper metering and delivery, or complete liquid
blockage. Screens and strainers must be cleaned often using a soft brush or compressed air.
CAUTION: Do not blow into screens or nozzles to clean. You will get
pesticide into your mouth, nose, eyes and on your face. These areas are highly
susceptible to pesticide absorption.
Nozzle Check Valves
When boom control valves or the spray pump are stopped, the liquid remaining in the boom or hose
lines will continue to drip fi-om the nozzle and may cause crop damage. This undesirable dripping of
spray material can be avoided by the use of nozzle check valves. When the line pressure drops below
a certain low pressure, the valve automatically shuts off all flow. The boom remains flill, pressurized,
and ready for immediate resumption of spraying.
Agitators
Many pesticide products, particularly wettable powders and emulsions, require agitation to assure
continuous mixing of the pesticide formulation. Agitation can be accomplished by manual,
mechanical, or hydraulic methods.
^ Mamial Agitation by means of continuous shaking is sufficient for small hand held sprayers
but impractical for large equipment.
^ Mechanical Agitation is provided by a series of propellers or paddles mounted on a shaft
near the bottom of the tank. Rotation speed is slow (100 to 200 rpm) because excessive
agitator speed can cause foaming in some spray mixtures.
^ Hydraulic Agitation is provided by returning a portion of the pump output to the tank.
One method discharges the by-pass spray mixture through holes in a pipe located at the
bottom of the tank. A second method uses agitator nozzles. By-pass liquid flows through
the nozzles, drawing additional fluid into the moving stream through openings in the side of
the nozzle. The volume of liquid for agitation can be increased 2-3 times by this method.
Some sprayers have a by-pass or overflow hose returning to the tank from which the spray
liquid enters as an unrestricted straight stream. Although this provides circulation and mixing
of the tank's spray mixture, it is generally not sufficient to maintain an adequate suspension
of the pesticide product.
58
Pressure Gauges
Pressure gauges should be periodically checked for accuracy and should register within the range of
pressures commonly used. Properly operating pressure gauges help insure proper application rates,
keep drift to a minimum, and reduce equipment wear caused by unnecessarily high pressures It is
common for pressure to be lower at the nozzles than the registered gauge pressure. Pesticides
moving through hoses, valves, couplings, and screens encounter resistance and thus pressure is
lowered. To reduce pressure loss, hoses should be kept as short and as large in diameter as possible.
Fittings should be kept to a minimum. Lines, nozzles, and screens should be cleaned often.
Sprayer Tanks
Sprayer tanks should have a large opening at the top that is splash proof and equipped with a coarse
screen. The cover should be vented and sealed against dust. A drain plug should be located in the
tank bottom. Comers should be round to facilitate agitation and cleaning.
Construction materials vary in durability and ability to withstand corrosion. The following are some
common materials;
>• Galvcanzed Steel Tanks give reasonable service if properly cared for but may eventually
corrode. They are suitable for most pesticides but corrosive fertilizers and pesticides should
be avoided. An epoxy lining will protect steel tanks from corrosion but is not effective
against hydrocarbons, such as Lasso, or volatile chemicals under pressure.
>■ Polyethylene Tanks are lightweight and resistant to corrosive chemicals except for
ammonium phosphate solutions and some liquid fertilizers. Polyethylene tanks must be
replaced if cracked, broken or punctured. Polyethylene breaks down under ultra-violet light
and should be kept covered when not in use.
>■ Aluminum Tanks resist corrosion by most chemicals. They should not be used with
solutions containing phosphoric acid.
> Fiberglass Tanks are widely used on agricultural sprayers and are resistant to most
chemicals but may be affected by some solvents. Fiberglass is a lightweight but durable
material that can be repaired if cracked or broken.
>■ Stainless Steel is the highest quality material for spray tanks. It is strong, durable and
resistant to corrosion by any pesticide or fertilizer. It is recommended for equipment with a
high annual use.
The capacity of the tank will depend upon the size of fields to be sprayed, application rate, boom size,
and soil conditions. Excessively large tanks require expensive supports and may compact soil or
leave ruts.
59
I Maintenance of Ground Equipment
Care and maintenance of equipment will give the best results for your applications and help insure the
safe use of pesticides. Improperly maintained sprayers can result in:
• Costly repairs
• Improper application rates
• Pesticide spills and other pesticide accidents
^ Down time
Most dealers provide information and manuals for the care of their equipment, but the following
information gives a brief summary on equipment care.
Inspection and Filling
Before use, examine the sprayer carefully for worn parts. Are the hoses cracked and leaking?
Examine the suction hose carefully; any leaks will seriously interfere with the pump operation.
Examine the boom struts carefully and adjust the boom to the proper height. Clean all components
carefully and pay attention to screens, filters, hoses, and nozzles. Any dirt in these parts will interfere
with application rates. Mix chemicals using only clean water. Dirt will plug screens and damage the
pump. Water from a ditch or reservoir should be strained.
Cleaning the Sprayer
Rinsing the sprayer after use will reduce corrosion and prevent contamination of the next spray and
accumulations on sprayer parts. Several rinsing solutions can be used depending on the carrier:
^ Water and ammonia
• Water and soap or detergent
• Solvents
Choose cleaning areas with care so that pesticides are not rinsed onto lawns, children's play areas,
or well head areas. Rinse your tanks in areas where humans, animals, or crops will not be exposed.
Spray equipment should be cleaned according to the pesticide label and/or the manufacture's
guidelines. However, the following is a suggested procedure, if the pesticide label and/or
manufacture's guidelines are unavailable, for cleaning equipment prior to storage at the end of the
season:
Step 1 : Hose down the inside of tank completely, fill to half full and flush the system by
operating the sprayer.
Step 2: Repeat Step 1.
Step 3: Remove nozzle tips and screens and clean them using a soft brush and kerosene or
detergent water.
Step 4: Fill the tank fijll and add 1 pound of detergent for every 50 gallons of water.
Circulate through the bypass pressure regulator and jet agitator for 30 minutes. Flush
solution through the nozzles.
60
Sprayers that have contained phenoxy type herbicides, such as 2,4-D or organophosphate
insecticides should be cleaned by the following procedure prior to Step 5:
^ replace the screens and nozzle tips,
^ fill tank half full of water, add 1 pint of ammonia for every 25 gallons of water,
^* circulate solution for about 5 minutes, then discharge a small amount of solution
through nozzles,
^ keep remaining solution in sprayer at least 4 hours, preferably over night, and
^ flush remaining solution through the nozzles.
Step 5: Fill the tank half full of clean water, hose down the outside and inside, then flush
through the nozzles.
Step 6: Remove tips, discs, strainers, and screens and store in light oil. Store sprayer in a
clean, dry structure. If the pump cannot be drained completely, store where it cannot freeze.
Oil films should be applied to some types of tanks and possibly the pumps to prevent rusting.
Other preventative measures include:
%/ Overhaul pumps yearly during the winter.
• Protect steel tanks with a light coat of oil or kerosene.
*/ Oil or paint coats inside the tank should be those approved for such use.
• Avoid leaving pesticides in the tank for extended periods of time.
• Hoses used for chemicals can never be decontaminated; don't use them for drinking
water.
^ Caustic soda (lye) is corrosive to aluminum parts so should not be used as a rinse in
aluminum tanks.
*^ Don't start a pump against pressure; use the proper relief valves.
^ Always consult the manufacturer's recommendations.
I Aerial Equipment
The subject of aerial spray equipment and accessories is a complex subject suitable for engineers and
experienced pilots; however, many aspects of aerial application are similar to ground application. For
example, sprayers are basically constructed of the same components. Calibration is accomplished in
much the same way except that speeds are much greater and rates much lower. For more information
on aerial spraying contact the National Agricultural Aviation Association, 1005 E Street SE,
Washington, DC 20003; phone number: 202-546-5722.
Types of Aircraft
There are several classes of aircraft that may be utilized for the application of pesticides. These
classes include:
♦ High wing monoplanes are not primarily designed for applying pesticides, but do provide
good visibility, handling, and low maintenance cost
61
♦ Low wing monoplanes provide increased safety by providing better visibility, stability, and
protection to the pilot.
♦ Multi-engine aircraft are utilized extensively in forest and rangeland application.
♦ Helicopters have some advantages over fixed wing aircraft, i.e. operate at slower speed;
increased safety; improved accuracy of swath, coverage, and placement of the chemical; and
they may be operated without airport facilities.
Drift
A serious problem associated with aerial and ground application of pesticides is drift of pesticides to
nontarget areas. However, aerial application have more features that add to the drift problem:
Q The requirement of low application rates means that spray droplets must be small so that coverage
(droplets per acre) will be adequate. Smaller droplets have a greater tendency to drift; droplets 30
microns and smaller remain suspended in air. Spray droplets should be about 100 microns to
minimize drift. Table 5.2 gives an indication of the effect of droplet size on drift.
Table 5.2
Spray Droplet Size and Its Effect on Spray Drift
Spray Droplet
Diameter
( micron*)
Particle Type
Similar Weather
Elements
Distance Droplet Moved
{by 3 MPH wiDd
in 10 ft. fail)
400
coarse aircraft spray
light rain
8.5 feet
150
medium aircraft spray
mist
22 feet
100
fine aircraft spray
—
48 feet
50
air carrier spray
~
178 feet
20
fine sprays & dusts
fog
1,109 feet
10
usual dusts & aerosols
—
4,435 feet
2
aerosols
21 miles
* 1 micron is about 1/25,000 inch
— From Akesson & Yates, Ann. Rev. Entom. Vol. 9, 1 964
□ Pesticides are generally released at greater heights than from conventional sprayers. This is done
to achieve good coverage, but may result in pesticide drift caused by wind, convection currents, and
aircraft turbulence.
62
Aerial applications should be conducted when the air movement is predictable and consistent (3-5
mph). By spraying early in the morning, convection currents which form at temperatures 85° F and
above can be avoided.
The flight path directly affects the amount of drift If the aircraft is climbing, there will be more down
push and less spray pulled into vortices. If the aircraft is descending, the wing or rotor tip vortices
will pull more spray aloft; various portions of the spray pattern will be disturbed as well. Level or
slightly ascending flight is usually best to alleviate both effects. The following factors can help to
reduce pesticide drift:
• Increase droplet size by the use of invert emulsions (water in oil mixtures), viscosity
additives, or foam producing additives.
• Increase droplet size by using nozzles with larger orifices or by using a jet nozzle.
• Limit boom length to no more than 3/4 of the wing span.
^ Control droplet size by using the correct pressure.
%/ Use atomizers (spinners) at the proper rpm.
• Fly at the proper altitude.
• Apply pesticides eariy in the day before convection currents form.
^ Spray only when winds are less than 1 0 mph.
• Choose pesticide formulations that are not volatile.
^ Reduce air shear across nozzles.
Tests show that there is an increase in drift with more swaths. Barriers near the target area (trees)
may help reduce drift and confine it to the target area. For a look at how different factors affect drift,
see the following table
The Effect of Various Factors on Pesticide Drift
Drift Factors
More l>rift
1ms Drift
aircraft altitude
higher ahitude
lower altitude
wind speed
faster
slower
droplet size
* pressure
* nozzle capacity
* orifice size
* orifice shape
* air shear on spray
* surface tension
* spray density
* viscosity
smaller
higher
smaller
smaller
sharp angles
higher
lower
lower
lov/er
larger
lower
greater
larger
round
lower
higher
higher
higher
vertical air motion
up
down
air stability
greater
reduced
aircraft speed
faster
slower
63
Equipment for Dispersing Pesticides
Application equipment can be constructed for dispersing dry or liquid pesticides. Since applicators
can be asked to apply either type, equipment such as hoppers are often constructed so that liquid or
dust formulations can be applied. Following is a discussion of equipment for aerial application of
liquid and/or dry pesticides in fixed wing or rotary wing aircraft.
• Dry Material Application Systems
In 2i fixed wing aircraft, chemicals are dispensed primarily by:
♦ A ram-air spreader in which dry materials are metered from the hopper into the propeller
slip stream. Ram-air systems do not have the capacity to spread materials in a wide swath.
This led to the development of spinners.
♦ Spinners consist of spinning vanes mounted under the hopper that throw material outward
in a uniform pattern. Some equipment, to flirther increase spreading power, utilizes a blower
to force material into the spreader. The use of spreaders and blowers can nearly double the
swath width.
In helicopters, two types of dispensers are used:
♦ A blower, driven by the engine, forces material from two side tanks and out short booms.
The material may be spread using spinners instead of the boom.
♦ A single hopper can be suspended on a cable and material dispensed using spinners. This
method eliminates the problem of aircraft trim caused by uneven emptying of side tanks.
Agitators, to insure even dissemination of material from the tanks, may or may not be present.
They are essential for materials smaller than 60 mesh. Their use will help insure even
application by providing an even flow of material.
The hopper or tank for dry materials should have many of the characteristics of a tank for holding
liquids. Comers should be rounded and the sides should be steep to insure complete unloading of the
chemical. Usually a slope of 50° to 55° is adequate. Tanks can often be used for dry or liquid
materials by replacing a bolt-on plate on the tank bottom with a hopper.
^ Liquid Material Application Systems
There are two types of spray systems for fixed and rotary wing aircraft:
♦ pressure type - the spray is applied under specific pressures.
♦ gravity feed- the flow of spray solution from the tank to dispersing unit relies upon gravity.
Aircraft spray dispersal equipment consists of a tank(s), pump(s), pressure regulator, line
filter, flow control valve, boom and nozzles. Swath widths of 40 to 60 feet, in the application
range of 1 to 10 gallons per acre are normal when material is released 5 to 8 feet above the
ground.
64
■^ Tanks for fixed wing aircraft are usually mounted internally, often ahead of the pilot and
aft of the engine, however, quick release belly tanks can be mounted to the aircraft bottom.
This permits rapid jettison of the tank, should the need arise. Also, aircraft not primarily used
for spraying can be modified to do so.
i/ In rotary wing aircraft, tanks are mounted externally on the side or underneath
• All tanks should have emergency dump valves located on the tank bottom. Internal
baffles are required to prevent rapid shifts in fluid.
"^ Two types of agitation systems are utilized to maintain suspensions and mixtures of
chemical. Mechanical systems rely on paddles to maintain agitation. Hydraulic systems
utilize a return flow fi"om a large capacity pump. A rule of thumb is that the flow rate should
be 10 GPM for every 100 gallons of tank capacity.
^^ The most common /7«m/7 is that driven by a small propeller in the slip stream of the
aircraft engine propeller. The efficiency of this type of pump is low and many newer aircraft
are equipped with hydraulic piston pumps or electric pumps
Helicopter pumps are usually driven by a PTO. Centrifugal pumps are the most common type
where application rates are 1-10 gal. /acre. Where higher pressures are needed, as for
aerosols, or where pump discharge is greatly reduced, other pump types such as gear or roller
are used.
^^ Pressure regulators or by-pass relief valves are utilized to maintain a constant spray
pressure. Pressure regulators are located between the pump and boom and include a quick
closing shut-off valve. These valves allow the spray system to be opened and closed instantly.
I®" The main control valve is usually 3-way. In the "spray off' position, the valve directs
flow from the pump back into the tank This action maintains a slight vacuum in the boom
to prevent pesticide dribble, and provides recirculation agitation in the tank. A third valve
position allows the tank to be filled or emptied through the boom.
"^ Screens or filters are generally located in three places in liquid systems. A coarse screen
at the tank bottom keeps debris from entering the pump. The most important screen is one
located between the pump and the booms. It is usually 25 to 100 mesh (10-40 openings per
centimeter) and can be removed easily for cleaning. Mesh size depends upon nozzle orifice
size so that particles that might plug the nozzles can be removed. A third screen is usually
placed just before each nozzle orifice.
•^ Pipes and fittings usually have the following characteristics that help prevent pressure
losses;
• For application rates over 2 gallons per acre, all main piping and fittings are 1-1/2
inches inside diameter.
65
• For application rates of V2 to 2 gallons per acre, all main piping and fittings are at
least 1 inch inside diameter.
• For ultra low volume (ULV) applications, hoses to individual nozzles should be 1/8
inch inside diameter. Main line hoses and fittings should be at least 3/8 inch inside
diameter.
The number of bends and joints should be minimized. All hose connections should be double
clamped and lines under pressure should not run through the cockpit.
■^ Booms for fixed and rotary wing aircraft;, although mounted differently, are basically the
same in construction. Boom pipes are round or aerodynamic in cross section. In fixed wing
aircraft, they are mounted on the trailing edge of the wing and usually are 3/4 the wing span
length.
"^ Nozzles used in aerial spraying are basically of 4 types:
^ The jet or solid stream nozzle produces a jet of coarse droplets useful for coarse
sprays such as 2,4-D.
• Hollow cone nozzles, identified because of their spray pattern, produce small
droplets
• The flat fan nozzle produces a fan shaped pattern and is useful in reduced volume
applications.
i/ An atomization nozzle produces a true aerosol spray in a cone shaped pattern.
"^ Atomizers, in addition to the atomizing nozzle, include a variety of spinning screen cages,
discs, and wire brushes They are usually driven by fans or electric motors. Atomizers
produce droplets of more uniform size and are useful in low volume spraying such as
grasshopper or mosquito control. Droplet size is influenced by a complex interaction among
pressure, spinner speed, air shear, and discharge angle. For example, as pressure (flow rate)
increases, droplet size increases. As spinner velocity increases, droplet size decreases. The
angle of discharge from the nozzle in relation to the airstream influences droplet size. Smaller
sized droplets will be produced if nozzle discharge is directed at 90° relative to the slip
stream.
Safety and Maintenance
The safety section in this manual also applies to aerial applicators. The following additional rules also
apply:
▲ Because pilots may fly through previous swaths, a clean air supply is necessary. If a
filtered air helmet or cockpit is not available, use an approved respirator.
A No hoses, valves, or any portion of the system carrying pesticides should pass through the
cockpit.
▲ Components of the spray system inside the fuselage should be accessible for cleaning,
maintenance, and repairs.
66
A The critical demands of aerial pesticide application require regular maintenance. The
seasonal nature of pesticide application lends itself to inspections and repairs during idle
periods.
ULV Application
Some pesticide applications apply highly concentrated material at low rates. Ultra low volume (ULV)
rates for mosquito control are as low as 0. 1 gallon per acre. The application of ULV formulations
requires the use of special equipment and application procedures. Conventional aircraft spray systems
can be modified to accommodate ULV formulations. A small ULV system can be installed separate
from the dilute system and can be removed upon completion of ULV operations.
The following points should be observed when applying ULV applications: ULV systems must
deliver fine droplets to be effective. This can be accomplished by utilizing spinning or flat fan nozzles
discharging 0. 1 GPM or less at 40 to 55 psi. Gaps in the distribution pattern can be avoided by using
not less than four flat fan nozzles. For helicopter operations, a single spinning nozzle may provide
adequate output at very low rates, such as required for mosquito control.
Because of the fine droplets produced by ULV systems, the location of the nozzles is important.
Extreme outboard nozzles must be located away from the wing tips on fixed wing aircraft to avoid
spray entrapment in the wing tip vortices. Central nozzles can be shifted to the right to compensate
for propeller wash. ULV application should be made at the altitude that will achieve the optimum
spray width strip. As wind velocity increases, the aircraft altitude should decrease.
Carriers used in ULV formulations may cause premature wearing of certain equipment parts. For
instance, the carrier for Malathion will corrode rubber and neoprene. To minimize chemical damage
to spray equipment seals, hoses, and nozzle diaphragms should be checked regularly and replaced if
corrosion has begun. Nozzle screens should also be checked regularly, since the smaller tips become
clogged more easily.
67
CHAPTER VI
CALIBRATING PESTICIDE EQUIPMENT
The performance of any pesticide depends on the proper application of the correct amount of
chemical. A wide variety of sprayers are available for applying herbicides, insecticides and fungicides,
however, they must be calibrated accurately to obtain effective pest control. Accurate calibration
ensures that the correct amount of pesticide is applied uniformly over the target area.
Calibration includes:
♦ Calculating the amount of product to be used;
♦ Mixing the product properly and safely;
♦ Calibrating the spray equipment for the desired rate uniformly across the spray swath;
♦ Determining the most effective swath width and overlap;
♦ Checking accuracy during operation, and
♦ Detecting and correcting errors.
Four major benefits of calibration are:
" Eflective pest control. Underapplication of a pesticide may result in ineffective pest control,
requiring a second application to achieve the desired level of control. Underapplication may
also result in pest resistance.
ISf Environmental and human safety. Applying more pesticide than required may result in
excessive or illegal residue in the harvested crop, damage to the crop or nontarget species,
and increased risk of contaminating ground water, surface water or soil.
fSI Eflective use of time. Additional applications because of inadequate pest control from the
initial treatment require extra time and cost to the applicator.
V Best cost/benefit ratio. Over the years the cost of pesticides has steadily risen. Over
application by 15% of an herbicide costing $9.00 per acre increases the cost by $1.35 per
acre. For a 200 acre field, this increases the chemical costs by $270.00, with no extra pest
control benefit.
Variables affecting application rates are:
♦ Ground Speed or Miles Per Hour (MPH). Application rates vary inversely with the
ground speed. Field speed should be identical to calibration speed. Increasing speed during
application lowers the application rate, while decreasing speed increases the application rate.
For example: doubling application speed decreases the application rate by one-half whereas
decreasing the application speed by one-half doubles the application rate
♦ Nozzle Flow Rate or Gallons Per Minute (GPM). The flow rate through the nozzle varies with
the size of the nozzle tip. The larger the nozzle opening, the greater the nozzle output.
Nozzle flow rate is also affected by pressure.
69
♦ Pressure. Nozzle flow rate varies proportionally with the square root of pressure. That is, the
flow rate increases with increasing pressure, but a doubling of pressure does not double the
flow rate. Doubling the flow rate of the spray solution would require the pressure to be
increased four times. Pressure cannot be used to make major changes in application rate, but
it can be used to effect minor changes due to nozzle wear and other factors. However, when
adjusting pressure to effect flow rate changes, operating pressure must be maintained within
the recommended range for each nozzle type to ensure a uniform spray pattern and minimize
drift hazard.
♦ Nozzle Spray Width or Spacing (W). The effective width sprayed per nozzle also affects the
application rate. Doubling the effective spray width per nozzle decreases the gallons per acre
applied by one-half
♦ Nozzle Wear. Worn spray tips may over apply pesticides, possibly causing nontarget or crop
damage and resulting in excess chemical costs. Clogged tips or screens can result in under-
application and lessen the effectiveness of your spraying program. Improper cleaning can
damage nozzle tips enough to cause widely erratic spray patterns.
♦ Viscosity of Spray Solution. Calibration solution viscosity should be equivalent to the spray
solution viscosity. Wettable powders generally have a higher viscosity than water while oil-
based solutions will have a lower viscosity than water. Spraying with a different viscosity
solution than was calibrated with, will change the application rate. The greater the viscosity
difference, the greater the difference in application rate from calibration rate.
The gallons of spray applied per acre (GPA) can be determined from the three variables GPM, MPH
and W by using the following formula:
^„, GPM X 5940
GPA =
MPH X W
GPM = Output per nozzle in gallons per minute.
MPH = Ground speed in miles per hour.
W = Sprayed width per nozzle, or nozzle spacing in inches.
5940 - A constant to convert gallons/minute, miles/hour and inches to gallons /acre.
Using these variables when calibrating your sprayer allows you to pre-select the gallons to apply per
acre and complete most of the calibration before going to the field. It also provides a simple method
of frequently checking the calibration for changes, such as nozzle wear. It can be used for broadcast,
band, directed and row-crop spraying. This method does require a knowledge of nozzle types and
sizes and the recommended operating pressure ranges for each type of nozzle used.
Once the proper nozzle type has been selected, the correct nozzle tip size must be chosen. The size
of tip selected will depend on the application rate per acre (GPA), ground speed (MPH) and spray
width (W) you plan to use. Some nozzle tips are rated in gallons per acre. Such ratings, however,
are based on a specific speed and pressure. The best way to select the nozzle tip size is by gallons
70
per minute (GPM). This lets you make the decisions on spraying based on your field and plant
conditions. The following steps should be considered when selecting the correct size:
^ Determine the application rate in gallons per acre (GPA) fi-om the pesticide label.
The spray application rate is the gallons of carrier plus the pesticide applied per
treated acre.
^ Select or measure an appropriate ground speed in miles per hour (MPH)
according to existing field conditions. You should not rely on a speedometer as
an accurate measure of speed. Slippage and variation in tire sizes can result in
speedometer errors of 30 percent or more. If actual ground speed is not known,
it can easily be measured. The procedure is described on page 72 in this chapter.
^ Determine the spray width per nozzle in inches (W). For broadcast spraying, W
equals the nozzle spacing. For band spraying, W equals the band width. For
row-crop applications using multiple nozzles per band:
row spacing I hand width
number of nozzles per row I hand
Determine the flow rate required from each nozzle in gallons per minute (GPM)
by using the following equation: *note - 5940 is just a constant number.
GPA X MPH X W
GPM =
5940
^ Using a flow rate table from the nozzle manufacturer, select a nozzle that will
give the flow rate determined when operated within the pressure range at which
you will be operating.
Example:
Nozzle Type - Flat Fan, 80° angle
Nozzle Spacing - 20 inches
GPA - 20 gallons
Speed - 6 MPH
Pressure - 30 psi
_ 20 GPA X 6 MPH X 20 inches ^ q 40
5940
Check the nozzle manufacturer for a flat-fan nozzle that delivers 0.40 gallons per minute at 30 psi pressure.
71
> Sprayer Calibration
Pre-calibration Check: Make sure the spray system is clean; install nozzle tips determined for correct
flow rate; partially fill spray tank with water; operate sprayer within recommended pressure range;
place a container under each nozzle to determine variations in flow rate, replace any nozzle that is
5 percent more or less than the average of all nozzles; check nozzle spray angle, nozzle spacing and
nozzle height needed to obtain uniform coverage.
Calibration: Determine the required flow rate for each nozzle in ounces per minute (0PM).
OPM = GPM X 128 fl.oz. /gal .
Example:
Required nozzle flow rate = 0.40 GPM
OPM = 0.40 X 128 = 51 fl.oz.
Collect the output of each nozzle in a container graduated in fluid ounces, each nozzle should deliver
the same rate; adjust pressure to make minor nozzle flow rate changes to equal OPM, make sure
pressure remains within the recommended range for the nozzle.
I Ground Speed Measurement
Ground speed must be accurately determined for correct application of pesticides. You should not
rely on the speedometer as an accurate measurement of speed. To measure ground speed, lay out
a known distance in the field to be sprayed. At the engine throttle setting or RPM and gear you plan
to use during spraying and with the sprayer filled one-half to three-quarters fiall, determine the travel
time between the measured stakes, traveling each direction. Average these two times and use the
following equation to determine travel speed: *note - 60 and 88 are just constant numbers.
Distance (feet) x 60
MPH =
rime (seconds) x 88
Example:
17 6 feet x 60 ^ ..„^
= 6 MPH
20 seconds x 88
72
Ground speed may also be determined by setting a known course length of 100, 200 or 300 feet,
determining the travel time as above, then referring to the following table;
Ground Speed
(MPH)
Time ia Seconds Required to Travel:
lOOffPt
2nn feet
300 ff et
3.0
23 (sec.)
45 (sec.)
68 (sec.)
3.5
20
39
58
4.0
17
34
51
4.5
15
30
45
5.0
14
27
41
6.0
__
23
34
7.0
__
19
29
7.5
18
27
80
__
17
26
Once you have decided on a particular speed, record the throttle tachometer setting and drive gear
used so they may be duplicated in the future.
I Amount of Pesticide Needed Per Tank
To determine the amount of pesticide to add to the spray tank, you need to know the recommended
rate of pesticide per acre, the capacity of the spray tank and the calibrated output of the sprayer. The
application rate of pesticide is determined from the label. The rate is usually given as pounds per acre
for wettable powders, and ounces, pints or quarts per acre for liquids. Sometimes the recommended
rate is given as pounds of active ingredient (a.i.) per acre rather than the amount of product per acre.
The active ingredient must then be converted to actual product amount per acre.
Example 1 :
Recommended rate per acre - 2 lbs. a.i.
Product used - 80 % wettable powder (W.P.)
Tank capacity - 400 gallons
Gallons per acre - 20
400 gal (tank capacity) __ ^q 3^^es/ta/i;c
20 GPA
2 lbs. a . i
80% W.P.
80
= 2.5 lbs. W.P. /acre
73
Example 2:
Recommended rate per acre - 1 lb. a.i.
Product used - 4 lbs. a.i. per gallon
Tank capacity - 300 gallons
Gallons per acre - 1 5
300 gallons „^ .^ ,
= 20 acres/tank
15 GPA
20 acres/tank x i ib, a. i ./acre = 20 lbs. /tank
20 lbs. a. i ./tank ^ ,, ,^ ,
5 gallons/tank
4 lbs. a. 1 . /gallon
I Adjuvants (Surfactants)
The application of some pesticides require a surfactant be used to provide optimum control. The rate
recommended is given as a certain volume per gallons of water or as a percent of total volume used.
Example 1 :
Recommended rate - 1 pint per 1 00 gallons of spray
Tank capacity - 300 gallons
300 gallon tank „ ■ ^ ,^ ,
- 3 pints/tank
100 gallons of spray
Example 2:
Recommended rate - ViVo of volume used
Tank capacity - 300 gallons
300 gallon tank x 0.005 = 1,5 gallons/tank
» 1/128 Calibration Method
This method of sprayer calibration gives sprayer output in gallons per acre when the nozzle discharge
is measured in ounces for a course length determined from Table 6. 1 on the next page. This works
because one gallon equals 128 ounces and the test area for which the output is measured is 1/128 of
an acre. The 1/128 method can be used for boom sprayers and backpack/handgun sprayers. The
procedures to calibrate each type of sprayer are detailed below.
Boom Sprayers
Adjust the sprayer to the pressure that will be used for application and check for uniformity in nozzle
output by measuring spray from each nozzle for a set time. Clean or replace any nozzle tip that varies
by 5 percent or more from the output of a new nozzle.
74
Table 6 1
Iviozzle Space
HnchesV
Distance
40
102
38
107
36
113
34
120
32
127
30
136
28
146
26
157
24
170
22
185
20
204
18
227
Measure the band width or nozzle spacing in inches.
Referring to the table at left, select the corresponding
calibration distance in feet, according to your nozzle
spacing, and mark this distance off in the area you will
be spraying.
With the spray tank one-half to three-quarters fijll of
water, drive the marked distance at your normal
spraying speed. Start driving far enough before the
beginning of the course to ensure you reach operating
speed before you begin timing. Next, using a
container graduated in ounces, operate the sprayer at
the same pressure used when operating, and collect the
output from any nozzle for the same amount of time it
took to drive the calibration distance. The ounces of
water collected equals the gallons per acre applied.
Example 1 :
The pressure you are using is 30 psi. The
nozzles are spaced 20 inches apart on the
boom.
^ The distance to mark off for the 20 inch
nozzle spacing is 204 feet.
^ Select the gear and throttle setting, bring
the sprayer up to speed and measure the
time needed to cover 204 feet.
If it required 30 seconds to travel the 204 feet, set the pressure at 30 psi and catch the
output of one nozzle for 30 seconds
Measure the amount collected. The output in ounces is the amount applied in gallons per
acre. If the nozzle output is 20 ounces, the sprayer applied 20 gallons per acre.
tank capacity
GPA
= acres/tank
Tank capacity - 200 gallons
Spray rate - 20 gallons per acre
200 gal. ,„ ,^ ,
= 10 acres/tank
20 GPA
75
Handgun and Backpack Sprayers
Measure out an area 18'/2 by 18'/2 feet. This equals 340 square feet or approximately 1/128 of an
acre. Adjust the sprayer to the desired pressure and spray pattern and measure the time it takes to
spray the test area. Repeat this several times and take the average time. Using a container graduated
in ounces, spray into the container for the same amount of time it took to spray the measured area.
The amount collected in ounces equals the application in gallons per acre.
Example:
Measure area. 18'/2 ft. x 18'/2 ft. = 340 ft^
Time to spray area = 146 seconds.
Spray into container for 146 seconds.
Amount collected = 73 ounces.
1/128 acre.
Therefore: 73 ounces in container = 73 gallons per acre application rate.
Il Common Problems and Possible Causes
When Calibrating
Problems
Cayse$
streaks or voids in spray pattern
Clogged or damaged tip; incorrect nozzle height.
Nozzle spray pattern is narrow and/or heavier in
the middle and/or edges.
Tip worn enough to cause uneven application and
should be replaced.
A sprayer tankful covers more acres than before at
the same pressure and speed.
Clogged tips or screens; faster field speed due to
less wheel slippage; pump losing capacityA/olume.
A spraver tankful covers fewer acres than before
at the same pressure and speed.
Worn spray tips; slower field speed due to more
wheel slippage; leaks through hoses or
connections.
Measured GPM noticeably less than from a new tip
of the same size at the same pressure.
Clogged tips or screens.
Measured GPM noticeably more than from a new
tip of the same size at the same pressure.
Spray tip is worn severely enough that is should be
replaced.
Streaks of weeds or crop damage.
Uneven application because of: worn spray tips; a
wrong size tip; clogged tips or screens; incorrect
spray pattern overlap; boom height adjusted too
low; boom not parallel to the ground.
76
> Calibration of Aerial Equipment
The same variables that apply to ground equipment also apply to aerial calibration, i.e. speed,
pressure, nozzle spacing, and swath width. Aerial applicators should be familiar with the sections in
this manual dealing with ground equipment and accessories, ground equipment calibration and
maintenance. Precise calibration is essential in order to apply the correct rates and to guard against
crop injury caused by overdoses of pesticide.
SM'ath width must be known for accurate calibration. Because aircraft wheels nearly touch the crop
during application, swath width is about the same as boom width or is related to the ram-air or
spinner type spreader.
To make a precise measure of swath width, flights can be made over collecting surfaces arranged in
a line perpendicular to the line of flight. Dyed sprays can be deposited on cards or plastic plates and
the amount of pesticide or liquid deposited can be measured. Deep baskets or buckets or oiled
surfaces can be used to collect granules. From the information gathered, swath width and deposit
pattern can be determined. Be sure to determine effective swath width, or that swath width in which
pesticide was deposited in sufficient quantity to give control.
When air speed and swath width are known, the rate at which pesticides should be dispensed can be
found using this formula: *note - 495 is just a constant number.
^ ^ .^^.^ Label rate (GPA) x swath width x air speed
Rate {GPM) = ^
495
For example, the 1 00 mph aircraft has a 40 foot effective
swath width. Label rate instructions call for 10 GPA.
At what rate should the aircraft be calibrated?
W gaUacre ^ 40 ft. >^ m nrph __ ^^ ^ ^^.^
495
For dry materials, the discharge rate thus obtained can be established by actual flight tests for ram-air
spreaders. Spinners can be calibrated by operating the equipment on the ground.
For liquid pesticides, the discharge rate can be obtained by selecting nozzle type and size. The
number of nozzles on the boom can be adjusted to give the proper discharge rate to determine the
correct number of nozzles, use the following formula:
Discharge rate (GPM)
No. Nozzles
Flow rate / nozzle (GPM)
For example, flow rate should be 80 8 GPM and the
flow rate for the nozzles selected is 6 7 GPM.
77
How many nozzles will give the proper flow rate?
80.g GPM
6.7 GPM
12 nozzles
(Small alterations in discharge rate can be made by adjusting pressure.)
To determine the number of acres that can be treated with one tank or hopper, use this ftjrmula:
Tank size {gal.)
Total acres
Rate / acre (GPA)
As a final check on calibration, it is desirable to make an actual flight check. After the tank is filled
with a known quantity or to a marked level, a flight of a given time or distance is made. The amount
of material applied can then be determined by filling the tank to its original level. The quantity applied
per acre can be determined and will indicated the accuracy of calibration. Table 6.2 provides a quick
reference for determining acreage sprayed for a given swath width and field length.
Table 6.2
Acres Covered for Given Field Lengths and Swath Widths ||
Swath Width (feet)
Field
Length
20
feet
25
feet
30
feet
35
feet
40
feet
45
feet
50
feet
55
feet
65
feet
75
feet
85
feet
95
feet
TOO
feet
1320 ft,
V* mile
0.6
acres
0,75
acres
0.9
acres
1.1
acres
1.2
acres
1.4
acres
1.5
acres
1.7
acres
2.0
acres
2.3
acres
2.5
acres
2.9
acres
3.0
acres
2640 ft.
Vi mile
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.4
2.7
3.0
3.3
3.9
4.5
5 1
5.7
6.1
3960 ft.
Yi mile
1.8
2.3
2.7
3.2
3.6
4.1
4.6
5.1
5.9
6.8
7.7
8.7
9.1
5280 ft.
1 mile
2.4
3.05
3.6
4.2
4.8
5.5
6.1
6.7
7.8
9.1
10.2
11.2
12 1
2 miles
4.9
6.05
7.2
8.4
9.8
109
12.1
13.3
15.6
18.2
20.8
23
24.2
3 miles
7,2
9.1
10.8
12.6
14.5
16.4
18.2
20
23.4
27.3
30.8
346
364
4 miles
9.7
12.1
14.4
16.8
19.4
21.8
24.2
26.6
31.2
36.4
41.2
46
48.5
5 miles
12 1
15.1
18
21
24.2
27.3
30.3
33.3
39.3
45.5
51.4
57.6
60.6
Acres = (length in feet x width in feet/43,560)
78
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Units of Volume - Liquid Measure
3 teaspoons
2 tablespoons
8 fl. ounces
2 cups
2 pints
4 quarts
1 tablespoon
1 fl. ounce
1 cup
1 pint
1 quart
1 gallon
1 kiloliter =1000 liters
1 liter = 1000 milliliters =
1 milliliter = 1000 microliters =
164.2 gallons
1,06 quarts
0.03 fl. ounces
Units of Length
1 inch =2.54 centimeters
1 2 inches = 1 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
16.5 feet = 1 rod
1760 yards = 1 mile
1 mile = 5280 square feet
1 kilometer = 1000 meters
1 meter = 1 0 decimeters
Units of Area
1 square foot
1 square yard
1 square rod
1 acre
1 acre
= 0.62 miles
= 39.37 inches
1 hectare
1 sq. meter
= 144 sq. inches
= 9 sq. feet
= 30.25 sq. yards
= 160 sq. rods
= 43560 sq. feet
= 10,000 sq meters
= 100 sq. decimeters
2.47 acres
' 1.20 sq. yards
Units of Mass (metric and Avoirdupois)
16 ounces = 1 pound = 0 45 kilograms (kg).
2000 pounds = 1 ton = 907.2 kg
1 kilogram =1000 grams = 2.2 pounds
1 gram = 1000 milligrams = 0.35 ounces
79
CHAPTER VII
PESTICIDE STORAGE, TRANSPORTATION AND DISPOSAL
I Pesticide Fire and Explosion Hazards and Precautionary Guidelines
Read the label when storing any pesticide and store each chemical in accordance with directions to
prevent fires and explosions. Many users of pesticides are aware of the contamination and public
health hazards when applying chemicals, but do not recognize hazards from chemical fires. Fire
prevention in pesticide storage areas should be an important part of planning storage structures and
sites.
Pesticides containing oils will bum readily or the containers will explode when over-heated. Some
solvents used as carriers are highly flammable and explosive. Fumes and smoke from chemical fires
can be highly toxic to fire fighters and residents in the area. Herbicide "smoke" can also be
phytotoxic to nearby plants.
Inform local police, fire departments, and public health officials in writing of the location and layout
of the storage area, type of materials stored, and hazards involved. Provide phone numbers of
persons responsible for storage to the fire chief Fire departments should have a map with locations
of all pesticide storage facilities in their areas. Inform local physicians and hospitals of potential
hazards and be sure they know how to treat poisonings caused by stored pesticides.
Identify pesticide storage areas with prominent, water-proof signs over each entrance, including any
windows. Storage entrances should always be locked when not in use. If a fire occurs, call Disaster
Emergency Services (DES) or firemen and protect nearby residents by evacuating those down- wind.
The state DES coordinator will contact the MDA and other appropriate agencies After the fire is out,
the contaminated area should be roped off and supervised continuously until cleanup is completed.
Cleanup procedures after the fire should be handled by persons familiar with pesticides and their
hazards. Notify all local public health officials so correct decontamination procedures will be
followed. Check with pesticide manufacturers for additional advice and use of their expert
decontamination team, if necessary.
The Chemical Transportation Emergency Center has a CHEMTREC
program to provide emergency information to fire and police emergency number is:
crews responding to transportation accidents and fires fK(\(\IAOA Q^nn
involving hazardous chemicals. Provide the CHEMTREC
emergency number to your local fire and police departments ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^=
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I Pesticide Storage
Pesticides should be stored in dry, locked, well ventilated areas where humans, livestock, and pets
cannot come in contact with them. Remember, children and animals are curious and do not or cannot
read labels. They do not know about or understand the hazards of pesticides.
Pesticides must always be stored in the original, labeled container with the label plainly visible. To
avoid possible cross contamination, never store pesticides near human or animal food.
Stored containers should be periodically checked for corrosion, leaks, breaks, and tears. Faulty
containers constitute a hazard and must be disposed of immediately. Always keep the lids and bungs
tightened on containers.
Install an exhaust fan for ventilation in storage rooms to reduce concentrations of toxic flimes and
to hold temperatures down. Do not permit anyone to sleep, smoke or eat in a room where pesticides
are stored.
Guidelines for Storing Pesticides
>• Plainly label the warehouse or storage room with the words "Danger" or "Poison",
along with the familiar "Skull and Crossbones" sign.
>• Post a list of chemicals being stored.
>■ Keep the storage room or building locked when not in actual use. Storage facilities
should have limited access.
>■ Locate storage facilities as far as possible from other buildings and populated areas
or away from normal pedestrian traffic within a dealer or applicator facility. Fence
the area if necessary.
>■ When large quantities of pesticides are to be stored, install a sprinkler system.
>■ Storage areas should not have floor drains or existing floor drains should be sealed.
> All combustible materials should be kept away from steam lines or other heating
devices.
>■ Glass containers of chemicals should not be placed in sunlight.
>■ Use fire proofing material, such as sheet rock, in the building.
>• Inform the fire department and your physician, in writing, of the nature, quantities,
and hazards of these compounds. Ask your local fire chief to inspect your facility
at least once a year.
>■ Keep these individuals informed as to any changes in quantities, hazards, or nature
of the contents of the facility.
> Make sure employees are familiar with the building's fire fighting equipment, alarms,
and fire exits and the hazards of each pesticide product.
>■ Fire fighting equipment should be checked periodically and ready for use at all times.
>■ Request your physician or local hospital to have, on hand, the antidotes required in
case of poisoning.
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Pesticide Storage Life
Each pesticide formulation has a storage life. For example:
Chlorinated hydrocarbons are very stable and can be stored for a number of years with little
or no chemical change. Organophosphorus pesticides, such as TEPP, Parathion, and others,
have a relatively short storage life. Certain atmospheric conditions can bring about the
degradation of these materials. Labels will warn of such limitations and specify steps for
prevention of pesticide deterioration.
Liquid concentrates stored at low temperatures for prolonged periods of time may crystallize,
separate or break down. The resultant material may be more or less toxic than the original,
or may not perform as originally intended. Heat may cause vaporization of certain volatile
compounds.
Some labels provide information on storage standards for the particular pesticide product If storage
information is not available locally, contact the company representative for recommendations.
I Transportation of Pesticides
The importance of prevention of pesticide spills cannot be over emphasized. Whenever a spill occurs
during transportation the possibility of endangering the lives of others is increased. Spillage of
hazardous pesticides in transport must be considered an emergency, requiring prompt cleanup,
protection of human health, safe disposal of damaged containers or cargo, and possibly the disposal
of the transport itself Handling these emergencies requires assistance of technically trained DES
personnel and possibly hiring an environmental consultant. Chemical spillage has caused poisonings
among transportation personnel and others. Whenever a pesticide accident occurs, the welfare of
persons directly involved and the general public must be considered.
Spillage may result from breakage of glass containers, puncturing of drums or cylinders, defective
valves or fittings on tanks, and torn sacks. Transportation accidents many times result from the
carelessness of shipping personnel loading transports and vehicle accidents. Interstate commerce laws
require that all transports and hazardous cargoes be properly labeled. Pesticide products should never
be transported with foods, drugs, toys, clothing, cosmetics or household items.
Guidelines for Transporting Pesticides
^ All employees handling pesticides should be properly trained on potential hazards
of loading and transporting pesticides.
^ Read all container labels.
^ Check for damage to and/or leaking of containers.
^ Provide information on who to contact in case of an emergency.
^ Hazardous cargo should be handled with extreme care.
^ Develop a plan for handling spillage.
^ Always tie down or otherwise ensure that containers remain upright and stable.
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Safety Equipment for Transporting
Every vehicle transporting pesticides should carry:
-> An emergency water supply for washing off corrosive and toxic materials,
-> An approved respirator, goggles, or face shield to protect the eyes and face,
-> Equipment for washing eyes, portable eyewash fountain or wash bottle, and
-> Waterproof, impervious, complete outer clothing to wear when cleaning up or when
exposed to corrosive or toxic materials. The best protection against most of the
major hazards are impervious (neoprene) gloves, boots, hat and long sleeved,
buttoned coats or suits. Manufacturers will provide specifications on special gear
required for particular chemicals.
Safety Equipment in Loading Areas
Every permanent station where pesticides are loaded should have:
-> An emergency deluge shower,
-> An eyewash fountain, and
-> Protective equipment for two or more persons.
Guidelines for Pesticide Transportation Accidents
When an accident involving a pesticide occurs, emergency personnel, such as highway patrol, sheriff,
police or fire department personnel, are usually the first on the scene. These individuals should be
familiar with the hazards of toxic materials and can provide necessary assistance. However, if they
are not, they should notify the manufacturer to provide recommendations for clean-up, safety
precautions, etc.
Clothing contaminated with chemicals should be removed immediately and exposed skin areas
thoroughly washed. Individuals providing first aid should take special care not to become
contaminated. Individuals receiving chemical bums or who are significantly contaminated with
pesticides should be taken to the nearest physician or emergency hospital. Provide the physician or
hospital personnel with a copy of the product label.
The cleanup crew must include at least two individuals. The crew must have all necessary protective
equipment. To prevent harm to the public, especially children, pets, and the environment, leaking
containers and contaminated cargo must be properly contained and disposed of in an approved site.
Container Specification
Each hazardous material, depending upon its characteristics, is required to be packaged in a specific
type of container. Containers must meet standards established by the Department of Transportation
(DOT). Routine inspections of container manufacturing plants are conducted by the DOT. Any
failure of containers should be reported to the DOT. A specification number may be found on each
container and reported to the DOT.
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Placarding Transports
Vehicles transporting chemicals may need to be placarded, depending on the amount and class of
hazardous material. Dealers and chemical companies are primarily responsible for making sure the
vehicle hauling a hazardous material is properly placarded before transporting. These placards
provide emergency personnel a quick reference as to the cargo being transported. Individuals
reporting chemical transport accidents should always attempt to describe the placard on the vehicle
to the proper authority. The Montana Highway Patrol, Motor Vehicle Inspection Bureau, is the
primary enforcement agency and should be contacted for more detailed information about placarding
regulations at 406-444-3300.
Pesticide Applicator Transportation Accidents/Incidents
Pesticide applicators and dealers must be aware of the potential danger of traffic accidents while
transporting pesticides. Types of problems which could occur are breakage of high pressure hoses
or rupturing of spray tanks during a collision.
If an accident occurs, the first thing to do is to clear the area and decontaminate all parties involved,
including yourself Make sure all people, especially children, pets, and other animals are restricted
from the area. Then call the following authorities:
• The Local County Sheriff's Dispatch Office or county DES officer
^ The State Emergency Response Commission - 406-444-6911
• The National Response Center - 800-424-8802
Important Contacts
Montana Disaster and Emergency Services, hazardous material emergencies - 444-6911
Montana Department of Environmental Quality: Solid Waste Disposal - 444-4400; Water
Protection Bureau - 444-3080; Air and Waste Management Bureau (handling and
disposal of hazardous waste) - 444-3490.
Montana Highway Patrol, Motor Vehicle Inspection Bureau (placarding) - 444-3300.
Montana Department of Agriculture for assistance and support - 444-2944.
I Disposal of Pesticides and Their Containers
Proper disposal of pesticide containers and surplus pesticide is an essential operation for all
applicators and dealers. Improper disposal may create serious health hazards or cause environmental
contamination. Responsibility as an applicator or dealer continues until all excess pesticides and
containers are disposed of correctly. Disposal includes, but is not limited to: recycling,
encapsulation, returning to manufacturer, and other approved methods.
From the standpoint of public health, an "empty container" does not exist Containers always retain
residual amounts of pesticide. In the case of highly toxic pesticides, remaining residues may present
a hazard to humans, especially children, pets, and livestock. All plastic or metal pesticide containers
must be triple or power rinsed, prior to disposal and should be kept in a separate locked building,
85
room or enclosure used exclusively for storage of pesticides. To reduce the chance of container re-
use and to allow for complete drainage it is a good practice to puncture pesticide containers after
triple rinsing.
Most pesticide containers composed of plastic can be recycled through programs sponsored by
pesticide dealers and distributors. The containers must be triple rinsed, drained dry, and have no
visible residue. Labels and caps must also be removed. Pesticide containers, plastic and metal, that
have been triple rinsed are considered solid waste and can be disposed in most sanitary landfills. Be
sure to check with landfill operators to determine local policies for accepting pesticide containers.
Some pesticide labels have different requirements than the regulations of Montana for disposing of
empty pesticide containers. The more restrictive requirement must be followed. The following is a
summary of ARM 4. 10.803 Rinsing Empty Pesticide Containers;
♦ All empty pesticide containers must be triple or power rinsed except for:
* aerosol containers,
* fiber drums with liners,
* paper, fiber, and plastic bags,
* containers designated by label for refilling,
* water soluble containers,
* compressed gas cylinders, and
* containers from retail pesticides labeled only for home, yard, and garden uses.
♦ Rinsing must occur withing 48 hours of the time that container is rendered empty.
♦ Use rinsate as diluent in pesticide applications.
♦ Do not reuse pesticide containers.
Triple Rinse Method
The minimum amount of rinse material for each rinse will be based upon the container size
as specified below:
Container Size Solution Required
less than 5 gallons 1/4 of the container's volume
5 gallons or more 1/5 of the container's volume
Examples:
1 gallon container add 1 quart rinse solution
5 gallon container add 1 gallon rinse solution
30 gallon container add 6 gallons rinse solution
50 gallon container add 10 gallons rinse solution
♦ Secure lid on container and agitate to ensure all inside surfaces are rinsed.
♦ Pour the rinsate from the container into a spray tank and allow it to drain for 30 seconds.
♦ Rinse two more times or more, until no visible residues are present.
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Power Rinse Method
♦ The minimum amount of rinse material must be V2 the volume of the container.
♦ The minimum pressure of the rinse material needs to be 15 pounds per square inch.
♦ The nozzle must be capable of rinsing all inner surfaces of the pesticide container
♦ Rinsing needs to continue until no visible residues are present and allow the container to
drain for 30 seconds.
Other disposal dps for pesticide containers:
f^ To obtain maximum drainage of the pesticide material into a tank, puncture the head of
the metal or plastic container.
^ After rinsing has been completed, dispose of containers in a sanitary landfill, recycle or
recondition.
^ Burning or incineration of pesticide containers is prohibited except when approved by
DEQ.
Disposal of Large Volumes of Pesticides
Applicators or dealers desiring to dispose of larger volumes of improperiy labeled, old or unusable
pesticides should contact the Montana Department of Agriculture (MDA) - Pesticide Disposal
Program at 406/444-5400 or DEQ, Air and Waste Management Bureau at 406/444-3490. The DEQ
will give technical assistance and recommendations for proper disposal to prevent environmental and
public health accidents.
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CHAPTER VIII
TOXICOLOGY OF PESTICIDES
Toxicology is the study of harmful effects of a chemical on living things. In the quest to determine
how harmful a chemical is on a living organism, information is also obtained on the chemical's degree
of safeness. When describing the degree of harmfulness or safeness of a chemical, the terms "toxic"
and "toxicity" are commonly used. The toxicity of chemicals is always qualified by the type of
laboratory test performed, the quantity causing effects on the biological organisms, the biological
organism tested, and other conditions of the study.
The toxicity of a chemical is an inherent quality of the chemical and cannot be changed. However,
the effect of any compound on living organisms is dependent on the dosage received. The dose
makes the poison. This is generally considered the most important principle in toxicology. A
sufficiently large dose of a material that is generally considered nontoxic will be fatal (i.e., water, salt).
Exposure to a sufficiently small dose of even the most toxic compounds may be without harm (a small
dose of strychnine was commonly used medicinally as a stimulant).
Information used to determine the toxicity of a pesticide can include test data from animals, such as
rats, rabbits and monkeys; "in vitro" (test tube) studies of animal or human tissues, clinical reports
of human or animal poisonings, and human laboratory or population (epidemiological) studies.
People sometimes question the use of animals to predict effects in humans because animals and
humans are so different, but animal tests of toxicity can be very usefiil. Even though humans and
animals look and act differently, their organs, cells, and important molecules in their bodies are very
similar. For example, insulin derived from pigs is nearly identical to human insulin and works very
well in human diabetics. Pesticides are toxic because they affect organ fijnction or important
molecules in the body, and this is where humans and animals are most similar. Thus, finding a toxic
effect in an animal is a strong signal that a similar toxic effect will likely occur in humans.
Pesticides are not risk-free. The reason that EPA allows the use of products with the potential to
cause toxicity is that. When Used According To Label Instructions, the risks of the pesticide are
outweighed by its benefits. Reading and following labels is the best way to ensure that health effects
do not occur. If the EPA learns that applicators repeatedly fail to use a pesticide in accordance with
the label, it will find other ways to reduce risks of that product, including restricting its use or even
an outright ban.
I Tests for Determining Toxicity
The types of toxicity tests which EPA requires for pesticide registration include: acute (short term)
oral, dermal and inhalation toxicity; acute delayed neurotoxicity, eye and dermal irritation; dermal
allergic sensitization; subchronic (longer term) oral, dermal, inhalation and neurotoxicity, chronic
toxicity, oncogenicity (cancer), teratogenicity (birth defects), reproductive effects and mutagenicity.
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EPA also requires information on the toxic effects of a pesticide on fish and wildlife. The following
are the basic types of toxicity tests:
• Acute tests are conducted by administering a single dose of chemical orally, dermally,
subcutaneously, or via the respiratory route, and observing the effects on test animals over
a short time period of 1 to 2 weeks.
• Prolonged or chronic tests administer chemicals over a period of three months or as long
as one or two years.
• Specific tests are performed to reveal additional adverse characteristics of a chemical.
Adverse effects of a special nature include:
* Synergism (Potentiation) ~ The effect of a combination of two chemicals is greater
than the sum of their individual effects. A contrasting phenomenon occurs when the
toxicity of a pesticide may decrease when administered to a test animal pre-treated with
a different pesticide. This phenomenon is called antagonism.
* Teratogenesis — The effect of a pesticide administered to a test animal causes birth
defects or abnormalities in developing young (including the fetus).
* Carcinogenesis — The effect of a pesticide administered to a test animal produces
cancerous growths.
* Mutagenesis — The effect of an administered pesticide on a test animal causes genetic
damage resulting in hereditary changes.
Toxicity tests are not confined to animals. Toxicity evaluations are also made on plants
(phytotoxicity). For example, sulfijr, oils, and numerous other chemicals may be toxic to plants. For
the purposes of this chapter, this discussion will relate to animal toxicity only.
Toxicity values are expressed in a number of ways depending upon the method of administration and
the effect the researcher is interested in. They may be expressed as:
Acute oral LD50 - milligrams of the substance per kilogram (mg/kg) of body weight of the
test animal, administered through the mouth.
Acute dermal LD50 - milligrams of the substance per kilogram (mg/kg) of body weight of the
test animal, administered to the skin.
Inhalation data - either micrograms of dust or mist per liter of air (ug/l) or parts per million
by volume of gas or vapor (ppm). One microgram equals one millionth of a gram.
Skin sensitivity - the amount of substance applied per square centimeter of skin (mg/cm2)
causing little or no, moderate, or severe skin irritation.
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I
LD means lethal (fatal) dose, and LD50 means the dose that will kill 50% of a population of
test animals. LC means lethal concentration and LC50 means the concentration that will kill
50% of the test animals. In some cases, the lethal dose (LD) or lethal concentration (LC) may
be expressed as LD90 or LC,oo; the dose required to kill 90% of the test animals and the
concentration required to kill 100% of the test animals, respectively.
Acute oral refers to a single dose taken by mouth or orally.
Acute dermal refers to a single dose applied directly to the skin (skin absorption).
Inhalation refers to exposure through breathing or inhaling a predetermined
contaminated atmosphere.
Acute toxicity values of one compound are more meaningful when compared with another
chemical and with similar test animals and laboratory tests. The following chart is comparing
two organophosphate insecticides, methyl parathion and malathion, but when compared to
other pesticides, malathion may be more toxic.
Pesticides
Methyl Parathion
Malathion
Toxicity Value for rats
Acute Oral LD5Q
6 mg/kg
Acute Oral LD50
5500 mg/kg
Acute Dermal LDgQ
45 mg/kg
Acute Dermal LD50
2000 mg/kg
Toxicity
High Toxicity
Low Toxicity
Acute toxicity can be a function of the amount of toxicant received, the route of administration, and
the type of animal tested. A host of factors may alter the "predicted" effect of a chemical on a living
organism. These factors are:
* the physical and chemical properties of the pesticide or its formulation,
* the pesticide mode of action (eg. how the pesticide causes tissue damage or poisoning),
* age, sex, and race of the test animal,
* size and weight of the test animal,
¥ condition of health of the test animal,
* genetic characteristics of the test animal,
* individual susceptibility,
* the hazard confi-onting the applicator,
* nutrition, and
* temperature and environmental factors.
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Chronic toxicity results from prolonged, repeated, or continuous exposure to a chemical. This is
usually the result of exposure to levels lower than that necessary to cause acute toxicity and often
demonstrates a delayed response. Public concern toward pesticides generally focuses on possible
chronic toxicity. Sublethal poisoning or exposure may be expressed by any of the following:
* skin/eye irritation,
* nervous system disorders,
* reproductive system disorders,
* damage to other organ systems (liver, kidney, lungs, etc.),
* birth defects,
* mutations, and
* cancer.
One view suggests that one exposure to a carcinogenic substance is capable of causing cancer.
Currently the EPA follows this assumption when considering carcinogenic potential for most
pesticides. This is a conservative approach meant to be protective of public health. For example, it
is thought that children's rapid growth and development may make them more susceptible to
carcinogenic chemicals. Another view is that there is a threshold or a minimum dose for any chemical
and the effect that it may cause. A reasoning cited to support this is that people are constantly
exposed to carcinogens from natural sources in foods. These natural carcinogens exist in amounts
and potencies greater than the pesticide residues that may be found in food consumed by humans and
that there is no evidence that cancer rates have changed over historic levels. The counter argument
is that humans have evolved tolerances to naturally present carcinogens but not the synthetic
chemicals developed during the last 50 years. It is generally thought that animals, including humans,
are capable of handling small amounts of a wide variety of foreign chemicals. Only when natural
defense mechanisms are overwhelmed by taking too much at one time, or too much too often, are
effects observed. This debate will continue and answers will only come with continued scientific
study.
Skin irritation (dermal exposure) may be in the form of chemical burns, dermatitis or eczema. Skin
irritation is also characteristic of some highly toxic pesticides. However, it is not observed frequently
because users generally protect themselves from skin contact with these chemicals. Dermal toxicity
data for chemicals used in plant disease control (fiingicides), as well as herbicides and plant growth
regulators, are limited. A number of these compounds are of low mammalian toxicity or are not
readily absorbed through the skin. Some animal tests and human experiences have shown several of
these chemicals to be irritating to the skin and eyes and in severe cases may be incapacitating.
I Health Hazards of Pesticides
It is common practice to depend exclusively on acute toxicity values when evaluating the effect of
a chemical on humans or other animals. Judgments regarding chemical safety based upon this single
consideration can be short-sighted and often erroneous. Users of pesticides should be additionally
concerned with the hazard associated with the exposure to the chemical and not exclusively the
toxicity of the material itself These two terms are not synonymous and both must be considered
when determining safety precautions.
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I
Toxicity is the inherent capacity of a substance to produce injury or death. Hazard is a function of
two primary variables, potency (quantity of a chemical needed to induce harm) and exposure and is
the probability that injury will result from the use of a substance in a given formulation, quantity or
application method. A compound may be extremely toxic but present little hazard to the applicator
or others when used:
♦ in a very dilute formulation,
♦ in a formulation that is not readily absorbed through the skin or readily inhaled,
♦ only occasionally and under conditions to which humans or other organisms are not
exposed, or
♦ only by experienced applicators who are properly trained and equipped to handle the
chemical safely.
A chemical may exhibit relatively low toxicity but present an increased hazard because:
♦ it is normally used in the concentrated form.
♦ it may be readily absorbed or inhaled.
♦ it is used frequently, increasing chances of accidents or spills.
♦ it is stored in a manner that increases chances of spillage or access to unauthorized people.
With most pesticides, regardless of their toxicity values, formulation, or dilution, a health hazard
exists when:
^ appropriate protective clothing is not used,
• good personal hygiene is not practiced,
• chemicals are improperly stored, transported, or disposed,
^ applicators are unaware of the greatest exposure hazard in their operation, and
•^ an applicator applies a chemical improperly mixed, or applies it at the wrong rate.
Endocrine Disrupters - The human endocrine system is composed of a several glands including the
adrenal, thyroid and pituitary glands which produce internal secretions (hormones) which are carried
by the bloodstream to other organs and parts of the body and fiinction in the regulation and control
of the body systems. There is a growing body of scientific research that indicate that some industrial
chemicals and pesticides may interfere with the normal fijnctioning of human and wildlife endocrine
systems. That is, endocrine disrupters may interfere with the synthesis, secretion, transport, binding,
fijnction or elimination of natural hormones which in turn may affect normal reproduction,
development and behavior. It is thought that these effects may occur from minute exposures of these
chemicals.
Inert Ingredients - Pesticide formulations contain "inert" ingredients which, while not pesticidally
active, may have toxicity. Moreover, symptoms may not appear immediately after exposure, but may
be delayed by hours or even days. Applicators should be alert to any symptoms that appear work-
related, including changes in behavior.
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The relationship between toxicity and hazard can be illustrated by the compound aspirin, which is
commonly used as a standard for comparing safety of pesticides or other chemicals Aspirin has an
LD50 of 1,200 mg/kg and is considered slightly toxic and believed by some people to be harmless.
Yet, aspirin is responsible for more than 10 percent of all poisonings among children under five years
of age. In the home, in non-child-proof bottles, on an open shelf, aspirin is an extreme hazard. The
difference between a poison and a remedy is often only the dose.
I Acute Pesticide Effects on Humans and Recognition of their Signs & Symptoms
The particular way a pesticide affects a human (or any living thing) is referred to as Mode of Action.
Even though we may not know how a pesticide poisons the body in all cases, the signs and symptoms
resuhing from such poisonings may be well known. Early signs and symptoms serve as warnings by
the body in response to pesticide exposure. These warnings should be recognized by those using
pesticides. The signs and symptoms of poisoning may be quite variable among individuals and may
depend upon whether the exposure is to a large quantity of toxicant (e.g. splash or spill) over a short
period of time or to smaller quantities over an extended period of time.
Any experience of signs and symptoms associated with a recent history of pesticide exposure should
be reported to your physician. You should advise him of the signs and symptoms, the pesticide
utilized, method of application, amount and time of exposure and the conditions of exposure. A
complete label must be provided to your physician.
Poisons work by changing the speed of different body fijnctions, such as increasing the heart rate or
sweating, or decreasing to the point of stopping, like breathing. For example, people poisoned by
an organophosphate insecticide, such as parathion, may experience increased sweating. Increased
sweating caused by parathion poisoning begins by the biochemical inactivation of an enzyme. This
biochemical change leads to a cellular change, in this case an increase in nerve activity. The cellular
change is then responsible for physiological changes, which are the symptoms of poisoning that are
seen or felt in particular organ systems, in this case, the sweat glands.
Organophosphate insecticides are pesticides for which the toxicological mechanism is fairly well
understood. Organophosphate insecticides attach themselves to a chemical found in the blood, the
nervous system and the junction between the nerves and the various other tissues of animals. This
chemical is called cholinesterase and is essential to the normal fianctioning of the nervous system.
During normal muscle function, acetylcholine is released by a nerve impulse and it acts on that muscle
to produce the contractile response. Cholinesterase is then released and by breaking down
acetylcholine, helps restore the muscle to its normal resting state. When an organophosphate
insecticide is present in the system, it blocks the flinction of cholinesterase by attaching to it and is
referred to as a cholinesterase inhibition. This "tie-up" of cholinesterase by the insecticide keeps the
muscle in an active (contracted) state and is characterized by muscle twitching and weakness (tremors
and fibrillations, respectively) and may cause seizures and convulsions, which are simply uncontrolled,
violent muscle actions.
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Phenoxy Herbicides, such as 2,4-D and MCPA, cause skin irritation or a burning sensation when
inhaled. Dizziness or chest pain may result from prolonged inhalation. When large quantities of the
pesticide are absorbed, muscle twitching, muscle tenderness, and muscle stiffness may occur. Several
phenoxy herbicides have been associated with an increased risk of non-Hodgkins lymphoma in
epidemiological studies, but at this time, EPA does not consider them to be carcinogenic in humans.
The basic progression of effects from biochemical to cellular to physiological occurs in most all cases
of poisoning. Depending on the specific biochemical mechanism of action, a poison may have very
widespread effects throughout the body, or may cause a very limited change in physiological
functioning in a particular region or organ. Parathion causes a very simple inactivation of an enzyme
which is involved in communication between nerves. The enzyme which parathion inactivates,
however, is very widespread in the body, and thus many varied effects on many body systems are seen
besides sweating.
It is often difficult to tie specific poisoning signs and symptoms to a particular pesticide or even a
class of pesticides. Poisoning symptoms manifested by a poisoning victim may be similar even among
pesticides with greatly different modes of action. In general, the following signs and symptoms may
be experienced by a poisoning victim.
© Early symptoms may include headache, giddiness, nervousness, blurred vision, weakness,
nausea, cramps, and diarrhea.
O Later symptoms may include heavy sweating, constricted pupils, tearing, salivation,
vomiting, bluing of skin and muscle twitching.
0 Advanced symptoms may include convulsions, coma, loss of reflexes, and inability to
control bowels or bladder.
Illness as a result of pesticide exposure maybe delayed several hours because of rates of adsorption
and mode of action. Symptoms may not become apparent until after exposure to the pesticide has
stopped. This may result in the victim not relating his illness with the use of a pesticide. Symptoms
can be confused with influenza (flu), heat prostration, alcohol intoxication, exhaustion, hypoglycemia
(low blood sugar), asthma, gastroenteritis, pneumonia, and brain hemorrhage. This can cause
problems if the symptoms are ignored or misdiagnosed as something other than pesticides and result
in mistreatment.
Table 8. 1 - Toxicity Classes.
LD^ Toskitj Class
LDso Oral Dose
Ratemg/kg
hD^o Dermal Dose
Rabbits mg/kg
[ 1
Oral Dose
Adult humans
Eitremelj toxic
1 mg or less
20mg or less
a taste
Highly toxic
1 - 50 mg
20 - 200 mg
a pinch - 1 tsp.
Moderately toxic
50 - 500 mg
200- 1000 mg
a t.sp. - 2 t.sp.
Siightiy toxic
500 - 5000 mg
1000- 2000 mg
1 oz. - 1 pt.
Practicall) nontoxic
5000- 1 5.000 mg
2000 - 20,000 mg
1 pt. - 1 qt
Relatively harmless
1 5,000 mg
20,000 mg
Iqt
95
I How Pesticides Enter the Body (Exposure)
Chemicals may enter the body by the following routes:
Contact and absorption of the material by the skin referred to as dermal exposure. Breathing
the fumes, vapors or dusts, referred to as inhalation exposure. Eating or drinking the
material, referred to as oral exposure. Direct entrance or absorption through cuts, abrasions,
or burns, referred to as wound exposure.
Dermal Route
Absorption through the skin is the most important route of entry of pesticides into the body,
especially when liquid sprays and emulsifiable concentrate formulations are involved. Most
of the pesticides to which the body is subjected during typical exposure situations, especially
to applicators of liquid sprays, is deposited on the skin. Dermal exposure is undoubtedly
responsible for most poisonings occurring in the field.
The greatest dermal penetration for most pesticides on humans occurs in the genital area,
where up to a 100% absorption may occur. The head and neck are areas of greater
absorption than arms and hands. Pesticides can readily absorb through the skin in areas where
blood vessels are close to the skin surface and have an abundance of sweat glands. The
mucus membranes of the eyes, ears, nose and mouth area also areas where a high degree of
absorption occurs. Exposure in these areas can occur through drift of fine pesticide mists or
dusts or by rubbing these areas with contaminated hands.
In general, wettable powders, dusts, and granular pesticides are not as readily absorbed
through the skin and other body tissues as are liquid formulations, such as emulsifiable
concentrates, containing a relatively high percentage of toxicant in a solvent. The
implications of these factors and relationships emphasize a need for providing protection of
critical areas receiving high exposure. Figure 1 , on the next page, presents information on
percent absorbed by specific body parts of a typical liquid pesticide formulation.
Respiratory Route
Absorption of a chemical by the lungs is rapid and very complete. Pesticide absorption
through the lungs is of increased importance where toxic dusts and vapors or very small
droplets are prevalent or where application is in confined spaces Respiratory hazards are
greater when low volume equipment is used, as opposed to conventional application
equipment producing large droplets. Pesticides inhaled in sufficient quantities may cause
serious damage or irritation to nose, throat, and lung tissues.
Oral Route
Pesticides taken through the mouth in amounts sufficient to cause serious injury or death
occur by accident or by intent to do self-inflicted injury The most frequent cases of
accidental ingestion are those in which chemicals have been put in unlabeled bottles of food
containers or stored where children or irresponsible adults may consume them.
96
The most serious oral exposure for a pesticide applicator may be caused by splashing of liquid
concentrate into the mouth while pouring and measuring pesticides, wiping the mouth with
contaminated arms, by attempting to blow out clogged spray nozzles with the mouth, or by
eating, smoking or drinking while hands are contaminated.
Wound, Cuts, Abrasions, and Burns Route
Any break in the skin may allow a direct route of entry into the blood stream. Even the
removal of the outer layer of dead cells of the skin by scraping or scratching may increase the
potential for skin absorption. Burns, dermatitis, and eczema resulting from chemical
exposure may also enhance the absorption of chemical through the skin.
FIGURE 1
Forehead 36.3%
Percent Absorption of
Applied Dose of Parathion
Elbow 28.4%
Abdomen 18.5%
Ball of foot 13.5%
Scalp 32.1%
Ear canal 46.5%
Forearm 8.6%
Palm 11.8%
Scrotum 100.0%
97
CHAPTER IX
PROTECTIVE PESTICIDE EQUIPMENT
The best insurance against poisoning by pesticides is to protect the routes by which these chemicals
enter the body: oral, dermal, respiratory, and through cuts and abrasions. Good protection requires
the routine use of respiratory protective devices, dermal protective garments, and sound practices of
personal cleanliness.
There is a wide variety of protective equipment available, varying in the quality of protection afforded
to the pesticide user. In any application, the minimum amount of protection to be worn, by law, is
stated on the pesticide label. The proper selection and use of this equipment largely depends upon
the applicator's judgment regarding toxicity, hazards, types of spray equipment employed, and type
of work environment.
Prevent pesticide exposure to your body by selecting adequate personal protective equipment (PPE).
Personal protective equipment is defined as apparel and devices worn to protect the body from
contact with pesticides or pesticide residues, including:
♦ coveralls
♦ chemical resistant suits, gloves, footwear, aprons, and headgear
♦ protective eyewear
♦ respirators
This also includes clothing that covers the arms, legs, torso, and head and prevents pesticide dust or
liquid from contacting the skin. Gloves and boots are used to protect hands and feet, while helmets,
hoods, or wide-brimmed hats prevent exposure to the head and neck. Face masks or goggles protect
the eyes. Avoid breathing dusts, mists, or vapors by selecting an appropriate respirator.
Always anticipate accidents and be sure your body is adequately protected under any possible
circumstance. For example, when handling pressurized flimigants, a hose from the tank might
rupture, causing the hose to violently whip around while releasing large quantities of fumigant.
Therefore, when using fumigants from a cylinder, wear goggles or a face shield to protect your eyes
and a self-contained respirator for safe breathing under emergency conditions.
I Wovens, Nonwovens and Coated/Laminated Suits
The most common route for pesticides to enter and poison the body is through the skin. There may
be no immediate effects, but the long-term health effects can be serious. One of the best defenses
against contamination if you handle pesticides is to always wear adequate protective clothing. But
knowing which fabrics and style of clothing to choose isn't that simple.
Protective clothing is available in numerous styles and is made of many different materials Among
the fabrics commonly used for protection against pesticides are wovens, nonwovens, and
coated/laminated fabrics.
99
Wovens
These are constructed of natural or synthetic yams that are woven or knitted together to form a
fabric. Some examples of woven fabrics are blue jeans, flannel shirts and cotton coveralls. Cotton
or cotton/polyester blends offer the best protection of the woven fabrics. Heavier weaves such as
cotton duck or denim are often good choices.
= Woven fabrics are primarily worn for
WARNING: protection against low-toxicity solid (dry)
Never wear materials made from 100% polyester, pesticides such as granules, dusts and
nylon or acrylic when working with pesticides. They powders. Although EPA allows woven
do not provide adequate protection. coveralls to be worn to meet the coverall
requirement on the pesticide label, woven
fabrics are not the preferred barrier since the
weave has a tendency to "open up" or "stretch," allowing fine particulates or liquids to pass through
the clothing. Woven or knit fabrics actually absorb liquid chemicals and hold them next to the skin.
Garments made from woven fabrics are considered "reusable" since they can be cleaned or
decontaminated. Woven fabrics are not recommended when there is a chance of exposure from
highly toxic liquid pesticides or fumigants.
Nonwovens
Nonwovens are made of natural or synthetic materials that are bonded together with heat or pressure.
Nonwovens protect against most solid pesticides, such as dusts, powders and granules. They also
offer protection against accidental splashes and low pressure sprays of low-toxicity liquid pesticides.
It is not recommended that uncoated nonwovens be worn for prolonged exposure to high-toxicity
liquid pesticides unless they are coated or laminated. Example: some so-called white "disposables"
made from polypropylene will protect you against nonhazardous materials such as dirt and grease,
but they offer no chemical protection. Other clothing is laminated or coated with a special film that
gives it resistance to a wide variety of chemical hazards.
Breathable Nonwovens are made from liquid-proof microporous membranes sandwiched between
two layers of the nonwoven material or a microporous film laminated to a nonwoven fabric. These
are a good choice in hot climates. The breathable nature of the material allows water vapor from
perspiration to pass through the clothing, keeping the wearer cooler and more comfortable than the
applicator would be in non-breathable PPE. The degree of dry and liquid barrier protection can vary
greatly depending on the composition of the microporous film and nonwoven fabric. Some breathable
fabrics are made from "filter materials" which keep out small particles, but are NOT waterproof
These should not be used with liquid
= pesticides. Check with your supplier to make
WARNING: sure you have the right clothing for your label
Although some of these fabrics are waterproof, they needs
are not vapor tight. If these fabrics are to be used for
protection from pesticides over an extended period
of time, consideration should be given to the effect. Coated or Laminated Nonwovens are made
if any, of vapor on the skin. by thermally bonding or adhesively attaching a
100
barrier film or polymer to the outer surface of a nonwoven fabric. The result is a barrier material that
provides the highest level of protection against pesticides for limited use apparel.
Coated/laminated suits
Reusable coated or laminated suits are often referred to as "rubber" suits because the fabrics feel like
rubber. These are made of a base material, such as nylon, that is coated with a chemical barrier, such
as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), rubber, neoprene or nitrile. Most industrial grade rainwear can be used
for chemical protection. These provide similar protection as the coated nonwovens, but are very
heavy and not breathable.
WARNING:
Coated/laminated suits are often confused with
inexpensive rainsuits. Do not use thin rainsuits for
chemical protection because they could tear and
may not be an adequate chemical barrier. A
thickness of at least 20 mil. is recommended. Also,
do not use rainsuits made out of urethane materials.
They will not protect you against chemicals.
Several styles of rainsuits have cotton liners or
cotton corduroy collars. Cotton is absorbent
and can hold in pesticides. Do not use them.
The following sections give more information
about wovens, nonwovens and coated/laminated
suits.
WOVEN FABRICS
Design: Generally one-piece coveralls, overalls, or suits, long-sleeved shirts, long pants
Examples: Fisher Stripe® coveralls, 100% cotton coveralls, 65% cotton 35% polyester blends and
overalls
Application: Mixer, loader, applicator protection against dry particulate pesticides (powders, dusts
and granules). Limited splash/spray protection from liquid pesticides.
1 STRENGTHS:
WEAKNESSES: 1
• Reusable
• Not liquid proof
• Breathable
• Offer little to no protection against highly
• Light to medium weight
toxic pesticides (liquid/solid)
• High worker acceptance
• Must be decontaminated after every use
• Can be washed and decontaminated
• Retain pesticide residues in fabric, even
numerous times
after decontamination, which can
contaminate other clothing
101
NONWOVEN FABRICS
Uncoated Nonwovens
Design: One-piece and two-piece suits/coveralls, aprons, hooded clothing, pants, long-sleeved shirts,
hats, and shoe coverings
Examples: Tyvek®, Comfort-Gard®, KLEENGUARD LP®
Application: Mixer, loader, applicator protection against dry particulates (powders, dusts, and
granules). Limited splash/spray protection from liquid pesticides.
1 STRENGTHS:
WEAKNESSES: 1
• Breathable (depending on fabric)
• Limited protection against high-toxicity
• Lightweight
liquid pesticides
• Numerous styles available
• Nonbreathables can be quite hot to wear
• Some offer splash protection from liquid
• Limited use- most manufacturers
pesticides
recommend no more than 8 hours of use
• Limited use eliminates laundry cross
• Local disposal regulations may pose
contamination
problems
Coated Nonwovens
Design: One-piece and two-piece suits/coveralls, aprons, hooded clothing, pants, long-sleeved shirts,
hats, and shoe coverings.
WARNING:
Nonwoven fabrics are not flame resistant and should
not be used around heat, flame, sparks, or in
potentially flammable or explosive environments.
Examples: Tyvek QC® , Saranex 23 P®
Application: Mixer, loader, applicator
protection against liquid and dry pesticides.
1 STRENGTHS: 1
1 WEAKNESSES: 1
• Numerous styles available
• Good protection against most liquid
pesticides
• Splash/spray protection
• Some materials are costly
• Uncomfortable in hot and humid climates
• Limited use- most manufacturers
recommend no more than 8 hours of use
• Local disposal regulations may pose
problems
102
I
COATED/LAMINATED SUITS
Design: Generally one-piece and two-piece coveralls or suits, hats, jackets, pants
Examples: PVC coveralls, nitrile suits, TRI-WEAVE® , neoprene suits, numerous industrial grade
rainwear styles made of these materials
Application: Mixer, loader, applicator protection against liquid and dry pesticides
I STRENGTHS: 1
[ WEAKNESSES: 1
• Durable
• Reusable
• Good protection against liquid pesticides
• Heavy material
• Must be decontaminated after every use
• Uncomfortable in hot and humid climates
• Often lined with cotton or constructed
with fabric collars, which makes them
impossible to decontaminate
103
I Protective Clothing Characteristics
The following table will help comparing fabric characteristics and choose the appropriate protective
clothing for a specific pesticide application.
MATERIAL
PARTICULATE
LIQUID-
LIQUID
SPRAY/SPLASH
BREATHABLE
PROTECTION
PROOF
CHEMICAL
(TOXICITY CLASS)
(TOXICITY CLASS)
PROTEaiON
WOVEN
Yes (HI)
No
No
No
Yes
Wall's Fisher Stripe®
NONWOVEN UN-
Yes(D
No
No
Yes (HI)
No
COATED
Tyvek (white and
blue)
KLEENGUARD
LP®
Yes(D
No
No
Yes(IID
Yes
Comfort-Gard® 150
(white and tan)
Yes(D
No
No
Yes (II)
Yes
Comfort-Gard® 200
Yes(D
Yes
Yes
Yes©
Yes
NONWOVEN
Yes©
No
Yes
Yes©
No
COATED
Tyvek QC®
Sewn Seams
Sealed Seams
Saranex 23 P®
(sealed seams)
Yes(D
Yes
Yes
Yes©
No
COATED/
LAMINATED
Yes©
Yes
Yes
Yes©
No
SUITS
TRI-WEAVE® (vinyl
Yes©
Yes
Yes
Yes©
No
coated)
Nitrile Coated
Yes©
Yes
Yes
Yes©
No
PVC
Yes©
Yes
Yes
Yes©
No
Neoprene Coated
Yes (I)
Yes
Yes
Yes©
No
Different styles of PPE may be selected based on personal preference and the type of work
performed. Common styles include coveralls, bib overalls, jackets, and aprons. Protective clothing
is made from several types of materials, providing choices in chemical resistance, weight and strength
104
of the fabric, fabric resistance to ripping and puncturing, response to temperature extremes, comfort,
ability to be cleaned, and durability No single material provides everything, so base your selection
on your most important need, protection from pesticide exposure.
One-piece suits
One-piece suits reduce the risk of pesticide contamination by providing a single continuous covering
over the entire length of the body. One-piece suits have fewer seams and gaps than two-piece suits-
so there is less chance of contamination. However, one-piece suits may be slightly more constrictive
than two-piece suits because there is no gap around the midsection. Consider buying one or two sizes
larger to allow greater movement and reduce heat stress.
Two-piece suits
A benefit of a two-piece suit is that it allows more freedom of movement than a one-piece suit.
However, two-piece suits have more seams and gaps than one-piece suits, which means there are
more routes for pesticides to get inside the clothing. Two-piece suits are sometimes cooler than one-
piece suits because of the extra gaps that act as vents, allowing air to get in and out. But be careftil
not to let pesticides get between the jacket and the pants, since pesticides are sometimes suspended
as mists in the air.
Impermeable Cloth
This clothing should be used when there is a potential for spill of concentrated materials, heavy drift
which may saturate clothing, or prolonged exposure to light drift. Heavy gauge material should be
selected rather than light if there is a potential for tearing the clothing. This clothing is often made
of rubber, neoprene, or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) bonded to some type of woven fabric.
Heavy Grade Cloth One-piece
These one-piece suits (coveralls) should be made of heavy grade cotton with a tight weave. Cotton
coveralls afford a reasonable degree of protection in most spray operations. They should be changed
when noticeably wet and washed after each day's use in a strong detergent wash. Coveralls should
not be worn where spills of concentrated pesticide may occur.
Paper Jackets and Paper Coveralls
These coveralls have been tested and are suitable for use only under conditions where heavy wetting
does not occur and under conditions not conducive to tearing of the material.
Gloves
Unlined, impermeable gloves covering the forearm provide the best protection. Gloves providing this
type of protection can be composed of nitrile, neoprene, PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or butyl. Cotton,
leather or other absorbent gloves should not be used when working with pesticides. Also, materials
such as leather, cannot be effectively decontaminated by washing. Heavy weight gloves, although
more durable, do not allow suitable freedom of movement, especially finger dexterity. An applicator
may be more inclined to remove this type of glove when cleaning nozzles and adjusting equipment.
Additionally, heavy weight gloves are more difficult to turn inside out to clean. Cloth lining can
105
become contaminated and is not easily cleaned. Do not use cloth lined gloves. On the other hand,
light weight gloves wear out easily. If light weight gloves are used, they should be frequently
checked for pinholes and breaks. Gloves should be selected which are durable and provide a
reasonable amount of finger dexterity.
Head and Neck Covering
Several types of head gear are available to protect the head, neck, and hair from pesticide drift. Head
gear should be impermeable (waterproof), easily washed, capable of withstanding harsh detergents,
and should provide protection to the ears and neck areas from downward drift. Broad brimmed,
waterproof rainhats, waterproof hoods or certain types of tight fitting helmets are recommended.
Under no conditions should old felt, leather or similar type hat be used in lieu of waterproof hats.
They absorb pesticides, especially in the sweat band, and thereby provide continuous skin contact.
In some instances, such as spraying hanging plants or spraying orchards, the pesticide label may
require protection fi-om possible overhead exposure. A hood will protect the head and neck. A hat,
on the other hand, may not always protect the back of the neck. Hoods are available as separates or
may be attached to jackets or coveralls. Attached hoods offer better neck protection because they
have no openings for pesticides to seep in.
Protective Eyewear
Good, effective non-fogging goggles are readily available and should be worn when there is a chance
of chemical contact with the eye. Safety glasses increase the amount of facial protection when used
with half mask respirators.
Approved Respiratory Protective
Equipment
NOTE:
All protective clothing and clothes worn under them
should be scrupulously cleaned in hot, soapy water after
each day's use. Wearing contaminated clothing allows
the pesticide to penetrate the clothing and come in
contact with the skin. This takes on added importance
on hot days, when the rate of skin absorption increases
Applicators in some cases do not put on protective
clothing until they begin to feel the drift. By this time,
there may be considerable chemical deposited upon the
skin or regular clothing. By putting on impermeable
clothing over already contaminated clothing or skin,
conditions which tend to increase skin absorption may be
created
Only those respiratory protective devices
designed, approved, or accepted against the
particular hazard should be used for
respiratory protection. For protection from
pesticides, the use of respirators should be
limited to those approved by the U.S.
Department of the Interior, Mining
Enforcement and the Safety Administration
(MESA) of the U.S. Department of Health,
Education and Welfare, Center for Disease
Control, National Institute for Occupation
Safety and Health (NIOSH). The pesticide label will provide the number of an approved respirator
to purchase when using the product.
106
I Classification, Description & Limitations of Pesticide Respiratory
Protection Devices
There are two basic types of respiratory devices for protection against pesticides:
^ cartridge respirators and
^ supplied air respirators.
Cartridee Respirators
Cartridge respirators include a fitted rubber facepiece and replaceable filters Cartridge respirators
have a one-way exhalation valve; inhaled air must pass through the cartridge to be filtered, but the
valve permits exhaled air to bypass the filters. Facepieces are held in place by at least two adjustable
elastic headbands. Half-mask and fijll-face respirators are two types of cartridge respirators. These
cartridge respirators provide good protection against pesticides in the form of droplets, dusts, and
vapors. The fijll-face respirator also provides protection for the face and eyes from pesticide
exposure. However, cartridge respirators, even fijll-face respirators do not offer protection against
fumigants (gases) unless specifically labeled for fijmigants. Even if labeled for fijmigants, time of
exposure and concentrations of gases, for which protection is given is usually limited Cartridge
respirators cannot be used in atmospheres that are life threatening, such as environments containing
carbon dioxide or low oxygen levels.
Cartridges for these type of respirators must have a NIOSH/MSHA "TC" (Tested and Certified)
approval number and be designated for use with pesticides Cartridges made for pesticide use must
have two stages:
1 ) a particulate prefilter to mechanically trap airborne particles and
2) an activated carbon cartridge to adsorb vapors.
Supplied Air Respirators
Supplied air respirators are used when working with fijmigants, in areas with high concentrations of
pesticides and when working in other life threatening atmospheres These devices do not filter the
surrounding air through cartridges and filters because they supply an outside sources of clean air.
Self-contained supplied air respirators provide clean air from pressurized tanks that the user wears,
similar to a scuba diver. External air models connect the wearer to a distant air pump or stationary
tank by means of a hose. Air pumps must be located in an area where safe, fi'esh air is available Self-
contained units are limited to the amount of air that the user can carry. Once the air supply is
exhausted, the system cannot provide any protection, therefore these units are equipped with a
warning device to alert the user when the air supply is getting low Air tanks may be heavy and
bulky, but they give increased mobility because no hoses are required.
Use and Selection of Respiratory Protective Devices
Pesticide respiratory devices should be used in strict compliance with their manufacturer's
recommendations. Information should be requested from the manufacturer regarding use,
maintenance, and limitations prior to or upon purchase of a respiratory protective device. Selection
of a respiratory protective device must be based upon the various hazards that may exist in a given
operation.
107
Because of the difference in their protective capacities, selection of proper respiratory devices
requires consideration of the following factors:
• nature of the hazard,
• extent of the hazard,
• work requirements and conditions,
v^ characteristics and limitations of available respiratory protective devices, and
• pesticide label requirements.
All category I pesticides are regarded as immediately dangerous to life or health. Under most
application procedures, respiratory protection against these toxic substances is accomplished with the
use of respirators with both chemical and mechanical filters. Cartridge respirators should be worn
when:
• pesticides are formulated,
• pouring concentrated pesticides into a sprayer tank,
•operators are exposed directly to concentrated dusts, sprays, or aerosols.
For comfort on hot days during the application of concentrated sprays, such as in orchard
applications, a half-mask facepiece respirators may be used. To protect the eyes under these
conditions, non-fogging, non-perforated goggles should be used.
Cartridge respirators will give adequate protection to airplane pilots during normal spraying
operations. However, pilots may find that a self-contained breathing apparatus is more desirable with
high concentrations of the more toxic pesticides. If pilots choose to use a half-mask respirator, non-
perforated goggles that give a tight seal around the nose piece should be selected.
When applying grain fiamigants, a supplied air respirator should be worn while pouring concentrated
fiamigating material directly on the surface of grains or fijmigating below the surface in grain elevators
where there is little exchange of air. The supplied air respirator must be connected to an air source
fi"ee of the toxic material or to a compressed air cylinder.
Most registered herbicides are often regarded as relatively safe to humans, but in fact, herbicides may
be toxic, irritating or corrosive in their actions and therefore may present a significant health and
respiratory hazard. The pesticide label may specify a minimum requirement for respiratory protection
against the herbicide, such as a mechanical filter to trap mists and coarse spray droplets. Some labels
may require a mechanical-chemical filter respirator approved for protection for organic vapors.
Training and Education in Proper Use of Respirators
For safe use of any respirator, it is essential that the user be properly instructed in its selection, use
and maintenance. All employees should receive instructions from their supervisors.
Minimum training should include the following:
^ Instruction in the nature of the hazard, whether acute, chronic, or both, and an honest
appraisal of what may happen if the respirator is not used.
108
^ A discussion of why this is the proper type of respirator for the particular purpose.
^ A discussion of the respirator's capabilities, limitations, and storage.
^ Instructions and training in the actual use of a respirator and close supervision to assure
that it continues to be properly used
^ Other special training is needed for special uses in certain work conditions. Training
should provide the user the opportunity to handle the respirator, have it fitted properly, and
tested for facial seal.
Face Piece Fit Tests
A good face piece fit is essential for effective respiratory protection with respirators A good face
seal is not possible when a beard, sideburns, temple pieces on glasses, and skull caps projects under
the face piece. The face piece fit should be checked by the wearer each time he/she puts on the
respirator. This may be done by following the manufacturer's face piece fitting instructions as
follows:
^Positive Pressure Test
Close the exhalation valve and exhale gently into the face piece. The face fit is considered
satisfactory if a slight positive pressure can be built up inside the face piece without any
evidence of outward leakage of air at the seal. For most respirators, this method of leak
testing requires that the wearer first remove the exhalation valve cover and then carefully
replace it after the test.
^/Negative Pressure Test
Close off the inlet opening of the cartridge(s) by covering with the palm of the hand(s) or by
replacing with a seal(s). Inhale gently so that the face piece collapses slightly and hold the
breath for ten seconds. If the face piece remains in a slightly collapsed condition and no
inward leakage of air is detected, the tightness of the respirator is probably satisfactory. A
respirator should be fitted properly on the face with the narrow part over the bridge of the
nose and the chin cup contacting the under side of the chin. Head bands should be adjusted
to insure a good seal.
Maintenance and Care of Respirators
The proper maintenance and care of respirators should include the following basic services:
^ inspection for defects,
^ cleaning and disinfecting,
^ repair as needed, and
^ proper storage
Equipment which is properly maintained will provide effective protection and will provide longer
lasting service Respiratory protective devices should be inspected routinely before and after each
use. Inspection should include a check of tightness of connections and conditions of the face piece,
head bands, valves, connecting tube, and canisters. Rubber and elastic straps should be inspected for
pliability and signs of deterioration. Rubber and elastic parts can be kept pliable and flexible during
storage by routinely applying a massaging action. Respiratory devices should be cleaned after each
109
day's use. Prior to cleaning, any filters or cartridges should be removed. The face piece and
breathing tube should be washed with warm, soapy water, rinsed in fresh water to remove all traces
of soap, and sanitized. A residual of sanitizing agent may cause skin irritation and cause accelerated
aging of the rubber components. Therefore, a thorough rinsing should accompany the use of a
sanitizing agent. For complete decontamination from organophosphate insecticides, the face piece
should be washed in a mild detergent solution and rinsed with isopropyl (rubbing) alcohol.
Respirators should be air dried in a clean area separate fi'om pesticide storage or other possible
pesticide contamination sources. At this time, valves, straps and other parts can be inspected and
defective parts replaced. When dry, the respiratory device, filters and cartridges should be stored in
a clean, cool, dry place, preferably in a plastic bag or container.
When using a respirator (e.g. dual cartridge with filter) the cloth filter should be changed twice a day
or more often if breathing becomes difficult. Cartridges should be changed after eight hours of actual
use or more often if an odor of the pesticide is detected.
Special Problems with Corrective Lenses
Respiratory protection for individuals wearing corrective glasses is a serious problem. A tight seal
cannot be established if the temple bars of eyeglasses extend through the sealing edge of the fijll face
piece. A temporary solution is to tape glasses with short temple bars to the wearer's head. Contact
lenses should not be used in a contaminated atmosphere even with a full-face respirator.
I Other Features to Consider
Durability, breathability, color, style and design are all factors that may enter into the choice of
protective clothing.
Seams
Uncoated nonwoven garments are usually constructed with serged seams.
A Serged Seams. Three threads are interlocked around the edges of two plies of fabric.
These seams are not liquid proof, yet they provide protection against dry pesticides.
Coated nonwoven garments can be constructed with bound, sealed or ultrasonic seams.
▲ Bound Seams. The result of enclosing the edges of two separate pieces of fabric and
sewing through all layers with a chain stitch. This is one of the toughest seams and provides
good liquid splash protection. It does not provide 100% liquid barrier.
▲ Sealed Seams. A very strong, durable seam that is produced when a sewn seam is covered
with a heat-sealed or adhesively bonded strip of barrier film material. This seam provides
100% liquid barrier protection.
▲ Ultrasonic Seams. A 100% liquid barrier seam that is produced when two fabrics are
lapped together and then thermally or high radio frequency welded
110
Breathabilitv
This is extremely important when working in hot environments. Materials such as cotton or the
breathable nonwovens offer acceptable comfort in hot and humid environments However, breathable
materials are often less protective than non-breathable materials, so they should not be used with
high-toxicity pesticides.
iyi4rability
Limited use suits are not intended to be durable. The fabric, zippers and seams are not the same as
those found on reusable suits. Limited use suits are intended to protect you from pesticide exposure,
then be disposed of Reusable coveralls are designed for durability and repeated use. Quality varies,
so look for a well-made suit.
Color
If concerned about the public's reaction to the use of pesticides, colors other than white are available.
Blue or tan suits may appear less threatening than white "space" suits to some people. Dark colors
hide dirt better than light colors and may be more appealing to workers. But if you are located in a
hot climate, light colors are better. Dark colors tend to absorb light energy and are hotter to wear
on sunny days.
Fit
Coveralls should fit loosely. The loose fit will reduce the risk of pesticide contact with your skin
since there is an air space between the clothing and your body. Coveralls should not fit too loosely,
however, because they could snag or get caught in a piece of machinery, such as a power take off
(PTO) Nor should they fit too tightly. If they are too tight, they limit your movement and are at a
greater risk of tearing.
Collars
Protective clothing with collars offers greater protection for the neck and shoulders than clothing
without collars.
Flaps
Flaps over the zipper help reduce the amount of pesticides entering the clothing through the zipper
area. Some coveralls will have sealing tape under the flap to ensure the pesticide will not enter the
zipper area.
Cuff Desigti
Clothing cuffs should be elastic. This allows a better seal around the glove.
Elastic Leg Closures
Elastic leg closures are not recommended where you will be doing a lot of walking or stepping. As
you step, the elastic will cause the clothing's leg to "ride up" and possibly expose the leg.
111
I Care and Decontamination of Clothing
CHECKLIST
How to properly remove contaminated one-piece coveralls
□ Thoroughly wash gloves with soap and water while still wearing them.
□ Before removing heavily contaminated waterproof protective clothing, it may be desirable
to perform preliminary decontamination by spraying the wearer with a fine mist from a water
hose.
O Remove any accessories, such as respirators or goggles.
□ Unfasten the protective clothing.
O Take off the gloves.
□ Put on a clean pair of gloves.
□ Starting at the shoulders, "roll" the protective coveralls down your body. Be careful not
to touch the outside. Check to make sure only the inside of the protective clothing is showing
by the time it is rolled down to your ankles.
□ Take the clothing off the rest of the way and dispose of it according to local regulations
or decontaminate it.
O Remove gloves and immediately wash hands
O Take a shower.
Two-piece suits can be removed just as you would regular clothing, but keep in mind the checklist
from the one-piece coverall section. But be sure not to allow the outer contaminated surface to
contact the clothing underneath or on your skin. If the protective clothing has been drenched with
a highly toxic pesticide, remove the clothing as quickly as possible and shower immediately.
NON-REUSABLE
CLOTHING
REUSABLE CLOTHING
FREQUENCY OF
DECONTAMINATION
NONE
AFTER EVERY USE
TRAiNING
NONE
PERSONS WHO DECONTAMINATE CLOTHING
MUST RECEIVE SPECIAL TRAINING
DECONTAMINATION
EQUIPMENT
NONE
PPE REQUIRED FOR DECONTAMINATION
PROCESS. DESIGNATED WASHING AND DRYING
EQUIPMENT. OTHER RELATED
DECONTAMINATION EQUIPMENT.
TIME
NONE
TIME ALLOTTED FOR DECONTAMINATION
PROCESS
CONTAMINATION RISK
RISK DURING REMOVAL
OF CLOTHING
RISK OF CONTAMINATION DURING REMOVAL OF
CLOTHING, RISK OF CONTAMINATION DURING
DECONTAMINATION PROCESS. RISK OF
PESTICIDE RESIDUES REMAINING IN CLOTHING
AFTER DECONTAMINATION PROCESS. RISK OF
CONTAMINATION IF CLOTHING IS DISPOSED OF.
PERSONNEL
RISK DURING REMOVAL
OF CLOTHING
TRAINED PERSONNEL REQUIRED FOR
HANDLING DECONTAMINATION AND DISPOSAL
OF CLOTHING.
112
Limited Use Clothing
Limited use clothing requires very little care. After use, they are simply disposed. It's critical to
properly dispose of clothing that has been contaminated with pesticides. It is recommended that
disposable clothing be cut in half to prevent an unsuspecting person from wearing them. Some
limited use clothing may be incinerated or discarded in accordance with county and state laws. Be
sure to check with your local landfill.
Properly Cleaning Reusable Protective Clothing
Here are some steps on how to clean contaminated fabric clothing.
1. Keep contaminated clothing separate from other clothing
: The protective clothing should go in a
WARNING: disposable plastic bag rather than in a cloth bag
1 Do not wash limited use coveralls if they have or laundry basket. Be sure that anyone handling
been contaminated with pesticides. ^^^ ^j^^^^^ ^1 ^^^^^ ,^^g^ ^g ^^ ^^ ^j
2. Treat contaminated coveralls the same way you .... .n t-n j
would treat the pesticide. Wear gloves and other mtnle gloves are good). Do not dry clean
PPE to protect yourself from pesticide residues on protective clothing. Pesticide contaminated
the clothing. clothing should not be cleaned in public laundry
■ facilities (i.e. coin operated laundromats).
2. Determine whether the clothing can be washed.
Fabric clothing that's saturated with a pesticide concentrate should be incinerated or
discarded in accordance with local laws and regulations.
3. Wash clothing daily.
This should be done as soon as possible after it has been worn.
4. Keep the clothing separate from other wash.
Pesticide residues can transfer from contaminated clothing to other clothing that is
laundered with it. A separate washing machine is recommended to avoid
contaminating regular clothing.
5. Pre-rinse the clothing.
The clothing can be sprayed/hosed outdoors, soaked in a pail or tub not being used
for anything else, or agitated in an automatic washing machine.
6. Wash a few garments at a time.
And be sure coveralls contaminated by different pesticides are not washed together.
7. Use the proper washing machine settings.
^ hot water temperatures ( 1 40 degrees to 1 60 degrees),
^ extra large or large load,
^ normal ( 1 2 minutes) wash cycle, double rinse.
113
8. Use heavy duty laundry detergent.
9. Don't add bleach and/or ammonia.
Mixed together, bleach and ammonia produce a poisonous chlorine gas. Neither helps
remove pesticide residues.
10. Re-wash the clothing two or three times if necessary.
11. Thoroughly rinse the machine when done.
It should be run through an extra complete cycle, using hot water and detergent, even
when you have a separate washing machine dedicated to contaminated clothing,
12. Line dry the protective clothing.
Do not put any protective clothing in the dryer. Pesticide residues may build up in
dryers over time, causing potential serious illness. Line drying is recommended for
all protective clothing.
Reusable Coated/laminated Suits
Suits made from materials such as PVC or nitrile should not be decontaminated in a washing machine.
Instead, hose them off and wash them in a tub of hot soapy water. Protective clothing made of nitrile,
PVC or other rubber-like compounds should be line dried in the shade to keep harmfijl sunlight from
damaging the materials. Suits made from plastic laminates, nitrile or latex may melt if placed in a
dryer.
Storage of PFE
Protective clothing should be stored in a clean, dry place away from pesticides and pesticide
containers. Avoid exposure to direct sunlight and high temperatures, which may degrade the fabric.
Protective clothing should be stored in a special locker, cabinet or other area where it can be kept
clean and ready to go. The locker or cabinet should be marked to indicate that the clothing inside is
clean.
114
CHAPTER X
FIRST AID IN THE EVENT OF PESTICIDE POISONING
» First Aid
Speed is essential: A rapid response is critical in any case of potential pesticide poisoning.
1st
2na
3ra
See that the victim is breathing; if not, give artificial respiration,
(make sure you are not coming in contact with the pesticide)
Decontaminate the victim immediately, i.e. wash off thoroughly if the
pesticide is a liquid Speed is essential!
Call a physician.
Begin first aid treatment by reading the pesticide label for special first aid instructions. All labels
contain some type of statement of practical treatment. If additional help is needed, call a physician.
The physician will give you instruction. He will very likely tell you to get the victim to the emergency
room of a hospital. The equipment needed for proper treatment is there. Only if this is impossible
should the physician be called to the site of the accident.
NOTE: Do not substitute first aid for professional treatment. First aid is only to relieve the patient
before medical help is reached.
I General Treatment
Q Give mouth-to-mouth artificial respiration if breathing has stopped or is labored. However,
make sure not to come in contact and expose yourself to the pesticide on the victim.
Q Stop exposure to the poison and if poison is on the skin, cleanse the person, including hair
and fingernails, making sure you are protected fi'om the pesticide on the victim. If the
pesticide is a powder, brush it away but do not wash with water. If swallowed, read label
before vomiting is induced. Some pesticides are corrosive and can cause serious damage to
the victim if vomiting is induced.
Q Save the pesticide container and any remaining material; get a readable label which contains
the name of the chemical for the physician. If the poison is not known, save a sample of the
vomitus.
115
I specific Treatment
Poison on Skin.
^Drench skin and clothing with water (shower, hose, faucet),
^Remove clothing,
^Cleanse skin and hair thoroughly with soap and water (rapidity in washing is most
important in reducing extent of injury),
^Dry and wrap in a blanket.
Poison in Eye:
♦ Hold eyelids open, wash eyes with gentle stream of clean running water immediately. Use
large amounts of water. Delay of a few seconds greatly increases extent of injury,
♦ Continue washing for 1 5 minutes or more,
♦ Do not use chemicals or drugs (i.e. commercial eye washes) in the wash water. They may
increase the extent of the injury.
Inhaled Poisons (Dusts, Vapors, Gases):
^ If the victim is in enclosed space, do not go in after him/her without an air supplied
respirator,
^ Carry victim (do not let him/her walk) to fresh air immediately,
^ Loosen all tight clothing,
^ Apply artificial respiration if breathing has stopped or is irregular,
^ Call a physician,
^ Prevent chilling by wrapping the victim in blankets but don't overheat him or her,
^ Keep the victim as quiet as possible,
^ If the victim is convulsing, watch his/her breathing and protect him/her from falling and
striking his/her head. Keep his/her chin up, and keep the air passage free for breathing,
^ Do not give alcohol in any form.
Swallowed Poisons:
♦ Call a physician immediately,
♦ Do not induce vomiting if
* the victim is in a coma or unconscious.
* the victim is having convulsions.
* the victim has swallowed petroleum products (that is, kerosene, gasoline, lighter fluid).
* the victim has swallowed a corrosive poison (strong acid or alkaline products)
[symptoms: severe pain, burning sensation in mouth and throat.]
♦ If the victim can swallow after ingesting a corrosive poison, (a corrosive substance is any
material which in contact with living tissue will cause destruction of tissue by chemical action,
such as lye, acids, Lysol, etc.) give the following substances by mouth:
* For Acids: milk, water, or milk of magnesia (1 tablespoon to 1 cup of water),
* For Alkali: milk or water; for victims 1-5 years old, 1 to 2 cups; for victims 5 years
and older, up to 1 quart.
116
I
♦ If possible, induce vomiting when a noncorrosive substance has been swallowed.
* Give milk or water (1 quart for an adult or a large glass for a child under 7),
* Induce vomiting by placing the blunt end of a spoon (not the handle) or your finger
at the back of the victim's throat, or by use of an emetic, such as syrup of ipecac.
* When twitching and vomiting begin, place victim face down with head lowered, thus
preventing vomitus from entering the lungs and causing further damage. Do not let the
victim lie on his or her back,
* Do not waste excessive time in inducing vomiting if the hospital is nearby. It is better
to spend the time getting the victim to the hospital where drugs can be administered to
induce vomiting and/or stomach pumps are available, and
* Clean vomitus from the victim. Collect some in case the physician needs it for
chemical tests.
Chemical Skin Burns.
^Remove contaminated clothing,
^Wash with large quantities of running water,
^Immediately cover with loosely applied clean cloth or blanket depending on the size of the
area burned,
^ Avoid the use of ointments, greases, powders, and other drugs in first aid treatment of
bums, and
^Treat shock by keeping the victim flat, warm, and reassuring them until arrival of physician.
POISON CONTROL CENTERS
In Montana, the Poison Control Systems telephone number is 1-800-525-5042. The
Emergency Medical Services Bureau (EMS) of the Montana Department Environmental
Quality in Helena will provide telephone stickers with the Poison Control phone number
free of charge.
117
CHAPTER XI
PESTICIDES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Pesticides are an effective tool and provide an efficient means to control pests when used correctly
and with care. When pesticides are misapplied or applied carelessly, harm to the environment may
occur. Even when pesticides are applied in accordance with the label, environmental damage can
result. Organochlorine insecticides, such as DDT, have been found to persist in the environment for
years. Residues of DDT can still be found in soils, water and animal tissues even though registration
of DDT was suspended in 1972. Some herbicides, such as piclionic acid and triazines have the
potential to leach and contaminate ground water.
It is important to remember that every pesticide has the potential to harm the environment. When
a pesticide is applied, any of the following can occur:
• movement of the pesticide by drift to oflf-target organisms, plants, water and soil;
• removal of the pesticide from an application site when runoff, leaching or wind or water
erosion occurs;
• accumulation of residues in soils as a result of repeated applications over time;
• movement from one location to another from contaminated machinery and equipment; and
• transfer of raw agricultural commodities having pesticide residues to food processing
centers, feed lots, consumers and wildlife
With public attention focused on the damage pesticides can impose upon the environment, all
applicators must act as stewards of the environment. Environmental stewardship means using
pesticides correctly, being aware of the potential for pesticides to damage the environment and then
making every effort to prevent damage or contamination. An understanding of the fate of pesticides
in the environment enables pesticide users to make informed decisions concerning their use.
I Pesticide Fate
Because, to some degree, pesticides behave in predictable ways in the environment, it is possible,
when pesticide fate mechanisms are understood, to achieve greater control and management of
pesticides, providing better protection of environmental resources. All pesticides are subject to
breakdown over time. Pesticides may be degraded by a single mechanism, such as photodegradation,
chemical reactions or microbial consumption, or by a combination of mechanisms. During the
breakdown process, pesticides are reduced to secondary products. Secondary products are often
referred to as degradates, metabolites or breakdown products. Metabolites may or may not exhibit
pest control properties. While many pesticides break down to harmless secondary products, some
pesticide metabolites are more toxic than their parent compound. The breakdown process continues
from secondary products to tertiary products and so on, until, eventually, they are reduced to
harmless products. The length of time required for completion of this process is called persistence.
Persistence varies with the pesticide product. Organochlorine pesticides, such as DDT, aldrin,
dieldrin and endrin, are quite persistent, while malathion and 2,4-D are examples of short lived
119
pesticides. Persistence is also a function of other environmental factors: soil type, soil pH, soil
constituents, microorganisms, sunlight, weather, and application rates. Temik, an insecticide applied
in the soil, breaks down more quickly in sandy than in clay soil. Imazamethabenz-methyl (Assert),
a herbicide, reportedly breaks down quickly in the presence of sunlight. In the soil environment,
imazamethabenz-methyl breaks down more slowly as soil pH increases, soil temperatures decrease
and in the presence of soil calcium bicarbonate.
Volatilization
Pesticides may vaporize from both soil and vegetative surfaces. Volatilization is affected by
temperature, as the temperature increases the potential for volatilization also increases. Pesticides
may vaporize before they reach the vegetation, as shown in the figure below. Because leaf surface
temperature is often higher than surrounding ambient air temperature, vaporization may occur as
pesticides dry on vegetative surfaces. Volatilization after application decreases over time as pesticide
uptake into the plant occurs.
Pesticide vapor pressure will determine the potential for a compound to vaporize and enter the
atmosphere. Pesticide vapor pressure indexes are used to determine the vaporization potential of
pesticides from application and
vegetation surfaces. Pesticide
sorption and vapor pressure will
determine the volatilization potential
from dry soils. Generally, pesticides
having vapor pressure indexes (VPI)
of less than 10 are least likely to
volatilize from dry soils, while those
with VPIs greater than 1,000 will
have the greatest potential to
volatilize.
Soil moisture content and pesticide
water solubility must also be
considered when determining the
volatilization potential from a moist soil. Henry's Law Constant values (Kh) are used to indicate
volatilization potential from moist soils. When the Henry's Law Constant value for a pesticide is less
than 100, losses through volatilization will likely be minimal. Volatilization losses can be expected
to be high if the Henry's Law Constant value exceeds 10,000.
120
Vapor Pressure and Henry's Law Constant for Selected Pesticides
(Oregon State University. 1994)
Name of Pesticide
Vapor Pressure
(mm Hg X E+07)
Henry's Law Constant
(Kh X E-K)9)
Aldicarb (Temik)
300.0
51.0
Benomyl (Benomyl)
0.001
0.78
Carbarv'l (Sevin)
10.8
250.0
Carbofiiran (Furadan)
6.0
20.0
Diazinon
600.0
16,000.0
Ghphosate (Roundup)
0.0
0.0
Malathion (Cythion)
80.0
1,000.0
Metalaxyl (Ridomil)
56.2
100
Methyl Bromide
18.0
700.0
Picloram salt (Tordon)
0.0
0.0
Permethrin (Ambush)
0.13
46,0000
Tnfluralm (Treflan)
1,100.0
66
Sorption
Soil sorption involves both absorption (into, as happens when water is imbibed by a sponge) and
adsorption (onto, as happens when a plastic ball is painted) of a pesticide into or onto soil particles.
Sorption is influenced by soil texture, organic matter content and soil moisture. Soils with clay
particles and organic matter are more likely to absorb or adsorb due to a large, chemically active
surface area Sand particles have
smaller area surfaces and are unlikely
to be chemically active enough to
provide effective degradation of
pesticide products through sorption
processes.
Sorption is the preferential exchange
of cations (positively charged) and
anions (negatively charged) between
the pesticide, soil particles and
organic material. The strength of
attraction between ions of the
pesticides and the soil is dependent
upon the characteristics of the ion or
+
'S
+
PESTICIDE
Preferential Ion Exchange
Preferential Ion Exchange
121
ions in question. The strength of those attractions determine the amount of preferential exchange that
will occur. The charge of the soil matrix and the pesticide(s) is also important in determining the
potential for sorption to proceed. Pesticides will have positive, negative or neutral charges. Montana
soils have a net negative charge. Sorption potential is somewhat similar to the charge of magnets;
like charges will repel one another while a strong attraction exists between negative and positive
charges. Because of the overall net negative charge of Montana soils, preferential exchange will favor
positively charged pesticides. Sorption processes result in structural loss or breakdown of the
pesticide to soil or organic matter particles.
The sorption distribution coefficient (Ko^)is often used to compare the sorption potential of different
pesticides. The higher the K^,. value, the stronger the sorption potential. For example, dicamba salts
have a very low sorption coefficient (K^^) of only 2, thus the potential for sorption to occur is poor.
Benomyl, however, has a K^^ value of 1900, a high sorption coefficient and can be expected to exhibit
more sorption potential. Pesticides that exhibit a high potential for sorption are more likely to bind
to soil or organic matter particles and, therefore, are less likely to move from the application site and
cause off target damage.
0
Soluble
0
0
&
■^^/^^^v
Non soluble;
location within
the solution
dependent upon
its density
Solubility
Pesticide water solubility refers to the
capacity of a pesticide to dissolve in
water [see the figure at left].
Solubility of pesticides is influenced by
temperature, pH, and the presence of
other chemicals and constituents
(naturally occurring components of
water, for example iron, calcium,
nitrogen, sodium). Rate of dissolution
into water is determined by the current
load (i.e., how much is already there)
of dissolved pesticide present in
solution. Solubility is expressed in
milligrams per liter of water (mg/L) or
parts per million (ppm). For example,
Temephos has an extremely low
solubility of 0.001 ppm while triclopyr
(amine salt) has a solubility of
2,100,000 ppm. The more soluble a pesticide is, the more likely movement from the application site
could occur.
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is the dividing of a chemical molecule bond in the presence of water, resulting in a
substitution and the formation of a new bond with the oxygen atoms of the water. The process of
hydrolysis, as well as the rate of hydrolysis, will vary with the acidity or alkalinity of the soil
environment. The resulting altered pesticide compounds may or may not have pesticidal properties.
— c i; iji" •^
■^.■>—->r.-:^. ■
122
Photodegradation
Many pesticides will breakdown in the presence of sunlight The rate and extent of photodegradation
is dependent upon the intensity of the sunlight and the position of the pesticide in the environment.
Pesticides located on upper leaf surfaces will be more subject to the effects of sunlight than those
within the leaf canopy. Similarly, the depth of the pesticide within a body of water will determine the
potential for photodegradation.
Soil Half-Life
Persistence refers to how long the pesticide will be present in
the environment. The soil half-life (Ty) of a pesticide is the
amount of time required for 50 percent of a pesticide to
decompose to products other than the original. Pesticides
having a soil half life of 30 days or less are considered to be
non-persistent. Moderately persistent pesticides have a soil
half-life of 30 to 99 days and those with a soil half-life of more
than 100 days are considered to be persistent. Generally, the
longer a pesticide persists, the more likely it is that impairment
or contamination of the environment will occur.
Pesticide persistence ratings.
30 days
30- 99 days
-> non-persistent
-» moderately
persistent
> 100 days -» persistent
1 Pesticide Residues in Food and Water
The amount of any pesticide or its breakdown products in or on soil, air, water, plants, and animals
at any point in time is a residue All pesticide applications result in residues However, the "life" (the
length of time that a residue remains) is directly related to the pesticide's persistence Residues are
commonly expressed in terms of parts per million (ppm) by weight Advances in research techniques
have made it possible to detect certain pesticides at levels approaching 0.001 ppm or 1 part per billion
(ppb). To illustrate size, 1 ppm is less than 1 teaspoon in 1,000 gallons; 1 ppb is 1.5 cubic inches of
water in the Fort Peck Reservoir (6,322,460 gallons).
EPA determines the amount of allowable residue that may be in or on raw agricultural commodities.
Allowable legal residues are called tolerances. Tolerances are established in parts per million by
weight and are specific for both the pesticide and the crop. For example, aldicarb, an insecticide,
has an established pesticide tolerance of 1 ppm for potatoes, 0.05 ppm for peanuts and 0 3 ppm for
bananas. Similarly the crop tolerances for captan, sesone and diazinon on strawberries are 25 ppm,
2 ppm and 0.5 ppm, respectively Pesticides applied in accordance with directions printed on the label
should not result in residues that exceed legal tolerances. When misapplied, illegal tolerances can
occur, as happened when the pesticide aldicarb, which is not labeled for use on watermelons, was
applied to watermelons in the 1980s.
Some pesticide labels list required time intervals between date of application and harvest, milking,
slaughter, or re-entry onto the premises. Violation of these time intervals can result in illegal residue
levels for commodities and may present a health risk to workers and consumers.
123
Washing, scrubbing, and various food processing procedures, such as peeling and cooking of fruits
and vegetables, can reduce the amount of residue remaining on food prior to consumption. Changes
in a commodity condition can result in increases or decreases of residues. Dehydration in fruit and
vegetables results in a loss of water, which reduces the weight of the product, altering the ratio of
chemical residue by weight. This difference may be great enough to exceed legal tolerances.
Drinking water maximum contaminate levels (MCLs), health advisories (HAs), and interim standards
have been established for many pesticide products. These standards indicate the level which, if
ingested over an extended period of time, will not pose a risk to human health. For some pesticides,
such as parathion, levels lower than the health risk based standard were adopted due to taste and odor
problems.
I Pesticide Residues in the Environment
Air Impairment
The major source of air pollution by pesticides is through direct ground and aerial application.
Factors which affect the amount of pesticide entering the atmosphere from a pesticide application are
pesticide type and formulation, application equipment, method of application and weather conditions.
Pesticides can enter the atmosphere through drift, volatilization and wind erosion processes.
Pesticides that have become part of the general atmospheric circulation are transported over vast
areas. Although the pesticide burden of the general circulating atmosphere does not appear to pose
any serious environmental dangers, localized drift from both aerial and ground applications of
pesticides has resulted in significant economic and environmental losses. A number of incidents occur
each year in Montana involving drift of phenoxy herbicides from ground and aerial applications.
These incidents often cause nontarget crop and plant damage.
Water Resources
Pesticides may enter water resources through direct application to control aquatic pests,
misapplication, spillage, accidents, back siphonage, drift, runoff, leaching and by improper disposal.
Water which is contaminated with pesticides may directly and indirectly affect human health, domestic
and wild animal heahh, and crops.
Soil Contamination
The effects of pesticides in soil can be short to long-term in nature. Factors which determine the
persistence of pesticides in the soil include the chemical characteristics of the pesticide; pesticide
application amount and method, soil type, structure, moisture, temperature, organic matter and
constituents; microorganisms; cultivation, land and irrigation management practices; wind and air
movement; and vegetation cover Of these factors, pesticide and soil characteristics have the greatest
effect on persistence.
Application of a pesticide with a long residual life and high sorption potential can lead to residue
accumulation in the soil environment when these pesticides are applied on a regular basis over an
124
extended period of time. Crop injury can occur when sensitive crops are rotated into fields with
residual accumulation. When soil residues build, the soil's capacity to retain them can be exceeded,
resulting in leaching of residues with mass water movement fi-om high precipitation events (rainfall
and irrigation).
I Surface Water
Montana has a total land surface area of approximately 147,046 square miles. Approximately 1,490
square miles of that is surface water. There are an estimated 53,000 miles of perennial streams and
rivers in Montana. Montana has more than 10,000 lakes and reservoirs and countless other smaller
water bodies, such as wetlands. The estimated number of livestock ponds in Montana is to be in
excess of 3 8,000.
In Montana up to ten million gallons per day (mgd) of surface water are used for irrigation, 83 mgd
for public water supply, 1 mgd for rural domestic use and 35 mgd for livestock. Montana surface
waters also provide habitat for a variety of wildlife, support aquatic life, provide hunting and fishing
and other recreational opportunities, and serve as commercial fisheries.
Pesticide contamination of surface waters can occur as a result of
• misapplication of pesticides directly onto surface water,
• drifting of pesticide onto surface waters,
• wind erosion depositing soil bound with pesticides onto surface waters, and
• overland water movement or drainage resulting from erosion, flooding, precipitation or
irrigation.
Contamination of surface water by pesticides may effect domestic stock, wildlife, fish and aquatic
organism health. The resulting quality of livestock meat, egg and milk products may be reduced or
rendered unusable and unsaleable. Contaminated irrigation water may seriously affect crops.
I Ground Water
Ground water is the drinking water source for 50% of Montana citizens and 95% of those living in
agricuhural communities. Whenever pesticides are used, the potential for ground water
contamination exists. Protecting this fragile resource is imperative Cleanup of ground water
resources is difficult and, if possible, very expensive. Some pesticides may cause human health
impacts, even at low concentrations. For these reasons, pesticide users should be aware of the
potential for a pesticide to leach and contaminate ground water.
Both pesticide characteristics and local geological and soil conditions play an important role in
whether or not pesticides leach (move or seep) to ground water resources. Deep soil environments
provide more opportunities for pesticide degradation to occur than shallow soil systems Soil
environments rich in clay and organic matter promote degradation of pesticides and their metabolites
Pesticide solubility, sorption potential, and soil half-life are probably the most important indicators
of pesticide behavior in a soil environment. Pesticides which exhibit high solubility, low sorption and
125
moderate to long persistence (half-life) are more likely to leach or move with water through the soil
profile. When considering the potential of a pesticide to leach, the user should look at all available
information. Taken separately, one pesticide individual characteristic may not accurately reflect a
pesticide's potential to leach. For example, the solubility of glyphosate is 90,000 ppm, highly soluble.
If this information alone were used to assess the leaching potential, it would result in an assumption
that glyphosate has a high potential to leach. However, the sorption potential of glyphosate is 24,000
ml/g, indicating a very strong soil sorption aflRnity. Solubility is counterbalanced by a strong sorption
potential and a moderate half-life of 47 days. In fact, glyphosate has a very low leaching potential.
Solubility, soil half-life, sorption (K^), and pesticides may be found in Table 11.1.
Setected pesticide properties which influence leaching (values are not absolute).
(Chemical and Pharmaceutical Press, 1990; Meister Publishing Co., 1992;
USDA-ARS, 1990; USDA-SCS, 1990 and Wauchope, 1990)
The MDA has been monitoring ground water for the presence of pesticides since 1984. MCPA,
bromacil, 2,4-D, aldicarb, simazine, PCP, atrazine, picloram (Tordon), dicamba (Banvel), clopyralid
(Transline and Curtail), diuron, imazapyr, prometon and imazamethabenz-methyl (Assert) are among
some of the pesticides detected in Montana ground water. Most pesticide detections in Montana
have low level concentrations,
do not exceed established Table 1 1 1
standards and do not pose a ■■■^^^^^^^^^^^^^■^^^^^^^^^^^■■■i^^^
threat to human health from
consumption. Nevertheless,
pesticide presence in ground
water should not be considered
an acceptable end result of
pesticide use.
When the verified presence of
any pesticide is detected in a
water resource as a result of
monitoring or investigative
activities, the MDA will
determine the cause and extent
of contamination. The MDA
will also determine if the
presence of a pesticide in a
water resource (surface or
ground water) is a point or non-
point source.
Pesticide
S (ppm)*
T.^ (days)
K„ (ml/g)
Leaching
Potential
Atrazine
33.0
120
100
High
Carbaryl
120.0
10
157
Low
Clopyralid
1,000.0
30
6
High
2,4-D Acid
8900
10
80
Medium
DIazinon
65.0
31
500
Medium
Dicamba
6,500.0
20
8
High
Dimethoate
25,000.0
7
8
Medium
EPTC
3750
30
280
Medium
Fluazifop
2.0
15
5,700
Low
Glyphosate
90,0000
50
24,000
Low
Malathion
145.0
1
1,800
Low
Methbuzin
1 ,220.0
30
41
High
Metsulfuron
6,000.0
105
40
High
Pendimethalin
.3
90
24,300
Low
Permethrin
.2
32
86,000
Low
Picloram
430.0
200
16
High
Triallate
4.0
82
2,400
Low
Trinuralin
.3
90
7,000
Low
* S = Water Solubility T,^ =
Soil Half-life
K^ = Soil Sorption
Point source by definition in the Montana Water Quality Act, 75-5-103, MCA, means any
discernible, confined, and discrete conveyance, including but not limited to any pipe, ditch, channel,
tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container, rolling stock, or vessel or other floating craft, from
which pollutants are or may be discharged. The Montana Pesticide Act, 80-15-102, MCA, adds that
point source means a point source as defined in 75-5-103, MCA, including but not limited to chemical
mixing, loading, and storage sites and sites of agricultural spills. Corrective actions are taken to
resolve point source contamination.
126
Non-point source by definition in the MP A, 80-15-102, MCA, means a diffuse source of agricultural
chemicals resulting from human activities over a relatively large area, the effects of which must
normally be addressed or controlled by a management or conservation practice. Appropriate
management actions are taken to prevent fijrther contamination and to minimize or mitigate the
presence of non-point source pesticides in ground water.
I Best Management Practices
Best management practices (BMP) are practices that the applicator or user can do to prevent, reduce,
and minimize contamination to the environment when applying pesticides. The following are a few
that pesticide users should keep in mind:
/ Be sure that you have a pest problem that pesticides are effective on. Leaf discoloration
resulting from nutrient problems can not be corrected by the application of pesticides.
Investigate discoloration to determine if it is actually caused by an insect, disease, or nutrient
deficiency or excess.
/ Match pesticide selection to the pest insect and the plant or crop.
/ Use pesticides only when there is a definite need for pest control and there are no feasible
alternatives.
/ Apply pesticides as specific treatments, not as general remedies, by using pesticides only
on the affected plants or crops within a field or area.
/ Time pesticide applications when they will be most effective
/ Consider pesticide characteristics and their expected behavior in the environment when
selecting a pesticide.
/ Follow all label directions on or attached to the pesticide container.
y Do not apply more than needed. A thorough application at recommended dosage rates is
more effective than an excessive amount applied in a haphazard fashion.
/ Reduce disposal needs by mixing only the amount of spray you need.
/ Properly dispose of all surplus pesticide and pesticide containers.
/ Be aware of any and all consequences that may develop as a result of an application of a
pesticide.
127
CHAPTER XII
FISH AND WILDLIFE
I Nontargct Effects of Pesticides
Wildlife, fish, beneficial insects and desirable plants commonly occupy, use or border sites where
pesticides may be applied to control a pest. Few pesticides are so specific that they affect only the
target pest. While some pesticides affect only a closely related group of plants or animals, many are
broad spectrum. An organophosphate insecticide used for grasshopper control on pasture land is
intended to kill only grasshoppers. However, beneficial insects, birds and mammals that are present
on the application site or use the site shortly after application also may be killed or adversely affected.
The insecticide may move from the application site by drift or runoff into streams or ponds causing
death to fish and aquatic insects. Impacts to nontarget organisms from the use of pesticides can often
be avoided or greatly reduced by implementing pesticide application decisions that reduce exposure
or dose. These decisions can include the choice of a less toxic pesticide, a reduced rate of
application, timing of the application, prevention of off-target movement and other risk reduction
measures.
The ability of a pesticide to harm wildlife and other nontarget organisms depends on a number of
factors:
Mode of Action: This is the particular way a pesticide acts on an organism. A herbicide that
kills plants by disrupting the process of photosynthesis will unlikely cause an adverse effect
on animals that may be exposed to a label recommended application rate that will kill plants.
Toxicity: This is the ability of a pesticide or any other chemical to cause injury. Toxicity is
often measured using an LD50 value. The lower the LD50 value the more toxic the chemical
or the greater its potential to cause harm. Toxicity of a pesticide only tells us about its
potential to cause harm. Whether a pesticide actually causes harm depends on other factors,
such as exposure and dose.
Exposure: This is the amount of pesticide that contacts a plant or animal. An animal, such
as a bird species that might be killed or injured if exposed to a highly toxic organophosphate
insecticide, will be unharmed if it is not present on the application site during or within a
certain period after the application occurs. The bird's use of the site may be seasonal or
unlikely because it is not preferred habitat. Therefore, the timing of a pesticide application
and knowledge of an animal's general biology and habitat preferences are important in
minimizing exposure to many nontarget organisms.
Use of a broadleaf herbicide to control a pest plant on a rangeland site has the potential to kill
desirable nontarget plants in the same area Use of spot application to target the pest plant
and use of techniques to reduce spray drift can permit control of the pest plant while reducing
or eliminating exposure to nontarget plants nearby.
129
Dose: This is the amount of pesticide that is actually absorbed into the tissue of an animal or
plant. The dose is dependent on the pesticide's ability to move across the skin, digestive tract
or lungs of an animal or the cuticle of a plant and the amount of exposure the animal or plant
receives.
Dose is also related to size. A beneficial predator insect in an alfalfa field may be killed by an
insecticide application to control aphids. A rabbit, occupying the alfalfa field and exposed to
the same application, may show no visible effect because the dose it received was so small in
relation to its body size that a toxic effect does not occur. The effect of a given dose is also
affected by toxicity. If the insecticide used in this same example is highly toxic, it might, in
fact, cause the death of the rabbit either by direct exposure or consumption of the insecticide
residue on the alfalfa.
> How Does Exposure to Wildlife Occur?
Primary Exposure: This is direct exposure to a pesticide It may occur by contact of a pesticide
spray to skin or when animals brush against treated plants Direct exposure may occur when a
pesticide volatilizes and is then breathed in by animals. Pesticides may also be ingested when animals
graze on treated plants or consume the pesticide directly, such as granular formulations that are
mistaken by birds for grit or seeds. Direct exposure can occur when animals drink from or bathe in
pools of water that have been contaminated by spills, drift or runoff.
Secondary Exposure: A pesticide is generally absorbed into the tissue of a plant or animal, where
the lethal effect occurs. The pesticide may remain in its original form or occur as one or more
metabolites. The pesticide remains toxic in the tissue for a period of time until degradation occurs.
The length of time for degradation to occur depends on the stability of the pesticide itself as well as
environmental factors that effect degradation. An animal eating a plant or another animal containing
a pesticide in its tissue will be exposed to the toxic effects of that pesticide. This may occur when
grasshoppers consume vegetation treated with an insecticide for the control of grasshoppers. The
grasshoppers fed to nestling birds contain some of the insecticide within their tissue Whether the
nestlings are adversely affected depends on the dose and the insecticide's toxicity.
Secondary exposure is often used to describe what is actually a primary exposure. An example of
this is illustrated when a ground squirrel is killed by consuming a rodenticide bait. In many cases the
digestive tract of a ground squirrel carcass may contain a substantial quantity of the undigested bait.
A fox that may eat the ground squirrel carcass is exposed directly to the rodenticide bait in the gut.
This is a primary exposure of the fox to the rodenticide even though it received it secondarily through
the ground squirrel carcass. Again, whether the fox is adversely affected depends on the dose and
the rodenticide's toxicity.
> How Do Pesticides Affect Wildlife?
The effects of pesticides to wildlife and other nontarget organisms can generally be classified into one
of two categories, either acute or sublethal.
130
Acute Effects: Acute effects are those that result in death or obvious injury or impairment from a
single or short term contact with a pesticide Acute effects are most commonly associated with
pesticides that are highly toxic (low LD50 values). In most peoples' minds, acute effects to nontarget
are generally associated with insecticides or rodenticides, and, in fact, most examples of nontarget
deaths to animals from pesticides can be attributed to these classes of pesticides.
Honey bees are very susceptible to being killed when insecticides are used in blooming crops for
control of insect pests or if the insecticide drifts from an application site onto areas used by bees. Use
of highly toxic insecticides, such as parathion, carbofliran or aldicarb, may cause the death of birds
and small mammals living on the application site where there is a high probability they may be directly
exposed to the insecticide. Fish are often very sensitive to low concentrations of certain pesticides
in water. Some pesticide labels may have application setbacks that may range from 30 to 100 feet
for ground application to one-quarter mile for aerial application to prevent contamination of aquatic
habitats. The aquatic herbicides acrolein and xylene used to control aquatic weeds in irrigation canals
are extremely toxic to fish and aquatic insects. Accidental releases of treated canal water into streams
have caused significant fish kills.
Chronic or Sublethal Effects: Exposure to small doses of pesticide over a period of months or
years may cause adverse effects that are not readily observable If chronic (repeated) exposure to
small doses of pesticide is causing a detrimental effect to nontarget organisms, it may be very difficult
to determine. Whether a population of animals is being harmed by chronic pesticide exposure might
be expressed by whether the population numbers remain constant or are expanding or if they are
declining. However, many factors affect the health of wildlife populations including food abundance,
weather, availability of suitable habitat and predation pressure. Whether exposure to pesticides may
be causing a decline in wildlife populations or to what degree is difficult to distinguish from other
environmental stresses that may be causing or contributing to population declines. Sublethal
exposure to pesticides may not, by themselves, cause significant effects but in combination with other
pressures they may add enough additional pressure to result in a decline of a wildlife population.
Determining if chronic exposure to pesticide causes adverse effects to wildlife, and to what extent,
requires careful scientific study. Susceptibility among species varies considerably and an effect that
might be observed in one species cannot be applied reliably to another species. Some effects of
pesticides to wildlife that have been documented for some pesticides in some species include:
Reproduction - fewer young bom, lighter birth weights, low survival rates;
Behavior - decreased ability to avoid predators, changes in breeding behavior, slower
learning, decreased parental care of young;
Physiological - cholinesterase inhibition from exposure to organophosphate insecticides,
resulting in increased levels of acetylcholine, which causes increased excitability, and
Other ejfects which may occur but are poorly documented include increased susceptibility to
diseases and other stresses, birth defects, mutations and cancer.
131
I Biological Magnification
Biological magnification is the movement and increase in concentration of a pesticide from one level
of a food chain to another. Animals at the top of a food chain, usually predators, may accumulate
concentrations of a pesticide from the foods that they consume that become high enough to cause an
adverse effect. This may occur even though the animal may have never been exposed directly to the
pesticide. Pesticide characteristics that permit biomagnification are stability and solubility in fats. The
organochlorine class of pesticides that include DDT, toxaphene, chlordane and endrin are persistent
and fat soluble and are well known for their ability to move and increase in concentration through the
food chain.
Most pesticides with the ability to bioaccumulate have been removed from use in the United States
and replaced with pesticides that degrade quickly and have low solubility in fats. Pesticides with these
characteristics are generally excreted from the body quickly. Although there may be some transfer
in the food chain, increases in concentration seldom occur. Many years after cancellation of most
organochlorine pesticides, they are still detected in the tissues of some animals, although usually at
low concentrations This illustrates the persistent nature of these compounds and their ability to
move through the food chain, even years after use has stopped.
I Habitat Alteration and Loss of Food
Changes in habitat and loss of food used by wildlife caused by the use of pesticides can be just as
detrimental to wildlife populations as direct exposure to pesticides. All wildlife depends on certain
types of food sources and certain habitat types for survival and wildlife will decline or be eliminated
if they are removed. Changing the nature of a habitat, whether by the use of pesticides or other
means, is often a deliberate choice and the consequences to wildlife can be predicted. Application
of a herbicide to sagebrush to increase grass production on rangeland will decrease or eliminate the
presence of those species that prefer a sagebrush habitat (i.e., some song birds, sage grouse and
browsers, such as pronghom antelope). Other changes in habitat that causes harm to wildlife may
be less obvious. Removal of plants that support insects that in turn are critically important as food
for nestlings or young birds will result in low brood survival if they are unable to adapt to other food
sources or if other food sources are not available. Plants along a fence line that produce seed used
by pheasants during the winter may result in low winter survival by the pheasants if the plants were
removed by a herbicide application.
These and other examples of pesticide applications that effect wildlife may have been appropriate
actions for management of pest problems but resulted in unintentional adverse impacts to wildlife
populations.
I Reducing Risk to Wildlife
Pesticides, by their very nature, because they are intended to kill, present a potential risk to nontarget
plants and animals. The first step in reducing risks to nontarget is to understand that a pesticide may
harm organisms other than the target pest. We also need to know what nontarget plants and animals
may be exposed to a pesticide application and how they are affected by it. With this knowledge,
choices and actions can be taken in how pesticides are used to reduce potential harm to nontargets.
132
Even though a pesticide is highly toxic to certain nontarget organisms, there may be decisions about
application methods, application timing, application rates, or other actions that can eliminate or
greatly reduce nontarget injury. In other words, risk can be managed by the following:
>■ Read and understand the pesticide label. Label statements may indicate that the product
is toxic to birds, or fish, or bees or will harm sensitive plants. Specific use directions and
environmental precautions for protection of wildlife are frequently found on pesticide labels.
These may include application set backs fi'om aquatic sites, prohibiting direct application to
water, or warnings against runoff. Following the label does not guarantee wildlife will not
be harmed, but following label precautions reduces the risk. It also gives the user information
about what nontargets species are most susceptible to that pesticide product.
>• Use the least toxic pesticides. For many pest problems, there may be few pesticide
alternatives. In other cases, there may be a range of pesticide products fi'om which to choose.
Those that are the least toxic, while still providing pest control, should be considered for use.
In some cases, the least toxic pest control choice may not be the most economical or may be
effective only during certain stages of the pest's life cycle. Use of least toxic pesticides may
also require close attention to crop growth and pest development.
>■ Consider the potential for movement of the pesticide off the application site. This may
occur by runoff after irrigation or precipitation. Terracing fields, leaving vegetated strips
along field edges and avoiding excess irrigation can prevent pesticide movement to ponds and
streams. Apply pesticide sprays during situations not conducive to drift off the application
site.
>• Dispose of pesticides and pesticide containers properly. Store excess pesticide mixtures
for use at a later time. Triple or power rinse containers when they are empty. Dispose of
them at a licensed landfill or offer them for recycling.
>■ When cleaning spray equipment, do not permit rinsate to pool into puddles that may be
available for pets and wildlife for drinking or bathing.
>■ Use a back flow prevention device whenever drawing water from streams or ponds to fill
spray equipment.
>■ Granular pesticides are often attractive to birds that may mistake them for food or grit.
Thorough and complete incorporation is important to remove granulars from sight. Pay
particular attention to row ends and equipment fill sites Clean up spills and consider making
extra passes on field ends to ensure complete incorporation.
>-Survey your property for roost sites, feeding areas, attractive wildlife habitat, migratory bird
stop over sites and other places wildlife is known to frequent. Consider application setbacks
around these areas or time applications when wildlife will not be present.
133
>" The presence of wildlife can be actively discouraged on a pesticide application site. Hazing
and scare techniques can be used to move animals from, or prevent their use of, a site prior,
during or after a pesticide application. Techniques that might be used include scare devices,
such as reflective Mylar strips or balloons, propane exploder scare guns, mechanical
scarecrows, randomly timed flashing lights and noise, foot or vehicle patrols and other
activities intended to temporarily frighten animals. Scare techniques work best on larger
animals, such as deer, predators such as hawks or fox, waterfowl and flocks of migratory
birds. These techniques are usually only effective for a short time before animals become
used to them and should not be expected to work all season long. Scare techniques should
not be expected to work on small mammals, song birds or upland game birds.
►Use integrated pest management (IPM) techniques. IPM is a pest management technique
that uses pest monitoring to determine if economic thresholds are exceeded before a control
action is taken and chooses from a variety of pest controls, including cultural, mechanical,
biological and pesticides, to manage pest population and crop damage. IPM techniques may
still use pesticides to control pests but it has the potential to reduce the frequency and
quantity of pesticide used.
I Endangered Species and Pesticides
The US Congress passed the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in 1973. The law protects animals and
plants that are classified as threatened with or endangered of extinction. The ESA requires that any
action taken by a federal agency may not harm a plant or animal listed under the Act. The EPA
registers the use of pesticides in the US. If it is determined by the EPA that the use of a pesticide may
harm a listed species, use of the pesticide may be prohibited in areas where the species occurs or
otherwise restricted in some way to prevent or minimize harm.
Some pesticide products have endangered species protection statements on their label. The
statements identify the species for which the restrictions apply and states what the use restrictions are.
This statement generally prohibits use within the range of the listed species. In some cases, the label
may direct the user to contact a regulatory agency, such as the US Fish and Wildlife Service, a state
fish and game agency or a state department of agriculture before use. In the fijture, possession of
supplemental labeling that provides additional information, range maps and use restrictions may be
required before use of the pesticide product is permitted.
134
As of 1997, Montana has 12 species listed under the ESA.
Threatened or En
dangered Species in Montana
Species
Status
Range
Habitat
MAMMALS
Gray Wolf
Endangered
Western MT
Intermountain valleys
Grizzly Bear
Threatened
Northwest MT,
Yellowstone
Ecosystem
Mountainous forest
areas, prairie foothills
Black-footed Ferret
Endangered
Eastern MT
Prairie dog colonies
BIRDS
Bald Eagle
Threatened
Statewide
Lakes, rivers
Peregrine Falcon
Endangered
Statewide
Cliffs, waterfowl
areas
Piping Plover
Threatened
Eastern MT
Shorelines &. islands
of ponds and rivers
Least Tern
Endangered
Eastern MT
Islands of rivers
Whooping Crane
Endangered
Statewide, rare
migrant
Open fields
FISH
Pallid Sturgeon
Endangered
Lower Missouri &
Yellowstone Rivers
Rivers
White Sturgeon
Endangered
Northwest MT,
Kootenai River
Rivers
PLANTS
Water Howellia
Threatened
Northwest MT,
Lower Swan River
Riparian
Ute Ladies' Tresses
Threatened
West Central MT,
Madison Co
Wetland
135
CHAPTER XIII
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) can be defined as:
"TTie intelligent selection and use of pest control actions that will ensure favorable
economic, ecological and societal consequences. "
R. L. Rabb. 1972
"^ sustainable approach to managing pests by combining biological, cultural,
physical and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health and
environmental risks. "
National Coalition for Integrated Pest Management, 1 994
"A thinking farmer's philosophy for pest matjagement. A thoughtful, comprehensive
approach to the challenge of farming, it calls on many different disciplines, seeking
links and relationships among them rather than seeking to establish a .separate
science. It is an environmentally based pest control strategy offered as part of an
overall crop production system. IPM provides a diverse array of practices that can
be used together to fight crop pests in an economically and environmentally efficient
manner. "
Kenneth Farrell, V.P., Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California
A practical IPM definition for our purposes is a mixture of practices and technologies, specific to a
given crop, to manage pests below a level where they are causing an economic loss to the grower.
IPM is a process that continues to advance and change the way the growers manage pests to benefit
the environment and their economic well being.
IPM is not new, it has been around since the beginning of farming. The present concept of IPM dates
back to the beginning of this century. Farmers, agricultural researchers and farm suppliers began to
work together to control agricultural pests. The earliest efforts focused mainly on cultural practices,
crop rotations and plant breeding for pest resistance IPM may be confused with organic farming.
Organic farming is based on the idea that the crop is produced with no synthetic inputs for pest
control or plant nutrition.
IPM can be a useful tool in managing insects, weeds, rodents, diseases and other pests if the program
is well thought out and planned. IPM can provide growers with a more economically sound and
environmentally friendly agroecosystem. The USDA has a goal of having IPM strategies
implemented on 75% of all agricultural lands in the US by the year 2000. Sources for more
information on IPM include Montana State University, local extension offices, and the Montana
Department of Agriculture (MDA).
137
» Principles of IPM
The principles of IPM are important to understand before choosing the best tool or combination of
tools to manage a pest problem. The systems approach to managing crops and pests considers their
relationship with other plants, pests and their environment. Pests, their populations and population
distributions within an ecosystem, are influenced by natural enemies, weather, agroecosystem, and/or
other ecosystems, natural mortality, natality (reproductive rate) and food supplies.
Before devising a management strategy, an understanding of the life cycle and the type of damage the
pest is causing is important. Is the pest causing damage that needs to be controlled? The highest
density of the pest that can be tolerated without any significant crop loss is known as the economic
injury level (EIL). Some crops may be able to tolerate some damage or indirect damage without
damaging the marketable part of the crop. An indirect pest, such as a leaf miner, might cause damage
to the leaves of an apple tree but not direct damage to the fruit itself The codling moth, a direct pest,
causes damage directly to the fruit, causing loss of income to the grower.
The treatment threshold (TT), sometimes referred to as the economic threshold, or action
threshold, is the density at which control measures need to be taken to prevent the pest population
from exceeding the EIL. The TT is lower than the EIL, allowing time for control measures to take
effect. Not all pests have established treatment thresholds. Weeds and plant diseases often need to
be controlled when they are in the early stages of development to prevent rapid buildup
Monitoring pest densities is the most fundamental, yet often the most neglected, part of IPM. Both
the need for control and the effectiveness of the action taken are determined by monitoring pest and
natural enemy populations. The decision to implement control is related to pest density, potential
damage, and the impact of
the natural enemies Economic Injury Level and Treatment Threshold
Sampling provides
information on the pest life
stage, population density
and the ratio of pests to
natural enemies. All of
these are very important
for making sound decisions
on how to manage the
pest. Management in the
absence of sampling can
lead to overuse or
improper use of pesticides.
There are several types of
sampling techniques that
are used. Selection of a
Wk
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d^
:■:£•
P
n
IK
:■:%!$
EIL
TT /
\ /
V-
11
......
£?
r~\ 1
a/
M
1 \ I
( u
C
/ \ /
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/ V /
\
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\
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a
/
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y
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'
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Figure 1. Economic Injury Level (EIL) and Treatment Threshold (TT)
138
sampling technique depends on the type of pest and monitoring objective. As an example, pheromone
traps are a quick and easy way to monitor many insect pest species (cutworms, codling moth, fruit
flies). Pheromones are a chemical, usually a glandular secretion, used in communication within a
certain species of insect. By using pheromone traps, growers can learn when adult flights begin, track
seasonal development and determine when populations reach the treatment thresholds. Growers can
then use the information to devise a control strategy or time their pesticide application when it will
be most effective.
Examples of monitoring options include:
INSECTS WEEDS/DISEASES
•• visual counts ► visual counts
►■ leaf brushing ► transects
► beating trays ► tissue samples
► sweep net
► traps
=► pheromone
=» sticky
=* light
=»bait
» Tools of IPM
^^Biological. The use of natural enemies, predators, parasites and/or pathogens, which are
protected, enhanced or released into the environment where the pests occur. In Montana, there are
several good examples of how biological control is being used to reduce pest populations. Leafy
spurge is being reduced in many areas of the state through the release of several species of flea beetles
which attack the root system of this noxious weed. The flea beetles include: Aphthona nigriscntis,
Aphthoiia cyparissiae, and Aphthona Jlai'a Biological control is a long term management technique.
It will take several years for a good population of natural enemies to build up and for a noticeable
reduction in the pest population to occur Time may be a draw-back, but biological control can be
a permanent solution to some pest problems.
Another example of biological control in Montana is the use of larval parasites to control the cereal
leaf beetle. These parasites are reared in insectaries and infected larvae are placed in grain fields where
cereal leaf beetles are found. As adult parasites emerge from the hosts (infected larvae) they seek out
new larvae to parasitize. Two of the larval parasites being used in Montana are Diaparsis temporalis
and Tetrastichiisjidis.
'^Cultural Practices. The use of crop rotation, cultivation, and irrigation can be used alone or in
different combinations to manage pests. Cultural practices are good management practices most
growers already implement, but knowing the type of pest and its life cycle, growers may be able to
time these practices to optimize the impact to the pest. Early planting to avoid certain insect pests is
one example of a strategy. Another might be the use of crop rotation to upset the pest's life cycle by
denying a food source or place to complete it's life cycle Cultivation can remove food sources and
disrupt the life cycles of many weeds, diseases, and insects.
139
^^ Pesticides. This is the use of specific chemicals (insecticides, herbicides, insect growth regulators
(IGR's), and fungicides) to reduce pest populations below an economic level. Chemicals are an
important part of any IPM program. If the life cycle, feeding habits and population are known, it is
possible to target just the pest at it's most vulnerable stage to reduce its population. Pesticide
treatments can be targeted toward the area of the plant where the insect is feeding. This not only
helps to reduce the pest population, but it also helps to maintain natural enemy populations.
^^Genetic: This includes the use of sterile release (the release of sterile males into the pest
population), resistant crop varieties and/or transgenic plants. Plant breeders have developed insect
and disease resistant crops, such as wheat varieties resistant to the Hessian fly or stem rust resistant
wheat varieties.
1
140
GLOSSARY
ABSORB
ADSORB
ACRE
ACTIVE INGREDIENT
ACUTE POISONING
ACUTE TOXICITY
AEROSOL
AGITATE
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL
ANTIDOTE
BAIT
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
BROAD SPECTRUM
PESTICIDES
To move pesticides into a plant, animal or soil particles.
To attach to the surface, such as soil particles.
43,560 square feet. An area of land about 209 feet long
by 209 feet wide.
The part of the pesticide which will kill pests or prevent
damage by them. Usually it is the same as the
"technical" material in the formulated product.
Severe poisoning which occurs after one exposure to a
pesticide.
How poisonous a pesticide is to an animal after a single
dose or exposure.
Pesticide chemical stored in a container under pressure.
The pesticide is driven through a fine opening by an
inactive gas under pressure when the nozzle is triggered.
To keep a pesticide chemical mixed up; to keep it from
settling or separating in the spray tank.
A pesticide or commercial fertilizer.
A treatment given by a doctor to reduce the effects of
pesticide poisoning.
A food or other material which will attract a pest to a
pesticide or to a trap where it will be destroyed.
Use of living organisms to control pests (Parasites,
predators, diseases).
General purpose; kills a wide range of the pest species
targeted
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CANCELED
CARBAMATE PESTICIDE
CARRIER
A pesticide use that is no longer registered by the
Environmental Protection Agency. Remaining stocks
can be used by order of the Administrator, EPA.
A family of pesticides which are chemically similar.
They all attack a pest in the same way. Common ones
are carbaryl (Sevin), carbofuran (Furadan) and
methomyl (Lannate).
The liquid or solid that is used to dilute the active
ingredient in manufacturing a pesticide formulation.
Example: talc, petroleum solvents
I
CARTRIDGE
The cylinder-shaped part of the respirator which absorbs
the fumes and vapors from the air before you breathe it.
CAUTION A signal word used on labels of pesticides to alert users
that the pesticide is slightly toxic.
CHEMICAL NAME
Scientific name telling the contents or formula of the
active ingredients of the pesticide.
CHLORINATED
HYDROCARBONS
A family of pesticides which are chemically similar -
they all contain chlorine. They are generally very
persistent as compared to carbamates or
organophosphates. Examples include chlordane,
lindane, methoxychlor.
CHRONIC POISONING
Poisoning which occurs as a result of small, repeated
doses of pesticide over a long period of time.
CHRONIC TOXICITY
COMMON NAME
DEFOLIANT
How poisonous a pesticide is to an animal (or humans)
after small, repeated doses over a period of time.
A well-known, simple name of a pesticide accepted by
the Pesticide Regulation Division of the Environmental
Protection Agency. Examples: carbaryl, atrazine,
benomyl.
A type of pesticide which causes the leaves of a plant
to drop off.
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DERMAL TOXICITY
DESICCANT
DILUENT
DISINFECTANT
DRIFT
t
How poisonous a pesticide is to an animal when
absorbed through the skin.
A type of pesticide which draws moistures (Hquids)
from a plant or plant part causing it to wither and die.
Generally, a liquid, commonly water, used to dilute a
formulated pesticide to make a spray mixture for
application.
A pesticide or other chemical that kills or inactivates a
disease-producing microorganisms such as bacteria.
The movement by wind and air currents of droplets or
particles of a pesticide from the target area to an area
not intended to be treated.
DUST
EMULSIFIABLE
CONCENTRATE
EMULSIFIER
A finely ground, dry mixture containing a small amount
of pesticide and an inert carrier, such as talc or clay.
Dust particles are of many different sizes.
A pesticide formulation with the active ingredient
dissolved in an oil-based liquid with an emulsifier added,
so the pesticide can be mixed with water for application.
A chemical which helps one liquid form tiny droplets
and thus remain mixed in another liquid. It is used to
form a stable mixture between two liquids which usually
would not mix. Example: oil in water.
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY-EPA
EPA REGISTRATION NUMBER
FLOWABLE
The federal agency responsible for pesticide laws and
regulations.
A number assigned by EPA to a product when it is
registered that must appear on all labels for that
product. It will appear as "EPA Reg. No." or "EPA
Registration No." Followed by the company number
and product number. Sometimes a state alphabetical
designation and distributors number will appear.
Very finely ground solid materials of pesticide which are
mixed in a liquid carrier.
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FORMULATION
A mixture of one or more pesticides plus other materials
such as carriers, diluents, etc. needed to make the
pesticide safer to handle and easy to store, dilute and
apply. The formulation is the form the pesticide is
bought in and does not include tank mixes, adjuvants,
etc.
FUNGICIDE Pesticide used to control fungi.
GAS MASK Type of respirator which covers the entire face;
protects the eyes as well as the nose and mouth; and
cleanses the air better than cartridge respirators.
GRANULES A pesticide formulation of dry, ready to use, low
concentrate pesticide plus an inert carrier. The particles
are all about the same size and are larger than those
making up a dust.
HAZARD The risk of danger; the chance that danger or harm will
come to the applicator, bystanders, consumers,
livestock, wildlife or crops, etc.
HERBICIDE
Pesticide that is used to control unwanted plants.
INERT INGREDIENTS
Inactive part of a pesticide/formulation; any material in
a pesticide mixture which would not prevent damage or
destroy pests if used by itself
INGREDIENT STATEMENT
The part of the label on a pesticide container which
gives the name and amount of each pesticide chemical
and the amount of inactive material in the mixture.
INHALATION TOXICITY
How poisonous a pesticide is to man or an animal when
breathed in through the lungs.
INSECTICIDE
A pesticide that is used to control or prevent damage
caused by insects.
INVERT EMULSIFIER
An agent or additive which allows water to remain
suspended in oil rather than settling out.
KILOGRAM (kg)
A unit of weight in the metric system equal to 2.2
pounds.
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LC
$0
LD
50
LITER
MILLIGRAM (mg)
The concentration of a pesticide in air which would kill
half of the test animals exposed to it. The lower the
LCjo value, the more poisonous the pesticide It is often
used as the measure of acute inhalation toxicity.
The dose or amount of a pesticide which would kill half
of a large number of test animals if eaten or absorbed
through the skin. The lower the LD50 value, the more
poisonous the pesticide. LD50 values are the commonly
used measure of acute oral and acute dermal toxicity.
A unit of volume in the metric system (1.05 L = 1 qt).
a unit of weight in the metric system, about 28,500 mg
equals one ounce.
MITICIDE
Acaracide, a pesticide used to control mites and ticks.
MONTANA PESTICIDE ACT
(80-8-101-405)
MONTANA WATER QUALITY
ACT (75-5-601 et.seq.,mca)
A Montana state law that governs the use of pesticide in
Montana and is administered by the Montana
Department of Agriculture.
Policy to conserve water by protecting, maintaining, and
improving the quality and potability of water for public
water supplies, wildlife, fish and aquatic life, agriculture,
industry, recreation, and other beneficial uses; and to
provide a comprehensive program for the prevention,
abatement, and control of water pollution.
NEMATOCIDE
NEMATODE
A pesticide used to control nematodes.
A microscopic worm that causes damage by feeding on
roots or other plant parts.
NONPOINT SOURCE
NON-SELECTIVE
PESTICIDE
NONTARGET
A diffuse source of pollutants resulting from the
activities of humans over a relatively large area
A pesticide chemical that will control a wide range of
pests (broad spectrum).
Any plant, animal or other organism that a pesticide
application is not aimed at, but may accidentally be
injured by the chemical.
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NON-VOLATILE
A pesticide chemical that does not evaporate (turn into
a gas or vapor) at normal temperatures.
ORAL
Through the mouth.
ORGANOPHOSPHATE
PESTICIDES
ORIGINAL CONTAINER
ORNAMENTALS
PARASITE
A family of pesticides which are chemically similar -
they all contain phosphorous. They are generally less
persistent than the chlorinated hydrocarbon family. They
act by inhibiting a blood chemical called cholinesterase.
Examples include malathion, diazinon, parathion.
The package (bag, can, bottle, etc.) which a pesticide is
sold. The package must have a label telling what the
pesticide is, and how to use it correctly and safely.
Plants used to add beauty to homes, lawns, gardens and
parks. They include trees, shrubs and small colorflil
plants.
A plant or animal that harms another living plant or
animal (called the host) by living or feeding on or in it.
Sometimes parasites are helpful to humans by attacking
and controlling pests which could injure crops or
animals. These parasites are forms of biological control.
PEST An unwanted organism (animal, plant, bacteria, fungus,
virus, etc.)
PESTICIDE Insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides or any
substance or mixture of substances intended for
preventing, destroying, controlling, repelling, altering
life processes; or mitigating any insects, rodents,
nematodes, fungi, weeds and other forms of plant or
animal life.
PHYTOTOXICITY
PLANT GROWTH
REGULATOR
POINT OF DRIP OR RUNOFF
Injury to plant life caused by a chemical or other agent.
A chemical which increases, decreases or changes the
normal growth or reproduction of a plant.
When a spray is applied until it starts to run or drip off
the ends of the leaves and down the stems of plants or
off the hair or feathers of animals.
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POINT SOURCE
POST-EMERGENCE
Means a source of pollutants from a single or confined
location, including but not limited to chemical mixing,
loading, and storage sites and sites of agricultural
chemical spills.
After young plants push up through the soil
PRE-EMERGENCE
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT
The time period between planting seeds and the
seedlings pushing up through the soil.
Clothes and equipment that prevent or reduce exposure
to pesticides during mixing, loading, or application.
They would include gloves, apron, shoes, coveralls, hat,
cartridge respirator and gas mask.
RESTRICTED-ENTRY
INTERVAL (REI)
Period of time between the end of a pesticide
application and when workers can safely go back into an
area without protective clothing.
REGISTRATION
The process of approval by the Environmental
Protection Agency of a pesticide for uses as stated on
its label.
REPELLENT
A pesticide that keeps or drives insects or other pests
away from the plant, animal or surface treated.
RESIDUE The amount of pesticide that remains on or in a crop,
animal, or surface for a period of time after it has been
treated. Not the same as deposit.
RESPIRATOR
A face mask which filters out poisonous gases and
particles from the air.
RODENTICIDE
SELECTIVE PESTICIDE
A pesticide used to control rodents, such as rats, mice,
ground squirrels and pocket gophers.
A pesticide which will control only a few pest species
and is not as poisonous to other plants and animals.
SIGNAL WORD
Word which must appear on pesticide labels to show
how toxic the pesticide is The signal words used are
"Danger-Poison" or "Warning" or "Caution".
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SOIL INJECTION
SOLUBLE POWDER
SOLUTION
SPACE SPRAY
Placing a pesticide below the soil surface with little or
no soil mixing. Example: forcing a pesticide into the
ground through a tube.
A finely ground, solid pesticide that will dissolve in
water or another liquid.
A mixture made by dissolving a solid, liquid or gas in a
liquid. The mixture will not separate or settle out in
normal use. Example: sugar dissolved in water.
A pesticide which is applied in the form of tiny droplets
which fill the air and destroy insects and other pests,
either inside or out-of-doors.
SPREADER-STICKER
STANDARD
STATE WATERS
A chemical added to a pesticide mixture to make the
droplets of the spray spread out and stick better to the
animal, plant or other treated surface.
The numerical value expressing the concentration of an
agricultural chemical in ground water that when
exceeded, presents a potential human health risk.
A body of water, irrigation system, or drainage system,
either surface or underground. This does not apply to
ponds or lagoons used solely for treating,
transportation, or impounding pollutants; or irrigation
waters or land application disposal waters when the
waters are used up within the irrigation or land
application disposal system and the waters are not
returned to state waters.
SURFACTANT
SUSPENDED
SUSPENSION
A chemical or agent used in a pesticide formulation to
make mixing easier and help the material to spread over
and completely wet the surface to be sprayed.
Examples: detergent, emulsifier, wetting agent.
A pesticide use that is no longer legal and remaining
stocks cannot be used. More severe than canceled.
A mixture in which fine particles of a pesticide chemical
are usually floating in a liquid.
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SYSTEMIC
TOLERANCE
TOXIC
A pesticide that is taken up by one part of a plant or
animal and moved to another section where it acts
against a pest.
The amount of a pesticide residue that can legally
remain on any food (plant or animal) that is to be eaten
by livestock or humans. The tolerance is set by the
Environmental Protection Agency.
Poisonous, deadly, injurious to plants, animals or
humans.
TOXICANT A poison. The chemical in a pesticide formulation that
can injure or kill the pest.
TOXICITY How poisonous a pesticide is to a living organism.
ULTRA-LOW VOLUME (ULV)
WETTABLE POWDER
WETTING AGENT
The application of a highly concentrated pesticide in
extremely small amounts over a large area-usually only
a few ounces per acre.
A pesticide formulation in the form of powder that is
mixed with water to be applied. It does not dissolve in
the water but forms a suspension.
An additive which helps the pesticide spread out and
coat a surface more evenly.
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ABBREVIATIONS & MEANINGS
BMP
CFR
CIS
DEQ
EIL
ESA
FIFRA
GMP
IPM
LPC
MACGWPA
MDA
MESA
MPA
MSDS
MWQA
NIOSH
0PM
OSHA
PCO
PPE
REI
TT
ULV
VMD
VPI
WPS
Best Management Practices
Code of Federal Regulations
Consumer Information Sheets
Department of Environmental Quality
Economic Injury Level
Endangered Species Act
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act
Ground Water Management Plan
Integrated Pest Management
Livestock Protection Collar
MT Agricultural Chemical Ground Water Protection Act
Montana Department of Agriculture
Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration
Montana Pesticides Act
Material Safety Data Sheets
Montana Water Quality Act
National Institute for Occupation Safety Health
Ounces Per Minute
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Pest Control Operator
Personal Protective Equipment
Restricted Entry Intervals
Treatment Threshold
Ultra Low Volume
Volume Mean Diameter
Vapor Pressure Indexes
Worker Protection Standard
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