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THE

COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
OF THE SEA;

OR,

MARINE CONTRIBUTIONS TO FOOD,
INDUSTRY, AND ART.

By p. L. SIMMONDS,

EDITOR OP "the journal OK APPLIED SCIENCE," AUTHOR OF "ANIMAL PRODUCTS AND

THEIR USES," "a DICTIONARY OF TRADE PRODUCTS," "TROPICAL AGRICULTURE,"

AND OTHER WORKS.

A

WITH THIRTY-TWO ILLUSTRATIONS.

NEW YORK:

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.

549 & 551 BROADWAY.

1879.

PREFACE.

Having published a series of papers in the Art Journal,
under the title of " Marine Contributions to Art," and some
other articles on various products obtained from the Sea
in my serial publications, TJie Technologist and The
Jonvjial of Applied Science, it occurred to me that they
might be conveniently collected into a volume, which
would form a companion to books I had previously
published on " The Commercial Products of the Vegetable
Kingdom," and on "Animal Products: their Preparation
and Uses." Hence the appearance of the present work,
which, I believe, will supply a want, by furnishing accurate
details respecting articles and products of considerable
importance in a commercial point of view.

Although some works have been published from time
to time on special fisheries, none have treated the subject
as a whole, or gone over the field of research in a systematic
manner, so as to show the importance of the Commercial
Products of the Sea to various countries. I have endea-

iv Preface.

voured to bring down the official statistics in the several
chapters to the latest date, and therefore I trust the work
may be found a useful and readable handbook for all
those interested in marine productions.

While I do not claim any merit for originality in this
book, I may state that I have taken every pains to consult
all published documents treating on the subject that have
come under my notice, especially those issued in the United
States and on the Continent, and also the official publica-
tions printed by different Governments.

As the book professes to deal only v/ith the Products of
the Sea, I have necessarily had to exclude much interesting
matter relating to the River and Lake Fisheries of various
countries.

P. L. SIMMONDS.

29, Cheapside, London,
October, 1878.

CONTENTS.

General Introduction

PART I.

FOOD PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM THE SEA.

CHAPTER

I.

The Cod Fishery in Various

Countries ...

25

II.

The Herring Fishery

41

III.

The Pilchard Fishery

...

61

IV.

The Mackerel Fishery

...

66

V.

The Salmon Fishery ...

...

73

VI.

The Sardine Fishery

77

VII.

The Tunny Fishery ...

...

83

VIII.

Crustacea

...

90

IX.

The Trepang Fishery

...

105

X.

Cephalopods, etc., as Food

...

116

XL

Miscellaneous Fisheries

...

127

XII.

Oysters and other Edible Mollusca

131

PART 11.

MARINE CONTRIBUTIONS TO INDUSTRY.

I. Introductory Remarks ... ... ...

II. Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries ... ...

III. The Sponge Fishery of the Bahamas ...

IV. Sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean ... ...

15'
155
174
1S3

vi Contents.

CHAPTER PAGE

V. Oils from Marine Mammals ... ... ... ... 198

VI. Fish Oils and the Fisheries connected therewith ... ... 212

VII. The Shark Fishery for the Oil obtained ... ... 226

VIII. The Isinglass of Commerce ... ... ... ... 23S

IX. Other Fish Products and their Uses ... ... ... 257

X. Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells ... ... 267

XI. Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells — Continued ... 2S8

XII. Seaweed and its Uses ... ... ... ... ... 311

XIII. Marine Salt ... ... ... ... ... 339

PART III.

MARINE CONTRIBUTIONS TO ART.

I. Tortoiseshell and the Turtle Fisheries ... ... ... 351

II, Mother-of-Pearl and its Uses ... ... ... ... 370

III. Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries ... ... ... ... 402

IV. Coral and the Coral Fisheries ... ... ... ... 436

V. Amber and the Amber Fisheries ... ... ... ... 463

Index ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 479

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE

Coal-Fish ... ... ... ... ... ... 4°

1. Holothuridse species ... ... ... ... ... 107

2. Palolo viridis ... ... ... ... ... ... 122

3. Oysters ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 132

4. Sponge showing the Outgoing Water-currents ... ... 156

5. Outer Surface of different kinds of Sponge ... ... ... 166

6. Cup-shaped Sponges in natural position, rooted to rock ... 169

7. Varieties of Sponges ... ... ... ... ... iSi

8. Syrian Sponge Fishers ... ... ... ... ... 187

9. SiHcious Sponges. I. Euplectella aspergillum. 2. Holtenia car-

penteria ... ... ... ... ... ... 194

10. Euplectella speciosa ... ... ... ... ... 196

11. Phoca Groenlandica ... ... ... ... ... 200

12. Phoca Oceanica ... ... ... ... ... 203

13. Wahus ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 204

14. Greenland or Right Whale, and Spermaceti Wliale ... ... 206

15. Black Porpoise (Phocaena vulgaris) ... ... ... ... 208

16. Grampus (Phocasna orca) ... ... ... ... 208

17. Halicore Australis, and Manatus Amcricanus ... ... ... 210

18. The Sturgeon ... ... ... ... ... ... 240

19. Chank Shell (Turbinella pyrum) ... ... ... ... 288

20. Saw used by Natives for cutting Segments of the Shell ... 290

21. Segment of Shell, and Bangle, or Ornamented Bracelet of United

Segments ... ... ... ... ... ... 291

22. I. Money Cowry. 2. Ovulum angulosum. 3. Dentalium Shell

(Money of West Coast Indians). 4. Fillet of Nautilus Shells

(from Samoa) ... ... ... ... ... ... 296

viii List of Illustrations.

23. Pinna nobilis, and Pinna rugosa ... ... ... ... 307

24. Varieties of Seaweed ... ... ... ... ... 316

25. Ulva latissima (Green Sloke), and Chondrus crispus (Carrageen

Moss)... ... ... .. ... ... ... 319

26. Hawksbill Turtle ... ... ... ... ... 352

27. Green or Edible Turtle ... ... ... ... ... 364

28. Diving for Pearl Shells at Panama ... ... ... 384

29. Mother-of-Pearl Shell, and Anodonta herculre ... ... ... 411

30. Corallium nobilis, or red Coral, with a piece magnified, showing

the Polypes ... ... ... ... ... ... 437

31. Varieties of Coral ... ... ... ... ... 44°

THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
OF THE SEA.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

Importance of marine products — Uses of the animals — Number of species
of fishes — French bounty on fisheries — Statistics of British fisheries — Fish
as an article of food — Definition of " prime " and " offal " in the London
market — Quantity of fish brought to London — Value of fish and other
marine products imported — Value of exports — Statistics of British, French,
and North American fisheries — French fisheries, and consumption of fish
in Paris — Value of the trade in fish in foreign countries.

The commercial products obtained from the sea are
more numerous and important than would be generally
supposed by those who have not looked closely into the
subject. The huge marine mammals furnish us with valu-
able oil, skins, whalebone, spermaceti, ambergris, etc., as
well as food to some tribes. The utility of fishes, properly
so called, to man is not very various. For the most part,
they serve only as food ; but in this respect they are of the
utmost importance to a great part of the human race, who
live only on this class of animals. Some savage nations
possess the art of preparing fish in a great variety of ways,
even as a kind of flour and bread. Fish are also salted and

2 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

dried, smoked and potted, preserved in oil, and pounded
into a dry mass.

In Catholic countries the consumption of fish during
their fasts and festivals is very large ; all other food being
then prohibited by their priests.

To a great part of the civilized world the taking of the
herring, the pilchard, the mackerel, the cod, the tunny, the
salmon, the sardine, and other fishes is of great value, and
gives employment to many hundreds of persons. The oil
obtained from the shark, cod, herring, and other fish is
used for lamps, medicine, and in industry. Many parts
of fish are employed in the arts and manufactures — as
the scales of the bleak for making false pearls, and those
of other fish for making ornaments ; the skins for tanning
and other purposes. Isinglass is obtained from the air or
swimming bladders of many. Fish roes are not only used
as food delicacies, but also for bait in the fishing grounds.
Fish maws, shark's fins, and beche-de-mer or trepang (a
species of HolotJnirid) are considered great food delicacies
by the Chinese, forming the chief ingredients for their
gelatinous soups.

The sea is more abundantly stocked with living crea-
tures than the land. In all parts of the world a rocky
and partially protected shore perhaps supports, in a given
space, a greater number of individual animals than any
other station. The sea is filled with animals of several
kinds, and each layer of water in depth seems to have its
own varieties, thus resembling the changes which take
place according to elevation in the organized portions of
the land.

The animals are among the mightiest and among the
smallest. There are swimming beasts, as whales, seals,
and walruses ; there are fishes of various kinds and sizes,

Gene7^al Introduction. 3

crustaceans, soft or jelly fishes, the molluscs, down to those
creatures resembling live plants — the zoophytes or coral-
lines, which partake of the qualities of plant, animal, and
mammal. All these are peculiar to the sea or the fresh
waters ; and the ocean has its marine plants — seaweeds
which remain growing on the ground shoals, or rise to the
surface and then float. These, too, have many useful or
economic applications. -

It is not our purpose to speak of the inhabitants of the
ocean generally, but only to restrict the investigation
to those which are of some use to man.

Pliny enumerated but 94 species of fish ; Linnaeus in-
creased the number to 478 ; but recent naturalists have
described over 13,000 species, one-tenth of which confine
themselves to the fresh waters.

The human race derives almost incalculable benefits
from them, as is evidenced by the extent and value of the
river, coast, and sea fisheries of the world.

The sea, as Commander Maury well observes, has its
offices and duties to perform. So may its inhabitants ; con-
sequently he who undertakes to study its phenomena must
cease to regard it as a waste of waters. He must look
upon it as a part of the exquisite machinery by which the
harmonies of nature are preserved, and then he will begin
to perceive the developments of order and the evidence of
design, which make it a most beautiful and interesting
subject for contemplation.

The harvest of the sea has not yet been attended to
and garnered to the same extent as the land. Some
nations, as the Chinese, have, it is true, long given close
attention to the profitable utilization of its commercial
products, and several European nations and the Americans
have also prosecuted certain fisheries ; but systematic

4 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

and scientific management has only of late years been
specially directed to the various branches which have been
termed pisciculture, aquiculture, and ostreiculture, and the
transfer of the fishes of one locality to those of another
district.

In respect of fish, no natural cause prevents their co-
existence in the greatest abundance with man in his
highest state of civilization and refinement, in the midst
of the greatest agricultural or manufacturing opulence.

Easily scared in the first instance by unusual sights —
for it has been proved, by a series of curious and interesting
experiments on the trout, that most kinds of fish are
insensible to sounds — the natives of the water are speedily
reconciled to appearances, which become habitual when
found to be connected with no danger.

By all civilized and commercial nations — especially
the Dutch, the English, the Americans, and the French —
the products of the sea have been accounted fully as
important as those of the land ; because they not only
afford cheap, nutritious, and abundant food for the
people, but contribute largely, moreover, to the national re-
sources, and to the maintenance of a maritime ascendancy.
The Americans and French offer bounties to their fisher-
men, which of course tells against the fisheries in British
America.

France pays about 540,000 francs a year, averaging
about £2 to each man engaged in the fishery. This is an
expensive process, but it is alleged that it would cost twice
as much to train an equal number of men for the navy in
any other way. In 1861 a French commission, appointed
to inquire into the deep-sea fisheries, said in their report,
" It is on fisheries that at this day repose all the most
serious hopes of our maritime enlistments," and it was

General Introduction. 5

added that " no other school can compare with this in
preparing them so well, and in numbers so important,
for the service of the navy." These bounties are also
defended on the ground that the French pursue the cod
fishery at a great disadvantage of distance, and from
having no possessions in the neighbourhood except two
rocky islets.

The fishery question is of urgent consequence to the
people generally. Our population is increasing rapidly ;
cities and towns are gradually covering fields which used
to be available for agriculture ; and although steam-farming
is increasing the efficiency of husbandry labour, it cannot
possibly augment the supply of home-grown food so
rapidly as the bread-eaters increase in number. Fish is
among the articles of diet which are too little familiarized
among us, and any information ought to be welcomed
which increases our knowledge of fishing grounds within
reach of England.

That the supply of fish is most abundant, and indeed
inexhaustible, on all our coasts, has never been called
in question. " The coasts of Great Britain," says Sir
John Boroughs, " doe yield such a continued sea-harvest
of gain and benefit to all those that with diligence doe
labour in the same, that no time or season in the yeare
passeth away without some apparent meanes of profitable
employment, especially to such as apply themselves to
fishing ; which from the beginning of the yeare unto the
latter end, continueth upon some part or other of our
coastes, and these in such infinite shoales and multitudes
of fishes are offered to the takers, as may justly move
admiration, not only to strangers, but to those that daily
bee employed amongst them." That this harvest, ripe for
gathering at all seasons of the year, without the labour of

6 The Commercial Prodttcts of the Sea.

tillage, without expense of seed or manure, without the
payment of rent or taxes, is inexhaustible, the extraordi-
nary fecundity of the most valuable species of fish would
alone afford abundant proof

In spite, however, of this large supply of whole-
some, palatable, and nutritious food, yielded by the sur-
rounding seas of Great Britain, every acre of which is
infinitely more productive than the same quantity of the
richest land ; notwithstanding that these salt-water fields
are perpetually " white to the harvest," it is a remarkable
fact that, in the inland and middle counties of England, the
labouring classes scarcely know the taste of fish, which ot
late years has become a scarce article, even in some of the
maritime counties. Formerly salmon, whilst in season, was
the common food of all ranks in the northern counties
bordering on the sea, and in most parts of Wales, and what
could not be used fresh was salted for winter consumption ;
there was scarcely a family in the neighbourhood of a sea-
port or salmon fishery that did not lay up a supply cf
pickled salmon for the winter.

The produce of the sea around our coasts bears a far
higher proportion to that of the land than is generally
imagined. The most frequented fishing grounds are much
more prolific of food than the same extent of the richest
land. Once in the year an acre of good land carefully
tilled produces a ton of corn, or two or three cwts. of meat
or cheese. The same area at the bottom of the sea on
the best fishing grounds yields a greater weight of food to
the persevering fisherman every week in the year. Five
vessels belonging to the same owner, in a single night's
fishing, have brought in 17 tons weight of fish, an amount
of wholesome food equal in weight to that of 50 cattle,
or 300 sheep. The ground which these vessels covered

GeneraC Introduction. 7

during the night's fishing could not have exceeded an area
of 50 acres.

Large as is the present supply of fish, and considerable
the refuse of our fisheries as manure, much greater things
are yet to be accomplished in this way, in both our supply
of food, and of fertilizers for our land. The increasing
scarcity and high price of butcher's meat leaves no doubt
that a great field is open for the application of increased
capital and skill to our sea-fisheries. Though the supply
of fish to Billingsgate is constantly increasing, it fails to
keep pace with the demand. The well-known fishing
grounds of the North Sea are yet only partially fished.
The Dogger Bank, which has an area of several hundred
square miles, and is most prolific of fish, is to a great
extent unworked by the trawlers, and new grounds are still
being discovered where fish are found in great abundance.
Between England and the continent the average depth of
the German Ocean is 90 feet. One-fifth of it is occupied
by banks, which are always being added to by the muddy
deposits of the rivers of both countries. In extent they
are equal to the superficial area of Ireland. To these
banks the animals of the ocean chiefly resort, and this
great and prolific field is free to the industry of all.

It was stated by a recent writer in Blackwood s Maga-
zine that no department of British industry has received
such a remarkable impulse from railways as the sea-
fisheries of the United Kingdom. They have, in fact,
completely revolutionized it. Before the Eastern Counties
Railway was constructed, the transport of fish from Yar-
mouth to London was effected by light vans drawn by
post-horses, and the quantity amounted to about 2000 tons
a year. Nearly double that quantity is now conveyed to
London and the ffreat manufacturing towns in the course

8 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

of a fortnight. During the year 1853, the anmis mirabilis
of the Yarmouth fishery, 12,000 tons of fresh herrings
alone were despatched from that place to London and the
provinces. At Grimsby the quantity of fish landed in
1872, and transmitted by rail, averaged 600 tons a week, or
at the rate of more than 31,000 tons a year. The pro-
digious quantity of wholesome food now daily forwarded
into the interior of the country from our principal fishing
stations almost exceeds belief. The station-master of
Lowestoft informed the Royal Commission of 1864 that in
the two preceding years he had often despatched from that
town 100 truck-loads of fish a day, each truck containing
from three to four tons. From 4000 to 5000 tons of her-
rings, and 1000 tons of other fish, have been sent by rail
way from the town of Dunbar alone in the course of a
single week into the interior of Scotland. Before this
rapid mode of transport was invented, the consumption of
fresh fish was restricted to the seaboard, the metropolis,
and a few of the most considerable provincial towns. To
the mass of our island population the red lierring was the
only representative of sea-fish which ever met their eyes ;
now there is scarcely a hamlet in which the poor man's
frugal dinner is not occasionally varied by a dish of fresh
herrings or some other cheap fish, which the facilities of
transit from the coast have brought to his door. The
increase of fishing power brought of late years to bear
upon the sea is equally remarkable. In 18 14 only five
vessels were fitted out as deep-sea trawlers from Yarmouth,
and not one from any other port of the United Kingdom.
There cannot now be less, on the most moderate estimate,
than 1000 sea-going trawlers, hailing from British ports
and working in the North Sea, and certainly not less than
300 in the English Channel, and 100 in the Irish Sea. For

General Introduction. 9

many years there has been a gradual increase in the number
of fishing smacks in every port of the United Kingdom.

Fish, crayfish, and many other marine products form
an easily digestible and pleasant food, which, it is main-
tained, is also calculated to stimulate mental activity.
Civilized nations cannot abstain from this important ali-
ment without detriment to themselves. Fish, even without
any elaborate dressing, form a good and easily prepared
meal for the labouring classes. Their flesh contains as
large an amount of protein as pork ; 100 lbs. of fish flesh
contains as much nourishing matter as 200 lbs. of wheat
bread or 700 lbs. of potatoes. It is an essential advantage
of the fisheries that their products supply delicacies for the
tables of the rich and wholesome cheap food for the poorer
classes.

According to calculations made some years ago, the
daily consumption of fish per head amounted to one-seventh
of a pound in London, one-twentieth of a pound in Paris,
and one-fortieth of a pound in Berlin.

The great importance of fish as an article of food may
be clearly shown by a comparison of the total supply of
fish to London in the course of a single year. At this time
there are between 800 and 900 trawl vessels engaged in
supplying the London market with fish ; and assuming
the annual take for each to average 90 tons, this would
give a total of some 80,000 tons of trawled fish. This
quantity is irrespective of the vast quantities of herrings,
sprats, shell-fish, and descriptions of fish which are sup-
pUed by other modes of fishing. On the east coast of
England, and in the London fish-market, the trade divide
the fish into two classes — " prime " and " offal." The
" prime " comprise sole, turbot, brill, and cod. The " offal "
are chiefly haddock, plaice, and whiting. The term " offal "

lO The Commercial Products of the Sea.

seems to have been introduced when the demand for fish
and the means of conveying it to market were much more
hmited than at present, and when it was therefore often
found necessary to throw overboard much of the less
vahiable descriptions, which could not bear the cost of
transport. The use of the word " offal " may now be held
to signify the more plentiful and lower-priced class of fish,
which finds its way in the greatest abundance to the large
towns. The proportion of " prime " and " offal " fish caught
by the trawl varies considerably, but may be taken at an
average of one-fourth " prime " to three-fourths of " oftal."
Of " prime," the sole seems to be the general favourite. It
is more eaten in London than any other description of
"prime" fish, and during the summer a considerable supply
is sent daily from the London fish-market to Paris.

Notwithstanding the enormous increase which has
taken place in the pop ilation of the m.etropolis during the
last twenty years, it is very questionable if the weight of
fish annually received has not actually diminished. The
falling off in the supplies which reach us by water is very
remarkable. In 1848 it amounted to 108,739 tons; but
in 1 87 1 it fell to 44,077 tons. This reduction has been
gradual but continuous from year to year. The quantity
brought to town by railway has, on the other hand, in-
creased, but hardly in the ratio of the diminution by water.
There are no statistics of our fish supplies by rail available
prior to 1865, but the quantity which reached us in this
way in 1871 was 72,386 tons. The fish imports into
London by water were in —

Tons.
1S48 .. ... ... ... 108,737

1871 ... ... _ ... ... 44>077

The total weight of fish brought to London by water
and rail was in —

General Introduction. 1 1

Tons.

1866 ... ... ... ,,, 132,004

1867 ... ... ... ... 122,523

1S68 ... ... ... ... 122,287

1869 ... ... ... ... 113,782

1870 ... ... ... ... 117,095

1871 ... ... ... ... 116,463

Our imports of fish from abroad have largely increased,
as will be seen by the following figures, giving the value : —

1856 ... "... ... ... ^^228,075

1866 ... ... ... ... 631,552

1S76 ... 1,459.974

Of the imports in 1876, 966,119 cwt. — about one-third

was fresh fish not of British taking.

We also imported in 1876 train oil or blubber to the
value of ;^445,262, spermaceti or head matter valued at
-^290,359, and seal-skins value i^2 19,540, making a total
of ;^2,4i 5,135. This is exclusive of sardines, anchovies,
caviare, oysters and shell-fish, pearls, mother-of-pearl, tor-
toise-shell, coral, sponges, and other articles obtained from
the fisheries, which would swell up the aggregate to over
^3,000,000 of products obtained from the sea.

We exported in that year, of British produce : —

Salmon to the value of ... ... ... ;^39,oS3

Cod and ling ,, ... ... ... 44,383

Herrings ,, ... ... ... 732,737

Pilchards ,, ... ... ... 19,222

Unenumerated ,, ... ... ... 67,332

Oysters „ ... ... ... 50,047

;^952,8o4
In the last quarter of a century the Irish fisheries have
declined by fully one-half in the number of boats and men
employed. In 1870 there were stated to be under 9,000
vessels and boats, and 38,000 men and boys. Owing to
the numerous indentations, the coast line of Ireland is

1 2 The Cojmnercial Prodiuts of the Sea,

estimated at upwards of 2500 miles. The length along
which the more important herring and mackerel fisheries
are carried on does not, however, exceed 250 miles, and the
value of the capture of these — ^^330,000 — amounts to fully
two-thirds of all the fish taken around the coast. When,
therefore, it is considered that on the remaining 2250 miles
of coast not more than ;£"i 50,000 of fish is taken, it will be
understood why an equal amount of cured fish has to be
imported from America and other foreign countries.

The latest ofificial report on the Irish fisheries shows
that, exclusive of the home consumption in 1876, fish
were shipped to England to the value of ^504,719, thus
divided : —

Herrings ... ... ... £22'j,gc)Q

Mackerel ... ... ,., 111,266

Cod ,,. ... ... ... 165,463

• ^504.719

The number of craft of all kinds engaged off Ireland
in fishing for sale, in 1876, was returned at 5965, with
crews of 22,773 men and 920 boys. In Scotland, in the
same year, the number of boats was 14,547 of 106,440 tons,
with crews of 45,263, and there were as many more other
persons employed as curers, coopers, etc. The value of
the boats was estimated at ;^455,8ii, of the nets ;^563,8ii,
and of the lines ^^108,347, making a total of ^T 1,1 27,994.

We have official annual reports respecting the fisheries
of Ireland and Scotland; but the collection of returns for
England was discontinued with 1850, at the same time
that the branding and punching of the barrels of cod and
ling ceased. We are not able, therefore, to form any very
accurate estimate of the extent and progress of the coast
fisheries for England and Wales.

The immense value of the fisheries of British North

General Introduction. 13

America will be seen by a glance at the following figures.
About 1000 decked vessels and 17,000 open boats are
engaged in fishing within the four provinces of Nova
Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario ; for the
other parts of the Canadian Dominion we have no authentic
details. 42,000 men are actually engaged in fishing, while
200,000 persons are estimated to be supported almost
entirely by this industry in its various branches. The
annual produce of the fishery of these four provinces is
abo-ut i^2,ooo,ooo, and the boats, nets, and other instru-
ments represent a capital of over ^600,000. In Nova Scotia
alone there are 9500 vessels and boats engaged in the
fisheries, valued at i^2 10,000, manned by 19,000 men, with
nets, etc., to the value of ^i 14,000.

The fisheries are not only of importance to us in con-
sequence of the vast amount of wealth that can be drawn
from the deep, apparently without diminution, or exhaust-
ing its source, but because by this means a body of able
and hardy seamen may be found to conduct the commerce
of a maritime country during peace, and to become its
gallant defenders on the ocean in time of war. This inex-
haustible source of national wealth and greatness appertains
in an especial manner to the British Possessions in the
northern hemisphere, and has long excited the rivalry of
the citizens of the New England States, who are aided by
bounties granted by the general Government.

The Atlantic fishing ground situated in British waters
reaches from the Bay of Fundy along the southern coast
of Nova Scotia, around Cape Breton and Prince Edward
Island, and embracing the Bay of Chaleur, extends to the
Island of Anticosta and Newfoundland, the coast of
Labrador, and the Magdalen Islands. There is probably
no part of the world where such extensive and valuable

14 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

fisheries are to be found, as within the Gulf of St. Law-
rence. Nature has bountifully provided within its waters
the utmost abundance of those fish which are of the
greatest importance to man, as affording not only nutri-
tious and wholesome food, but also the means of profitable
employment. These fisheries are prosecuted as well in the
open waters of the gulf, as within every bay, harbour, creek,
cove, and inlet in connection with it.

Quebec possesses, in the river and gulf of St. Lawrence,
an extent of coast of lOOO miles, where the cod, herring,
mackerel, salmon, and other fisheries are carried on suc-
cessfully. In the men that sail the fishing fleets of
British North America, we see the elements of a very
powerful marine, which will be found invaluable in times of
national danger.

The following figures show the value of the exports
only, the produce of the fisheries of our North American
colonies for the year 1873 : —

Canada ...

- ;fi54.992

New Brunswick ...

70,823

Nova Scotia

... 717.301

Prince Edward Island

200, ICO

British Columbia ...

406,000

Newfoundland

... 1,631,086

In the previous year it was ;^i,ooo,ooo more, without
British Columbia, of which the return was not given. This
return merely assumes the market value of the products in
the colonies ; but in the foreign markets to which they are
sent they will realize a fourth or a fifth more, and this, be it
observed, is exclusive of the large local consumption offish,
oil, etc.

Boston is the fish-market of the United States ; and

General Introduction. 15

the product of the New England fishery is estimated at
^1,600,000 yearly, of which Boston alone handles more
than half.

At the Cape of Good Hope fish forms the principal
article of the food of the population, and the poorer classes
live almost entirely on it, its price being lower than in
almost all other civilized countries.

It is difficult, nay, almost impossible to form an estimate
of the probable consumption of fish within the colonial
borders. Judging, however, from the great quantities used
in a dried, pickled, and smoke-dried state, as an article of
internal traffic, and taking into consideration that fish is
almost the chief food of the lower orders in Cape Town and
the other ports, the consumption must necessarily be very
considerable.

The principal foreign market for the fish trade of South
Africa is the Mauritius, the exports of dried fish to that
colony being from 2000 to 2500 tons annually, of the value
of ^^"30,000. The average import of fish at the Mauritius
in the three years ending 1870 was about 44,000 cwt.
There are also fisheries carried on from the island, for in
1870 there were 329 fishery works, and at Rodriguez 44,
employing 90 boats and 193 men.

At Ceylon the imports of fish are about 77,000 cwt.
annually, and at Singapore about 40,000 cwt. of dried and
salted fish are imported yearly.

On the coasts of some of the Indian presidencies there
are extensive fisheries.

How many a locality in the Indian Ocean is there to
which the lines of Milton are applicable ! — where

" Each creek and bay
With fry innumerable swarm, and shoals
Of fish, that with their fins and shining scales
Glide under the green waves ; . . .

1 6 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

. . . part single, or with mate

Graze tlie seaweed, their pasture, and through groves

Of coral stray ; or sporting, with quiet glance

Show to the sun their wav'd coats draped with gold."

The Chinese are pre-eminently a fish-eating people,
and the vast demand for fish there can only be supplied
by artificial means. The shad is called by the Chinese
"sam-li;" it is of superior flavour and great size, and is
produced by artificial means and conveyed in " congs,"
large vessels made of coarse earthenwai"e, to all parts of the
empire.

It has been supposed that nearly a tenth of the popula-
tion of China derive their means of support from the
fisheries. Hundreds and thousands of boats crowd the
whole coasts, sometimes acting in communities, sometimes
independent and isolated. There is no species of craft by
which a fish can be inveigled which is not practised with
success in China. Every variety of net, from vast seines,
embracing miles, to the smallest hand-filet, in the care of a
child; fishing by night and fishing by day; fishing in
moonlight, by torchlight, and in utter darkness ; fishing in
boats of all sizes ; fishing by those who are stationary on
the rock by the seaside, and by those who are absent for
weeks on the wildest of seas ; fishing by cormorants ;
fishing by divers ; fishing with lines, with baskets — by
every imaginable decoy and device. There is no river
which is not staked to assist the fisherman in his craft.
There is no lake, no pond, which is not crowded with fish.
A piece of water is nearly as valuable as a field of fertile
land. At daybreak every city is crowded with sellers of live
fish, who carry their commodity in buckets of water, saving
all they do not sell to be returned to the pond or kept for
another day's service.

General Intj'odiicticii. 1 7

In the port of Okhotz, Siberia, fish is almost the only
food of the inhabitants, flour and groceries being unheard-
of luxuries, and meat very scarce. Even the cattle and
poultry are fed on fish.

The general idea that the Southern Australian seas are
inferior in piscatory resources to the colder waters of
Europe seems to be wholly unfounded. At proper seasons
of the year, and when reasonable precautions have been
taken and the close months observed, the creeks and
estuaries are leaping with fish.

In Victoria, not only around the great inland sea-lake
of Port Phillip, for the sustenance of the crowded popula-
tion of the capital, but in outlying ports and sequestered
coves, families, singly and in clusters, draw their whole
subsistence from the fisheries. The total number of fishing-
boats belonging to the Hobson's Bay district amounts to
nearly 500, and all of them are busily employed.

Let us glance briefly at the statistics of the value of
some of the principal fisheries. The Norwegian fisheries
bring in to the hardy Northerners not less than ^^3,200,000
per annum, a magnificent sum for a country possessing a
population of barely 2,000,000 souls. In Russia the pro-
ducts of the fisheries are estimated at ;^3, 500,000 ; in
Denmark they bring in about ^160,000 ; and the value of
those of France reach about ;^3, 500,000.

The take of the French fisheries for 1873 was thus
ofiicially returned : —

Cod fishery, Iceland

,, Newfoundland
Herring fishery ...
Mackerel ,, ... ...

Francs.
•• 6,719,774

•• 9,981,547
.. 9,401,307
.. 3,483,343

Sardine ,, ... ...

Anchovy ,,

.. 13,757,534
469,695

Carried forward

.. 43,813,200

1 8 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Fiancs.

Brought forward

... 43,813,200

Other species

... 25,878,896

Oysters ...

... 1,956,334

Mussels...

817,211

Other shell-fish ...

485,478

Crustaceans

... 2,285,458

Line fishery

... 3,094,787

78,331,364 = ^3,133,254

Besides seaweed and sand as officially valued at ;^6o,ooo.

The French fisheries gave employment to the follow-
incf : —

Cod fishery of

Newfoundland

and Iceland.

Coast fishery.

420

19,585

54,622

101,488

11,965

65,501

Vessels and boats

Tonnage

Men employed

Out of a gross return of 80,000,000 francs the coast
fisheries brought in over 63,000,000 francs.

Both in the home and foreign fisheries many improve-
ments have been carried out of late years in boats, nets,
and appliances. In 1873 a great improvement was effected
in France by the introduction of capstans worked by steam
for hauling in the nets. Steam vessels are also now
employed in fishing operations at Teste, Rochelle, and
other ports.

The sale of fish in the Paris markets in 1854 was to the
value of 7,500,000 francs (^^300,000), of which about
1,000,000 francs was for fresh-water fish. In i860 the sales
reached about 10,000,000 francs. Paris consumed the
following quantities of fresh-water fish, etc. : —

Eels
Barbel
Bream
Pike

1854.

lbs.

tV:

230,440

... 328,000

23,870

...

... 23,826

34,160

... 94,176

325,840

.'ard

... 354,232

Carried for\^

... 800,234

General Introduction. 19

1854

1877.

lbs.

lbs.

Brought forward

... 800,234

Smelts

—

... 290,454

Gudgeon ...

40,686

... 39,060

Lampreys . . .

IJSIJ

2S6

Perch

17,870

... 28,738

Tench

66,8So

... 154,674

Trout

—

5,128

Various small

white fish 252,480

... 1,157,434

Crabs

... - ... 182,988

... 328,008

Snails

—

... 190,284

Frogs

—

22,562

3,016,862
— valued at 1,500,000 francs.

There was also sold of sea-fish at the central markets,
31,489,202 lbs., valued at 13,191,845 francs, together a
total of over ;^634,000 sterling.

The consumption of other fish was stated in 1854 to
have been of —

Preserved fish. lbs.

Sardines ... ... ... ... 510,000

Tunny ... ... ... ... 22,000

Anchovies ... ... ... ... 90,000

622,000

Salted fish. lbs.

Codfish in casks ... ... ... 2,156,000

,, dried ... ... ... 4,000

Salted herrings ... ... ... 176,000

Smoked ,, ... ... ... 300,000

Mackerel ... ... ... ... 306,600

Salmon ... ... ... ... 1,440

3,004,040

The sale of these has, however, more than doubled in the
last quarter of a century.

It is not possible to form an accurate estimate of the
extent or value of the fisheries and the products of the
fisheries in various countries. But as regards our own

20 The Commercial Products of the Sea,

special commerce, we have some few official figures to work
upon. Taking the latest year for which full and complete
returns are given, we find that the imports into the United
Kingdom reach over ;^6,ooo,ooo in value. Guano is in-
cluded because it is a deposit of sea-birds, and may, there-
fore, be considered to some extent a product of the sea.

The exports of fish of British catch in 1874 were valued
at ;^ 1, 077,065, and if we add the export of salt for the
fisheries, fishing nets, hooks and lines, sails and cordage,
and other supplies, we shall have fully a value of i^i, 500,000.

The great city of Amsterdam and the present unsur-
passed seaport of Liverpool arose from the industry and
enterprise of a few fishermen, who found those spots con-
venient for their dwellings and pursuits — a fact of history
thus poetically recorded : —

" Where Mersey's stream, long winding o'er the plain,
Pours his full tribute to the circling main,
A band of fishers chose their humble seat,
Contented labour blest their fair retreat.
Inured to hardships, patient, bold, and rude,
They braved the billows for precarious food ;
Their straggling huts were ranged along the shore.
Their nets and little boats their only store.
But now perceive the alter'd prospect round,
Where splendid tracts of opulence are found ;
Yet scarce two hundred annual rounds have run
Since first the fabric of this power begun.
His noble stream inglorious Mersey roU'd,
Nor felt his waves by labouring art control'd ;
Along his sides a few small cots were spread,
His finny brood their humble tenants fed ;
At opening dawn, with fraudful nets supplied,
The paddling skiff would brave the specious tide,
Ply round the shores, nor tempt the dangerous main.
But seek ere night the friendly port again. "

General Introduction.

21

Value of the Imports of Products of the Fisheries into
THE United Kingdom in 1870.

We give the statistics of this year, as it is the latest
for which details have been furnished by the Board of
Trade. None of the minor articles are now enumerated
in the official trade returns : —

Fish

•• ;^768,3S7

Brought forward ...

^2,361,483

Isinglass

83,023

Sponge

160,162

Mother-of-pearl

shells .

76,489

Tortoise and turtle

shell

33.926

Oil, cod-liver...

64,157

Coral, rough ...

S,68i

,, whale

890,553

,, beads ...

9,917

Whale fins

79,482

Cowries

..

6,347

Orchella weed

112,693

Caviare

1,670

Pearls

16,675

Guano .,.

,.

3,476,680

Seal-skins

270,024

;^"6,o55,866

Carried foi

■\\-ard .

. £2,lb\,£,Zi

If we could trace the wealth of nations arising from
their fisheries, it would be found to be beyond calculation.

The following gives the foreign trade in fish of difierent
countries : —

Russia : Imports, 1874 — Herrings

Exports — Caviare
Norway : Exports, 1874 —

Anchovies

Dried fish

Fresh fish

Spring herrings

Other herrings

Klipfish (dried cod)

Other salted fish ...

Lobsters

Seal-skins

Train oil ...

Sweden : Imports, 1874 —

Herrings

barrels
.. lbs.

dunkers

... cwt.

value in specie dollar, 45. 6</.

tenders of 3 bushels

... cwt.

tenders

thousands

... No.

tenders

430,430
106,989

102,933

383,830

50,836

17,784

919,539

599,576

69,424

749

95,356

103,365

cubic feet 1,163,560

2 2 The Comme7'cial Products of the Sea.

Spain : Imports, 1875 —

Codfish ... ... ... ... ... tons 38.388

Italy: Imports, 1875 —

Fish of all sorts ... ... ... ... tons 41,918

United States : Exports, 1875 —

Fish, dry, pickled, etc. ... ... ... value /601, 750

France: Produce of the Fisheries in 1876 — ... value ;^3,56o,ooo

Algeria: Exports, 1876— ... ... ... value ;4'240, 000

PART I.

FOOD PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM
THE SEA.

CHAPTER I.

THE COD FISHERY IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

The cod fishery of Scotland — The Grand Bank fishery, Newfoundland —
Bultow fishing described — Preparing the fish — The Norway fishery — Lofo-
den fishery — Iceland — Consumption in the French colonies — Fishery at
St. Pierre and Miquelon.

One of the most important of the sea-fisheries, whether
regard be had to the size of the fish or the number taken,
is 'that for the cod. This fishery is carried on not only
around the shores of the British Islands, but is prosecuted
on a very extensive scale on the shores of Newfound-
land and other coasts of the Atlantic, in Norway, Iceland,
and other quarters.

The cod {Gadus inorrhiid) abounds between 40° and
60° N. lat. It is essentially a sea-fish, and is never met
with in fresh waters, preferring the depths of the sea, which
it only quits to spawn on the coasts or the banks.

The following return for the last ten years shows the
average take of codfish in Scotland, at least as far as
regards the quantity cured : —

Dried. Pickled,
cwt. barrels.
10,819

9,659

10,319

9,945

9.283

1867

119,638^

1868

113,831

1869

. ... 135,585!

1870

145,2881

I87I

119,030

26 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Dried. Pickled,

cwt. barrels.

1872 145.976I ii,94t)j

1873 160,716^ i-,38ij

1S74 I43.466i 6,754

1875 187,788^ 8,5031

1876 "1,457 6,109

The number of cod, ling, and hake taken in Scotland in
1876 was 3,454,198. 59,816 cwt. of dried fish were ex-
ported, being rather more than half the cure ; but this was
22,000 cwt. below the export of the previous year.

The cod fishery on the Irish coast commences in the
lough opposite Moville, about the ist of October, and ends
about the ist of July. They move out, and as the weather
settles in spring, the fishermen follow them eight miles
or more, and finally twenty miles out to Hamden Bank.

Newfoundland may be said to have a monopoly of the
cod fishery, and the market is every day increasing. All
tropical people like codfish, and must have it, and there-
fore, if the colonists could obtain 5,000,000 tons, they
could not supply the demand in future ages.

The roe of a cod contains 2,000,000 eggs, and if all
these came to maturity, one cod would fill the ocean in
a few years ; but though countless millions perish, if we
do not violate the law of nature by destroying the mother
or breeding fish, we cannot lessen the quantity.

The Grand Bank appears to be the great breeding
ground of the species, and the finest fish is caught there.
The quantity of codfish annually taken from the banks
and shores of Newfoundland, and the coasts of Labrador,
on the average of years, may be stated to be as follows : —

Cwt.

By the Americans ... ... ... 1,500,000

,, Frencli ... ... ... 1,000,000

By British subjects ... ... ... 1,500,000

— worth about 155. or i6s. a cwt.

4,000,000

The Cod Fishery tit Various Countries. 27

Taking the annual catch on the banks and along the
shores at 2,750,000 cvvt., and averaging 50 codfish to the
cwt, it is estimated that there are drawn from the waters
around Newfoundland 137,500,000 codfish in a year.
Besides the fish, the oil obtained from the cod forms also
a considerable item in the business. About one hogshead
of oil is produced from every five tons of fish.

The bultow is a long line, with hooks fastened along
its whole length, at regular distances, by shorter and
smaller cords, called "snoods," which are six feet long,
and are placed on the long line 12 feet apart, to
prevent the hooks becoming entangled. Near the hooks,
these shorter lines, or snoods, are formed of separate
threads, loosely fastened together, to guard against the
teeth of the fish. Buoys, buoy-ropes, and anchors or
grapnels are fixed to each end of the line ; and the lines
are always laid, or as it is termed " shot," across the tide,
for if the tide runs upon the end of the line the hooks,
will become entangled, and the fishing will be wholly lost.
For the deep-sea fishery the bultow is of great length.

The French fishing vessels, after anchoring on the
bank, in about 45 fathoms of water, run out about 100
fathoms of cable, and prepare to catch cod with two lines,
each 3000 fathoms in length. The snoods are arranged as
previously described, and the hooks being baited, the lines
are neatly coiled in half-bushel baskets, clear for running
out. The baskets are placed in two strong-built lugsail
boats, and at three o'clock in the afternoon both make
sail together, at right angles from the vessel on opposite
sides. When the lines are run out straight, they are sunk
to within two feet of the bottom. At daybreak next
morning, the boats proceed to trip the sinkers at the ex-
tremities of the lines, and while the crew of each boat are

28 The Commercial Products of the Sea,

hauling in line and unhooking fish, the men on board
heave in the other end of the lines with a winch. In this
way 400 of the larger bank cod are commonly taken in
a night. The fish are cleaned and salted on board, and
stowed in the hold in bulk ; the livers to be boiled for oil
are put in large casks, secured on deck.

The French vessels engaged in this fishery are from
1 50 to 300 tons burthen ; they arrive on the Grand Bank
early in June, and on the average complete their cargoes
in three months.

The bultow mode of fishing is wholly used by the French
on the banks, and the large vessels have over five or six
miles of lines and 6500 hooks lying at the bottom at a
time. The shore fishery is prosecuted by hook and line,
either in whale-boats or flats.

The bultow is considered very injurious, in destroying
what the fishermen call the mother fish, that is, the female
fish near the time of depositing their spawn, when they are
very torpid and careless in seeking food, which at this
period they do always on the bottom, when the bultow
hooks are laying ready baited to entrap them. It is but
seldom that these fish are caught in the common way, with
hook and line, and it is a wise provision of Providence that
the cod is so prolific, otherwise the bultow system would
almost destroy the species. Leuwenhock counted 9,384,000
eggs of spawn in a cod of middling size, and Hanmer
3,686,750 in one that weighed 12,540 grains.

The moment a fish is taken off the hook it should be
bled, This may be done by the person who is employed
in taking it off the hook. The fish must then be headed,
split up, and gutted, — in doing which, the sound should be
carefully preserved for cure. The fish should then have the
bone removed, care being taken that it shall be cut away

The Cod Fishery in Various CoiintjHes. 29

to within 20 or 22 joints of the tail, not directly across
but by the splitter pointing the knife towards the tail,
and cutting the bone through the two joints at once, in
a sloping direction, so as to leave the appearance of the
figure 8. This looks best, and it has this advantage, that
the fish are not mangled, as they are apt to be when the
bone is cut square through one joint. A slight incision
should also be made _along all the adhering part of the
bone, to allow any remaining blood to escape, and the
splitter should then drop his fish into clean water. The fish
should be then thoroughly washed in the sea from all im-
purities ; but where this cannot be so immediately accom-
plished, they should be dropped instantly into a large tub
or vat full of sea water, where they should be carefully
washed, and the water should be poured out of it when it
gets foul, and fresh water supplied. Care must be taken to
remove the black skin that adheres to the laps of the fish.

If these operations cannot all be performed on board
the fishing craft immediately after capture, the fish, upon
being taken off" the hook and immediately bled, which is
absolutely essential, should be put into boxes, or some con-
venience, to keep them from exposure to the air, and from
being trampled on, which would be extremely hurtful to
them. But it may be again repeated, that the more of the
above operations that can be performed immediately after
capture, the better. If the salting can be done on board
the craft, it will be of the greatest advantage, as the sooner
the fish are in salt after they are taken out of their native
element, the greater is the chance that their cure will be
successful. But, whether cured at sea or on shore, they
ought in no case to be permitted to remain a longer period
before being laid in salt than 48 hours.

When cured on shore, the cod is flung from the fisher-

30 The Commercial Pi'oducts of the Sea,

man's boat upon the rough stage, where it is received by the
"cut-throat," who, with a sharp knife, lays open the fish across
the throat and down the belly, and passes it to the header.
This operator proceeds to extract the liver, which is dropped
into a vessel by his side, to be converted into cod-liver oil.
He then extracts the entrails and wrenches off the head,
and throws these into another receptacle, to be preserved for
the farmer, to mix with bog and earth, thus forming a most
fertilizing compost for his fields. The tongues, however,
are taken out, and also the sounds, and these, fresh or
pickled, are an excellent article of food. The fish is then
passed to the splitter, who, by a dexterous movement, cuts
out the backbone nearly to the tail, and thus lays the fish
entirely open, and capable of being laid flat on its back.
This is the nicest part of the operation, and the splitter
always commands higher wages than the rest of the opera-
tors. The Salter next takes the fish and washes it well
from all particles of blood, salts it, and places it in piles to
drain. After laying the proper length of time it is washed,
and spread to dry on the " flake," which is formed of spruce
boughs, supported by a framework resting on upright poles.
Here the cod are spread out individually to bleach by ex-
posure to sun and air, and during this process require con-
stant attention. At night, or on the approach of rain, they
are made up into little round heaps, with the skin outward,
in which state they look very much like small haycocks.
When the " bloom," or whitish appearance, which for a time
they assume, comes out on the dried fish, the process is
finished, and then they are quite ready for storing. On
being conveyed to the premises of the exporting merchant^
they are first " culled," or assorted, into four different kinds,
known as " Merchantable," " Madeira," " West India," and
" Dun," or broken fish. The first is the best quality, the

The Cod Fishery in Various Countries. 31

second a grade lower, the third is intended for the stomachs
of negroes, and the fourth, which is incapable of keeping, is
used at home.

Dun fish are prepared in the following manner : — ■
They are caught early in spring, and often in February.
The cod are taken in deep water, split, and slack salted ;
then laid on a pile for two or three months in a dark
store, covered for the greatest part of the time with salt
hay, or grass, and pressed with some weight. In April or
May they are opened and piled again as close as possible
in the same dark store till July or August, when they are
fit for use.

The cod sent to hot countries are packed by screw
power into small casks called " drums ; " those which go to
the Mediterranean are usually exported in bulk. Large
quantities of dried codfish are shipped to Brazil, and there
is hardly an inhabited corner of that vast empire where the
Newfoundland cod is not to be found, being carried on the
backs of mules from the seacoast into the most distant
provinces of the interior. The negroes of the West Indies
welcome it as a grateful addition to their vegetable diet.
To all parts of the Mediterranean it finds its way; Italians,
Greeks, and Sicilians equally relishing the produce of the
sea harvest. The Spaniards and Portuguese are our best
customers, and all over the sunny peninsula the " bucalo "
is a standing dish. In the warmer regions of the earth the
people seem to have a special liking for the dried and
salted cod, and to them it is an almost indispensable article
of food.

The air bladder, or as it is called, cod's sound, which
consists almost entirely of pure gelatine, sells at a high rate
in any market into which it has been introduced. Cod's
tongues and sounds form, even at present, a considerable

32 The Commercial Pi'oducts of the Sea.

export from the ports of the States and the British-American
colonies on the Atlantic.

Norway possesses a long and much-indented coast,
which furnishes a large part of the fish consumed in
England. The most valuable Norwegian fisheries are in
the extreme north, near the Lofoden Islands, and within
the Arctic circle. The great fisheries, and those of most
interest to all Englishmen, are the deep-sea fisheries for cod
and herrings, which constitute the most important branch
of industry practised in Norway. The annual produce oi
these amounts to a million of money, and they give employ-
ment to from 20,000 to 30,000 men, and from 5000 to 6000
vessels. The cod are caught in two ways, with nets, in the
English fashion, and with lines. The lines, or rather cables,
are 1000 fathoms long, and are supported in each case by a
buoy, and secured by anchors to prevent their drifting.
Each line is furnished with 1200 hooks, at distances of five
feet from each other, each hook being on a separate hook-
line of about a fathom in length. The lines are set at
night and taken up in the morning. The fish are not
salted, but are merely gutted and hung up in pairs upon
poles, to be dried in the wind, and when thus cured they
are exported in large quantities, under the name of round
or stock-fish. The great cod fishery ends in April.

The number of cod caught in 1869 amounted to
20,700,000, of which about 12,000,000 were salted and pre-
pared as klipfish (baccalau), and about 7,800,000 were
hung up to dry as round-fish (stock-fish) ; the remainder,
about 900,000, were cured for home consumption.

The produce of the fishery in 1870 consisted 01
16,456,000 fish, equal to about 8800 tons when dried.
Besides this, there were secured 21,500 barrels of cod oil,
and 6000 barrels of cod roe.

The Cod Fishery in Vai'ioiis Countries. 2)Z

The fishermen pay great attention to the curing. The
fish is neatly packed in boxes with the fins trimmed off.

The extensive fishing bank which is periodically visited
by the cod, stretches from Rost, a low group of islands
forming the south-westernmost range of the Lofoden chain
of islands, up to the very head of the West Fiord ; a distance
of about 70 English miles.

The number of boats_ engaged is nearly 6000, of which
one-fifth have nets, and the remainder lines and deep-sea
lines. The latter are of various lengths, supported on the
surface by floats, with a buoy at each end. From this float-
ing line, numerous baited lines are suspended at regular
distances. There are also about 400 vessels of various
kinds usually assembled, partly for fishing, but chiefly for
purchasing fish as they are brought in.

The boats engaged in fishing with nets are from 36
to 40 feet long, and nine to ten feet wide, with a depth
of not more than three feet. They are provided with
only a single mast, about 24 feet high, carrying one large
square sail. But each boat has as well 10 or 12 oars, by
means of which her sturdy crew can propel her against an
adverse wind. For fishing with lines, smaller ships, mostly
boats, are used. The crew usually consist of five men and
a boy.

In the month of December, the first shoals of cod
usually begin to appear on the western banks of the islands,
arriving from the open sea. These are soon followed by
great masses of fish. But as these western outside shores
are shallow, the ports few, and the whole coast exposed
to the frequent fury of the North Sea, not more than from
600 to 800 boats venture on the hazards of this early fish-
ing, and the take seldom exceeds 5,000,000 or 6,000,000
of fish.

34 Tlie Co7nmercial Products of the Sea.

In the mean time the inhabitants of the inner or eastern
side, protected from northerly winds, and favoured with
many bays of refuge, examine their shores day by day with
baited hooks, to discover if the precursors of the dense
shoals of cod have yet appeared in the West Fiord, and
great is the public exultation when the joyful news of their
arrival is announced. This important event takes place
generally in the latter end of December, but not before the
middle of January do the fish arrive in great masses.

Codfish are taken by the Lofoden fishermen by three
methods: — (i) with hand lines ; (2) with set lines; and
(3) with nets.

Hand lines requiring little capital and producing small
results, are only employed by the poorest fishermen. These
are satisfied with 50 fish to each man per day, although
occasionally they will capture double that number. They
bait with herrings, salt or fresh, and when these are all
gone, with the roe of the fish they have caught. Sometimes,
when the shoals of cod are very thick and dense, the men
adopt another method also, with a single line requiring no
bait. Providing themselves with a long cord, armed with a
large and sharp hook at its extremity, they sink it into the
swarming masses below, having first attached to it, a couple
of feet above the hook, small fishes of tin, for the purpose of
attracting the cod by their glitter. The fishermen then jerk
the hook sharply upwards, occasionally securing a curious
fish, though cruelly wounding many others that are not
taken.

Set-line fishing requires larger apparatus : a boat, a
crew, and from 500 to 3000 hooks baited at once. The
hooks are attached to fine snoods of hemp or cotton, which
in their turn are suspended on long lines ; each boat puts
out at least 24 of these lines, every line carrying more than

The Cod Fishery in Various Countries. 35

100 hooks. Set-line fishing usually begins in the after-
noon, but in any case only at the time and in the place
prescribed by the officers appointed at each station for the
purpose. The baited hooks are generally suspended near
the bottom, but if there is reason to believe that the fish
have risen, as they sometimes will, the lines are shortened
and the bait raised to the required height by means of
glass floats. They are then left all night. On the follow-
ing morning the lines are taken in, and the crews are well
content with an average take of 50 to 60 fish daily on each
set of 120 hooks.

Net fishing requires larger capital, and is only followed
by the more wealthy fishermen, who provide both nets and
lines, to be used according to circumstances.

When the fish are fat, and especially during the spawning
season, they will hardly take any notice of the bait ; then
is the time the nets are used. Ev^ery boat carries at least
60 nets of from 10 to 20 fathoms deep. These nets are
suspended in the water from floats of wood, cork, or glass.
Hollow glass floats are preferred, and are almost exclusively
used at Lofoden. Sixteen to 20 nets bound together in
one length are set out in the afternoon, and, weather per-
mitting, are taken up the following morning. A catch of
from 500 to 600 cod is considered satisfactory ; but if this
number is largely exceeded, part are left in the nets till the
afternoon, because the boats could not safely carry so heavy
a freight, together with the crew and wet nets. The total
take of cod by these various methods has ranged during
the last few years from 15,000,000 to 25,000,000 of fish per
annum.

Although the cod fisheries of Lofoden are the largest
and most renowned, Norway has many others of great
value along her far-stretchino- sea-board.

36 The Comineixial P^'-oduds of the Sea.

The produce of the Lofoden fisheries in 1871 was
of khpfish 750,000 vogs, and of round-fish 340,000 vogs —
the vog being about 44 lbs. This was equal to nearly
24,000 tons of codfish. The above take of fish yielded
31,000 barrels of oil, and 25,000 barrels of roes. On an
average about 400 cod yield a barrel of liver, varying in
price from i^i to ^i 6s. 8d.

It appears that there is a great abundance of fish,
especially cod, off the coast of Iceland, and that this fish is
a set-off for the scanty agriculture of the island. The cod
remain during winter near the coast, and the fishing com-
mences during the spring ; in summer, the fish are further
out in deep water. Owing to the smallness of the popula-
tion, the same persons attend to agriculture and to fishing.
Taking the whole coast collectively, the winter and spring
fishings give large fat cod, which are sold at the trading
ports, and afterwards prepared for export ; whereas the
summer fishings usually yield small cod, haddock, cole-fish,
and halibut, which are sorted and smoked for home con-
sumption.

The Icelanders chiefly fish from open boats — seldom
from decked ones. Their boats so vary in size as to range
from two to 12 oars, with as many men as oars, and
one to act as steersman. The boats have all projecting
prows, are very easily rowed, and light in construction.
As a rule they carry only one lugsail. The larger boats
— from six to 12 oars — are employed in the deeper
fishings, often far out at sea. The fishing is effected by
means of small drift-nets, deep-sea lines, hand lines, or long
lines, according to the depth of water and the kind of fish.
Fishing with the drift-net generally ceases about the middle
of April, and is succeeded by the deep-sea or hand lines.
The hooks used are generally the same as the French, but

The Cod Fishery m Various Countries. 2)7

some of the fishermen use the old Iceland hook, which
is nearly 20 inches long. Fishing with the ordinary
lines is carried on when the other two methods are no
longer productive, and takes place all round the island.
From one to four lengths of strong, thick line, each length
measuring 60 fathoms, are spliced together, and vertical
or hanging lines six feet in length are spliced into this at a
distance of six or eight feet apart; a hook baited with
snails or mussels is fastened to the end of each hanging
line. The hooks used are the ordinary tinned English
No. 5. A boat carries from 20 to 40 such lines, which
are sunk to the bottom by means of stone weights ; their
position is indicated by buoy-ropes kept up by small
floating barrels marked with the owner's name. The lines
are placed across the entrance of bays and rivers, or some-
times at the outside of them, and are taken up twice or
thrice a day, according as the weather permits. As many
as 80 of these long-line boats may sometimes be seen
collected together, busy fishing from three to four miles ofif
the coast.

Line fishing is conducted in Iceland on a much more
limited scale than at Newfoundland, in relation both to
the size of the boats and the length of the lines. This
arises, not from the scarcity of the fish, but from the
poverty of the people, which prevents them from obtaining
the requisites necessary for larger operations. The fish
are packed for export sale in many ways. In order to
obtain what are called ivhite fish, the fish are opened,
gutted, cleansed, and partially boned, then washed in sea
water and placed in salt. After three or four days' salting
they are washed in sea water and laid out on the rock to
dry ; they are then ready to be packed in warehouses for
shipment on suitable opportunity. This is, of course, dried

38 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

salt cod. Another fish for home consumption is the hcinge
fish, in which the cod are split up along the back and hung
up unsalted to dry in sheds with open latticed sides. This
second kind is more shrivelled up in appearance than the
first, and is eaten uncooked by the Icelanders, who like-
wise dry and eat the refijse heads.

Somehow or other we have let the French forestall us in
that quarter. The French fishermen catch more in the Ice-
land seas than the Icelanders themselves, and carry away
to France as much cod as is worth 6,725,000 francs a year
(i^270,ooo). The abundance of fish in the Iceland seas at-
tracted fishermen from many other countries ; but, for some
reason not easily to be explained, the French are now the
only foreigners who carry on the fishing largely. Some few
Belgians are occasionally seen, and a few Scotch fishermen
from the Shetlands, but their number is insignificant. The
Danish Government, to which Iceland belongs, lays down
certain limits within which foreign fishing-boats may not
approach the shore ; but collisions unfortunately occur
between those who cany on the line fishing, because the
French, when driven by the weather or by the movements
of the shoal, come within the prohibited limits, then en-
tanglements of gear result, followed by quarrels. The
French fishermen usually have a fleet of 250 vessels there
in the season, averaging 90 tons, and worked by 4400 men.
These vessels are mostly schooner-rigged. Although
the native boats are nearly ten times as numerous, and
the crews twice as many, the French catch more cod than
the Icelanders, for the majority of the native craft are,
as we have said, mere small open boats. The quantity
caught altogether must be very large, for the Icelanders
alone export 5,000,000 lbs. to 7,000,000 lbs. annually. The
average number of French vessels employed in the cod

The Cod Fishery in Various Countries. 39

fishery in Newfoundland and Iceland in the three years
ending with i860 was 500, of about 65,000 tons, and em-
ploying 14,000 to 15,000 men.

The produce imported into France in i860, which was a
fair average of the fiv^e years previous, was as follows : —

Kilogrammes.

Wet cod ...

... 19,780,556

Dry cod ...

... 7,370.659

Cod oil ... .:.

... 2,050,846

,, not purified

284,649

Ccd roes

72,489

Other produce — sounds,

etc.

870,655

The codfish re-exported to the various French colonies
to Italy, and the Barbary States, varies from 3,000,000 to
9,000,000 kilogrammes.

The average catch of cod in the French colonies of St.
Pierre and Miquelon, according to the official returns, was
for the five years ending 1871 : —

Kilogrammes.
Dried cod ... ... ... 7,163,965

Salted cod ... ,.. ... 8,261,121

15,425,086
There were employed in the fishery, directly or in-
directly, 194 vessels, of 30,561 tons, employing 3439 men.
The number of boats was Gy^^. and the number of fishermen

5773-

The number of French vessels employed in 1873 in
the cod fisheries was — in Newfoundland 190, of 23,035 tons,
and in Iceland 230 of 19,585 tons.

The average annual produce of the French cod fishery
in the five years ending 1874 was : —

Kilogrammes.
Dry codfish ... ... ... 6,419,538

Green codfish ... ... ... 10,985,127

Cod oil ... ... ... ... 449,102

,, sounds ... ... ... 417,223

„ roes... ... ... ... 113,41s

40 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

The kilogramme is equal to 2\ lbs.

The number of ships employed at St. Pierre and
Miquelon in the cod fishery is "jG, and of boats 590 ; the
aggregate tonnage, 12,386. The number of fishermen
employed in them is 5335. These figures are the average
of the five years ending 1874.

The imports of cod into the French colonies in 1874
were as follows : —

Kilogrammes.
Martinique ... ... ... 4,586,402

Guadaloupe
French Guiana
Senegal ...
Reunion

2,621,426

106,532

4,069

832,879

8,151,308

This shows a declining consumption, judging by the
average imports for the undermentioned years in the five
colonies : —

Kilogrammes.
9,120,157

1S29-1S3I
1832-1836
1837-1851
1S52-1873

9,613,200

18,031,078

9.352,736

Coal-fish.

CHAPTER II.

THE HERRING FISHERY.

The British herring fishery — The Scotch fishery and take of fish — Mode of
curing — Statistics of export — Definition of official brands — Statistics of
the Norfolk fishery — Description of drift and other nets — Kippered
herrings — The Dutch fishery — The French fishery — The Norway fishery —
The North American fishery.

Of almost equal importance to that of the cod is the
herring fishery, which supports and gives employment to
many thousand of persons. Herrings {Chipca Jiarcugus),
when in prime condition, form a cheap, delicate, and
nutritious article of food, and when promptly and efficiently
cured, become valuable as provision. But their value in
this respect must necessarily depend entirely on the quality
of the fish when caught, and on the degree of promptitude
and care which may be exercised in curing them.

The common herring, which is so abundant in all
markets, is taken generally on the coast of Europe, from
the extremity of Scandinavia as far as Normandy, and
sometimes even lower down, but never so low as the Bay of
Biscay. Swedes, Norwegians, Russians, Danes, Germans,
Dutch, English, Scotch, Irish, and French, all take part in
the herring fishery. The number of men employed in
Great Britain is about 100,000, and that of vessels 3000 —

42 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

not counting the number of small boats. Herrings breed
with remarkable rapidity. The females are in number up-
wards of two-thirds more than the males, and some of them
contain as many as 60,000 eggs. The abundance of herrings
is such that it is not diminished either by the fishing or by
the destruction committed by large fish and by innumerable
birds. The herrings move in shoals, which are sometimes
from eight to ten miles long by two to four wide, and of
unknown depth. These immense masses, which advance
very rapidly, are distinguished by the presence of birds
flying above them, and by the agitation of the sea, and at
night the place which they occupy is phosphorescent. In
1 78 1 herrings came in such large quantities to Buscoe, on
the coast of Gottenburg, that they were caught by the
hand. In 1784 ^^"56,000 worth of herrings were caught in
the space of a fortnight in Loch Urn. In 1773 there was
such an invasion of herrings in Loch Torridon, that 150
fishing-boats caught from 1 2 to 20 casks each in the space
of a single night. In some cases 50,000 herrings have been
caught by a single cast of the nets, and it is also said that
the fishermen of Dunkirk, Calais, Dieppe, and Boulogne
have frequently taken 280,000 herrings in a night. Not
very long ago the fishermen of one English town, Lowes-
toft, caught in two days 22,000,000 herrings ! And Hhis at
only one of a hundred such places. At the retail price
of a penny each, this two days' catch would come to
^^"91,666; but it was so beyond all the mercantile force or
curing-power of the place, that tons had to be sold for
manure.

But few people know the great value of our legitimate
fishing ground at home. At the same season when the
pilchards arrive from the south, and swarm on the coast of
Cornwall, herrings in myriads arrive from the north and

The He7'ring Fishery. 43

fill the bays and friths on the north-east coast of Scotland.
During the herring season there are upwards of 15,000
fishing-boats, manned by about 62,000 men, employed on
the coast of Scotland every year, and who land their fish,
when they are successfully cured, barrelled, and the bulk of
them is sent away to foreign countries. These delicious
fish, although caught, cured, and sold by Presbyterian
fishermen, neither pious -Neapolitan, Portuguese, nor even
the good Pope himself, ever hesitates to enjoy the relish
of a heretical pilchard or herring.

The Herring FisJiery of Scotland. — Mr. Bremner, in his
work on "The Industries of Scotland," gives an interesting
description of the outfit and results : —

" During the fishing season Wick presents one of the
most interesting scenes to be witnessed in the whole range
of industry. In the course of the afternoon the crews of
the boats moored in the harbours or anchored in the bay
prepare to start for the night's fishing. The nets are got
on board, the masts are hoisted, the sails set, and soon the
bay becomes shrouded in dark-brown canvas. With a
breeze from the south-east, the departure of the boats is a
splendid sight, for then they have to tack out ; and the
spectators are favoured by beholding a regatta on a grander
scale than any to be witnessed elsewhere. The movement
seaward is simultaneous along the coast, and by the time
the last of the fleet gets outside the heads of Wick Bay, a
dark line of boats extends continuously from Duncansby
Head to the head of Clyth, a stretch of a dozen miles.
Generally those in the boats have no fixed intention as to
what spot they shall select for casting out their nets, and
taking their draw from Neptune's lottery. If a good haul
was previously got at a certain part, those who get it
endeavour to return to that part ; but in most cases the

44 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

boats which were successful on the previous night are
watched and followed, notwithstanding the fact that it is
an exceedingly rare thing for a boat to have two excep-
tionally successful nights following each other.

" Having chosen their water, the crew of each boat
begin to ' shoot ' their nets, which, while being ' laid ' in
their boats, were united in a continuous train or drift, by
knotting together the ' back-ropes.' Each boat has a train
of nets about half a mile in length and lo yards in depth.
By corks attached at the top and weights at the bottom,
the nets are made to float perpendicularly in the water.
This wall of netting is suspended from buoys which allow
it to sink 20 or 30 feet below the surface. The nets are put
into the sea immediately after sunset, and most of the
crew then endeavour to snatch ' 40 winks ' of sleep. In the
course of an hour or two some of the nets are hauled up
and examined to see whether the fish have been ' striking.'
If there should be good signs of fish in the locality, the
nets are allowed to lie for some time. The herrings are
caught by getting fixed in the meshes while trying to pass
through. The captain decides the proper time for taking
in the nets, and when he gives the word, all hands fall to
work. As the nets are got on board, the fish are shaken
out of them and fall into the hold, where, after a gasp or
two, they expire. If the night's labour has yielded 20 or
30 barrels of fish, the men think themselves fortunate ; but
it is no unusual thing for a boat to bring ashore 80 and
even 100 * crans,' or barrels.

" The return of the boats in the morning is an event of
much more importance and interest to people on shore, and
from an early hour anxious inquiries are made respecting
the fortunes of the night, while those who have leisure go
to make observations from the piers and cliffs. As the

The Herring Fishery. 45

boats crowd into the harbours, an opportunity is afforded
for judging of the uncertainty of the fishermen's fortunes.
A score or two of boats sail swiftly in, with barely as many
fish on board as will suffice for the breakfasts of the crews ;
then, at a toilsome pace, come one or two boats filled to the
thwarts with herrings. In one case, the night's labour of
six men, and the use and risk of property worth from £100
to ^200, has produced^ a return of about 6d. ; in another,
of ^60 or ^80. The average catch at Wick in 1868 was 41 f
crans, drawn from returns of individual boats which ranged
from one to upwards ot 200 crans, or barrels.

" When all the boats are in, the harbours are quite
crowded ; but, by mutual arrangement, the boats having
large quantities of fish to land are allowed to get near the
quays. " The fish are shovelled into wicker baskets, and then
carried to the ' station,' where they are measured and emptied
into the ' boxes,' or enclosures of wood from 20 to 30 feet
square, the sides of which are about 30 inches in height. As
soon as a convenient quantity of fish has been deposited in
the box, a troop of women, arrayed in canvas and oil-cloth,
approach, and the ' gutting ' and ' packing ' processes begin.
The gutters, each armed with a small knife, surround the
box, and, taking a herring up in the left hand, operate upon
it with the knife held in the right hand. The rapidity of
their movements is surprising, a good worker being able to
dispose of 1000 fish in an hour. As the fish are gutted,
they are dropped into baskets and handed over to the
' packers,' who ' rouse ' them with salt in a large tub, and
then arrange them in layers in the barrels. A free use
of salt is made, the herrings being first coated with it
separately in the rousing process, and the layers in the
barrels afterwards thickly overlaid with it. The barrels are
temporarily covered and allowed to stand for 10 days,

46 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

during which time the fish settle down considerably.
Additional fish are then put in, until the barrels are quite
lull. After being examined and approved by an officer of
the Fishery Board, the barrels receive the official brand,
which is accepted in the market as a guarantee that the
fish are of a certain standard of quality. A large number
of coopers and labourers are engaged in preparing and
heading up the barrels, and removing them from one place
to another."

At almost all the stations in Scotland the disposition of
the fishermen for some years past has been to substitute
first-class boats for the second class, and even to employ
first-class boats at the line or white fishery, where boats of
the second class were formerly used.

An enterprising curer at Wick has lately made trial of
sending carrier pigeons to sea with boats which fish at a
large offing. The pigeons were the means of supplying
intelligence of the results of the night's fishing before the
boats arrived, so that preparations could be made ac-
cordingly, and they also conveyed instruction when a
steam-tug or other assistance was required. Another ex-
periment made with success at Wick was the employment
of a traction engine to haul up the boats for the winter,
instead of gangs of men, and the work was found to be
done cheaper.

The take of herrings in the Scotch fisheries has been
on the whole large in the past ten years : —

Total cured.

Exported.

Barrels.

Barrels.

1867

825,589

478,704i

1868

651,433!

... 3(^8,7441

1869

675,143

... 38i,333J

1870

833,160^

530,558

r87i

825,475! ...

551,605!

1872

773.859i

549,631

llie Herring Fishery. 47

Total cured.

Exported.

Barrels.

Barrels.

1873 ...

939,233^

668,008

1874

1,000,561

737.3I4I

IS75 ...

942,980

660,970^

1876

598,197^

400, 423 i

About one half of the total number cured are " officially
branded " by the inspectors.

The respective brands are "crown full," "maties," "spent,"
and " mixed." Maties are those fish in which the roes and
milts are perfectly but not largely developed — and it is well
to understand that this is the state of the fish in which it is
truly in the best condition for food — and when it will be found
most delicious to eat, as well as most nutritive. Although
it does not exhibit, whilst in this condition, so bulky an
appearance as it does when it is in that of a full fish, it is
in reality much fatter, for the bulk of the full fish is decep-
tively produced by the great enlargement of the roe or
milt, and this does not take place without a corresponding
diminution of the body of the fish. The full fish, however,
are those which are most sought after in a mercantile point
of view, because of their larger appearance. The spent or
shotten fish having just performed their function of spawn
ing, and having been thereby reduced to a miserable, lean,
and poor state, are unpalatable, and more or less unwhole-
some as food when in a fresh state, and in a still greater
degree when cured. The more immediately they are taken
after spawning the worse they will be, and the longer the
time that expires after their performance of that function,
the less unpalatable or unwholesome they will become.
But it is always advisable to avoid taking or using them in
any way until they shall have had time to be fully recruited
after their thorough exhaustion from spawning.

TJie Norfolk Herring FisJicry. — From a recent official

48 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

report by Mr. Frank Buckland, fishery inspector, we are
able to glean some valuable statistics. Yarmouth for 800
years past has been celebrated for its herring fishery. The
total value of luggers, trawling smacks, and other vessels,
with the various buildings on shore belonging to the
herring and trawling fisheries, is supposed to be little short
of ;^7 50,000 sterling at the present time.

The fishing vessels belonging to Yarmouth and Gorles-
ton are : —

First class, over 15 tons, luggers and smacks ... ... 512

Second class, over 2 tons and under 15 tons ... .., 459

Total .. 971

The crews of these vessels would average eight hands.
There are also T^y small boats, with an average of two men,
and about 120 Scotch and West country vessels, which
land their fish in Yarmouth harbour during the herring
season.

Of late years the number of boats and men has greatly
increased, and the depth and length of the nets have also
been augmented. Fourteen years ago there used to be
about 15 yards on a rope ; now an ordinary net is from 18
to 20 yards on the rope. Then the boats used to fish from
61 to 91 nets each ; now they fish from loi to 161 nets.

Many boats now fish with nets a mile and a third
long ; some boats have been known to use nearly two
miles of nets. During the months of September, October,
and November, it would be well within the mark to state
that there are fishing for herrings every favourable night in
the North Sea between 5000 or 6000 miles of netting.
Formerly the herring nets were made of twine ; of recent
years they are nearly all made of cotton. Cotton is much
softer, and fishes better than twine.

The Herring Fishery. 49

The size of the drift-net varies on different parts of the
coast. The herring-net used in the long-standing Yar-
mouth fishery may, however, be taken as an iUustration of
this particular kmd of net, and the manner in which it is
there worked agrees essentially with its operation in all the
drift fisheries.

The drift-net, taking it altogether, consists of a number
of nets, usually from 120 to 130, each of which is 17 yards
long, and between seven and eight yards deep. They are
attached along their upper margin by short pieces of line a
few inches apart to the back-rope, a double rope enclosing
at short intervals single pieces of cork to keep that part of
the net uppermost. These nets are fastened together at
their extremities, and thus united form what is called a
" train, fleet, or drift of nets," extending to a length of
nearly a mile and a quarter. The depth to which the nets
are sunk is regulated by ropes seven or eight yards long,
called " seizings," two of which, from each net, are made
fast to a stout warp running the whole length of the train,
the warp itself being supported near the surface by small
kegs or buoys, technically called " bowls." The warp is
also useful in taking the strain off the nets, and in pre-
venting their loss in case the train should be fouled and cut
by a vessel passing over them when they are near the sur-
face. The minimum size of the herring-mesh is fixed by
law at " one inch from knot to knot along the line," or, to
put it in a form perhaps less likely to be misunderstood, at
one inch square. In practice, however, it is found that in
order to catch good-sized fish rather larger dimensions are
desirable, and meshes running from 31 to 34 instead of 36
to the yard are, with few exceptions, in use all around the
coast.

Drift fishing is carried on at night. The nets are shot

50 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

a little before sunset, the fishing-boat being kept before the
wind, and with only enough sail set to take her clear of
the nets as fast as they are thrown over. When all the
nets are out, about 15 fathoms more of warp are paid out,
and by this the vessel is swung round and then rides head
to wind, a small mizen being set to keep her in that
position.

The whole train of nets is now extended in nearly a
straight line, the back-rope, to which the corks are fastened,
being uppermost, and the body of the net hanging perpen-
dicularly in the water, forming a wall of netting more
than 2000 yards long, and about eight yards deep. The
strain from the vessel serves to keep the net extended, and
the whole — vessel and nets together — drifts along with the
tide. The influence of the tide, however, is not equally
felt throughout the whole extent of the nets. The train
is consequently soon thrown into irregular curves, often
leading to considerable confusion when many boats are
fishing in close company.

During the day the herrings keep very much at the
bottom, or in a considerable depth of water ; but as night
closes in, and if the weather be favourable, they become
more active, swim nearer the surface, and in their attempts
to pass through the barriers of netting on every side of
them many become meshed, the gills of any moderate-
sized fish preventing its return when once the head has
passed completely through the mesh.

If, after two or three hours, an examination of the first
of the nets should show that many fish have been caught,
the train is hauled on board and the fish shaken out. The
nets are hauled in by means of a capstan and the warp to
which the nets are fastened.

Drift fishing is carried on with craft of various sizes

The Herring Fishery. 51

from the Yarmouth decked lugger of 60 tons to the frail
canvas canoe or curraghoi the West of Ireland, the number
of men and the quantity of net varying with the size of the
boats.

The weight of fish carried from the Great Eastern rail-
way stations in 1874 was as follows : —

Tons.
Yarmouth ... ... ... ... 27,517

Lowestoft ... - ... ... ... 23,861

Harwich ... ... ... ... 2,509

53.8S7

In addition to the above, about 20,000 tons of trawl fish
are sent to Billingsgate every year by carrying cutters and
steamers from the Yarmouth fleets of trawling vessels in
the North Sea. This would give 47,864 tons from Yar-
mouth alone, and including Lowestoft and Harwich, 74,234
tons of fish. To this must be added a very large quantity
sent by steamers to London, Newcastle, Hull, etc., and
many ship- loads exported to ports in the Mediterranean.

A very important trade, that of kippering herrings, has,
during the last few years, been introduced into Yarmouth,
mainly through the energy and enterprise of Mr. John
Woodger. Herrings for kippering must be of the very
best quality, and no salt is used in this process. The
entrails of the fish are taken out ; they are then carefully
washed, and hung up in the smoking-house for a few hours.
Large numbers of women are employed by the kipper
merchants, and it is supposed that more than looo lasts of
herrings are now yearly required for this trade alone.

The quantity of herrings landed at the fish wharf,
Yarmouth, between August and December, is about 18,000
lasts. It is estimated that a last of freshly caught herrings
weighs about two tons. Probably over lOOO lasts in each

52 The Coiii77tercial Products of the Sea.

year may be added to this for herrings landed at Gorleston
and other parts of Yarmouth harbour.

In 1873 there were landed at Yarmouth and Lowestoft,
including the spring and autumnal fishing, 32,000 lasts of
herrings. There are in each last 13,200 individual fish.
The total number, therefore, caught in 1873 amounted
to 422,400,000, or nearly four hundred and tzventy-three
millions of herrings. Take these fish at a halfpenny each
when cured and sold in the retail market, and we shall
find the value of the herrings caught in one year by fishing
vessels sailing out of Yarmouth and Lowestoft to be oyer
;^87 5, 000.

Mr. J. G. Nail, in 1866, estimated the entire capital
embarked in the Yarmouth fisheries, including trawling
vessels, to be about ;^6oo,ooo ; this has since much in-
creased. The value of the capital embarked in the Lowes-
toft fisheries is also very large.

The herring fisheries in Yarmouth and Lowestoft may
therefore be truly said to be of national importance ; the
herrings alone caught would give about 14 meals in the
year to every man, woman, and child in the United
Kingdom, allowing one fish to a meal.

It appears that there are no herrings caught in January.
Towards the end of February the fishermen begin to catch
spring herrings, and the fishery lasts during March, April,
and May. In June and July the midsummer herring
fishery is carried on, more or less. In August little is
done in herrings ; the " harvest of the sea " begins in
September and lasts until about Christmas. This is called
the " autumn or home fishing."

The spring herrings are described as being nothing but
skin and bone ; there is no fat whatever about them. They
are not good ; indeed, hardly fit for human food. The mid-

The Hei'ring Fishery. 53

summer herring is a larger, handsomer, and fatter fish than
the spring herring ; for whilst the spring herrings are
only from six to seven inches in length, the midsummer
herring is generally eight to nine inches. As the warm
weather comes on, so the quality of the midsummer herring
improves.

The spring herring fishery begins at the end of Feb-
ruary, and continues to the end of May. These herrings
are of great value to the Lowestoft people ; from ^20,000
to ;!f30,000 are put into circulation in Lowestoft, and
upwards of looo men and boys employed on the water
during the spring herring fishery. At that time boat-
owners have no other employment for their men ; 80 to 90
boats go out from Lowestoft, and several from Gorleston,
to catch these spring herrings.

A large proportion of these herrings is sold for bait
to the Dutch and French fishermen, who come over to
Lowestoft on purpose to buy them. They are used to
bait the long lines, to catch halibut, turbot, etc.

Herrings caught at Lowestoft.

Spring

Midsummer

Autumnal

Year.

herrings.

herrings.

herrings.

Lasts.

Lasts.

Lasts.

1873

1887

54

10,973

1874

2546

112

9,173

1875

1064

io5

—

The commercial importance of the Lowestoft fisheries
may be seen from the following figures, showing the
number of boats and men employed at the port : —

Trawling smacks ... ... ... 78

Luggers and dandies ... ... ... 260

Small boats ... ... ... .. 120

The trawlers average 8 men and boys ; total, 624. The

54 The Commercial Pi'odiuts of the Sea.

luggers and dandies, lo men and boys ; total, 2600. Small
boats, 2 men ; total, 240. This gives a total of 458 vessels
of all classes, and 3464 men and boys.

This is the total of registered vessels and their crews,
but it does not include the shore men, who are employed
in the markets as packers, curers, etc. Nor does it include
the West country or Scotch boats which use the port
during the herring season. These may be safely reckoned
as 120 vessels, with looo men and boys.

On the Cornish coast 200 boats from Newlyn and
Mousehole are engaged in the herring fishery, and employ
at least 1000 persons. Each boat of modern build costs
about ^^250, and carries nets which cost on the average
from £a^ to £\ \os. per net.

The quantity of herrings caught off Ireland in 1876 was
180,318 mease,* which was about 2000 meases below the
take of the previous year. At the average of 2^s. ^d. pc
mease, this gives a total value of ;^226,8o3.

The DiitcJi Herring Fishery. — Before the sixteenth
century, when nearly all the countries of Europe were
debarred the use of animal food during Lent, the con-
sumption of herrings all over the continent was im-
mense, and brought prodigious wealth to Holland. De
Witt, the great Dutch statesman, mentions that about
2000 busses were employed by the Dutch in the herring
fishery at home. Each buss had a complement of about
25 men, thus rearing about 50,000 seamen, besides giving
bread and employment to several hundred thousand people
on shore, in building busses and making nets, casks, etc. ;
and it was an old proverb in Holland, " that the foundation
of Amsterdam was laid on herring-bones." The Dutch
fishery, besides employing so many thousand men in catch-
* A fish-measure of 500 herrings, sometimes spelt " mace "or " maize."

The Herring Fishery. 55

ing and curing the herrings, employed many thousand
more seamen for managing the merchant vessels which
carried the produce of the fisheries to the various ports of
the Baltic and Mediterranean seas. Thus, by cultivating
and encouraging the herring fishery, the Dutch formed
themselves into a great maritime power, and in the days of
Oliver Cromwell possessed a navy not inferior to that of
England.

In the fifteenth century the Dutch had 700 large vessels
employed in the fishery, and the quantity of fish they
caught was estimated at 30,000,000 a year ; in the seven-
teenth century the quantity rose to 50,000,000; but it has
since greatly declined. The English fishermen take at
present about 7,000,000 tons annually, and the Dutch not
more than 35,000. In the year 1650 the Dutch had 5000
" busses," or large decked fishing luggers, on the east coast
of Scotland ; they were manned by 50,000 fishermen, and
from this source the Dutch navy, so long the most formi-
dable on the North Sea, was chiefly manned. The north-
east coast of Scotland was chiefly the locality of the Dutch
fisheries, and here they had to compete with the Norse
fishers, who had possession of the Orkney and Shetland
Islands and a great part of the Caithness coast, the creeks
and harbours in which w^ere used for the coast fisheries,
while the larger vessels kept the sea.

The Dutch herrings, though caught almost on the same
ground as the English or Scotch, fetch a higher price than
any other in the world, and are eaten raw as a relish in
Holland and Germany. The first barrel of new herrings
that is taken is forwarded to the king at the Hague. It is
carried in procession with banners and military music ; the
day is one of public rejoicing, and a few of the new herrings
are sent a*; presents to the nobles of the land. The Dutch

56 The Commercial Prodttcts of the Sea.

bleed each herring, use the best quality of salt, and take
the greatest care in the manipulation.

The herring is a very fat, oily fish, and unless carefully
and rapidly cured with salt, becomes soon rancid and
unfit for use. The herrings formerly cured in Scotland
were not gutted and bled with a knife like the Dutch
herrings, but were cured intact as they came cut of the
sea. No time was limited for putting the fish into salt ;
everything was done there as here, in the most slovenly
manner ; and while the Dutch herring found a ready
market all over the continent, the Scotch found none, and
the consumption was almost entirely confined to the home
market.

The great advantage of the fishery inspectors now is, that
they perambulate the curers' yards while the operation of
curing is going on. They see that the women gut, salt, and
pack the herrings properly, and within the time prescribed
by the statute. They also take care that every cask shall
contain at least 32 gallons, and that the full fish be sepa-
rated from the lank or spawned fish. It requires 12 days
to cure the herrings properly ; at the expiration of that
time the casks are opened again, when the fish are found
swimming in the pickle, which is formed by the salt and
the blood of the fish. The superfluous pickle is then drawn
off, and the casks are filled quite full with herrings. The
eft*ect of the salt upon the herrings is to compress them
into much smaller bulk, so that a cask which has been
packed quite full of fresh fish, the day they were landed, at
the end of 1 2 days is only about two-thirds full ; or, in
other words, 100 barrels of fresh salted fish will only yield
70 barrels of well-packed cured fish.

The French Herring Fishery. — The herring fishery
known in France in the eleventh century was long ex-

The Herring Fishery. 57

clusively pursued by Dieppe and Rouen fishermen, who
caught this fish in the North Sea, and distributed it
over France and the Levant. Later, other maritime ports
entered upon this industry ; and in 1789 Fecamp had 50
boats occupied in the herring fishery. Now, after a
decHne of the fishery occasioned by the wars of the
Republic and the Empire, it has taken a fresh start,
and become of great importance to Dieppe and Boulogne.
The herring fishery is carried on in France on the coasts
of Dunkirk and Havre, from September to February or
March, and is sometimes continued till May.

In France 180 vessels, of 8000 tons burden, are employed
in catching herrings for salting, and take about 8,500,000
kilogrammes a year. Of these vessels about 100 belong
to the port of Boulogne-sur-Mer ; the rest to Dieppe,
Fecamp, St. Valery-en-Caux, Calais, Treport, and Grave-
lines. The number of vessels employed in fishing herrings
which are sold fresh is 470, of about 10,000 tons burden, and
they catch on an average 13,000,000 kilogrammes annually.
They belong to the aforesaid ports, and also to those of
Barfleur, Berck, Dunkirk, Etape, Le Hourdel, Port-en-
Bessin, and St. Valcry-sur-Somme. At Boulogne the
fishery is better organized than anywhere else in France,
and is carried on by means of associations composed of the
owners of the boats and the crews.

A recent very productive year, in which but 109 boats and
1 506 men were engaged from Boulogne, resulted in a catch
of 4518 lasts of fresh and salted herrings, the total money
proceeds of which were ;^i 18,015. In 1873, 282 boats were
employed, of 8350 tons, and employing 3750 men. The
catch of herrings yielded over ^200,000, and the value of
the other fisheries carried on from the port ;^ 11 5,000 more.

The take of herrings on the French coasts in 1873

58 The Cominercial Products of the Sea.

amounted in value to somewhat under ;:6^400,ooo. The
herring fishery of France realized in 1866 a little over
7,000,000 francs; in 1873 it reached nearly 9,500,000 francs.

The Norzvay Herring Fishery. — The herring is found
from Mandal, on the extreme south of Norway, to the
North Cape. They seem to live in the deep submarine
valley between the 47th and 67th degrees of latitude ;
that is, from about the English Channel on the south, to
the North Cape at the extreme north of Norway. It
approaches the shore when about to spawn. They
abandon water which has not at least the temperature
of 4° C. or 40° F., either because this temperature is
disagreeable to them, or they do not find suitable food.
From some unknown cause, the localities where they pre-
sent themselves vary each year. The fishermen begin to
take a few spring herrings towards the end of March,
which are very thin, but improve in July and August.
The winter herrings are fished between 15th January and
15th March. About 1,000,000 barrels are annually pro-
cured, of which a considerable portion finds its way to
Great Britain, and the rest go to Sweden and the Baltic
ports.

The North American Fishery. — The common American
herring {Cliipea elongata, Storer) is amongst the most
valuable of food fishes. The habits, haunts, and seasons
of the herring are matters of curious inquiry. It seems,
however, now to be well established that the only migra-
tion of the herring is from the deep seas to the shores at
the spawning season, and from the shore to the deep seas
when this is over.

As early as March herrings are taken in nets on the
coast, but the fish are so straggling and the seas so
boisterous, that, except for bait, fishing does not commence

The Herring Fishery. 59

till May. In this month a run of large fat herrings is
taken in nets upon the banks, which lie 10 or 15 miles sea-
ward, and carry about 75 fathoms water. A net 30 fathoms
long and three deep is passed from the stern of a boat at
anchor. The free end drifts, with the tide, held to the
surface by cork floats — sometimes the tides carry the net
down 15 fathoms in a slanting direction — thus drifting from
night to morning; the net is overhauled, and from 20 to 100
dozen is the ordinary catch. It is very evident that, owing
to the distance from shore, and the need of calm weather for
the boats and nets, as well as for the fish, which are very sus-
ceptible to rough seas, this fishing must be precarious. The
boats are stout, weatherly keel boats, with a half deck,
from five to 15 tons, carrying a jib, lore and main sail, and
usually called second-class fishermen when entered at a
regatta.

The " in shore run," a fish of smaller size, are taken in
nets set to a buoy, instead of a boat, the free end drifting
to the tide. These nets are often moored irom one buoy
to another to preserve a permanent position across a creek
or small bay. In these various ways herrings are taken by
the shore population of the whole Atlantic and Gulf coast
of Nova Scotia, from the Bay of Fundy to Cumberland.
The immense tides of the Bay of Fundy, leaving long flats
and sand-bars at low tide, and the steep trap formation oi
its southern coast line have singularly altered the character
of the fishery. Here the drift-net fishing is carried on,
boats and nets drifting for miles upon the flow and returning
upon the ebb, the nets twisted and coiled into apparently
impossible masses. The shores of the trap formation beino-
flat tables of trap reaching plane after plane into the sea,
with no crevice to hold a stake or anchor a buoy, the fisher-
men procure stout spruce fir trees, and lopping off" the

6o The Commercial Products of the Sea.

branches, leave the long lateral roots attached to them.
These they place upright in rows upon the bare rock, and
pile heavy stones upon the roots as ballast, stretching their
nets between them. Entirely submerged at flood tide, at ebb
they are left high and dry, and often loaded down with fish
caught by the gills in the meshes of the net. These nets
are usually set for a large, lean spring herring, running for
the flats in early spring to spawn. This method of fishing
obtains throughout the whole trap district of the province
bordering upon the Bay of Fundy.

The value of the herrings caught in the Dominion of
Canada in 1876 was returned at ^825,620.

Herring {Cliipca Jiarengiis) and shad {Alosa sapidis-
siind) are so abundant in North Carolina that the former
sell for 6s. per 1000, and the finest shad at from 6d. to li-.
each. The seines used are of immense size, and are
worked by steam power. A seine worked at the mouth
of the Chowan is a mile and a half in length, and in
it 300,000 herrings have been taken in one day. They
also take from looo to 2000 shad at a catch. Steamers are
at the wharves, constantly loading with these fine fish,
packed in ice, lor the New York and other northern
markets.

CHAPTER III.

THE PILCHARD FISHERY.

The pilchard fishery of Cornwall and Devonshire — Description of drift and
seine nets — Process of cleaning and salting the fish — Statistics of catch in
various years — Definitions of fish measures — Cornish sardines — Irish
fishery — French fishery.

The pilchard {Cliipca pilcharihis) is of a somewhat less com-
pressed and rounded form than the herring. The great
seat of this British fishery is the coast of Devonshire and
Cornwall, particularly Mount's Bay, St. Ives, and Meva-
gissey, where they are caught in vast numbers. In July the
early pilchard fishing commences, and from that time to
the beginning of September the whole coast from St. Ives
to the Ram Head is in a state of excitement and activity.
So much do the comforts of all the labouring classes
depend on a successful take of pilchards, that an unpro-
ductive season is nearly as disastrous as a deficient harvest
on land would be.

The fish are taken in either drift-nets or seines. The
former are for entangling the fish in the open sea, and are
about half a mile in length, by five fathoms in depth.
The latter are cast near the shore, and in shallow water.
To work a seine three boats are required. The first large

62 The Commercial Products of the Sea,

one, carrying the stop seine, is manned by a crew of nine,
six rowing, two to slioot the seine, and one acting as bow-
man, on whom the course of the boat depends. The
second boat is called the volgar or follower, and carries the
tuck or smaller lifting seine. The third is the lurker, the
smallest -of the three, and is chiefly occupied by the hirer
or guide, and some boys. The seine is of various lengths,
ranging from 250 to 300 fathoms, by 13 to 16 fathoms
deep. Its meshes are smaller than those of the drift-net,
the object being to enclose the fish without meshing
them.

The seine net has a line of head-ropes, to which are
attached corks and other buoys, to keep its upper edge
near the surface. To the lower edge are attached innumer-
able small pieces of lead, which bear it down and keep it
close to the ground, the object being to shoot the seine in
shallow water with a clear bottom. The "tuck" is a
similar net, but of smaller dimensions ; its mesh is of the
same size as that of the seine, but it has in the middle
a hollow bag, as it were, into which the fish go when the
process of tucking is going on. These nets are very
expensive, costing from i!^300 to £6(X).

The " drift " fishing employs about 47 boats. Each
boat costs about ;^200, or when a set of three nets is pro-
vided, so as to fish for herrings and mackerel as well as
pilchards, the cost is ;{S"400. Unlike the seine boats, the
drift boats must all be manned by sailors.

As many as 4200 hogsheads, or over 1200 tons, of fish
have been taken in one cast of the seine, but this enormous
catch was an extraordinary haul. A good cast, enclosing
a large shoal, has, however, often yielded 1200 hogsheads
of fish.

The pilchards, when taken on shore, are gutted and

The Pilchard Fishery. 6

o

cleaned by women and children, and piled, with layers of
salt, in large heaps in cellars or warehouses, where they
remain for about a month ; and being subsequently washed
and thoroughly cleaned, are packed in hogsheads and
subjected to pressure to extract the oil, about three gallons
being yielded by each cask, when the fish are fat.

Great quantities of salted pilchards are sent to the
Mediterranean, particularly to Naples and other parts of
Italy, where they are largely consumed during Lent.

The number of hogsheads exported in 1S51 was 26,743.
The average for 10 years then stood at 23,446 hogsheads.
Taking the number at 2500 fish to the hogshead, over
58,500,000 fish are caught annually, weighing 10,620 tons.
About 5000 tons of salt are required to cure the catch for
export, as there is but a small local consumption.

In the seven years ending 1863 the average annual
export was only 13,757 hogsheads, but 1859 ^^id i860 were
unprecedently bad years, the take being only 3500 hogs-
heads. The catch of 1S63, on the contrary, was large,
reaching 26,057 hogsheads. The shipments were larger at
the close of the last century than they are now.

The total takes in Cornwall for the last three years
have been very small, namely, 7543^ hogsheads in 1874,
7337J in 1875, and 6700 in 1876. In the last-named year
only from 300 to 400 hogsheads were captured during the
summer fishing, which ends on the 15th of September.
These produced from G^s. to ^Js. per hogshead. The main
take was in the autumn and winter, and they went as high
in price as lOOs. per hogshead.

Italy will absorb, at fair prices, as much as 30,000
hogsheads annually, and depends upon Cornwall for the
supply.

Pilchards arrive on the coasts of Devon and Cornwall

64 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

from June to September ; sometimes they are caught about
Christmas. A hogshead of pilchards, well cured and
pressed, will hold 2500 to 3000 fish. The fresh fish weigh
about 6\ cwt, and the salt 3^ cvvt., but the weight of the
hogsheads when cured and pressed is reduced to about 4^
cwt, including the weight usually allowed for the cask,
28 lbs. Ten thousand pilchards make a last. A hogs-
head is supposed to consist of eight baskets of fish, and
a basket contains about 400 ; but this number varies with
the size of the fish. The fish are sold by the long hundred
— 120.

A new industry has been started in Cornwall within a
year or two, that of preserving small pilchards in oil in tins,
after the manner of sardines. The seat of the company's
operations is at Newlyn ; a Frenchman conducts the opera-
tions. The Cornish sardines grow in favour and demand
in London. Their flavour is considered quite equal to that
of the foreign fish, and their nutritive qualities greater ;
while the extra size of the box, and the liberal way in
which it is filled, all tend to commend the home product.

Large shoals of pilchards appeared off the coast of
Cork and Kerry during the year 1876, principally from
July to the end of October, some as late as November.
They were in the greatest abundance off the Cork coast,
and in many places came close in to the shore, and
were captured by small seines drawn in upon the rocks.
No efforts have yet been made in Ireland to cure for the
continental markets, but some have been cured for home
consumption on various parts of the coast. By degrees
this fish is being regarded with more favour by the country
people, and if they continue to frequent the L'ish coasts as
they have now done for some years, there is little doubt
that a considerable trade will result.

The Pilchard Fishery. 65

Pilchards frequent the coasts of France and Spain in
small numbers. The fishery of Nantes is carried on with
great activity, and employs in the season 700 boats, manned
by about 3000 seamen.

66 The Commercial Products of the Sea,

CHAPTER IV.

THE MACKEREL FISHERY.

The mackerel fishery on the coasts of Devon and Cornwall — The Lowestoft
mackerel fishery — Statistics of fishery — American mackerel fishery — Mode
of curing the fish.

The mackerel (Scomber scomhrus) is a much esteemed fish.
The excitement on the Devon and Cornish coasts when
the shoals of this fish appear is very great. On their
periodical arrivals, which is their custom in multitudes, for
the purpose of feeding on a small fry very similar to white-
bait, a practised eye will readily observe their manoeuvres
some distance from the shore, inasmuch as the moment
they discover the food they love so well, their numbers and
greedy propensities cause them to rush on their prey, which,
endeavouring to escape from death, disturbs the w'ater in
large circles like a shower of hailstones dropping therein ;
indeed, we know of nothing more similar to compare it to.
The moment one of these disturbed spots appears on the
water, men are placed on the highest clifis to look out,
while the boats with their crews and nets prepared are
launched and ready for action. The mackerel are some-
times seen at least a mile from shore, but the moment they
attack the small bait, the latter fly tov/ards the beach, till
at times they approach within a hundred yards or nearer ;

The Mackerel Fisheiy. 67

and the look-out man, who discovers them more readily
from an eminence, shouts at the extent of his lungs, the
boats are rapidly rowed around the feasting fish in a circle,
the nets cast, and then being hauled towards the shore by
men on land, some thousands of mackerel are enclosed in
a large bag at the extremity of the net.

The demand for this fish is so great, that they are rarely
to be met with in the towns in the west.

During 1869 the quantity of mackerel taken from Pen-
zance and St. Ives by railway amounted to 71,959 pads, or
1 617 tons; to May i, 1870, the quantity conveyed from
the same places amounted to 40,100 pads, or 871 tons.

The Lowestoft Mackerel Fishery. — The mackerel voyage
on the east coast, even in its best days, was rarely re-
munerative either to owners or men ; more frequently the
amount realized barely paid charges for provisions, leaving
nothing for wages, or wear and tear of boats and nets.
The owners never expected much, and it was more to
keep their men in employment, than in anticipation of
profit, that this voyage was carried on for many years.
In 1854 there were 20 mackerel boats out of Lowestoft;
in 1862 these had decreased to three, and their gross
earnings averaged only £() per boat.

In former years mackerel realized a large price ; now
the merchants have to compete with very fine fish caught
ofif the Irish coast near Kinsale, and also with the immense
numbers imported from Norway. These mackerel are
packed in ice, and find a ready market amongst the manu-
facturing towns, as well as in London. In 1874 Yarmouth
and Gorleston had a few boats engaged in this fishery for a
short time in the autumn ; i.e., nearly four months later
than the mackerel voyage of former years commenced. In
1875, 3926 long hundred (120) were caught, t\\e average

68 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

price of the fish being 26s. per hundred ; total value,
;^4907 \Qs. In 1862 and 1870 the annual take was
valued at ;^9000.

The average number of boats engaged in this fishery
may be stated at about 50-

Mackerel nets have only about 24 or 25 meshes to the
yard, and are not so deep as the herring nets, but they are
twice as long — a fleet of mackerel nets, such as is used by
the Yarmouth boats, extending to a distance of nearly two
miles and a half.

The official returns of the mackerel fishery for Ireland
for 1876 showed a gross capture of 1,391,083 boxes, of
six score fish each. The prices varied from 3^-. to ^s. per
box, the total amount realized being ;^i 10,223. The
regular mackerel fishing season commences about the
middle of March and ends about the last of June. During
that period the lowest price obtained was \2s. per box.
The average price for the total quantity taken was \6s. per
box of six score.

The mackerel fishery on the French coast, taking the
catch of the years 1873 and 1874, averages ;!^i40,ooo in
value. It is principally carried on from the ports of
Boulogne, Dieppe, Fecamp, Caen, and Douarnenez, In
1867 the value of the French catch of mackerel was under
i^ 1 00,000.

The mackerel on the coast of Norway is, as an article
of export, comparatively of modern fishery growth. The
fishery is carried on along the southern coast from Chris-
tiansand to Mandel, during the three summer months of
May, June, and July. The quantity exported to Great
Britain in 1869 was Zy6c)'i,6i'j fish, valued at ;^i8,ii7. The
average price paid was 2s. per score. . The boats' crews
engaged in this fishery earned about ^60 to ^^90 per boat-

The Mackerel FisJmy. 69

The American Mackerel Fishery. — The spring mackerel
{Scomber vernales, Mitch.) is the ordinary mackerel of com-
merce. The fall mackerel is considered by some naturalists
a distinct species, and has been named Scomber grex. The
mackerel is not a migratory fish, but draws off into deep
water at the approach of winter, and returns to the shallow
water near the shores at the beginning of summer, for the
purpose of depositing its spawn. The mackerel fishery of
Nova Scotia composes one of its largest exports. Besides
the catch by the colonial fishermen, about 50,000 barrels
more are taken in British waters annually by the Americans,
making about 200,000 barrels in all.

On the North American coast a very extensive trade is
carried on in pickled mackerel. Every little creek and
day from Cape Sable to Halifax in Nova Scotia occasion-
ally overflows with this fish, and they are taken in nets,
from 100 to 600 barrels being secured at a single draught.
Men, women, and children are then employed night and
day in curing them. 150,000 barrels of mackerel are often
exported from the port of Halifax alone, principally to
the United States, valued at ^^300,000. In 1874, 32,000,000
pounds weight of mackerel were taken on the Canadian
coasts.

There are about 60,000 tons register of American boats
engaged in the mackerel fishery, chiefly from the States
of Massachusetts and Maine, and employing 10,000 men.
The quantity of mackerel taken by these boats sometimes
amounts to 350,000 barrels, valued at ;^500,000.

When an American vessel reaches a place where the
fish are supposed to be plentiful, the master furls all his
sails except the mainsail, brings his vessel's bow to the
wind, ranges his crew at intervals along one of her sides,
and, without a mackerel in sight, attempts to raise a school

70 The Commercial Products of tJte Sea.

by throwing over bait. The baiter stands amidships, with
a bait-box outside the rail, and with a tin cup nailed to a
long handle he scatters the bait on the water. If the
mackerel appear, the men throw out short lines, to the
hooks of which a glittering pewter jig is affixed. The fish,
if they bite at all, generally bite rapidly, and are hauled in
as fast as the most active man can throw out and draw in
a line. As they pull them on board, the fisherman, with a
jerk, throws them into a barrel standing beside him. So
ravenously do they bite, that sometimes a barrelful is caught
in 15 minutes by a single man. Some active young men
will haul in and jerk off a fish and throw out the line for
another with a single motion, and repeat the act in such
rapid succession that their arms seem continually on the
swing. While the school remains alongside and will take
the hook, the excitement of the men, and the rushing
noise of the fish in their beautiful and manifold evolu-
tions in the water, arrest the attention of the most careless
observer.

The summer mackerel fishing is carried on in two
ways, with hooks and lines, and with the seine. The greater
number of fishermen use the hook and line. These are the
crews of those beautiful schooners to be met with every-
where in the southern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence
during the months of July, August, and September, and
which from afar look more like a small squadron of yachts
than a fleet of fishing vessels, so beautiful are their masts
and sails, and so neat and clean are they kept. But on a
nearer approach this is found to be an error, for on the
decks of these vessels are to be seen crews of from 10 to
20 men, all occupied either in catching fish, in repairing
fishing implements, or in splitting and salting fish that have
been taken ; and what is most striking is the order that

The Mackerel Fishery. yi

reigns on board of these schooners, whose decks and holds
are almost always full of fish, fish barrels, salt, etc.

Before sailing from their port of outfit for the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, they provide themselves with several barrels
of very fat little fish, called poggies, to serve as bait and
as feed, for the purpose of attracting mackerel to the surface
of the water and retaining them near the vessel.

At a later period, when the poggies are exhausted,
recourse is had to the offal of the mackerel for bait, and it
is prepared in this way :— Whole fishes, or the offal of fishes,
either poggies, mackerel, or others, are chopped very fine
in a machine something like a chaff or straw cutter, and
then put into a large bucket full of salt water ; the mixture
is then stirred for a long time with a small paddle, and this
is the whole secret of preparing feed for mackerel. Machines
for chopping up the fish are sold at from £i to ;^i los.,
according to their size.

As soon as the schooners have reached the place where
schools of mackerel are usually found, they keep cruising
backwards and forwards, and the moment there is the least
appearance of fish, or their presence is even suspected near
a vessel, the jibs are taken in, and the vessel is brought to,
with the mizen-sail and mainsail veered half round. Feed
is then scattered all around from small pails ; the fishermen
seize their lines, bait their hooks with small pieces of the
skin of the neck of the mackerel or of any other fish (but
the mackerel is much preferable), and throw them into the
water. The lines are fine, and made of hemp or cotton,
generally the latter. They are from six to eight fathoms
long, and to one end is fastened a small sinker of polished
pewter, oblong in shape, and weighing about two ounces,
on which is soldered a middle-sized hook. Each fisher-
man plies two lines, one in each hand, and leans on the

72 The Commercial P^'oducts of the Sea.

rail while fishing. He very seldom pays out more than
four or five fathoms of line, for the mackerel, attracted by
the chopped fish thrown overboard, thousands of pieces of
which float in mid-water, leaves the depths of the sea, and
comes swimming towards the surface to feast with avidity
on this excellent bait, prepared for him with so much care ;
and while he is gorging himself with pieces of poggie and
mackerel, he seizes the bait on the fisherman's hook, and
soon, in spite of his violent efforts to break the iron that is
tearing his mouth, and to free himself, he is pulled out of
the water and thrown upon the deck, where he dies before
long.

The fish are classed by the inspectors into four grades,
the third and fourth quality being worth only half the value
of No. I. They are packed for shipment in barrels, half
quarter, and eighth barrels. Nos. i and 2 are intended for
the home markets of the United States and Canada, the
lowest quality being principally consumed in the West
Indies.

In curing them, the common custom is to dip them in
fine salt before salting in the barrels. When this is neg-
lected, the fish adhere together, and become red and
tainted. The proper mode of packing is with the flesh
side down ; this prevents the fish from tainting, and allows
all impurities in the salt to settle away from the flesh of
the fish. Mackerel are also cured in hermetically sealed
tins, but not to a very large extent In 1873 the quantity
so packed was 2i,cx)0 cans in New Brunswick, and 10,842
cans in Nova Scotia.

-CHAPTER V.

THE SALMON FISHERY.

Salmon formerly common in the Thames— Statistics of salmon brought to
London — Value of the salmon fisheries in 1871 — Sales at Billingsgate —
halmon fisheries of Norway, Canadian Dominion, etc. — Acclimatization
in Australia.

At present one of the most esteemed fish is the sahnon
{Salnio salor). In the reign of Richard I. (i 197), the Thames
is described as containing " remarkably good salmon ; " and
even early in the present century the Thames abounded
with salmon of the finest quality. " Thames salmon " then
bore a higher price than that obtained from most other
streams, and so copious was once the supply, that in the
olden time it was usual to insert a clause in the indentures
of London apprentices, that they should not be fed upon
salmon more than a certain number of days in the month.
Then came the time when the river water became impure.
Not only was the population of the metropolis enormously
increased, but, being well sewered, its vast network of
drains poured their contents (by the authority of an Act
of Parliament) into the river. Then gas-works were made,
and their ammoniacal water still further poisoned the
stream. Against these impurities the salmon could not
contend ; they gradually, and at length totally, disappeared
from the waters of our queen of rivers.

74 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

It is difficult to obtain accurate statistics of the fish food
which is drawn from the sea ; we can only guess at it from
such data as have been made accessible. The following
statistics show the quantities of salmon (in boxes of 120 lbs.
each) received and sold in London from 1850 to 1871 : —

English

Years.

Scotch.

Irish.

Dutch.

Norwegian.

and
Welsh.

1S50 ...

13,940

2135

105

54

72

1S51

",593

414I

203

212

40

1852 ...

13,044

3602

176

306

20

1853 •..

19,485

5052

401

1208

20

1854 ...

23,194

6333

345

—

128

1855 ...

18,197

4IOI

227

—

59

1856 ...

15,438

6568

68

5

200

1857 ...

18,654

4904

622

220

1858 ...

2', 564

6429

973

19

499

1859 ...

15,630

4S55

922

—

260

iSbo ...

15,870

3803

849

40

438

1865

19,009

6858

1479

1069

868

i86b ...

21,725

9326

1772

1632

1563

1867 ...

23,006

541 1

1203

1296

2405

i8C)8 ...

28,020

3487

807

407

1725

1869 ...

20,474

8800

637

696

1843

1870 ...

20,648

92 1 1

626

852

3120

1871

23,390

7379

516

1037

2953

The aggregate value of the salmon fisheries in 1871 was
estimated by the Fishery Commissioners as follows : —
Scotland, i^20o,ooo ; Ireland, ;^400,ooo ; England, ^90,000.

At an average of is. 2d. per lb., or £y per box, the
value of the 34,457 boxes sold at Billingsgate in 1870 was
^^241,199. Besides these metropolitan sales, 8600 boxes of
Irish salmon were sold in the midland districts of England,
2880 boxes in Dublin, and 2107 boxes and 31 baskets sent
to Liverpool. The sales at Billingsgate in 1871 were
35,275 boxes, weighing 1764 tons, valued at ^246,925.

The average annual sale of salmon in London may be
taken to be ;{^2 50,000 in value.

The Salmon Fishery. 75

The main bulk of the salmon caught in Scotland, it
appears, is sent to London ; but in the case of the salmon
caught in the English and Welsh rivers, the bulk is not sent
to London, but to the large towns in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the fisheries.

The salmon fishery in Norway is interdicted between
the 14th September and the 14th February. Besides that
which is smoked, salted, and consumed locally fresh, about
250,000 lbs. are shipped annually to England in ice, and a
small quantity to Berlin. It costs fresh about sixpence the
pound, and the annual sales reach a value of ^100,000.
The export of salted salmon is from lOOO to 1200 barrels.
Above £7000 worth of salmon was shipped from Nor-
way in 1869, exclusively for British account. The fish
dealers, who come over in fishing smacks, purchase the
fish from the fishermen as brought in, put the fish imme-
diately in ice, and despatch the article to the London
market direct, or via Grimsby.

In New Brunswick the value of the salmon taken is
estimated at about ^160,000 sterling.

The fishery is very valuable. As many as 40,000 salmon
have been caught in the course of a season at the mouth of
the St. John, a large portion of which is sent fresh to the
United States, and commands remunerative prices. At the
entrance to the Miramichi 400,000 lbs. are annually put up,
" preserved " for export. There is a great increase in the
yield of salmon in consequence of their protection during
the spawning season.

Preserved salmon is exported from British Columbia on
a large scale, and bears a very high reputation. In 1874
there was barrelled and tinned not less than 14,500,000 lbs.,
of the gross value of ^400,000 sterling.

The catch of salmon at Oregon in 1874 was an enormous

76 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

one, and the average take by the 13 existing preserving
establishments was 15,000 fish per night for 26 nights. It
was estimated that during the season 1,250,000 salmon
were taken, weighing on an average 16 lbs. each, of which
950,000 were canned fresh, and the remainder salted and
barrelled. The following figures give an approximate
return, for it is difficult to obtain precise statistics : —

No. of fish
tinned.

Weight.
lbs.

Value.

1872

170,000

2,700,000

;^86,400

1873 ■

360,000

5,760,000

168,000

1874 ■

950,000

.. 14,400,000

400,000

In the last-named year 250,000 salmon, weighing 4,000,000
lbs., were salted. Owing to the enormous increase of pro-
duction, the market value of both canned and salted salmon
has been much lowered. The average price was not over
6s. per dozen i lb. cans.

In 1876, during the fishing season, 18 establishments on
the Lower Columbia river put up 428,730 cases of salmon.
Of these over 400,000 cases contained four dozen i lb. tins,
and the remainder consisted of 2 lb. and 2\ lb. tins. Over
100,000 cases were shipped direct from Astoria to England
in the first three months. In 1877 the total catch was
378,325 cases. The total exports from San Francisco by
sea to Europe and the colonies were 170,887 cases in 1876,
and 160,982 cases in 1877.

Attempts have been carried on for many years past,
which have been attended with partial success, to acclima-
tize the salmon in the Australian rivers, and considerable
quantities of ova have also been sent out to Tasmania and
New Zealand.

CHAPTER VI.

THE SARDINE FISHERV.

Derivation of the name "sardine" — Extent of the French fishery — ^Mode of
preparing the fish for market — Statistics of the fisheries — Dried sardines —
The anchovy — The menhaden, or moss-bunker, prepared in oil in America.

The purity and delicacy of the little fish {Clnpca sprattus^
Lin.) which haunts the Bay of Biscay and the Mediterranean
is known everywhere ; its excellent keeping qualities, when
preserved in oil, enabling it to be transported for an indefi-
nite distance. It has nnuch in common with the sprat in
flavour, but also reminds the epicure of the anchovy, which
is also common on the Mediterranean and other coasts of
France.

There are sardines and sardines, for the family to which
this fish belongs includes the whitebait, the sprat, and the
pilchai-d. As they were chiefly found in large shoals on
the coasts of Sardinia, they have thence derived their
popular name, and this has also been incorporated into the
specific name of Clnpca sardiiia, Cuvier. In Italy, how-
ever, these fish are known as " sardella," and the anchovy
as " sardon."

The sardine fishery is eminently French. It is carried
on from the Gulf of Ga.scony to the east. Quitting the
Mediterranean, where they are born, the sardines, on the

78 The CommerciaC Products of the Sea.

first approach of fine weather, pass in great shoals along
the coast of Spain, and reach that of France about May or
earlier. In Provence, on the Mediterranean, the fishing,
however, commences in March and ends in June, while on
the coasts of Britanny it only commences in July, and
finishes early in October, The shoal increases as it
approaches the north, hence the necessity of often
changing the nature of the wets which are used with
fisheries.

From Douarnenez to Sables d'Olonne there are about
2500 boats employed in this fishery. Each of these requires
about 30 barrels of salted cod roe for bait during the season,
and as this sometimes runs up in price to ;^4 and £^ the
barrel, this entails a very heavy outlay. Besides which,
there are the other numerous ports of Bordeaux, Rochelle,
Bayonne, etc., to be supplied.

Two of the largest stations are at Douarnenez and
Concarneau. Fleets of boats go out some five miles and
.spread out their nets, by the side of which some cod-roe is
thrown to attract the fish. The nets are weighted at one
end, and have corks attached to the other, so that they
assume a vertical position — two nets being placed close to
each other, that the fish trying to escape may be caught in
the meshes. The fish is sold all over France (fresh when
it is possible) half-salted, or salted and pressed into barrels,
and preserved in oil.

Brought to land, they are immediately ofi'ered for sale,
as if staler by a few hours they become seriously deterio-
rated in value ; no first-class manufacturer coming to buy
such. They are sold by the thousand. The curer employs
large numbers of women, who cut off the heads of the fish,
wash, and salt them. The fish are then dipped into boiling
oil for a few minutes, arranged in various-sized tin boxes

The Sardine Fishery. 79

filled up with the finest olive oil, soldered down, and placed
in boiling water for some time to test the boxes, and those
which leak are put aside. Women burnish the tins, the
labels are put on or sometimes enamelled on the tins,
which are then packed in wooden cases, generally con-
taining 100 tins, and are then ready for export. It does
not always seem to be remembered that the longer the tin
is kept unopened the more mellow do the fish become ; and,
if properly prepared, age improves them as it does good
wine ; but if they are too salt at first, age does not benefit
them — they always remain tough. The sizes of the tins are
known as half and quarter tins. There are two kinds of
half tins, one weighing 18 ounces, and the other 16 ounces
gross. The quarter tin usually weighs about seven ounces ;
but there are larger quarter tins sometimes imported,
which tins are still used in France, but seldom seen in
England.

Sardines in oil form the most important branch of the
trade. It has become immense, and employs large numbers
of people. A quarter of a century ago the shipment of
sardines in oil from France was not above ;i^24,ooo in value ;
but in the last 10 years it has ranged from ^^"500,000 to
i^750,000, according to the abundance of the fish. About
4500 boats, regi.stering some 10,000 tons, are engaged in
the sardine fishery.

In 1866 the value of the French sardine fishery was a
little over 7,000,000 francs. In 1873 it reached 13,757,534
francs, and, owing to the abundant catch, the price fell to
15 francs the looo, against 75 francs the 1000 in 1872.

In some years the sardines are most plentiful; in others
they are scarce. At Douarnenez and Concarneau, the
principal centres, 884 boats were employed in 1866; and
in the month of July these boats caught more than

8o The Commercial Products of the Sea.

110,000,000 sardines, the sale of which produced 707,648
francs. By the end of August the fish were so abundant
that they were sold as low as \s. 6d. the 1000, a thing not
known for 10 years previously.

In 1873, in the quarter of Auray, the sardine fishery
was carried on by 239 boats. The catch amounted to
43,170,000, of which 32,000,000 were tinned, io,i20,ooo
were pressed or salted, and the rest locally consumed or
sent into the interior.

At L'Orient the catch was valued at 2,730,000 francs
at Douarnenez, 2,976,551 francs; at Quimper, 1,587,534
francs; Brest, 291,836 francs; Morlaix, 48,145 francs. Occa-
sionally 115,000,000 sardines have been caught in a single
season on the French coasts of the ocean.

The French fisheries on the coast of Finistere and
Morbihan are of very great importance. Large quantities
of sardines, mackerel, and lobsters are caught ; and close
upon 181,000 fishermen were employed during 1873. In
1871-72 the quantity of sardines caught decreased, but
during 1873 the catch was good. The value of preserved
sardines exported alone from Brest to New York in 1S73
was ;^ 5 6,640.

Of fresh and salt water fish caught, the largest propor-
tion goes by railway to Paris. During the year 1873 the
fishing stations at Douarnenez, Audierne, and Guilvince
(all on the Finistere) alone sent by rail to Paris more than
4000 tons of fresh fish, and, strange to say, it can be
purchased cheaper in Paris than fish of the same quality at
Brest or neighbouring towns.

The sardine frequents the bays and inlets of Gallicia ;
and in the single province of Pontevedra there are more
than 102 stations occupied in salting this fish, which is
carried on by females. In 1873, 5,000,000 lbs. of these fish

The Sardine Fishery. 8i

were shipped to Mediterranean ports and the Spanish
West Indies. Very few are preserved, the French holding
the monopoly of this trade. The fishery is carried on from
July to February, but the fish are in the best condition and
most abundant in November and December.

Dried sardines (" hosi-ka ") in Japan are considered a
superior manure, but the price is often too high for poor
cultivators to use them. These small fish abound in some
of the seas around, so that small boats can hardly make
their way through them. They are caught in large shoals
to extract the oil from them. This oil is used for burning
by the lower classes, but is of very inferior quality, and
gives off a good deal of black dense smoke. The residue,
after the oil is extracted, is sold for manure. A cwt. of
this manure costs about 3x. 6d.

The Anchovy is another fish, the capture and cure of
which gives extensive employment on the French Atlantic
coast and in the Mediterranean. The value of the fish
caught on the French coasts ranges from ^16,000 to
^20,000 per annum. The fishery is carried on from May
to October. After gutting and removing the head, they
are washed and simply placed in barrels, with layers of salt,
and a little reddish ochreous earth added to give them a
colour.

Anchovies are also caught and salted in Norway, the
shipments occasionally reaching 20,000 kegs.

The Americans have begun to utilize the Menhaden, or
moss-bunker, by preserving it in oil like the French sardines.
This fish has been variously named Brcvortea vicnJiadeu and
Alosa menhaden. The objection to these fish for general
use is that they are very bony. The American Sardine
Company, by some mechanical process, have removed this
objection.

82 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

The preparation these fish go through is thus described :
— They are first brought to the scaler, which consists of a
long shaft, on which are twelve wheels filled with long
blunt teeth. These revolve very rapidly, and take off every
scale in an incredibly short space of time. From the
scalers they are passed to hands who chop off the heads
and cut out the entrails. They are then placed in the
washing troughs, above which are a number of revolving
circular brushes, by contact with which the insides are
thoroughly cleaned. They are then deposited in pickle
vats, where they remain for a few hours, until they are
sufficiently salted ; after which they are spread upon large
tables, and placed in cooking cans. They are then taken
to tiie steaming tanks, of which there are seven, each
having a capacity for holding looo boxes. From the
steaming cans, they are again taken to the tables and
transferred to the permanent cans, Avhen they are oiled and
spiced, and then handed over to the tinsmiths to be
soldered. The time from the fish being brought to the
factory until they are boxed and labelled, is three days.

Now-these fish are shipped in large quantities to every
part of the States, and by many are considered quite
equal in flavour to the sardines imported from France to
Italy.

CHAPTER VII.

THE TUNNY FISHERY.

Tunny fishery in the Mediterranean — Size the fish attains — Description of a
" madrague " — Statistics of the Itahan fishery — Definition of terms used —
Scabeccio, or tunny preserved in oil — Salted tunny — Fishery at Tunis and
Algeria.

The tunny {Thyiinus vulgaris^ Cuv.) is a common fish in
the Mediterranean, and has been known and celebrated
from the remotest antiquity. The Mediterranean is, of all
the seas, that least abundant in variety of fish, only nourish-
ing about 440 species.

In Sicily the tunny forms one of the most considerable
branches of the commerce of the island. In France it is
much used, and is cooked in a variety of ways. It is
frequently taken on the Atlantic coast, but must be con-
sidered a wanderer from more southern latitudes, and is
there known by its popular name of " horse mackerel and
albicore." In America its flesh is not held in estimation.

On the shores of the Mediterranean Sea it is found in
great abundance, and forms one of the chief sources of
wealth of the seaside population. The flesh is highly
esteemed, and eaten both fresh and salted. It is exten-
sively used in the Italian countries, pickled in various
ways, boiled down in soups, and made into pies, which are
thought to be very excellent, and possess the valuable

84 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

property of remaining good for nearly two months. The
different parts of the fish are called by appropriate names,
and are said to resemble beef, veal, and pork.

The shape of the tunny is not unlike the mackerel, but
it is larger, rounder, and has a shorter snout. The general
average length is about four feet, but sometimes it attains
a length of 10 or 12 feet. One was recently caught in a
mackerel net off Martha's Vineyard, and exhibited by
Eugene Blackford, at Fulton market, New York city, that
weighed over 700 lbs., and was 14 ft. 10 in, in length.
De Kay, in his work, mentions one that was taken near
Cape Ann that weighed about lOOO lbs. These are the
largest tunny fish caught in America of which we have
any information.

In May and June the tunnies move in vast shoals along
the shores of the Mediterranean, seeking for suitable places
to deposit their spawn. They a»2 seen by sentinels, who
are on the watch, and nets are prepared for their capture.
These nets are of two kinds, one a common seine and the
other called a " madrague." The outer portions of the
madrague intercept the fish, and on their endeavouring to
retreat they are forced to enter one of many chambers.
They are thus driven from one chamber to another until
they arc forced into the last and smallest, which is signifi-
cantly called the " chamber of death." This chamber is
furnished wath a floor of net, to which are attached a
series of ropes, so that by hauling on the ropes the floor
is drawn up and the fish brought to the surface. They
struggle fiercely for liberty, but are speedily stunned by
blows from long poles, and lifted into boats. PVom 5000
to 6000 tons of tunny fish have been shipped in some
years from Elba.

The tunny fisheries, which supply the labouring popu-

The Tiuiny Fishery. 85

lation of the Sicilian coasts during- the summer months
with employment and food, generally yield more than
enough for home consumption. The surplus, preserved
in oil or salt, forms, together with anchovies, sardines, and
sturgeons, a considerable article of export from Sicily. In
1866 the fishery carried on in the "parages" of the Isle of
St. Pierre, situate on the south coast of Sardinia, yielded
15,850 tunny fish, weighing nearly 3,000,000 lbs., and
approximately valued locally at i^5 1,000. In 1869 the
shipments amounted in value to about ^25,000, in 1S70 to
;!{^22,ooo, and in 1871 to about i^3 5,000. This fish is
exported to England, the north of Europe, to Italy, and
also to Greece and Turkey.

The fishery occasionally employs at Palermo 1000 boats
and 3500 men.
' The produce of the tunny fishery at Caloforte, Italy, in

187

4 was : —

Kilogrammes.

Franc?.

Tunny in oil

301,000

... 590,400

,, salted

18,400

9,800

Eggs and entrails . .

22,230

24,200

Tunny oil...

30,850

36,000

372,480 660,400

The value of the fishery in 1873 was as high as 4,248:700
francs (about i^ 170,000).

The tunny fishery of 1875 from Cagliari, though better
than that of 1874, was below the average yield, the value
of the products not reaching 1,000,000 francs.

The exports of tunny fish salted and pickled from
Sardinia in twelve years were as follows : —

lbs.
3 years ending 1854 ... ... ... 3,777,280

,, 1S57 ... ... ... 7,596,904

„ 1S60 ... ... ... 3,493,013

M 1S63 ... ... ... 2,152,453

86 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

For the last seven or eight years the " matanzas," or
takes of tunny, at Tunis have proved very equal and good.
Were the fish to exceed 14,000 in one season, they would be
beyond the preserving and curing capabilities of the estab-
lishment. The nets are laid jutting out to sea for upwards
of a mile, and are so placed as to form several chambers ;
the outer compartments are made of esparto grass-rope
nets, of very large meshes, which gradually decrease in
size as the " corpo," or slaughtering compartment, is ap-
proached. The nets in this part are made of the finest
hempen cordage.

The tunny, in their annual spring migration from the
ocean to the Archipelago and the Black Sea, follow either
the southern or northern shores of the Mediterranean in all
their windings. A tonnara is so constructed off a promon-
tory or headland as to offer an obstruction to the fish, which,
in endeavouring to avoid it, enter compartment after com-
partment. Their migratory instinct is so strong, that they
never appear tempted to retrace their course, but always
endeavour to find a way out towards the east, which is
barred to them.

On a sufficient number of tunny fish being noted in the
" corpo," a net is lowered at its entrance, and the net,
which forms the bottom of it, is gradually drawn up
towards the surface, so as to bring the fish within the reach
of the men, the majority of whom, about 160 in number,
are in two immense lighters, armed with harpoons and
boat-hooks, by means of which the tunny are killed and
drawn into the barges. A few of the men are also in small
boats in the centre of the enclosure. As many as 700 fish
are occasionally secured in a single " matanza," but more
usually from 400 to 500. From 30 to 35 days are ex-
pended in laying down the nets and otherwise preparing
for work.

The Ttiimy Fishery. 87

The first " matanza " of the season generally takes place
about the loth of May, and the last on the 30th of June,
or thereabouts. To secure the high prices of an early
market, the first " matanza " is hastened as much as pos-
sible, and takes place if even 200, or only 150, tunny have
entered the " corpo."

The fish are killed and landed in the morning, and
allowed to drain until the evening, when they are cleaned
and cut up. The " scabeccio " — tunny preserved in oil —
is boiled for an hour, and then allowed to cool and dry,
when it is quickly packed in barrels already prepared for
its reception, and about a third of a "metal " of oil (if im-
perial gallon) is poured into each barrel, great care being
taken that it should permeate the whole contents, and that
no vacuum should exist when closed. The same process is
observed for the tunny preserved in tin cans, only that the
air is more thoroughly excluded and exhausted by steam
power. The operation of salting the fish is more expe-
ditious, for, whilst the " scabeccio " to be prepared requires
from four to five days, the salting takes but a day or a day
and a half The oil extracted from tunny is much used by
curriers and in the tanning trade, and is extracted from the
heads, dorsal and other bones, and refuse, the whole being
placed in an immense cauldron, capable of holding 800
heads and 400 skeletons at a time, and allowed to boil for
24 hours. The bones after boiling are subjected to com-
pression in powerful presses, and thus but little of the oil
they contain is lost.

In a good season the Sidi Daud fishery, Tunis, furnishes
from 10,000 to 14,000 tunny, but they vary considerably in
size from one year to another. In 1870 the fish were larger
than those of 1871, although some of the tunny caught
measured eight and a half feet in length, and four feet in

88 The Commejxial Products of the Sea.

diameter at the neck, the widest part of the body. From
2000 to 3000 fish are sufficient to pay the whole of the
expenses of a season. The average yield is for looo fish
to produce 120 barrels of "scabeccio."

In 1871, 3200 barrels of " scabeccio " were made, and
sold at more than £6 \os. the 100 kilogrammes ; and
90,000 kilogrammes of tunny were put up in tin cans, which
realized more than £^ the 100 kilogrammes. Eight thousand
barrels of salted fish were sold at about £\ /\s. per barrel ;
and 40,000 kilogrammes of oil (65,460 imperial gallons)
produced more than ;^40 the 1000 kilogrammes. Two
thousand "metals" (about 10,250 imperial gallons) of the
best olive oil were expended in the preservation of the
above quantities of fish.

Very few of the fish are sent in a fresh state to the
Tunis market ; about 50 only are presented by the pro-
prietor to the Bey, local and foreign authorities, and other
Tunisian officials. The roes, milts, hearts, sounds, and all
other coarse parts of the fish are the perquisites of the
fishermen, and are preserved and sold on their own account.
The roes are chiefly sent to Italy, and are there sold at
from 2s. 6d. to ^s. the pair. Upwards of 200 barrels of
inferior parts of tunny were salted on account of the men
in 1 87 1.

It appears, moreover, that the demand for preserved
tunny is at present limited to the countries bordering on
the Mediteranean, and the ten tonnaras in Sicily, one in
Calabria, six in Sardinia, and one or two in France, Spain,
and other parts of Italy, produce sufficient for actual
requirements. In Germany tunny is beginning to be
known and called for, but it took six months last year to
dispose of 200 tin boxes that were sent to England as
a commercial experiment. Nevertheless the best qualities

The Tunny Fishery. 89

of tunny only require to be better known in England to be
highly appreciated. 1870 and 1871 proved disastrous
seasons for the Italian tonnaras, the tunny fish having,
unaccountably, almost entirely failed to make their accus-
tomed appearance, and the two most famed tonnaras of
Trapani only secured 2000 fish each in 1871, whilst others
were forced to break up their establishments from want of
success, before the season was half over.

Tunny fish preserved in oil (" scabeccio ") is much used;
the price is about £t^ ^s. the cwt, and the produce of the
fishing in 1871 was —

Scabeccio preserved, in barrels

••■ £^o,yJ>

Salted tunny

10,200

Scabeccio in tin cans

7,200

Tunny oil ...

1,600

The export of tunny fish from Tunis in 1873 was : —

Salted, to the value of ... ... .. £bi,^

Pickled in oil ... ... ... 4S13

This fishery might be profitably carried on in Algeria.
Arzeu has one small madrague, where on some days as
many as 300 tunny fish have been taken. 400 or 500
persons could be profitably occupied in this fishing. A
madrague established at Sidi Feruch, or at Cape Matefou,
would give during the season, at each lift of the nets (an
operation which might be renewed several times during the
week), 300 or 400 tunny fish, weighing from 60 lbs. to
600 lbs. It might be salted or marinated, and as this fish
will keep fresh for a week, it might be shipped to supply
the Marseilles market. It could only be carried on during
the months of March to June.

90 The Coimnercial Ptvdncis of the Sea.

CHAPTER VIII.

CRUSTACEA.

Useful or food-supplying Crustacea — The lobster — The British fisher}' — Size to
which lobsters grow— Technical names by which they are sold in Billings-
gate— Supply of crabs — Ciab-pots — Lobster fishery in America— Change
of colour in boiling — Statistics of the trade in canning lobsters, etc. —
The Norway lobster fishery.

Among the Crustacea we have the useful or food-
supplying kinds, such as the boiled lobster and the canned
or tinned lobster ; the edible crabs of the market, used for
food, and the king-crab for manure ; large prawns, used
in place of the lobster on the west coast of America ; those
sold in the markets of Europe, at New York, and the east
and south coasts of America ; the smaller shrimps and
prawns, held in esteem by various nations, and many of
which serve for bait. The liquid fat of the hermit-crab
iPagiiriis sp), under the name of " manteca de ladron," is
used in Venezuela to cure laxations of the bowels.

The shell of the king-crab {Linnilits polyphevms) is used
on the American coasts as a boat-bailer.

Of the crustaceans, the lobster is that which is most in
demand, although the more common crab is, of the two,
most digestible and nourishing. But the lobster has always
been held in estimation as a food delicacy, and from being
so sought for, leads to a very extensive commerce. Besides

Crustacea. 91

the British supplies — of which we have no very reliable
returns — the bulk of our imports come from Norway and
Sweden, and it maybe interesting to glance at the statistics
of the trade generally.

The British Fishery. — Lobsters are brought to Greenock
in large numbers from the western islands, chiefly from Skye,
in boxes containing from four to five dozen, and are there
transferred, for facility and economy of carriage by rail, to
tea chests, into each of which from 50 to 100 fish, according
to size, are carefully packed, and forwarded regularly and
in large quantities in this way to Liverpool, Manchester,
Birmingham, and London, in each of which towns is located
a branch of a great firm — originally of Aberdeen — to whom
are continually consigned enormous quantities offish from all
parts of the coast. Much more might be done on the coasts
of the British Islands in the matter of lobsters, especially in
Ireland. In a report on the Irish Fisheries, it was stated
that — " Lobsters may be taken in any quantity ; 20,000
or 30,000 a week might be easily captured on about 20
miles of the coast of Clifden, Bufifen Island, and Bunown,
but the people have no means of taking them. They only
fish close to the shore, and large lobsters cannot go into the
pots used. Those of five or six pounds or eight or nine
pounds weight are only taken by clinging to the sides of
the pots ; and if the fishermen had boats sufficient to go
out to the rocks seven or eight miles off, they, with proper
gear, would take the finest fish in the world, and in the
greatest quantities. They may be had in season every day
in the year that men could venture out to set the pots, but
they never do so in the winter." The size and age to which
lobsters sometimes attain was evidenced by one caught a
few years ago in Plymouth Sound in a trawl net, which was
reported in the Fie/d of June 2nd. Its length was, from the

92 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

tip of the claws to end of tail, 3 ft. 2 in.; weight, 15 lbs. 2^oz.
Several small oysters, mussels, and barnacles were adhering
to the shell, and it was supposed to be 100 years old, although
what grounds there were for the assumption were not stated.

Crabs and lobsters are supplied to the London market
from the east, south, and west coasts of England, from
Cornwall and the Channel Islands. The crayfish nearly
all come from Sennen Cove, near the Land's End, and the
greater part of these are sent to France. The crabs received
from Dunbar are very small, som.e of them not more than
three inches across ; they are called in the market " Dunbar
bugs." Very small crabs are also receiv^ed from Scar-
borough ; one dealer in the season receives about 20 barrels
per day, each barrel containing 200. After paying ex-
penses and carriage, it is calculated that the fishermen can
only realize 4J-. for 200 crabs, and 20s. for 100 lobsters.
Crabs are much wanted for the seaside markets in August
and September.

Lobsters are sold in Billingsgate by curious ancient
terms, viz., a "worst Nancy," which equals 40 small lobsters;
a " best Nancy," which is 40 lobsters of a larger size.
According to sizes above this, lobsters are sold by a " best
Double," a Score, and a Ten.

The supply of crabs to London has diminished more
than half, both in size and number. Many crabs come
from the West of England, Cornwall, and Devon. The price
has gone up fully 30 per cent. ; a crab eight or ten years
ago worth 2s. is now worth 3^. 6d. The sale for crabs
begins to fall off in October, and does not begin again till
March. The chief time for the sale of crabs and lobsters
is May, June, July, and August. In winter the crabs are
watery. Crabs and lobsters are in best condition in warm
weather.

Crustacea. 93

The crabs at Cromer and the neighbourhood are counted
by a peculiar standard. Thus, two crabs are counted as
one, the two crabs being called "a cast;" six score of crabs
is called a hundred ; therefore lOO crabs is strictly 240.

There are about 50 boats, each worked by two men,
used by the Cromer fishermen. Each boat would set from
30 to 35 pots. These crab-pots cost about 8j. A good
catch for a boat in two tides' fishing would be about 180
crabs. Supposing the 50 boats had good luck, they would
catch about 9000 crabs a day. Sizeable crabs are sold in
the Norwich and London markets at the average of 50^.
the long hundred, or nearly 3^. each. At Sherningham
there are about 100 crab boats, and each boat has about
20 pots.

The crab-pots are set out to sea from the foreshore to
. the distance of about two miles. The extent of the united
Cromer and Sherningham crab fisheries is about eight and
a quarter miles long by two wide.

The crab-pots are made of a cage of thick, strong
netting, fastened across bows of iron or wood. This cage
is I ft. 9 in. long, and i ft. 3 in. across the bottom. The
crabs enter the pots through two funnel-shaped doors,
which act on the principle of a mouse-trap ; a side door
can easily be let down, and the crabs removed. The bait
used for catching crabs are flat-fish, usually called " butts."
The small crabs called " toggs " are also much used,
smashed up, for bait, and are sold in large quantities,
scarcely fetching a penny each retail, to the great injury
of the fishery.

The crab and lobster fisheries of Ireland continue to be
pretty productive ; but with a view to their better preserva-
tion, regulations have been laid down, limiting the size of
crabs to be taken to five inches in length across the back at

94 The Commeixial Products of the Sea.

their greatest measurement, and lobsters to nine inches from
the end of the tail to what is usually called the tip of the
beak.

Lobsters used to be taken in great numbers near the
village of Usan, near. Montrose, and 60,000 or 70,000 were
sent annually to London, and sold at the rate of 2\d. apiece,
provided they were five inches round the body; if less, two
were allowed for one. The home supply of lobsters is not
now, however, so large as the foreign supply.

The supply to London has fallen off very much these
last few years ; the price has risen considerably, as com-
pared to what it was formerly; the scarcity is beginning
to be felt. Lobsters arrive in London from Scotland,
Southampton (where they are kept alive), Norway, Sweden,
Ireland, and France. The Norway lobsters are considered
very good, and so are those from the Orkneys.

The lobster is never so good as when in the condition
of a berried hen. Berried hens occur most frequently in
April, May, and June. They begin to lose their berries
or eggs about July, but still many berried hens occur in
July. The use of the berries is almost entirely devoted to
cooking ; they are used in many preparations by the West-
End cooks, especially for, the colouring and enriching of
sauces. The " chefs " are also fond of coral out of the
body of the lobster.

Occasionally, in the month of May, as much as six
ounces of berries will be taken from a lobster weighing
three to three pounds and a half. There are about 6720
eggs in an ounce of lobster spawn.

The Norwegian lobsters are best in season in May
to August ; the Scotch lobsters begin to fall off in August.
The shell of the Scotch lobster is thick, and when boiled is
of a dark colour, and covered with white specks. The

Crustacea. 95

shell of the Norwegian oyster is thin, and of a bright red
colour.

The Lobster Fishery of America. — Lobster fishing has
been followed at Marshfield and Plymouth, Massachusetts,
for 30 years and more. From 50,000 to 100,000 lobsters
are taken annually, and sold to the smacks for the Boston
market, and to pedlars for the inland.

On the North American coasts a large trade is done
in putting up lobsters in tins. For some years past the
packing-houses of Portland, Maine, have shipped lobsters
in tins to England in ever-increasing quantites. The taste
thus acquired has created a demand for the article in a
fresh and more palatable state. To supply this demand,
the Portland firm of Marston and Sons, extensive dealers,
conceived the idea of shipping live lobsters by the British
steamers which ply between Liverpool and that port. The
efforts made in that direction have not, however, been very
successful, the number transported which reached their
destination alive being very small. The packing of lobsters
in America has become so enormous that, at the present
rate of canning, serious apprehensions are felt in some
quarters that the supply will not last many years longer.
A few years ago it was not uncommon to catch lobsters
weighing from 10 to 20 pounds each ; now the average
is from three to six pounds, and growing less, thousands
which are caught weighing but little over one pound each.

Quite a fleet of small vessels is employed in this
important branch of commercial industry. The Americans
having almost denuded their own coast of this useful and
valuable crustacean, are now busy fishing for it on the
British Atlantic coasts.

Prior to the year 1869, no mention is made in the
Canadian Fishery reports of the yield of lobsters.

96 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

In that year 52,400 one-pound cans or tins were put up
in Nova Scotia. In 1870 the quantity preserved was more
than ten times as great, namely, 553,000 cans, valued at
about ']\d. each. In 1871 the quantity preserved in that
province rose to 905,500 tins. In the next two years the
export trade had wonderfully increased, yet the wholesale
price ran up to \s. per tin.

The whole quantity preserved in Nova Scotia was
returned at —

Tins.

Value.

1872 ...

... 2,422,508

... ;^I2I,II5

1873 ...

... 3,462,298 ...

... 173.II5

In New Brunswick only 38,500 cans were put up in
1869; in 1871 the quantity had increased to 224,000
tins, and in the two subsequent years the advance was as
follows : —

Tins. Value

1872 1,055,485 ^27,740

1873 1,387,700 69,400

The business of " canning " lobsters is annually ex-
tending, and threatens the annihilation of the beds, but
it is now proposed that no lobsters shall be taken with the
eggs attached, or weighing less than one pound and a
half. By this means the destruction will, it is hoped, be
limited, and the same error which was committed in the
case of the salmon fisheries prevented.

In 1873 more than 4,000,000 one-pound tins of lobsters
Avere sent from British North America into the markets of
the world. In 1874 the value of the lobsters preserved
was ;^203,ooo, besides the fresh ones sent to the United
States, valued at ^^ 24,000.

In some parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence they are so
plentiful that, notwithstanding their increased commercial

Crustacea. 97

value since the foundation of this new industry, good
marketable lobsters are used to manure the fields.

The proprietor of a large establishment at Shippagaw
writes: "The heavy gale of August, 1873, drove more
lobsters ashore within five miles of my packing-houses than
I could make use of during the whole summer. They
formed a row of from one to five feet deep, and I should
estimate them at an average of looo to every two rods of
shore."

Lobsters are taken in wicker baskets, called lobster-pots.
These are about three feet long and two feet wide, of a
semi-cylindrical form ; that is, the bottom flat, and the
sides and top in the form of an arch. At each end is an
opening for the ingress of the lobster ; around this opening
are placed short, flexible pieces of wood, projecting into
the basket, so arranged that they will easily separate and
allow the lobster to enter, but their points close together
after him and prevent his egress. They have a door upon
the top, through which the lobster is taken out. A long
line is attached to these pots ; a heavy stone, sufiicient to
sink it, is placed inside. They are baited with the heads
or offal of fresh fish, and sunk to the bottom at about low-
water mark ; the other end of the line is made fast to a
block of light wood, called a buoy. The fishermen go out
with their wherries freighted with these pots, and drop
them at short intervals along the shore. During the season
of lobster fishing, which lasts from March to July in
America, hundreds of these buoys may be seen bobbing up
and down like so many seals' heads. The fishermen visit
them every morning, draw them up alongside of their
boats, take out the lobsters, replenish the bait, and drop
them again into the water. The lobsters, when first taken,
are very fierce, and seize with their strong pincers upon

98 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

whatever may be within their reach. When thrown to-
gether in the boat, they will grapple and tear off each other's
feelers and legs. Without much care in handling them the
fingers of the fishermen get many a hard bite. To prevent
them from injuring each other, the fishermen provide sharp-
pointed wooden pegs, which they insert into the joint or
hinge of their pincers ; this prevents them from closing.
When they have visited all their pots they row to their
landing-place. If they now wish to preserve them for
several days, they put them into a long box or kennel, made
of plank, and bored full of holes, which is moored in the
water at a little distance from the shore. If they wish to
prepare them immediately for market, they are taken ashore
in hand-barrows and carried to a sort of shed, in which is
fixed a large cauldron in which they are boiled.

The cause of the change of colour in the crustaceans
after boiling has been investigated by several scientific
inquirers. It is found to be due to two or three pigments,
scarlet, blue, and green. The lobster, crayfish, and crab
take a vermilion hue ; the prawn acquires a bright rose
colour, and the grey shrimp a slight rose tint, bordering
on violet.

There are now about 6"/ canning establishments in
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, which use up from three
to five tons each per day in the season, which lasts from four
to six months, making a total annual destruction of at least
30,000 tons. Every season the number of canning estab-
lishments is increasing, and of course the destruction will
increase proportionately. As no supply, however large, can
stand a ceaseless and increasing drain, unless means are
taken to supply the waste, it is evident that this valuable
supply must soon become exhausted by over-fishing.

The whole of the edible part of the lobster is not

Crustacea. 99

utilized by the curers, who say that the trouble of picking
out the flesh from the claws is too great, and that lobsters
are too cheap to make it worth while to go to the expense
of this slight additional labour.

Lobster Fishery in Norivay, etc. — There are many other
countries where the business of preserving lobsters in tins
might be profitably carried on — Norway for example.
From the port of Stromstad, in Sweden, about 50,000 are
also sent annually to England.

The Norway lobster is the Ncphrops Norvegicus. This
crustacean is caught in the fiords from the southern ex-
tremity up to the Lofoden Islands ; but it has been
noticed for some years that there is a tendency in the
lobster to keep more towards the north, where they are
found of larger size. They are often taken by means of a
common cask, the bottom of which is replaced by boughs,
and a hole is left for the lobster to enter, attracted by the
bait of the fresh herring suspended, but it cannot get out
again. Osier pots are also used, but of a more oblong
shape than those employed with us. The trade is pretty
much centralized at Christiansund. The lobsters are there
placed in large reservoirs made in the centre of the fiord,
where they are kept alive until despatched to Belgium and
England. A part are sent off in wooden boxes, and others
in quick-sailing vessels, with holds having reservoirs capable
of holding io,ooo to 12,000 lobsters, the sea water passing
freely through holes pierced in the ship's side.

The commerce in lobsters in Belgium is not in a very
good state. In 1871 several cargoes were imported from
Brittany ; but these lobsters are larger than those of
Norway, and the flesh is not so good, and yet they sell at a
somewhat higher price. The whole of the fishery in Nor-
way is monopolized by English speculators, so that it is

lOO The Commercial Products of the Sea.

difficult to buy a lobster, excepting of a diminutive size
without breach of contract, or paying comparatively an
exorbitant price.

The number exported annually from Norway ranged in
the early part of the century from 600,000 to 800,000 ; from
1825 to 1829 it was higher, reaching an average of 1,280,000;
in 1848, 607,282 were sent away. The annual export from
1853 to 1859 was about 800,000. In the ten years ending
with 1870 the average number shipped was 1,500,000. In
the last five or six years the number has fallen somewhat
below 1,000,000.

The number of lobsters exported was in —

1870 ...

1871

1872 ...

1873

1874

1875

1876

The lobster is the largest and most useful ofthe crus -
taceans of Europe. It is met with along the whole coast
of Norway up to the Arctic circle, in the sea and in the fiords,
but especially between Christiania and Loudmore.

The fishery for lobsters is well regulated on all the
coasts of Sweden and Norway as far as Molde. It is pro-
hibited between the 15th July and 15th October, Each
boat has about 30 bow-nets, and wooden cases with open-
ings at each end, having the form of elongated casks.
They are sunk about 38 fathoms deep by means of
stones, after being baited with waste fish, and are examined
night and morning. The claws of the lobster are fastened
that the animals may not injure each other, and they are
shipped in fast-sailing, welled vessels that hold from 15,000
to 20,000. About 3,000,000 are taken annually in Norway

1,045,063

899,708

919,944

749,074

880,630

,. 1,270,348

Crustacea. loi

and Sweden ; these are sold at 3<^. to 6d. each, according
to size. Those less than eight inches, or which have lost
a claw, are only worth half this price, and they are now
prohibited to be sold.

The Cape lobster {Paliimrus Lalandii, Lam.) is used as
food by the colonists. It is peculiar to the west coast, and
common in Table Bay ; is easily caught in vast numbers
all the year round, and attains a length of 13 inches and a
breadth of nearly five inches. The flesh of the half-grown
individual is tender and delicate, but that of the adult is
coarse and difficult of digestion. To the poorer classes this
crustacean is a regular godsend, and it is occasionally
dried for preservation.

A part of the west coast of New Jersey, not far from
Cape May, is infested in May and June by swarms of huge
inedible crabs, and these are collected and ground up for
manure. As to their eggs, one may almost say that the
sand of the beach consists of their eggs, for they are scooped
up by the bushel and thrown to the pigs and poultry.

A large number of fine crabs are caught on the coasts
of Norway, which only cost about ^d. or id. each on the
spot. They are met with in incredible numbers in the
fiords on the west coast, especially where it is rocky. There
are often 40 or 50 taken at a time in a cask or crab-pot,
and they are frequently 1 1 inches long. The crab is not
eaten by the coast populations, and it sells at a very low
price, even in the markets of Bergen and Stavanger. Crabs
are chiefly used cut up for fish bait. Lately an attempt
has been made to preserve them in tins for export, and
specimens were sent to the Paris Exhibition in 1878.

A fishery for small crayfish is carried on in the bays of
the river Konki, in Russia, and the tails are dried for
sale. A pound will contain about 300 of these pieces.

I02 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Various crabs, crayfish, and prawns are regularly col-
lected, and eaten or sold as food by the natives of India.
All the species thus used are, however, caught in lagoons
or fresh-water lakes, with the exception of some land-crabs.
Prawns in Madras are usually avoided by Europeans, as
they are mostly taught in the river Cooum, which is little
else than a common sewer. Some of the crabs are
pleasant to eat, but not always safe. Among those eaten
are Ltipa sangiciloneuta, Desm., and L. Tranqnebarica,
Edwards, and ThclpJmsa Leschenmdtii.

Crayfish and lobsters are very abundant on the west
coast of South America. At Juan Fernandez they are
found in such large quantities that the fishermen have no
greater trouble to take them than to strew a little meat or
bait upon the shore, and when they come to devour it, as
they do in immense numbers, to turn them on their backs
with a stick. By this simple method many thousands are
taken annually ; and the tails, which are in high estima-
tion, are dried and sent to Chilca.

At Marennes, in France, the fishery for shrimps brings
in a return of ^500 a year.

The British Shrimp Fishery. — Shrimping is pursued
extensively on many of our sandy coasts.

The chief occupation of the Leigh fishermen is catching
shrimps. This they do throughout the summer months.
The smaller boats continue to catch them during the
winter ; but the larger vessels, when the demand for
shrimps falls off, go farther away to sea, hand and long
lining for cod, or fit out with stow-boat gear for catching
sprats, or go trawling. They fish during winter about the
Swin, the Barrow Deeps, the Waleet, and other places,
remaining at sea for weeks together ; but in the summer
their practice is to go out one tide and return the next ;

Crustacea. 103

and a very pretty sight it is to see this little fleet of 150
vessels all working in and out of Leigh Creek together,
boats of all sizes, and sails of every cut and colour, and if
it be about sunrise or evening time when this happens, it
makes a most charming picture.

Shrimps are caught all over the sands that lie in the
Thames estuary. The manner of catching them is this.
An apparatus is constructed in the following manner : — A
frame of wood about six or eight feet long (it may be of
any size) is formed, and upon this is placed a net, in such a
manner that the net and frame, when complete, shall form
a long-pointed bag ; to the wooden frame is attached a
long rope, by which it is lowered to the bottom, and when
there dragged along by the motion of the boat through the
water. The edge of the wooden frame scrapes along the
sand and compels the shrimps to enter the net ; when in,
they quickly get back to the end of the pocket, where the
mesh is fine, and they are secured. Each boat is provided
with three or four of these little trawls. At Gravesend,
where there is also a large fleet of craft employed in
shrimping, they use a much larger description of net, and
each boat is sufficiently equipped with one of these.

Shrimping boats must be provided with a well, in which
the shrimps are placed the moment they are caught. As
soon as they are taken from this well, on the arrival of the
boat at Leigh, they are placed in a copper of boiling sea
water and boiled at once ; when cool, they are forwarded
to London as quickly as possible.

As many as looo gallons of shrimps are sometimes
sent to London in a single day from this place alone.

Shrimps and Prawns, etc., in other Countries. — Prawns at
Tunis are of great size, six to seven inches long. Tunis,
the ancient Carthage, was always celebrated for them, and

I04 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

the Roman emperors used to send for them for their
banquets.

Shrimps are collected in large quantities on the east
coast of Norway. One species {Pandaniis borealis), dis-
tinguished by its red colour and great size, being three or
four times larger than the ordinary shrimp, is fished for
exclusively at Svelvig, and sold at Drammen, where it is
much sought after.

Large quantities of dried shrimps form an important
article of consumption and export at Maranham, in Brazil.
In the eastern countries, as in India, there is a large
commerce in them ; and a shrimp powder is also used as
food there, composed of dried shrimps pounded up with
salt, spices, etc. The species used are Pcncens affinis and
another species. From the port of Chefoo, China, 6500 to
8500 cwt. of dried prawns are annually exported.- From
the port of Newchwang there was sent to other Chinese
ports, in 1871, nearly 2000 cwt. of dried shrimps and 300
cwt. of shrimp husks. From Manila large quantities are
also shipped.

Only a few Australian Crustacea are applied to any use.
The Great Murray River crayfish or lobster {Astacoides
serratus) Is brought In great numbers to market, and is
generally used at table as the lobster is in Europe. The
smaller crayfish {Astacoides qninquecarijiatiis') is not sold in
the markets, but is commonly eaten in the vicinity of the
many streams and rivers in which It is found in abundance.
The great marine spiny crayfish or lobster, found abun-
dantly at the Port Phillip Head, is constantly exposed in
the shops and used at table in salads, etc. It seems to be
a variety of the Homarns amiulicornis, or a very closely
allied species.

CHAPTER IX.

THE TREPANG FISHERY.

Tiepnng or b^che-de-mer fishery in the Pacific and Eastern Seas — Numerous
varieties of Holothuria — Mode of preparing for market — Process of dry-
. ing^ — Statistics of exports from the Fiji Islands and Tahiti — Large imports
into China.

An important fishery for a food product, although one
scarcely known at all in Europe, is the trepang fishery of
the Pacific and Eastern Seas.

The trepang, or beche-de-mer as it is sometimes called,
is a most unsightly looking substance, a kind of sea-slug,
belonging to the genus Holotlmria. There are many
varieties. The ordinary kind in point of size and appear-
ance resembles a prickly cucumber, except that the colour
is of a whitish brown ; another is perfectly black. Some-
times they are found nearly two feet in length, but they are
generally very much smaller, and perhaps about eight
inches may be taken as the average size.

There are 33 different varieties enumerated by the
Chinese traders and others skilled in its classification, and
it varies in price according to quality from 5^. to \os. the
pound. Fashion and custom have caused each variety to
have a different market. While the gourmand of the

1 06 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

south smacks his lips on the juicy white and black kinds,
the less cultivated taste of those at the north is satisfied
with the red and more inferior varieties.

It is minced down into a sort of thick soup by the
Chinese, who are extremely fond of it — and, indeed, with
some reason, as when cooked by a Chinaman who under-
stands the culinary art, the trepang is a capital dish, and
is rather a favourite among many of the Europeans at
Manila.

This sea-slug, when dried, is an ugly looking, dirty-brown-
coloured substance, very hard and rigid, until softened by
water and a very lengthened process of cookery, after
which it becomes soft and mucilaginous. It is found in all
the sheltered harbours, where it gropes about the bottom>
and feeds upon weeds and moUusca. It is taken at low
water upon the shoals and mud-banks, over which the
fishermen wade knee-deep in water, dragging their boats
after them, and when the feet come in contact with a slug,
it is picked up and thrown into the boat. They occasion-
ally search in deeper water, where the fishermen avail
themselves of the services of the natives, who are expert in
diving and tracing out the slugs.

The b^che-de-mer, or trepang, is very abundant on the
coasts of New Caledonia, and constitutes the most im-
portant branch of commerce. The annual exports are
valued at ^4000. The fishery has been carried on for a
long time on a neighbouring island, Erromango, which
serves as an entrepot, where vessels load with this article
and sandal-wood, which they carry to Shanghai or Hong-
kong. The merchants here, however, prefer to ship to
Sydney, for which the trepang serves as a return cargo for
the vessels which bring merchandise.

Although there is such a great number of varieties of

The Trepang Fishery.

107

this sea-slug, only about five have any great commercial
importance, which are as follows, with their nominal value
in New Caledonia : —

1. Brown, with teats

2. Large black

3. Small black

4. Red bellies

5. White

The first quality sells in China often as high as £<^0 to
;^iOO the ton. The prices in the second column per
kilogramme are those given in the French Colonial
Catologue of the Paris Exhibition, 1878.

Fig. I.

Per to
;^30

Per

kilogramme
Francs.

25

2-0

20

1-30

15

I"00

12

70

Holothuridse species.

The preparation of the product is very simple. It is
boiled in water for about 20 minutes, and then slit up from
one end to the other and dried. This process is carried on
in a large shed, with three stages of frames disposed over a
good fire to smoke and dry them. As the trepang is very
hygrometic, it is indispensable that they should be kept dry-

1 o8 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

ing until the moment of shipment, in order that they may not
imbibe moisture, for then they become flaccid and decay.*

The following detailed account by Captain Andrew
Cheyne, who had had much experience in the fishery and
preparation, was published some years ago in a volume of
my " Technologist " :—

" There are many kinds of beche-de-mer found on coral
reefs in the Pacific Ocean ; but only ten of these varieties
are marketable in China, each being distinguished by well-
known names. As they vary in price from 6 to 35 Spanish
dollars per picul (1335 lbs.), it becomes a matter of great
importance to obtain the superior qualities. The slug
when cured presents quite a different appearance to what it
does when caught ; and no person but one well acquainted
with the trade would be able to ascertain which were the
first quality, by comparing the raw slug with a cured one.
Again, the success of a voyage depends greatly on the
knowledge possessed by the person in charge of the locali-
ties in which the superior sorts are to be found, together
with much experience in the mode of fishing and curing
them.

" The superior qualities are known by the following
names in the Sooloo and Manila markets: — i. Bangko-
lungan ; 2. Keeskeesan ; 3. Talepan ; 4. Munang ; each
presenting a different appearance, and found in different
depths of water on the reefs.

" I. Bankolungan, when caught, is from 11 to 15 inches
in length, of an oval shape, brown on the back, and the
belly white and crusted with lime, with a row of teats on
each side the belly. It is hard, rigid, and scarcely possesses
any power of locomotion. It has, however, the power of
expanding and contracting itself at pleasure. This quality

* "Revue Maritime et Coloniale." Paris, March, 1866.

The Trepang Fishery. 109

is found on the inner edge of coral reefs, in from 2 to 10
fathoms water, and on the bottom of coral and sand. It
can only be procured by diving.

"2. Keeskeesan is from 6 to 12 inches in length, of an
oval shape, quite black, and smooth on the back, with a
dark-greyish belly, and one row of teats on each side.
When contracted, it is similar in shape to a land tortoise.
This quality is found in shallow water, on the top of coral
reefs, and on a bottom of coral and sand. Bangkolungan
and Keeskeesan fetch about the same price ; and the latter
being the most plentiful and easiest caught, ought of course
to be the kind most sought after.

" 3. Talepan varies in length from nine inches to two
feet, and presents the most remarkable appearance of any
of the species of beche-de-mer. It is found on all parts of
the reefs, but chiefly in from two to three fathoms water.
It is of a dark-red colour, and narrower in proportion than
the before-mentioned kinds. The whole back is covered
with large red prickles, which render it easily distinguish-
able from any of the other kinds. It is much softer than
the black, and more difficult to cure.

"4. Munang is of a small size, seldom exceeding eight
inches in length, of an oval shape, quite black, and smooth ;
has no teats or other excrescences, and is found in shallow
water on the coral flats, and often among turtle grass near
the shore. This is the kind which the American vessels
chiefly procure at the Fiji Islands. It is worth from 15
to 25 dollars per picul in the China market. These four
varieties form the superior qualities of the slug, and the
following are the middling and inferior sorts : —

" 5- Sapatos China is of a reddish-brown colour, and
about the same size as the Munang. It presents a wrinkled
surface, and is found adhering to the coral rocks on the

no The Commercial Products of the Sea.

top of the reefs. 6. Lowlowan is of various lengths, black,
wrinkled, and narroAV. It is found on various parts of the
reefs. 7. Balati bianco is about nine inches in length, of an
oval shape, and a white-and-orange colour ; and may be
easily known by its voiding a white adhesive substance,
which adheres to the fingers when handled. It is found
generally on the inner edge of reefs, and on a sandy
bottom. Moonlight nights are the best time for collecting
this sort, as they generally bury themselves in the sand
during the day. 8. Matan is of the same species and
habits as No. 7, and only differs from it in colour, which is
grey, brown, and white speckled. 9. Hangenan is gener-
ally about a foot in length, of a grey or greenish colour,
wrinkled, and is found on the lagoon side of coral reefs.
10. Sapatos grande is about 12 or 15 inches in length,
and of a brown-and-white colour, wrinkled, and very
inferior.

" The following remarks on boiling beche-de-mer are the
result of a number of experiments made at different times.
Bangkolungan and Keesgeesan will require to be boiled
about five minutes or more, if the pot is nearly full ; they
must be well stirred, and should be taken out when
thoroughly heated through, by which time they will feel
quite hard and elastic. The cut part of the fish, when
properly boiled, should be of a blue-and-amber colour, and
feel firm like india-rubber. If the pot is only half full, they
will require to boil fully 10 minutes before the cut part
becomes of the blue-and-amber colour. The Talepan and
Munang require to be boiled fully 10 minutes. The
Munang dries very quickly ; but the Talepan is very
difficult to cure, and often requires two boilings before
it will dry. The Sapatos China requires to be boiled about
15 minutes ; if properly boiled it will dry very quickly.

The Trepang Fishery. 1 1 1

The Balati Blanco and Matan need very little boiling, say
three or four minutes if the pot is nearly full. They should
be taken out as soon as they shrink and are thoroughly
heated through. The Hangenan should be boiled about
20 minutes. This sort must be very carefully handled
when raw, as it will break in pieces if held any time in the
hand. It appears to me that there are two ways of boiling
beche-de-mer equally good. The first is to take them out
when boiled about a minute, or as soon as they shrink and
feel hard ; the other method is to boil them as before
stated ; but in boiling either way, the slugs ought, if pro-
perly cooked, to dry like a boiled ^'g^^ immediately on
being taken out of the pot. Beche-de-mer dried in the sun
fetches a higher price than that dried over a wood fire.
But this method would not answer in curing a ship's cargo,
as they take fully 20 days to dry ; whereas by smoking
them they are well cured in four days.

" Much skill is required in drying beche-de-mer, as well
as in boiling it, as too much heat will cause it to blister,
and get porous, like sponge ; whereas, too little heat again
will make it spoil, and get putrid within 24 hours after
being boiled. There is, likewise, great care and method
requisite in conducting the gutting ; for if this be not
properly attended to, by keeping the fish in warm water,
and from exposure to the sun, it will, when raw, soon
subside into a blubbery mass, and become putrid in a few
hours after being caught."

The first thing to be done on arrival at an island where
the slug is plentiful, is to erect a large curing-house on shore,
about 90 feet in length, 30 feet in breadth, and the sides
about 10 feet in height. These houses are generally built
of island materials, and thatched with mats, made by the
natives, of cocoa-nut leaves ; the thatch must be well put

112 The Co7nmercial Products of the Sea.

on, so as to prevent the rain from penetrating. The sides
are Hkevvise covered in with these mats, and a small door
should be left in each end. Platforms, or batters, for drying
the slug on, are then erected along one side of the house.
They should run the whole length, and be about eight feet in
breadth ; the lower one about breast-high from the ground,
and the upper three feet above that. The frames are generally
made of cocoa-nut trees, or pandanus, and covered with
two or three layers of split bamboo, or reeds, seized close,
so as to form a sort of network for the slugs to lay on.
Much care and skill is required in the construction of these
batters, or platforms, so as to prevent the beche-de-mer from
burning, which it would be liable to, were they not properly
fitted. A trench, about six feet in breadth and two feet
in depth, is then dug the whole length of the batters for the
fires. Tubs are placed at short distances along the side of
the trench, filled with salt water, and a good supply of
buckets kept in readiness, to prevent the fires from blazing
up and burning the fish, or platforms, as well as to regulate
the degree of heat necessary for drying the slug.

The process of curing is this : — The beche-de-mer is
first gutted, then boiled in large pots ; and, after being
well washed in fresh w^ater, carried into the curing-house,
in small tubs, or baskets, and emptied on the lower batter,
where it is spread out (about five inches thick) to dry.
The trench is then filled with firewood, and when the batter
is full of trepang, the fires are lighted, and the drying process
commences. From this time the fires must be kept con-
stantly going, day and night, with a careful officer and
regular watch to attend to it. On the afternoon of the
following day the fires -are extinguished for a short time,
and the slugs shifted to the upper batter, having been first
examined, and splints of wood put into those which may

The Trepang Fishery. 1 1 3

not be drying properly. When this is done, the lower
batter is again filled from the pots, the fires immediately
lighted, and the drying process continued as before. The
slugs on the lozver batter must be turned frequently during
the first 12 hours. On the second day (the fires having
been extinguished as before) the slugs on the upper batter
are shifted close over to one end, to make room for those on
the lower batter again ; and so on, as before, for the two
following days, by which time the first day's produce will be
properly cured. It is then taken off the batter, and, after
having been carefully examined, and those not dry put up
again, the quantity cured is sent on board the vessel, and
stowed away in bags. But should the ship be long in
procuring a cargo, it will require to be dried over again
every three months, in the sun, on platforms erected over
the deck, as it soon gets damp, unless when packed in air-
tight casks.

If the beche-de-mer is plentiful, and the natives bring
it daily in large quantities, 40 men will be requisite to per-
form the work of a house of the above size ; and the pots
will want two hands to attend them. These curing-houses
consume a large quantity of firewood daily. When beche-
de-mer is cured and stowed away, great care should be
taken to prevent it from getting wet, as one damp slug will
speedily spoil a whole bag.

The beche-de-mer fisheries at the Fiji Islands have been
extended of late years, particularly upon the Mattuata
coast, situated upon the north side of Vanna Levu. The
increase of value of export upon this head has been large,
and, provided the exertions used to keep the petty chiefs
from quarrelling are successful, will no doubt augment.
The product is sold there at about 36^-. per picul. The
prices fluctuate very much, being sometimes as high as 40^'.
6

114 The Comine^'cial Products of the Sea.

per picul and as low as 24^-. during consecutive months. It
is shipped to Sydney, and thence to China.
The exports were in —

Piculs. Value.

1S65 ... ... 500 ... ... ;^I200

1866 ... ... 300 ... ... 6cK)

1867 ... ... 880 ... ... 1600

. From Tahiti there were shipped, in 1874, 5346 lbs.,
valued at £^Z.

The following are some of the names, classifications,
and prices given to specimens shown in the British
Museum, London, but the prices are old quotations : —

Per picul.
Peach blossom, or spiny ... ... ... §30

Middle clear bald ... ... .., 20

Great black ... ... ... ... 40

Black... ... ... ... ... 30

Largest bald Mashik, from Macassar

Great white stone ,, ... ... 15

Great clear bald, Leucoma ... ... 40

Great black stone, Macassar ... ... 60

Middle bald, from I.eucoma, small ... lO

Small bald ,, very small ... 7

Square spiny. Macassar ... ... ... 10

Largest lock, Leucoma ... ... ... 30

Trepang is very abundant around Tahiti, Moua, and the
Windward Islands. The ordinary price at Tahiti is about
£AtO per ton. A single house sometimes ships 150 tons to
California, to be thence sent on to China. The imports of
beche-de-mer into China in foreign vessels were stated to
be as follows : —

Piculs of 133J lbs.
1868 ... ... ... ... 18,407^

1869
1870
1871

1872

15.579
15.447
".338
17,953

Taking one year, 1871, we find the following imports of

The Trcpang Fishery. 115

trepang were received at different ports in China in Chinese
vessels : —

PiculF.
Chukiang ... ... ... ... 1008

Swatow

Kiukiang ... ... ...

Takow
Tamsui
Ningpo

404

144

18

34

1 134

2742

And Shanghai and Foochow receive together about 6000
to 7000 piculs.

It is difficult to form an estimate as to the amount of
trepang annually exported from the North Australian coast.
From 30 to 40 prahus, varying from 20 to 70 tons burthen,
are employed in the fishery, the crews amounting to about
1200 men. They receive no wages, but are entitled to a
certain portion of the profits of the voyage, the system
being somewhat similar to that adopted in whale-ships.
The provisions and stores required for the voyage are
advanced by Chinese or Dutch merchants at Macassar,
who thus acquire a right to the entire proceeds at a certain
price which has previously been fixed upon, and which is
invariably much below the current value. Taking the
average amount of trepang obtained by each prahu at 2C
tons, this will give about 600 tons as the quantity annually
exported from the coast. The value at Macassar is 70 rupees,
or somewhat less than £"] sterling, for the picul of 133 lbs.
avoirdupois. The price to the consumer in China is en-
hanced to the amount of about one-third.

ii6 The Comme7'cial Pi-oduds of the Sea.

CHAPTER X.

CEPHALOPODS, ETC., AS FOOD.

Dried cuttle-fish as food — Consumption of octopods and polypi in the coun-
tries bordering on the Mediterranean — Prices in Tunis — Mode of capture
and preparation — Squid used for bait by the North American fishermen —
Cuttle-fish bone and sepia — Large consumption of dried cuttle-fish in
China — Species of Echinus eaten — Palolo viridis, a kind of sea-worm,
edible ; fishery for, in the Pacific. ,

The flesh of the large cephalopodous animals was esteemed
as a delicacy by the ancients. Most of the eastern natives,
and those of the Polynesian Islands, partake of it and
relish it as food. They are exposed for sale, dried, in the
bazaars or markets throughout India, and in the Food
Collection arranged at the East End Museum, Bethnal
Green, dried cuttle-fish may be seen among the articles of
Chinese, Japanese, and Siamese food. In Chili the flesh is
also considered a delicacy, and in Barbados the bastard
cuttle-fish or calmar {Loligo sagittata, Lam.) is used as an
article of food by the lower classes. But from my small
experience of this kind of diet, notwithstanding the asser-
tion of the learned Bacon in his " Experiment Solitary
touching Cuttle Ink," that the cuttle is accounted as a
delicate meat, and is much in request, I should say that it

Cephalopods, etc., as Food. 1 1 7

is as indigestible and innutritious as it is certainly tough
and uninviting.

Cephalopods are eaten at the present day on many
parts of the Mediterranean coast. Mr. Vice-Consul Green,
in a recent report, furnishes some novel and interesting
particulars as to the fishing and trade in cephalopods in
the Tunis waters. Octopodia and polypi are the trade
names under which these cephalopods are known in the
Levant and Greek markets, where they are solely im-
ported for consumption during Lent, the orthodox Church
not including "them in the prohibition against the use of
fish in seasons of religious abstinence. They prefer
rocky shallows, and visit those waters, coming from the
open sea, in the months of January, February, and
March. A considerable number of octopodia, however,
remain permanently near the shores ; but it has been
observed that when their fry, locally called " muschi," are
numerous from the month of June to August, the fishing
of the coming season is sure to be abundant, whilst the
reverse is the case if they appear in numbers in November
and December. In a good season the several villages on
the island of Karkenah supply about 3000 cwts., and the
Jubah waters a third part of this quantity. In an average
year the yield will be under 2000 cwts., and in one of
scarcity 1000 cwts. On the shores from the village of
Luesa to that of Chenies, in the Gulf of Khabs, the natives
collect from four to five cwts. of cuttle-fish a day during
the season ; but this supply generally serves for the con-
sumption of the regency. The remaining coast and islands
maybe calculated to furnish a minimum of 650 to 700 cwts.
of dried molluscs.

The Tunisian Government claims a third of all the
polypi fished upon its coast. The selling price varies con-

1 1 8 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

siderably, according to the size, supply, and demand, but at
Sfax a pair of them may cost, as circumstances rule, from
6d. to \s. '^d. ; however, the preparatory maceration, by
beating on a stone slab or rock, required before drying
entails a small additional expense, and brings the extremes
of low and high prices to 2 5i-. or 50J. per cwt. To the cost
price must be added an export duty of 5^", \d., and the
purchaser ought to be careful to receive his merchandise
from the seller during dry weather, as a damp day will
add from four to five per cent, to the weight of every
cwt.

From two to three public sales of dried polypi take
place in a season on the island of Karkenah ; these are
regulated according to the abundance of the fish. The
average price of the last six years has been — during the
first sale, from 45^-. to ^os. per cwt. ; second sale, 35^-. to
45^. ; third sale, 25^-. to 30^-. A few first parcels, in order
to secure an early market, have, however, occasionally been
sold for £^ the cwt.

Polypi have hitherto been prepared for exportation by
simply salting and drying them, but it is now proposed to
carry out on a large scale an experiment, which appears to
have proved successful, of preserving them either in oil or
brine, after subjecting them to a preliminary scouring and
boiling process.

Malta receives the largest share of the Tunisian polypi,
but they are only sent to that island for ultimate trans-
mission to Greece and other parts of the Levant. Portugal
is one of the few countries that competes with Tunis in
supplying the Greek markets with polypi. In Greece they
are either sold, after being pickled, at from £\2 \6s. to
;^I5 9^-. the cantar of 176 lbs., or in their original dried
state at from £12 to £\^, but these prices fluctuate ac-

Ccphalopods, etc., as Food. 119

cording to the favourable or unfavourable results of the
season's fishing.

On the first arrival of the octopodia in the shallows
they keep in masses or shoals, but speedily separate in
search of shelter among the rocks near the beach, covered
by only one or two feet of water, and in the stony
localities prepared for them by the fishermen in order to
frustrate the depositing of their spawn. Polypi are taken
in deep water by means of earthen jars strung together
and lowered to the bottom of the sea, where they are
allowed to remain for a certain number of hours, and in
which the animals introduce themselves. Frequently from
8 to 10 polypi are taken from every jar at each visit of
the fishermen. In less deep water earthenware drain-pipes
are placed side by side, for distances frequently exceeding
half a mile in length, and in these also they enter and are
taken by the fishermen. As they are attracted by white
and all smooth and bright substances, the natives deck
places in the creeks and hollows in the rocks with white
rocks and shells, over which the polypi spread themselves,
and are caught from four up to eight at a time. But the
most successful manner of securing them is pursued by
the inhabitants of Karkenah, who form long lanes and
labyrinths in the shallows by planting the butt-ends of
palm branches at short distances from each other, and these
constructions extend over spaces of two or more miles.
On the ebb of the tide (the fall is here about 10 feet) the
octopodia are found in the pools inside the enclosures, and
are easily collected by the fishermen, who string them in
bunches of 50 each, and from 8 to 10 of these bunches,
called " risina," are secured daily during the season by
every boat's crew of four men.

The squids form an important element in the North

1 20 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

American fisheries. The common Loligo is the favourite
food of the cod, and is therefore itself fished for bait.
One-half of all the cod taken on the banks of New-
foundland are said to be caught by it. When the vast
shoals of this mollusc approach the coast, hundreds of
vessels are ready to capture them, forming an extensive
cuttle-fishery, engaging 500 sail of French, English, and
American ships. During violent gales of wind, hundreds
of tons of them are often thrown up together in beds on
the flat beaches, the decay of which spreads an intolerable
effluvium around. They must themselves be consumed in
enormous numbers, for it has been estimated that a single
squid will lay in one season 40,000 eggs.

The cuttle-fish are frequently left stranded on the
beaches, and are also caught by fishermen, who obtain two
valuable products from them — the so-called calcareous
bone (which is much used by chemists, when pulverized and
tinted, and sold as coral tooth-powder), and the ink-bag,
which forms the sepia colour of artists. On the coasts of
Brittany and La Vendee, the flesh of this polypus is eaten
and appreciated, but on many other coasts it is disdained.
Much depends, how^ever, on its culinary preparation, which
is somewhat difficult.

Dried cuttle-fish form a large article of export from
Japan to China. They are called suswne, and are brought
chiefly from Esasi, Matsmai, and the west coast of Yesso,
Fugaro, and Yetzidzen, generally during February and
October, and the prices paid vary from 14 to \6\ dollars.
Small quantities brought to Hakodate from Sado Island,
situated near the west coast of Niphon, are said to be of
very good quality.

To show the extent of the Chinese trade, it may be
stated that in the quarter ending June, 1872, the imports
into three of the Chinese ports were as follows : —

Cep/ialopods, ek., as Food. 121

Picals.
Kiukiang ... ... ... ... 869

Shanghai ... ... ... ... 1564

Ningpo ... ... ... ... 1745

4198

— equal to 5222 cwt.

What is commonly termed cuttle-fish bone is frequently
found floating in the Mediterranean Sea, and in much
greater quantity on the shores of Australia. It is of an
oblong oval shape, from 3 to 10 inches long, and its breadth
is about one-third of its length ; hard upon its upper surface
and edges, but soft on its lower side, both surfaces being
convex. Its specific gravity is about '935. Its composition,
though calcareous, is quite different from bone, being about
83 per cent, of carbonate of calcium, with some magnesia
and common salt, and but little animal matter. The
structure is quite peculiar ; a fresh fracture, when examined,
shows the layers of the calcium salt, supported by pillars
of the same material, arranged in regular rows, likened by
Wood the naturalist to an imitation Giant's Causeway. It
furnishes cage-birds with tiny grindstones, whereon to whet
their bills, and levigated and dried it forms the basis of
some dentrifices.

When the ovaries of some of the species of sea-eggs
or sea-urchins are fully developed — the Echinus ediilis, for
instance — they are collected as food. The late Sir Robert
Schomburgk, in his " History of Barbados," mentions that
they are eaten there.

The Echinus albns is eaten by the Chilians and others.
It is of a globular form, and about three inches in diameter ;
the shell and spines are white, but the interior substance is
yellowish and of an excellent taste.

Palolo. — Another curious food product obtained in the
Pacific, which is esteemed as highly as whitebait in Eng-

12 2 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

land, is the Palolo viridis, Gray, a small species of sea-
worm, a genus of annelides. The Rev. J. B. Starr, of the
London Missionary Society, has given the best description

of it, as follows : —

Fig. 2.

I. Palolo vitidis, natural size. 2. Portion of body, slightly magnified. 3.
Magnified figure of head. 4. Ditto of posterior extremity. (Gray.)

"The palolo is the native name for a species of sea-
worm which is found in some parts of Samoa (the Navi-
gator Islands) in the South Pacific Ocean. They come
regularly in the months of October and November, during
portions of two days in each month, viz., the day before

Cephalopods, etc., as Food. 123

and the day on which the moon is in her last quarter.
They appear in much greater numbers on the second than
on the first day of their rising, and are only observed for
two or three hours in the early part of each morning of
their appearance. At the first dawn of day they may be
felt by the hand swimming on the surface of the water ;
and as the day advances their numbers increase, so that by
the time the sun has risen, thousands may be observed in a
very small space, sporting merrily during their short visit
to the surface of the ocean. On the second day they
appear at the same time and in a similar manner, but in
such countless myriads that the surface of the ocean is
covered with them for a considerable extent. On each
day, after sporting for an hour or two, they disappear until
the next season, and not one is ever observed during the
intervening time. Sometimes, when plentiful at one
island in one month, scarcely any are observed the next ;
but they always appear with great regularity at the times
mentioned, and these are the only times at which they are
observed throughout the whole year. They are found only
in certain parts of the islands, generally near the openings
of the reefs on portions of the coast on which much fresh
water is found ; but this is not always the case.

" In size they may be compared to a very fine straw,
and are of various colours and lengths, green, brown, white,
and speckled, and in appearance and mode of swimming
resemble very small snakes. They are exceedingly brittle,
and if broken into many pieces, each swims off as though
it were an entire worm. No particular direction appeared
to be taken by them in swimming. I observed carefully to
see whether they came from seaweed or rose from the reef,
and feel assured they come from the latter place. The
natives are exceedingly fond of them, and calculate with

124 ^/^^ Comjnercial Products of the Sea.

great exactness the time of their appearance, which is
looked forward to with great interest. The worms are
caught in small baskets, beautifully made, and when taken
on shore are tied up in leaves in small bundles, and
baked. Great quantities are eaten undressed, but either
dressed or undressed they are esteemed a great delicacy.
Such is the desire to eat * palolo ' by all classes, that im-
mediately the fishing parties reach the shore, messengers
are despatched in all directions with large quantities to
parts of the island on which none appear."

The great antiquity of the name for this worm amongst
the South Sea Islanders (Balolo and Palolo) is attested by
the fact that the parts of the year most nearly corre-
sponding with our months of October and November, are
respectively named " Vula i Balolo lailai " (little), and
""Vula i Balolo leva " (large) ; the latter, as its name im-
plies, is distinguished by the appearance of the " balolo " in
such vast numbers that it is collected by the natives as a
dainty article of food, and is so much prized that formal
presents of it are frequently sent considerable distances
into the interior, from certain chiefs resident on the coast,
to others whose dominions do not happen to be favoured
by the annual visit of the " balolo."

Dr. Seemann, in his " Mission to Viti," gives us the
following extract of a letter from a lady in Fiji to her
friends in England : — " In November we all went for a
few days to Wakaya, about lo miles east-north-east from
Ovalau, in order to see the balolos, which rise out of the
reefs just before daylight, at first in small numbers, but
about sunrise in such masses that the sea looks more solid
than liquid. As they were to appear on the morning of
the 25th, we retired to rest at an early hour the night
before, and rose with the moon about one o'clock in the

Cephalopods, etc., as Food. 125

morning. An hour's pull in the whaleboat brought us to
the very spot to which they were to come. We found
several natives already collected there in boats and canoes,
all anxiously looking out who should get the first ' balolo.'
This they discovered by sitting with their hands in the
water as the canoe was gently paddled about. Presently
there was great shouting — nets were put out, and the
excitement commenced. At first our nets did very well ;
but soon the balolos became too numerous for them to be
of any use, and they were caught by the hands and thrown
into the baskets with which the boats were filled. We
placed a white handkerchief four inches below the surface
of the water, but the little creatures were so thick above it
that it was quite invisible. At first I could not make up
my mind to touch them, but seeing every one else doing
so, I summoned up all my courage, plunged in my hands,
and grasped a goodish number, of which however I got rid
as quickly as possible. The little slimy things twist round
the hand in half a second. They are of course perfectly
harmless, swim very fast, and the longer ones have some-
times five or six coils in the body. When at the thickest,
they are all entangled one in another, presenting a very
curious appearance, as they are of various shades of green,
brown, and white. As the sun gains power, they disappear,
and about eight or nine o'clock you can scarcely find one.
It is always in November they come in such masses, just
after the last quarter of the moon, and they rise with the
tide. As soon as the natives have gathered all they can,
they make fires and ovens to cook them. Small quantities
of ' balolo ' are tied up in bread-fruit leaves, and have to lie
in the oven from 12 to 18 hours. When all is cooked, the
natives expect a heavy shower of rain, as they say to put

126 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

out the fires of their ovens. Should there be no rain, a bad
yam season is expected."

Many of the European residents in the Fijis eat the
"balolo," and look on it as quite a periodical relish. It
also makes its appearance in the New Hebrides, in Tonga,
and in the Samoan or Navigator Islands identically with
its advent in Fiji.

CHAPTER XI.

MISCELLANEOUS FISHERIES.

The capelin fishery of Newfoundland— Chiefly used as bait for cod — Some
shipped pickled and dried— The halibut fishery on the American coast —
The sword-fish eaten as food — Fishing for turbots, soles, and other flat fish
— Quantity sold annually in Billingsgate — Fish in India.

The Capelin Fishery. — The capelin {Alallotus arcticus ;
M. villostis, Cuv.) is peculiar to Newfoundland and Labrador.
It is a very delicate fish, resembling- a smelt. Its visits
are during August and September, for the purpose of
spawning on beaches. At times they are so numerous as
to darken the sea for miles, while the cod feed on them
with the utmost voracity. We only know them in Europe
in the dried state, some quantity being imported from
New^foundland.

As an article of bait for cod and other fish of that
class, the capelin is of much importance ; whenever
abundant, the cod fishing is excellent. Like the common
smelt, it possesses the cucumber smell, but differs from the
smelt in never entering fresh-water streams.

This delicious fish is now only locally sought for bait
and manure, but a very small quantity are cured. This may
hereafter become a great source of wealth, when we con-

128 The Comtnercial Products of the Sea.

sider how large a trade is carried on in sardines and
anchovies. If they were merely pickled and dried, a
simple operation which could be performed by children,
they would be worth at least 4^-. a barrel ; and 1,000,000
barrels would find a market if introduced into fish-eating
countries, and not sensibly lessen the quantity which every
summer swarms in every bay and creek of the island of
Newfoundland and the Labrador coast.

The HalibiU (Hippoglossns vulgaris, Cuv.). — The halibut
abounds in the waters of the Atlantic coast from New-
foundland to Cape Hatteras. From some ports of Nova
Scotia a considerable trade in halibut is carried on with
the United States. On parts of the coast the fish is so
abundant, and of such large size, that the localities are
avoided by those engaged in cod fishing, as a boat or small
vessel becomes soon heavily laden This fish sometimes
attains the weight of 400 to 500 lbs. The flesh is some-
what coarse and dry, but is much esteemed by many. It
is lightly salted and smoked. The fins and flaps are
delicacies, if the fish is in good condition. The halibut is
also cut into slices and pickled in barrels, in which state it
sells at half the price of the best herrings.

The fishing for the halibut is very important, and 5000
to 6000 barrels are taken in the British Provinces by
Americans, few of the native settlers em.barking in it.
The fish is somewhat different from the European fish of
the same name.

Sword-fish. — The flesh of the Tctraptunis Australis is an
excellent article of food, much resembling that of the true
sword-fish or "pesce spada" {XipJnas gladius) of the Mediter-
ranean. Its flesh is much esteemed there as an article of
food. The sword-fish is common in the Bosphorus, and
measures 10 to 12 feet, and of proportionate girth. The

Miscellaneous Fisheries. 129

flesh, which is of a dull red colour, is very palatable, and a
sword-fish steak makes an excellent substitute for a salmon
cutlet. A sword-fish was shown at Boston, U.S., some
years ago, which weighed over lOOO lbs., and measured,
including the sword, 14 feet.

The fishermen of Sables d'Olonne, France, dry and
salt the flesh of Sqnalus canicidata, and of another species,
the dog-fish {S. galeiis), for winter use.

Turbot, Soles, etc. — The British trawl vessels catch their
fish on the vast submarine plateau extending from Flam-
borough Head to the south of Orfordness on the English
coast, and from the Long Fisher Bank, north of Heligo-
land, to Ter Schelling, on the Dutch coast.

Soles fourteen years ago cost 2d. to 2\d. per lb. ; now they
are worth Zd. to \s. 2d. per lb. Large soles are difficult to
get at all. Small soles go by the name of " tongues ; " the
smallest are " cat's tongues." "Slips" are 9^ to 10 inches
in length. A fair-sized sole would be about 12 inches.
The legal sizes for the sale of fish in France limit soles and
turbot to four inches.

Sole fishing is a trade carried on most extensively at
various parts of the English coast, but more particularly at
the Great Silver Pitts, situated betwixt the Dogger and
Wellbank, east from the Humber river. Sole fishing is con-
ducted upon exactly the same principle as oyster dredging.
The vessel sails easily along at the rate of about two knots
per hour, pulling the dredge after her; and as the traveler's
dredge or net is fitted with inside pockets, when once the
fish are fairly entered into the net, they cannot again easily
get out. The depths and bottom about the middle of the
Firth of Forth are similar to those about the Great Silver
Pitts, and as soles are frequently caught by fishermen on
their lines, the supposition is that were dredges used in

130 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

25 and 30 fathoms' water in the Firth, soles might also be
found there lying in clusters.

On that part of the northern coast of Ireland connected
with Lough Foyle, turbot fishing is carried on from March
to November. Turbot average to the fishermen 3J-. to 4s.
per dozen, and there are about 12 dozen of turbot sent
weekly from Moville to Liverpool and Glasgow. A con-
siderable quantity of soles and plaice is also shipped irom
the trawlers.

One hundred millions (or about 12,000 tons in weight)
of soles are said to be sold annually in Billingsgate.

Nearly every fish that swims, either in salt or fresh
water, is greedily eaten by the natives in India. Sharks
especially are much valued, and said to be very pala-
table and nutritious. The fishery for these is described in
another chapter. In the bazaars of Madras it would be
possible to obtain some 200 or 300 kinds of dried fish,
including different preparations of the same species. In
curing fish, salt, owing to its high price, is used as sparingly
as possible, and hence, as a rule, the dried fish of the
bazaar has anything but a pleasant odour. In some quar-
ters saline earth is used instead of salt, as being cheaper ;
but fish cured in this manner is said to have an unpleasant
flavour, and to be apt, when continuously used, to bring on
itch. The fish most in repute for European tables in
Madras are the seer {Cybiuni Commersonii), the pomfrets
{Stromateiis niger and vS. argenteus), and mullets. The seer
is sold in cutlets, like salmon in Europe, and is in some
respects perhaps superior to salmon, more especially as
regards digestibility.

CHAPTER XII.

OYSTERS AND OTHER EDIBLE MOLLUSCA.

Britain long celebrated for oysters — Large consumption and great value of
those consumed in England— Continually advancing prices — The Jersey
fishery — The French oyster fishery — Oyster consumption in Paris — Ostrei-
culture on the French coast — American oyster fishery — ^The New York
trade — Oysters in Australia — Clams and other edible molluscs.

The geographical distribution of the oyster is extensive.
Large quantities are found on the American coasts and at
the Antipodes. On the coast of Africa it is also plentifully
sprinkled.

In antiquity Britain was so celebrated for oysters, that
they were sent to Rome ; a fact attested by more than one
of the Roman poets. The epicures of that city had their
layers or stews for oysters, as we have at present in the
open sea. According to Pliny, the oyster reservoirs were
first made by Sergius Orata, not for the gratification of his
own palate, but as a most lucrative speculation by which he
realized large profits. The ancients ate oysters as we do,
either raw or roasted ; but they had also a way of stewing
them with mallows and docks, and sometimes with fish.
There is a curious account of the treatment of oysters in
Sprat's " History of the Royal Society," an abstract of

132 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

which may be found in Pennant's " British Zoology."
About 1776, the oysters of Colchester and Rochester were
the most famous ; and a great part of the inhabitants of the
latter place were concerned in or supported by this fishery,
which was conducted by a company of free dredgers,
established by prescription, but subject to the Corporation.
It is from September to April that oysters are in most
request, and during this interval it is computed there are

Fig. 3.

800,000,000 of oysters consumed in London alone, and
quite as many, if not more, in the provinces. We pay
between ^4,000,000 and ;6^5, 000,000 a year for oysters, and
there is no doubt double the quantity would find ready
consumption if they were obtainable at a reasonable price.
During the last ten years the price of " natives " has in-
creased from two guineas to ten guineas a bushel.

Oysters and other Edible Molliisca. 133

The English native oyster of the coasts of Kent and
Essex is distinguished from all others : — i. By its peculiar
flavour and delicacy. 2. By the colour of its lobes and
mantle, which are of a clear green hue, due to the marine
plants on which it feeds. 3. By its thin and translucid
shell of a brilliant pearly interior, unlike the common
oyster which has a large calcareous centre, indicating an
inferior quality.

The English native oyster contains iron and alkaline
iodides, which renders this mollusc sweet and wholesome,
and nourishing food.

Now that the genuine Whitstable oyster fetches ^s. 6d.
the dozen, and is likely to cost 4^'., if not more, soon —
with oysters, in a word, at threepence halfpenny each, and
threatening to rise to fourpence— anything that aftects, or
tends to affect, the price of this delicious bivalve cannot but
be matter of almost universal interest. It is certainly cause
for great regret that the supply of the best kind of oysters
should have fallen so short as it has done of late years.
The oyster is not a luxury which only very rich people can
expect to command, but it ought to be within the reach of
all persons of moderate means. It is essentially the most
popular, as well as palatable, of delicacies. It is not many
years since the best " natives " from Whitstable and Col-
chester were only sixpence a dozen in a West-End estab-
lishment, and " seconds " but two-thirds of that sum ; and
then the City clerk, emerging hungry from the theatre,
could appease his appetite with oysters and draught stout,
secure from any suspicion of undue extravagance. Those
golden days unfortunately have fled, and, unless active and
practical steps be taken to replenish our oyster beds, they
can never be expected to return.

The oyster is not, strictly speaking, a mollusc of the sea.

134 ^^^^ Commercial Products of the Sea.

It can only live and breed in certain shallow estuaries, and
even in these it only thrives within particular limits. If we
overfish our estuaries we depopulate them, and we have
systematically over-dredged our oyster beds. Thus we are
now reaping the inevitable result of extravagance and
waste. We must cultivate the oyster, or else rest content
to see it become still scarcer, or even extinct. No third
course is possible. Oyster culture in England is still in its
infancy, but it is satisfactory to know that steps are being
taken to improve our knowledge of the subject.

The oyster fishing of Arklow, on the east coast of
Ireland, is a large and constant source of employment to
the fishermen. The oysters are carried in boats to Beau-
maris, in Anglesey, where they are laid on banks and raised
when required for the Liverpool market.

Oysters continue to be scarce and dear in England.
In former years some hundreds of boats might be seen in
Goree harbour, Jersey, engaged in the fishery ; now, scarcely
a dozen boats can pay their way by dredging. The fishing-
is most active from February to May.

During the spring of 1850 the number of Jersey boats
employed in the fishery was 70, manned by 350 men ; of
English boats, 119, manned by 623 men — a total of 189
boats, 4018 tons, 983 men. The quantity of oysters
caught was 105,000 tubs, which fetched 3J-. a tub — or
;^i 5,300! In the autumn of the same year there were
40 Jersey boats, manned by 200 men ; 40 English boats,
220 men. These 80 boats caught 19,200 tubs, which sold
at 2s. 6d. per tub, or ;^2400 ; the total produce of the
oysters dredged in the spring and autumn of 1850 being
thus ;^ 1 7,700.

In Falmouth harbour there are from 200 to 300 boats
employed in the oyster fishery. The price has risen from
2s. to iSj. per bushel.

Oysters and other Edible Mollusca. 135

The conventional ring-gauge of oysters is two and a
half inches in diameter, and this, it is thought, might be
reduced to two inches.

Some 36,000 bushels of oysters have been taken to the
coast of Kent to lay down in beds for the London market,
and large quantities are bought by French and other
merchants, the French giving the highest price.

The French Oyster Fishery. — To show the importance
of the French oyster fishery, it may be stated that more than
30 years ago the value of the oysters taken at the two ports
of Granville and Cancale realized ;^22,ooo. At Granville
105 boats, employing 760 men, took 18,750,000 oysters,
and at Cancale 187 boats, with 1083 men, took only
8,000,000 oysters. The Granville oysters then sold at 19
francs 62 cents the looo; Cancale oysters at 21 francs.

In a report submitted to the Emperor Napoleon by
M. Coste, he showed that the production of oysters on the
plan recommended by him had taken such a prodigious
development, that in the He de Re alone more than 3000
men, who had come from the interior, had established 1500
parks, which produced annually about 371,000,000 oysters,
of the value of from 6,000,000 francs to 8,000,000 francs.

To show the consumption of Paris, and the great in-
crease of price, the following figures may be given : —

Consumption.

Price per loo.
Francs.

1804

17,200,000

—

IS46

47,400,000

... 3-38

1852

77>9oo,ooo

2-27

1858

57,600,000

..• 3-58

1868

26,500,000

7-20

The price has since advanced to over 12 francs the lOO, and
the effect has been to stimulate the development of ostrei-
culture.

136 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

The value of the oysters sold in France in 1872 was
;^520,ooo, and in 1873, ;^6oo,ooo. The ports of Granville,
Cancale, and L'Orient produced nearly 13,000,000 oysters,
about 4,500,000 more than in the previous year. Ostrei-
culture, thanks to the care and wise regulations of the Gov-
ernment, is making rapid progress, both to the benefit of
the fishermen and the public. In the quarter of La Teste,
where this industry is extensively carried on, 42,342,250
oysters were obtained, being 17,000,000 more than in the
previous year.

As there is nothing new under the sun, it would appear
that artificial oyster-culture is no exception, for in the days
of the Stuarts many Star Chamber edicts were issued pro-
hibiting the " exportation beyond the seas " of " oyster
faggots," i.e., fascines with young oysters attached ; and at
another time, in those halcyon days when Whitstable
oysters rose from Zd. to 6s. the bushel, " water measure,"
their exportation was prohibited, subject to dire pains and
penalties. It is strange that the French should learn
oyster culture from us, and that we should be beholden to
them for what we know about the artificial reproduction of
the oyster, notwithstanding the fact that we abound in
aquaria paying remunerative dividends.

The French have been more zealous and energetic in
oyster culture than we have. At Arcachon, in the centre
of a basin exposed only during low water, is a bank called
Lahellon, of a surface of about 100 acres, forming the
model oyster ground, which is only above water for 25
minutes at every low tide. The oyster bed proper covers
only 10 acres, to which, however, have been added, as
annexations and depots, about 60 acres of neighbouring
banks. On this small space, where the first oysters were
planted in i860, the enormous oyster population has been

Oysters and other Edible MoUusca. 137

generated which now covers it, and at some future day will
be a source of great wealth.

The first deposit made consisted of 500,000 oysters,
and near them 10,000 large hollow earthen tubes were
so placed and piled up as to afford a desirable stopping-
place for the young vagabond oysters, the birth of which
was expected. Notwithstanding partial failures, unavoid-
able in all such totally new enterprises, the park of
Lahellon, with its appendages, was estimated to have pro-
duced, in 1868, 50,000,000 oysters, which is much more
than the rest of the bay contained in its 40,000 acres'
surface.

It is reckoned that the net increase of the receipts from
oysters alone in France is rather over ^^300,000 a year. All
down the coast of the Bay of Biscay, from Brest to the
Gironde, the shores are studded with artificial beds belong-
ging to private individuals, but regularly and rigidly in-
spected by Government. The population of the islands of
Re and Oleron in particular are entirely supported by the
oyster beds.

Auray in Brittany is, next to Arcachon, the seat of the
most important of all French oyster fisheries. There is
one establishment in the Auray district — that of M. d'Argy,
at Le Breneguy, near Locmariaquer — which comprises
about 100 acres in a single enclosure, private property,
and about 12 hectares outside, in addition, between the
enclosure and the sea. The lOO acres now forming this
great oyster-pond were in 1864 part of a farm belonging to
M. d'Argy, and divided in the usual way into fields. In
that year the sea broke in, and submerged it, causing, as it
was thought at the time, great destruction of property.
The proprietor, however, eventually determined some time
ago to form it into an oyster-tank, and, by means of sub-
7

138 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

stantial embankments erected at great cost, has succeeded
most completely in doing so. In 1876 M. d'Argy laid down
6,000,000 oysters, 3,500,000 being of the five-centimetre
size. These have grown well, and the large ones were also
in good condition ; indeed, so satisfactory have been his
efforts that he has been enabled to contract for the present
supply of 1,000,000 marketable oysters to London and the
same to Paris, while the quantity despatched to each place
will shortly be increased to 2,000,000.

The official value of the produce of the principal oyster
fisheries in France in 1873 was given as follows : —

Quarters. Francs.

Sables d'Olonne ... ... ... 60,200

Noimontiers ... ... ... 79i^76

De Vannes ... ... ... 98,590

D'Auray ... ... ... ... 274,849

L'Orient ... ... ... ... 35, 000

Paimpol ... ... ... ... 105,800

Cancale ... ... ... ... 595,020

Granville ... ... ... ... 61,595

La Hougue ... ... ... 183,085

Caen ... ... ... ... 96,786

Havre ... ... ... ... 121,800

Calais ... ... ... ... 28,932

Teste ... ... ... ... 1,736,032

The dredging in the ports of Granville, Cancale, and
L'Orient produced in 1873 12,805,000 oysters, against
4,586,000 oysters in the previous year. In 1874 the pro-
duce at Cancale was 13,454,000 oysters.

The following official statement, lately published, gives
the statistics of the commerce in oysters in France for the
seasons ist September to 30th April : —

Oysters taken from the beds.

Value in francs.

Price per looo.
Francs.

1874

104,731,350

7,727,000

- 7378

1875

227,640,212

11,247,416

49-40

1876

335.774,070

13,226,296

39-39

Oysters and other Edible Mollusca. 139

The basin of Arcachon and the other maritime rivers
of that coast are those where the artificial culture of oysters
has been most attended to. In the season ending April,
1877, 202,392,225 oysters, valued at 4,500,000 francs, were
delivered to commerce from Arcachon. The DAuray
quarter collected and delivered 101,736,000 oysters, valued
at 500,000 francs, during the same period.

The Avm'kan Oyster Fishery. — The trade in oysters in
the United States is very large. The Baltimore oyster
beds in the Chesapeake river and its tributaries cover
3000 acres, and produce an annual crop of about 25,000,000
bushels.

The oyster trade of New York is one using large
amounts of capital, employing nearly 150 sailing vessels,
with crews averaging in the aggregate 700 seamen, and
handling millions of bushels of oysters per annum. There
are moored at the wharfs in New York city nearly 60
barges, or " lay-boats " as they are called, costing from ;^6oo
to ;^iOOO each, substantially built, having compartments
capable of containing thousands of bushels of oysters in the
shell.

The oyster season commences about the ist of October
(when the boats owned by the dealers are sent to the beds
for cargoes), and lasts until the middle of March or ist
of April. The oyster fleet is composed principally of
schooners, ranging from 35 tons to 250 tons, and receives
the proceeds of the dredgings of the beds at York River,
Prince's Bay, Keyport, City Island, Cow Bay, Rockaway,
Oyster Bay, Glen Cove, Blue Point, Norwalk, Stamford,
and Greenwich. When the oysters are received, they are
discharged directly on the wharf to dealers ; and after
these are supplied, the balance is stored in the compart-
ments of the lay-boats. From the lay-boats the oysters are

140 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

shipped to other cities at the north and west. For ship-
ment, they are packed in barrels in the shells, or opened
and packed in tubs with ice, and forwarded by rail to
Boston, Providence, Portland, Chicago, Omaha, San Fran-
cisco, and other cities. Very few oysters are canned in New
York. That trade seems to be principally monopolized by
Baltimore. Besides the oyster shipping interests, there is
the important retail trade in the city. The well-fitted and
at times luxurious offices on the lay-boats are the meeting-
rooms of the proprietors of the hotels, restaurants, retail
oyster saloons, and cheap oyster stands. At certain hours
in the day, representatives of each of these branches of the
trade may meet in the office, and the rapidity with which
a cargo of oysters — extras, box, cullens — is disposed of
astonishes a novice. One man requires only the largest
oysters in the lot. Another wants to know if the dealer
hasn't got a lot of small oysters for cheap stews. A third
requires tip-top box oysters, and another asks when the
next cargo of York Rivers or Rockaways is expected.

Most of the dealers own the beds from which they
receive the oysters, but are compelled to have partners to
superintend the catching and loading, because most of the
beds — in fact, all except those bordering on Long Island —
are out of the State. The laws of the other States — Con-
necticut, New Jersey, Delaware, and Virginia — do not
permit non-residents to own beds or catch oysters within
their domains. So the New York dealers, at least some
of them, form co-partnerships with residents near the
fishing grounds, supply them with money, let them buy
beds and plant the oysters, take them in as part owners
of the vessel in the carrying trade, and then divide the
profits.

The Ne\y York trade is controlled in a great measure

Oysters and othei" Edible Mollusca. 141

by the weather. If the nights are clear and cold, the side-
walks dry, and the stars out, the consumers throng the
retail saloons, and the result is an assemblage of all sorts
of vehicles in the morning at the lay-boat stations for new
supplies. If the country roads are in prime order, and the
fast horses of the well-to-do farmers or bloods can make
good time to the village, carrying the girls on supper ex-
cursions, the dem.and for new supplies by rail is increased.
But when the barometer falls to 29°, the stars go out
of sight, the roads are muddy and the sidewalks damp,
the demand falls off. Singularly, however, the prices do
not fluctuate. The wholesale prices change to so trifling
an extent that the consumer never receives the benefit ; if
any one profits by a fall, it is the retailer.

The oyster trade is one requiring peculiar and delicate
perception. Yet the expert who catches the oyster in his
left hand, taps it with the butt-end of the knife to make
it insensible, and shatters its stony lips to take its life,
knows as soon as he lifts it from the pile where it came
from, how old it is, whether it is a Delaware, Prince's Bay,
City Islander, or has grown under the dashing waves of
Rockaway. He knows, too, whether it will open good.
The wholesale dealers at New York have over ;^6oo,ooo
invested in the oyster trade, and receive on an average
2,500,000 bushels per annum. During the warm season,
the oysters are sent by rail in refrigerator cars, a recent .
railway improvement.

On some single days, over 100,000 bushels of oysters
have been taken from the Chesapeake Bay, which is the
greatest oyster bed in the world, and is said to be inex-
naustible.

Two hundred and fifty boats are engaged in oyster
dredging from Baltimore, which bring in about 900 bushels

142 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

to the cargo ; and as they make in the aggregate 6000
trips during the eight months of the season, this gives a
total of nearly 5,000,000 bushels of oysters, worth about
i^ 5 00,000.

The Nevvhaven banks have a very high reputation,
and this place ranks next to Boston in importance in the
oyster trade. Fair Haven is the great oyster mart of New
England. Only a very small proportion of the oysters
here are natives. They are fully equal in quality to those
imported, but cannot be raised in sufficient quantities to
supply more than one-tenth of the trade. Of the 4,000,000
bushels imported, about 1,600,000 are brought in the spring
and " planted," while 2,400,000 are imported in the fall and
winter, and consumed immediately, some of the largest
dealers using as many as 150,000 bushels yearly.

It is estimated that 4,000,000 bushels of oysters are
annually carried from the Virginia v/aters to Fair Haven ;
4,000,000 to New York ; 2,000,000 to Boston ; 2,000,000 to
Philadelphia ; 2,000,000 to Baltimore ; 3,000,000 to Provi-
dence, etc. ; in all, more than a score of millions.

The celebrated Chesapeake Bay oysters of Am.erica are
now regularly received in Europe, and are to be found in
the markets of London and Paris. There are several
varieties of American oysters, differing mainly in size, ac-
cording to the districts from which they come. Between the
best and the commonest there is hardly a difference of 25
per cent. There is the " Morris Cove " oyster, which comes
from New Jersey, and is the kind almost exclusively used
in New York and the neighbouring districts ; the " Saddle
Rocks," a particularly fat variety ; the " Norwalks," from
Connecticut ; and other varieties from the coasts of Vir-
ginia and Maryland.

The city of Boston plays the same part in supplying

Oysters and other Edible Mollusca. 143

the Northern States as Baltimore and Fair Haven do for
the Central and the Western.

Baltimore is the most important of all the cities
engaged in the oyster trade, as far as regards interior and
foreign transportation.

Twenty years ago, an official report on the oyster beds
of Baltimore gave the aggregate value as follows : —

Oysters packed in tins ... ... ... ;^6cxD,ooo

Consumed in the neighbourhood ... ... 200,000

Shells converted into lime for agricultural purposes 10,000

Total ... ;^8oo,ooo

They obtain all their oysters south of the mouth of the
Patapsco river, a great portion by dredging in 20 fathoms
water ; these, however, are not so large as those taken with
tongs in the numerous shallow inlets and bays, and near
the mouth of the Chesapeake. When planting or parking,
they take small oysters from deep v/ater, and plant them
in places where in three years they grow to a very large
size, without being in the least affected by any kind of
weather ; consequently the increase is unfailing. The
number of vessels employed in the trade then amounted to
1000, some of which cost ;^6oo, and were capable of
carrying 3000 bushels.

The number of houses engaged in this business was then
25 ; the number of hands employed in opening and packing.
2500. In some establishments 3000 bushels were opened
in a day, and in all the establishments 17,000 bushels
daily. Of this quantity, 9000 bushels were packed in cans
in a raw state, and the rest pickled, spiced, and hermeti-
cally sealed for exportation everywhere. About half of the
packed oysters are consumed in the cities of the Western
States, and are invariably sold for cash. Within 12 years

144 ^/^^ Commercial Products of the Sea.

the business has increased tenfold, which may be attri-
buted to the faciHties of transportation. They now ship raw
oysters from Baltimore to South America, California, and
Australia, besides all parts of Europe; and the demand will
steadily increase as they become better known, from the
fact that Chesapeake oysters, like canvas-back ducks, owe
their superior flavour to the food obtained on their feeding
grounds.

The oysters of the Pacific are beginning to attract
attention in British Columbia, and the cultivation of this
mollusc and the preservation of oysters in tins lor foreign
markets will soon become an important industry there.

The Chinese have a mode of raising oysters on bamboo
screens in the beds of rivers in the southern ports of the
empire. These arc prepared for keeping in the following
manner : — The oysters, when taken from their shells, are
placed for a time in boiling water, and taken out with a
skimmer. They are then exposed in the sun to dry. Oysters
taken from the rock cannot, it is said, be so preserved.

The number of oysters consumed in Victoria is very
large, and averages nearly 15,000,000 per annum. Each
year's return manifests a decided increase over its pre-
decessor, and there is every likelihood of this number
being doubled if not trebled in the space of a few years, so
growing is the passion of " oyster-eating." Oysters are
divided there into two classes, viz., " mud " and " rock." Oi
the former, there are several kinds, varying in quality
according to the nature of the ground and the depth of
water in which they lie. The latter is generally found in
shallow water, bordering on rocks, and is a more delicate
oyster than the "mud." Melbourne is supplied from
several distinct sources, but the great bulk comes from
New South Wales and Tasmania. A few are also received

Oysters and other Edible Mollusca. 145

from Port Albert and Adelaide, and until latterly the
Western Port beds yielded a large quantity. The oysters
of New South Wales are principally "rocks," and are found
in almost every river and inlet in the colony. The best
come from the Manning river and Cape Hawk. Those
coming from the Hunter, near Newcastle, are very small,
and but seldom used. The number of men engaged in
the New South Wales fisheries is calculated at almost
1000, but it is impossible to state the exact number. The
Tasmanian oysters ("mud") are chiefly found in the bays and
inlets on the southern coast — the best coming from Port
Esperance and Spring Bay. Those brought from the
Swan Ports are very inferior. The number of oysters
imported from the Tasmanian fisheries is not half so great
as it was some years ago ; and there cannot now be more
than about 50 or 60 men employed, whereas there were
formerly more than three times that number. No oysters
whatever have been received from Western Port for a con-
siderable period, though from what cause is not precisely
known. Formerly there was a fleet of 21 sailing vessels
employed, and the yield then amounted to over 10,000
dozen per week. The few received from Adelaide vary in
quality, but none of them possess such a good flavour as
.the " Sydney rocks," Avhich are more used in the colony
than any other class of oysters.

The oyster seasons are : — Of Victoria, from the ist
February to the 30th September ; but this season is con-
sidered to commence too early and end too soon. The
Sydney rock oysters are allowed to be sold all the year
round. The Tasmanian season is restricted to the period
intervening between the ist April and the 31st October;
but any party is allowed to gather enough for his own con-
sumption at any time.

146 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Clams. — Many molluscs pass under the name of clams.
The sand or soft clam of the New England States is
Mya arenaria ; the round clam or hard-shell clam, Vemis
inerccnaria ; and both these are brought to market as food.
The sea clam is the Mactra gigantea and M. solidissima,
Gould ; the razor clam, Solcn cnsis, Lin.

The soft clam is, next to the oyster, the most important
bivalve of the American coast, whether we view it as a
means of public sustenance, or as an addition to the fish-
ing industry of the country. Its great abundance on the
coasts where it is found, the good market it commands, the
ease with which it can be obtained from the banks at low
tide, all render it a most valuable source of sustenance to
the poorer classes. Clam beds are found in sheltered parts
of the coast, or at least in places where the action of the
waves is not sufficiently strong to change the character of
the banks. The consumption of these molluscs is con-
siderable during every season, but especially in summer,
along the entire coast of the Northern States, from New
York to Maine ; but nowhere is it so great as at Boston,
The people of the United States use clams in a variety of
culinary preparations, the most popular of which is, un-
doubtedly, a kind of soup especially esteemed in Boston.

Round clams exist in great abundance on the American
coast, from Cape Cod almost to the extremity of Florida.
They are generally found on the shores of gulfs and bays,
and of the mouths of large rivers which are less exposed
to the action of the waves than the open coast. Their
beds are at a depth varying from 6 to 25 feet below the
surface of the water at low tide. Like all the molluscs of
that family, they prefer a large proportion of mud with
the sand in which they live.

Round clams are the object of an especial culture in

Oysters and other Edible Mollusca. 147

America, designed to improve the rapidity of their growth.
Like the " paires doubles " ( Venus verrucosa) or clams of
the Mediterranean, they are never as delicate in flavour as
when freshly caught. In summer the consumption of
clams in the cities of New York and Philadelphia is very
considerable, much greater than that of the Mya areitaria.
Like the latter, sold in their natural condition or out of the
shell, they furnish many excellent dishes, the most esteemed
of which is clam chowder. Many persons eat the smaller
specimens raw ; and when flavoured with a few drops of
lemon juice, they are as palatable as the clovisses {Tapes'
virgmea and T. deaissata) and the " paires doubles "
{Vejms verrucosa), which are the especial favourites of the
people of Marseilles.

Whatever may be the value of soft clams as a means of
sustenance for the people along the coasts, they are still
more important to the fisheries of the country. The
Americans have for a long time been aware of the marked
predilection which many fish, particularly those of the cod
species, manifest for the flesh of clams, under whatever
form presented to them.

Clams are used for bait, either alive or salted, accord-
ing as the fishery is on the coast or out at sea. Many
years ago it was estimated that 40,000 bushels of clams
were consumed in the preparation of salt bait, in addition
to large quantities used in a natural state by the coast
fisheries.

Cockles, mussels, periwinkles, whelks, and other molluscs
are largely eaten for food in many countries of Europe.

PART II.

MARINE CONTRIBUTIONS TO
INDUSTRY.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

Enumeration of some of the various uses of marine products — Animals — Shells
— Isinglass — Fish skins and leather — Fish scales — Various oils, etc.

Of the radiate animals, we have among the useful ones the
edible beche-de-mer or Holotlmria (already described), the
sea-eggs, sea-urchins, or sea-chestnuts {Echini), which are
frequently used as food when full of spawn, and star-fish
for manure.

Among those which are ornamental may be named
the stony corals, the red "organ-pipe" coral {Tubipora
imisica), sea-fans and gorgonas, and madrepores.

The vast number of small marine animals, particularly
the shell-fish and corals, are of extreme importance to the
general economy of nature, acting as scavengers ; inasmuch
as they in the ocean, in the same manner with insects upon
the earth, incessantly destro}', consume, and as it were
metamorphose, an infinite variety of noxious, hurtful, or
superfluous substances.

To man they are in so far serviceable that many of the
mollusca, or naked soft worms, and the shell-fish are
eatable, some forming a principal article of diet to many

152 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

navigators and inhabitants of seacoasts. A very beautiful
purple dye was formerly procured to some extent from
certain molluscs. Sepia and Indian ink are obtained from
the peculiar dark fluid of the cuttle-fish. The gall of the
carp is used in Turkey as a green paint and in staining
paper. The byssus of certain species of Pinna affords
a kind of brown silky fibre which may be worked up into
useful articles. Many kinds of shells contain .pearls. Red
coral is an important article of trade, particularly in the
East Indies. Several kinds of shells, either entire or
divided, pass current as money in Africa, India, and other
remote nations. From portions of shells the North
American Indians made their wampum — a sort of currency
which serves the purpose of records. Many savage people
use mussel, snail, oyster, and tortoise shells for drinking-
vessels, spoons, etc. In regard to works of art, the mother-
of-pearl oyster and many mussel and snail shells are cut
like onyx into cameos, and used for making buttons. The
cuttle-fish bone is employed by artists and workmen.
Sponge serves a variety of domestic purposes. Madrepore
is employed for paving and building on the coasts of the
Red Sea. Numerous shells and corals are burnt for lime.
Some large thin shells are used as glass in the south of
China and in India. Shells are among the most common
ornaments of savage nations ; and shell flowers, shell
earrings, shell brooches and bracelets are worn even by
females in the more civilized countries.

It is not as nourishment only that fish is made sub-
servient to commerce. The preparation of isinglass affords
to some countries the means of extensive trade and specu-
lation. Sole skins, if clean, sweet, well prepared, and
dried, can be used as a fining agent, and are sometimes
employed in households to clarify coffee. It may be

Introductory Remarks. 153

mentioned that the stomach, the intestines, and also the
skins of different kinds of fish can be used as isinglass
after being cut and submitted to the action of boiling
water, and then pressed, which gives the substance the
appearance of thin leaves, resembling parchment. The
skins of many are utilized. Leather is largely made from
seal and porpoise skins, and also prepared from scaled fish
by the North American Indians ; eel leather is used for
whips and flail thongs ; shagreen or shark leather, used by
the Alaska Indians for boot soles ; there is also a sturgeon
leather. The skins of Diodou are used in making helmets,
and the stomach membranes of the halibut, in Greenland,
for window transparencies. Parchment is made from the
viscera of seals, and used by the Eskimo for clothing, bags,
and blankets. They also employ the pharynx of the seal or
walrus as leather for boot soles. Beluga leather is dressed
as kid, sole, harness, boot, mail bags, belts, and pattern
leather, etc. Walrus leather is used by the Eskimos for
harness, tables, thongs, seal-nets, and in Europe for cover-
ing polishing wheels. The Eskimos also use sea-lion
leather to cover bidarkas, and for garments and beds.

Oil is largely obtained from fish for medicine and use in
manufactures. From the mammals we obtain — seal oil, in
its various grades, used for lubricating ; sea-elephant and
sea-lion oil ; dugong oil ; oil from the body of whales,
grampuses, and porpoises, employed in the arts, for lubri-
cating, painting, etc. ; black fish and porpoise-jaw oil, used
in lubricating fine machinery, watches, clocks, and guns;
grampus oil and sperm oil, used in lamps, for lubricating,
as an emollient in medicine, for lip-salves, and in the manu-
facture of spermaceti. The fish oils comprise, among
others, sun-fish oil and cramp-fish oil, used by fishermen for
the cure of rheumatism ; cod oil and cod-liver oil, used in

154 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

medicine, as a food and emollient, and in lubricating ;
hake and haddock-liver oil, used in adulterating cod-liver
oil ; pollock oil, used by the Shetlanders for illumination ;
menhaden oil, used in currying leather, in rope-making, for
lubricating, as a paint oil, and exported to Europe for the
manufacture of soap and for smearing sheep. Herring oil,
white fish oil, sturgeon oil, shark oil, and many other oils
obtained from fishes, and a large part of the seal and black
whale oil are known indiscriminately as fish oil, and em-
ployed for various manufacturing uses. Oulachan oil is
used by the Indians of the north-west coast of America,
for food and illumination. Shark and skate liver oil, includ-
ing the " Rouen oil," made on the coast of Normandy from
the liver of Rata aqiiila, R. pastinaca, and R. batis, are used
like cod-liver oil.

The bones and debris from the menhaden, herring,
cod, and other fisheries form fish guano. The scales of
fish are used in ornamental work, in manufacturing
flowers and other fancy articles. Among those so em-
ployed are the scales of parrot-fishes {ScaridcB and
LabridcB), of mullets {Miigilidis), of .sheep's-head, etc.
{SparidcB), of drum and bass fish {ScicenidcB), of Serraitidce
and perches [Percidce and Labracidce), of Lobotidce, of
tarpum {Elopidce), of herrings {Cliipeidd), of Cyprinidce ; of
eels, used in the north of Europe to give a pearly lustre
in ornamental house-painting ; of gar pikes, used by Indians
for arrow tips ; also those of sturgeons, for implements.
Pearl white, or essence d'Orient, prepared from the scales of
Albtu'iuts liicidus and other CyprinidcB and Clupeidce,\s used
in making artificial pearls. The shagreen of the trigger-fish
{Batistes) is employed in polishing wood ; that of sharks as
leather and for polishing purposes, particularly in the
manufacturing of quill pens.

CHAPTER II.

SPONGE AND THE SPONGE FISHERIES.

Description of sponges — Two scientific divisions, common and fine — Com-
mercial grades — Distribution of sponges — Cup-shaped and fistular sponges
— American sponge fisheries — Mode of procuring and cleaning them.

Sponge is a substance with which almost every one is
familiar, as there are but few families or individuals living
in civilized communities who do not find occasion to use it
for a great variety of purposes. The article is so very
.useful that a large number of inconveniences would arise if
it could not be obtained. What would the surgeon do .-•
what the traveller ? what the housekeeper .'' And yet most
of those who use sponges in an indefinite variety of ways
all their lives never stop to consider how they are formed,
whether they are plants or animals, or what are their
histoiy and habits.

Sponges consist of a framework or skeleton, coated
with gelatinous matter, and forming a non-irritable mass,
which is connected internally with canals of various sizes.
The ova are very numerous, and present in appearance the
form of irregular-shaped granules, derived from the gela-
tinous matter, which grow into ciliated germs, and, falling
at maturity into the small canals, are then expelled by
the orifices. When alive, the body is covered by a gela-

156 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

tinoLis film, which, being provided -with ciHa, causes a
current of water to pass in at the smaller pores and out at
the larger apertures, the sponge probably assimilating the
nutritive particles which enter into the water.

Fig.

f'V

Sponge showing the outgoing water currents.

A monograph of these polypes, published in the 20th
volume of " Des Annales du Museum, Paris," enumerated
141 species, ranged under six divisions.

The sponges of commerce are divided into two scientific
divisions : —

1. Comprehending the common sponges {Spongia
officinalis), of rounded or flat form, convex beneath, of soft
tissue, more or less tenacious, large pored with great
orifices.

2. The second division includes the fine sponges
{Spongia usitatissinmm), of concave or cup-like form,
having the oscules slender like hair, and the pores very fine
in the interior. Of these there are 34 species.

Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 157

Sponges are found abundantly in tropical waters
generally, and perhaps nowhere more abundant than in the
seas of the Australian islands. They gradually decrease in
numbers towards the colder latitudes till they become
entirely extinct. They vary much in shape. Some are
beautifully shaped like a vase, others are semi-cylindrical,
others nearly flat like an open fan ; some are branched like
the opened fingers of a hand, and are called glove sponges,
and in others these branches seem to be reduced to only
one, which is shaped somewhat like a club. These vary-
ing shapes may belong to one species, and the differences
are due, so far as known, to the fact that the first men-
tioned are found in deep water, and they grade, in the
order described, up to the last, which grow in much
shallower water.

The commerce in sponges is of considerable impor-
tance. From a very elaborate and learned paper in a
recent number of the " Memoirs of the Boston Society of
Natural History on the North American Poriferae," with
remarks upon foreign species, we derive the following
valuable information on the characteristics and classifica-
tion of the commercial sponges. The great difficulty
which is experienced in any attempt to distinguish species
results from the extreme susceptibility of all keratose
sponges to any change in external conditions. They
appear to require for the production of the forms in abun-
dance tropical or sub-tropical seas, and attain by far their
greatest development in the number of the forms and
species in the West Indian seas. The typical forms, the
commercial sponges, are essentially confined to the waters
of the Caribbean Islands, the Bahaman Archipelago, and
the southern and western coasts of Florida in the western
hemisphere, and to the Mediterranean and Red Seas in the

158 The Cotnmercial Products of the Sea.

other. Australia affords a few forms ; and some species
are said to be found on the Atlantic coast of Brazil.
Bermuda also has a few of the commercial kinds, which,
according to Mr. Goode's report and his suite of specimens,
are much coarser than the Key West, darker in colour,
and, in fact, just about intermediate between these and
those of Australia. They are occasionally found in the
shops, but, as a rule, are used only by the fishermen
themselves about their boats, the Bahamas sponges being
preferred for domestic purposes by the inhabitants. It
appears that the finest forms grow only in the protected
lagoons, at depths varying from 5 to 25 feet, on a sandy
bottom. The temperature is not stated. They are cured
in a very careless manner by exposure to the weather,
a process which doubtless does not increase their value.
The true Spongicu are all shallow-water forms. In the
Mediterranean, according to Von Eckhel, they are not found
below 30 fathoms, and in American seas about the same
probably, though not fished to greater depths than five
fathoms. The fishery is principally carried on in the
West Indies by the aid of a sort of hooked fork, two
shepherd's-crook-like hooks on a long pole. The fisher-
men cannot so successfully work at considerable depths
with this instrument, as by diving, or with the diving
apparatus or armour, and various forms of drags, etc.,
employed in the Mediterranean. The greater part of the
fishery is accomplished between the depth of 3 and 20 feet,
according to the report of Dr. Palmer, from which these
remarks are principally derived. The finest qualities of
American sponges are obtained in the Bahamas, the prin-
cipal depot being at Nassau.

The process of preparation is not so careful as in
Europe, probably owing to the greater coarseness and

sponge atid the Sponge Fisheries. 159

cheapness of the specimens. The actual fishing is done
from boats, generally belonging to some schooner or larger
craft. The boats are sent out from the vessel manned by-
two men. They are generally sold by the cargo. The
bases are clipped off, and the sponge trimmed with shears
and packed in pressed bales for transportation to New
York or England, where they are largely used for the
manufacture of pilot cloth, hats, etc. The coarser kinds
and clippings are also used extensively for stuffing mat-
tresses, carriage cushions, etc., in place of hair. They are
not of sufficiently good quality to compete with the Medi-
terranean sponges, and are therefore rarely employed for
domestic purposes, except in Great Britain and the coun-
tries of North and South America. The fisheries near
shore are abandoned in the winter on account of the turbid
state of the water, which becomes " milky " with sus-
pended coral sand during the more tempestuous months.
A more limited fishery, however, is still carried on at
Anchor Keys, some 35 miles outside of Cedar Keys, and
in other places where the water is stiller, clearer, and
warmer than nearer shore.

The commercial grades coincide very closely in
America and in Europe, but it is easy to show that each
of them may be considered a distinct species if one has
an inclination to multiply in this direction. The grades
are glove sponge {Spongia officinalis), sub-species Uibiili-
fera ; wool sponge {Spongia equina), sub-species gossypina ;
and yellow and hard head (both under the name of
Spotigia agaricind), sub-species corlosia. These correspond
with remarkable accuracy to the three principal grades
of commercial sponges in Europe, which are the bath
sponge {Spongia officinalis), the horse sponge {Spongia
equina), and the zimocca sponge {Spongia agaricina).

i6o The Commercial Products of the Sea.

This result, in which three species appear on both sides of
the Atlantic as representing alone the marketable qualities
of the genus Spongia, becomes of double interest when
these varieties, or local species as they might be called, are
compared one with another. It is then found that the
aspect of the surface is closely similar in each of the three ;
that sub-species tubulifera represents Spongia officinalis,
sub-species gossypina offsets Spongia equina in the same
way, and lastly, sub-species corlosia has the same relation
to Spongia agaricina. In order to make it still more con-
vincing that such a relationship is not the result of an
artificial arrangement, it becomes necessary to describe
some of the facts more at length. First, their similarities
of surface and aspect are precisely the same as those which
experience has led me to adopt in the designation of
species in this group. Secondly, their differences can be
accounted for by the difference in habitat, and are of varietal
and not of specific value, according to the accepted use of
the term species.

The whole group of Keratosa is confined to seas in
which the differences observable between the winter and
summer isotherms are not excessive. None are found
north of Cape Hatteras and Bermuda, and doubtless a
similar limit occurs to the southward of the equator ; at
least, it is a noticeable fact that the only specimens in the
Museum of Comparative Zoology are from the island of
Fernando Noronha. On the Pacific shore. Southern Cali-
fornia and Chili are the extreme points so far known. On
the opposite coast of the Atlantic they are recorded from
England to the Cape of Good Hope, and also at the island
of Teneriffe. In the Indian Ocean they are found all
along the east coast of Africa, at the Mauritius, and on the
shores of India. They have been described from the

Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. i6i

southern part of the Sea of Okhotz, on the Asiatic conti-
nent, and specimens are not uncommon on the coasts of
AustraHa and New Zealand. In the Pacific they have been
found at the Kingmills Islands and Hawaiian Islands.
The extreme outlying form to the north, on both sides of
the Atlantic, is the excessively coarse Dysidca fragilis, with
its fibres loaded with debris. Those from the Cape of
Good Hope and Southern Australia also belong to the
coarser genera. The species cited by Miklucho Maclay
from the Sea of Okhotz seems to be one of the PJiyllo-
spongidce, but there is no analysis of the characteristics of
the skeleton, only the external form being described and
figured in his article on the sponges of the North Pacific
(" Memoires de I'Acad. Imp. de St. Petersburg," vol. 75,
No. 3). It would seem, therefore, that the finer skeletons
of the Keratosa, those of the genus Spoiigia, are only to
be sought in the intermediate zone, where the waters are of
equable and high temperature. Again, in examining the
species of this genus with relation to each other, it becomes
equally evident that they are finest and most numerous in
archipelagoes, or off coasts which are bordered by large
numbers of islands, or long reefs, or in sheltered seas.

Mr. Gurdon Saltonstall states that the sponges near
Nassau lie on reefs very much exposed to the action of
the waves, often 30 miles from land, and always in
currents, sometimes running three or four knots an hour.
Such currents are usual wherever groups of islands confine
the tide water within certain definite channels, and they
have also the effect of concentrating the floating food in
the channels, or wherever tides meet. Both of these con-
ditions are essential to successful sponge growth, namely, a
continuous renewal of aerated water and a plentiful supply
of food, and are probably partly the cause of their abun-

1 62 The Commercial Pi^odticts of the Sea.

dance in such places. This entirely agrees with obser-
vations made upon many species on the North American
coast of Chalinince and HalicJiondrida. Constant reference
to physical influence is also noticeable in the map prepared
by Von Eckhel, and in the method of classification adopted
by him. The marketable qualities are described as " sorts,"
and the different " sorts " designated by letters, as " sort A,"
"sort B," and so on. These sorts he has found it most
convenient to arrange according to localities, and thus under
some " sorts " we have all the three species represented ;
all, however, from the same place, and all having some
local peculiarity which makes them either of superior or
inferior quality. The author also frequently refers to the
slimy character of the bottom as a reason for inferiority
or dark colour. On the American side of the Atlantic
this is also shown by the great difference in point of colour
and fineness between the Nassau and Key West sponges.
The former are lighter coloured, finer, more elastic, and
more durable, than the same species at Key West, where
the colour is so dark that it designates at once the locality
from which the specimen came.

Again, the shallow-water sponges are coarser than the
deep-water forms. This is probably due, in part, as in
other species, to the quantity of sediment, v/hich is of
course less in deep than in shallow water, as, for example,
at Key West in the winter time. Mr. Saltonstall, who made
inquiries among the spongers, states that no fine qualities
of any sponges are found within the limits of the milky
water, but all the finer qualities of the marketable kinds in
the deepest water in which the species occur, except, perhaps,
in the case of the reef sponge. Glove, reef, and hard head
are fished in shallow waters, greatest depth two fathoms, and
the other and generally finer marketable varieties from two

sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 163

to five fathoms. This fact also explains, in a measure, but
not wholly, the greater coarseness of American sponges as
compared with the European ; for though it may be
assumed from the examination of the skeletons that Medi-
terranean sponges are much less exposed to turbid waters,
and though it may be shown by the microscope that the
primary fibres contain less debris, this does not wholly
explain their greater fineness and elasticity. We may
attribute this either wholly or partly to climatic con-
ditions.

If either the temperature or density of the water had
been exceptional, we might have gained some additional
information, but as it is, we cannot assume that either
cause would have been sufficient to account for the absence
of the Spongier from the Euxine. According to Carpenter,
in his articles on the Mediterranean and Black Sea, there
is a strong current continually flowing at the depth of 20
fathoms from the Mediterranean into the Black Sea, and a
return surface current from the Black Sea into the Mediter-
ranean. The sponges occur necessarily in the shallower
waters of the Sea of Marmora, since they are said by Von
Eckhel to be fished for mostly with the harpoon, and are
probably exposed more or less to the influence of the sur-
face current. Under these circumstances, they must very
often be able to endure a degree of cold during the winter,
and an amount of change in the density of the water, for
which it becomes difficult to account, even taking into con-
sideration the inferior quality of their skeletons. It is
possible, however, that the water of the northern part of
the Black Sea may not afl"ect the temperature of the
southern part to such an extent as would at first sight
appear probable, and that, notwithstanding the lower tem-
perature of the northern shores, the general temperature of

164 The Commercial Prodiicts of the Sea.

the surface water during the winter immediately east and
west of the Bosphorus may not fall below 55° as a
minimum.

The northern shore of the yEgean Sea and the eastern
shore of the Adriatic Sea are populous with sponges, and
yet the former throughout its whole extent, and the latter
from Ragusa to Istria, have nearly the same average winter
temperature, and possess a colder climate in winter than
the coast of southern Italy or Spain, where no Spongi<z
exist. Again, upon consulting the invaluable little Eckhe-
lian pamphlet, we find that the sponges correspond in
quality to this climatic change. The sort found at the
head of the ^gean is said to be the Spongia officinalis
alone, and to have a " heavy, hard, close, very hairy
skeleton, often containing slime," and it is further added
that it is not much liked, and is usually fished with the
harpoon. The same species exist also alone at correspond-
ing localities along the shore of the Adriatic, and at the
extreme locality, the island of Istria, upon the limit of its
distribution, it is said to be very rare, the form to be ugly,
the skeleton hard, the colour dark. Farther south, along
the Dalmatian coast, it becomes abundant, finer in texture
and of a lighter colour, but it is still inferior to the more
southern or Levantine variety. In considering such classes
of facts, it must also be borne in mind that the habitat of a
certain sort of variety may largely determine the quality of
the skeleton, even where the temperature may be very
favourable. Thus, to the south of Quarnero, among the
islands, a much better quality of Spongia officinalis occurs
than in the milder sea about the Ionian Islands, which, as
Eckhel remarks, is probably attributable to the slimy
character of the bottom.

The finest sponges in the Mediterranean, those of the

Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 165

Levant and ofif the Syrian and Tripoli coasts, are found
between the average aerial winter temperature of 6^° and
70°, and the isochrymals of 50° — 57°, and at no time of the
year are these, which, as stated, by Von Eckhel, occur in
the deeper water at a distance from the coast, probably ex-
posed to a lower temperature than 60°.

In describing the species of this genus I have made
comparisons between three principal Mediterranean and
three of the American commercial sponges, in order to
show the very evident relationship of these forms. Schmidt
describes five Mediterranean species in all, and may be
right ; but so far as I can understand his descriptions, with
the aid of a fine collection of specimens purchased by Pro-
fessor Baird for the National Museum from Mr. Isaacs, of
New York, I cannot make more than three out of the ordi-
nary commercial varieties, which were fully represented, and
appeared to include the entire range of his five species.
Von Eckhel's work upon the " Badeschwamme," although
a purely commercial treatise, has the same view of the
affinities of the sponges, based upon the observations of the
fishermen and dealers, and the distribution of the species.
The latter is quite remarkable. Only one species, the
Spongia officinalis, Lin., Adriatica, Schm., is found on the.
eastern shore of the Adriatic and coast of Greece, from
Trieste to the Bay of Nauplia. From Nauplia and the
island of Candia to Eritra, on the coast of Asia Minor, two
occur, Spongia officinalis and Spongia agaricana, Pall.,
Zimocca, Schm. From Eritra, opposite the island of Chios,
to Tripoli, all three, Spongia officinalis, agaricana, and egnina,
are fished, except at the island of Cyprus, where the
zimocca sponge does not live. From Tripoli to Tunis two
only occur, Spongia officinalis and equina, and from thence
to Ceuta, at the Straits of Gibraltar, a very peculiar dark-

1 66 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

coloured and coarse variety of the Spongia equina is
obtained, called the gerbis sponge.

The distribution indicates the naturalness of the three
species, and shows also that the dealers have to do with a
vast variety of forms. They can, however, pick out the
three species and their varieties without hesitation, and I
was amused and interested at finding that the method
pursued was precisely similar to that which I had been

Fig,

Outer surface of different kinds of sponge (natural size). A, Cup-shaped
variety ; b, honeycomb sponge ; C, toilet sponge ; D, Bahamas sponge, partly
in sections, showing projecting extremities and internal tubular character.

obliged to adopt in distinguishing empirically the various
sub-species and species of Spongia. They are led mainly
by the general aspect of the surface. This has a distinct

sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 167

appearance in every species, and though much altered by
the greater or less development of superficial tufts, is much
more constant than any other character. This is due to
the fact that the surface takes its aspect largely from the
number, distribution, and size of the pores, cloacal orifices,
superficial canals, and primary fibres. These characteristics,
of course, are directly correllated with all that is important in
the internal anatomy of the animal, and should therefore be
more constant than the length, form, or composition of the
tufts of fibres, or the shape of the whole, which are capable
of great modification, according to the locality in which the
specimen may be found. The forms of Spongia officinalis
may vary from cup-shape to fistular, and to irregular or
lump-like. The latter are usually coarser and looser in
texture, the superficial tufts are longer and more numerous,
and they approximate more closely to the coarser varieties
of sub-species tuhiilifcra of the Caribbean Sea in the
external aspect of the surface and the apertion of the
interior, than the finer varieties.

The texture of the poorest variety of the Mediterranean
sponges is, however, always better for domestic purposes
than the best of the corresponding American varieties,
being firmer and more elastic ; and it is also to be remarked
that the last never have the cup-shape, which is so common
in the sub-species Mcditerranea, and that the fistular
form takes its place. The forms of Spongia agaricina,
sub-species Zhnocca, vary from saucer-shape to irregular,
lump-like growth. As m the Spongia offici)ialis, it may be
shown that these aberrant forms are quite similar to the
aberrant or formless varieties of the sub-species punctata of
Florida, as regards the aspect of the surface ; but these also
are nevertheless much finer than the finest varieties of the
latter. Here, again, the platter or saucer shape, which is

1 68 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

a modification of the cup-shape, is absent. Spongia equina
exhibits similar degrees of variation in the texture of the
surface and the form. There are no proper cup-shaped
specimens among the American varieties of sub-species
gossypina, but in place of these the fistular form. These
occur generally associated in clumps, more or less densely
filled up into heads, and solid, but sometimes the tubes are
almost isolated. The younger specimens of this species
have a very loose and open texture, due to the approxima-
tion and large size of the openings, and to a less degree
this is also to be remarked in the gerbis sponge. The
former approximate in aspect to the coarser qualities of
the American species, and so also does the latter, which
has very nearly the same colour and aspect as the dark-
coloured Key West specimens, but it is not so coarse or
dark. It seems, then, that there are three sub-species of
commercial value in the Mediterranean, which find their
v,^ay into the New York and European markets. The
coarsest varieties of the European sponges are finer, firmer,
and more elastic than the finest of the corresponding
American sub-species. This is directly ti'aceable to the
larger amount of foreign matter included in the primary
threads, the looser mesh of the tissue ; the fibres are also
comparatively coarser and the large cloacal channels more
numerous throughout the mass.

Thus the difi"erent varieties of sub-species gossypina
differ in an exactly similar way from each other, and from
the third form, sub-species ccrcbrifonuis ; they differ in
texture, in surface, and also in habitat, the finer kinds, as
stated previously, being found in the deeper water, equally
removed from excessive heat and excessive sediment.
These three sub-species run together by means of specimens
of the coarser varieties, which cannot be distinguished

sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 169

Fig. 6.

Cup-shaped sponges in natural position, rooted to rock.

1 70 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

from each other with any certainty, in the same manner as
the corresponding sub-species in the Mediterranean and
Caribbean Seas were connected, through the coarser, and
not by the aid of the finer varieties. It is evident, how-
ever, that besides the general differences previously noted,
the cup-shape form is not found in the American sub-
species, whereas it is the prevalent form of the Mediter-
ranean sub-species. A cursory examination of a large
collection will, however, satisfy any one that the shape does
not necessarily correllate with a finer or a coarser skeleton,
but probably with a more or less extended base of attach-
ment and local peculiarities, such as currents, and the kind
of bottom, etc., which have not been investigated in this
connection.

TJie American Sponge Fisheries. — The coarser de-
scriptions of sponge entering into commerce are procured
about the Bahamas banks and the coast of Florida.

Sponge fishing is said to have become a very profitable
business in the neighbourhood of Key West, Florida. The
article is mostly procured there by the natives of the
Bahamas, who best understand the business of sponges ;
and its principal grounds are Rock Island, a scope of
land 30 miles long by seven miles broad, lying off
Taylor county and 60 miles north-west from Cedar
Keys ; thence from the mouth of the Withlacoochee, past
Martin's Reef to near Tampa Bay, a distance of perhaps
300 miles.

The number of small schooners engaged is between
75 and 100, with an average of from 5 to 15 men to
each, and an average of three dingies to each vessel.
The vessels built for the purpose are half oval-shape, and
as flat as is consistent with due regard to sailing qualities.
Dingy, or dincey, is the small boat used to gather the

sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 171

sponge, and is usually managed by two men. There are
about 600 men daily engaged in gathering when the
weather is fair. Quiet weather and calm sea are always
taken advantage of. These dingies, when likely to be
called into service, are towed Indian file at the stern of the
larger vessel. Each sponger is provided with a " sponge-
hook," made of iron, with three prongs, a socket fitting on
a pole one and a half inches thick and from 18 to 35
feet long ; also a " water-glass," a bucket with a pane of
glass fitted in the bottom. This adds to the power of
vision by excluding the light from behind, enabling the
sponger to penetrate with his eye at least 10 or 15 feet
deeper into the water. The sculler propels the boat along
very slowly; in the mean time the sponger sits hanging
over the side of the dingy with his head at the bucket
held by the hand and his eye penetrating the depths below,
taking in all that passes within his line of vision. As soon
as he sees his legitimate prey, he raises his sponge-hook
with his right hand, in which he is assisted by the sculler,
still keeping his eye at the glass, grapples the sponge, then
puts aside the glass and hauls it in.

Frequently his sight is darkened and view obstructed
by the intervention of the monsters of the deep. A huge
shark, a sawfish, or perhaps an enormous devil-fish, very
often large schools of beautiful fish, " Spanish mackerel,"
" cavallie," " sailor's choice," " pompeno," pass beneath him
in such numbers as to seriously interfere with his occupation.
Again, his sight is regaled with lovely coral formations,
deep fissures and grottoes, gem-lined within.

When a dingy load is gathered, the sponges are taken
to the vessel, where they are placed roots down, eyes up,
until they are dead. This part of the sponge fishing is the
most disagreeable, and causes the vessel to be almost

172 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

unbearable, the sponge exhuming a bloody, slimy matter
of most offensive odour.

The vessel having secured a full cargo makes for port,
when the sponges are taken ashore and buried in the sand
in a place technically called a " crawl." It is generally
constructed of a paling of oak staves driven in the sand,
and the lee of some island is selected as the spot. The
sponges are left a week or longer, when the slimy flesh, as
it may be called, having rotted off, the sponger goes into
the crawl with a "bruiser" (a small paddle), and with a
few strokes on the top of the sponge, clears it from the
filth and skin ; after which it is assorted into the dif-
ferent varieties, collected upon strings of convenient length
and bleached in the sun, when they are ready for the
market.

The sponge on the bar grows something like a bed cf
cabbages or mushrooms, and presents a beautiful appear-
ance, very dark and seemingly having eyes. The sponge
reefs in deep water are called "feather bars," from the
feathery or fan-like appearance of the coral, very often
seen growing up through the sponge, and in such places
the larger sponges are generally found. The different
kinds of sponge found on this coast are known as " log-
gerhead," "sheep-wool," "turtle-grass," and "yellow." The
sheep-wool and yellow only are marketable. The latter
is worth \s. per pound ; sheep-wool averaging 45-, per
pound.

There are two sponge seasons proper, during the winter
and summer months ; should the water continue clear,
however, it then lasts all through the year.

The common practice is to gather sponge on shares,
the vessel getting one-third and the crew two-thirds, the
provision bill being assessed in the same ratio. The

sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. i 73

sponges gathered in Florida waters are taken from the
fishermen at Key West, Cedar Keys, and Apalachicola,
The amount of money paid out per annum is as follows : —
At Key West, ^24,000; Cedar Keys, ;^ 1 3,000 ; Apala-
chicola, iJ"ii,ooo — a total of ^48,000.

174 ^/^^ Commercial Products of the Sea.

CHAPTER III.

THE SPONGE FISHERY OF THE BAHAMAS.

The Bahamas sponge grounds — Statistics of the fishery— Gathering and cleaning
the sponge — Eleven sorts specified — Value of the exports from Bahamas —
New uses for sponge — Bleaching sponges — Reproduction and trans-
planting sponges.

Bahamas Sponge. — About 500 vessels are constantly
engaged in the trade, 3000 men find employment, and
through it ^20,000 to ^^'30,000 sterling are annually circu-
lated and spent in the colony.

The great sponging grounds lie to the east, west, and
south of New Providence. Although often far from the
shore, and at a depth of 20, 40, or even 60 feet, it can
easily be descried through the transparent waters on the
clear sandy bottoms, from which it is raked or grappled up.

From William's Cay, Andros Island, the fine qualities
of glove sponge are obtained. This kind is used principally
for surgical purposes, and is sent generally to America,
as the Mediterranean supplies Europe with this description
of sponge.

The process of cleaning the sponge here is veiy simple.
It is kept on the decks of the vessel until it is quite dead,
when it is thrown into a " crawl " made for the purpose,

The Sponge Fishery of the Bahamas. 175

through which the tide flows, and bft to soak from four to
six days, when it is beaten with a fiat piece of stick, and
then becomes quite clean. A few years ago the practice
was to bury the sponge for 20 days, by which time the
gelatinous animal matter was destroyed or eaten away by
the insects that swarm in the sand. This has been entirely
done away with ; the present custom is more simple, and
cleans the sponge better. The sponge is then assorted and
compressed in powerful presses like cotton. Each bale or
package has fastened to it outside a sample to show the
quality.

Strange to say, spongers, as a rule, are not very good
judges of the quality of the sponge they gather. They
seldom seem to know good from bad sponge. The. conse-
quence is that much of very inferior quality is brought to
market, and realizes very low prices. This is an evil which
could easily be remedied. The gathering and cleaning of
common sponge entails as much trouble and fatigue as the
collecting of what is valuable and good. Spongers should
be more observant of the various qualities of sponges.
They ought to know a sound from a sucked sponge — a
sponge of fine texture and good shape from one of bad
shape and coarse.

Bahamas sponge is classified into 1 1 sorts. From the
south-eastern extremity of Andros Island, and all over
the Exuma banks, the fine large sheep-wool or honeycomb
sponge is chiefly found. This kind is known as the bath
sponge, and is by far the most valuable and merchantable.
The other kinds are the reef or fine toilet, the boat, the
velvet, yellow, hard head. Long Island, grass, common or
glove, and refuse. None of these are very valuable, ex-
cepting the velvet sponge, which is obtained from the west
end of Bahamas and William's Cay. From these two

1 76 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

places this kind of sponge, although coarse, hard, and com-
mon wherever else obtained, almost equals the far-famed
Turkish sponge in texture, and is very nearly as valuable
as the sheep-wool. From the extensive banks to the south-
east of Andros Island, a very inferior and coarse velvet
sponge is gathered, which is brought in large quantities to
market ; being tough and soft, it is much used in stables.
It does not realize a high price, but the sponging vessels
more than make up for the inferior quality by the im-
mense quantity which can easily be obtained. New tracts
of sponge are seldom found. Spongers, as a rule, seem
to prefer to sponge upon the old, well-known grounds,
which, by being frequently searched, are consequently
nearly worked out. There are unquestionably immense
fields of sponge all over the banks that yet remain
undiscovered — sources of future wealth which will be
opened up in time to those who seek them. Sponge is
taken from the bottom of the sea here by means of a hook
attached to a long staff. The length of the staff required
is usually 25 feet. The best qualities of sponge are found
in the deepest water, excepting the fine glove.

In 1875 great exertion was made to procure the better
classes of sponge, viz., wool, reef, velvet, and boat. The
demand for these kinds was somewhat greater, and the
prices ranged higher. It is, however, more and more appa-
rent to those who watch the lots as they arrive in the
market, that the proportion of sponges of suitable size for
the trade is decreasing gradually ; and unless new beds are
discovered, or the coarser kinds, of which large quantities
exist, can be utilized, or the fisheries of Cuba be opened to
the Bahamas spongers so as to allow time for the young
sponge in the neighbourhood of these islands to attain
sufficient growth, a large number of those engaged in the

The Sponge Fishery of the Bahamas. 177

business will have to withdraw, as even now it hardly com-
pensates them for their labour.

The rapid strides made in sponging within the Bahamas
group appears almost mcredible. It only commenced in
1 841. The early stages of the trade a quarter of a cen
tury ago, and its progress since, are shown in the following
statistics : —

Value of the Exports from the Bahamas.

Cwts.

Value.

1849 ...

—

i:2,2i7

1850 ...

—

5>7oo

1851

—

... 14,000

1852 ...

—

11,257

1855 ...

... 2399

9,615

1856 ...

1800

6,723

1857 ...

... 2657

... 11,025

1858 ...

... 3357

17,254

1866 ...

... 8630

... 40,000

1869 ...

... 3SS7

... 28,000

1870 ...

... 2836

—

I87I ...

—

... 14,868

1873 ...

... 5000

32,938

1874 ...

... 2472

15,551

1875 ...

... 1940

15,638

About half the quantity collected is shipped to the United
States, and half to England.

Before sponges pass into commerce they are trampled
on, pressed, washed a great many times in salt and fresh
water frequently changed, until the gelatinous mucus with
which they are covered has disappeared. They are then
passed through boiling water, with the view of ridding them,
if possible, of the peculiar smell arising from the animal
matter attached to the fibrous tissues.

To bleach sponges, they are steeped in a dilute solution
of sulphuric acid of i to i"03 degrees, and they are left to
steep five or six days, taking care to press them from time to

1 78 The Coiftmercial Products of the Sea.

time. It is necessary before the bleaching to remove any

calcareous matter which may adhere to the sponges, by

soaking them for about an hour in dilute hydrochloric acid.

The following is the chemical analysis of sponge : —

Carbon ... ... ... ... 47'l6

Hydrogen

Nitrogen

Oxygen

Iodine

Sulphur

Phosphorus

6-31
16-15
26 '90
I -08
0-50
1-90

If sponges were more generally abundant in commerce
and somewhat cheaper in price, many more uses might be
found for them. Thus, they would make excellent material
for stuffing beds and furniture — a use to which they have
already been put in America — for large and white tissues
for purifying and filtering liquids, paper stuff, etc.

One of the uses to which sponge has of late years been
applied in America is to make what is termed elastic
sponge for stuffing in upholstery purposes. The raw
sponge is received in hard, dirty masses, filled Avith sand
and bits of shell. Being soaked in a large tank of
water, it expands into such condition that its quality
may be determined, and it is then sorted into tM^o kinds —
the " soft " for mattress stock, and the " hard " for cushions.

The cleansing process, which is an exceedingly impor-
tant one, then begins in another room. In order to effect
this, the sponge is first cut and washed, by passing for an
hour through a huge tube, in which there is a series of
knives, through which the sponge is made to pass by means
of the movement given to the water by a wheel. The
water, too, is constantly changing, so that by this process
the sponge is nicely cut, and its filth separated in part. It

The Sponge Fishery of the Daharnas. 1 79

is next soaked for 20 minutes in a tank of water, con-
taining 2° (hydrometer) of soda ash and heated to 150°.
It is then passed into a tank containing a hot solution
of very strong detergent soap, where it is soaked for
half an hour with constant and violent agitation. It then
returns to the first tub, where it is washed another hour
and cut more finely. The cleansing process is then com-
plete, and after the water has been pressed out by pass-
ing through rollers, it is carried by the elevator to the
" drying-room," two stories above, where a high degree of
temperature is maintained, and it is dried in large revolving
cylinders. It is then clean and without smell, but hard and
inelastic in character, and in that condition totally valueless
for the purpose of stuffing.

It was at this point that the inventor's skill was
necessary. The pores of the sponge closed when the water
had evaporated, and no permanent elasticity could be
had unless these were held open permanently. Glycerin,
being a non-evaporative substance, was found to answer
the purpose. The remainder of the process is then as
follows : — The dry hard sponge is placed in a solution of
glycerin and water, in the proportion of about half and
half, and after passing through heavy rollers it is again
dried in the cylinders. The aqueous portion then evapo-
rates, and leaves the bits of sponge dry and sweet, and so
permeated with the glycerin that a' permanent elasticity is
maintained. It is then at last taken to the packing-room,
highly compressed into bales of about 40 lbs. each, and is
ready for market.

An enterprise was started in the United States in 1873,
for manufacturing the coarser sponges, sent as grass, glove,
and refuse, into a sort of felting to be laid under carpets.
Large quantities of these kinds were purchased in the

i8o The Commei^cial Products of the Sea.

Bahamas early in 1874; but the demand ceased in the latter
part of the year, and the manufacture appears to have
failed.

Persons may well be cautioned against buying cheap
sponges from itinerant venders in the streets, which have
probably done duty in hospitals, stables, or for other vile
uses, and, even if they have been chemically washed and
bleached, can scarcely be considered wholesome. Sponges
which have been used in bathing wounds are liable to
retain a disagreeable odour ; while bacteria, monads, and
various contaminating matters may be found in them. To
obviate the evil, the infected sponge is impregnated with
a solution of four parts of permanganate of potash to 100
parts of water ; passing it next through a solution of sul-
phuric acid, and then washing with water. The sponge
recovers its primitive state, and even its marine odour and
the tissue is improved.

The Societe d'Acclimatation of Paris, early in 1862, sent
out M. Lamiral to the coast of Syria, with a view to obtain
sponges for transplantation. On his return, in Sep-
tember of that year, he presented a report. In this he dis-
tinguishes three kinds of sponges for which there is a
demand — the fine and soft sponge, called abiand ; the fine
and hard sort, called acJunar ; and lastly, the common sort,
called cabar by the Arabs. These sponges are found in
the Levant within the 36th and 33rd degrees of latitude :
that is, between Alexandretta and Saida.

It is now universally acknowledged that sponges belong
to the animal kingdom, and are an aggregate of cellules
built up by gelatinous polypi similar to those which con-
struct madreporae, porites, and other polypifers. When the
sponge is first gathered at the bottom of the sea, it is
covered with a black but transparent gelatinous substance,

The Sponge Fishery of the Bahamas. i8i

resembling vegetable granulations, among which micro-
scopic white and oviform bodies may be distinguished.
These are the larvae destined to perpetuate the species.
When arrived at maturity, they are washed out by the sea
water which incessantly flows through the sponge ; they
then swim along, by the aid of the vibrating cilia or hairs
with which they are provided, until they reach a suitable

Fig. 7.

Sponges.

rock, to which they attach themselves, and there commence
a new life. This emigration of the larvae from the parent
sponge occurs about the end of June and the beginning of
July. The fine qualities of sponges are chiefly found at
the depth of 1 5 fathoms or thereabout ; the common
sponge lies at depths varying between 20 and 30 fathoms.

At Tripoli (on the coast of Syria, not of Africa) M.
Lamiral engaged some divers, who commenced operations
on the 2 1 St of May. The sponges gathered were imme-

1 82 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

diately placed in boxes, through which a stream of sea
water was constantly made to flow, the animal matter being,
of course, left on them, and protected from injury. These
sponges arrived at Marseilles on the 17th of June; thence
they were taken to Toulon and the islands of Hyeres,
where stone troughs, with five sponges in each, were sunk
in different places.

During the past few years, Dr. Oscar Schmidt, Professor
of Zoology at the University of Gratz, has employed
several weeks of the early summer in artificially producing
and rearing the bath sponge. His labours have met with
such success that his system has been adopted by the
Austrian Government, and is now carried on on the coast
of Dalmatia.

It has for some time been a well-known fact that several
families of zoophytes have such great powers of reproduc-
tion, that a portion of one will grow and form on an entire
new body. This property has been taken advantage of by
Dr. Schmidt, his process being to cut the sponge into
pieces, fasten each portion to a pile, and immerse it in the
sea. The pieces then grow, and eventually from each one
a spherical sponge is obtained. According to the estimates
of Dr. Schmidt, a small piece of sponge at the end of three
years will represent a value of ^d. The total cost of raising
4000 sponges, including the interest on the expended
capital for three years, is estimated at £^ %s., and the
income at about £\6, leaving therefore a net profit ot
nearly £'^. There is no doubt but that the practice of this
branch of industry will be the means of considerable
benefit to the inhabitants of the Idrian and Dalmatian
coasts.

CHAPTER IV.

SPONGE FISHERIES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.

Sponge trade of the Ottoman Islands — Market prices of sponge^Number of
boats employed — Fishing grounds on the eoast of Candia, Syria, and
Barbary — Statistics of the fisheries — Operation of diving — Diving-bells
and dresses now used — Imports of sponge from the Mediterranean — -Total
imports of sponge into the United Kingdom — French trade in sponge —
Silicious sponges.

TJie Sponge Trade of the Ottoman Islands. — It appears
that, with i&w exceptions, in which the owners of sponge
boats have capital, all the funds required for the equipment
of these boats are furnished by native money-lenders, and
that important foreign capital, especially British and
French, has latterly been invested in diving apparatus
since the introduction of this new mode of fishing for
sponges in these islands. It is noticeable, too, that a large
French firm, whose operations in this trade were on a very
extensive scale, have of late somewhat reduced their .trade,
while on the other hand the use of British-made machines
continues to increase, and it is mentioned that there is a
decided preference on the part of the natives to work with
British rather than with French diving apparatus. The
whole of the machines now employed in the Ottoman
islands is upwards of lOO. Owing to the depressed prices

1 84 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

at which sponges have been sold during the last i&w years,
and which have prevented divers from paying their debts to
the native money-lenders, the latter, although in possession
of bills for important sums of money, have not a sufficiency
of cash to equip all the boats suitable for the sponge
fishery. Notwithstanding the adverse circum.stances, the
quantity of sponges obtained of late has exceeded that of
former years, in consequence of the more abundant crops
and improved diving apparatus. At the island of Halki,
for instance, where 10 years ago the produce in sponges
was hardly ;^ 10,000 a year, it amounts now, with the same
number of boats, but working with diving apparatus, to
nearly ^20,000, thus showing a very important augmenta-
tion. It is mentioned, however, that the produce in sponges
seems more than sufficient for the demand ; and if all the
available boats in these islands could procure the required
money to enable them to go fishing, the extra quantities of
sponges which would then encumber the markets would
lower the price of the article to rates which would prove
ruinous to the divers.

The average market prices of sponges for the year 1872
are shown per oke (equal to 2| lbs.) in the subjoined table: —

Countries.

Fine.

H

oneycomb.

Hard brown.

s.

d. s.

d.

J.

d. s.

d.

J.

d. s. d.

Bengazi ...

40

0

17

6

8

0

Mandruha

48

0 to 64

0

19

0 to 21

0

10

0 to 12 6

Syria

29

0 „ 32

0

II

0 ,, 12

6

4

0 „ 5 0

Caramania

24

0 „ 32

0

9

6 „ II

0

3

3 .. 4 0

Cyprus

II

0 „ 12

0

Crete

24

0 „ 32

0

II

0 ,, 12

b

Rhodes, and other Otto-

man isles

24

0 ,, -^2

0

8

0 „ 9

6

Greece

12

6 „ 16

0

6

3 m 8

0

Bengazi and Mandruha sponges are not sold by weight,

sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 185

but by piece ; for the sake of comparison, however, their
prices arc proportioned to others. Bengazi fine sponges are
exceedingly scarce.

The prices quoted in the foregoing, although higher
than those of the two preceding years, are still rather
low, and Hellenic sponge boats, which used to bring and
sell their crops in the markets of the Sporades, now
abstain from doing so. In fact, owing to the reduced prices
offered in these islands for sponges, several of the most
enterprising native sponge-dealers decided, a few years ago,
instead of selling their sponges in the local market, to con-
vey them to Europe, and retail them on their own account
from place to place. There is not a single country — even
Sweden and Norway — which these sponge-dealers have not
visited, in order to sell their goods. A few of them jour-
neyed even as far as America ; while some settled in London,
where their countrymen ultimately bought the quantities
which they had not been able to dispose of in their peregri-
nations. These attempts have been so far successful. It is
stated that the value of sponges sent annually to Great
Britain is no less than ;^70,ooo.

The principal article of export from the Ottoman
Archipelago is sponge. The number of boats employed
varies, ranging from 400 to 600 in the year. The latter
number may be said to be thus distributed, as belonging to
the different islands : —

Calmynos
Symi ...
Halki

Castel Rosso
Leros
Stampalia
Telos
Cassos

254
190

40

30
12

7
2

600

1 86 The Commej'cial Products of the Sea.

As there are seven men to each boat, the number of men
engaged is about 4200.

The sponge fishing grounds are on the coast of Candia,
Syria, and Barbary. The average depth at which sponges
are found is 30 fathoms ; those of an inferior quahty are
found at lesser depths. The sponge fishing-boats in the
island of Calmynos amount to nearly 260, employing 1600
men and boys. These boats, called " scafi," are on an average
six tons each, carrying from six to seven, and sometimes
eight men, of whom two are rowers.

The proceeds from the sponge obtained are divided into
shares, the divers receiving a whole share, and the rowers
two-thirds of a share. A good diver will make from eight
to ten dives during the day.

The sponge is covered with a thin, tough, black cuticle,
inside of which there is a white liquid like milk, and of the
same consistence. The sponge in this state presents a very
different appearance to what it does when freed from these
extraneous substances. The annual value of the sponges
taken by the Calymniotes amounts to about ^2500. The
finest are sent to Great Britain ; the common and coarser to
France, Austria, and Constantinople.

The sponge fishery of Turkey has made a great advance
by the introduction of diving apparatus. The quality fished
in the Sea of Marmora is of second-rate quality, and is
shipped to England, and a part to Trieste and Germany.

The following shows the value in round numbers of the
sponges sold at Rhodes in 1861 : — Fine, ^41,000; common,
£6z,ooo; coarse, ^7000; total, ;6'i 11,000. Part of the
sponges fished in the autumn of i860 were sold in the
early part of 1 861, at 450 piastres per oke for fine, 120 for
common, and 60 for coarse, which are the highest ever
reached for the fine and coarse qualities. Towards the

Spojige Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 1 8 7

Fig. S.

Syrian sponge tishcrs.

1 88 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

end of the year, the prices declined nearly one-fourth. The
crop of 1 86 1 was abundant ; the proportion of fine sponges
was larger, and of a better quality than in former years.
The divers say that the same quantity are not now found
as ten years ago, so it must be inferred that they do not
grow as fast as they are fished. The amount sent to each
country was in the following proportion, out of 36 parts : —
Great Britain, 13; France, 15^; Austria, ^2) ^"*^ Con-
stantinople, 2 ; total, 36. In 1867 30 cwt, valued at ;^70O,
were exported from Turkey.

The total value of the sponges obtained on the coasts
of Syria is ;^20,000 to ^25,000, which seems to be about
the average of past years. The production, however,
appears to be falling off through excessive fishing. Some
250 to 300 boats are at present employed in this industry,
manned by 1200 to 1500 men. The centres of production
are Tripoli and Batronn on the coast of Mount Lebanon,
in the neighbourhood of which the best qualities are found.
The fishing-boats, from 1 8 to 30 feet long, are each manned
by a crew of four or five men, one of whom is especially
engaged for the purpose of directing, while the rest are
divers. The diver, naked of course, wath an open net
round his waist for holding the sponges, seizes with both
hands an oblong white stone, to which is attached a
rope, and plunges overboard. On arriving at the bottom,
the stone is deposited at his feet, and the man, keeping
hold of the rope with one hand, grasps and tears off with
the other the sponges within reach, which he deposits in
his net. He then, by a series of jerks to the rope, gives
the signal to those above, and is drawn up. No knife,
spear, or instrument of any kind is used. The depth to
which the diver descends varies from 5 to 30 fathoms,
each equal to an ordinary man's height.

sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 189

Although marked by a great variety of quality and
size, sponges may be generally classified as the fine, white,
bell-shaped " toilet sponge ; " the large reddish variety,
known as '' eponge de venise " or " bath sponge ; " and the
coarse red sponge, used for household purposes, cleaning,
etc. France takes the bulk of the finest qualities, while
the reddish and common sponges are sent 'to Germany
and England.

The fisheries of the Lebanon employ 120 boats, manned
by 550 men. The annual yield varies in value between
£^4000 and £6^0Q.

The value of sponges directly exported from the
Sporades is about ;^90,ooo additional. Formerly, almost
the whole quantity of sponges was sent from the islands
of the Sporades to Rhodes for transhipment to Europe ;
but since the English steamers call at those islands,
sponges are sent direct.

On the coasts between the latitudes 32° 20' and ^i'' 20',
the qualities of soft and hard, fine and venise sponges, are
mixed and fished for together, at about the same depth,
from 4 to 15 fathoms. Beyond this depth the venise
sponge, which is mixed with the other two kinds only in
the proportion of about one-third, is more abundant, and
constitutes the bulk of the fishery. At a depth of 20 to 30
fathoms, this sponge, of a large size, is almost exclusively
found. The prices paid have been — for bath or common
sponges, according to quality, from 40 to 60 piastres per
oke (equal to 2f lbs.); fine sponges, from 120 to 200
piastres.

The sponges fished at Mandruha, on the coast of Africa,
are always sold by the piece. The prices paid for them have
been — bath sponges, from one and a half to four piastres
a piece ; fine sponges, from four to eight piastres a piece ;

iQO The Commercial Products of the Sea.

zimocca, or coarse sponges, from 15 to 18 paras a piece.
In sponge transactions, tlie rate of the Turkish pound is
115 piastres; and of the pound sterling, 125 piastres.
They still continue to send sanded sponges to England.

The sponges fished by diving apparatuses are not so
good as those fished by neck-divers, these last going to
deeper waters ; the sponges there being of a superior
quality. They therefore always cost from 1 5 to 20 per cent,
more than the former ones. Although the diving appa-
ratuses secure a more abundant crop, they are getting
unpopular, owing to the many accidents which are to be
deplored every season, the divers using them exceeding
the depth prescribed.

The total number of diving apparatuses imported from
France and Great Britain during the last 10 or 12 years is
about 250, but not more than no are actually at work.
The gears for these machines, which are annually renewed,
are generally imported from England. The total number
of sponge fishing-boats (including also those with diving
apparatuses) belonging to Rhodes and the Sporades
Islands, is about 700, employing 6000 men. During the
year 1874, only 512 boats were sent to this fishery, of
which 96 were supplied with diving apparatuses.

The sponge fishery in Tunis is most active in the
months of December, January, and P'ebruary, as, during
the other seasons, the spot where the sponges are found is
covered with dense masses of seaweed. The tempests of
November and December clear away the latter, and allow
the sponges to be seen. The fishery has, however, two
seasons — one commencing in March and finishing in
November ; the other occupying the rest of the year. In
the summer season the production is small, because diving
apparatus is then necessary, and can only be employed

Sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 191

where there is a rocky or other firm bottom ; but the Arabs
search along the coasts, feehng for the sponges with their
feet beneath the masses of tangled weeds. The sponges
which they find are generally of an inferior kind, as they
cannot go into any depth of water. The success of the
work of sponge-getting depends upon the sea being calm.
There are not more than 40 or 50 days during the winter
season which are favourable.

The Arabs who inhabit the coasts, the Greeks, and
principally those of Kranidi, near Nauplia, and the Sicilians,
all engage in the sponge fishing, but the Greeks are con-
sidered the most adroit and the Arabs the least so.

The gathering is performed by means of a trident, or
'' arth" a kind of dredge, similar to that used for taking
oysters. The Arabs employ boats called " sandah," with
crews of four to seven persons, one of whom only uses the
harpoon. As soon as this man sees a sponge the boat is
brought to a stand ; the work is carried on to the depth
of 15 to 35 feet. The Greeks, although very expert divers,
also use the harpoon, but they employ small and very light
boats, carrying only the harpooner and the sculler. The
former explores the bottom of the sea by means of a
kind of telescope — a tin tube about 14 inches in diameter
and 20 inches long, with a thick glass at the lower end.
The object of this tube is to get rid of the surface
oscillations and allow the fisherman to see the bottom.
The Greeks exhibit sometimes extraordinary dexterity
in getting sponges from a depth of 60 feet with short
harpoons ; they hold in their hands three or four harpoons,
which they throw with such extraordinary rapidity and
precision, that scarcely has one harpoon disappeared be-
neath the water, when the second strikes its upper end
and adds to the force of the propulsion ; the third is in

192 The Commercial Prodtids of the Sea.

the same way struck into the second, and so on. Neither
the Arabs nor the Sicilians avail themselves of either
of the above methods of using the harpoon or of the wave
tube.

The sponge fishery is considered to be capable of great
development, and the danger of exhausting the supply is
not great, as a new sponge is said to take the place of one
removed within twelve months.

The following table shows the imports of Turkey and
Mediterranean sponges into the United Kingdom for a
series of years : —

lbs. Value.

1851 ... ... 189,828 —

1852 ... ... 160,621 ... ... —

1S53 205,924 —

1854 224,787 ;^70,246

1855 339.985 140,164

1856 313.287 172,308

1857 ... ... 318,676 ... ... 164,650

1858 287,681 157,751

1859 ... ... 345,818 ... ... 218,161

i860 ... ... 411,111 ... ... 270,410

1861 ... ... 340,506 ... ... 108,782

1862 348,924 74,833

1863 377.1" 69,074

1864 431,906 53.168

1866 ... ... 321,199 ... ... 41,477

1867 ... ... 320,032 ... ... 31,415

1S6S 356,131 61,817

1869 660,685 85,751

1870 453.819 I13.3S4

The imports have not been officially recorded since.

The supplies are received principally through the four
channels of France, Greece, Turkey proper, Italy, and
sometimes from Malta and Egypt.

The sponges shipped are of three qualities — fine, common,
and coarse. In the fine qualities there is but one in ten of
the first or superior quality ; the rest are of a second or

sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 193

inferior fine quality. Of the common sponges there is one
in four of a first quaHty ; the rest are of a second or
common quaHty. Of the coarse, one-half are of a first
quality, and the other half of a second quality. Thus,
it will be seen that the fine, common, and coarse kinds
of sponges may be divided into two qualities each.

The total imports of sponge into Great Britain in 1840
were 78,500 lbs. ; in 1841, 58,931 lbs. ; in 1855, 471,871 lbs.
The quantity and value of the imports of sponge into
the United Kingdom since have been as follows : —

1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1S70

Quantity,
lbs.

544,882
474>748
540,172
694,128

S95.3<J9
980,259

997,447

1,221,673

837,159

Computed value.

;^ I 00, 204

77,907

60,278

103,780

96,768

86,201

119,917

156,965

160,162

No return published since.

The following is the French classification of commer-
cial sponges : —

Fine soft Syrian.

,, Archipelago.
Fine hard, of Syria, known as Chimousse.
Yellow sponge of Syria, known as fine venise.

„ of the Archipelago, known as common venise.

Hen sponge of Barbary.
Brown sponge of Barbary, called Marseilles.
Salonica sponge.
Lastly, the Bahamas and American sponges, which are divided into fine and

common. Their tissue is loose, without elasticity, and hence they are

easily torn. They sell at a low price.

In the ten years ending i860, the sale of sponge in

194 '^^^^ Commercial Products of the Sea.

France was 2,000,000 kilogrammes, of the value of
10,600,000 francs (^424,000). The consumption is there-
fore about 150,000 kilogrammes per annum. There was
imported into France in 1875 246,666 kilogrammes of

Fig. 9.

Silicious sponges. I. Eiiplectella aspcrgillutn ; 2. Holtenia caypcntefia.

sponge, of which 93,324 kilogrammes were re-exported.
In 1876 the imports reached 257,878 kilogrammes, and the
exports were 89,600 kilogrammes.

Silicious Sponges, — Sponges are not confined to recent

sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 195

seas, though the commercial ones are not known to have
existed earher, because the keratose matter furnishes
hardly favourable conditions for petrifaction. In the oolite
and chalk formations, sponges containing flinty spicules
were very abundant ; and in most of the earlier formations,
large sponges containing calcareous spicules abounded.
These very closely resemble corals, and have been mistaken
for them by some of our best geologists. The spiculae or
needle-shaped particles, which are often microscopic in size,
are not thrown in without order, but are arranged to support
the skeleton. The horny sponges do not secrete or deposit
spicules, but these are sometimes found within the skeleton
in broken and disordered form, which show they were
taken in from without.

The quantity of silica which constitutes the structure of
sponges is remarkable. It generally occurs in the form of
spiculse in considerable quantities, imbedded in the sub-
stance or body of the sponge. One of the rarest and most
beautiful of the silicious sponges is the Ettplectella spccios
found at the Philippine Islands. It is of cornucopia shape,
and has a horny, skeleton-like network, composed of large
silicious fibres running from the base to the head, sur-
rounded by small fibres forming square, open meshes,
resembling a net or basket work. It ranges in height from
6 to over 15 inches. At the lower extremity, or root, it
averages about an inch in thickness, but its size gradually
increases as it approaches the top, where often it is two
inches wide. It is surmounted by a ridge about a quarter
of an inch wide, and is closed at the larger extremity by a
delicate open lacework of fibres, possessing no particular
pattern. It is on this light and pretty structure that the
fibrous, gelatinous substance rests, resembling in texture
the common sponge, but in this instance disposed in an

196 The Conimercial Prodticis of the Sea.

Fig. 10,

Euplectella speciosa.

irregular, foliated pattern, over which the usual film of the
sponge is laid during life.*

* Bryce M. Wright in "The American NaturaUst."

sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 197

At one time this sponge was so rare that specimens
fetched enormous prices ; now, by the progress of com-
merce, it has become more common, and specimens of great
beauty may be had for a few shilHngs.

198 The ConiDiercial Prodtids of the Sea.

CHAPTER V.

OILS FROM MARINE MAMMALS.

The seal fishery — Seal oil — Yield of oil from blubber— Seal-skins— The fur
seal — The walrus — The whale fishery — Imports of train oil or blubber,
spermaceti, and whalebone — Porpoise oil — Dugong oil.

Oils from the Mammals. — One of the articles contributed
by marine animals to the wants of industry is oil, which is
largely obtained both from mammals and fishes. The
aggregate value of the trade in these in the United King-
dom alone exceeds i^ 1,000,000 sterling a year. Some of
these oleaginous substances are employed as food by man,
some in manufactures, and others in medicine.

Oil for commercial purposes is obtained in greater or
less quantities from numerous inhabitants of the seas —
from the marine mammals, the right and spermaceti
whale, the seal, sea-elephant, dugong, porpoise, etc. ; from
the shark, sunfish, cod, herring, and numerous small fish,
which are especially sought for the oil they yield.

The great trade in animal oils and fatty substances
indicates the care with which oily matters, rich in carbon
and hydrogen, are sought in all countries, supplying as they
do a great number of wants in countries the most civilized, as
well as among people still in their primitive state. We
know that fish oils are beneficial in consumptive cases, as

Oils frG77t Marine Mammals. 1 99

with cod-liver oil and that obtained from the dugong ; but
they might be often used with advantage for inunction,
where they are not easily retained on the stomach.

Dr. T. Thompson has pointed out the medicinal value
of various animal oils besides cod-liver oil, such as sperm
and seal oil ; and the result of his observations was a con-
viction that fish oils generally resembled one another in
their remedial properties, although differing in their aptitude
for digestive assimilation in the human stomach. He tried
neat's-foot oil, an animal oil obtained from a soft, solid fat
found between the parchment and the leather skin of
animals ; also shark-liver oil, and an oil obtained from a
species of fish abounding on the Malabar coast ; and these
trials were frequently attended with encouraging results.

The practice of daily inunction is common in many
warm countries, and serves to soften the skin and keep the
body in health. In tropical regions, vegetable oils are
chiefly used ; but the New Zealanders and some others use
shark oil. The Esquimaux and Greenlanders imbibe large
quantities of train, seal, and various fish oils ; whilst the
natives about the large rivers and coasts of Brazil use turtle
oil, and fat obtained from the alligator and crocodile. The
natives of many parts of India use shark oil and that from
the liver of the sword-fish in anointing their skin.

Those who are employed in the woollen trade, and in
soap, candle, and other factories, where oil and fats are
largely used, enjoy a comparative immunity from scrofula
and phthisis. Sailors believe a whaling voyage to be a cure
for consumption ; and probably the quantity of oil drunk
and taken into the skin may have its beneficial efi'ect upon
the system.

TJie Seal Fishoy. — After the cod fishery, the seal
fishery is the most profitable branch of trade in New-

200 The Commci'cial Products of the Sea.

foundland. More than 350 vessels are engaged in it. The
seals whelp their young in January and February on the
ice field of Labrador ; this ice is floated southwards by
the ocean currents, and is always to be found on the coast
of Newfoundland after the middle of March. The take of
seals varies ; in some years the export of skins being under
200,000, in others exceeding 450,000. The value of the
seal oil shipped ranges from ;^ 160,000 to ;^20o,ooo. The
yield of oil is about 1 1 gallons from one cwt. of blubber.

Fig. II.

Phoca Groenlandka,

Seal oil and cod oil are now two of the most important,
whale oil having much declined in quantity, owing to the
fishery being less earnestly prosecuted ; but there are very
many fish oils, extracted in different quarters, which have
a local and general use, such as shark oil, herring oil, men-
haden oil, etc.

Seal Oil. — There are three classifications of seal oil :
that which drains spontaneously by the pressure of the
layers of the skins one over the other ; that which is pre-
pared by submitting the fat to the action of steam in
hermetically closed boilers ; and that which is obtained from
the residual mass, submitted to a high pressure.

Oils fi'om Marine Mammals. 201

At St. John's, Newfoundland, the head-quarters of the
seaUng trade, the bkibber used to be generally put into
wooden cribs, beneath which were wooden pans to catch the
oil. No artificial heat was used in this process. The oil
which runs for the first two or three months is termed pale
seal oil, and forms 50 to 70 per cent, of the whole quantity.
As putrefaction takes place, the oil becomes darker and
more offensive. The putrescent refuse and the clippings of
the pelts, or skins, yield further quantities of oil by boiling
(boiled seal oil). This process is now very generally re-
placed by steam apparatus. A uniform and much better
quality of oil is thus obtained, free from the horrible odour
of that prepared by the old method, and the time required
for rendering out the oil is only twelve hours, instead of six
months. A few drops of nitric ether is said to destroy the
disagreeable smell of rancid oil, and to prevent oil be-
coming rancid. When the oil is heated to separate the
alcohol, it becomes clear and bright, even when it was
before turbid.

In Russia a quantity of seal oil is obtained annually in
the White and Caspian Seas. The mode of preparation is
very simple. After removing the layer of blubber which
adheres to the skin, it is exposed in casks or vats to the heat
of the sun, which dissolves out the oil of first quality. The
residue is heated in cauldrons with a little water. In one
or two factories the preparation of the oil on a large scale
is carried on by steam. The seals killed in autumn and
winter have the oil rendered out forthwith, without the
necessity of first salting the skins ; but in the hot seasons
this step is necessary, and a great pit is prepared, capable
of holding 50,000 skins.

Repeated and careful experiments in rendering out seal
blubber show the relative produce of pure oil obtained from

202 The Co7nmercial Products of the Sea.

the different species to be as follows for one barrel of
blubber, from seals in prime condition : —

Barrels of fat.

Oil.

Residue.

Old harp (P/ioca Gi-oenlandicci)
Young harp

Young hood [SteDimatoptis crisiatiis)
Beadlemer (a year-old hood)

lbs.
288
225
230
246

Galls.
224
22
21
2li

lbs.

73

52

80

103

In 1850 the export of seal oil from Newfoundland was
6200 tuns, valued at ;^i 80,000; in i860 it was 5565 tuns,
valued at £\^S7^ 5 i'^ 1870 it was 4982 tuns, valued at
^176,472 ; and in 1875, 4837 tun.s, valued at £i})2,\ 16.

The total value of the oil shipped from Newfoundland
has been as below : —

Cod oil

1870.

iS7S-

;^I07,8l3 ...

... ^^101,420

21,068 ...

3,842

176,472 ...

132,116

, , refined
Seal oil ...

;^305>353 ;^237,378

Thirty small sloops and steam vessels were employed
on the bank and Spitzbergen fisheries in 1873 ; the catch
resulted in 130,000 seals, 350 sea-horses or walruses, and
62^61 barrels of liver, estimated together at a value of
^^99,669.

Seal-skuis. — The seal fishery is chiefly prosecuted from
Newfoundland. It commences in March, and rarely lasts
longer than one or two months. There are from 150 to
200 decked vessels employed in it. These will take pro-
bably 2000 each, but as many as 8000 have been taken
on a single trip, and often two or three voyages are made in
one season.

The quantity of seal-skins received in this country
varies; it has been as low as 160,000, and as high as

Oils f7'om Marine Mammals.

203

876,000. In the last quarter of a century the total number
received has been nearly 23,000,000, thus summarized in
periods of nine years ending —

184S
1857
1866

1875

4,884,775
6,429,820

4,763,132
6,744,447

22,822,174

Fig. 12.

Phoca oceanica.

The fur seal-skin of commerce is obtained from different
animals to those of the hair seals. One association, the
Alaska Company, contributes 100,000 of these skins a year
having a monopoly by a contract with the American
Government.

204 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Having fully described and figured the marine mam-
malia of any commercial value in another work,* I would
refer those desirous of further details to it.

The walrus {Trichecus rosmariis) furnishes some eco-
nomic products, in its flesh, its skin, its teeth, and the oil
obtained from the blubber. The inhabitants of the
Arctic regions esteem its flesh. The hide, when cut into
shreds and plaited into cordage, forms hnes used in cap-

FiG. 13.

Walrus.

turing the whale. It has also been successfully used
for belting and for covering skin-boats. The quantity of
walrus tusks obtained in Alaska averages 100,000 lbs, in
weight. The teeth, which weigh about four pounds the
pair, used to be in great demand by dentists. Among the
Chinese this dentine is employed for those various uses to
which they turn ivory so skilfully. Walrus oil is a well-
known article of commerce.

The Whale /^w/zr/j.— Narratives and accounts have so
frequently and graphically been written, that it is not

* "Animal Products: their Preparation, Commercial Uses, and Value."
Chapman and Hall, 1877.

Oils from Marine Mammals.

205

necessary to enter into any lengthened detail here of the
prosecution of this fishery, which has largely declined,
having been much abandoned, as compared with former
years, both by the English and Americans. The French
have given it up altogether.

A quarter of a century ago, 730 ships, registering
233,189 tons, were employed in the American whale fishery ;
now there are less than 170 vessels, registering 40,000 tons,
employed in whaling.

The extensive use of gas, as well as the employment
of mineral and vegetable oils, for illuminating purposes,
has in a great degree superseded the demand for whale oil
that existed half a century ago. Our annual average im-
ports of train oil, it will be seen, keep pretty steady.

Imports into the United Kingdom.

Train oil

or blubber.

Spermaceti

or head matter.

Tuns.

Value.

Tuns.

Value.

1867

11,901

^^478,723

3226

;^373,367

I SOS

11,203

415,400

1945

185,960

1869

10,146

399,53^

4107

387,171

IS70

14,721

549.213

4069

341,340

IS7I

19,291

630,706

5388

451,028

1872

15,004

522,056

37IS

333,534

1873

15,069

514,493

2817

252,434

1874

13,896

454,729

3155

296,630

1875

14,890

489,817

44O9

427,884

1870

13,4(36

445,262

321S

230,359

The blubber on a fat whale is sometimes, in its thickest
parts, from 15 to 20 inches thick, though usually not more
than a foot ; it is of a coarse texture, and much harder
than pork. So very full of oil is it, that a cask closely
packed with the clean raw faf of the whale will not contain
the oil boiled from it and the scraps that are left besides.

2o6 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Whalebone, as it is erroneously termed, is another
valuable product of this fishery.

Fig. 14

I. Greenland or right whale ; 2. Spermaceti whale.

The whale-fins imported into the United Kingdom in
the last ten years have been as follows : —

Cvvts.

Value.

if67

... 2740 ...

... ;^5I,28b

1868

... 3800 ...

(37,870

1869

... 1680 ...

34,958

1870

... 4260

... 79,482

1871

2853 ...

... 45,178

1872

2831 ...

... 51.558

1873

3544 ■•

... 64,618

1874

... 2911 ...

54,920

1875

... 1871 ...

42, 240

1876

1799 •••

... 47,144

A flourishing establishment has grown up in the
vicinity of the small town of Vadso, at the entrance of the
Waranger Fiord, Norway, under the auspices of a Mr. Foyn,

Oils from Ma7'ine Mammals. 207

of T6nsberg, the patentee of an improved kind of harpoon
employed in the whale fishery. It consists of a harpoon
with two movable barbs like the claws of an anchor, one on
each side. The harpoon is projected from a swivel gun
fixed on the bows of the vessel. The claws or barbs lie flat
against the stem while in the gun, and during its pro-
gress through the air and entrance into the body of the
fish ; but no sooner is the line attached to the harpoon
hauled upon, or the fish takes a start, than the claws or
barbs expand and become fixed at an angle of 45° on each
side, which eftectually precludes the possibility of the har-
poon being withdrawn from the body of the fish. In
addition to this, a capsule containing an explosive sub-
stance is concealed in the harpoon, which by another
ingenious contrivance explodes, causing instant death.
The animal is then towed by the steamer to the factory,
where the usual flenching process commences ; and as
soon as completed, the residue of the huge animal is con-
verted into artificial manure (guano), by which the whole
carcase becomes utilized. Mr. Foyn employs two small
steamers, and in 1873 caught 38 whales. From the
effective means employed, it appears that he never loses
a whale after the harpoon has once entered the carcase,
the struggle seldom lasting above a few minutes after
the fish is struck before death ensues The factory is
situated at the entrance to the Waranger Fiord, where the
process of utilization commences. This species differs from
the Greenland whale {Balcciioptcra), and when full grown
exceeds it in size, as they have been caught 100 feet in
length, and the young when cast have been known to
reach 20 feet. In 1874 Mr. Foyn is reported to have
caught 50 whales, which were estimated to be worth from
;^I50 sterling each.

2o8 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Porpoise Oil. — A fishery for the porpoise {Delphirnis
p/ioccuna) is carried on off the coasts of Trebizond ; it is

Fig. 15.

Black porpoise {P/ioaeiia vulgaris).

taken in nets, and also shot. This fishery yields upwards
of 700,000 lbs. of oil per annum, a portion of which is con-
sumed by the lower classes for lighting, and the rest finds a
market in Constantinople. Porpoises are also caught in
large numbers in the Little Belt, Denmark, where 1500 to
2000 are frequently obtained.

The extraction of the oil of the white whale {Beluga

Grampus {Phoc(Tna orcd).

catodoii) and of the black porpoise constitutes an important
industry in the district of Quebec, on the St. Lawrence

Oils from Marine Mammals. 209

river. This oil is inodorous, and gives a brilliant light. It
is said to be superior to any other for lighthouses, because
it does not coagulate even in the most intense cold, and
its durability renders it invaluable for greasing leather and
oiling machinery, which it preserves from injury by friction.

In 1874 fish oil to the value of ^86,600 was exported
from Canada.

Diigong Oil. — An animal oil, having medicinal pro-
perties, was a few years ago added to the list of commercial
products. It is obtained from the blubber of the dugong of
Australia {Halicore Australis), a native of the shores of
Queensland and the north-west coast of Australia. It was
recommended as a new therapeutic agent, and as a substi-
tute for cod-liver oil. The distinction between them is
that the dugong oil contains no iodine ; it is said, however,
to possess all the advantages of the cod-liver oil without its
unpleasant smell. No large supply of this oil could, how-
ever, be obtained, and from having arrived frequently much
adulterated it lost any reputation it may have merited.

The best known of this family is the Manatus Auicri-
caniis, Cuv., which frequents the mouths of rivers, and
quiet, secluded bays and inlets, in the islands of the West
Indies and the coasts of Guinea and Brazil. It is said to
attain nearly 20 feet in length, and differs from the dugong
in having no canines or incisors. An old author. Dr. R.
Brookes, in his "Natural History," speaking of it says,
" The fat which lies between the cuticle and the skin, when
exposed to the sun, has a fine smell and taste, and far
exceeds the fat of any sea animal. It has this peculiar
property, that the heat of the sun will not spoil it, nor
make it grow rancid. The taste is like the oil of sweet
almonds, and it will serve very well in all cases instead of
butter. Any quantity may be taken inwardly with safety,

10

2IO The Commercial Products of the Sea.

for it has no other effect than keeping the body open. The
fat of the tail is of a harder consistence, and when boiled is
more delicate than the other." The flesh of the manatus
is highly esteemed as food in all countries the shores of
which it frequents. It is particularly abundant in the

Fig. 17.

I. Halicore Austrahs ; 2. ATanatiis Amcricaims.

lakes of the Amazon. Wallace, in his Travels up that
river, describes it. " Beneath the skin," he says, " is a layer
of fat of a greater or less thickness, generally about an inch,
which is boiled down to make an oil used for lighting and
cooking. Each animal yields from 5 to 25 gallons of oil."

Oils from Marine Marmnals. 2 1 1

Edwards, in his "Voyage up the River Amazon," speaks
of them, and says, not unfrequently they are taken eight
feet in length. This is said to be a distinct species from
the Manatus of the Gulf of Mexico.

212 The Cormnercial Products of the Sea.

CHAPTER VI.

FISH OILS AND THE FISHERIES CONNECTED THEREWITH.

Definition of fish oil — Cod oil — Cod-liver oil — Exports from Newfoundland —
Mode of preparation — Exports from Norway — From Iceland — Fish oils
in Russia — Indian fish oils — Fishes from which obtained — Tunny oil —
Herring oil — Oolachan oil — Menhaden oil— Mode of preparation and
statistics.

The term fish oil is a very vague one, from its being
generally applied to oil of all kinds, obtained both from
marine mammals and fishes. Train oil from the whale is
frequently so termed. Shark oil, and the oil expressed or
obtained by heat from various kinds of fish, large and
small, is very much mixed as sent into commerce, and it
is scarcely possible, unless from a few special districts and
large factories, to know what is the true source of the fish
oil purchased. There are some few large fisheries, such as
the cod, herring, pilchard, sardine, menhaden, etc., where
attention is given to the preparation of the oil.

Cod Oil. — The oil obtained from the cod forms a con-
siderable item in the fishing business. About one hogs-
head of oil is produced from every five tons of fish. The
quantity of oil extracted from cod livers in Newfoundland
is about 1,250,000 gallons, valued at ;i^200,ooo. Nearly all

Fish Oils and the Fisheries coitnected therewith. 2 1 3

is sent to England, as the American import duty is so liiglv
The value of the crude cod oil shipped from Newfound-
land amounts to about iJ": 10,000, and of the refined cod oil
from ;^ 1 0,000 to ;^ 1 5,000. The export of cod oil from the
French Newfoundland fisheries in the five years ending
1871 averaged 560,000 kilogrammes. In 1876, 2,819,000
kilogrammes of fish oil were imported into Havre.

The medicinal qualities of cod-liver oil have long been
fully proved, and its manufacture has been a great
source of wealth to the fishing colony of Newfoundland.
Like all good things, however, it is easily imitated. The
common cod oil, made by the putrifying process, has often
been refined by animal charcoal, filtered so as to deprive it
of all bad smell (the iodine and all other medicinal qualities
having passed away by putrefaction in the manufacture),
and it is then palmed off by dishonest dealers as the
genuine article.

The cod livers reserved for the preparation of medicinal
oil are all very carefully examined, and those that are poor,
have sustained injury, or have portions of gall adhering, are
removed. The selected livers are then thoroughly washed
and afterwards dried. The fishermen — many of whom make
the oil themselves, or sell to larger makers — put these pre-
pared livers immediately into open barrels, where the oil
slowly exudes, and, rising to the top, is removed with large
spoons. It is, when quite cold, filtered three or four times
through bibulous paper, and the preparation is complete.
Nothing more remains but to pour it into tin cans or oak
barrels, and it is ready for market. The oil is of a straw
yellow, with scarcely any smell or taste, and is known as
natural medicinal oil.

In the mean time other fishermen, having carefully
sorted, washed, and dried the livers, place them in a pot

214 ^^^^ Commercial Products of the Sea.

of tinned sheet iron. This tinned pot is then put into a
larger iron pot, half full of water, which on becoming
heated causes the livers immediately to begin to give out
their oil. Some makers introduce steam from a boiler
between the two pots, and others let the steam out directly
on the livers. The first yield by these methods of regu-
lated heat is removed by spoons, filtered when cold, and
reserved for medicinal use under the names of " steam-
boiled medicinal " and " ordinary bright." The after yield
is used in medicine, though somewhat redder; it is called
" bright brown." Finally, those portions of liver that
will not dissolve by themselves or by a mild heat are
roughly boiled down to yield " dark brown," or tanner's
oil, the black residuum being used with other fish refuse for
manure.

There is a great difi"erence between one year and
another in the quantity of oil the cod's liver yields. One
year it may require 600 livers to make a barrel of oil ; in
others, 200 are sufficient.

In 1840 42,737 barrels of cod and shark oil were sent
away from Norway. In 1848 1,296,572 gallons of cod oil
were shipped, against only 65,600 in 1846.

From the coast of Norway the average export of fish
oil from 185 1 to 1855 was 52,900 tuns, and from 1856 to
i860, 59,617 tuns per annum ; from 1861 to 1866, 7,750,000
litres per annum. In 1877 130,600 barrels of cod-liver
oil were shipped, valued at ;^386,6oo. The catch of each
boat yields from 8 to 20 barrels of liver. PVesh livers,
for medicinal oil, fetch from 27^. to 31^. per barrel; old
livers, from 22s. to 26^. At the early part of the season
the fish are rich in liver, so that from 250 to 300 of the
net-caught fish yield a barrel of liver, while 50 to lOO more
fish taken on lines would be required. As the seaso

Fish Oils and the Fisheries confiected therewith. 2 1 5

advances the fish become perceptibly poorer, and it will
take 400 to 450 to fill a barrel, while on the sea-board
or western side of the Lofoden Islands from 600 to 700
livers are requisite.

In Sweden the residue from fish which have been salted
are placed in large boilers, with waste herrings and others,
a small quantity of water, and boiled or frequently
steamed till the mass is dissolved; cold water is then intro-
duced, and the oil floats at the top. This is skimmed off,
clarified, and put into casks. It is of a brown colour, good
for burning and other uses, but is said to be too fluid for
the leather workers.

The export of fish oils from Iceland (principally from
the shark) amounted in 1867 to 4,186,560 lbs. An
ordinary year's export, however, may be put down at
about 2,700,000 lbs.

One of the most important secondary products of the
fisheries in Russia is the oil obtained, of which the
quantity annually extracted represents a value exceeding
i^7 1,500. This is either employed for medicinal use, for
food, or for technical purposes. The medicinal oil is
obtained from the liver of the cod, which is cut up when
it is quite fresh, and subjected to the action of steam heat.
The oil used for food is obtained from the fat surrounding
the intestines of the sturgeon and the sandre {Leiicoperca
sandrc). It is washed, and in its fresh state melted in
steam boilers. The oil or fat is chiefly used to add to the
barrels of caviare, when the fish spawn is itself not suffi-
ciently fat. At the seat of production fish oil is also
largely used instead of vegetable oils.

The common fish oil employed for 'technical uses in
soap factories, tanneries, for lighting workshops, etc., is
generally obtained by putrefaction, which decomposes the

2 1 6 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

membranes by which the fish fat is surrounded, and facili-
tates its flow. The quantity of this oil made amounts
to more than 100,000 pouds of 36 lbs. The oil used to
be extracted not only from different parts of fish, but
large quantities of small fish were also rendered down for
their oil, especially the herrings of Astrakhan and many
small species of Cyprinoides. The Government have of
late years, however, put a stop to this practice of using
small fry for the purpose, although the extraction of
herring oil is permitted, because such enormous shoals of
these can be obtained that it is impossible to salt them
rapidly enough when they are fresh, hence the policy of
turning them into oil.

Not only are the livers of the codfish now used to
extract oil from, but those of a number of other fish are
sought for the purpose. Thus, the livers of the ray, the
shark, and other Sqiialus are used in Iceland and Norway
to extract an oil used for lighting and employed by
curriers. In British Guiana an oil is obtained from the
liver of the saw-fish {Pristis pectinatus), which is used for
lighting, and by the immigrants from India for anointing
their bodies. A liver will yield from 15 to 20 gallons of oil.
In Cambodia a fish called tussoc yields an oil remarkable
for the proportion of stearine it contains.

The quantity of fish oil obtained in India has much
declined of late years. From Bombay, Sind, and Madras,
in 1 865, more than 3,750,000 lbs. were shipped. In Madras
a good deal is still made. The Indian fish oils are mainly
of two descriptions — medicinal and common.

The natives prepare fish oils from the livers of sharks,
skates, saw-fishes, rays, cat-fishes, oil sardines, and other
kinds. The cat-fish livers have the most oil about Janu-
ary, just before they are breeding. When the livers of

Fish Oils and the Fisheries connected therewith. 2 r 7

these fish alone are employed, they are heated up to
130° in water, having about one and a half inches in
depth over them. After 15 or 20 minutes, on being
stirred, the froth rises, and the oil is skimmed off into large
vessels, in which state it is sold as fish oil. There is no
washing of the livers — fresh or semi-putrid, bloody or
clean, they all are put in the pot, and the oil undergoes no
straining.

A large quantity of oil is also procured in India from
sardines, and especially from the " louar " {Cliipea
N'eo/wivii), which is obtained from August to November,
and then treated with boiling water to separate the oil
which floats. Oil is also obtained from the livers of seve-
ral Siliiroids, but it is only during January and February
that the organs are rich enough in fatty matter to be
remunerative. The oil sardine seems to form the basis of
all the oil obtained in India, for if not prepared from it, a
great amount is from the sharks and other fish who live
upon them. But the oil sardine is very capricious as to its
arrival and departure. In 1864 the enormous quantity of
148,206 cwts. of fish oil was shipped from the port of Cochin.
In 1865 still larger exports were made. During the next five
years scarcely anything was done in the trade; but in 1871
the shoals of fish reappeared as abundantly as ever, and
with these shoals the sharks returned. When the sardine
fish first arrive they are lean, but by October, and some-
times before, they become fat, and are well adapted for ex-
tracting oil from. They are captured either by long float-
nets, attached at either end to a boat, and by making a
circuit the shoal is surrounded; or else several canoes put off
together, and pull to a shoal of these fish, which they take
by cast-nets. A boat-load of sardines is computed to hold
14,000.

2 1 8 The Commeixial Products of the Sea.

If Cliipea lemuru, Bleeker, is the oil sardine, this fish
would appear to be found in the Malay Archipelago.

At Rangoon the average quantity of fish oil obtainable
is over 77 tons per month ; but from November to May
much larger quantities are procurable, it being only made
at those times. It is used for lamps, and even for curries
and frying fish ; and is obtained by boiling the intestines of
some fish, the heads of others, and even whole fish, in an
iron vessel with water in it, and the fatty substance as
it floats is skimmed off into another pan, and boiled till
the oil floats. It is said to be chiefly extracted from the
Anabas scandcns, Barbus chola, Chipea palasah, and the
intestines of the Ophiocephahis striatiis.

Tunny oil is extracted at Tunis from the head, back-
bones, and refuse of the fish, which are placed in a large
cauldron capable of holding 800 heads and 400 skeletons,
and allowed to boil for 24 hours. The value of the tunny
oil exported from Tunis in 1871 was ^1600.

Herring Oil. — For 1 5 years or more, herrings have been
chiefly converted into oil in Russia, as there exists a preju-
dice against eating them, under the belief that they are
rabid, from the habit they have of turning round and
round when they are spawning. About 100,000,000 of these
fish are sacrificed annually for oil making. During the
three or four weeks that the influx of fish continues,
100,000 to 250,000 pouds (of 36 lbs.) of herring oil are
made on the Volga, according as the fishery is abundant
and the fish more or less fat. The manufacture is carried
on in this manner. The herrings are placed in open casks,
containing about lOOO, and boiling water poured over the
mass. Several days elapse before the fish enter into putrid
fermentation, under the action of the air, the heat, and
the hot water, and the oil separates. The whole is trans-

Fish Oils and the Fishei'ies connected therewith, 219

formed into a half-liquid, reddish paste, of a disgusting
odour. But when once this putrid' fermentation has com-
menced a day suffices. The oil is then collected from the
surface, and the mass thrown away.

In Japan oil is extracted from the herrings which are
caught on the coast of Yesso and the north of Nipon. The
fisheries afford employment to thousands of the inhabitants,
and are a source of immense profit to the Japanese, who
farm them from the various daiuiios who are charged by
the Japanese Government to protect this island. The prices
vary from 48^-. to 56^-. the picul (130 lbs.) In Kanagawa
this fish oil is only about half that price. The principal
market for fish oil is Hakodate.

The oolaclian or houlican ( ThalcicJithys pacificiis) — a fish
somewhat larger than the sprat, very delicate, and of
exquisite flavour — is found in abundance in the waters
of British Columbia. It has been suggested that these fish
might be cured in their own oil, or marinated after the
manner of pilchards. They are so full of oil that it is
said those caught in the north will burn like a candle.
They enter the river in millions in the month of April,
and their presence is at once made known by the seagulls,
which wheel about the shoals, and dart among them for
their prey, startling the usually still Fraser with their shrill
cries. Their run lasts about three weeks, during which time
they may be caught in countless myriads.

Eaten fresh, they are most delicious, and are also
excellent packed in salt or in a smoked form. The fish
are caught with a po'e about 10 feet in length, along which
are arranged for five ^eet at the end nails like the teeth of
a comb, only about an inch and a half apart. The comb
is thrust smartly into the water, brought up with a back-
ward sweep of the hand, and is rarely found without three

2 20 The Coimnercial Products of the Sea.

or four fish impaled on the nails. Frequently a canoe is
filled with them in less than two hours by a couple of hands.

By warming over a slow fire, or by heating in water, an
oil is abundantly obtained, which is used for the same
purposes as cod-liver oil, and with as much, if not greater,
benefit. The oil when cold is of the consistence of thick
cream, white in colour, with but little odour, and by no
means unpleasant to the taste — in fact, those who use it
very quickly acquire a partiality for it. The Indians make
large quantities every season, and with them it supplies the
place of butter. They cannot live without it, and it forms
a great article of trade. When properly filtered, a fine
pellucid oil, of a delicate, pale yellow colour, is obtained.
Some of the northern natives allow the fish to become
half putrid, and then express the oil by pressure upon
boards.

There is no doubt but that this oil might become of
great economic value. It has been given medicinally, and
will probably be found useful where cod-liver oil or other
hydro-carbonaceous food is indicated.

MenJiaden Oil. — A fishery eagerly prosecuted for the oil
obtained from the fish is the menhaden, on the Atlantic
coast of the American States. Of the natural history of
the fish not much is accurately known, but it is stated to be
the Brevoordia menJiaden (the Alosa menhaden, Mitchell),
and belongs to the herring family, differing from it in
having a deep notch in the centre of the upper jaw. The
fish is from 8 to 14 inches in length. It frequents the
Atlantic scacoast, from Maine southward, but has not
been noticed south of Cape Hatteras. It is sometimes sold
in the markets as a table fish, but is usually considered
too oily for food. Among the fishermen, however, it is
esteemed a fine-flavoured fish. This is the source of the

Fish Oils and the Fisheries co7tnectcd therewith. 221

American j'f J-// oil. Whale oil formerly sometimes bore the
name, but has long ceased to do so ; and oils obtained
from other fish have their own specific designation.

The manufacture of oil from porgies or menhaden is
an important industry in some of the American Atlantic
States. The value of this fishery to the State of Maine is
estimated at ^^300,000. Forty steamers, 350 sailing vessels,
and 500 boats, with an aggregate of 3500 men, are employed
in this fishery, of which the coast of Maine is the largest
and most profitable field, yielding more oil to the number
of fish caught. Hence this interest is becoming a local
one, and the number of factories is constantly increasing.

At Portland nearly all the factories are located in
Lincoln County. About 500 hands are employed, and the
return of produce is to the value of iJ"ioo,000. In the
prosecution of the business there, a numerous fleet of small
vessels and steamers are engaged, giving employment on
the water and land to probably not less than 1000 men.

The menhaden fish emerge from the warm waters of
the Gulf Stream, and strike the coast of New Jersey in the
month of April, reach the coast of Maine by May or June,
and remain till October, when they return south.

The fishery is carried on by the very smartest of yachts,
not fancifully rigged or equipped, but the fastest sailers
that can be built or bought. Some of the best boats in the
yacht clubs find their way into this service. In size these
vessels rarely exceed 20 or 30 tons ; say, 18 feet beam and
50 feet over all. Built to stand the heavy gales on the
coast, and well provided with light and heavy sails, they
are able to cruise in weather that sends fancy boats into the
harbours. The fishing yachts are manned with from eight
to ten men each. To make the outfit complete, two sloops,
called carry-ways, are attached to each yacht. These are

22 2 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

smaller than the latter. Each of these will hold 70,000
menhaden (16 or 17 tons). They are employed in taking
the fish ashore after they are caught. The seines are made
of strong cotton twine, and are 130 fathoms (780 feet) long,
and from 80 to 100 feet deep. At the eastern end of
Long Island, where the fishing is in deep water, the depth
is even greater. Along the bottom of the seines run lines^
arranged so that they can be drawn up like an old-
fashioned purse — whence the name " purse-seines." The
top of the seine is attached to buoys of cork or wood, and
these, when the whole is thrown into the water, hold the
upper edge at the surface, while the remainder hangs
vertically beneath it. The seine is loaded into two boats,
which also form a part of the outfit of the yacht, and are
always with her when not engaged in taking fish.

Thus furnished, the yachts start on a cruise in search of
the fish, which go in immense schools. When a school is
met with, it is necessary to drop the seine in front of them ;
otherwise no fish would be taken, as they would swim
away in front before the seine could be closed around them.
The boats get ahead of the school, and pay out the seine
as they separate. When the school is fairly in the seine,
the boats come together and completely surround the fish.
At the point where the boats first started, a heavy weight,
called a "tom," is attached to the bottom of the seine, and to
this weight, which rests upon the bottom, are fastened the
lines which " purse " up the bottom, and prevent the fish
from escaping belov/. When the bottom is drawn to-
gether, the men haul the seine into the boats and shake the
fish down into the " bunt," as the bag or purse formed by
the seine is called. They then signal for the carry-ways,
which come alongside. The fish are taken out of the seine
into the carry-ways by means of dip-nets. If the school is

Fish Oils and the Fisheries connected therewith. 223

a large one, and most of the fish have been taken, the
carry-ways are despatched at once to the factory on shore.
If not quite loaded, they are generally retained until
another school is taken, when they are sent off.

When they reach the factory, they run alongside of the
dock, and the fish are hoisted out into a car. When this is
full, it is hauled by steam up the track leading from the
dock to the cooking-vats and thrown into them. When
a vat is full of fish, water from elevated tanks is let on
until the fish are covered. Then steam is introduced and
the whole is boiled. To properly cook a tankful of fish
takes from 20 to 40 minutes, according to circumstances.
In some factories the cooking is very short ; in others, it is
preferred to take a longer time, so that the fish shall be
equally cooked throughout the mass. At the conclusion of
this process part of the oil has been boiled out, but by far
the greater portion still remains in the fish ; and this must
be removed by means of the hydraulic press. With one of
these machines from 200,000 to 300,000 fish can be pressed
in 10 hours. Two curbs are used with these presses, so
that there is no delay in the work.

As soon as the oil has ceased to run from the curb, the
press is lowered, and the curb, containing the mass of
scrap, is rolled away over small turn-tables and out on the
track to the scrap-houses, where the two handles holding
up the bottom are released, and the whole mass is thrown
out. While this is going on another curb has been put in
the press. The curb then comes back to the vats for a new
load. In this way the work goes on until all the vats are
emptied. The oil and water as it comes from the press
runs down to the scparating-tank. In this tank there is a
partition from top to bottom. The oil flows across this in
two openings, cut in the top, while the water passes under

2 24 ^^^^ Commercial Products of the Sea.

the bottom. Here men stand and skim ofif the oil, while
the water is allowed to run away. In some establish-
ments the separating-tank is so arranged that the oil
can flow into the oil-tanks without having to be dipped out.
This of course, saves much labour.

The oil is now stored in the tanks. When a better
grade of oil is desired, it is bleached by exposing it in a
shallow " sun-tank " to the action of the sun. If a still
finer quality is required, another kind of tank is used,
having a frame for the reception of a sash, so that all dust
and dirt is excluded, and the oil is bleached without waste.
In the bottom of the vats, in the separating-tanks, and else-
where, a great mass of sediment collects, consisting of a
fine refuse, mixed with some oil. This is put into the
"gurry-tank," steam is turned on, and it is thoroughly
cooked till the oil rises to the surface ; the " gurry " that
remains is then put up in barrels and sold to the soap-
makers, who use it for making " fish-oil soap."

These fish yield a large quantity of oil, the highest per-
centage being about four and a half gallons per barrel of
fish in the month of September. A thousand fish will
yield on the average 13 to 14 gallons of oil, though this
depends largely upon the season, and the good or bad con-
dition of the fish.

The uses to which the oil ia put are very numerous. It
is said to be good for table purposes, and, when properly
prepared, the best kind is extensively used under the name
of olive oil. As a vehicle for paint, it has a good body, and
does not readily abandon the paint which may be mixed
with it. It is quite rare to find such paint rubbing off in
the shape of powder. Much of the linseed oil in the
market has a large amount of menhaden oil mixed with it.
This is no disadvantage to the painter's work, but a serious

Fish Oils and the Fisheries cotmected therewith. 225

detriment to his pocket. Fish oil cannot, however, be used
for lubrication. Its body and the rapidity with which it
absorbs oxygen and " gums " entirely precludes its applica-
tion to machinery. The literal and metaphorical bad
odour formerly attached to fish oil is passing away. It has
been found that by cooking th.e fish while they are fresh a
perfectly sweet oil can be obtained. The vile smell of
former (and to some extent of latter) days resulted from
the treatment of stale or decaying fish. The common kind
of oil is extensively used by curriers and in other trades,
and the flesh and bones, after the oil is extracted, form a
manure which is in great demand for the cotton fields of
the south.

The amount of capital invested in this business is very
large. In 1873 it was ascertained that ^500,000 was in-
vested in 43 factories scattered along the coasts of Long
Island Sound, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Maine.
The quantity of fish caught was 1,173,700 barrels. The
yield of oil, 2,250,000 gallons, was valued at over £200fyZ)0 ;
and that of fish manure, 36,000 tons, at ;^i 25,000.

2 26 The Commercial Producis of the Sea.

CHAPTER VII.

THE SHARK FISHERY FOR THE OIL OBTAINED.

Fishery in Norway — The Greenland shark — Mode of capture — The basking
shark— Sharks in Australia and New Zealand — Shark fishery in India —
Sharks' fins exported to China for food.

The Shark Fishery of Norzvay. — There are four species
of the shark tribe which inhabit the northern latitudes,
viz., the Scymnus borcalis or Sqiialus glacialis, Selache
maxinius, Sqiialus acanthias, and Sqiuihis spinax nigcr.

The Greenland shark {Scymnus borcalis) frequents in
numbers the banks which are traced in a line nearly the
whole length of the western coast, at distances varying from
50 to 100 miles from the main ; in greater abundance, how-
ever, on that portion which lines the coast of Nordland and
Finmark, as far as the North Cape, and between the latter
and Cherry or Bear Island. They are to be met with, how-
ever, all over the North Sea and Arctic Ocean, as well as in
most of the large fiords on the west coast, at depths vary-
ing from TOO to 200 fathoms.

Formerly the fishery was exclusively confined to the
immediate vicinity of the coast ; but of late it has been
more specially and lucratively prosecuted on the banks,
commencing in about lat. 68° to the North Cape, and
between that and Cherry Island. The vessels employed in

The Shark Fishery for the Oil obtained. 227

this fishery generally range from 25 to 35 tons, manned
with a crew of six men. They lie at anchor on the banks
with 1 50 to 200 fathoms water, moored by a grapnel weigh-
ing two cwt., with a warp about 300 fathoms in circum-
ference.

A box perforated with holes, or a canvas bag containing
the residuum or refuse of blubber, after the oil has been ex-
tracted by boiling, is attached to the line not far from the
bottom, near the grapnel. Globules of oil are found to ooze
out or to percolate through the holes or bag, and to float
away in a continuous stream, serving as a decoy, in a
similar manner as the cod ova are applied in France, where
they are thrown into the sea as ground bait to attract the
sardines. Led by this stream, the sharks are guided to the
main bait, which is attached to a thin iron chain, of from
one to two fathoms in length. This is fastened to a line
of about the thickness of the stem of a common tobacco-
pipe. At the end of the chain the hook is attached, which
is usually of the size of a salmon-gaff, and is baited with
some kind of fish, or, what is preferable, about a pound of
seal blubber. The seals from which this blubber is taken
are generally caught at Spitzbergen, and there salted fresh.
No kind of bait appears so efficacious or so attractive as
this, and it throws off readily its fatty particles, which
being carried to a considerable distance, form a trail to
the bait, which the fish greedily take, if of blubber; but, it
has been observed, not so readily if the blubber is at all
rancid. Five barrels of blubber is considered necessary for
the season, and appears to be the average quantity used by
each vessel.

On hooking the shark, he is hauled to the surface of the
water by the aid of a single purchase. Each vessel is
furnished with four of these, two on each side. The line,

2 28 The Comtnercial Products of the Sea.

being small, is only calculated to bring the fish to the level
of the water ; his nose is then hauled a little above the
surface, and a smart blow is immediately struck, by which he
becomes stunned. A large hook at the end of a pole,
attached to a strong tackle, is then driven into the fish, and
by this means he is hauled on deck. The belly is cut open
and the liver taken out. A hole is then made in the
stomach for the purpose of inflating it with wind, which
done, the hole is again tied up, the fish got into the water,
and permitted to float away. The stomach being inflated
prevents the fish sinking, and it soon drifts out of sight.
By being kept afloat, the fishermen imagine that the carcase
cannot injure the fishing grounds.

The length of this fish varies from lo to i8 feet. The
value depends upon the size, quantity, and quality of the
liver, which yields from one-half to two barrels, or from 1 5
to 60 gallons of fine oil each.

This shark is caught nearer the coast, as far as Waranger
Fiord. The fishery commences about the end of Sep-
tember, and is continued through the winter until the end
of February with deep-sea lines, in open boats manned by
five men.

The bait preferred is either porpoise or seal blubber.
The line is retained on the finger, and as soon as the man
feels that the bait has been touched, he gives a sharp jerk,
in order to fix the hook more firmly in the jaws of the fish.
Some skill and experience is required to effect this at the
proper moment, as the fish no sooner finds himself caught
than he spins round the line, and on these occasions the
line is liable to be severed by the sharp edges' of the skin.
The greatest activity is, at the same time, requisite in
hauling the fish to the surface, in order to check the
rotatory movement.

The Shark Fishe)y for the Oil obtained. 229

It happens not unfrcqucntly on these occasions that
several sharks come to the surface of the Avater in the wake
of the one hooked, swim round the boat, and are caught
by means of a swivel hook, fixed to a long gaff, which
each boat is furnished with. They are then secured by a
hook and strong line to the stem of the boat, until they
can be hauled alongside.

The result of a fishery carried on in open boats depends
greatly on the wind and weather. When a boat's crew
obtain from two to four barrels of liver, they are satisfied.
Under favourable circumstances, however, they obtain from
seven to eight; and if during the course of the winter they
can get from 40 to 50 barrels, the catch is esteemed a
remarkably good one. Besides the liver, when the fish can
be towed to the shore, the flesh is converted into food for
the cattle, if there is a scarcity of dried cod's heads, which
are prepared for that purpose.

The flesh is occasionally used also for human food, being
cut up into long strips and wind-dried in the open air, or
buried in the ground until partially decomposed, when it is
taken up and prepared in a peculiar maimer, so as to
become edible. It requires, however, an Arctic stomach
to digest it.

The basking shark {Selaclic inaximus), another of the
genus, the largest of sea-fish, is found all along the coast
from Ryvarden, lat. 59° 31', up to Finmark. This fishery
was for a long time pursued with great activity and per-
severance, and with such success as foi* a series of con-
secutive years to form the staple and chief support of the
inhabitants of the districts in which it was carried on.
Of late years their numbers have decreased so as to
diminish the importance it had for years maintained. The
increased herring fishery which has followed, however, fully
compensates for the decline.

230 The Co7nmei^cial Products of the Sea.

This shark differs from his fellows in not being a
voracious fish ; consequently it is neither to be enticed nor
caught by the same kind of bait or mode of fishing as
pursued with the Scymniis borealis, but rather that fol-
lowed with the whale. About the last of the dog-days,
when the water and weather are at their highest tempera-
ture, this shark makes his appearance on the coast, and
the fishery immediately commences.

Large open boats are generally employed, from "i^J to
42 feet in length, each boat being manned by four men
and furnished with harpoons similar to those used in
harpooning the sturgeon. The harpoon is attached to a
line proportioned to the depth of water on the ground
selected, which usually is from 300 to 400 fathoms. This
rope lies coiled up in the bow of the boat.

Thus equipped, the fishermen, selecting a light breeze
and warm weather, cruise about under a triangular sail,
near the mouth of the fiord the fish are in the habit of
seeking. They are generally found lying perfectly still
near the surface, apparently basking in the sun, and slowly
follow in the wake of the boat as soon as discovered ;
the large fin on the back, standing prominently above the
surface of the water, indicating their presence and move-
ments.

The fishermen imagine, from his following the boat,
that he is decoyed to the surface by the sm.all triangular
sail, which he mistakes for another fish. Certain it is that,
whatever the temptation may be, the fish follows closely
the boat without being disturbed for a considerable time,
although sometimes carrying a stiff breeze. When the fish
approaches close enough, the harpooner, watching his
opportunity, sends his harpoon as deep into the body of the
fish as he is able. Then arrives the perilous moment, for

The Shark Fishery for the Oil obtained. 23 1

the fish no sooner feels the weapon than he dives with great
celerity.

Everything must be clear, to allow the line to run out
freely ; and it does so with such rapidity as to require one
of the men to be incessantly pouring water over the swivel
on which the line traverses, to prevent its igniting. Should
the line unfortunately catch any projecting piece of wood, or
meet with any impediment, the boat is inevitably capsized ;
or should one of the men, through carelessness or
accident, be caught by the line round the leg or arm, which
has occasionally happened, he gets hauled down by the
fish. Another man, therefore, always stands ready with an
axe to cut the line ; but when such an accident does occur,
generally both man and fish are lost. When the fish has
reached the bottom, he proceeds along it, continuing to
drag the boat with him, until his strength becomes ex-
hausted. A lean fish holds out longer than a fat one, and
will sometimes continue dragging for four and twenty hours,
while a fat one generally gets tired out in three or four
hours.

When thoroughly exhausted, the fish is hauled up to
the surface alongside the boat, and with a long, sharp
knife, the fin is instantly cut oft" to prev^ent his striking, as
a blow would readily smash the boat- He is then speared
until quite dead. Before commencing to extract the liver,
the fish is fastened by sundry ropes to the mast, and
turned, when one of the men, provided with a long knife
for the purpose, opens the fore part of the belly, which
enables him to take out a large piece of the liver. He
then insinuates his arm in, and separates all the fibres and
integuments, so as effectually to release the liver, which
operation requires to be carefully performed. When com-
pleted, the stomach is ripped up from end to end. The

232 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

liver then floats out, the belly fills with water, and the
fish is cast adrift and immediately sinks. The liver is then
taken into the boat, and the fishery is concluded.

The size and fatness of the fish vary considerably. The
prevailing size there is from 30 to 35 feet. They have been
caught as long as 40 feet, but this is now a rarity. Young
fish are never met with ; they doubtless keep in deep water
until of mature growth. The size of the liver depends
greatly on the condition of the fish. They usually render
from four to seven barrels of liver, occasionally as much as
from 10 to 16. Instances even have been known where
as much as 24 barrels have been obtained from a single
fish ; but this is of very rare occurrence. When the liver
is rich, six barrels will produce five barrels of oil of 30
gallons each. No other part of the fish is utilized.

Of the remaining species of the shark tribe, there are
only two, besides the foregoing, which are of any import-
ance on this coast. The first is the picked dog-fish,
Sqnahcs acanthias, which in former times was in great
abundance along the whole coast from Gothenburg, and
afforded lucrative employment to the fishermen. At
present the fishery is carried on during the whole of the
summer from the Naze to the North Cape, in the fiords as
well as along the coast.

This is a ravenous fish, which is caught in various ways.
About midsummer he is observed to swim near the sur-
face, and can then be taken in* nets, as Avell as with lines,
precaution being taken to protect the line by proper
"serving" for a short distance beyond the hook, to prevent
its being bitten off. This fish is eaten sometimes fresh,
but must be skinned before being cooked. When cooked
in this way, it is considered rather a delicacy. It is also
dried as split stock-fish for consumption in the country,

The Shark Fishery for the Oil obtained. 233

as well as for export to Sweden, where it is greatly appre-
ciated. The yolk of this shark's &^^ is used by the in-
habitants as a substitute for other eggs in their domestic
economy. The skin is employed by joiners and turners
for polishing purposes. The liver is exceedingly rich, and
makes a very fine oil.

The other species is called in Norway the kulp or
hoastorsk {Squalus spinax niger), and is the smallest of the
shark tribe. It is met with in all the deep fiords along the
coast, where it commits great mischief by nibbling off the
baits from the deep-sea lines which are set out for the ling
and the torsk {Brosnius vulgaris).

Lines with single hooks are never laid out to catch this
fish ; but at the end of the summer and autumn, and in
some fiords all the year round, instead of a single hook,
they employ 10 to 12, placed one above the other, baited
with half-decayed or tainted fish. The depth of water
selected is from 60 to 100 fathoms. As the kulp is a
sluggish fish, bites lightly, and is small, some experience
is required to know when he bites and is secured on the
hook, especially if there is any wind. The line, however, is
not brought up each time the bite is felt, as there are many
hooks ; a simple tug is given at every supposed bite. The
fish being once hooked generally remains quiet, and one
usually finds 8 or 10 fish caught when the line is drawn up.
As this fish comes in shoals and takes the bait freely, an
experienced, skilful fisherman will occasionally, during a
single night, obtain a rich booty. The kulp will not bite
during the day. It is not eaten, but sought after ex-
clusively for the liver, which is unusually rich, and yields
a very superior kind of oil.

In the bays about the peninsula of Kola, La^^land, the
shark fishery is now vigorously carried on by the Russians j

n

234 ^^^ Commercial P^'od^ids of the Sea.

the species chiefly taken is the Scyinnns borealis. The
fishery is only prosecuted off the coast in small undecked
boats, manned by four men. In autumn the sharks are
in the best condition and yield the most oil ; in summer
they scarcely afford any. Some of the large species of
basking sharks will yield as much as 1600 lbs. of oil. The
crude shark oil sells in Russia at about 6.5". the poud of
36 lbs., and when refined is worth double that price.

Sharks are caught on the New Zealand shores in great
numbers, during the months of November, December, and
January, by the natives, who use them as an article of
food. The fins can be procured at a very moderate rate,
and fetch a good price in the China market.

The Government of the colony of Victoria having pub-
lished a scale of rewards for the capture of sharks, the
pursuit has become a frequent occupation among the
fishermen and boatmen of Hobson's Bay. In one week in
May, 1877, over 3500 sharks were captured by the fisher-
men of Sandridge, some of whom earned from £1 to £^
per day. One immense shark, measuring between 15 and
16 feet in length, was caught in the bay.

It was stated some years ago that there were 13 boats,
manned with 1 2 men each, constantly engaged in the shark
fishery at Kurrachce. One boat will sometimes capture at
a draught as many as 100 sharks of different sizes. The
average capture of each boat probably amounts to about
3000, making the number of sharks taken not less than
■40,000 a year. The great basking shark, or mhor {Selachc
inaximus), is always harpooned ; it is found floating or
asleep near the surface of the water. The liver of a large
fish of this species yields there eight barrels of oil. The
oil is of a very low specific gravity.

The fish, once struck, is allowed to run till tired ; it is

The Shark Fishery for the Oil obiained. 235

then pulled in, and beaten with clubs till stunned. A large
hook is now hooked into its eyes or nostrils, or wherever it
can be got most easily attached, and by this the shark is
towed to shore ; several boats are requisite for towing.
The mhor is often 40, sometimes 60, feet in length ; the
mouth is occasionally four feet wide. All other varieties of
shark are caught in nets, somewhat like the way in which
herrings are caught at home. The net is made of strong
English whipcord ; the meshes about six inches ; they are
generally six feet wide,, and from 600 to 800 fathoms, or
from three-quarters to nearly a mile in length. On the
one side are floats of wood about four feet in length, at
intervals of six feet; on the other, pieces of stone. The nets
are sunk in deep water, from 80 to 150 feet, well out at sea.

They are put in one day and taken out the next, so
that they are down two or three times a week, according
to the state of the weather and success of the fishing.
The small sharks are commonly found dead, the larger
ones much exhausted. On being taken home, the back
fins, the only ones used, are cut off and dried on the sands
in the sun ; the flesh is cut off in long strips, and salted for
food ; the liver is taken out and boiled down for oil ; the
head, bones, and intestines left on the shore to rot, or
thrown into the sea, where numberless little sharks are
generally on the watch to eat up the remains of their
kindred. The species chiefly caught are the Rhyiicobatiis
pectinata, R. Icevis, and Galiocerda tigriiia.

Owing to the large size of the sharks from which the
livers are taken, the Malabar fishermen, unlike those of
Sind, are unable to capture them with nets. Putrid beef or
porpoise flesh is employed, large pieces being buried for a
day or two previous to being used. The hook is attached
by a chain to the line whilst the fishing is carried on.

236 The Commercial Pro dice ts of the Sea,

In Sind large quantities of oil are prepared from the
livers of different fish. The sharks {Carcliarias melanopterus)
are caught principally in October and November, for at
that period the livers are much more developed than at
any other season. The oil obtained from them is of the
same quality whatever the season, but they furnish about
three times the quantity in autumn that they do in any
other season. The most esteemed livers are firm, and
of a rose colour ; those which are whitish and flabby are
rejected as inferior. After having separated the vesicle,
the livers are washed, and all the blood is taken out
through incisions. They are then cut into medium-sized
pieces, which are placed in a large earthen vessel with
enough water to cover them. They are now heated for 1 5
or 20 minutes, after which they are allowed to cool. The
oil, which soon floats to the surface, is gathered in ladles
made from the half of a cocoa-nut, and is then poured into
glazed earthenware jars. It is now passed through a sieve,
and all which does not pass through is thrown away.
Three or four days later, it is again filtered through a
thick -strainer, in order to separate the abundant deposit of
stearine, and it is necessary to repeat this operation four
times, at intervals of from 20 to 25 days, to separate the
deposit ; after which the oil remains clear, of a fine straw
colour, and smelling very much like cod-liver oil. Thus
prepared, it is reserved for medical purposes.

In India a manufacture of inferior oil is also carried on,
which is used for lighting and other domestic purposes. It
is prepared from the liver of sharks, rays, and other sorts of
fish mixed. The livers are heated without being previously
washed or picked, and the product is not purified.

From Bombay sharks' fins weighing 6ocx) to 9000 cwts.
are exported annually, valued at from ;^ 14,000 to ;^20,ooo.

The Shark Fishery for the Oil obtained. 237

Besides the local catch, large quantities are imported from
the Arabian and Persian Gulfs. There is a small export
of these fins from Madras to the extent of 250 to 300
cwts. annually. They are assorted into the " white " and
" black," the former being the dorsal fins, which are uni-
formly light coloured on both sides, and reputed to yield
more gelatine than the other ; the "black" are the pectoral,
ventral, and anal fins, which are less esteemed than the
white, and consequently realize a lower price.

Sharks' fins are sent to China from various quarters ;
from Akyab, Sumatra, Manila, Borneo, the Sandwich
Islands, and other places. They are much esteemed as a
food substance, being used for making soup.

238 The Commercial Pt^odticts of the Sea.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE ISINGLASS OF COMMERCE.

Description and uses of isinglass — Fish from wliicli obtained — Russian isinglass
— Vesiga — Brazilian isinglass — West Indian isinglass- — North American
'isinglass— Chinese isinglass — Fish maws and sharks' fins.

Isinglass, one of the purest and finest of the animal glues,
is a product the preparation of which was long carried on
almost exclusively in Russia, and chiefly obtained from the
sturgeon. The value of the isinglass from this fish is
chiefly due to its peculiar organic texture, on which the
property of clarifying wines and beers depends. No arti-
ficial isinglass, however pure the gelatine, or identical as to
chemical composition with the air-bladder of the sturgeon,
answers the purpose of the preparers of fermented liquors.

Isinglass is brought to market in different forms ; some-
times in that of plates or lumps, or in the form of a bag or
purse, at other times rolled up in different shapes, which
pass under the names of book, leaf, long and short staples,
tongue or pipe, and it is cut into fine threads. When of
good quality, isinglass is of a whitish colour, thin, and semi-
transparent, but tough and flexible, destitute of taste as
well as of smell. The inferior kinds are thicker, yellowish
coloured, opaque, and sometimes have a fishy smell and
tast2. When placed in cold water, it becomes soft, then

The Isinglass of Cominei'ce. 239

swells, and if held up to the light in this state is opalescent.
In boiling water pure isinglass is entirely dissolved, with
the exception of a very minute proportion of impurities.
Though the best isinglass is thus completely dissolved in
hot water, yet most of that met with in commerce does not
become so, in consequence of the presence of albuminous
parts.

The fine shreds into which it is cut and kept in shops
give great facility for making a jelly in the shortest
possible time. This can be made palatable and nourishing
by the addition of sugar and milk, acids or spices ; about
one-third or half an ounce is sufficient for a pint of water.
It may also be taken in the form of a soup, with the
addition of salt, spices, and sweet herbs, or it may be
employed medicinally as a demulcent; either externally or
internally. The best kinds of isinglass are alone employed
in articles of diet and for the best confectionery, being-
added in small quantities to other, especially vegetable,
jellies, to give them a tremulous appearance ; but gelatine
is now frequently substituted.

Isinglass appears to have been discovered many ages
since, for certainly it was known to the Romans, being
mentioned by Pliny, It is obtained in several parts of the
world from the air-vessels (termed " sounds " or " maws ")
of various species of sea, estuary, and fresh-water fishes,
England procures the best from Russia, where it is prin-
cipally collected from the family Accipcnscridce or stur-
geons, and the following species, according to Brandt
and Ratzeburg, furnish it : — Accipenscr sturio, the common
sturgeon ; A. huso, the great sturgeon ; A. Gtddcnstadtii,
the osseter ; A. rathemis, the sterlet; A. stellatiis, the
sevruga or starred sturgeon, in which account are likewise
included the A. brevirostris ; A. schypa ; A. Rat::ebHrgii ;

240 The Commercial Prodtids of the Sea.

A. Lichtcnstcinii ; also A. viaailosus, and A. oxyrJiyncJius
from North America.

Isinglass has, in a measure, had its consumption checked
by its high price, and substitutes are employed, such as
gelatine (of which it is itself the purest form). It is of a
highly nutritious and unirritating nature, admirably adapted
for the sick room, and the preparation of some forms of
confectionery and cookery, besides being employed both
externally and internally in medicine, in the preparation of
court plaster, in some arts and manufactures, but more
extensively for clarifying or fining wines and beer. The
brewer employs it as follows : — Some, having been finely
divided, is dissolved in sour beer, to the consistence of a

Fig. 18.

The Sturgeon.

thick mucilage, and a portion is added to the fluid wliich
it is intended to clarify, and after a longer or shorter period,
suspended substances subside. Some suppose that all
floating particles become entangled in the isinglass, and,
uniting with it, form an insoluble compound which becomes
precipitated ; others, that when dissolved in a fluid it
lessens its affinity for the suspended particles, which, being
thus set free, subside.

The finest description of isinglass is thin, tough but
flexible, white, semi-transparent, and destitute of both taste
or smell ; it almost entirely dissolves in boiling water, and

The Isinglass of Commerce. 241

provided it contains as much as one-hundredth of its
weight of gelatine, has the property of gelatinizing or
assuming the form of a soft, tremulous solid as it cools.
The inferior sorts are thick, opaque, white, or yellow,
having a fishy taste and smell, and only partially dissolve.
The commonest kind, termed cake isinglass, is of a brownish
colour, having an unpleasant smell, and is only used in the
arts, and for the preparation of glue. The Brazilian isin-
glass is very inferior to the Russian, and is in the form
of pipe, block, honeycomb, cake, and tongue isinglass.
The North American is like long ribbons, produced from
the air-vessels of the OtolitJius rcgalis, Bl. Schn.

Russian Isinglass. — Isinglass is obtained in Russia from
the interior lining of the swimming-bladder of the sturgeon
{Accipcnscr), the Silunis glanis, the Iitciopcrca Wolgcnsis,
Pall., and the large carps. The Corcgouiis Icucichtys also
furnishes a little.

The air-bladders are left for some days in water, which is
frequently changed, in order to remove the fatty and bloody
particles ; they are then withdrawn and cut lengthwise into
sheets, which are exposed to the sun and air, the outer part
being attached to boards. The inside, which is formed of
layers of pure isinglass, is carefully detached from the ex-
terior layers, wrapped in linen, and pressed, in order to
keep it from contracting ; it is then made up into parcels
according to size. The parcels of isinglass of the large
sturgeon are composed of from 10 to 15 sheets, and weigh
about a pound and a quarter ; those of the ordinary
sturgeon contain 25 sheets, and weigh one pound. These
parcels, to the number of 80, are packed in a linen bag,
covered with rush matting, and sent away sealed with lead ;
38 lbs. are worth, at Astrakhan, from £\<^ ^. to ^28 \6s.,
according to quality. The air-bladder, although deprived

242 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

of its internal parts, still contains a little isinglass, which is
scraped off with a knife and kneaded ; after being damped
with water, it is made into small tablets about the size of a
five-shilling piece. The sheets of isinglass of the Silurus
glanis are placed like leaves in a book, and are dried upon
small cords; it is made up into bags of 152 lbs. Carp
isinglass {Cyprinns carpid) is made into parcels of 30 ; and,
lastly, a good fish-glue is made at Astrakhan from the
scales of the fish.

Vcsiga is the name given to the dorsal cord or tendons
of the vertebral column of the larger species of sturgeons,
prepared in a certain manner, and much esteemed for the
table. The quantity prepared reaches the value of ;i^20,000
annually. It is first carefully washed and pressed to ex-
tract the soft matter which it contains, then dried and
put up in packets the entire length, and folded in the
middle. It is used chopped up in the preparation of small
fish-cakes, much esteemed in Russia. The Russian poud
of about 36 lbs. is worth £2 \Q)S. to ^3 '^s.

The mode of preparation in Russia is as follows : —
The sound is taken from the fish while sweet and fresh,
slit open, washed from the slimy sordes, divested of every
thin membrane which envelops the sound, and then 'ex-
posed to stiffen in the air. When the sounds of the cod or
ling are prepared, the only difference is that they are slit
open, washed in lime-water in order to absorb their oily
particles, and then in clean water, when they are laid
upon nets to dry. In the present Russian factories of the
Caspian and Volga, the fresh sounds are first slit open, well
washed to separate the blood and impurities, then spread
out and exposed to the air to dry, with the inner silvery-
white membrane turned upwards. This, which is nearly
pure gelatine, is carefully stripped off, laid in damp cloths

The Isinglass of Coinincrce. 243

(or left in the outer covering), and forcibly kneaded with
the hands. It is then taken out of the cloths, dried in the
form of leaf isinglass, or rolled up, and drawn out in a
serpentine manner into the form of a heart, horseshoe, or
lyre (long and short staple) between three pegs, on a board
covered with them ; here they are fixed in their places by
wooden skewers. When they are somewhat dried there,
they are hung on lines in the shade, till their moisture is
entirely dissipated. The oblong pieces are sometimes
folded in the form of book isinglass. In order to obtain
good isinglass, it is necessary to have well-arranged rooms
to dry it in, as at Astrakhan. According to Pallas, at
the lower parts of the Volga, a fine gelatine is boiled out
of the fresh swimming-bladders, and then poured into all
kinds of forms. In Gurief, a fine boiled fish-glue is pre-
pared, perfectly transparent, having the colour of amber,
which is cast into slabs and plates. The Ostiaks also boil
their fish-glue in a kettle. The common cake isinglass is
formed of the fragments of the other sorts ; these are put
into a flat metallic pan, with a very little water, and heated
just enough to make the parts cohere like a pancake, when
it is dried.

Indian Isinglass. — Attention was first directed to this
product by Dr. Cantor, who stated that the suleah fish of
Bengal, when at its full size, attains about four feet in
length, and is squaliform, resembling the shark species in
appearance, but exhibiting a more delicate structure. The
flesh of the fish is exceedingly coarse, and is converted
by the natives, when salted and spiced, into bnrtah, a
piquant relish well known at the breakfast-tables of Bengal.
The air-bladder of the suleah may be considered the most
valuable part of it ; this, when exposed to the sun and
suffered to dry, becomes finely pellucid, and so hard that

244 ^/^^ Commei'cial Pj^o ducts of the Sea.

it will repel the edge of a sharp knife when applied to it.
These bladders, when perfectly dried, vary in weight from
half to three-quarters of a pound avoirdupois. This fish
abounds in Channel Creek, off Saugor, and in the mouths
of all the rivers which intersect the Sunderbunds they are
exceedingly plentiful in certain seasons.

The discovery of isinglass as a product of India was so
important that Dr. Cantor determined to investigate the
subject, and to ascertain what were the fishes which yielded
it. These seemed to be principally one or two species of
Polyncnms, especially the Polyncnins scle of Hamilton's
" Fishes of the Ganges," and the gol or gheriah {Corvimis
niger). P. scle is supposed by Royle to be a variety of
P. lineatus, which is said to be common on all the shores
to the eastward. A larger species, P. tetradaclylus, Shaw,
is also believed to furnish some of the Indian isinglass.
Several of the Siluridse also aff'ord it in large quantities, espe-
cially the species marked Silnrns raita by Dr. Buchanan.

The kinds of fishes from which this useful substance
has been obtained in India do not appear in all instances
to have been correctly defined, for it has been suggested
as derived from some which are destitute of air-vessels.
Without entering too minutely into the subject, it may be
stated that along the western coast, and down Malabar, the
Siluroids are in the majority ; but wherever large rivers
debouch into the sea, there the Polynemi are captured.
As we advance up to the eastern coast, at first the Acan-
thopterygians are in excess, whilst off Masulipatam, to the
north again, the Polynemi become numerous, especially off
the Sunderbunds. In Burmah, due to the character of
the water, the Siluroids again obtain the predominance.
Amongst the isinglass-producing Acanthopterygians, the
Polynemi are most noted, but the species constituting this

The Isinglass of Comma'ce. 245

genus are peculiar, in having filamentous prolongations at
the base of each pectoral fin ; these are remarkably elon-
gated in Polyncmiis paradiscns, known in Bengal as the
Tnpsi inntcJu or mango-fish. By correctly ascertaining
the number of these prolongations in a specimen, a decision
may be arrived at whether the species possesses or is des-
titute of an air-vessel ; or, in short, if isinglass can or cannot
be obtained from it.

But of seven species at present recognized in the seas and
estuaries of the coasts of India, merely two are useful for
this manufacture, and they are the only ones which have
five pectoral appendages. Consequently, unless a large
Polynemus possesses five of these filamentous appendages
at the base of its pectoral fin, it will be useless looking for
its air-vessel ; it has none, and isinglass cannot be pre-
pared from it. When dried, the air-vessel is tongue-shaped,
as are also those of others of the Acanthopterygians whose
air-vessels are loose in the cavity of the abdomen, have no
communicating duct leading to the pharynx, and are not
attached to the vertebrae. If we examine the air-vessels of
the Siluroid or scaleless cat-fishes, which are used for isin-
glass, we find them entirely different. They are like short
rounded bags with an open mouth, this latter being where
they have been torn away from their adhesions to the
vertebrae. The fishes w^hich furnish these descriptions of
air-vessels are mostly found in muddy waters, estuaries,
and the mouths of rivers, but do not thrive where the sea is
clear. The Rita ritoides, C. and V., or Pimclodus rita, H. B.,
which attains a great size, and is found far up rivers, is
said to afford this substance in large quantities.

Dr. McClelland discovered, about the year 1839, that
the Chinese had been importing isinglass from India in
enormous quantities, and from immemorial ages, and an

246 The Commci^cial Products of the Sea.

investigation was commenced into this subject. He ascer-
tained that from one village, six miles south-east of Calcutta,
from 800 to 900 maunds yearly, valued at from Rs. 25 to
40 the maund, were exported. Lord Auckland, when
governor-general, sent some specimens to England as a
new export, and, according to Dr. Royle, gave " a general
view of Indian fisheries, and the propriety of attending
more extensively to the curing of fish." Dr. Royle, in 1842,
in a pamphlet " on the production of isinglass along the
coasts of India," gave a resume of what had been previously
accomplished, as well as some very interesting figures and
experiments on the value of this article, as received in
London, both in an economic and financial point of view.
" The sounds, when received fresh, are opened and stripped
of the vascular covering and internal membrane, washed,
and at once made into any form the manufacturer finds
most convenient for packing. . . . When dry, before it
reaches the manufacturer (which is commonly the case, the
fish being caught at a distance towards the sea), the sound
has to be opened, and as much of the lining membrane as
possible removed by the hand. A large earthen vessel is
then filled with sounds, and water poured into it, and the
whole covered up for 12 hours, when the sounds will have
been brought back to their original soft state, in which they
may be as perfectly cleaned as if they had been obtained
fresh." It seems more than probable that this will account
for the fishy odour of this isinglass, as the sounds should be
quite fresh when prepared. Dr. McClelland bleached his
specimens in alum water (one ounce to four or five gallons),
soaking them a short time, and, when saturated, removing
them to a linen or cotton cloth, likewise saturated with
alum water. In this they were tightly rolled up and set
aside for 12 hours, the process being repeated until they

The Isinglass of Com7nerce. 247

were white. Some were sprinkled or dusted with chalk, in
case of exposure to damp in their homeward voyage ; it
can be easily rubbed ofT. At Gwadur the air-vessels were
soaked in brine before being dried ; but elsewhere they are
simply removed and dried in the sun.

The lining membrane of the air-vessel of the stur-
geon, as already noticed, yields the best isinglass, but it
has been rejected in the Indian forms, which accounts for
its more fibrous nature, although not proving that this
lining portion in India is of the best. East Indian isinglass
has some positive defects, such as retaining a fishy smell,
besides being partially insoluble, perhaps due to some por-
tions of the albuminous membranes remaining. In fact,
it requires more care in its preparation, which should be
undertaken whilst it is quite fresh ; and greater caution is
necessary in the drying process. If it be not properly
dried, it might possibly undergo a slight change or de-
composition, and become partially converted into a more
insoluble form of gelatine. A more important objection is
the smell, which, however, may likewise, to some extent, be
traced to the preparation. Care should be taken that it is
not contaminated by the animal fluid of the fish, for then
it becomes very difficult to purify. Likewise, it is too
thick, which may be obviated by beating or pressure, as
is now done with some American and Brazilian kinds.
" The extra labour that this would require," observes Royle,
" could be profitably saved by not tearing it into fibres, in
which form it is disapproved of in the market ; but it
might still be cut or rasped into a state fit for domestic
use." The same authority likewise states that — " It is pre-
ferable, and will be cheaper, to prepare the article and send
it as sheet isinglass, that is, in the form of the slit sounds
themselves, or their purest membrane, washed, cleaned, and

248 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

dried in the best maimer. . . . Isinglass cut into threads
is unsuitable for the English market, because there is a
great prejudice against purchasing wholesale, things in a
cut and powdered state, in consequence of the innumerable
methods adopted for falsifying and adulterating almost
every drug."

The method adopted in separating isinglass from the
fish-sounds and rendering it fit for market in India is as
follows : —

The air-vessel is from 8 to 12 inches long, pointed at
each end like a double nightcap, hollow, but without an
opening. It is merely taken out of the fish when caught,
and thrown aside without further trouble by the fishermen.
It is at first soft and doughy to the feel, and partially
distended with air ; but in time it becomes collapsed and
hard outside, in which state it is sold to the Chinese.

When fresh taken from the fish, it is covered by a thin
cobweb of small blood-vessels, which are easily peeled off,
as none of them enter the substance of the organ. Where
this is neglected it is stained and spotted with blood, and
the whole becomes hard and consolidated together, or the
vascular membrane itself becomes putrid in places.

Hence the vascular membrane should always be care-
fully peeled off the first thing by the fishermen, when the
outside will present an appearance like white satin, of a
fine, oblique fibrous texture. The edge should now be
slit open, and the same kind of bloody cobweb peeled from
within. The inner side will then present the same white-
satin appearance as the outside, but, if attentively ex-
amined, Avill be seen to consist of transverse instead of
oblique fibres. If it be allowed to dry, the whole becomes
hard, horny, and partially transparent.

The thickness of the organ is about one-third of an

The Isinglass of Conmterce. 249

inch, and the best way to see its fibrous structure is to tear
it across when it is dry. In this way it sphts in the direc-
tion of the transverse fibre, of which nine-tenths of its sub-
stance consists, the obHque fibre forming merely a thin
coat outside. If the mechanical division of the transverse
fibre be thus continued, the outer oblique coat becomes
readily detached, and falls off in plates and scales from the
outside. Thus, by mechanical means the organ may be
separated into two very distinct parts — the first, or trans-
verse fibre, consisting of perfectly pure gelatine, comprising
about nine-tenths of the whole ; the second, or oblique
fibre, falls off" in broad plates, consisting of albumen, thus
leaving the gelatine or isinglass perfectly pure.

When cut open, cleaned, and dried as above, the suleah-
sound weighs from 12 to 16 ounces, from which 90 per cent,
of pure isinglass may be separated by mechanical means.

The fish being caught at a distance from Bombay and
Calcutta, the sounds are usually sold unopened and un-
cleaned, as taken from the fish, with the cobweb of blood-
vessels hardened and dried upon the surface, which is
frequently stained with blood.

In this state it requires to be soaked for 12 hours in
water to overcome the horny consistence, so far as to be
able to cut it open. The outer rind, being insoluble, is that
on which soaking makes the least impression ; so that
when opened we frequently find much of the pure isinglass
within dissolved ; and if continued soaking and washing be
practised after it is opened, with a view to soften and
cleanse the outer insoluble rind, the article may become
greatly impoverished and deteriorated from the solution of
the inner parts, which thus become dissolved and washed
away incautiously during the operation.

To obviate this it is only necessary to induce the

250 The Commercial Pi^oduds of the Sea.

fishermen to open the sounds at once when taken from the
fish, and strip them of their cobweb, when they should
merely be rinsed with a little fresh water and dried in the
sun ; after which the longer they are. kept exposed to dry
in the air, the better.

Brazilian Isinglass. — One or other of the siluroid fishes
common in Guiana probably yields the Brazilian isinglass,
which comes chiefly in the form of lump or pipe.

The fish which produce this article are caught annually
in great quantities at the mouth of the Amazon. The
isinglass is almost all sent to Great Britain. The fish
caught in the rivers are not of first-rate quality. Great
quantities of piracuru ( Vastris gigas), highly esteemed by
the natives, are taken on the Upper Amazon, and sent to
the Para market.

A machorian, which gives 22 lbs. of salted or dried fish,
produces about i lb. ij oz. of isinglass. Thus, the weight
of the isinglass is to the fish as i to 20, a rule found to
be pretty general. According to the estimated take of fish,
the yield of isinglass should be 123,480 lbs.

Supposing the price of isinglass to be but 2s. 6d. the
pound (at Para it is 45". and sometimes 5^-.), and the price
of salt fish a penny per pound, we have the following as the
produce of the local fishery : —

Isinglass, 123,480 lbs. at 2s. bd. ... ;^i 5,435

Salt fish, 2,346,120 lbs., at id. ... 9,801

;^25,236

From 750 to 880 cwt. of isinglass are shipped from
Brazil annually, of the value of ;^ 15,000 to ;^i6,ooo.

In the Cape Colony some of the wine merchants make
use of the dried bladder of the kabeljauw {Scicena hololepi-
dota, Guv. and Val.) instead of isinglass.

The Isinglass of Commei^ce. 251

West Indian Isinglass. — Under this name the isinglass
obtained in British and French Guiana enters into com-
merce. It is the produce of one or two siluroid fishes. In
British Guiana it appears to be obtained from the gilbackre
or gilbagre {Silurus Parkcrii), a fish very abundant in the
estuaries of the rivers of the colony. A small quantity of
this fish-glue, as it is termed, is now exported from thence.

In French Guiana some attention has also been given
to the preparation of isinglass obtained from the machorian
{Silurus felis), which is especially employed in the clarifi-
cation of beer. Reduced into small shreds by the action
of a mechanical plane, it dissolves completely in cold
water, and is compared with Russian isinglass as two
to three. Its cheapness gives it also advantages over the
latter.

North American Isinglass. — Cod-sounds, which are'
brought in great quantities from Newfoundland, are nothing
more than the salted air-bladders of these fishes. The
Iceland fishermen, as well as those of America, prepare
isinglass of a very excellent quality from cod-sounds,
though they are not acquainted with the method of clarify-
ing it which the Russians practise in preparing that article
from the sound of the sturgeon.

Ribbon isinglass is obtained from the air-bladder of
the common hake {Mcrlucius vulgaris), or probably from
the fish passing under the name of hake on the coasts
of America {Phycis chuss). The air-bladder is thrown
into water to macerate for a little while, and taken out
and pressed between two iron rollers, by which it is elon-
gated to the extent of half a yard and more. It is then
carefully dried, packed, and sent to market.

In the manufacture of ribbon isinglass from fish-sounds
it is customary to place the softened and moist or

252 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

macerated sounds between feed and compressing rollers, by
which the viscid substance is compressed and joined, and
formed into a continuous sheet. Notwithstanding the con-
stant injection of cold water into the rolls, the substance
adheres tenaciously to the roll, accumulates thereupon, and
has to be cut away ; so that the operation is slow and
laborious, and productive of imperfect sheets.

Mr. James Manning, of Rockport, Massachusetts, has
invented an improvement, designed to so strip the gela-
tinous substance from the rolls that the work may proceed
continuously, the ribbon, as it is stopped, being again fed
or guided by the operator into and between the rolls until
sufficiently reduced or elongated for removal, or, for the
action of other rolls, set nearer together to produce a
thinner ribbon. He effects this result by placing at the
side of each roll a scraper extending the whole length of
the roll, having an edge set up to the roll, so that the roll
shall run just clear of it, w^iich scraper or cleaner strips
from the whole surface of the roll the adhering gelatine in
the form of a sheet.

Knowing that the sturgeon abounded in the North
American rivers, and struck by the absence of isinglass
from that quarter, in 185 1 Professor Owen drew the atten-
tion of the Canadian Commissioner to the fact, and now a
commerce has sprung up for this valuable product, which,
previous to the first London Exhibition, had been rejected
among the useless entrails of the sturgeon. Now some
attention has been given to the preparation of the air-
bladder and the outer tunic of the alimentary canal, after
the modes of obtaining the best Russian isinglass.

The sturgeon enters the rivers of North America, such
as the Potomac, Delaware, Hudson, and Kennebec, in
numberless quantities, like the shad and herring ; but

The Isinglass of Commerce. 253

very little use is made of it. From Virginia up to the
highest habitable northern latitudes, they ascend the rivers
300 to 500 miles up. From 30,000 to 40,000 sturgeons
might be caught annually in the before-named rivers, and
without counting the rivers farther north of Maine, the
annual export of pickled sturgeon, caviare, and isinglass
alone would be worth 500,000 dollars. The sturgeon is not,
however, much esteemed in America ; it brings scarcely
twopence a pound in the market, and the roe and swim-
ming-bladder are always thrown away. There are two
species of sturgeon which frequent the American rivers —
the round-nosed {Accipenser rubicundus), which is gene-
rally eight feet or more long, and weighs over 200 lbs. ;
and the sharp or shovel nosed {ScaphirJiyncus platyrJiyn-
cus), which is seldom more than five feet long, and
weighs about 150 lbs. or more. In Russia some are found
which weigh 500 lbs., and in Norway one was caught
which weighed looo lbs.

In the Hudson river thousands are captured annually
— a number of persons making this their sole business.
Immense nets are cast; but instead of hauling them entire,
their floats are watched, and when one goes down a stur-
geon is calculated on. The net is drawn at that point,
his sturgeonship is hauled into a "scow," and the net is
dropped again for a fresh victim. Inshore the fishermen
have pens where the fish are kept for market. Lots of
them go to Albany, where they are considered " tit-bits."
Thousands of them are cut up and tried for the oil which
they yield in abundance.

Chinese Isinglass. — Isinglass or fish-glue is very exten-
sively employed in China for a great number of purposes.
This substance, which is obtained in Europe by treating
principally the swimming-bladder of the sturgeon, is made

254 "^^^^ Cotiimeycial Products of the Sea.

in China in another manner. There we meet in commerce
with plates of a horny appearance, whitish, and of a tissue
resembling animal membrane. These plates are of dif-
ferent forms, and bear in China the name of jn-ka. This
substance, dissolved in water, forms a glue of an excellent
quality, which is specially employed by cabinet-makers,
furniture being an industry for which Ningpo is justly
renowned. This glue has properties much resembling
gelatine. Like gelatine, it is very nitrogenous, furnishing
by distillation ammoniacal compounds and a bulky char-
coal. This, incinerated, gives a whitish ash, composed
probably of phosphate of lime.

In an industrial point of view it differs from isinglass
by furnishing a glue of very considerable resistance. That
of the best quality is reserved for the manufacture of
furniture of the highest class, and is employed to unite
pieces of wood which are required to resist great strain.
Besides its industrial uses, this fish-glue is highly esteemed
for food purposes by the Chinese.

The three kinds of fish chiefly used for obtaining
isinglass in China are : — i. The My-yu {Scicena litcidd),
having greyish scales ; 2. Ta-houang-yu {Otolit/nts niacu-
latus), the head, fins, etc., of which are of a bright yellow ;
3. Mung-pu {Angnilla {Miirccnd) pekinensis, Basilewski).
To obtain the swimming-bladder the gills are removed,
and by introducing the finger into the interior the air-
bladder is obtained. The intestinal and membranous parts
which surround this organ are separated, and with a knife
it is split longitudinally ; the two lips are lifted, and a
whitish membrane, which is found on each side, is taken
out. In this state it is sold for food purposes. It is boiled
a certain time in water, but does not dissolve, forming only
a gelatinous mass of an insipid flavour. With the third-

The Isinglass of Commerce. 255

named fish, of the eel species, the belly is opened, and the
organ, which is often of great size, removed.

The glue which is made is of excellent quality, but
often yellow or grey tinted, according to the inferior quality
of the substance employed. It is thus prepared : — The
ju-ka is washed in water for about two hours, then taken
out and placed in a water-bath for a certain time. When,
by the touch, it is found to be soft, it is removed and
beaten with a heavy iron hammer. This is said to be
a delicate operation, which should be done at the proper
time. The substance is then flattened and rolled by the
hand, and horizontal incisions are made, so that the air
may more readily reach it and the drying be more rapid.
When the glue is to be used, it is broken in pieces, put
in a water-bath, with a little water to dissolve it.

It is probable if the Chinese isinglass were treated with
sulphurous acid, a better commercial product might be
obtained.

Besides its use for food purposes in China, isinglass is
employed medicinally. That which is very transparent is
most esteemed. It is usually met with in long, channelled
pieces, transparent, of a dull yellow colour. Gelatine is
often substituted for it, which is in long, opaque tablets,
of a deep brown, and is made from the skins of different
animals.

From the ports of Hiogo and Osaka, in Japan, the
exports of isinglass to Shanghai and Hongkong were in —

Piculs.

Value.

1874 ...

... 2286 ...

... ?75.2I2

1875

... 6238 ...

198,416

In many of the French colonies it is stated that large
quantities of valuable isinglass are lost to commerce from
carelessness and ignorance. At Senegal and at Mahe the

256 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

swimming-bladders are thrown away with the entrails. At
Newfoundland they form part of the food of the seamen,
and a few barrels are sent to France. From Cochin China
a small quantity is shipped to China. From Cayenne
9774 lbs., valued at £1066, were shipped in 1874. The
average annual imports of isinglass into China were, in
the five years ending 1870, 2953 piculs of 133 lbs., and in
the five years ending 1875, 3934 piculs.

Fish-AIaivs are the swimming-bladders or sounds of
different fish, extracted and merely dried in the sun, and
considered a great luxury by the Chinese, as possessing
strengthening properties. They are extensively collected
on the Malabar coast and shipped to Bombay, from
whence large quantities are re-exported, principally to
China and the Straits Settlements.

In the official year ending 1872, 9008 cwts. of fish-
maws and sharks* fins, valued at ;^30,ioo, were exported
from Bombay. From Penang 2277 piculs were shipped
in 1870, and from Singapore 125,946 cwt., valued at;^i3,7i7.
They often fetch as much as ;^I4 the cwt. in the Canton
market.

I

CHAPTER IX.

OTHER FISH PRODUCTS AND THEIR USES,

Miscellaneous uses of parts of fishes — Scales of fish — Articles made from them —
Skin of fishes ; applications of it— Shark skin — Ray skins — Shagreen and
galuchat — Fish flour — Fish paste — Guanine, or pearl essence.

Some of the miscellaneous uses of parts of fish are curious.
Thus, the serrated spine of the ray fish is used by the
Indians of the Amazon to arm their arrows. In India the
jawbone of the boalee fish {Silurus boalis) is employed by
the natives about Dacca. The teeth being small, recurved,
and closely set, act as a fine comb for carding cotton, in
removing the loose and coarse fibres and all extraneous
matters irom the cotton wool. Sharks' teeth are used in
arming weapons, and the teeth of sharks and other fish
as trinkets. The jaws of the sleeper shark {Soimtiosus
brevipinnd) are used for head-dresses by the North
American Indians. Fish bones are used by Indians and
Eskimo in making implements ; sharks' vertebrae for canes ;
the bones of the whale for weapons. Those of sharks and
skates are used in Japan in making imitation tortoise-shell.
Among the islands of the Corean Archipelago, the children
use the dried spiral eggs of a species of skate or some other
cartilaginous fish as rattles, having first introduced a few
small pebbles to assist in making a noise.
12

258 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Scales of fish are composed of alternate layers of mem-
branous laminae and phosphate of lime, to which they owe
their brilliancy. Perhaps the enamel or nacreous covering
of the scales of fish generally is capable of being employed
more largely in the arts ; it appears to be sid generis, and
seems hitherto to have escaped the scrutiny of organic
chemistry.

At the Vienna International Exhibition, the scales of
the captain fish {Heterotis), from Senegal, were shown, for
making fish-glue to stiffen and glaze ribands.

The Royal University of Norway, Christiana, sent to
the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, in 1875, a diadem
made from fish scales and eyes ; and at the Paris Inter-
national Exhibition of 1878 two Swedish exhibitors showed
flowers and ornaments made of fish scales.

Panircs and ornaments for ladies, made of fish scales,
were at one time largely sold at the Crystal Palace,
London.

At Newark, in the United States, large fish scales have
been for some time industrially employed. The fresh scales
are steeped for 24 hours in a solution of marine salt in order
to clean them. They then undergo five or six washings in
distilled water, which is renewed every two or three hours.
Each scale is then separately dried with a clean cloth, and
lightly pressed and left to dry. Finally, they are macerated
for an hour in alcohol, and rubbed dry. They then
appear like mother-of-pearl, and of a firm and elastic con-
sistence. They are worked up either plain or coloured, for
making artificial flowers, marquetry articles, and other fancy
work. The Chinese have a mode of grinding up fish scales
and using the powder as a dry pigment, to give a brilliancy
to parts of pictures.

The skin of fishes is chiefly gelatinous, and is easily

Other Fish Products and their Uses. 259

soluble in water; but some is of a firmer, stronger, and
more useful character.

Although the skin of some marine mammals, such as
those of the seal, walrus, and the white whale, or Beluga
(known as porpoise leather), have long been commercially-
employed, it is only lately that attention has been more
generally directed to the utilization of fish skins on an
extended scale. Their employment hitherto has been very
limited. Eel skins have been used for the thongs of whips
and the attachments of flails, dried sole skins to clarify
coffee, and some shark and ray skins by workmen to
smooth and polish substances, and also to make a kind of
shagreen leather.

At the Maritime Exhibition, held at the Westminster
Aquarium in 1876, Mr. G. Kent, of Christiana, Norway,
exhibited a variety of tanned skins, among which were : —

Whale skins tanned ; the size ranging from 12 inches
broad by 60 feet in length, suitable for wheel bands, for
driving machinery, etc.

White fish, for upper leather, which can be prepared in
pieces of 12 feet by 4 feet.

Skins of various flat-fish, dressed and prepared for
gloves. Fine upper leather can be made with it, often to
be had in sizes up to three feet square.

Skins of soles, dressed and tanned suitable for purses, etc.

Skins of thornbacks, suitable for cabinet-makers instead
of sand-paper, and very much more durable.

Skins of eels, dressed and dyed suitable for braces and
other purposes.

Mention is made of an industry carried on at Colborn,
in Canada, with the skins of species of Siluroids for glove-
making, and this is to be prosecuted on a larger scale, both
for the flesh for salting and the skin for currying.

26o The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Shoes have been made in Gloucester, Massachusetts,
from the skins of the cusk or torsk {Brosmns vulgaris), the
use of which has been patented. If this material for shoes
proves what it promises, it will open up a new market for
fish skins, which will no doubt be highly profitable. In
Egypt fish skins from the Red Sea are used for soles of shoes.
In the Animal Products Collection at the Bethnal-green
Museum, there are some tanned sole skins shown. The
skin of the losh or burbot {Lota maculata), cleansed,
stretched, and dried, is used by the country people in many
parts of Russia and Siberia to trim their dresses, and
instead of glass for the windows of their dwellings, being as
transparent as oiled paper. It is also utilized by some of
the Tartar tribes, as material for their summer dresses, and
the bags in which they pack their animal skins. The
inhabitants of the eastern coasts of the middle of Asia
clothe themselves with the tanned skins of the salmon. It
is asserted that it makes a leather as tough as wash-leather.
The scale-rnarks give a very neat pattern to the leather.

W. Brozowsky, in his " Waarenkunde," Vienna, 1869,
under " Fish Skin," says this is obtained from the sea-angel
(Squatus squatma, Lin. ; Squatina Icevis, Cuv.), the thorny
shark {Squaliis acanthias, S. carcharias), the tigered shark
[S. caniculata), and some skates, as the angel skate {Raja
rhinobatis), R. Scphen, etc. The skins of these skates and
sharks have spines of different sizes instead of scales. The
skins are used for polishing, and, after the star-formed
spines have been smoothed down with sandstone, for cover-
ing boxes and cases, etc.

Guibourt (sixth edition, by Dr. G. Planchon, 1870-71.
vol, iv.), says the sephen of the Red and Indian Seas,
belonging to the genus Trygon, produces the tuberculous
and hard skin called galuchat, after the name of a Paris

Other Fish Products and their Uses. 261

workman who employed it first. The greater part of the
Selacians, viz., the rousettes, sharks, humantins, aiguillats,
leiches, etc., have a rough skin, which is used for covering
boxes, and also for polishing wood. The greatest con-
fusion exists among merchants as to the names given to
the different skins. Each tradesman applies, according to
his fancy, the name oi pcan de rcqtiin, peau dii diien de mer,
chagrin, and even galnchat. From specimens of the various
skins, the following would seem to be the species utilized : —

1. Shark skin, from a young shark ; small, imbricated
scales, somewhat translucid, with longitudinal lines, the
border or edge entire and circular. This edge is free on
the body, but attached on the fins. This skin serves for
covering cases, etc., but is not rough enough for polishing.

2. Skin of mottled rousette {Scyllittin, Cuv.). Tuber-
culous, imbricated, horny, fine and hard scales, very near
one to the other, and transparent, each triangular. Skin
much used for polishing. Some persons state that " false
galuchat " is made of it by rubbing off the scales, which
leaves a square figure that becomes very showy when the
skin is applied on a green paper. " I rather believe," con-
tinues M. Guibourt, " that the false galuchat is made with
the skin of the aiguillat."

3. Pcau de leiche {Scymmis), sold to cabinet-makers
under the name of pcau de chien de incr, is covered with
nearly rhomboid, tuberculous, semi-transparent scales,
arranged one near the other in quincunxes.

4. Pcau d'aiguillat {Spinax acantJiias, Cuv.). — Viewed
with a magnifying glass, this skin appears covered with
small square opaline scales, not rough like the preceding,
but much used by the gainiers or sheath-makers, for its
glossy nacreous aspect.

5. Peau de sagri {Spinax Jiiger, Cuv.). Same uses as the

262 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

preceding. The word sagri is Persian ; saghcr, Turkish,
from its resemblance to the dressed leather made from the
mule and ass, whence our word shagreen.

6. Galuchat or SepJien skin, from the back of the Hypo-
lopJms Sephen and Trygon ScpJien, Cloq. It has numerous
round tubercles, which become white by rubbing down, and
in the interior opaque and nacreous. The skin is some-
times dyed different colours, but it is often preferable to
leave it the natural colour by only half polishing it.

The quantity of ray skins, dried or salted, imported
into France in 1863 was about 18,000 lbs. weight, prin-
cipally from Portugal. Formerly they used to fetch as
high as seven francs the pound ; now they may be had for
\s. a pound.

The best galuchat, or what we should call shagreen,
is made from the skin of the sephen, which abounds in
the Mediterranean Sea, and is also met with in the Red
Sea and the Indian Ocean. This skin is remarkable for
the size of the osseous protuberances. There are, however,
two kinds of these rays, one with rough skin and the other
with smooth.

From a certain portion of the skin of the angel shark
{Squatina angcliis) the Turks make the most beautiful
sea-green watch-cases. These sharks, which form a con-
necting link between the genera of rays and sharks, are
found in the Mediterranean principally, and the German
Ocean sometimes. The skin, being very rough, is em-
ployed to polish wood and ivory, as well as for other uses
in the arts.

Turners, ebonists, and carpenters in Europe use the
rough skin of the blue dog-fish iSqualus glaucus, Lin.)
like emery paper, for smoothing their work and preparing
it for polishing. This shark skin is also used by the

Other Fish Products and their Uses. 263

native workmen of the East for polishing wood and
ivory, and it is made into shagreen. That most used
now seems to be the skin of the ray {Hypolophus Sephen),
which is very common on the Malabar coast, and an
extensive commerce is now carried on in them in the
Indian Ocean ; they are found in the Sea of Oman, and
also taken at Mahe. The house of Giraudon, i, Rue de
Hasard Richelieu, Paris, makes excellent use of them for
morocco and tablctterie. At the Paris Exhibition, 1878,
this firm exhibited two cases with numerous illustrations
of the ornamental application of the prepared skin in large
office-table inkstands, candlesticks, boxes and caskets,
paper knives, reticules, card-cases, frames for photographs,
bracelets, scent-bottles, etc. The long tail is also used for
canes and penholders.

Pcau de rousette {Squalus catidiis and caniculus, Lin.).
This fish, called cJiat at Marseilles, and criii in Catalonia,
is smaller than the angel fish. The skin, reddish and
without spots, is of a uniform grain, flat, and only used to
make cases and other articles known as shagreen. These
skins come from the Mediterranean, and are imported
in bundles by the sailors, selling at from 30^-. to 36^-. the
dozen, according to size.

Peaii de cJiieu de iner is another name given in France
to some species of Squalus or requin. That usually found
on the French coasts is known under the names of chie7i
marin, chat inarin, rousette tigre'e (Squalus catulus, Lin.).
Turners, cabinet-makers, and carpenters use the skin for
scraping and smoothing their work before polishing; metal-
workers and others also employ it. This skin, when worked
up with the tubercules with which it is studded, takes
the name of galuchat, and is ordinarily dyed green, to
cover cases, sheaths, and boxes. Under the name of

264 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

chagrm these skins used to be much employed in Turkey,
Syria, Tunis, and TripoH. That made in Constantinople
was considered the best. It was coloured black, green,
white, and red.

Fish Products. — The ingenuity of the Norwegians has
discovered a hundred ways of pleasing the palate of the
home consumer, and increasing the export of articles
derived from the sea. Preserved fish and portions of fish,
such as roes and sounds, salmon and lobster patties, or
rather pasties or pates — for the first word gives an idea of
something small, whereas these and other pates well known
on the Continent resemble in size the famous venison
pasties of the olden time in England, and are often a yard
or more in length — preserved mussels, lobsters, prawns,
and a dozen other articles, make up altogether a very con-
siderable trade. Amongst the most peculiar preparations
of Norway, hov/ever, are the fish flours — farines de poisson,
as they are called. They are composed of the flesh of fish
reduced to powder, with some additional substances, and
the biscuits made from these flours are said by certain
chemists to contain four times the nutritive matter of beef,
and 16 times that of milk or rye bread. The farine de
poisson is also used in place of rice and potatoes ; and the
dishes prepared from it are served at Norwegian tables
with poultry, and are said to be very palatable.

Hard, horny pieces of dried bonito, called cuminelnmms,
are rasped over their rice by the Hindoos. Dried loaves o(
putrid pounded fish are eaten in Africa and South America.

Fisli paste. — A peculiar preparation, called by the
Malays balachong and by the Javanese trasi, is a fcetid
mass, composed chiefly of pounded or bruised fish and
shrimps ; this is fermented and dried in the sun. It is
largely consumed as a condiment to rice in all the countries

Other Fish Products and their Uses. 265

to the east of Bengal, including the southern provinces of
China and the islands of the Indian Archipelago. Its
distribution giv^es rise to an extensive internal traffic, and,
like the herrings and salt fish with the negro population of
the West Indies, it forms to the natives a palatable addition
to their ordinary food.

There is carried on, on the coasts of Cochin China, a
considerable fishery for the preparation of a condiment or
fish sauce, which is alleged to have very hygienic proper-
ties. It is there called " Nuoc-mam," and is made with
shrimps and small fish which swarm on the banks of the
coast during the months of May to August ; these are
slowly decomposed in salt. The most esteemed kinds are
those of Tonkin and Phu-quoc. Of this sauce there are
consumed in the six French provinces about 8,000,000
jars, valued at 2,000,000 francs (;^ 80,000). This condi-
ment is brought to perfection by being buried in the earth
for several years. There is also made a fluid sauce, which
is equal to the best anchovy. Nuoc-mani is an article of
great necessity to the Annamites, who live in the midst of
marshes, where the water is bad, and who neither drink
wine nor spirits. Many of the French officers attribute the
good health they enjoy while in Cochin China to the use
of this fish paste.

A kind of pickle, called garum, is prepared in some
countries of the East, of fish half putrified and strongly
salted, with the addition of aromatics. Several species
of garum were used by the Romans, which were made
from the mackerel and the bonito.

The swimming-bladder of Argentina sphyrcBna, Lin.,
inhabiting the Mediterranean Sea, abounds in the silvery
substance so remarkable in fishes, and is employed to form
imitation pearls.

266 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

The perfectly white solution of the scales of the bleak
{Leuciscus alburmis), a fish indigenous to the rivers of France,
is now used largely for the manufacture of artificial pearls.
The solution or guaiiiiie is a mucus which lubricates the
scales of the fish. It coagulates by heat to a thick, white
deposit, and is obtained by carefully scraping the fish over
a shallow tub containing fresh water. Care is taken not to
scale the black or dorsal part, as these scales are yellow,
while the white scales only possess value. The material is
received on a horsehair sieve. The first water, mixed with
a little blood, is thrown away. The scales are then washed
and pressed, when the mucus or essence {guanine) sinks to
the bottom of the tub and appears as a very brilliant blue-
white oily mass. It takes 40,000 fish to furnish two pounds
of the material. The fishermen seal it in tin boxes with
ammonia, and in this condition send it to Paris. If a drop
of the essence be taken up by a straw and let fall upon
water, it floats, giving forth the most brilliant colours. Glass
bulbs, in the shape of pearls, lined with this substance,
imitate the real gems with remarkable closeness.

CHAPTER X.

INDUSTRIAL AND MANUFACTURING USES OF SHELLS.

Composition of shells — Variety of forms and colours — "Various economic uses
to which they are put — -Extensive commerce in shells — Shell cameos — The
cowry shells — ^Their various uses, as currency, for decoration, etc. — Shells
worn for personal ornament — Wampum or treaty belts of shells — Shells
as studies of design — British commerce in shells.

Shells, from their variety of structure and colour, and
their singular beauty, have always formed a fruitful theme of
description for the writer and the poet. The works of most
of our best authors teem with lovely passages, many of
which must occur to the memory of any general reader.

*' Their exquisite, fragile, and beautiful forms
Are nursed by the ocean and rocked by the storms."

By young and old, savage and civilized, shells are alike
admired and coveted, either for personal decoration, for the
cabinet of the collector and the naturalist, or as simple
ornaments in a room.

The uses to which shells are applied are more extensive
than is generally supposed. The trade is growing year by
year into greater importance ; and there is ample scope yet
for its extension with profit and advantage, alike to the
merchant and importer, to the manufacturer and vendor,
and to the general public who are the purchasers.

268 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

To understand the composition of shells, a little pre-
liminary scientific definition must be given. It has been
observed that shells may be regarded as epidermal in their
character, being formed upon the surface of a filmy cloak-
like organ, called a mantle, which answers to the true
skin of other animals. A slimy juice, consisting of a
membranaceous tissue, consolidated by an admixture of
carbonate of lime, exudes from the glands of this important
organ, and, thickening in successive layers, becomes hard-
ened and moulded on the body, at first simple and un-
adorned, but subsequently embellished according to the
taste or inclination of the occupant. Each shell is therefore
composed of animal and calcareous matter ; the first con-
stitutes a membranaceous basis, which is equally curious
and beautiful, being either formed of cells with hexagonal
walls, or else of laminae, more or less wrinkled, like morocco
leather. Shells which are always concealed by the mantle
are colourless ; and those which are covered by the mantle-
lobes, when the animal expands, acquire a glazed or en-
amelled surface, like the cowries ; when the shell is deeply
immersed in the foot of the animal it becomes partly
glazed, as in Cymba. In all other shells there is an outer
layer of gelatinous matter forming what is called the
epidermis, although it is sometimes very thin and trans-
parent.

Woodward well remarks that the forms and colours of
shells (as of other natural objects) answer some particular
purpose, or obey some general law ;• but besides this there
is much that seems specially intended for our study and
calculated to call forth enlightened admiration. Thus the
tints of many shells are concealed during life by a dull
external coat, and the pearly halls of the nautilus are seen
by no other eyes than ours.

Industrial and Mariufadu^dng Uses of Shells. 269

The variety in the figure, colour, and characters of sea
shells is almost infinite. The most beautifijl come from
the Pacific and Australian coasts. The sun, by the great
heat that it throws on the seas near the equator, would
seem to have some effect in heightening the colours of shells
produced in tropical zones, and the nature of the food of
the animals probably gives them a lustre and a brilliancy
which are wanting in those of colder latitudes.

It is impossible to enumerate all the purposes to which
shells are applied, but some few may be specified.

The shells of Stronilms, Triton, Dolium, Fnsus, Murex,
and Bticcinuui are used for fog-horns, trumpets, lamps, vases,
and ornamental borders in flower gardens. Those of
Biisycon, Sycotypiis, Mactra, etc., by Indians in the manu-
facture of implements. Shells of species of Mactra for
ladles, scoops, and spoons, by fishermen. Those of
Tridacna for vases, fountains, and in the manufacture of
handles and carvings. The shells of Pectai, Haliotis, Den-
taliiun, Alercciiaria, etc., by the Indians for trimmings and
ornaments. The scallop or palmer's shell {^Pecten jacobcetis)
was used as a decoration of honour. Other Pectais are
used in making pincushions and purses. The chank shell is
used in the manufacture of Hindoo bangles, and in polish-
ing or glazing cloth. The painter's mussel {Unio pictoriwi)
is used to hold gold and silver colours. The shells of
Plaaina placenta are employed in China as a substitute for
glass. Cytlierea lusoria, the painted shell of the Japanese,
with pretty designs on it, is used for playing a game. The
cowries serve for currency in India and in the African trade,
and for trimmings to various trappings. The shells of
Mercenaria violacea, Purpura lapillus, and Bnccinnm nnda-
tiim are used by the Indians of the eastern coast of
America in the manufacture of their native money, and

270 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

for modern wampum or shell beads for the Indian trade.
The Jiyqua or Dentalhnn shells are employed in a similar
manner by the Indians of the Pacific coast. The shells
of CyprcBa, Rotclla, Oliva, Tnrrctella^ Phasianella (Venetian
shells), etc., are mounted as buttons and jewellery. Com-
position shellwork for book-covers and frames is made by
glueing various shells in mosaics. Calcined shells are used
by dentrifice and porcelain makers. Cuttle-fish bone, from
Sepia officinalis, has various uses. The opercula of some
molluscs are used as " eye-stones," and polished and set for
jewellery.

In considering the manufacturing and useful applica-
tions of shells, they might be conveniently ranged under
the following groups : — i. The nacreous shells used for
making pearl buttons and other useful and ornamental
articles. 2. The pearly and iridescent shells, for orna-
menting papier-mache work, making card-cases, folios,
jewel-cases, etc. 3. Various small shells used for making
shell flowers and different fancy articles of grouped shells,
and for ladies' bracelets, head-dresses, etc. 4. The shells
used for carving cameos to set in brooches, bracelets, neck-
laces, scarf-pins, for studs and sleeve-links, and other
articles of personal decoration. 5. Shells used for spoons,
drinking-vessels, lamps, handles for knives, and other pur-
poses of domestic economy ; for snuff-boxes, pipes, and
such like curiosities. 6. For making the purest kind of
lime when calcined ; for manure, in the form of shell sand
and shell marl; and for making pottery- ware and a glaze or
enamel, when crushed. 7. Shells are largely used for small
monetary payments in North America, India, and Africa,
and also as counters in games of chance. Lastly, they
serve as studies of design, form, and colour for the sculptor,
painter, and art manufacturer.

Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells. 2 7 1

There arc other uses besides the foregoing, but at least
these are the principal ones.

Let us pass on now to speak first of the shells used for
carving cameos, and those employed to form articles of
personal decoration.

Of the quantities imported for this purpose we can
obtain no reliable details. The shells come over in bags,
and every now and then the City brokers announce a sale
of bull's mouth, helmet shells, queen conchs, etc., but no
aggregate records are kept of the numbers.

To show, however, the extent of the trade in shells,
here are the particulars of the sales advertised on one day
in London (October loth, 1 871), by various City brokers:—

By

Lewis

and Peat

—

275 cases

Bombay M.O.P.

«

43 M

Egyptian

>>

6 „

Gambia

>>

262 „

Panama

»

45 .»

of cowries

81 packages fancy shells
195 cases Japan ear shells.

By Ellis and Hale —

140 cases and 6 casks of M.O.P. from Fremantle.

8 ,, and 27 serons M. O. P. Bombay.
211 „ cases of cowries.
24 tons of Japan ear shells.

By Price, Hickman and Co. —

18 cases Bombay M.O.P.

By Bowyer and Bartlett —

41 cases M.O.P.
6000 conch shells.
1400 helmet shells.

* The trade abbreviation for mother-of-pearl.

272 The Commercial Products of the Sea.
By Brooks and Faith —

84 baskets, 13 bags, and 10,000 loose green snail.
230 packages and 10 tons of loose Japan ear shells.
12,000 turbos.

By Donald Gray and Sons —

39 cases Manila and 51 cases Bombay M.O. P.
I case red shank shells.

By John Griffin and Son —

194 cases Bombay M.O. P.
381 bags Maldive cowries.
5 tons Japan green ear.

Most of the univalve shells are of the character called
porcelanous, from their brittleness, translucence, and the
resemblance of their fracture to that of porcelain. But this
fracture, when examined by a microscope, reveals a struc-
ture of thick parallel layers, usually of a fine fibrous nature,
at right angles to the external surface. The soluble part
of these shells is carbonate of lime, the particles of which
are cemented together with a very minute proportion of
animal mucus. The hard and compact nature of such
shells, and their generally smooth surface, prevent their
being cut by the ordinary tools which are available for the
less hard and frangible nacreous shells ; it is, therefore,
necessary to treat them with emery, rotten-stone, and other
substances harder than themselves.

Such shells generally require rather to be polished than
cut, but where it is necessary to divide them, in order to
exhibit their sections, they are operated upon by means of
the sheer with diamond poAvder.

Certain description of these shells are well adapted for
cameo-cutting, from their substance being made up of dii-
ferently coloured layers, and also from a difference of hard-
ness and texture in the various layers, some approaching

Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells, 273

more nearly to the nature of nacreous than of porcelanous
material.

The word cameo, derived from an Arab word, signifying
bas-relief, was originally restricted to hard stones, such as
onyx, sardonyx, etc., engraved in relief; but the name has
since been extended to gems cut on shell, lava, and other
substances.

The good workman always carefully puts his work on
the shell in such a manner that the direction of the laminae
of the central coat is longitudinal. In cameos the central
layer forms the body of the relief, the inner layer being the
ground, and the outer the third or superficial colour, which
is sometimes used to give a varied appearance to the sur-
face of the figure. The cameo-cutter selects from the
shells which have the three layers : — i. Those which have
the layers strongly adherent together, for if they separate
his labour is lost ; 2. Those in which the middle layer is
thick ; 3. Those in which there is a good distinction of
colour between the layers ; and 4. Those in which the
inner layer is of the colour suited to his purpose.

The kinds now employed, and which experience has
taught him are best for his purpose, are — i. The bull's
mouth {Cassis riifa), which has a red inner coat, or what is
called a sardonyx ground. The shell is red with several
series of thick knobs, the outer lip deep yellowish red.
2. The black helmet {C. Madagascariensis), which has a
blackish inner coat, or what is called an onyx ground, and
shows up white upon a dark claret colour. The shell is
often nearly a foot long. 3. The horned helmet {C.
cornuta), white with an orange yellozv ground ; and 4. The
queen conch {Strojnbus gigas), with a pink ground. This
shell is about 10 inches long, aperture rose-coloured, lip ex-
tremely broad, rounded above. .S". pugilis, another species,

2 74 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

is a turbinate shell, reddish and yellow, lip rose-coloured
without and striated. The bull's mouth and black helmet
are the best shells, for the horned helmet is apt to separate
from the ground, or to " double," as the French workmen
call it ; the queen conch has the two colours seldom
distinctly marked from each other, and the pink of the
ground flies by exposure to the light. The red colour
of the bull's mouth only extends a small distance in the
mouth of the shell, becoming paler as it proceeds back-
ward, as may be observed by the pale side generally to
be seen in such red-grounded cameos. Hence, the bull's
mouth affords only a single cameo large enough for a
brooch, and several small pieces for shirt-studs, while the
black helmet furnishes on an average about five brooches
and several stud-pieces. The queen conch yields only a
single good piece. Cassis flammea, about six inches long,
and C deaissata and C. tuberosa, white upon a dark claret
colour, are occasionally used.

The bull's mouth shells are brought from India and
Ceylon, the black helmets and the queen conchs from the
West Indies, and all are supplied through the London
market.

Shell cameos, some years ago, were a good deal in
fashion ; and even now a well-executed, artistic Roman
shell cameo is an elegant work of art. Genoa and Rome
are the seats of the best work, although many common
ones are cut in France. In Rome there are about 80 shell-
cameo cutters, and in Genoa 30, some of whom also carve
in coral. The art of cameo-cutting was confined to Rome
for upwards of 40 years, and to Italy until the last 26
years, at which time an Italian began cutting cameos in
Paris, and now over 3000 persons are employed in that
city.

I

Industrial and Mauufacturing Uses of Shells. 275

The black helmet, on account of the advantageous
contrast of colour in the layers, produces very effective
cameos, the carved figure of the white upper layer being
strongly relieved by the dark, almost black, ground supplied
by the second layer. The shell is first cut into pieces, the
size of the required cameos, by means of diamond dust and
the slitting mill, or by a blade of steel fed with emery
and water.

It is then carefully shaped into a square, oval, or other
form on the grindstone, and the edge finished with oil-
stone. It is next cemented to a block of wood, which
serves as a handle to be grasped by the artist while tracing
out with a pencil the figure to be cut on the shell.

The pencil mark is followed by a sharp point, which
scratches the desired outline, and this again by delicate
tools of steel Wire, flattened at the end and hardened, and
by files and gravers, for the removal of the superfluous
portions of the white enamel A common darning-needle,
fixed in a wooden handle, forms a useful tool in this very
minute and delicate species of carving. The careful mani-
pulation necessary in this work can only be acquired by
experience ; the general shape must first be wrought, care
being taken to leave every projection rather in excess, to be
gradually reduced as the details and finish of the work are
approached. To render the high parts more distinct
during the process of carving they are slightly marked in
black.

Throughout the cutting, great caution must be observed
that in removing the white thickness the dark ground is
not damaged, for the natural surface of the dark layer is
far superior to any that can be given artificially ; indeed,
should the ground be broken up at one part, it would be
requisite to remove the entire scale or lamina from the

276 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

whole surface — a process very tedious, and much more
difficult than separating the white from the black. In
order that the finished cameo may possess a distinct out-
line at all points of view, it is desirable to adopt the system
followed in antique cameos ; namely, to leave all the edges
of the figure quite square from the ground, and not
gradually rounded down to the dark surface. Should
this latter method be followed, it will be found that the
outline is in many places undefined, owing to the colour of
the white raised figure of the cameo gradually emerging
into that of the dark ground ; this evil is entirely avoided
by leaving the edge of the figure quite square for the thick-
ness of one-fiftieth of an inch.

The surface of the cameo should be finished as nearly
as possible with the cutting tools, as all polishing with
abrasive powders is liable to remove the sharp edges of the
figures and deteriorate the cameo by leaving the form
undefined. When, however, the work has been finished as
smooth as possible with cutting tools, the final polish may
be given by a little putty-powder used dry, upon a mode-
rately stiff brush, applied with care, and rather to the dark
ground than to the carved surface ; this is the concluding
process, after which the cameo is ready for removing from
the block prior to mounting.

The various styles in which they are mounted depends
a great deal upon the country where they are to be worn.

At the various international exhibitions which have
been held, some very fine examples of Roman shell-cameo
cutting have been shown. At the Dublin Exhibition in
1865, Giuseppe Saulicini, of Naples, exhibited excellent
samples of artistic workmanship, priced at from £2 to £/^
each, representing, among others. Night and Day, the
Virgin and Child, after Carlo Dolce ; Flora, from the

htdiistrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells. 277

antique ; Bacchanals, from a fresco found at Pompeii ;
Peace, Medusa, Aurora, Ceres, and other subjects. Giuseppe
Tari showed cameos with the figures of St. Paul, St. Peter,
Michael Angelo, and Galileo. Luigi Saulini, of Rome, also
showed 18 fine shell cameos. At the Naples Maritime
International Exhibition, Domenico Pascoli, of Rome,
received a first-class silver medal for work on shell cameos.
At the Paris Exhibition of 1878, Francati and Sante Maria,
of Rome, showed some fine cameos carved on various shells,
and parures and ornaments made from the pink-mouthed
conch {Strombiis gigas). A fraud is frequently practised by
cutting away the engraved part of old shell cameos, and
attaching this to a base of agate, by which an appearance
of onyx is obtained.

Solid round beads are turned from the cameo shells
and threaded" for bracelets. Bracelets and sleeve-links are
also made of the polished pearly Trochns or Venetian shells
of commerce.

The shells of the cowry family next claim our attention,
— a most extensive genus, distinguished, if not for their
elegance of form, yet for beauty and variety of tints and
richness of polish. This polish is preserved by the animal,
while alive, enveloping the shell in the mantle or mem-
branous fold. They are in general smooth, glossy shells, of
great brilliancy of colour, and elegantly marked with dots,
zigzag lines, undulations, stripes, and so forth. They are
all, excepting the small British cowry, natives of the seas
of warm climates. Many of them are very highly prized
by collectors, and several are turned to use for ornamental
purposes.

The species of cowries principally used for bracelets,
sleeve-links, or brooches and small charms, are Cyprcea
undata, C. Jelina, C. asilliis, C. ziczac, C. cribarea, and C.

278 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

reticulata. Cameos are sometimes traced on the back of the
blue-back cowry {CyprcBa mo^/eta), a.nd when linked together
make very neat bracelets. Cowries are sometimes used for
making an enamel for clock-faces and a glaze for plates.

Cowries are largely dealt in for exchange purposes, and
are shipped in quantities to West Africa. They are chosen
for their bright enamel, small, even size, and not being
mixed with spurious shells. Maldive cowries fetch from
12s. to 35^-. the cwt. ; Dacca and Cuttack cowries, 6s. to
22s. 6d. the cwt. ; but common blue and dead shells, that is,
those with no gloss or enamel, are only worth 35-. 6d. to 1 5^-.
the cwt.

Cowries form no inconsiderable item in trade, two of
the smaller white species being collected for use as a circu-
lating medium, the true money cowry {Cyprea monetci) and
the false or ring cowry {C. aimuld) passing current in
many parts of Africa as mediums of exchange. One
Hamburg house sends annually 14 vessels to Zanzibar for
cargoes of cowries, with which they proceed to the rivers
on the west coast of Africa, and purchase cargoes of palm
oil or other produce. The following shows the imports of
cowries into the port of Lagos alone, and a duty is levied
on them of one shilling per cwt. : —

Cwts.

1868 ... ... ... ... 65,496

1869 ... ... ... ... 56,040

1870 50.340

Their relative currency value varies in different localities.
In British India about 4000 pass for a shilling, and the
erection of a church, which cost ^^^4000, is said to have been
paid for entirely with cowries. The ordinary gradation or
value on the West coast of Africa is as follows ; —

40 cowries = I string.
24 strings = \d.
100 cowries — \d.

Industrial and ManufacHiring Uses of Shells. 279

50 strings = I head of cowries.

10 heads = 1 bag.

2000 cowries = I head.

3 heads = i dollar.

20,000 cowries = i bag.

In other places they are valued at about is. 2,d. the looo.
Sometimes 60,000 to 100,000 (or from £2, i^s. to £"/ los.)
are given for a young wife, whilst a more common or
ordinary wife may be had for 20,000 cowries, or 25^-. In
Sudan, much as the people trade, they have no other
currency than the cowry, of which 2000 shells, weighing
from five to seven pounds, are worth only one dollar. Since
the recent expansion of traffic in that country, the cowry
currency is already becoming an almost intolerable burden,
which operates as a powerful check to the prosperity of the
people. Although completely depreciated in the territory
of the Upper- Nile, cowries still form among the Mittoo
tribes, between 5° and 6° N, lat, a favourite ornament.

One of the most common and at the same time one of
the most beautiful species, the tiger cowry, is frequently
cut for snuff-boxes, made into ink-holders and ring-stands,
salt-cellars, etc., and has frequently the Lord's Prayer or
sentences engraved on it. They are often mounted as
punch-ladles and spoon-bowls, made into whistles and
other fancy articles, and shaped into grotesque imitations
of animals.

The skin jacket worn by some of the Bornean tribes in
war is ornamented with small shells placed over one
another, like scales or links in a coat of armour. The
Dyaks stick small white money cowries in the eye-sockets
of the skulls of their enemies, which they keep ; they look
like a closed eye. In India these shells are much used
to ornament the trappings of horses and elephants, and
many of these cowry bands may be seen in the India

28o The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Museum. Cowry shells are also strung like beads, or
sewed like buttons on their dress by Brinjari women as
personal ornaments, and are in circulation as money in
the Hyderabad State, and in other parts of the country.

The valuable cargoes of sandal-wood obtained in some
of the Pacific Islands for the China market are, in the first
instance, purchased from the New Hebrides by means of a
shell — the Ovidtmi angiuosiim, a white porcelanous variety
of cowry with a violet-coloured lip — which is found in the
Friendly Islands, but never in the sandal-wood region.
This shell is so highly esteemed as an ornament by the
natives of the New Hebrides, that for one shell they will
give in exchange a ton of sandal-wood. The trading
captains go expressly to the Tongan Archipelago for the
shells, where they sell at a Spanish dollar each.

As objects of decoration, certain shells have always
been in great demand among savage and semi-civilized
peoples.

A substance pleasing to the eye, and easily worked,
such as is offered by nature in the shells of marine and
fresh-water molluscs, could not fail to attract the attention
of men in the earliest times. The love of personal adorn-
ment, moreover, already manifests itself in the lowest stages
of human development, and shells being, above other
natural productions, particularly fitted to be made into
ornaments, it is not surprising that they were employed
for that purpose in all parts of the world. The North
American tribes made an extensive use of the shells of the
seacoast as well as those of their rivers, and fossil marine
shells were also employed as ornaments. The valves of
recent marine molluscs, indeed, must have been widely
circulated by barter, considering that they are found, in
the shape of ornaments, and sometimes of utensils, in the

Industrial and Ma7mfacturing' Uses of Shells. 281

interior of North America, at great distance from the
shores of the sea.

Many tribes of North American Indians used to wear
necklaces of shell beads, which served as money. They
were called wampums. Those on the Atlantic side were
made pf the clam shell ( Vejiiis mercenarid). Those made
from the internal purple part of the shell of Merceiiaria
violacea, Schum, Venus merccnario; Lin. and Lam., were
most esteemed, constituting the seawan or wainpum, the
specie currency of the natives. Six of the former (blue) and
three of the white were equivalent to an English penny.
The Dentalium, or tooth-shell, was another monetary tender
of the natives of the north-west coast of America, known
under the name of sarqiio. It is a milk-white, round shell,
of extreme hardness, resembling the shank of a common
clay pipe. It varies in length from one to four inches, and
is about half an inch thick, hollow, slightly curved, and
tapering a little towards the ends. They were valued in
proportion to the number that, when ranged on a string
passed through their hollow tubes, extended a fathom in
length. Forty to the fathom was supposed to be the fixed
standard of excellence and worth. Thus, their currency
value was, in the fur regions —

Beaver skin.

40 shells, extending i fathom ... ... i

39 M M M ... ... 2

3S J> M I, ... ... 3

These shells abound in certain places of the Pacific
coast ; being open at both ends, they can be strung
without further preparation. They have been found in
the interior of the country, far from the Pacific coast, as
personal ornaments of existing tribes, and even in the
ancient mounds of Ohio. The latter fact, indeed, is of
great interest in its bearing on the extent pf forme?
13

282 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

aboriginal trade-religions, the distance from the Pacific
to the State of Ohio being almost equal to the whole
breadth of the North American continent. The Dentaliicm
is also found in the West Indies. If it should likewise
occur on the southern coasts of the United States, there is
at least a possibility that the specimens found in Ohio may
have been obtained from the last-named region.

The term " wampum " is often applied to shell beads
in general, but should be confined to a certain class of
cylindrical beads, usually one-fourth of an inch long and
drilled lengthwise, which were chiefly manufactured from
the shells of the common hard-shell clam ( Venus mercenaria,
Lin.). This bivalve occurring, as every one knows, in great
abundance on the North American coasts, formed an im-
portant article of food of the Indians living near the sea,
a fact demonstrated by the enormous quantity of cast-away
clam shells, which form a considerable part of North
American kjoekkenmoeddings. The natives used to string
the molluscs and to dry them for consumption during
winter. The blue or violet portions of the clam shells
furnished the material for the dark wampum, which was
held in much higher estimation than that made of the white
part of the shells, or of the spines of certain univalves.
Even at the present time places are pointed out on the
Atlantic sea-board — for example, on that of Long Island —
where the Indians manufactured wampum, and such locali-
ties may be recognized by the accumulations of clam shells
from which the blue portions are broken off. Wampum
beads formed a favourite material for the manufacture of
necklaces, bracelets, and other articles of ornament, and
they constituted the strings and belts of wampum, which
played such a conspicuous part in Indian history. Loskiel
makes the following statement in reference to wampum : —

Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells. 283

" They made some of shells, which they highly esteemed,
but they manufactured them very rarely, because this
labour required much time for want of the proper tools ;
and the beads, moreover, were of a rude and clumsy
appearance. Soon after their arrival in America, the Euro-
peans began to manufacture wampum from shells, very
neatly and in abundance, exchanging it to the Indians for
other commodities, thus carrying on a very profitable trade.
The Indians now abandoned their wooden belts and strings,
and substituted those of shell. The latter, of course, gradu-
ally declined in value, but, nevertheless, were and still are
much prized."

The great value attached to wampum as an ornament
is well illustrated by the following passage from the work
of Roger Williams, who emigrated to North America in
163 1 : — "They hang these strings of money about their
necks and wrists, as also upon the necks and wrists of
their wives and children. Mdchequoce, a girdle ; which they
make curiously, of one, two, three, four, and five inches
thickness and more, of this money, which (sometimes to the
value of ^10 and more) they wear about their middle
and as a scarfe about their shoulders and breasts. Yea,
the princes make rich caps and aprons (or small breeches)
of these beads thus curiously strung into many formes and
figures ; their blacke and white finely mixt together." The
wampum belts, so often mentioned in connection with the
history of the eastern tribes, consisted of broad straps of
leather, upon which white and blue wampum beads were
sewed in rows, being so arranged that by the contrast of
the light and dark colours certain figures were produced.
The Indians, it is well known, exchanged these belts at the
conclusion of peace, and on other solemn occasions, in
order to ratify the transaction and to perpetuate the remem-

284 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

brance of the event. When sharp admonitions or threaten-
ing demonstrations were deemed necessary, the wampum
belts likewise played a part, and they were even sent as
challenges of war. In these various cases the arrangement
of the colours and figures of the belts corresponded to the
object in view : on peaceable occasions the white colour
predominated ; if the complications were of a serious
character, the dark prevailed ; and in the case of a declara-
tion of war, it is stated the belt was entirely of a sombre
hue, and, moreover, covered with red paint, while there
appeared in the middle the figure of a hatchet executed
in white.

Large quantities of shell ornaments, mostly destined to
be strung together or to be worn as pendants, have been
found in the sepulchral mounds and other burial-places of
the Indian race. In Ohio, according to Messrs. Squier and
Davis, beads made of shell and other materials occur even
more frequently in the sacrificial mounds than in those of a
sepulchral character, a circumstance that may be accounted
for by the value attached to those objects by their owners,
who deemed them worthy of being offered in their sacrifi-
cial rites. The methods employed by the manufacturers
doubtless being of the most primitive character, each shell
bead was the result of a certain amount of patient labour,
and consequently was esteemed according to the time and
art bestowed on its production.

The Indian shell ornament in its simplest form con-
sisted of entire specimens of small marine univalves, such
as Marghiella, Natica, and Oliva, which, after being con-
veniently pierced, could be strung together at once without
further preparation, and worn as necklaces, etc. The above-
mentioned kinds were met by Squier and Davis in the
mounds of Ohio, and in opening the Grave Creek mound

Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells. 285

500 specimens of Marginclla were obtained near one of the
skeletons. Yet the number of entire sea-shells employed
as beads by the natives appears insignificant, when com-
pared with the enormous quantity of objects of the same
class which they manufactured from fragments of the
valves of marine and fluviatile shells. These wrought
beads exhibit various forms and sizes, but are mostly found
in the shape of more or less regular sections of cylinders,
pierced through the centre.

They are often proportionately thick, but sometimes
rather thin, resembling the small bone buttons of com-
merce. Most of them are small, not exceeding six or seven
millimetres in diameter ; the largest species, however, have
a diameter of no less than 28 millimetres.

The largest, and therefore the most esteemed, beads and
pendants were made by the Indians from the columdlce, or,
as Cabe^a de Vaca expressed it, from the "hearts," of large
conchs, among which the Strouihns gigas seems to have
been most frequently used. These beads are more or less
cylindrical or globular, and always drilled lengthwise.
Some are tapering at both ends, resembling a cigar in
shape, and were two and a half inches in length. The
aborigines also made from the cobunellcB of large marine
univalves peculiar pin-shaped articles, consisting of a more
or less massive stem, which terminates in a round knob.

Calcined shells furnish the purest lime, and it is the
kind which, under the name of " chunam," is so largely
used in the East as an ingredient with the areca-nut and
betel-leaf masticatory.

For the purpose of the agriculturist, shell-sand and
shell-marl, when obtainable, are highly valuable as ferti-
lizers ; and crushed shells are used for covering the path-
ways in our parks and the walks in our gardens, for
making fine pottery, and other purposes.

286 The Cojnmercial Products of the Sea.

Lastly, the uses of shells as studies of design, form, and
colour to the sculptor, painter, architect, and art manu-
facturer, may be seen in various parts of the South Ken-
sington Museum.

Lamarck long ago recommended to the attentive study
of the architect the extreme diversity of the protuberant
parts on the surface of shells, as well as the regularity and
elegance of their distribution. There is no possible form of
which nature does not offer examples. Architecture would
find in many of the species of the genus CeritJiuim, even
to those of Pleurotoinis and spirals, a choice of models for
the adornment of columns, and these models would be
found very worthy of being employed.

Shells were the favourite objects of ornamentation of
the older wood-carvers, as evidenced in the fireplaces of
many ancient mansions. The famous garoon pattern, so
much used formerly by silversmiths, is said to be derived
from the edge of the trumpet shell {Triton femorale), which
is called the garoon shell.

There are many other industrial uses of shells, but those
enumerated may be considered the principal ones.

Mother-of-pearl, and other nacreous shells, will be
noticed in a separate chapter.

The aggregate value of the imports of foreign shells, in
the last few years, may be taken at ^^"250,000. It is some-
what difficult to arrive at any correct estimate on this
subject, because shells are scarcely particularized in the
Board of Trade returns. Classified under the head of raw
materials which come in " duty f7ee " for the use of manu-
facturers, the officials are very indifferent as to the nature
of the imports ; and thus we have no account of the rough
cameo shells, the snail and ear shells, the ATurices, and
others which are received in large quantities. When shells

Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells. 287

were subject to an import duty, varying from 5 to 20 per
cent., it was necessary that the entries should be more
specifically detailed.

Large quantities of shells, which are used for different
manufacturing purposes, come in under the broad, general
heading of " specimens of natural history." The only
specific mention of shells in the Parliamentary trade returns
are mother-of-pearl, cowries, and cameos unset, besides
pearls, — the well-known and valued product of the pearl
oyster.

The imports and value, as far as officially stated, in
1870 were : —

Mother-of-pearl, 26, 197 cwts. ... ... ^76,489

Cowries, 61 18 cwts. .. ... ... 6,347

Cameos, not set ... ... ... 3,445

Miscellaneous shells for collectors, dealers,

and manufacturers, about ... ... 14,000

Pearls ... ... ... ... 16,675

;^l 16,956

These figures were much below the average.

The use of shells is not restricted to this country. They
are employed for manufacturing purposes in China and
India, in France, Italy, Germany, and other parts of the
continent of Europe, and also in North America ; so that
the subject we have been considering takes larger propor-
tions than at first sight would appear.

288 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

CHAPTER XI.

INDUSTRIAL AND MANUFACTURING USES OF SHELLS —

Continued.

Shell bangles or bracelets, made from the chank or Turbinella species — Re-
ligious veneration for the shell — Process of manufacture — The bangles
described — Great clam shells used as benitiers— The queen conch, large im-
portations of — Uses of nacreous and iridescent shells — Utilization of shells
for economic purposes — Shell utensils — Shell flowers — Shell trumpets —
Shell pipes — Pulverized and calcined shells— Ornamental uses of opercula
— Dyes from the mollusca — Tyrian purple — Marine silk.

Shell Bangles or Bracelets, — Under the commercial name
of chanks, the large white, concave, heavy, porcelaneous

Fig. 19.

Chank shell ( Tttrbtnella fyriim).

shells of tne Turbinella pyrmn, Lam., the Voluta gravis,
Lin., and T. rapa, are much prized in India. The shell is
ventricose above, pear-shaped, fulvous white, with reddish
spots in young individuals.

Industrial and Manufaciuring Uses of Shells. 289

The shankh or chank is the sacred shell of the Hindus,
and the national emblem of the kingdom of Travancore.
The god Vishnu is represented as carrying a chank shell in
one hand, and a chakra in the other.

The Hindus believe that unless they worshipped this
shell at the commencement of every worship or prayer,
their offerings would not be accepted. Vishnu, the Pro-
tector, is supposed to hold a chank in his hand. It is
called Devadatta. Shankar, the Destroyer, according to
mythology, possesses a like shell. The first incarnation of
Vishnu, called Machhavatar (which literally means trans-
formation into fish), was undertaken for destroying Shan-
khasura (the giant chank shell), in order to regain the
Vedas, he having stolen them and taken refuge under the
ocean.

The fishery for these shells is principally carried on in
the Gulf of Manaar, in the vicinity of Ceylon, and on the
coast of Coromandel, at Travancore, Tuticorin, and other
places, the shells being brought up by divers in about two
or three fathoms of water. Those taken with the animal in,
and called green chanks, from having the epidermis on, are
most in demand. The white chanks, or dead shells thrown
upon the beach by strong tides, having lost their enamel,
are scarcely worth the cost of freight to Calcutta. The
number obtained varies considerably in different years,
according to the weather and the success attending the
divers. Frequently 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 of these shells
are shipped in a year from the Gulf of Manaar. In some
years the value of the rough shells, as imported into Madras
and Calcutta, reaches a value of ;^ 10,000 to ;^i 5,000. A
few hundreds are occasionally imported into Calcutta from
the Arabian and Persian Gulfs. The chank fishery of
Ceylon at one time employed 6o(i divers, and yielded a

290 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

revenue to the island government of ^^4000 per annum for
licenses. The fishery is now free.

These shells are often used as oil vessels or lamps in
Indian temples, for which purpose they are carved and
sculptured or otherwise ornamented. When the volute
turns to the right, the shell is held in peculiar estimation
— a right-handed chank being so highly prized for its
rarity as sometimes to sell in Calcutta for its weight in
gold, or at from ^40 to ^50. In Ceylon also, the reversed

Fig. 20.

Saw used by natives for cutting segments of the shell.

variety is held sacred by the priests, who administer medi-
cine by it. This shell, from its weight and smoothness,
is used in Dacca for calendering or glazing cotton, and in
Nepal for giving a polished surface to paper.

The principal demand for these shells is for making
bangles or armlets and anklets, and the manufacture is still
almost confined to Dacca. The shell is cut or sliced into
segments of circles, or narrow rings of various sizes, by a
rude semicircular saw, the hands and toes being both
actively employed in the operation.

Industrial and Mamifacturing Uses of Shells. 291

The introduction of circular saws has been attempted
by some European gentlemen, but sturdily resisted by the
natives despite their obvious advantages. Some of these
bangles, worn by the Hindoo women, are beautifully
painted, gilded, and ornamented with gems. The shell
rings are coated inside with plaster to smooth the rough-
ness.

Filagree-bordered edges of plaster are also added ;
patterns and devices of red, blue, and gold are figured on
them, and they are further ornamented with silver or gold
tinsel, spangles, small coloured glass beads, etc. The larger
bracelets formed of many segments, are made to open to

I-k;. 21.

Segment of shell, d bangle or ornamented bracelet of united segments.

admit the hand, by two spiral pins, which unscrew and let
out the piece. These bangles are not removed at death,
and hence there is a continual demand for them, many
wearing several, both on the legs and arms.

These sankka* or shell bracelets, are extensively made
for the women of the hills round Sylhet at Dacca, which has
long been celebrated for the manufacture of such bracelets.
Four of these shell rings are worn on each wrist. The
shak/uis, or shell workers at Dacca, distinguish the several

* The native word ig variously written — Sungoo or Sankka, Tamil ; Shentoo
or Sinkham, Telugu.

292 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

shells and their various qualities by the names Titkuri,
Pati, Lalpati, Alabela, Dhala, Kulai, and Shurti ; the Titkuri
being the best in quality of grain, lustre, and suitability for
fine cutting and delicate finish.

There is considerable variety in the patterns of these
sankka bracelets, from the rude broad, flat ring to the thin,
delicate armlet, rounded, or with notched or beaded edges,
carved with tigers' heads, enriched with ornamental incising,
and illuminated by touches of tinsel, lac-colour, gildings, etc.

A large series of these bangles was sent to the India
collection of the London International Exhibition of 1872,
accompanied by specimens of the shells both before and
during the process of manufacture, together with the tools
used, and photographs showing the men at work. These
are now arranged in the India Museum, South Kensington.

The chank fishery was at one time a Government
monopoly in India, like the pearl fishery, and produced in
the early part of the century a revenue of about £'JQQ)0\
but as the divers from the coast could easily collect the
shells, and as they were also procured by digging for them
in the sand in the Jaffna district of Ceylon, the restriction
was removed.

A heavy porcelaneous shell, one of the largest known, the
Tridacna gigas of conchologists, is much used for benitiers,
or receptacles for holy water, in Roman Catholic churches,
and for fountain-basins in gardens. It is the largest and
heaviest shell known, for the pair of valves have been
found in some instances to weigh 500 lbs. In its full size
it has a byssus like a cable, by which it anchors itself; and
this has to be separated with an axe. The valves, when
smaller, are sometimes mounted as salt-cellars, candlestick-
holders, and pin-cushions. Cameos have also been carved
on them, but their dead white hue wants the relief of

Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells. 293

colour. The hill Dyaks of Borneo wear broad armlets
made of this shell, which, when polished by length of use,
resemble ivory, but never acquire its yellow tinge. Two of
these valued shell-bracelets on each arm are the favourite
number with the women.

In the " Voyage of the Rattlesnake " we are told the
natives of Coral Haven wear bracelets of solid shell
formed by grinding down the Trochus Niloticus, so as to
obtain a well-polished transverse section, and another in
two or three pieces tied together, making a round smooth
ring ; of the former of these five or six are sometimes worn
on one arm.

The Queen Conch. — The S trombus gigas, or fountain-shell
of the West Indies, fills up the earlier whorls with solid
matter, and sometimes weighs five pounds. It is a favourite
ornament in milk-shops in consequence of the delicate
pink colour of the mouth. It is also ground to powder
wholesale for the manufacture of the finer kinds of porce-
lain, 300,000 having been imported into Liverpool in one
year from the Bahama Islands, and used chiefly for this
purpose. One vessel, the Crusader, brought home 5000
of these shells from Nassau, New Providence, in the close
of 1875.

The nacreous and iridescent shells used for inlaying
and ornamental purposes will be spoken of in the section
on mother-of-pearl, but these may claim a few words
here. The " green snail " of the dealers, the Turbo
olearius, is very largely used for ornamental purposes.
Slices of this shell, ground down to a thin surface, are
.employed for covering or inlaying various articles, such as
'small stamp-cases, little tablet-covers, fancy boxes, baskets
with metallic handles ; buttons, earrings, and other articles
are made of it, and very pretty ornamental stands, which

294 '^^^^ Commercial Products of the Sea.

open with a spring, enclosing scent-bottles or cigar-holders,
and such like. Fashion has brought into use, of late years,
handsome sections obtained from this shell, which have
been largely used for ornamenting ladies' hats, for buckles
for shoes, sashes, and waist-belts. The light-greenish
iridescent play of colour of this shell is more ornamental
than that of the true mother-of-pearl. Fine large shells of
this species formed the drinking goblets of the Scandina-
vian monarchs, and are often still met with, very elegantly
mounted and set with jewels.

Another shell of this genus, the Turk's cap {Turbo
sarmaticus), from the west coast of Africa, is used for
making small articles, such as caskets, scent-bottles,
brooches, etc.

The ear shells of different species, principally the green
kind, Haliotis iris, the common British, Haliotis tiiberadata,
and some Japan and Californian species, are much used,
from their brilliant play of colour, ground down for inlay-
ing papier-mache work, as well as for making buttons,
studs, links, buckles, and earrings. Among other handsome
species of ear shell, which are polished for mere ornament
or trade use, are H, nifcscens, H. splendcns, and H.
cracherodii.

Sections of white cones, sufficiently large to go on the
arm as a bracelet, are so much in request in the Pacific
Islands, that dealers in Europe obtain high prices for them.
Very often rare fluviatile and terrestrial shells are obtained
from native necklaces. One of these necklaces was stolen
from an aboriginal dressed figure at the Crystal Palace, the
shells being worth to collectors several pounds.

In full dress many of the Pacific Islanders are decked
out with large white Oviduin shells, appended to the waist,
elbows, and ankles. Necklaces of Natica shells are also

Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells. 295

common in the South Sea Islands. Those made from the
Elenchiis ij-isodonta shell were always held in high estima-
tion among the aboriginal women of Van Diemen's Land,
worn as ornaments round the neck and head. Necklaces of
these are equally esteemed now by English ladies for their
beauty and rarity.

The bright nacreous play of iridescent colours, which
doubtless first recommended them to notice, were brought
out by partial decomposition and removal of the cuticle
from long exposure, after being cast on the shore in a dead
state. The natives effected the same end artificially and
systematically, by placing them in a thick, dense smoke
from green vegetable matter. Instead of "employing pyro-
ligneous acid thus accidentally obtained, they afterwards
came to use vinegar and friction to remove the epidermis,
and then rubbed them with various fatty substances until a
brilliant polish was acquired. They also boiled the shells
with tea and other astringent substances, to deepen the
blue-and-green tints characteristic of the shells. They
made small holes in the shells, by placing them between
their eye-teeth and giving them a nip, and then strung
them upon kangaroo sinews. But the last of the aboriginal
Tasmanians has passed away, and no more shell necklets
thus prepared can be obtained of them.

In New Britain, San Christoval, and other islands east-
ward of New Guinea, the fierce inhabitants adorn them-
selves with necklaces of two very beautiful kinds of land
shells, both being white, the one having a golden yellow,
and the other a vermilion lip. Throughout the islands
inhabited by the crisp-haired Papuan race, a large species
of Oviilnm of a very pure white colour, resembling porce-
lain, is employed with great effect by the natives in deco-
rating their houses, temples, and canoes. One of the most

296 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

striking and really elegant ornaments manufactured out of
shells by a half-civilized race, is a fillet formed of the nuclei
or inner whorl of the pearly nautilus, and worn on the head
by the Navigator's Islanders when going to war (4, Fig. 22),
Each nucleus is about an inch in diameter, the external
coat being removed, so as to exhibit an appearance of the
most highly burnished silver. The shells are fastened on a
mid-rib of cocoa-nut leaf, supported and tied round the

Fig. 22.

I, Money cowry ; 2. Ovuluni angulostim (sandal-wood shell) ; 3. Denta-
lium (money of West Coast Indians) ; 4. Fillet of nautilus shells (from
Samoa).

head by a cord of sinnet. The pearly nautili are not found
at the Navigator's Islands, but are carried thither by
European traders from New Caledonia and Fiji, where
they are sold to the natives at the rate of about \s. each.
Occasionally many tons of these shells are brought into the
Sydney market for reshipment to Samoa. The species
chiefly employed in this trade is the Nautilus macrocephalus.

Indusirial and Mantcfacturing Uses of Shells. 297

Utilization of Shells for Economic and Decorative Pur-
poses.— The next subdivision — the use of shells for spoons,
drinking-vessels, lamps, handles for knives, and other pur-
poses of domestic economy or ordinary utility — takes in a
very wide range.

The valves of the Anodonta esctda are used as skimmers
in Brazil, and the shells of the Ainpullaria serve to dip up
the caoutchouc gum. The Africans on the west coast
make much use of the large shells of the Achat ina snail,
shaped into spoons.

Shells are still much used for scoops, spoons, etc. In
many countries the great melon-shell and others are employ-
ed to bale out boats ; to hold oil and a wick, suspended as
lamps ; to skim milk ; and, from some unexplained custom,
shells seem a necessary ornament or appendage in the
window of the milk-shop or dairy in the metropolis.

The less-civilized inhabitant of coasts frequently forms
his knife, his hunting-spear, and his fish-hook of hard
shell. In the latter instance it serves the secondary pur-
pose of a glittering bait. The Chinese grind shells to
powder, and use this powder in the way we do flock on
paper-hangings.

A small white bivalve shell (called Ircgo by the natives
of Western Australia) is used for sharpening their spears
when they cannot procure glass.

The Friendly Islander wears the scarce orange cowry
as a mark of chieftainship. The New Zealander polishes
the Elcnchus into an ear ornament more brilliant than the
" pearl ear-drop " of classical or modern times, and, with
the rainbow-lined, pearly interior of the Haliotis iris, orna-
ments the eyes of his grotesque images, and inlays the rich
carving of his war canoes ; and he also manufactures
gleaming fish-hooks of the same material. In the Solomon

298 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Islands the same style of ornamentation prevails ; but there
they use the pearly coating of the chambered nautilus, and
the nacre of the pearl oyster. Even the wandering savage
of the north-east coast of Australia delights in beautifying
himself with a spoon-shaped ornament filed from the
pearly nautilus. One of the most beautiful substances in
nature is the shell-opal, formed of the remains of the
ammonite.

In Caldera, Chili, a kind of scallop shell, very finely
marked with a delicate pink, is frequently used by the
refined portion of the population, as a little dish to hold
soap on the toilet-table.

Scallop shells {Pecten) were formerly worn by pilgrims,
on their hat or the cape of their coat, as a mark of their
having crossed the sea for the purpose of paying their
devotions at the holy shrine in Palestine ; in commemora-
tion of which they are still preserved in the armorial
bearings of many families of distinction, whose ancestors
had performed that ceremony. From its use by cooks
now, this shell has given the name to " scalloped " oysters.
In early times, when plates and drinking-vessels were not
so plentiful as they are now, the concave or hollow valve ot
the scallop served as a cup, and the flat valve for a plate.
The idea has even been carried out by our pottery manu-
facturers, and plates and dishes have been moulded after
the forms of bivalve shells. Reticules, needle-books, pin-
cushions, and other articles are made by shell dealers with
the scallop shell.

The Mytiliis, or mussel shell, has a few applications.
When polished, they are made into pretty needle-books
and scent-bottle holders, earrings, crosses, pins, and pin-
cushions. They are mounted on marble as paper weights,
and are used as a receptacle for gold and silver paint for

Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells. 299

artists. The Maories of New Zealand employ mussel
shells as tweezers to eradicate the hair from their face.

Some of the cockle shells are made into pretty little pin-
cushions, and the shell-flower makers use them to form the
hop and other imitations. Common cheap pin-cushions
are made with the whelk and many other shells.

Large quantities of small shells enter into trade use, for
making shell flowers and different articles of grouped
shells on boxes, etc. A great proportion of these are
British shells, collected freely on the beach in many parts
of our coasts, and most are sold by dealers under the name
of " grotto shells."

The shells chiefly used for imitation flowers in forming
tulips, moss-roses, passion-flowers, anemones, hops, etc., are
parts of the valves of barnacles {Lepas anatiferd), Dentalimn,
Oliva oryza, Maj'ginella, Strigella pisiformis, Pholas dactylics
and P.papyracea, Tellinas, Cardium, and others. It requires
only taste in the selection and adaptation of suitable shells
or parts of shells to form the petals of the flowers, and
colour is applied to the shell where necessary.

Mr. Mayhew, in his " London Labour and the London
Poor," tells us that there are about 1,000,000 of the com-
moner sorts of shells bought by the London street-sellers,
at 3^'. the gross. They are retailed at \d. apiece, or \.2s.
the gross, when sold separately ; a large proportion, as is
the case with many articles of taste or curiosity rather than
of usefulness, being sold by the London hawker on country
rounds. Some of these rounds stretch halfway to Bristol,
or to Liverpool.

Many shells are used for trumpets. Large species of
the genus Biiccimim are employed by Italian herdsmen in
directing the movements of their cattle, and a variety of
sonorous sounds may thus be readily produced. They are

300 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

also often used in North Wales by the farmers to call their
labourers, and in Lithuania and Muscovy by the herdsmen
to assemble their cattle. In the West Indies the common
fountain-shell, a species of Slroinbus, is also used to call in
the negroes from the sugar-cane fields ; the interval of
"shell-blow," as it is termed, being the dinner-hour. In
the East Indies chank shells are used for the same purpose
by the Brahmin priests, and the great Triton {Trito7t
tritonis) is so employed by the Pacific Islanders, who make
a hole in the lip and then use it as a speaking-trumpet,
The mountain-priests of Japan, according to Kaempfer,
wear a kind of Bnccimim, a smooth and white shell with
beautiful red spots and lines. It hangs down from their
girdle and serves them as a trumpet, having for this pur-
pose a tube fastened to the end, through which they blow
upon the approach of travellers, to beg their charity. It
sounds not unlike a cowherd's horn. Miirex colossus is
another shell often used as a trumpet.

In the South Kensington Museum there is a powder-
flask formed of a Murex shell, mounted in silver inlaid with
acanthus ornament in niello work, probably of the seven-
teenth or eighteenth century, and in the India Museum there
is a powder-flask made of a Turbo shell, mounted.

Of late among the curious uses to which the Turbo
and some other shells have been applied here is for pipe-
bowls. Uncivilized tribes have been before us even in this
utilization ; for Adams, in his " Voyage of the Samarangl'
tells us that among the Bashee group, and more particularly
on the island of Ibayat, the natives form very elegant and
commodious pipes from different species of shells, the
columella and septa of the convolutions being broken down,
and a short ebony stem inserted into a hole at the apex
of the spire. Pipes of this kind are formed from the Mitra

Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells. 301

papalis, and others out of Mitra episcopalis and species of
CeritJiiinn and Tercbra.

The beautiful shell of the Nautilus ponipilius is often
mounted on a stand, with designs engraved on it, and used
for holding flowers. The shell of the pearly nautilus is
made into a drinking cup by the inhabitants of the East.
The outer coating of the shell being first removed, so as to
render visible the pearly layer, various devices are often
engraved on it.

At the first London International Exhibition, a curious
specimen of patient toil was shown by a working man
of the name of Wood, in an engraved nautilus shell dedi-
cated to the memory of Nelson, the only instrument he
had employed being a small penknife. On the front was
represented the globe, with Britannia seated upon a lion, and
possessed of the usual emblems of sovereignty, surrounded
with a border composed of oak-leaves and acorns most
elaborately engraved. Upon each side were a number
of lines from Fitzgerald, commemorative of the victories
of Nelson, so small, however, that they almost required
the aid of a microscope to decipher them ; and on one side
of the shell was a representation of Peace, seated on the
prow of a vessel, pointing to the victories achieved by
the hero. On the other was represented St. George and the
Dragon. The head of the shell represented that of a
parrot. The designs were most artistic, and the execution
remarkably fine. The same ingenious artist had a short
time before presented to her Majesty a similar shell, on
which were designed, with the same rude graver, the royal
arms, the Prince of Wales's feathers, the Great Britain and
the Great Western steam-ships, with a full description of
the same ; also several verses from Pope, amounting alto-
gether to about 1500 words, which were tastefully en-

302 The Commercial Products of the Sea,

graved in German text, old English, Roman, and italic
characters. On the occasion of presenting the shell, a sum
of money was put into the hands of the artist ; and a few
days after, the poor man was astonished by the receipt of
a large packing-case, which, upon opening, he found to
contain a proof impression of Sir G. Hayter's " Coronation "
picture, framed and tastefully ornamented with the rose,
shamrock, and thistle in burnished and dead gold.

The Chinese are very fond of having patterns carved
on the nautilus shell, while the body of the shell is uncoated
to show the nacre.

The shell of an Anodonta is used for the bridge of
musical instruments by the Mittoo tribe in Africa, and
round fragments of shell are used by them for gambling
purposes. In Japan the ladies play a game with the valves
of shells with painted designs on them.

Miscellaneous Products of the Mollusca. — In China the
shells of a great number of molluscs, inhabitants of the
sea, river, or land, are pulverized and washed with great
care to prepare an absorbent powder, employed in erup-
tions and for toilet use. The valves of some Unios, of
Area granosa, and oyster shells are also calcined and pul-
verized to prepare medicines prescribed in fevers, apoplexy,
and haemorrhages.

Opercula. — Many species of gasteropods develop an
operculum or lid on a particular lobe of the foot. It may
be composed either of layers of horn or of dense shelly
substance, the principal office of which is to close the mouth
of the shell when the animal retires within it. The
operculum always exhibits more or less of a spiral deve-
lopment. In some cases the spirals are numerous and
nearly concentric ; in others, and these the most common,
the new matter is added principally on one side, and the

IndiLstrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells. 303

nucleus is then very eccentric. The spirals are invariably
sinistral in dextral shells. Horny operculum — Biiccinum
undatinn; calcareous — Trochus diwd Triton, Turbo sarmaticiis,
T. marnioratus, nodosiis, Cookii, and torquatiis. Some of these
coloured solid opercula have recently been polished and
set as ornaments of jewellery for necklets and pins, studs
and solitaires.

The opercula of the screw or stromb shell, and some
other species, were formerly officinal under the name of
Unguis odoratiis or Blatta byzantina. Small horny opercula,
called Sheitavi tcrnah, are still used medicinally on the coast
of Syria. The operculum of the whirl-wreath or Turbo
cochins and other species form the unibilicics veneris.

Dyes from Mollusca. — Formerly some valuable dyes
were obtained from molluscs, of which sepia and the ancient
Tyrian purple dye are examples ; but the abundance of
mineral, insect, and vegetable dyes now available renders
these valueless at present. Still a notice of them is worth
attention.

The colour known as sepia among artists is a liquor
contained in the ink-bag of Sepia officinalis. It is of a
powerful dusky-brown colour, and works admirably in
water, being used in making drawings in the manner
of bistre and Indian ink, but is not applicable with oil.
This warm and sober colour has not, up to the present,
been emplo3'ed in the photographic impressions called " the
carbon " process. Sepia is sold in little bladders, which
have to be freed from membranes. This is very easily done
by boiling it for a moment in chloric acid, which destroys
the envelope, and causes it to become detached by tritura-
tion with the hands in water. The bag or pocket, being
light, floats and is easily separated by filtering. The black
substance which remains is dried, after having been washed
in hot water.

304 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

When pulverized fine enough, this colour is used for
water-colour drawings ; but its hardness makes it necessary
to mix with it some foreign colour (sienna or the like), to
facilitate the operation of pulverizing.

By the following method this laborious crushing, which
is always imperfect, is avoided, and the colour obtained
very pure. One hundred and fifty grammes of potash or
caustic soda are put into a capsule ; it is then placed on the
fire, and when the potash is dissolved in the water, 100
grammes of the dry matter are added gently, but -keeping it
in motion until completely dissolved. It is then taken
from the fire, and after a few minutes a little water (the less
the better) is added, and so on until complete evaporation.
During this process an extremely strong ammoniacal odour
is given off, and the dry ink has become soluble in alkali,
but it is insoluble in water or in acid.

There is great dispute as to the precise source of the
celebrated Tyrian purple dye, so much used for the
garments worn by kings and emperors of old. Some
authors attribute it to the rock lichens or orchella weed
of commerce of the present day, but the general and most
probable opinion is that it was obtained from some species
of Miirex {M. brandaris and triinculus) and Purpjtra {P.
patida and P. pcrsica), the animals of which furnish a rich
colour. The small shells were bruised in mortars ; the
animals of the larger ones taken out.

In Britain there are several kinds of mollusca which
furnish a dye of this sort. Helix JantJana, which occurs in
the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and South Seas, affords a
similar fluid.

If the shell of Purpura lapillus is broken, there is seen
on the back of the animal, under the skin, a slender,
longitudinal, whitish vein, containing a yellowish liquor.

Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells. 305

When this juice is applied to linen, by means of a small
brush, and exposed to the sun, it becomes green, blue, and
purple, and at last settles into a fine unchangeable crimson.
Neither acids nor alkalies affect its colour, and it may be
conveniently employed in marking linen where an indelible
ink is desirable.

Linton, in his work " On Ancient and Modern Colours,"
states that the PiirpicrcB of the best description were chiefly
found on the rocks of Tyre, on the coast of Asia. They
were also collected at Mininge on the Graetulan shore in
Africa, and on the coast of Laconia in Europe. The
colours varied according to the locality in which they were
taken. Those from Pontus and Galatia in the north pro-
duced a black dye ; in the equinoctial regions a violet hue
predominated ; whilst in the south, as at Rhodes, the colour
was of a richer red. These purple shell-fish were called
Pelagia, and they were distinguished by the district, as well
as by the food which the locality supplied. Two hundred
Biiccina were added to ill Pelagia to make the purple
colour so much eulogized by Pliny, and one of the three
shades of purple recorded by the ancients. To make a
purple dye, they also mingled several varieties of shell-fish,
adding nitre, urine, water, salt, and fuci. But the dye from
the Biiccina required only pure water.

Experimental investigations in zoology showed that the
tint of the purple varied in accordance with the nature of
the haunt in which the shell-fish was found. Thus, when
it lived among seaweeds or mud, the juice it contained
was comparatively worthless ; when amongst pebbles, its
quality was much improved ; and it produced the richest
purple when the food and locality of the fish were of varied
materials. Researches carried still further proved that, to
produce the richeit and most eqstly dye which art could

14

3o6 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

exhibit, the liquid of which we have been speaking must be
used in conjunction with that which was procured from
shell-fish belonging to other species. Some of the Tyrian
garments had a beautiful play of colours, like the shot silks
of our own time ; and this play of colouring, it is said, was
first suggested to them by having observed a similar one
upon the neck of a pigeon. With the destruction of the
ancient city of Tyre, the beautiful art of dyeing this
peculiar colour was lost for centuries, until it was again
recovered by the scientific men of our country ; and the
discovery would probably have been of much value to
commerce, had not the use of it been rendered unnecessary
by another natural history discovery, viz., the cochineal
insect. This has been again to a great degree replaced by
the discoveries of chemistry in the coal-tar colours.

The Scalaria clathrus also furnishes a purple liquor of
considerable beauty, but it is destructible by acids, and
gradually vanishes by the action of light. The Planorhis
Cornells likewise yields a scarlet dye, but of still less
permanency than the Scalaria, as all attempts to fix it have
hitherto proved ineffectual.

In the reign of Augustus one pound of wool dyed with
Tyrian purple sold for about £'i,6 sterling. We need not
wonder at this enormous price when the tedious nature of
the process is considered, and the small quantity of dye
obtained from each mollusc. For 50 lbs. of wool the
ancients used no less than 200 lbs. of the liquor of the
Miirex, and 100 pounds of that of the Purpura, being six
pounds of liquor to one of wool ; consequently the rich
Tyrian purple fabrics vied in value even with gold.

Marine Silk. — Among the many novelties which industry
obtains from the sea, one of the most curious is the textile
product made with the byssus of the Pmnas of the Mediter-

Industrial and Mamifacturing Uses of Shells. 307

ranean — the fin-shells or sea-wings, as they are termed.
The species are the Pinna nobilis, etc.

The shells, which are in general very fragile, resemble
in form those of the larger species of mussels, being long

Fig. 23.

and tapering, narrow at the back, and gradually expanding
to a considerable breadth towards the opposite extremity.
There are some 20 or more species of the genus, which
produce in large quantities a very fine sort of silky byssus
or braid. It is called by the fishermen lana pinna, or fish-
wool. These bivalves are provided with a tuft of delicate
fibre, which cannot be better compared than to fine hair
or silk, or spun glass ; with this they attach themselves to
the rocks, living continually under water.

3o8 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

The ancients made this an article of commerce, greatly
sought after, and the robes formed of it, called " tarentine,"
were very much in esteem. It is said that the scarf of the
turban of Archytas was made of this fibre. In the year
1754 a pair of stockings, made of it, were presented to
Pope Benedict XV., which, from their extreme fineness,
were enclosed in a small box about the size of one for
holding snuff. A robe of this material is mentioned by
Procopius as the gift of a Roman emperor to the satrap of
Armenia.

Even in the present day the fibre is utilized, but more
for its rarity than anything else. The women comb the
Imta with very delicate cards, spin it, and make from it
articles which are much esteemed for the suppleness of the
fibre, and their brilliant, burning gold lustre.

A considerable manufactory is established at Palermo ;
the fabrics made are extremely elegant, and vie in appear-
ance with the finest silk. The best products of this
material are, however, said to be made in the Orphan
Hospital of St. Philomel, at Lucca.

At the London Exhibition of 1862, V, Dessi Magnetti,
of Cagliari, showed byssus of the Pintia, thread, cravat, and
gloves made of it, and Mariano Randaccini a shawl made
with it. At the Paris International Exhibition, in 1867,
Paul Montego, of Asti, Alessandria, also showed shawls
made of this byssus.

A considerable number of bivalves possess what is
called a byssus, that is, a bundle of more or less delicate
filaments, issuing from the base of the foot, and by means
of which the animal fixes itself to foreign bodies. It
employs the foot to guide the filaments to the proper
place and to glue them there, and it can reproduce them
when they have been cut away. Reaumur believed them

Industrial and ManufactiLrhig Uses of Shells. 309

to be spun from a secretion in the foot. Poli thinks them
to be merely prolongations of tendonous fibre.

The Pinna possesses a machine as incontestibly mecha-
nical as a wire-drawer's mill. It is provided with an ex-
ternal member like a finger, and this contains a glue, which
the animal exudes at pleasure by means of a variety of
minute perforations in the lip. This glue or gum, as in
the instance of the common spider or the silkworm, having
passed through these apertures, becomes threads of almost
imperceptible fineness ; and these, when combined, com-
pose the marine silk which is so much admired by the
Sicilians.

The animal first attaches the extremity of the thread,
by means of its adhesive quality, to some crag or pebble
of unusual size ; and when this is effected, the Pinna,
receding from that point, draws out the thread through
the perforation of the extensile member by a process which
Paley, in describing the similar operations of the terrestrial
silkworm, justly compares to the drawing of wire. One
difference alone exists : the wire is the metal unaltered,
except in figure ; whereas, in the forming of the thread, the
nature of the substange is somewhat changed, as well
as the form ; for, as it exists within the water, it is merely a
soft and clammy glue, the thread acquiring, most probably,
its firmness and tenacity from the action of the air upon
its surface at the moment of exposure.

This byssus forms an important article of commerce
among the Sicilians, for which purpose considerable num-
bers of Pin7ia are annually fished up in the Mediterranean
from the depth of 20 to 30 feet. An instrument called a
" cramp " is used for the purpose. It is a kind of iron fork,
with perpendicular prongs eight feet in length, each of them
about six inches apart, the length of the handle being in pro-

3IO The Com7nercial Products of the Sea. \

portion to the depth of the water ; for, notwithstanding the
extreme delicacy of the individual threads, they form such
a compact tuft that considerable strength is necessary in
separating the shells from the rocks to which they are
attached. The tuft of silk is broken off and sold to the
country women, who wash it in soap and water. They
then dry it in the shade, straighten it with a large
comb, cut off the useless root part by which it adhered to
the animal, and card the remainder. By these means a
pound of coarse filaments is reduced to about three ounces
of fine useful thread. This is fabricated into various
articles for the person, such as shawls, stockings, caps,
waistcoats, gloves, purses, etc. The web is of a beautiful
yellow brown, resembling the burnished gold hue which
adorns the backs of some splendid flies and beetles.

A very large mollusc, the giant clam {Tridacna gigas),
found in the seas of the Eastern Archipelago, has a byssus
formed of many tough threads, but slightly elastic, spun
by the animal, or rather cast in a mould, thread by thread ;
a gelatinous fluid being secreted in a long groove or canal,
formed by the foot, which in the air rapidly acquires
solidity. When complete, the united threads form a strong
cable, adhering by the other extremity to the rock so
firmly as to resist the agitation of the sea, and so tough as
to be severed only by an axe. Marsden mentions one
of these shells which was more than 3 ft. 3 in. long, and
2 ft. I in. wide ; and specimens have been seen which had
attained the enormous length of four feet.

CHAPTER XII.

SEAWEED AND ITS USES.

Various uses of Seaweed — Seawrack for packing and upholstery— For manure
— Kelp and iodine — Carrageen moss — Seaweed for food — Large employ-
ment in China and Japan— Gelose — Other applications of seaweed.

Seaweeds are largely employed in Europe and the ex-
treme East in industry, agriculture, and manufactures.

The marine plants are of much more importance than is
generally supposed, and it is doubtful whether they may
not yet be further utilized to advantage. Liebig, in his
" Familiar Letters on Chemistry," says, " Every one knows
that in the immense, yet limited, expanse of the ocean,
whole worlds of plants and animals are mutually dependent
upon, and successive to, each other. The animals obtain
their constituent elements from the plants, and restore
them to the water in their original form, when they again
serve as nourishment to a new generation of plants. The
oxygen which marine animals withdraw in their respiration
from the air, dissolved in sea water, is returned to the
water by the vital process of sea plants ; that air is richer in
oxygen than atmospheric air, containing 32 to 33 per cent.,
while the latter only contains 21 per cent. The oxygen
now combines with the products of the putrefaction of dead
animal bodies, changes their carbon into carbonic acid,
their hydrogen into water, while their nitrogen assumes

312 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

again the form of ammonia. Thus we observe that in the
ocean a circulation takes place without the addition oi*
subtraction of any element, unlimited in duration although
limited in extent, inasmuch as, in a confined space, the
nourishment of plants exists in a limited quantity."

We well know that the marine plants cannot derive
a supply of humus for nourishment through their roots.
Look at the great sea-tangle,, the Fuctis gigantens. This
plant, according to Cook, reaches a height of 360 feet, and
a single specimen, with its immense ramifications, nourishes
thousands of marine animals ; yet its root is a small body,
no larger than the fist. What nourishment can this draw
from a naked rock, upon the surface of which there is no
perceptible change .-' It is quite obvious that these plants
require only a hold — a fastening, to prevent a change of
place — as a counterpoise to their specific gravity, which is
less than that of the medium in which they float. That
medium provides the necessary nourishment, and presents
it to the surface of every part of the plant. Sea water con-
tains not only carbonic acid and ammonia, but the alkaline
and earthy phosphates and carbonates required by these
plants for their growth, and which we always find as con-
stant constituents of their ashes.

Seaweeds or fuci are used directly as manure, for the
manufacture of soda, iodine, bromine, and some like Irish
moss, etc., for the manufacture of gelose. Dried and
pressed seaweeds are also used for ornamental or botanical
purposes. In Scotland and other northern countries sea-
weed is used in winter for feeding horses, cattle, and sheep,
and is eaten by deer when other food is scarce.

The beneficial effects in scrofulous swellings and goitre
of the vegetable ethrops and of the sponge charcoal,
which had been introduced by Armand de Villeneuve near

Seaweed and its Uses. 313

the close of the thirteenth century, and the discovery of
iodine in the ashes of sea plants, induced Dr. Coindet, of
Geneva, in 18 19 to study the effects of iodine, and led to
the introduction of that element into medicine.

The Ficcus vesicnlosus, Lin., grows on rocky shores of
the Atlantic on or near high-water mark. Formerly it was
known by the name of Qiiercics marina or sea-oak, its
common English names being bladder-wrack, sea-wrack,
sea-ware, kelp-ware, and black tang. Of late the bladder-
wrack seems to have been employed to some extent medi-
cinally in the United States. It has also been employed
in France in the form of extract, by exhausting the plant
with 54 per cent, of alcohol.

There are two species in which a considerable trade
is carried on — a lichen, and the sea-wrack or Zostera
marina, vulgarly known there under the name of "parl-
leule," which have become considerable sources of profit to
the inhabitants. The moss or lichen is used by chemists
and for making gummy preparations, and is even for-
warded to Belgium. The Zostera marina is largely used
for stuffing beds and chairs by packers and upholsterers,
under the name of crin vegetal — in England, "alva." In
1873 over 4,100,000 lbs. of this dried weed were sent from
Granville by land and sea. As this quantity represents
about two-thirds of the whole sale, the total may be
approximatively estimated at about ^^"2,000 in value. The
Zostera has the habit of the seaweeds, although belonging
to another natural order.

Algae and fuci are the scientific names given to various
marine plants which grow at the bottom of the sea. They
are collected on the coasts in different parts of the world,
where they are found at certain periods of the year, driven
by the currents and thrown on the beach by the waves and
tides.

314 The Commercial Products of the Sea,

Many persons may think it strange that we should
occupy ourselves with plants which flourish in the sea,
when we possess so many useful plants on the land. To
this it may be replied that very little is known of the con-
siderable commerce which is carried on in various parts
of the world, more especially in the far East. Hence we
propose to publish, for general information, some reliable
details bearing upon this subject.*

In France, on the coasts of Normandy and Brittany —
at Noirmontier for instance — large quantities of seaweed
are collected. It is generally the species known to natu-
ralists under the name of Ficcics cornosiis. There large
numbers live entirely on the result of the harvest of sea-
weed they collect each year. The seaweeds are largely
employed for industrial purposes. Upholsterers and others
use them for stuffing couches, stools, etc., in which they too
frequently are substituted for horsehair. They are used to
stuff mattresses, especially beds for children, because their
aromatic odour keeps away insects. Packers use seaweed
for wrapping fragile objects. Chemists obtain from them
a number of valuable products, such as saline matters or
soda, chlorides, sulphates, silicates, iodine, bromine, etc.

At the last Maritime Exhibition held in Paris, sea-
weeds were shown dyed various tints after decolouration.
This new application was to replace paper cuttings, the
price of which, owing to numerous uses, had much advanced.
The seaweeds, after drying, are pressed into bales of about
100 kilogrammes. The colour is brown, something like
dried tobacco.

Employment of Seatveed for Mamire. — The Chinese and

* We quote from an interesting article on the uses of seaweed, published in
the " Bulletin de la Societe d'Acclimatation of Paris " for March, 1878, by
M. E. Renard.

Seaweed and its Uses. 315

Japanese from time immemorial have recognized the value
of seaweeds in agriculture ; but as the population of those
countries became more numerous, and the adoption of the
algae as a healthy food became better known, they at-
tained a higher value, and their employment as a fertilizer
was to a great extent replaced by other substances, espe-
cially the excreta of towns. In Japan seaweed is often
carried to the slopes of mountains to form humus to
nourish trees.

The services rendered to agriculture by seaweeds are
well known and very important. Buried in the earth, they
are converted by fermentation into an excellent humus, of
great service to plants, and the cultivators on the coasts
of many countries carry away thousands of cartloads.

At Granville, in France, there is a large commerce in
seaweed. The value of that used for manure cannot well
be determined.

In France the collection of seaweed is only allowed at
certain fixed periods, while in China and Japan it is carried
on daily. Still, the former plan may have its advantages,
as it is known that it is in the midst of this exuberant
vegetation of marine plants many species of shell-fish, such
as mussels, scallops, etc., live. It is also the spawning
ground of a certain number of fish ; and, finally, here the
young fry and the Crustacea find a shelter from the voracity
of the large species of fish with sharp teeth, such as the
congers, bonitos, etc.

The seaweeds form in the Atlantic considerable banks,
especially in the part known as the Gulf Stream. There
ships pass through large spaces entirely covered with them.
Sometimes the banks take the form of long serpents, the
two extremities of which cannot be seen. To these accu-
mulations of plants the sailors give the name of Neptune's

3 1 6 The Commetxial Products of the Sea.

gardens ; and the bunches of vesicular grains which sup-
port these plants at the surface of the water, they name
tropical grapes. Up to the present time these seaweeds
have remained unutilized, doubtless because of the cost of
transport.

Some of the species of seaweed are richer in ash than
others. The most generally diffused species, the Fticiis
vesiculosus, or bladder-wrack, seems to withdraw the largest
amount of saline and earthy matters from the sea water,
Pereira, in analysing the ash, found in it nearly 20 per cent,
of common salt, and 11 to 12 per cent, each of potash,
soda, and lime, and 24^ per cent, of sulphuric acid.

Fig. 24.

Varieties of Seaweed.

Fresh weed usually yields 16 per cent, of ash, or 320
pounds to the ton of weed ; and each ton of ash would
yield 18 lbs. of phosphates, iron and lime, 38 lbs. of potash,
and other mineral substances, making up a total of 164 lbs.
of valuable saline matter, or more than one-half of the
whole ash.

Valuable as are many of these ingredients to plants, the
application of seaweed as a manure has some remarkable
properties which do not appear to be explained by analysis.

Seaweed and its Uses. 317

The weeds are largely used in the west of Ireland, and a
price paid for them far beyond their value as indicated by
chemical composition. As a manure for potatoes they are
hardly excelled. Along the coast of Cornvyall they are
successfully used for grass, cereals, and roots, and for apple
orchards, spread round each tree. The broccoli, which is
cultivated round Penzance in hundreds of acres, knows no
other manure. From 10 to 20 tons per acre is the usual
quantity applied. They act very rapidly, softening and
decomposing in the soil so quickly that their effects are con-
fined altogether to the special crop to which they are applied.

On the French coasts on the littoral of the Channel the
collection of seaweed is carried on on an extensive scale.
It was officially estimated some years ago at more than
2,ooo,(X)0 cubic yards annually, or in weight about 2,250,000
tons. It is collected in various ways, with a drag, by the
spade, by a rake with long handle, etc., and loaded into
barges, carts, on donkeys, etc. So important is seaweed
there considered as a fertilizer, that a work was published
specially devoted to the subject.*

The collection of seaweed, by cutting from the roots,
forms a considerable source of employment for the poorer
classes on the coasts of Brittany. It is only permitted to
be carried on from the period of full moon in March to
the full moon of April. The collection of the driftweed
thrown on the shores is, however, prosecuted all the year
round.

In the Channel Islands the harvesting of the cut weed
is carried on at fixed times — at Guernsey from July 17th
to August 31st, and at Jersey for 10 days from March
loth and June 20th. About 30,000 loads are collected
annually at each of the islands.

* " Etudes sur les Engrais de Mer," par J. Isidore Pierre. Paris : A. Goin.

3 1 8 Tlie Commercial Products of the Sea.

Marine plants afford a large revenue for the manufac-
ture of kelp and iodine. Kelp is prepared by burning the
dead weeds till they are reduced to hard, dark-coloured
cakes, in which state it is sent to market. Kelp is the
only commercial source for the production of iodine, and
its immense value in photography and in medicine has
given an impulse to the manufacture of kelp, which
renders it by far the most important of all the applications
of seaweed. The average yield of iodine in Scotland from
a ton of driftvveed kelp is about five pounds.

The proportion of iodine in sea water appears to be
ver}' small, and it would require more than 30,000,000
pounds of sea water to furnish the marine ^gas with one
pound of iodine.

The production of kelp in the United Kingdom
amounts to about 10,000 or 11,000 tons; the manufacture
is carried on in Ireland, the Western Islands, and Orkney
and Shetland. In France there are many large factories
at Granville, Cherbourg, etc.

The manufacture of iodine is chiefly confined to Great
Britain and France, for very little is produced in any other
countries. It was attempted on the American coasts of
the Atlantic, but the weed was found to be of too poor a
quality. The average production of iodine is about 10 lbs.
to the ton of kelp, and as it requires 20 tons of wet weed
to produce one ton of kelp, the total quantity made repre-
sents the burning of 400,000 tons of seaweed annually.
At the present price the iodine produced is of, more value
than the alkaline salts, which were the original object of
the industry.

Carrageen Moss. — One of the best known of the algae
in commerce is the CJicndriis crispiis, the source of carrageen
or Irish moss, which is sometimes employed as a substi-

Seaweed and its Uses.

319

tute for size and in brewing. It possesses nutritive, emol-
lient, and demulcent properties, and may be employed in
the fqrm of a decoction or jelly in pulmonary complaints
and other cases. Bandoline or fixature, for stiffening the
hair and other purposes, is commonly prepared from
carrageen. The market supply for England is obtained
from Clare and the west coast of Ireland. It used to be
sent to the United States, where it is kept on sale by

Fig. 25.

I. Ulva latissima (green sloke). 2. Chondrus crispus (carrageen moss).

most druggists. But it was soon found growing in im-
measurable abundance along the whole Atlantic coast,
from Nova Scotia to Long Island.

Comparatively few are aware of its wide and varied
use in the arts, or of the thousands of barrels^ bf it
employed annually by manufacturers of paper, cloth, felt
and straw hats, etc., and by brewers. Carrageen is to be
found more or less abundantly all along the North Atlantic

320 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

coast, ranging between low-water line and the depth of
40 feet or so ; but as a rule its fronds, which correspond
to the leaves of air plants, are so numerously inhabited by-
small mollusca that they are spoiled for other use. The
clean-growing article seems to be limited almost wholly to
certain ledges in the neighbourhood of Scituate, Massa-
chusetts. Here, where the waves of the Atlantic dash with
full force upon the rocky coast, the carrageen groWs to per-
fection ; and, wherever it escapes the spawn of mussels and
other shell-fish, is gathered during the summer season in
vast quantities. The harvest begins in May and ends
about the 1st of September.

The gathering is made in two ways — by hand-picking
during exceptionally low tides, and by means of long-
handled iron-toothed rakes at ordinary tides. Of course
the work cannot be carried on except in fair weather.
Hand-pulling is possible only during the bi-monthly
periods of spring tides, that is, when the moon is full and
again at new moon. At such times high tides occur about
midday and midnight, and the ledges are exposed for moss
gathering morning and evening. The mossers' boats are
rowed to the rocks where the finest grades abound, and the
gatherers select with care the growths that are freest from
minute shells and other foreign matter. This portion of
the crop, if properly handled afterwards, generally goes to
the apothecary, and fetches a price two or three times that
of the common grade. As the tide rises the pickers are
driven to their boats, and proceed to the outer moss-
bearing rocks, where the rake is used, as it also is during
ordinary low tides. Moss taken in this way is not so clean
as the hand-picked, and is always mixed with tape grass,
which must be removed during the process of curing and
packing.

Seaweed and its Uses. 321

The preparation is the most critical part of this peculiar
farming. On being brought to the shore the moss is black
and unsightly ; it must be bleached as well as dried. The
bleaching is effected by repeated wetting and drying in the
sun ; and, as the moss is readily soluble in fresh water, the
bleaching beds are situated near the banks of the salt
creeks that abound along the shore. After drying, the
moss is packed in tubs and rolled to the water, where it is
thoroughly washed, then rolled back to the bleaching bed,
to be dried again in the sun. Five or six such exposures
are usually sufficient. On the bleaching ground the moss
is carefully spread and turned, and watchfully guarded
against wetting by rajn. In this process it changes from
black to red, then to the yellowish-white of the perfected
article. When properly cured the moss is stored in bulk,
in shanties, where, as time permits, it is picked over and
packed in barrels. The crop averages about 500,000 lbs.
a year ; and, owing to the brighter and more abundant
sunshine of the American coast, the moss has a better
colour and is of finer quality than the Irish product.

The principal useful seaweeds occurring on the United
States coast are the following : —

For Food. — Chondrns crispus, Lyngb., commonly called
Irish moss. It is abundant on the New England coast,
particularly to the north of Cape Cod, growing just below
water mark. It is gathered in large quantities at Hingham,
Massachusetts, and sold for making blancmange, puddings,
and sea-moss farina. It is also used by brewers for clari-
fying, and by calico-printers.

Scherzymenia edtdis, Grev. Common dulse, sold rough-
dried in the seaport towns of the Northern States ; prin-
cipally eaten by sailors and children. That found in the
American markets is generally imported from the British

322 The Cormnercial Products of the Sea.

Provinces, although the plant is very common in New
England.

Po7'phyra vulgaris, Ag. Laver ; eaten stewed in some
parts of Europe. It is imported from China by the Chinese
living in the United States, and even by those as far east
as Massachusetts, although the plant is common on the
Massachusetts shore.

Alaria esculenta, Grev. Common on the New England
coast north ot Cape Cod. It is eaten in Scotland, but not
in the United States. No doubt, Euchemia spiniforme of
Key West, Gigartma mammilosa (often gathered by mis-
take for the true Irish moss), the Californian species of
Chondrus, and some of the species of Gracilaria are quite
as good for culinary purposes as the Irish moss.

Other Uses. — The sea-lettuce {Ulva latissima, L.) is
used by owners of aquaria for feeding some of the marine
animals, particularly mollusca.

Many of the seaweeds are used as fertilizers. The
larger dark-coloured seaweeds are roughly distinguished
by the inhabitants of the shore as rock-weeds, or those
furnished with small bladders or snappers, and kelp. The
rock-weed ot New England is composed almost entirely of
three species of Fucus — F. vesiculosns, F. nodosiis, and F.
turcatiis. The kelp of New England is composed of the
devil's aprons, species of Laminaria, the sea-colander,
Agariimturneri, and Alaria esculenta. The rock-weeds and
kelp are all useful for manure, and are either scattered
over the land and allowed to rot, or else manufactured,
together with other substances, into marketable fertilizers.

The red seaweed {Poly sip honia Harveyi) is said at times
to be washed ashore in Peconic Bay in such quantities
that it is used as manure.

The great kelp of California {Macrocystus pyrifera)

Seaweed and its Uses. 323

forms entangled masses, which serve as natural break-
waters on the exposed portion of the Californian coast.
The leaf-blades of the same plant are used by sailors in
high southern latitudes for rolling up into cigarettes.

The very long slender stems of Nercocystis Liitkeana, the
great bladder-weed of the west coast, are used as fishing lines
by the Indians of the north-west ; and lines made of Chorda
filum are employed similarly in Scotland. The rough-dried
stems oi Laniinaria saccharijia, L. longifolius, L.flcxicaiiliSy
and other large species of Laminaria, under the name
of " artificial staghorn," are used for making handles to
knives, paper-cutters, and other ornamental purposes. At
one time an attempt w^s made to establish a manufactory
of buttons out of dried Laminaria stems, at Marble-
head ; but the attempt was given up, as the buttons did
not bear washing. The dry stems of the Laminarice,
particularly the digitate species, as L.flexicaitlis, are used
by surgical instrument makers in the manufacture of
sponge-tents.

Corallina officinalis, L., was formerly used in medicine
as a tonic*

In Ceylon a common seaweed {Sphcerococciis lichenoides,
Agardt) is much used as food, and so is another species
{Euchemia speciosd) in Western Australia.

The Chinese import large quantities of dry seaweed
from Japan, which they use in cookery in place of salt, and
also as a vegetable to thicken soups. It is collected on all
the coasts of Jesso, and in the inland sea of the environs of
Nagasaki and Sinonosaka. It is an important article of
export at Nagasaki and Hakodate, the price being from
two and a half to four dollars the picul, or \Qs. to \6s. for
one and a half cwt.

* Baird's Report on Fisheries.

324 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

The Chinese " Herbal " mentions various species of sea-
weed as possessing strong and well-known therapeutic pro-
perties, and of special value in the dispersion of hard
tumours, — goitre, for example. They have long been ac-
quainted with the general virtues of the various species of
Laminaria, and these varieties are mentioned as occurring
along the coasts of the Eastern Sea, the coast of Corea,
and the Malayan Archipelago. The great " Herbal "
speaks of seven chief species. The people in the maritime
provinces of China eat .seaweed plentifully, both medici-
nally and as a vegetable food, besides using it as a
manure ; in this custom resembling the inhabitants of our
own Hebrides. It is prescribed alone, chiefly in the form
of tincture, its saltish taste having been first washed away,
or it is mixed up with other medicines in various pre-
scriptions. The uses to which the different kinds of sea-
weed are put correspond with our own before the discovery
of iodine.

In the midst of the large islands of Java, Sumatra,
Borneo, etc., and the thousands of islets known under the
geographical denomination of the Indian Archipelago, the
seaweeds, favoured in their growth by the warm water of
the tropics, flourish in abundance.

The Malays collect certain species which, boiled down,
produce a glue or kind of gdosc, known under the name
of agar-agar, and of which China uses a large quantity.

In lower Cochin China, the part most fertile, and
which belongs to France, they collect the algae, to which
they give the generic name of raic-cau, which is synony-
mous with " marine pot-herbs." They are collected princi-
pally on the rocky parts of the Asiatic continent, in the
Gulf of Siam, the islands of Pho-Cok, Poulto-Condor, and,
in fact, all along the indented coasts traversed at a short

Seaweed and its Uses. 325

distance by the steamers which quit Saigon for Tonkin and
China.

There is another species of algae which has not the
same utiHty, but which has a certain relative importance,
as it is used medicinally, being administered to patients
in different forms of drugs, cataplasms, moxas, etc. This
species is called hai-toc, or " beard of the rocks." It has a
fine green colour. The filaments are very slender, and are
agitated in the manner of a fish's tail by the least move-
ment of the water. The large and immense roadstead of
Touranne contains great quantities. This hai-toc is found
at shallow depths, attached by preference to old pieces of
wood, piles, etc. /

The Annamites designate the gelatine obtained from
seaweeds by the name of tao. The Malays call it, as
already stated, ^agar-agar. It is not prepared with the
same care as in China and Japan, and is only shipped to
China, in consequence of its low price.

The Annamites give the name of raii-caii to several
species of algae [Cojifei'va coi'allina, Gelidunn spiniforme, etc.)
which they collect from the rocks on the islands of Cu-lao-
Khai (province of Binh Thuan) and Cu-lao-re (province of
Quang-ngai). They are known in Chinese medicine under
the name of hai-thao.

Fifteen hundred grammes of raii-caii yield about two
litres of seaweed jelly, which is much used for food pur-
poses, after adding sugar, spirit, or other flavouring to suit
the palate. This jelly also serves to make the gclose, or sea-
weed isinglass, which has been popularly employed of late
years in France for culinary purposes, by confectioners, for
sizing fabrics, and for preparing gold-beater's skin. The
best seaweed is obtained from the island of Cu-lao-re.
The first-quality gelose, known as raii-can-chon-vit, is white

326 The CojJimej'cial Products of the Sea.

and transparent, and costs £2 the picul of 133 lbs.; the
second quality is only about half this price. The product
obtained in Cu-lao-Khai is very inferior.

Seaweeds enter also ■ into the food products of the
Cochin Chinese. They whet the appetite with them when
highly seasoned with garlic, mixed with fish water ; and
they form the celebrated sauce "Noachman," of a strong
and repulsive odour, which is exported to all parts of the
far East.

China, with its immense seacoast, estimated to be not
less than 800 leagues in length, is very favourable for the
collection of seaweed, which grows in great abundance in
the sea ; but the enormous demand for so numerous a
population requires that the fishing should be carried on
daily and without ceasing. This naturally tends to
diminish the quantity obtained.

The collection or fishery is carried on in small boats
with sails of platted reeds. It is prosecuted from the island
of Hainan up to the Gulf of Petcheli, as well as the islands
of Formosa, Chusan, Lieou Keou, etc. These little boats,
manned frequently by an entire family, occupy themselves
not only in the fishing of seaweed, which they detach from
the rocks, but in the intervals obtain fish by large bait sus-
pended from a bamboo pole, maintained perpendicularly
by a line below. The continued movement of the bait by
the waves renders the fishing very successful.

The second quality of algae is obtained in a less
tedious and difficult manner, by means of hurdles formed
of branches of bamboo ; they are the kind of fascines
which the navigator notices in the creeks of rivers and
islands, on the beaches and in the roadsteads, as well as the
embouchures of all the great rivers where the tides reach a
certain elevation. The seaweeds, borne by the passing

Seaweed and its Uses. 327

waves at high water over these obstructions, are left behind
when the tide falls.

One cannot be surprised at the large and important
consumption of seaweed for food by the people, when we
consider that, besides the quantities collected on their own
coasts, the junks, the sailing vessels, and steamers bring
from Japan to China thousands of tons annually, to the
ports of Shanghai, Tient-sin, Neuchang, etc. These bales,
transferred to boats, are carried up the Yang-tse-kiang to
the most distant towns of the empire, such as Ho-nan and
Setchuen, and even to Thibet.

For food purposes the seaweed, as in Cochin China
and Japan, is mixed in soups, with rice, fish, and vegetables
in general, and forms the celebrated cabbage pak-soeij, or
pe-tsay in mandarin language.

The seaweeds not only communicate to food the salt
with which they are naturally impregnated, which is a great
economy for the poorer classes, who have to pay dear for it
the further they are removed from the salines, but also a
certain aromatic flavour of the sea, which resembles the
taste of dried and fermented fish, so much in use among
the numerous populations of the extreme East.

The English give to the seaweed geiose the name of
isinglass, and the people of Canton call it toiv-kao, while
the jelly in a liquid state they call gJiu-kao.

This isinglass of the first quality is made in the form o
filaments. The gelatine made with it is white and trans-
parent, and is employed in a number of industries. It
is used by bakers and pastry-cooks for making biscuits,
macaroons, and confectionery ; by paper-makers ; in
stifTening the light and transparent gauzes, in the fine silk
which is used for making fans, screens, hangings, etc. It is
on these stuffs, so well stiffened, that the painters product

328 The Commercial P^'oduds of the Sea.

such beautiful designs in colours incomparable for their
freshness and brilliancy.

The second quality of this seaweed isinglass is of a
darker tint, and consists of the deposit in the basins in
which the cooking has been carried on. It is used, like the
liquid paste obtained from it, by makers of paper umbrellas
and parasols, and paper lanterns, to smear " the fine
stretchers of bamboo on which they are formed. When
thoroughly dried, these articles of such extensive use
acquire an impermeability of long duration. But, unfor-
tunately, predatory insects are very fond of this size, and a
single night frequently suffices to destroy these articles,
exceedingly cheap and highly useful to all the Chinese. At
Canton, as at Yokohama and Osaka, we find transparent
sheets of gelatine made with this seaweed product, which
are superior to those of European manufacture, inasmuch
as they are not affected by the action of heat or moisture.

The seaweed isinglass of Japan is a gelatine as light as
the pith of the elder. It has neither odour nor flavour. It
is made by macerating and boiling down different kinds of
seaweed, principally the Lammaria. The leaves are grated
with sharp cutting instruments, Vv'hich cause the green
outer bark and saline particles to deposit.

The seaweed is then boiled slowly fpr about 18 hours,
and the mass left to cool, when it looks like fish-glue. The
upper portion, which is the best quality, is turned out on
boards to dry.

The gelose of commerce, or Japan isinglass, is also
obtained from Gelidmm spiniformc, and is made in the form
of small sticks, transparent, but of a rough aspect. Steeped
in cold water, it swells considerably without dissolving. It
dissolves, on the contrary, readily in boiling water, and forms
a jelly on cooling. It is this property which has rendered

Seaweed and its Uses. " 329

it a food substance. After adding sugar, liqueurs, or
aromatic flavourings, it is strained through a cloth and put
into moulds. Gclosc is also employed for various indus-
trial purposes.

Under the name of mat, Porphyra vulgaris, reduced to
a jelly by boiling, is also used like gelose for food by the
Annamites.

The marine plants which are employed as food and in
different industries in Japan are the following : —

The Ama-//cr/ {Porphyra vulgaris), which is found on
the coasts of different provinces. The best is that which
is collected at Sinagowa, in the Gulf of Yedo, province of
Musashi.

The ivakame {Alaria pinnatifida), which is met with
on nearly all the coasts of Japan. It is simply dried and
sent into commerce.

The komboii {Laminaria saccharina), which is one of
the principal products of Hokkaido. It is eaten in dif-
ferent ways : boiled, broiled, or dried and reduced into
straight or quadrangular strips. It is largely exported to
China.

Arame {Capea elongata) is found principally in the seas
to the south of Japan. When dried it will keep a long
time. In former times this plant rendered great service to
the people during a famine which desolated the country.

The hljiki [Cystosnra) is met with also in the same
seas, and includes two varieties, one short and the other
long. It is dried for use. That which comes from the
province of Isi is the most esteemed.

Aw'o-noi'i {Emterojnorpha coinpressa) comes from the
same quarter ; that of the province of Awa is considered
the best.

Tenkusa, or Tokora tenkusa {Gelidium cornemn), is col-
15

330 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

lected in the seas of the different provinces of Japan. It is
dried after having been first well washed in fresh water.
When it is to be eaten, the dry seaweed is plunged in
boiling water and dissolved. The liquid is then filtered,
to separate any foreign matters, and left to cool. It solidi-
fies, and is then easily cut up into pieces at will. It is
eaten generally in hot weather.

There is another mode of preparation, v/hich consists in
exposing the jelly to the intense frost of a winter's night.
It congeals and hardens, and then bears the name of
" kantcii" and may be kept till the following summer. It
is employed for making pastry, and cooks use it for pre-
paring certain dishes. Besides its alimentary uses, this
seaweed serves to make paper and many other things.

Hondazvara {HalocJiloa DiacrantJid) is found on the sea-
coasts of many provinces. It is salted and eaten with
vinegar.

Tosaka-nori {Kallimeiiia dentatd) takes its popular
name, Tosaka, from its. resemblance to a cock's comb.
It is found principally in the seas to the south and east of
Japan.

Fwiori {Glacopeltix intrictd) is found on the coasts of
many provinces. It is found in commerce in the dr^' state.
When boiled and made into size, weavers use it to stiffen
their thread. In ceramic work it is also employed for
painting on porcelain ; it has also many other uses. That
which comes from the island of Hachijo and the province
of Satsuma is considered theiDest.

Another larger marine plant, called tsnnoviata {Gimno-
gongrus pinnatatus), serves for the same uses.

S6men-;/^r/ {Nemaliofi vermicular ia) is collected in the
interior sea of Shitoku ; it is eaten salted, but can be dried
in the ashes so as to keep it.

Seaweed and its Uses. 331

Matsuba-«<?r/ takes its popular name from its resem-
blance to the leaves of the Matsuba pine. It is good to
eat.

Ok\\.s\x-7iori : of this there are two varieties, a large
and a small. It is dried after being well washed in soft
water.

Of mini {Codiinn tomentosuin) there are many varieties,
as the nagamiru, hir amine, etc. ; the first named comes
from the province of Avva, the second from Satsuma. It
is eaten raw or salted, and may also be kept by drying it
in ashes.

Suizin-w^rz {PJiilledenim sacrum) is one of the famous
products of Hiya ; it appears in commerce in the form of
thick dried leaves.

Moziiku {Mesoglara discipicns) is obtained in the seas
to the south and east of Japan. It is eaten raw, flavoured
with vinegar, or dried and preserved. That which is held
in the highest reputation comes from the province of Awa.

Japan is certainly the most favoured country where
these seaweeds thrive with greatest luxuriance and abun-
dance, and where the population carry on the fishery, and
the collection every year is most considerable and pro-
ductive.

It could scarcely be otherwise. The territory of Japan
is formed of four principal large islands, Niphon, Yesso,
Sikok, and Kiusiu ; its superb sea commences a short
distance from Nagasaki, bathes the numerous territories of
powerful daimios, and extends up to the banks of the
grand and populous town of Osaka, with its numerous
canals, termed by strangers the Venice of Japan. If we
add the 1800 or 2000 islands and islets which we
find in the Sea of Japan, in the Pacific Ocean, and the
inland sea, we have some idea of the harvest pbtaijiecj by

332 The Commercial Prodticts of the Sea.

an incessant fishery for these marine plants, as well as for
fishes, Crustacea, mollusca, polypi, etc.

It is in some of these deep seas, with submerged earth,
the effect of the action of formidable volcanos, dreaded by
mariners, that is found flourishing a much-appreciated
genus of algse, the Lajninaria. These often attain ex-
traordinary dimensions ; some have been measured 500
yards in length. This fucus is naturally detached from
its holding ground when it reaches maturity, and its spongy
nature brings it to the surface of the sea.

The Japanese do not gather the seaweed in the same
manner as the Chinese. In place of the fascines or hurdles
already described, they drive large bamboos into the
foreshore or beach, which extends out a great distance into
the sea.

On approaching Yedo, the capital, numerous stems
of bamboo may be seen sunk deep into the sand, and
disposed in such a manner as to permit the seaweed
to enter when carried on by the waves at high water.
Once entered, shaken and tossed about for many hours,
the long and solid lengths get entwined and twisted about
the posts, and when the water retires they are left dry at
low tide. Then carts begin to arrive in great numbers,
and the scene is most remarkable and peculiar in its cha-
racter. The people of the shores, so numerous, hurry
down to the beach — men, women, and children. They push
each other aside, and scramble, with loud voices ; for the
first who arrives has the best chance of collecting the
treasures left by the sea, such as seaweeds, Crustacea, shells.
When the tide rises and the waves pour in, the people
return to their dwellings, situated in long lines on the
banks. The collection made during the day is exposed to
the sun and wind to dry. The women are occupied in

Seaweed and its Uses. '^'^'^y

sorting the weed. They chop the leaves off with a knife,
cut them into fine strips, and heap them up into piles,
which have the appearance of a heap of moss, all which
occupies much time.

Thus prepared, these seaweeds are the most sought after
for food purposes. The common seaweeds, after drying,
are formed into ballots, or small bales, by the men, and tied
up with some of the stems, which are of great strength.
These are then transported either to the towns and vil-
lages situated a long way from the coast, or shipped in
vessels to China.

It can scarcely be doubted that at some future day,
when our clever European cooks have at their disposal
good, fresh, and young sprouts of certain species of algae,
they will succeed in preparing useful dishes, which, in
winter especially, will render signal service to the poorer
classes when fresh vegetables are scarce. Again, seaweeds
cooked and cut in thin slices, prepared as a salad, would
be a simple and novel preparation. Prepared in the
manner spinach is done in France, or with some sauce,
which would remove the salt-water flavour, they would
form a dish appreciated by all.

In Japan, as we have seen, several kinds of seaweed are
used as food, and form important articles of the trade with
China. Generally they are natural products, which have
only to be collected ; but in certain cases their growth is
increased by some ingenious contrivance, devised for the
purpose of producing their development under the most
favourable circumstances.

In the neighbourhood of Tokio, where the water is
shallow, long rows of branches of the Qucrais serrata,
Thun., are placed in the bottom of the sea during spring.
In June or July, small buds of a reddish colour appear

334 '^^^^ Co77tmercial Prodtids of the Sea.

upon the branches ; two or three months later, they have
grown into soft round leaves, apparently similar to stems,
and several inches in length. These stems now rapidly
flatten out at the ends into broad leaves, which are taken
ofif every alternate day all through the winter, until the end
of March. At this period they become hard, unfit for use^
and fall off during the summer months. The quality of this
seaweed depends very much on the weather, and is best
when frequent rains and falls of snow have rendered the
shallow water more or less brackish. Too large a propor-
tion of sweet water is unfavourable to the growth of the
plant. A century or two ago it was gathered in large
quantities at the mouth of the Sumidagawa, near
Asakusa in Tokio ; but as the river carried down with
it a large quantity of gravel, its mouth advanced more
and more into the sea, and the water near Asakusa be-
coming too fresh, the plant disappeared. Owing to this
circumstance, the above-described mode of cultivation was
instituted ; the weed, however, has preserved its former
name of Asakusa nori. The branches oi Qiicrais scrrata, on
which the weed grows, are said to answer their purpose
during three years ; after that time, however, the bark
comes off, and the weed does not grow any more.

Large shipments of ciimboo or seaweed are annually
made from the port of Hakodate, to the value of about
;^i6,ooo. It is divided into three sorts — the best coming
from Shimani and Yokadsu, the second quantity from
Akish, and the third from Kusudu. This article appears
in the Hakodate market throughout the whole year, with
the exception of the winter months ; and has two crops,
the first from September to December, and the other from
May to August. There is a good business also carried on
with seaweed to China from Nagasaki and Kanagawa,

Seaweed and its Uses. 335

about 80,000 cwt. being shipped annually from these two
ports. At Shanghai the imports reach about 170,000 cwt.

The trade in Japanese seaweed has year after year been
assuming, more ample dimensions in China. It is princi-
pally made use of by the poorer classes.

A very interesting product, called kaiitcn or vegetable
isinglass, a species of gelose derived either from Gelidium
corncnm, or Plocaria lichenoides, is made in China and
Japan, and has been imported into this country, in the
shape of flat and moulded square tablets and in bundles of
strips, under the name of seaweed isinglass. It is known in
Cochin China as hai t/iao, and has been used in France
in several industries, especially in preparing gold-beater's
skin, and for rendering tissues impermeable. It is only
soluble in boiling water, and it takes up about 500 times
its own weight of the fluid.

The mode of manufacture is as follows ; — The seaweed
called tcngusa is carefully washed and afterwards boiled,
so as to form a gluish decoction, which is strained off
and put into square boxes. When cooled, it forms a stiff
jelly, Avhich can easily be divided into squares of a foot in
length.

The manner in which the surplus water is removed is
most ingenious, and worthy of notice. The jelly prisms
are exposed in the open air during a cold night, and
allowed to freeze. During the day the sun melts the water,
which runs off, leaving behind what one might term tlie
skeleton of a white horny substance, which is extremely
light, and easily diluted in hot water ; when cooled, it again
forms a stiff jelly. This article, which is already to a
certain extent known in Europe, can be applied to mary
uses, viz., for cooking purposes, for making bonbons and
jellies, for clarifying liquids, as a substitute tor animal

336 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

isinglass, for making moulds used by the plaster of Paris
workers, for hardening the same material — in short, as a
substitute for all kinds of gelatines, over which it has the
advantage of producing a firmer jelly.

Another seaweed, much used for industrial purposes,
is the fu, resembling the carrageen moss, and applied to
similar uses, such, for instance, as the sizing of the warp of
silk goods.

Seaweed is not much used for food purposes in Europe.
In Ireland, dulse {RJiodouienia pabnatd) is either eaten with
butter and fish, or boiled in milk with rye flour. The Ulva
tatissijna, or green laver, and the Porphyra vulgaris, or
purple laver, are abundant on the British shores, and when
boiled and served with pepper, butter, and vinegar, form an
agreeable delicacy to many persons when eaten with cold
meat. The London shops are supplied- with it from the
Devonshire coast. In Ireland it is known as " sloke."
" Tangle," which is the young fronds oi Laminar ia digitata,
is much eaten in Scotland ; and at one time the cry of
" dulse and tangle " was as common in the streets of Edin-
burgh and Glasgow as that of watercresses is in London at
the present day.

Miscellaneous Uses of Seaivccd. — Various attempts have
been made from time to time to manufacture paper from
seaweed, but they have not been attended with any very
great success.

In 1820 a patent was granted in Denmark for making
paper from seaweed, which was alleged to be whiter,
stronger, and cheaper than other kinds. In 1828 a patent
was taken out in the United States, by Elisha Collier, for
making paper from Ulva marina. In 1833 a patent was
granted in France to Monsieur Tripot for making paper
from seaweed. In 1875 two English patents were pro-

Seaweed and its Uses. 2>Z1

visionally registered for making paper from seaweed, but
these were never proceeded with.

Monsieur J, E. Brizot, of Toulon, states that to prepare
paper from seaweed, it is necessary to pound the root part
of the algae, to break off a kind of fibrous outer coating
which does not bleach effectually. It is then washed to
remove the sand and earth which are often found adhering,
and beaten \yell, after which it is placed in a reservoir of
water mixed with sulphuric acid. Seaweed is naturally
tough and stiff, owing to the number of cellules which
it contains ; to render it supple for paper-making, it must
therefore be steeped in an acid bath. In taking out the
stuff from the reservoir, it should be removed with a wooden
spade, pierced with holes, so that the acid water may be
preserved for use again. The paper pulp may be placed in
osier baskets to drain off the moisture. The filaments of
the leaves should not be employed for white paper, as they
do not bleach well. After cleansing and treating with the
acid as already described, it only remains to bleach the
material with chloride of lime till it is of the whiteness
required.

Chevalier Claussen, when treating common seaweeds
with alkalies, found they were entirely dissolved and a
soapy compound formed, which could be employed in the
manufacture of soap.

A patent was taken out some years ago by Mr. T. Ghislin
for utilizing dissolved and pressed seaweed, under the name
of laminite, in making imitation horn, moulded for the
handles of cutlery, for sticks, picture-frames, book-covers,
etc. It was not followed up to any extent.

The New Zealanders employ the large pods of a species
of seaweed to store the whale oil which they use in
the lamps of their sleeping houses. These, when filled,

338 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

hold about a quart each, are tied up at the neck with flax
fibre, and resemble in appearance a bottle of caoutchouc.

The large dried hollow fronds of a gigantic fucus serve
as water buckets on the Pacific coasts of South America.
Water pitchers used to be made by the aborigines of
Tasmania of the broad-leaved kelp. They were often
large enough to hold a quart or two of water. These and
the shell of a species of Cyuiba were the. only vessels they
had for carrying water.

CHAPTER XIII.

MARINE SALT.

Mode of obtaining sea salt — Salines of France, where situated— Statistics of
production — Composition of the crude salt — Manufacture in the United
States — Consumption of salt in various countries — Sea-salt works of
Portugal — Salt manufacture in India a Government monopoly — Imports
of foreign salt-r-Salt production in Cochin China.

Another commercial product from the sea is salt, ob-
tained by evaporation, which is produced on a large scale
in many quarters, especially in India, on the coast of
France, in Turks Islands, and other localities. To obtain
this salt a certain quantity of sea water is collected in
reservoirs, constructed on the seacoast, which are termed
salines, or salt marshes, where it is evaporated by the com-
bined action of the rays of the sun and currents of air.
As sea water contains only from two and a half to three
per cent, ot salt, a very large quantity of water has to be
submitted to evaporation to obtain the salt of commerce.
Notwithstanding this, the operations are carried on upon
so large a scale, and the work is so arranged, that the salt
is produced at a very moderate price.

France has about 82 salines, or salt marshes, occupying
a surface of about 48,500 acres. These are situated, one

340 The Coinmercial Products of the Sea.

on the Channel coast, 36 on the shores of the ocean, and
45 on the coasts of the Mediterranean. These consist of
one or more reservoirs, into which the sea water is passed.
Those of the south are greatly superior to the others, be-
cause they are better managed, and the climate is more
favourable for evaporation.

The sea water is introduced, either by means of a canal
of the level of the sea banks, or by means of hydraulic
machines in other cases, into a reservoir, which is shallow
and of great extent of surface, so that the liquid may be
subjected to the action of the sun's rays. In this reservoir,
when the evaporation commences, the water passes off
slowly into a series of rectangular basins, less deep, where it
continues to concentrate, after which it passes into a trench
which conducts it to the great wells, called the wells of
green water. Pumps then raise it into a second trench,
by which it is carried into another series of evaporating
basins, called interior heaters, from which it passes into the
reservoir, and from thence by a third trench into more
wells, called the salt wells. Here the sea water marks
22° to 24° of Beaume's areometer. The pumps then pass
it into a fourth trench, which carries it into new basins,
smaller than the preceding ones, called salt tables. In
these tables, where the liquid mass is not above five or six
centimetres of depth, the salt is deposited. When the
principal part of the water has left the product, the water
is carried off by the canal to the sea, and a fresh quantity
of condensed salt-water is brought into the salt-pans.
The water is renewed daily or every two days, and this
operation is carried on during all the fine weather, that is,
from April to September. When the bed of salt is of the
thickness of four or five centimetres, it is collected or
shovelled up. For this purpose the masses of salt are left

Marine Salt. 341

to dry, and then collected with spades into long heaps or
piles, which are called camcllcs. This operation is only
carried on two or three times during the season. Finally,
after long drainage, the heaped salt has parted with all its
water, and is ready for passing into commerce.

The salt of the salines of the Mediterranean is in the
form of very large and white crystals, and of a very fine
purity. That of the salt marshes of the ocean is in the
form of small grey crystals, and known in commerce as
grey salt. It owes this colour to the earthy particles be-
longing to the basins, where it is collected daily.

To convert it into white salt it has either to be washed
or refined, in order to remove the foreign substances which
it contains. By the first process it is merely washed with
water saturated with pure salt, after which it is drained
and dried in stoves. By the second process, and by which
very fine and white table salt is prepared, the grey salt is
dissolved in ordinary water ; the magnesia contained in
the solution is precipitated with lime ; it is then filtered and
evaporated in shallow boilers.

The salt marshes worked in France are in the Bouches-
du-Rhone, and on the borders of the ocean, principally at
the island of Re, in the Landes, Charente-Inferieure, and
Loire-Inferieure. As the production of the salt marshes is
variable, the price of salt also fluctuates. The average may
be taken at 2\ francs per 100 kilogrammes, to which has to
be added \2\ francs duty, bringing up the price to 15 francs.
According to the official statistics, the consumption of table
salt in France in 1876 amounted to 301,328,000 kilogrammes,
representing a value of 45,199,200 francs ; and the exports
were 1,862,000 quintals, value 3,000,000 francs, making^
the total commerce in salt, duty paid, amount to nearly
;[^2,ooo,ooo sterling, besides a good deal emplo}ed in agri-

342 The Commej'cial Products of the Sea.

culture, the fisheries, and chemical industries, on which no
duty is paid.

Marseilles is a great entrepot for the trade in marine
salt in France. In 1877 the deliveries were over 78,000
tons, of which 17,400 tons were exported, 39,000 tons locally
consumed in the chemical and soap works, and 12,000 tons
employed in the fisheries.

The following is the composition of the crude salt of
the south and west of France : —

Salt of the south.

Salt of the west.

Chloride of sodium

95'"

87-97

,, magnesia

0-23

1-58

Sulphate of magnesia

1-30

o"5o

,, lime ...

0-91

1-65

Earthy particles

o-io

o-8o

Water

2-35

7-50

The annual average production of marine salt in France
in the ten years ending 1876 was as follows : —

Tons.
Salt marshes of the south 230,125

» M west 219,563

Salines or salt-pits 203,907

653.595

The quantity delivered for consumption, duty paid, was
3i5»549 tons; exported abroad, 109,633 tons; delivered
free for various manufactures, I'^Z-^^Z J total, 608,945 tons.
The tax on salt in France was raised to 12!^ francs the 100
kilogrammes by the law of the 2nd of June, 1875.

On some of the coasts of the Channel, marine salt is
obtained by a process quite different from that adopted in
the salines. During low tide the sand of the beach is
collected, washed with sea water, which gives a very con-
centrated briny liquor, and this is evaporated to dryness

Marine Salt. 343

in small boilers heated by wood. The saline mass thus
obtained is placed in baskets, which are suspended over
the boilers during the subsequent concentration. The salt,
moistened by the aqueous vapour, gives up almost all
its deliquescent salts. It is then stored, and only sent
into commerce after some months' keeping. During this
time it loses a further 28 or 30 per cent, of its weight.
The salt obtained by this method is very white, and fine
like snow. It passes under the name of igniferous salt.*

In certain cold countries, especially in Siberia, where
the rigour of the climate does not allow the practice of
salt marshes to be carried on, recourse is had to freezing
for obtaining salt. This process rests on the property
which water, saturated with salt, possesses of passing into
the solid state at a much lower degree than pure water.
If sea water is exposed to an atmosphere some degrees
below zero, it separates into two parts — one solid, which is
the water pure or nearly so ; the other liquid, which is the
water more or less charged. By removing the ice flakes
and repeating this operation several times, a liquor is
obtained more or less concentrated, from which it is easy
to obtain the salt by means of evaporation ; but this salt is
always very impure.

The total production of salt in the world it is quite
impossible to estimate, because it is not solely an industrial
manufacture ; but in many localities, and especially in hot
countries, it is found natural and spontaneous. However,
it is generally believed that in Europe alone the produce is
about 3,000,000 tons. In France the mean average pro-
duction is set down at about 650,000 tons, divided as
follows : — Salines of the south, 300,000 tons ; salines of the'
west, 250,000 tons; salines of the east and the Pyrenees,

* Maigne's " Arts and Manufactures." Paris.

344 ^^^ Comme7'cial Products of the Sea.

100,000 tons. This production might easily be doubled or
tripled, but it is limited for want of markets. About
540,000 tons pass into consumption, apportioned as fol-
lows : — 370,000 tons for food purposes, 50,000 for chemical
industries, 60,000 for the fisheries, 60,000 tons for export,
and 7000 for salting fish under the surveillance of the
Customs.

Salt is largely produced in California, mostly from sea
water.

Marine salt was made in Austria in 1876 to the amount
of 344,862 metrical quintals.

In the Portuguese possessions of St. Thomas's and
Prince's Island, Angola, Mossamedes, and the islands of
Cape Verd, salt is made.

Marine salt, obtained on the coasts of the Gulf of
Pechihle, China, by spontaneous evaporation of the sea
water in the salt marshes, is, like saltpetre, the property of
the State, and subject to special laws.

Salt is made in the Portuguese possession of Goa, in
India.

The principal manufactories of salt from sea water in
the United States are along the shores of Cape Cod and at
Nantucket.

In order to obtain salt by evaporation, the sea water is
pumped by Avindmills into shallow wooden pans ; or, in
countries where it can be done, it is allowed to flow over a
salt marsh, which has been previously prepared by removing
all vegetation from its surface. The salt water is first
secured in a large shallow reservoir, where it is allowed to
become moderately concentrated by the action of the sun's
heat and the winds. From this it is conducted, by a system
of sluiceways, into other reservoirs or evaporating basins
more carefully constructed, and in these it deposits the

Marine Salt. 345

lime salts. Finally, it is led into basins where it begins to
deposit the salt, the water in these compartments being
only a few inches in depth. When the land is sufficiently
below the level of the sea to allow the water to flow from
one set of basins into the adjoining ones, of course the pro-
cess is rendered quite easy ; but if it is not low enough,
the brine is raised at various stages by pumps moved by
windmills. Salt produced in this way is called bay salt,
and can only be made in very dry countries, as a few hours'
rain would spoil the labour of weeks. When wooden tanks
are used, they are generally protected from the rain by
coverings. The tanks are made about ten feet square, and
a foot deep. The roofs are moved off and on by the aid of
wheels running on rails, or, what is more common, two roofs
are fastened together by their corners, and so arranged
that they will turn about on a pivot, covering or uncovering
two tanks by one movement.

The average consumption of salt per head in various
countries has been roughly estimated to be as follows : —

England ...

lbs.

40

Austria ...

lbs.
16

Italy

France

Russia

20
18

Prussia

Spain

Switzerland

14

12

8

Belgium ...

164

No marine salt is made in the United Kingdom, but
the manufacture of salt reaches about 1,500,000 tons, nearly
half of which is exported, chiefly to India and the United
States.

Sea salt is made to a small extent in Algoa Bay and
other parts of the Cape Colony, and in Australia.

The sea-salt works of Portugal are very extensive, and
produce annually 250,000 tons of salt, which is in great
request. The centres of the manufacture are Setubal,

34^ The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Lisbon, Aveiro, and Algarve. The arrangement of the
salines at Setubal is very simple. They form a vast reser-
voir, divided into squares, separated from each other by
roads a little more than a yard wide, and all communicating
with a main reservoir, which stores up the sea water. The
water is admitted directly into these square tanks, where it
evaporates and deposits its salt without any previous con-
centration or purification. In autumn the water is allowed
to flow in so as to cover the entire salt marsh to the depth
of 50 or 60 centimetres. In spring this water evaporates,
and in the month of June the separation roads appear above
the surface. The tanks are then cleaned out, left to them-
selves, and recharged from time to time with new supplies
of water. Under the influence of the north-east winds
which prevail at this season, the evaporation is very rapid,
and after about 20 days each tank is covered with a layer
of salt an inch and a half thick and almost dry. This is
the first crop. The salt is collected, sea water is intro-
duced anew into the reservoirs, and 20 days afterwards a
second crop is gathered. But this is not evaporated to
dryness, and the salt is covered with an inch or so of
mother liquor, which is left behind on gathering the salt.
If the season is favourable, a third crop is attempted, and
in September the marsh is flooded over for the winter.

In India the salt manufacture is a Government mono-
poly, and the tax produces about ;i^6,250,ooo annually.
The native production would appear to be hardly sufficient,
since duty amounting to ;^2,23 5,000 was received on foreign
salt imported in 1876. The duty levied varies from \s. to
6s. 6d. per maund. The annual imports ol foreign salt
range from 600,000 to 900,000 tons.

The quantity of salt imported and delivered trom salt
works in the Bombay Presidency in the year ending March,

Marine Salt. 347

1867, was 5,403,718 maunds, of which 4,597,312 maunds
were sea salt. There were 354 salt works in operation.

Extensive salt fields exist at Shimpagah, a short dis-
tance above Mandalay, on the western bank of the Irra-
waddy river. It is also obtained at other places in Burmah
on a small scale. Large quantities could be manufactured
at Shimpagah, but imported salt is fast taking its place in
the market.

The manufacture of sea salt is carried on on the coasts
of Cochin China, and bids fair to become a prosperous
industry. There are salines worked at Soc-Trang, Baria,
and Bien-Hoa.

The following is an estimate of the cost of carrying on
the manufacture at the salines of Baria. Each hectare
(about two acres) of saline is subdivided as follows : —

Ares.
Tables ... ... .,, 40

Beds ... ... ... 40

Jas ... ... ... ... 20

I hectare.

From which it results that to establish 200 hectares of
" tables," it requires not less than 250 hectares of land.
The working of one hectare of tables, or two and a half
hectares of saline, involves the following expenditure : —
1500 francs at first, for feeding the workmen during the
formation of the salines. If the first collection of salt is
good, the workpeople are paid a second sum of 1500
francs, and the collection of salt is given over to them for
their own benefit. The capital thus advanced amounts to
3000 francs. The second year the proprietors work on
their own account, and collect probably salt to the value of
2000 francs. After deducting tax, etc., there remains
about 1200 francs of net revenue on the capital advanced,

348 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

at different stages, of 3800 francs; that is to say, about 36
per cent.

If the result of the manufacture or collection of salt is
unfavourable, the salt makers improve their work during
the second year without any further advance than the
resulting product obtained for their own benefit.

It results from these figures that to work 100 hectares
of salt-pits, or 250 hectares of land, requires a capital of
about 400,000 francs (^16,000).

In Western Australia salt is collected from the Canning
in its natural state, and it is evaporated from the water on
the salt lakes on Rottnest Island, from Poolenup Lake, and
from Lake Muir. The salt from Rottnest, evaporated at
226° F., contains 95*9 of pure chloride of sodium.

The salt trade of the Bahamas a.id Turks Islands has
been almost paralyzed by the high rate of duty levied in
the United States. In 1873, salt to the value of /^i 1,080
was shipped from the Bahamas ; in 1876 it had fallen to
;^4,639. In several of the out islands of the group the
inhabitants formerly relied upon the proceeds of salt-raking,
and the islands upon which salinas are situated are not, as
a rule, capable of producing anything else. For the la.st
few years the industry has entailed a loss on all those
engaged in it, and there is no hope of their condition being
improved until the duty is reduced or entirely abolished.

PART III.
MARINE CONTRIBUTIONS TO ART.

CHAPTER I.

TORTOISESHELL AND THE TURTLE FISHERIES.

Marine tortoiseshell — Commercial classification — Land tortoises — Employment
of tortoiseshell — Mode of working it — Various applications of tortoiseshell
— Statistics of imports — The green or edible turtle — Food uses of the fles^i
and eggs.

If the earth is made by man to give up its gems and
precious stones for art, and its mineral and vegetable sub-
stance for the art workman and the art manufacturer, the
sea is also constrained to yield its pearls, its coral, and
amber for the jeweller ; its mother-of-pearl and other shells
for inlaying and carving, and its tortoiseshell for ornamental
work. It also yields treasures for the painter, the sculptor,
and the art manufacturer, for designs and studies; whilst its
objects of beauty in corallines, shells, and seaweeds adorn
the cabinets of the naturalist, the collector, and public
museum. It is to be regretted that even in this scientific
age much ignorance still prevails as to the nature, sources
of supply, and mode of treatment of many of these marine
substances — so worthy of close study and investigation.

A little scattered information on some of the materials
mentioned has, from time to time, been published ; but
they seem to require more systematic description.

The horn-like epidermoid plates which cover the dorsal
buckler or carapace of the sea-tortoise, are in some species

352 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

so fine and of such beautiful colours as to be employed for
various purposes of art. It is only those, however, of the
hawksbill and caret species that possess any great trade
value ; the plates being stronger, thicker, and clearer than
in other varieties. There are usually 13 plates on the
carapace, called collectively in trade " the head," — four on
each side, and five on the back; the last bent in the centre.
Of the side plates, the two middle are the most valuable,
being the largest and thickest ; those on the back and
margin, known as " hoofs " or " claws," are comparatively of

Fig. 26.

Hawksbill turtle.

less value. There are 24 marginal pieces round the edges,
which are termed the " feet " or " noses." The laniellce or
plates vary in thickness from one-eighth to one-quarter of
an inch, according to the age and size of the animal, and
weigh collectively from four to six pounds or upwards. In
an animal of ordinary size, about three feet long and two
and a half feet wide, the largest plates weigh about nine
ounces, and measure about thirteen by eight inches, and
are a quarter of an inch thick in the middle.

Tortoiseshell and the Turtle Fisheries. 353

Tortoiseshell is usually detached from the carapace and
bony framework by placing heat below, or sometimes by
soaking it in boiling water. In the West Indies the plates
or blades of tortoiseshell are removed by burying the
carapace in the ground, or in the sand, for 10 or 12 days.
When taken up the blades fall off, and the 13 dorsal pieces
are easily collected, forming the before-mentioned, viz., eight
" sides," two " hoofs," one " skull," and two " main plates."
A small hole is bored in each, so as to string them together,
for no experienced buyer will purchase a case of tortoise-
shell unless the whole of the shell is thus presented.

The " feet " or " noses " of the tortoiseshell are chiefly
in demand in China. The blades of the hawksbill or im-
bricated turtle are very transparent, and more beautifully
mottled than those of the caret turtle ; the scales of the
latter are thinner, and are not used for the same purposes,
but employed for veneering and inlaying work. The shell
of the hawksbill has a blackish green colour, with yellowish
spots ; while the colour of the plates of the caret turtle is
blackish, with irregular transparent spots of golden yellow,
and veined with red and white, or of a brownish black, of
various shades.

The plates of the green or edible turtle are thin and
flexible, and of slight manufacturing use. Their general
colour is dull palish brown, streaked with patches of black,
but not exhibiting those strong beautiful colours which so
peculiarly distinguish that of the imbricated tortoise. The
scales of the carapace of the loggerhead turtle are of a
dark chestnut brown, very thin, and neither clear nor
beautifully coloured ; hence they are of little value : but
latterly some use appears to be made of them, for the
imports of turtleshell (as it is commercially named, in con-
tradistinction to tortoiseshell) have averaged in the last

16

354 '^^^^ Conwiej'cial Prodiicts of the Sea.

four or five yeais in value ^6000, worth wholesale about
^s. or 6s. a pound ; the range has been, however, as low as
%d. to 3^". per pound for turtleshell.

Of the shells of the smaller land-tortoises not much use
is now commercially made ; and they find no sale in this
country. They were formerly worked up in the manu-
facture of ornamental articles, such as tea-caddies, work-
boxes, card-cases, side-combs, etc. ; but they have fallen
almost into disuse, being superseded by the marine tortoise-
shell. In the Cape Colony the dorsal shield or shell of a
small land-tortoise, about three inches in diameter, which
is very beautiful, is made into a snuft'-box. This kind is
used, more especially on the continent, in buhl furniture,
and occasionally in England for inlaying tables, cabinets,
picture-lrames, and other ornamental articles ; a suitable
foil being placed below it, to give lustre and colour. The
shells of land-tortoises are used by the Indians of North
America for pots, scoops, and rattles.

By holding pieces of shell before a gentle fire, or, what
is better, by steeping them in boiling water, they can be so
far softened as to be pressed into moulds.

The moulds employed for this purpose are double, so
as to contain the shell between them. Both parts of the
mould being made warm, the piece of tortoise-shell, which
is made warm and pliant, is placed on the lower half of the
mould, and the counter-mould is closed upon the shell.
The mould is then put into a press, and the upper half is
gently pressed down upon the shell. The whole is then
put into boiling water, and as the shell becomes more
and more softened, the upper half of the mould is, from
time to time, screwed down upon the shell, until at length
the shell is completely pressed into the lower mould, and is
itself closely pressed by the upper mould ; so that any

Tortoiseshell and the Ttcrtle Fisheries. 355

devices that may have been engraved or embossed upon
the two halves of the mould leave corresponding impressions
upon the shell. The mould is then taken out of the hot
water and steeped in cold water for a quarter of an hour ;
after which the shell is taken out and is found to retain the
form imparted to it by the mould.

When two pieces of tortoiseshell are to be joined
together, the two edges are bevelled or chamferred off, so
that one inclined edge may lie upon the other. The edges
are then scraped perfectly clean, contact with the fingers
or any greasy substance being carefully guarded against.
A piece of paper is then bound round the overlapped
edges and fastened with string. A pair of tongs or pincers,
something like hair-dressers' tongs, are then heated and
applied to the shell, one jaw above and another beneath,
by which the shell is grasped throughout the length of the
seam or overlap. By holding it some time in this position
the heat of the iron penetrates through the paper, softens
the shell, and causes the two pieces to unite firmly. Some-
times two pieces of shell are united by means of boiling
water. The two edges are overlapped, two pieces of metal
are placed along the joining, the shell is placed in a press,
and the whole is immersed in boiling water. As the shell
softens, the press is screwed more tightly, by which the two
pieces of shell become firmly united. In practice, when
two pieces of tortoiseshell are joined, attention is paid to
the colour and pattern of the surface, in order that the two
pieces may agree in those respects.

Sometimes ornaments are made of what may be termed
melted tortoiseshell, with very beautiful effect. The clip-
pings, raspings, turnings, etg., of tortoiseshell are collected
and put into moulds which are dot^hlp ; th^t is, a mould for
the external surface of a box or piepe of ornament, and

35^ The Commercial Products of the Sea.

another for the internal surface. When a sufficient quantity
of small particles of shell is put into the lower mould,
which is to form the external surface, the upper mould is
placed upon them, and gently pressed down by a screw
attached to a frame which contains both moulds. The
frame and moulds are then immersed in boiling water, and
as the particles of shell become softened, the screw is
gradually turned, so that the shell becomes pressed into a
soft continuous film, occupying the whole of the space
between the two moulds. The moulds are then allowed to
cool, and the shell is removed from between them, when it
is found to give accurate representations, in relief, of any
objects which may be engraved on the moulds. This mode
of manufacture has been carried to great perfection in
France, from whence snuff-boxes in great variety are pro-
cured. The French have also made hollow walking-sticks
of pure tortoiseshell, by joining strips of shell together, and
moulding them round a central stick or core, which is
afterwards removed.

The scales of the plastron, or under-shield, are of a
yellow colour, and are used for many of the purposes of
horn. This shell differs entirely in appearance, for instead
of the mottled shaded colour with its varying tints and
markings, it is of a bright yellow, resembling somevv'hat the
" hoof," or connecting marginal pieces ; but as these ap-
proach the upper part of the shell, they partake of its
mottled colouring.

The under plates and hoof are used for the manufac-
ture of the gold or amber-coloured semi-transparent combs
so much admired abroad. The Spanish ladies will often
give £l or £^ for a comb of plain yellow tortoiseshell,
while a similar one of the mottled kind would not fetch
there, perhaps, more than 20s. or ^os. Such is the influence

Tortoiseshell and the Turtle Fisheries. 357

of fashion and taste. Works in this material are made
either by cutting them out of the shell, or by soldering
when softened by heat. Tortoiseshell is often veneered
upon a body of wood, scraped to a uniform thickness, and
attached by fine glue. The colours are rendered darker
or brighter by various coatings of coloured varnish, or of
metallic leaf placed under the veneer.

Tortoiseshell is worked upon like horn, and is usually
softened or rendered plastic by placing in boiling water,
containing a handful of salt to the quart, for about an hour
before working ; but there is no necessity for previous
soaking in cold water, as with horn. In operating on the
shell of young tortoises, the water has to be made salter,
and the time of boiling should be less. Some articles are
made by placing in brass moulds the raspings, turnings,
and shreds of tortoiseshell. The moulds, to the number of
12 to 20, are then placed parallel in a boiler of hot water,
and left till the softening and pressure show that the mould
is filled ; they are then taken out, and the objects polished
and finished for sale.

In the process of manufacture, the material, being costly,
is economised as much as possible. For instance, in
making the frames for eye-glasses, narrow strips of tortoise-
shell are used, in which slits are cut with a saw ; the slits
being subsequently, while the shell is warm, strained or
pulled open, until they form circular or oval apertures, by
the insertion of tapering triblets of the required shape.
The same yielding or flexible property is made use of in
the manufacture of boxes, a round flat disc of shell being
gradually forced by means of moulds into the form of a
circular box with upright sides. The union of two or more
pieces of shells may be efi"ected by carefully scraping the
parts that are to overlap, so as to render them perfectly

358 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

free from grease (even such as might arise from being
touched by the fingers), softening them in hot water, press-
ing them together" with hot flat tongs, and then pkmging
the joint into cold water.

If, however, the heat is too great, the colours are much
deepened, so as to become almost black, as in the case of
moulded snuff'-boxes ; for tortoiseshell, being less fusible
than horn, cannot be made soft enough to be moulded
without some injury to the colour. Accordingly, the
manufacturers never attempt to produce tortoiseshell combs
with ornamental open work by means of dies, but in the
following manner : — A paper being pasted over the tortoise-
shell, the pattern is drawn on the paper, and is then cut
out by means of drills and fine saws ; the paper is re-
moved by steeping in water, and the surface of the pattern
is finished by the graver.

In making small side-combs, it is found worth while, in
order to save a costly m.aterial, to employ a machine, con-
sisting of a cutter working straight up and down, and of a
bed (on which the shell is laid) to which is given a motion,
advancing, by alternate inclination, first to one side and
then to the other. By this means the teeth of two combs
are cut at the same time ; those of the one occupying the
interva' /of the other. Such combs are called parted, the
saw nc .being used upon them. They are often made of
fine siained horn instead of tortoiseshell, and it is difficult
for the inexperienced eye to detect the difference.

The appearance of tortoiseshell may be given to horn
by brushing it over with a paste made of two parts of lime
one part litharge, and a little soda-lye, which is allowed to
dry. This is the same as the Indian hair-dye, and acts by
forming sulphuret of lead with the sulphur contained in the
albumen of the horn, producing dark spots, which contrast

Tortoiseshell and the Turtle Fisheries, 359

with the brighter colour of the horn. Artificial tortoise-
shell is made by melting gelatine with various metallic
salts.

The greatest comb-manufactory in the world is in
Aberdeen. There are 36 furnaces on the works for pre-
paring horns and tortoiseshell for the combs, and no less
than 120 iron screw-presses worked by steam.

Forty years ago, ladies' back-combs — which were larger
than ladies' bonnets are now — were made in England and
the United States for the Spanish peninsula and South
American markets. They were often a couple of feet wide,
encircling two-thirds of the head, and from six inches to a
foot high on the back, the top being wrought in open work ;
to these the Spanish ladies attached their veils. As much
of the work was done by hand and with the saw, and
the polishing was entirely manual, the prices were high,
averaging £l to ^4.

For modern uses thick tortoiseshell is more valuable
than thin; but among the Romans, who had 2. furore for
articles inlaid with tortoiseshell, veneers were cut off it, and
very beautiful work can be produced by this process. In
veneering it is usual to apply fish-glue mixed with lamp-
black, vermilion, green, chrome, white or other colouring
matter, at the back of the shell, both to heighten its effect
and to conceal the glue or cement by which it is secured to
the wooden foundation.

The uses of tortoiseshell for ornament are varied, and a
very great number of articles, as must be generally known,
are made from this substance. Brown and light-coloured
tortoiseshell is imported from India and China to France
for fans, the former costing about 25^'. the pound, the latter
as much as ^4. Machinery has almost entirely replaced
hand work in the cutting of the mountings for fans, with

360 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

the exception of tortoiseshell and ivory. In China and
Japan very beautiful cups and saucers are made from
this material, little fancy boxes, cases for holding chop-
sticks, and such like. The artistic mode of lacquering,
gilding, and ornamenting the tortoiseshell salvers, cups,
and boxes, as practised in Japan, has yet to be acquired
here.

The Chinese are partial to tortoiseshell, but then they
have peculiar notions respecting it. Tortoiseshell having
white and dark spots that touch each other, and is as much
as possible similar on both sides of the plate, is in their
eyes much finer, and on this account more eagerly bought
by them, than shell that wants this peculiarity. On the
contrary, plates which are reddish rather than black in
their dark spots, which possess little white, and are more
damasked than spotted — in a word, in which the colours,
according to the Chinese taste, are badly distributed — are
less valued. This caprice of the Chinese makes them
sometimes value single " heads " at unheard-of prices ;
such, for example, as go under the name of "white
heads," and for the varieties of which they have peculiar
names.

Tortoiseshell was much used to decorate furniture by
the Romans. According to Pliny, Carvillius Pollio was
the first to apply tortoiseshell to ornamental purposes.
The fashion for this style of decoration increased, and in
the days of Augustus the patricians ornamented their
doors and the columns of their rooms with this substance.
Julius Caesar found in Alexandria such a collection of the
carapaces of the tortoise that he had them carried in his
triumphal entry.

Strabo, Diodorus, and Pliny, all speak of boats made
from the shells of tortoises. They are authors of un-

Tor ioises hell and the Turtle Fisheries. 361

doubted veracity, and we must credit the fact, although we
are not furnished with any very definite idea of the manner
in which they were built. The sea-turtle is sometimes
found of sufficient size to make a small boat from the back
shell, and of the gigantic luth {Sparges [Dermatockclys]
coriacea) there is a carapace fully nine feet in length, pre-
served in the Sydney Museum, New South Wales. But
the Egyptians could have known nothing of such monsters.
They must have used the land-tortoise, and most probably
had the art of welding together pieces of shell by means of
heat.

Diodorus tells us that, besides furnishing food for the
people bordering the Red Sea, they made of the
carapace small boats to cross the Red Sea, utensils for
holding various substances, and tiles for covering their
dwellings.

"I have been told," says Dampier, "of a monstrous
tortoise taken in the Bay of Campeachy, which measured
four feet from the back to the belly, and six feet in width.
The son of Captain Rock, 9 or 10 years old, used this as a
boat to go from the shore to his father's vessel, about a
quarter of a league." Another voyager, Lemaire, states
that, at Cape Blanc, the turtles are of such a size that some
with the bones removed yielded a barrel of flesh, without
the head, throat, tail, fins, tripe, and eggs, and would
furnish a good meal to 30 men. — Firmin, "Voyage in
Equinoxial Holland," page 80.

The specimens to be seen in the Natural History
Museums of Paris and London, give an idea of the mon-
strous size of some of these sea-turtles, so that there is
nothing exaggerated in the accounts of travellers. But it is
not these large turtles that are most esteemed for food ;
those of 10 or 25 lbs. weight are the best flavoured.

^62 The Com^nercial Products of the Sea.

At the first London International Exhibition, in 185 1,
tortoiseshell bracelets, brooches, ornaments, circlets, and
rings were shown by M. Philip, a Parisian manufacturer,
who received a medal for them ; but it is only lately that
this species of ornament has come much into vogue here.
This tortoiseshell jewellery, however, is neat, tasteful, and
moderate priced, and is taking the place of the vulcanite
and jet ornaments which have been so much worn. The
tortoiseshell is moulded for these into earrings, brooches,
bracelets, crosses, and other pendants, in which piqii^ gold
ornaments and fancy devices are worked.

England imports annually large quantities of tortoise-
shell, and maintains the monopoly of this artistic material.
It would scarcely be believed that in some years upwards
of 30 tons of this ornamental substance, valued at more
than .^74,000, are imported here, and on the average of
years about 25 tons are received.

At the Paris International Exhibition of 1867, among
the countries which exhibited tortoiseshell were Holland,
Dutch India, the Bahamas, and Tahiti. A French ex-
hibitor at Nossi-be, who exports 6000 to 7000 lbs. annually,
showed some fine plates of shell.

To show how widespread is the range of the marine
tortoise, it may be mentioned that tortoiseshell comes to
us from more countries than any similar raw ornamental
substance. We receive it from India and China, the
Eastern Archipelago and Pacific Islands, Australia, the
West Indies, South America, and Africa. The Indian
islands furnish the largest supply of tortoiseshell for the
European and Chinese markets, the chief emporia being
Singapore, Manila, and Batavia, from which 26,000 to
30,000 lbs. are annually exported.

TortoiseshelL and the Tuj^tle Fisheries. 36,

The imports into the

United

Kin

gdom and vahies in

1870 were from —

lbs.

Value.

Holland

6,900

••• ;^4,330

Philippine Islands ...

2,536

... 1,836

British India

2,528

984

Straits Settlements..

1,982

... 1,414

Australia

9,144

6,220

New Granada

6,228

...

... 4,518

West India Islands and

Honduras

. 9,576

...

••• 6,553

Other parts

. 10,438

... 6,628

49,332 ;^32,S03

The average prices in 1870 were from 135'. to i^y. 6d.
per pound, except Indian tortoiseshell, which was only
worth js. ()d. per pound.

Tortoiseshell remained low in price for some years, as
it is greatly dependent for its chief use, that of ladies'
combs, on the fashion of the day in wearing the hair, A
quarter of a century ago it often fetched £t, T)S. the pound ;
in recent years the average wholesale price has not been
more than from 12s. to 15^-., but of late there has been an
increased demand, and a gradual upward tendency in
prices is manifested. At one of the London monthly
public sales, good dark-mottled shell on a light ground,
free from scab, and thin red shell or dull colours, from
Zanzibar, Bombay, and Singapore, fetched wholesale 28.5-
to 29^". 6d. per pound. Of West Indian tortoiseshell,
4000 to 5000 lbs. were readily sold at from 31^-. to 41.$-. per
pound for fair to good quality " hoof ; " ordinary and
medium, from 2^s. 6d. to 32^-.; and even inferior as high
as lis. to 22s. per pound.

As much as 5000 and 6000 lbs. of tortoiseshell were
exported from Mauritius 10 years ago, but lately the
shipments have dropped down to about 1000 lbs.

364 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

The average annual imports of tortoise-shell into France
have been as follows : —

Kilogrammes. Value in francs.

In the ten years ending 1856 ... 13,389 ... 730,096

■ ,, 1866 ... 31.629 ••■ 1,251,922

„ „ 1876 ... 42,30*5 ••• 2,078,910

Passing now to the food uses of the turtle — M. Lacepede
well remarks that one of the best presents which nature
has given to the inhabitants of equatorial countries, one of
the most useful products which it has deposited on the con-
fines of land and water, is the turtle.

The flesh of some species of marine tortoises, but
particularly of the green turtle {Chelonia vddas), is in the

Fig. 27.

Green or Edible turtle.

greatest request as a luxury for the table, at least in
England, and the animal itself is an object of commerce.
The arrival of a cargo of " lively turtles " is by no means
a thing of trifling importance. Of late years, the flesh is
imported dried, which has placed it within the reach of
general consumers. It is also salted in some quarters. AH
the turtles afford a considerable quantity of oil, which is
employed for various purposes. In some of the West
Indian islands it supplies, when fresh, the place of butter
or salad oil for culinary purposes, and it is also used for
burning in lamps.

Turtle would seem to have been first introduced in

Tortoiseshell and the Turtle Fisheries, 365

England as an article of food about the eighteenth century,
for a record in the Gentlemaii s Magazine, under date
August 31, 1753, shows that it was then a rarity ; but they
did not understand how to dress it. It states : " A turtle,
weighing 350 lbs., was ate at the King's Arms, Pall Mall ;
the mouth of an oven was taken down to admit the part to
be baked."

The locality for feasting upon the turtle now has been
transferred chiefly to the precincts of the City ; and the
Ship and Turtle, Birch's in Cornhill, the Guildhall, and
Mansion House, are the chief depots of consumption. Steam
communication too has greatly increased the imports of
this reptile. About 15,000 are now introduced into our
ports, and from thence to our kitchens, every year. They
weigh from a quarter to three cwt., and may be valued in
the aggregate at about ^8000, or more. Not that all these
shielded animals so arriving can be called " lively turtle,"
for the voyage has very often a damaging effect upon
them, and they have to be brought into flesh before they
can be dished up for an alderman's or nobleman's table.

Dr. Browne, in his " History of Jamaica," speaking of
the turtle, says "it is delicate, tender food while young,
but as it grows old it becomes more tough and gristly,
and is not so agreeable to the stomach in those warm
countries ; the juices, hov/ever, are generally reckoned
great restoratives, and often observed to heal and smooth
the skin in scorbutic and leprous habits."

The flesh of the green turtle is employed in the West
India islands generally, in all the maritime cities of the
United States, Brazil, and Peru, in England, in Africa, the
Cape Verd islands, and among the natives who inhabit
the western coasts of Africa, Guinea, and Congo, the
islands of Mauritius and Reunion in the Indian Ocean,

366 The Commercial Pi^odiicts of the Sea.

at the English Presidencies of India, and in AustraHa.
There is not a four-footed animal, a voyager tells us, the
flesh of which the Japanese esteem like that of the kccame,
or turtle.

The flesh of the turtle is thus, we find, a universal food,
if we except some of the States of Europe, which do
not seem to appreciate it as a delicacy. I may add that
this has been so in all ages. Diodorus of Sicily, Pliny,
and Strabo speak of it. The former named " Cheloni-
phages," certain people inhabiting islands at the entry of
the Red Sea, whose principal occupation was catching
turtle.

The flesh is cooked in all ways. It is made into soup ;
it is roasted ; it is made into fricassees, stews, and pies.
The eggs, intestines, bones, all are employed, and esteemed
excellent.

There are in the turtle two pieces of flesh very white,
compared to knuckles of veal. It may be larded and
made \n\.o fricandcaux and pates, equal to those of Rouen
or Pontoise. The turtle is, as it were, the fry of the sea,
for every part of the flesh is edible. The bones, being
easily saturated with the gravy, are left in the ragouts
which are made, and the fat, which is very fluid, serves
instead of butter or lard. The two most choice food
preparations of the turtle in the West Indies are the
soup and the boucan or plastron. The soup made there
is flavoured with sherry, and seasoned with strong spices,
capsicums, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg. It is considered to
be excellent when, after having eaten, one is obliged to
rest with the mouth wide open, and cool the fevered palate
with madeira or port. So that to appreciate this fiery soup,
the taste has to be acquired.

The plastron, or boucaneered turtle, is made by

Tortoiscshell and the Turtle Fishei'ies. 367

mincing the flesh fine and cooking it in its own shell.
Here is the recipe given for preparing and cooking it :
" The plastron or buckler is the shell of the belly, on
which is left three or four inches of flesh, with all the fat,
this being green, and of a very delicate flavour. The
plastron is placed in the oven. It is seasoned with lemon
juice, capsicum or cayenne, salt, pepper, cloves, and eggs
beaten up. The oven ought not to be too hot, as the flesh
of the turtle being tender it should be cooked slowly.
While it is baking the flesh must be pierced from time
to time with a wooden skewer, so that the gravy may
penetrate all parts. The shell is sent up to table, and the
meat carved out from it. I have never eaten anything
more appetizing or better flavoured." This is not the
recipe of a royal chef de cuisine, or of an ordinary
cook, but of Father Labat, a Dominican monk, and we
know that in all that relates to the table, and especially the
food of fast-days, monks are the authorities. The old
buccaneers — from whom this dish was named — having no
ovens, cooked their turtle in a trench covered with lighted
charcoal, and this mode of cooking was said to be pre-
ferable. But in whatever manner dressed, all agree that
the flesh of the turtle is an excellent and palatable food.

Green turtle soup is now manufactured in America
and the West Indies. A manufactory at Key West,
Florida, puts up in air tight cans for exportation 200,000
lbs. yearly, and employs 10 vessels and 60 men in
collecting the turtle. It is sent to England and Cuba
chiefly. At Jamaica some factories are also doing a good
business in a preparation worthy of the gastronomic
patronage of an aldermanic banquet, so rich is it in green
fat and calipee, calipash, and those delicate gelatinous
morsels appertaining to the fins. A steady supply of

368 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

turtle is obtained monthly through the West India and
Pacific steamers from Colon, besides those brought from
the Caymanas. S484 lbs. of prepared turtle, valued at
;^356, were shipped from Jamaica in 1874.

Jamaica is the principal mart in the West Indies to
which the turtle are brought from the coasts of the Gulf of
Mexico, from Trinidad to Vera Cruz, principally from
Honduras and the Tortugas. From Jamaica they are sent
to England and the United States.

Although all the varieties of the edible turtle are pala-
table, yet they are distinguished by the localities from
whence they are obtained, and some are preferred to
others. Those of the Bay of Honduras are most esteemed
in England. Of the Cape Verd Islands, those of St. Vin-
cent are considered the best. Dampier tells us that they
are not so large as those of the American islands. The
flesh is white and intermixed with the green fat, which is
firm and of good flavour.

But it is not only the flesh that is useful ; the fat,
exposed to the sun, is converted into oil. When fresh, it is
good for frying and for other culinary uses, and when it
becomes rancid, as it is very fluid and penetrating, it
serves to oil leather, to burn, and to lubricate machinery.
It is not rare to obtain 100 lbs. of oil from a single turtle.
Oil is obtained from two species of turtle very abundant in
the river Orinoco — PeltoccpJialtis Tracaya, and another.
The gigantic luth is famous on account of its valuable oil.

The eggs of most of the species of sea-tortoises or turtle
are excellent, being both nutritious and agreeable to the
taste. They have no firm shell, and the white or albu-
minous portion does not harden on cooking. A native of
Brazil will consume as many as 20 or 30 at a meal, and
a European will eat a dozen for breakfast. They make an

XortoisesheU and the Turtle Fisheries, 369

excellent omelet. The Indians frequently eat them raw,
mixed with their cassava flour. A large quantity of rich
oil is made from the immense deposits of turtle eggs on the
banks of the Orinoco and Amazon ; each turtle lays from
100 to 200 eggs. Several thousand persons are occupied on
the banks of these rivers preparing this mantega or turtle
oil as a local article of commerce.

370 The Commercial Products of the Sea

CHAPTER II.

MOTHER-OF-PEARL AND ITS USES.

Composition of nacreous shells — Their extensive employment in art and
manufacture — Explanation of prismatic colours — Varieties of mother-of-
pearl shells entering into commerce — Purposes to which they are applied
— Statistics of imports — Diving for the shells in the Pacific — Pearl fishery
of Western Australia — Papier-mache work — Other nacreous and iridescent
shells used — The ear-shells or Haliotids.

Among the products obtained from the sea which are used
by the artist and art-manufacturer, mother-of-pearl and
other nacreous and iridescent shells form important articles
of commerce, to which we will now direct attention.

The mother-of-pearl shells which our manufacturers
transform into so many articles of ornament and utility,
are those of the large oysters, obtained in many different
parts of the world, chiefly the shells of Meleagrina margari-
tifera.

Shells are composed of carbonate of lime, with a small
proportion of animal matter. The source of this lime is to
be looked for in their food. The texture of shells is various
and characteristic. Some when broken present a dull
lustre like marble or china, and are termed porcelaneous ;
others are pearly or nacreous; some have a fibrous structure;
some are horny, and others are glassy and transparent.

Mot ker-of- Pearl and its Uses. 371

The nacreous shells are formed by alternate layers of
very thin membrane and carbonate of lime ; but this alone
does not give the pearly lustre, which appears to depend
on minute undulations in the layers. The fibrous shells
consist of successive layers of prismatic cells containing
translucent carbonate of lime. The exquisitely fine series
of furrows upon the surface sheds a brilliant reflection of
colours according to the angle at which the light falls upon
them.

The concrete composition of mother-of-pearl, being
deposited in annual layers, is excessively hard, and requires
good tools to work it ; sulphuric and other powerful acids
are brought to the aid of the circular saw, the drill, and
the file, and calcined sulphate of iron is used to give a
polish to the objects. The Japanese and Chinese have
evidently means and processes for working this material
which are unknown to us, for they give a finish and a
polish to their pearlwork carvings and inlayings, which the
skilful artists of the western world admire and envy.

Besides its use for buttons, studs, the handles of knives,
fans, book-covers, card-cases, and other fancy articles,
mother-of-pearl is also employed by cabinet-makers, piano-
forte m.anufacturers, papier-mache workers, and others, for
inlaying. The range of articles made of this substance is
very extensive ; pen-holders, carved brooches, earrings,
buckles, sleeve-links, little boxes, and hundreds of others,
might be enumerated.

The greatly increased use of this material in various
branches of manufacture, particularly those of an orna-
mental character, has more than doubled the price of the
shells. From 4000 to 5000 persons used to be engaged in
the manufacture at Birmingham, but the number has been
greatly reduced in consequence of other countries com-

372 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

peting with us in the manufacture. France now works up

about 1500 tons of mother-of-pearl annually, while North

America and Austria also compete with us. We import

from 1500 to 2000 tons of mother-of-pearl annually, worth

about ;^ioo,ooo.

The quantity of mother-of-pearl and other nacreous

shells imported into France is thus given in the French

official returns : —

Average Annual Imports.

Kilogrammes. Value in francs*

In the ten years ending respectively 1856 ... 788,994 ... 730,308

„ „ „ 1866 ... 1,197,898 ... 1,331,884

M „ „ 1876 ... 1,376,132 ••• 3,I59>943

Sea-ear shells {Haliotis) are also now imported into
France to the extent of 134,550 kilogrammes a year.

Button-making is one of the largest uses to which
mother-of-pearl is turned. The blanks ai"e cut out of the
shell with the annular or crown-saw fixed upon a lathe
mandril. They are split into two or more sections, accord-
ing to the thickness of the button required. They are then
ground down and cleaned, turned into a pattern, and after-
wards "fancied," or an ornament is worked on the face.
Next, the holes are drilled by which the button has to be
attached with thread to the garment, and lastly they are
polished. They are finally sorted and mounted on cards
of a gross each, which sell at from \s. 6d. to ?>s. There are
some firms in Birmingham which turn out 500,000 gross
annually. Pearl buttons are made of all sizes, from the
Brobdignag ones as big as half a crown, for coats, costing
2s. or y. each, to the very tiny ones used for mere orna-
ment.

This beautiful material has been as valuable to science,
by supplying confirmatory evidence of the truth of New-
ton's views respecting the origin of colour, as it has been

Mother-of-Pearl and its Uses. 373

to the manufacturer, in furnishing him with an elegant
material for the formation of ornamental articles of various
kinds.

Mother-of-pearl is the interior lamina; or scales of the
shell of various mollusca living in the Indian seas. The true
pearl oysters, as they are called, exhibit the beautifully
variegated colours of mother-of-pearl ; but it is a much
larger species called the Mclcagrina margaritifera, which
affords the most exquisite specimens. That many shells
have a certain degree of resemblance on their inner sur-
faces to this substance we have every-day proof ; for, if we
inspect the interior of a common oyster shell, we shall
frequently find that it exhibits that rich play of tints which
constitutes the beauty of mother-of-pearl ; and, with respect
to mussels, Reaumur remarked, in the early part of the last
century, that those caught off the coast of Provence had the
interior of their shells variously tinted, one portion of each
shell being pearl-like in its appearance.

No one can avoid being struck with the diversity
and delicacy of the ever-varying tints of colour of this
beautiful substance ; but there appears to have been no
attempt made to discover the cause of the production
until Sir David Brewster took up the subject, which he did
with great success, and added another to the long list of
services which he has rendered to optical science.

Sir D. Brewster says : " If we take a plate of regularly
formed mother-of-pearl, having its two opposite surfaces
ground flat (but not polished), and if, with the eye placed
close to the plate, we view in it by reflection a candle
standing at the distance of a few feet, we shall observe a
dull and imperfect image free from colour. This image is
formed on the ordinary principles of reflection, and is faint
and undefined, owing to the imperfect reflecting power of

374 '^^^^ Co7n77iercial Products of the Sea.

the ground surface. On one side of this imperfect image
will be seen a brighter image, glowing with the prismatic
colours. On the outside of the prismatic image will be
observed a mass of coloured light, nearly at the same
distance beyond the prismatic image that the latter is from
the common image. These three images are always in the
same right line, but their distances from one another vary
according to the direction in which they are viewed."

Now, it was in making certain observations on the
distances of these images from one another that Sir David
Brewster lighted upon the cause of them. He had occasion
to fix a piece of mother-of-pearl to a goniometer (an
instrument for measuring angles), by a cement of rosin and
beeswax. Upon removing it from the cement when in a
hard state, by insinuating the edge of a knife and making
it spring off, the plate of mother-of-pearl left a clean im-
pression of its own surface ; and he was surprised to
observe that the cement had actually received the property
of producing the colours which were exhibited by the
mother-of-pearl. This unexpected phenomenon was at
first attributed by him, and by several gentlemen who saw
the experiment, to a very thin film of mother-of-pearl
detached from the plate and left upon the cement ; but
subsequent experiments convinced him that this was a
mistaken opinion, and that the mother-of-pearl really
communicated to the cement the properties which it pos-
sessed.

This circumstance sufficiently proved to Sir D. Brewster
that the cause, whatever it might be, of the colours of
mother-of-pearl resided on the surface, and did not depend
upon the chemical nature of the substance. In order,
therefore, to discover what was the configuration of the
surface, he applied a microscope with high magnifying

Mother-of- Pearl and its Uses. 375

powers to the surface, when he perceived a grooved struc-
ture, closely resembling-, as he says, " the delicate texture of
the skin at the top of an infant's finger, or the minute
corrugations which are often seen on surfaces covered with
varnish or oil paint." When the mother-of-pearl was
regular in its structure the grooves were all parallel, and
the reflected images of a candle appeared all in one straight
line ; but when they were tortuous or curved, the images of
a candle were not in a straight line.

Here, then, was proof that the colours were produced by
the effect of the grooves on the light reflected from the
surface ; for on applying the microscope to the wax, which
exhibited the same colours, a similar assemblage of grooves
was observed. A consideration of Sir Isaac Newton's
theory of the causes of the colours of thin bodies (which is
not of a nature to be introduced here) has made it demon-
strable that the series of grooves breaks up a beam of
light which falls upon them, into a number of separate
parts, each of which is reflected on the eye from the
bottom and side of the little grooves, and assumes a par-
ticular colour according to the angle at which it is reflected

This singularly beautiful appearance can be transferred
to balsam of Tolu, or to gum-arabic, by allowing the thin
film to be pressed and to solidify between two pieces of
mother-of-pearl ; or it may be communicated to a clean
surface of lead, or to the fusible metal resulting from the
compound of mercury and bismuth by hammering.

With respect to the fineness and number of these
grooves, different specimens of shell give very different
results. Sometimes a magnifying power of six or eight
times will render them imperceptible, while in other in-
stances 2000 grooves have been counted in the space of an
inch, and in others, again, the number was wholly incal-

376 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

culable. What is very remarkable is that grinding will not
obliterate these grooves. It might be supposed that as the
grooves must be separated from one another by slight
ridges, these ridges might be worn away in the process of
grinding But as the ridges wear down, so do the grooves
also ; so that, however thin the film may be rendered by
grinding, the grooves and the colours resulting from them
are still developed. If the surface has any scratches or
dents, the bottoms and sides of the scratches are grooved,
just as if the surface had been level.

■If we view a candle through a thin film of mother-of-
pearl, or of gum or balsam which has received the grooved
impression, coloured images of the candle will be seen
nearly as distinctly as when the light is reflected from its
surface.

If a scientific statement be true, there are generally
means for proving its applicability in more circumstances
than one. Consequently, if the colours of mother-of-pearl
are produced by grooves on its surface, any mechanical
contrivance by which similar grooves may be produced on
any substance ought to give similar results. This has been
strikingly confirmed by Mr. Barton, of the Royal Mint.
This gentleman has constructed an engine by which he can
engrave on the surface of steel and other metals lines so
exquisitely minute that from 2000 to 10,000 are included
in a single inch. These surfaces, when viewed by daylight,
present but few appearances of colour ; but when the light
of the sun or of gas flames falls upon them, an extremely
brilliant display of colours is the result ; every gradation
of tint is exhibited, and a change is produced by every
motion of the object or of the source of illumination.

There are six or eight leading varieties of mother-of-
pearl shells entering into commerce.

Mother-of -Pearl and Us Uses. 2)77

1. Those from the Arru Islands, v/hich are the most
valuable. This group, situate at the south-west of New
Guinea, extends about lOO miles from north to south.
From 130 to 150 tons are obtained from this locality
annually. Pearl oysters are abundant on parts of the
coasts of New Caledonia, but generally at too great depths
to be obtainable. There are three sorts, which are classi-
fied in commerce as bastard, black-bordered, and silvery
white, the last being the most esteemed.

2. The fishery next in importance is that from Sulu to
New Guinea, etc. All the extensive range from Cape
Unsing, passing by the Tawi-Tawi Islands and Sulu as far
as Baselan, is one vast continuous bed of pearl oysters. The
fishing is partly carried on by the Malays and partly by
the Chinese, and from 2500 to 3000 cwts. are sold there
annually. The Sulu pearls have from time immemorial
been celebrated and praised as the most valuable of any in
the world. The shells are distinguished by the yellow
colour of the border and back, which renders them unfit for
ornamental purposes, but they are largely used by the
Sheffield cutlers. Of the Sulu Archipelago we know com-
paratively little. The people of Sulu and the Lanuns of
Mindanao are the most daring habitual pirates of the
Malayan seas. The principal articles of commerce of the
Sulu and neighbouring islands are the produce of the
fisheries, namely, pearls, mother-of-pearl shells, tortoise-
shell, etc.

3. The so-called Bombay shells of commerce come in
reality from the Persian Gulf fishery, where the search for
pearls is vigorously and successfully prosecuted. Most
of the shells from this quarter are small, and generally
dark about the edges. They, however, realize more than
the Panariia and Tahiti shells. The imports range from

17

^yS The Commercial Products of the Sea.

about 3000 to 5000 cwts. per annum. They are chiefly
used in Birmingham for buttons, counters, and inlaying
purposes.

4. The shells from the Red Sea fishery bear the name
of " Egyptian," as they are sent to Alexandria. For a long
time the bulk of these shells were forwarded via Trieste to
Vienna, affording employment to a large number of arti-
sans, who worked for the American market, and thus dis-
placed about 50 per cent, of the British-made goods. But
after the great rise in the price of mother-of-pearl shells,
the larger proportion of the Red Sea shells was again
sent for some years to London and Liverpool. About
12,000 cwts. are shipped annually from Alexandria ; but
we only get at present about half this quantity.

5, Panama shells from the Gulf of Panama, about the
Pearl Islands, are now obtained in large quantities. The
shells from the island of St. Joseph (one of this group) are
said to be the largest, purest, and finest in the ba}^^. After
1855 the trade began to be conducted on an important
scale, five or six vessels taking cargoes of 100 to 250 tons
each for Great Britain ; 800 to 1000 tons is about the
average annual shipment from this quarter.

According to their growth, the mother-of-pearl shells
imported vary in size from about the palm of the hand to
that of the crown of a hat. The smallest are the South
American, weighing nearly half a pound the shell (the single
valve) ; the Bombay and Egyptian weigh about three-
quarters of a pound; the South Sea black, one pound; and
the Singapore and Manila as much as one and a quarter
pound each. Their value greatly depends upon quality,
for they arrive in bulk without any attention being paid
to sorting, and keeping separate, the dead and grubby
or worm-eaten shells, of which there is always a great

Mother-of- Pearl and its Uses. 379

proportion among the larger shells. The medium and
small sorts, being the cleanest, bring higher rates in com-
parison with the larger kinds. They should always be of a
bold, fine, good, clear white colour and substance, and not
broken.

Fashion, in this as in other manufactures, has much to
do with the price and supply of the raw material. About
1 5 years ago the black-edged shell, often termed " smoked
pearl," was in much demand for the large dark buttons
worn on ladies' paletots, gentlemen's waistcoats, shooting
coats, etc., but these have gone somewhat out of fashion.
Other shells of a deep, dark, iridescent hue were imported
largely some 30 or 40 years ago, and, having only a
nominal value, were buried in piles in the earth at Bir-
mingham ; a demand having again sprung up for them,
many instances have occurred in which they have been
dug up and used. An anecdote was recently told me by a
large wholesale shell-merchant in London, of a workman
in Birmingham having volunteered to dig up his neigh-
bour's yard or garden free. The offer being declined, the
man persisted, agreeing to give £^ if he might be allowed
to do it, and cart away the rubbish. Consent was at last
obtained, and the digger cleared i^20 by the pearl shells he
thus obtained and sold. My mformant also told me that
the Town Hall of Birmingham is built on such mounds of
these shells that it would almost pay, at present prices, to
pull it down and rebuild it for the sake of the shells that
could be thus obtained.

The use of pearl for hafting cutlery, the handles of
dessert knives and forks, fruit-knives, etc., is not so general
as it used to be ; not many years ago 100 tons were em-
ployed annually in Sheffield for this purpose. The only
nacreous shells possessing sufficient thickness for Sheffield

380 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

purposes are received from Manila and Singapore, and of
late years from Western Australia. So variable is the
supply and demand, that this description of pearl shell has
been sold within the last 50 years at almost all rates,
between £60 and ^600 per ton. The " scales " (as the two
flat pieces are termed which are riveted to the central plate
of the haft of the knife) have to be ground down on stones,
singly and by hand, to a level surface and the required
thickness. This tedious process aids in making shell a
costly covering for cutlery, and as the substance is both
hard and brittle, when the handles are fluted or carved, the
price is of course still further enhanced.

The numerous visitors to the Paris International Exhi-
bition of 1867 could not fail to be struck v/ith the mosaic
pictures in mother-of-pearl, shown in the Siamese Court,
representing the idol Buddha, the perfection and origin-
ality of which excited the envy of amateurs. The King
of Siam, when informed of this fact, commanded the
artists of his palace to execute two other mosaics ; and in
order to render them more agreeable to European taste,
they were made to represent the Saviour, and were pre-
sented at the close of the Exhibition to the Empress
Eugenie, in order that they might adorn some Catholic
chapel.

The commerce in mother-of-pearl is extensive in
Cochin China, where this substance is much employed
for inlaying choice articles of furniture. It is obtained
mostly in the Bay of Tirwar. Some of the other French
colonies in India supply small quantities of mother-of-
pearl. The shells of the true pearl oysters of Ceylon
{Avicuia margaritifeni) are too thin to be of use in
manufactures for their nacre, although importations have
from time to time been made here, in the hope of utilizing

MotJier-of-Pearl and its Uses. 381

some of the mounds of shells which have accumulated
on the shores of the island from time to time after the
periodical fisheries for pearls.

In inlaying with pearl shell the artist traces the stems
and leaves of the flowers with a camel's-hair pencil, dipped
in a size made of varnish and turpentine ; upon this he
lays gold-leaf, which adheres where there is size, and the
superfluous gold is carefully brushed off with a piece of
silk. The flowers and leaves are then painted in colours,
and, when dry, the picture and surface of the article is
covered with a coat of refined white varnish.

The second method of inlaying consists in sketching
the ornament or design with some kind of varnish not
acted upon by acid, upon the piece of the shell ground and
polished upon revolving wheels, as in the other case, and
then etching away the surrounding unpolished portions by
means of an acid. This process possesses several advan-
tages, one of which is that it is much cheaper than where
the design is cut out by hand.

But little taste has been exhibited in the decoration of
English papier-mache goods, and they have been for the
most part vulgar and tawdry in design and execution.
Even the Japanese, with all their good taste and artistic
skill, have lately imitated closely our style of papier-mache
work, without any of that refinement and originality of
design of which they are so capable.

The survey thus taken of the various uses of pearl
shells will serve to show how extensive is the range of
applications to which they are put, and how important and
valuable the commerce in an article of this kind may
become. Every day develops some new use for mother-of-
pearl, and although the material is not one on which any
great artistic skill can be displayed, still trade ingenuity

382 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

and inventive genius are being constantly devoted to its
utilization.

We may now turn to a few details of the commerce in
pearl shells. It was only in 1853 that mother-of-pearl
shells were deemed of sufficient importance to appear in
the Board of Trade returns. The imports from that period
to 1870 were as follows. No official returns have, however,
been published since : —

Cwts.

Value.

1853 ...

15,480

—

1854 ...

... 36,644

... m,ios

1855 ...

20,120

■■■ 34,634

IS56 ...

... 42,032

... 76,544

1857 ...

34,324

... 57,819

1858 ...

25,108

60,448

1859 ...

40,003

... 67,859

IS60 ...

... 30,054

.- 59,707

1862 ...

... 25,442

... 38,677

1863 ...

.. 20,322

... 35,316

1864 ...

... 19,415

30,416

1865 ...

27,262

... 42,663

1866 ...

24,022

... 41,746

1867 ...

." 36,175

70,426

1868 ...

32,002

... 64,869

1869 ...

... 37,662

... 94,015

1870 ...

... 26,197

... 76,489

In the time of the Jesuit missionaries the pearl fishery
was actively carried on, and produced great wealth to the
people of Lower California. The value of the shells is
sufficient to pay the expense of the fishing, leaving the
pearls which may be obtained as clear gain. The best
pearl-bearing shells are found at between 14 and 18
fathoms, but locality has, apparently, much influence both
on the shell and the pearl, not only in quantity but also
in quality. At some of the islands, the banks, even in
shallow water, are quite choice in their yield, while at
others, as in the Isle de Puercos, the shells are tortuous

Mother-of- Pearl and its Uses. 383

and blistered, with dark spots, and but lightly esteemed in
the markets of Europe.

Not only are they found at the islands, but all along
the shores of the mainland, and it is generally believed that
a series of deposits exists from the Gulf of Darien to that
of California. In the waters of the latter place, and along
the shores of Central Mexico and Costa Rica, fishers of
shell have for a long time enjoyed a profitable employment.
Thirteen or fourteen tons of pearl shell were shipped from
Guayaquil in 1 87 1.

The upper portions of the cathedral and some of the
churches of Panama are studded with mother-of-pearl
shells, which give them a quaint and striking aspect under
the reflection of the sun's rays. In many of the houses at
Manila, also, the outer side of the verandah is composed of
coarse and dark-coloured mother-of-pearl shells and paper
oyster shells set in a wooden framework of small squares,
forming windows which move on slides. Although the
light admitted through this sort of window is much inferior
to what glass would give, the material has the advantage of
being strong, and is not very liable to be damaged by the
severe weather to which it is occasionally exposed during
some months of the year.

From the province of Chiriqui several shipments have
at sundry times been made by merchants of Panama, of
shells obtained from deposits in that neighbourhood^
and boatmen who bring the ordinary edible oyster
to market there assert that banks of the pearl-bearing
mollusc, at not very distant intervals, abound in every
direction on the coast. The small shells, of which many
thousands are taken out and cast away, are of no value ;
but the full-grown and well-matured shells, rich in their
iridescent nacreous beauties, are in high estimation and of

384 The CominerciaL Products of the Sea.

superior market worth. The fishery has not been prose-
cuted with that vigour it might be, in consequence of the
fear entertained of sharks, sword-fish, alhgators, and other
ravenous monsters which infest the shores of the coasts,
but which are so comparatively rare about the islands as
not to create great alarm among the divers.

Several attempts have been made within the last quarter
of a century, by companies and individuals, to employ
diving-bells and apparatus, but in every instance some fault
or difficulty has occurred to discourage the efforts. Besides

Fig. 28.

Diving for pearl shells at Panama.

the obstructions caused by the irregularities of the sea
bottom to a complete adjustment of the machines, much
inconvenience was experienced in moving about from bank
to bank, it being necessary on every occasion to unship the
derricks and other fixtures, so as to enable the vessel to be
sailed from one fishing ground to another. The diving
armour met with no favour among the natives, who could
not be induced to adopt it.

The fishery for mother-of-pearl shells has now been
carried on upon the California coast in the vicinity of
Santa Barbara for some 10 or 12 years past, and is also

Mother- of -Pear I and its Uses. 385

prosecuted on the southern coast. Immense quantities
of pearl shells are at present used in the United States in
the manufacture of buttons, card-cases, portmonnaies, and
other fancy articles. Many of the islands about the Cali-
fornia coast are literally covered with the finest shells for
this purpose found in the world. On the shores of Anacapa,
off Santa Cruz, a few men easily load a schooner.

Shells for ornament are equally appreciated by the
aboriginal races, and some of their modes of application
for decorative purposes are effective and curious. Many
of the Dyaks of Borneo wear a large polished pearl shell
appended in front to their corslet, and their shields are
ornamented with these shells. In the ethnological room
of the British Museum many examples of the uses of pearl
shell by the Pacific Islanders may be seen. There is espe-
cially worthy of notice an elaborate corslet from Polynesia,
studded with mother-of-pearl shells, and beautifully orna-
mented with a kind of deep swinging fringe made of
minute pieces of pearl shell, skilfully cut and threaded
together, evidencing great skill and ingenuity in the absence
of European tools and appliances. The Pacific Islander
plunges beneath the waves to seek the joints of his simple
necklace, or to supply his brothers of the Western World
with highly prized material for more elaborate ornaments.
The glittering ear-shell and mother-of-pearl furnish the
New Zealanders and Fijians with attractive fish-hooks to
ensnare their prey.

The export of mother-of-pearl from Manila was, in 1874,
1035 piculs of 133 lbs. each ; and in 1875, 1378 piculs.
Bold white shells from Manila realized at the London sales
in January, 1876, £\2 to £\2 ^s. ; bold and medium kinds,
£i\ ys. 6d.; chicken, £j ^s. to £^ \ys. 6d.; defective
wormy, £6 2s. 6d. to £y lys. 6d.

386 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

The author of " Rovings in the Pacific " thus speaks of
the pearl divers in the South Seas : — " It is a curious sight
to watch the divers : with scarcely a movement they will
dart to the bottom like an arrow, examine beneath every
protruding rock, and on continuing their investigations, by
a simple movement of the arm will propel themselves
horizontally through the water, and this at the depth of
seven and eight fathoms. I timed several by the watch ;
and the longest period I knew any of them to keep beneath
the water was a minute and a quarter, and there were only
two who accomplished this feat. One of them, from his
great skill, was nicknamed by his companions the ' Ofai '
(stone). Rather less than a minute was the usual duration.
In fine weather they can see the shells, when if the water is
deep, they dive at an angle for them ; and as the shells ad-
here firmly to the coral by strong beards, it requires no little
force to detach them. I was astonished on one occasion at
witnessing a diver, after one or two ineffectual attempts to
tear away a large oyster, sink his legs beneath him, and
getting a purchase with his feet against the coral, use both
his hands and fairly drag it off. When they dive in very
deep water, they complain of pains in the ears, and they
sometimes come up with their noses bleeding; but it is
rarely that you can get them to attempt such diving, as, let
the shells be ever so abundant, they will come up and swear
there are none : the exertion from the great pressure is too
painfully distressing. It has frequently happened, after a
set of worn-out divers have sworn that no shells could be
obtained, that a fresh set has come and procured from 50
to 60 tons without difficulty."

The diving for pearl shells is one of the principal oc-
cupations among the natives of the Oceanic Islands in the
Pacific. A diver will collect from 20 to 40 shells per day

Mother-of-Pea7'l and its Uses. 387

according to the state of the sea. The finest are met with
on, sandy bottoms and in the currents. The fishery is
extensively prosecuted in the archipelago of the islands of
Pomotou and Gambler, and the shells are chiefly taken to
Tahiti, where they form a principal article of export,
averaging about 1000 tons a year. The shells from the
Pacific are fine, thick, and of a silvery white. The fishery
about the Gambler Islands is carried on from January to
April. One of the neighbouring islands — Crescent Island —
furnishes a smaller oyster of straw-coloured hue.

The export of mother-of-pearl shells from Tahiti varies
greatly. In 1845 324 tons were shipped. It then dropped
to an average of about 200 tons up to 1852. In 1853 as
much as 600 tons were shipped. The exports then fell off
to almost none, but in 1868, owing to an increased demand,
rose to 420 tons. In 1873 the shipments were 328 tons,
and in 1874 410 tons, valued at ;^ 20,530. An export duty
of ^i \2s. per ton has been imposed since January i,
1875, in order to check the taking of undersized shells of
comparatively small value from the pearl oyster banks.

Besides the above shells, 296 tons of what are called
Maara shells {Turbo inargaritacens), valued at ^^1480, were
shipped from Tahiti in 1874.

Mother-of-pearl shell to the value of ;!^6oo, and pearls
valued at ^1600, were shipped from the Navigator's Islands
in 1858.

In the Paomotus Islands, mother-of-pearl shell was in
1873 only worth twopence to threepence per pound ; in
the following year the price advanced to sixpence per
pound.

The pearl oyster of the Pacific is an inhabitant of
the interior lagoons of certain of the great coral atolls.
The necessities of its existence appear to be clean, grow-

388 The Commercial Products of tJte Sea.

ing coral, to which to attach- itself, free from sand or drift,
and a considerable influx and outflow of the sea at the
rise and fall of the tide. That they are not absolutely
confined to lagoons, but exist also in great quantity under
the tremendous breakers which beat upon the outer reefs
(as also, probably, at greater depths in the sea beyond
them), is a fact not generally known, but is nevertheless
true. As a proof of this, there are to be found, chiefly on
the windward side of all coral reefs enclosing lagoons
(and especially at certain seasons of the year), incredible
numbers of microscopic pearl oysters, and others of larger
size, up to the diameter of a shilling, tossed about in the
foam of the breakers, and travelling with the flood tide over
the reef towards the calm waters of the lagoon. These
have been spawned in the deep sea, or in the coral caves
under the foaming surf, which thunders on the outer reef,
and seek by some instinct of their nature to make thei/
own way into the placid waters enclosed within that^tony
barrier. The oysters which are spawned within the lagoon
are formed in congeries attached to the parent shells, or
clustered in vast numbers, fastened to one another, in the
holes of the rocks. The shell comes to maturity in about
seven years, at which time its average weight is one
pound, exclusive of the fish contained in it. The usual size
is about that of a soup-plate, or 10 inches in diameter,
although in rare instances they arrive at as much as 18.
After this the creature perishes, detaches itself from the
rock, opens to close no more, the animal decays, and the
shell, becoming coated with coral and other stony parasites
within and without, loses all value.

The pearl oyster is gregarious. Wheresoever one is met
with, there are of a surety vast numbers somewhere in the
immediate vicinity. They are found in coral caverns, hang-

Mother-of- Pearl and its Uses. 389

ing from the roof, linked together after the manner of a
chain, or clustered in large piles, firmly attached to one
another. This attachment is only temporary. It has been
generally believed that the pearl oyster is a fixture, and
certainly the appearance of the cable by which it binds
itself to the rock would warrant that supposition. This
attachment has the look of a large tassel, consisting of an
infinite number of slender filaments, each about the thick-
ness of a packthread. It springs from the body of the
mollusc, and passes through an orifice between the shells,
immediately next the hinge. During life its colour is
iridescent, changing from a dark green to a golden bronze,
exhibiting while in motion various prismatic hues. It
fastens itself to the rugged rocks with so determined a hold
as frequently to require the utmost strength of a powerful
man to tear it from them. Under these circumstances it
seems incredible that the mollusc should move from place
to place. But to borrow the words of Galileo, " Neverthe-
less, it does move ; " and under the influences of certain
causes, these bivalves are in the habit of migrating en masse,
not for any great distance, it is true, yet from one coral
shelf to others in the immediate neighbourhood. As con-
cerns the reason of their exodus, it may possibly be
an alteration in the temperature of the water, caused by
a change of weather, or a scarcity of the animalculae upon
which the oyster feeds.

The presence of drift-sand is obnoxious to its com-
fort ; consequently, in the neighbourhood of banks and
crags composed of that kind of debris it will not live.
In lagoons which have no tideway it is not found, and
if introduced there, perishes. The experiment has fre-
quently been tried, and its failure seems traceable to
the following cause : — Wheresoever sea-water becomes

390 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

stagnant in the lagoons of the Pacific, there makes its
appearance in great numbers a hideous reptile, resembling
a centipede, which is found from the smallest conceivable
size up to a foot long. These enter and devour the oyster.
They may have other enemies, but this one is the most
notable.

Under favourable conditions, the life of the pearl oyster
would seem to be one of uninterrupted ease and passive
enjoyment. Himself a creature most gloriously beautiful,
his existence is passed among forms of the most surpassing
loveliness, bathed in the cool, bright, unpolluted waters of
the main. There he adheres to the side of some caverned
cliff, covered with marine vegetation, spreading out his
ample beard (of which the dazzling colours, when viewed
in the light of the refracted sunshine, beaming through the
limpid element in which he dwells, are like the tints of the
opal), and sweeping around him his snaky tongue, he feeds
daintily and waxes fat, devoting the surplus of his nacreous
secretion to the production of a precious gem.

It may be as well to mention here that pearls are, under
certain conditions, liable to a form of decay, or loss of
brilliancy, which impairs their value. A good preservative
against such a contingency is to keep them in magnesia.

Surely, his lines are cast in pleasant places, and his
existence might be one of unalloyed happiness ; neverthe-
less, he has his afflictions. Almost all v/ell-grown pearl
oysters are infested with parasites, in the shape of a scarlet
lobster, about the size of a shrimp. This pestilent intruder
introduces himself into the shell in conjunction, as it
appears, with the partner of his joys, and making them-
selves a bed under the fat, soft body of their victim, resist-
ing all attempts to dislodge them, rear their interesting
progeny, and cause no end of pain and annoyance.

Mothei'-o/-Pearl and its Uses. 391

The true cause of the production of pearls is supposed
by many to be a disease in the animal, for the following
reasons : — In the first place, wheresoever a pearl fishery
is found of which the oysters grow to great size, with a
clean, smooth outer surface, free from knots, humps, worm
holes, or other blemishes — in fact, presenting every appear-
ance of healthy and uninterrupted development (which is
particularly noticeable in lagoons where the shells are wide
apart) — there will the pearls be extremely scarce ; so much
so that it would not pay to prosecute such a fishery for the
profit to be derived from the pearls alone, although the
shell is proportionately more valuable. On the other hand,
where shells are closely crowded together, deformed by
pressure, abnormally thickened about the base, having
laminse of which their outside is composed forced at their
edges into an unnatural contact, so as to induce a belief
that their growth had been stunted, as likewise being
studded with warts and knots of a scabby appearance,
being, moreover, honeycombed with small worm holes
which penetrate more or less deeply into the nacre — there
will pearls most exceedingly abound. It is not uncommon
for as many as 100 pearls to be found in such a shell,
though the presumption is that where they exist in such
great numbers, very few, and frequently none whatever,
will possess any market value.

But of the presence of the conditions necessary to the
production of a pearl inside of an oyster there is one very
significant and certain sign, the faculty of detecting which
can only be acquired by practice. While the animal is alive,
the two flat surfaces which appear at the back of the hinge
present very beautiful prismatic colours ; the cable which
attaches it to the rock is in like manner remarkable. When
the shell contains pearls, the prevailing colour of these

392 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

portions is, while in vigorous life (as when just removed
from the water), a certain shade of bronze, brilh'ant but
evanescent, which is not easy to describe, but very easy to
be recognized by the experienced fisher. By this means a
man well used to the work will, with great certainty, pick
out from a boat-load of living oysters at least 75 per cent,
of those which contain pearls.

In the Pacific, all oysters are opened with a knife,
which, if carefully performed, is the best plan. The best
instrument for this purpose is a common table-knife of
good steel, ground thin until the blade is flexible, and
fitted into a stout handle. A skilful operator will open a
ton of shells in an ordinary day's work, and not miss the
pearls if there be any. It cannot be done rapidly without
frequently cutting the hands (sometimes seriously), as the
edges are as sharp as glass. But men v/orking for them-
selves, with a prospect of considerable gain, do not mind
such accidents. The excitement is like that of gold-mining.
White men, well up to this work, will never (if they can
avoid it) allow valuable shells to be opened by any other
hands than their own, as the natives are sure to steal them
if they have an opportunity.

When the shells are landed, the usual custom of the
fisherman is to sort them into two piles, such as he sup-
poses to contain pearls to be opened by himself, the rest
by the natives. The empty shells ought to be at once
placed under a shed, to protect them from the rays of the
sun, and so preserve their beautiful colours. In hard times
it is usual for men to eat the animal which comes out of
the pearl shell, cooking the residue in an oven of stones,
and then drying them in the sun ; but they are coarse,
rank, and disagreeable as food, though perfectly wholesome.
The pearls are usually lodged in the rong muscle of the

Motkei'-of- Pearl and its Uses. 393

fish, out of which the cable, as it is called, springs. This is
about the thickness of that part of a man's hand which is
next to the thumb. The flesh being semi-transparent, the
pearls are at once seen from their brightness, which refracts
the light. Their presence is easily detected. Sometimes
they exist in great numbers in one mollusc, but in such
cases they are generally small and ill-formed. There are
other pearls which are found loose in the shell, and these
are always of very fine quality, perfectly round, and very
often large. If the shell be carelessly opened, such a pearl,
if it be in it, invariably falls out, being carried away by the
beard in the agony of the mollusc when divided by the
knife, and is thus almost sure to be ejected from the shell.
Thus it has been that upon the Pacific fisheries by far the
greater number of the most valuable of these gems have
been irretrievably lost, for the reason that the natives, how-
soever experienced, never look for a pearl elsewhere than in
the muscle of the fish. They squat down on the sand, place
the shell between their legs, stick in the knife, and wrench
it open ; and if there be one of these beard pearls (which
are often worth a hundred of the others), down it slips into
the sand, and is never seen; but as a rule not more than
one oyster out of a thousand contains a pearl upon the
beard.

Fine, calm weather is most favourable to pearl-fishing,
but not indispensable, as the amphibious natives of some
groups seek the shell by swimming w^ith their heads below
the surface of the water, and having discovered it, inhale a
good draught of air, and then go down and fetch up as
many as they can readily lay hold of. Polynesian divers
do not use any stones to sink them, or any apparatus to
close the nostrils, as do the Singalese. They will stay
under water about a minute or two, sometimes longer, and

394 '^^^^ Commercial Products of the Sea.

can bring up shell (if put to it) out of 20 fathoms. It
requires some extra inducement to get them down that
depth, and of course they cannot stick long at it ; but
Penrhyn islanders, Paomotans, or Rapa men, can do it if
they like. Where shells are found at that depth, they are
of enormous size, as much as 18 inches in diameter, so
that a pair, when opened out by the hinge, will measure a
yard across. This work of pearl-diving is very hard, and
the heat of the sun, aggravated by its radiation from the
still water of the lagoons, is frightful. The divers rub their
bodies with oil, otherwise their bronzed skin would peel off
in huge blisters.

On many islands women are more skilful at this work
than men, as, being accustomed from early life to supply
cockles and clams to the lords of the creation, they are the
better divers. They are paid in cloth — i.e., cotton print —
tobacco, hardvv^are, and ornaments, such as earrings, beads,
dyed feathers, etc., and other articles of small trade too
various to enumerate, the rates of payment not being by
any means alike upon different islands, as also the articles
of barter most greedily sought after in some fisheries not
being in demand upon others, which necessitates a trading
agent to have some previous knowledge of the various
localities where the shell is obtainable, and of the especial
likings of the natives, in order to drive a successful traffic.

Many old fisheries out of which great profit has been
made (such as Tukau, from whence Messrs. Hort Brothers, in
1856-57, obtained, in less than 12 months, 120 tons of shell,
with 1 5 Paomotu divers, and the help of the wives which they
took to themselves upon the ground) are now supposed to
be exhausted, or (as in the case of Mangarongaro, where
there has been for some time back an outcry about small
shell) so far depreciated by constant fishing, and not giving

Mother -of- Pearl and its Uses. 395

them time to grow to maturity, as to be now of little value.
This is a mistake in both instances ; the best of the shell
lies still in deep water, and in the great coral caverns
underneath the exhausted shelves, from whence the savages,
by judicious persuasion, can be easily induced to bring
them to the surface. There are some lagoons in which
any great quantity, and in some cases no shell whatever,
is now supposed to exist ; yet there are at those places very
considerable deposits, which have been overlooked for the
reason that the fishers, not finding any in the shoal water
had not thought to look elsewhere. The shallow water at
these places is skirted by sandy bays, in the neighbour-
hood of which (as before stated) this mollusc cannot live.
Again, where the lagoons run into great bights, where there
is no perceptible current, the shoal water is too hot for
them ; although in the deep hollows they exceedingly
abound, but in such manner that they are not easy to be
seen, unless a man goes down purposely to look for them.
Pearl oysters are like sponges — certain conditions are
necessary to their development ; whereas, in other localities
presenting apparently the same natural aspects, they are
not found at all. *

The fishery for mother-of-pearl shells in Western Aus-
tralia is prosecuted on the north-west coast, about 1300
miles from Fremantle ; vessels ranging from five ton cutters
to large schooners are engaged in it, the work being carried
on by native and Malay divers. The natives are very
expert at diving, but cannot be depended on to remain
steadily at work, and though the Malays have to be paid
better wages they are found more profitable and far less
trouble. The shells average about one pound each, and
are worth £-] to ;^8 the cwt. ; so that on a good bank

* H, B. Steindale in Journal of Af^plied Science.

39^ TJie Commercial Products of the Sea.

the pursuit is very fruitful. The experience of several
seasons tends to show that the banks are recovered in
the course of a year or two, and that the industry has
thus a tolerably permanent character. The nearest port
is at Nicol Bay, where there is a town and a Government
staff. All boats engaged in the fishery pay a license of
.i^i per ton on the registered tonnage, but never less than
;^5 or more than £^0, and the revenue derived from this
source is appropriated to services connected with the
northern settlements.

The fishery for pearls is carried on at Shark's Bay,
latitude about 26°, under the same regulations and in a
somewhat similar manner. In winter, however, iron-wire
dredges are substituted for diving, and these are drawn
across the banks. Hitherto the small shells containing
pearls have been found almost exclusively in an inlet,
named (curiously enough) Useless Harbour, which is about
ten miles wide, the banks lying in the middle of it. The
men camp on shore, and the boats, which are chiefly small
cutters, go out at eight a.m. till two or three p.m. A boat
with four men may bring back eight sacks of shells, and
these are thrown on to the large heap on shore, for the
animal to rot, when the shells are easily opened. Of course,
the product is more uncertain than in the shell fishery. You
may find large and valuable pearls, but they are the ex-
ception ; the average-sized pearls found are remunerative ;
but it is precarious if carried on on a small scale, and the
banks in Useless Harbour are showing signs of exhaustion,
while at present no other satisfactory deposits have been
found. The export of pearls, however, has gradually in-
creased, and some have realized i^200 to ^300 each.

The pearl shell fishery of Western Australia is be-
coming a most important trade on the Australian north-

Mother-of- Pearl and its Uses. 397

west coast, between the fifteenth and twenty-fifth parallels
of south latitude. Less than seven years ago this trade did
not exist, but within the last three years it has gone on in-
creasing in importance, till in 1876 240 tons of shells were
exported to London and 6^ tons to Singapore, chiefly
for transmission thence to the same destination. The
price now being got per ton is from ;£^250 to ;^28o. The
trade is chiefly supported by the iQ\w squatters resident on
the north-western coast, or by small capitalists, who proceed
in the proper season, in small craft of from 40 to 80 tons,
to the coast where the shells are found ; and there engage
Malay, Japanese, or Australian natives as divers at almost
nominal wages. Last season was a prosperous one, and
the trade promises to be of very great importance.

Mother-of-pearl shells of a fine quality now form a
large article of export from Western Australia. There
have been some recent imports also from Gambia, but I do
not believe this shell is met with on the West African coast.

In China there is a good demand for mother-of-pearl
shells. They are used for carving and inlaying, and are
also manufactured into beads, card-counters or " fish " (as
they are often termed, from the shape into which they are
cut), spoons, etc. ; but they do not seem to be used there
for buttons, as in Europe. Three kinds of beads are made
in China from mother-of-pearl, one perfectly round, the
second not quite round, and the third cut or figured. The
card-counters are made in various shapes, round, oval, and
oblong, with ornamental figures and engravings on them.
They are put up for sale in sets of 140 pieces. A few
years ago a set of very elaborately carved or engraved
mother-of-pearl shells were sent from China, intended for
dessert plates ; but, although elegant in the workmanship
and labour bestowed on the carving, and most curious,

39^ The Commercial Products of the Sea.

they were not suited for the purpose intended, and there-
fore unappreciated here.

A similar mode of ornamentation, but less artistic, and
of a much coarser character, is familiar in the carved
" pilgrim shells," which are brought from Bethlehem and
other parts of the Holy Land, having religious legends and
figures engraved on them.

One process of working pearl shell is similar to that of
engraving metals in relief by the aid of corrosive acids
and the etching-point. The shell is first divided as may
be necessary, and the designs or patterns drawn upon it
with an opaque varnish ; strong nitric acid is then brushed
over the shell repeatedly, until the parts untouched or
undefended by the varnish are sufficiently corroded or
eaten away by the acid. The varnish being now washed
off, the device, which the acid has not touched, is found to
be nicely executed. If the design is to be after the manner
of common etching on copper, the process upon the. shell
is precisely the same as the process upon the metal.

Several other shells, having sufficiently brilliant tints in
their nacreous or iridescent hues, are used for some of the
industrial and ornamental purposes to which mother-of-
pearl is applied, and it will be necessary to give a brief
notice of these. The ear-shells {Haliotis family) are much
used for inlaying work by the Birmingham manufacturers,
to give the varied shades to papier-mache ornaments and
fancy articles. They are sometimes called in trade "aurora
shells." There are about seventy species of these splendid
shells, of which we have one common British species of
small size {H. tubcrcidata), with a silvery hue. In Jersey,
where it abounds, it is called the " ormer." These shells
have a row of holes following the course of the spine, and
have been named ear-shells from their resemblance in form

Mot her-qf- Pearl and its Uses. 399

to the cartilage of the human ear. The species of the
warmer latitudes furnish the most brilliant shades of colour.
Haliotls iris, of New Zealand, is green, highly iridescent.
H. Mida, a Cape of Good Hope species, when deprived of
its yellowish-brown epidermis, is found more or less tinged
with orange and other colours. Some handsome species
brought from Japan and other localities are H. riifcscens,
H. splcndens, and H. CracJierodii. The green ear-shell is
much used for fancy buttons, studs, sleeve-links, buckles,
and earrings.

The people of Guernsey and Jersey ornament their
houses with the shells of the ormer, disposing them fre-
quently in quincunx order, and placing them so that their
bright interior may catch the rays of the sun. Some of
the large and splendid intertropical species, which, after
removing the outer layer, take a polish almost equalling
ihe natural brilliancy of the interior, might be converted
into dishes for holding fruit ; if mounted with good taste,
their indescribable iridescence and prismatic colours would
materially add to the richness of an elegant table. The
ear-shells consist of numerous plates resembling tortoise-
shell, alternating with thin layers of nacre, exhibiting,
when magnified, a series of irregular folds.

Under the name of Abaloncs the animal is dried for 1
export by the Chinese in California, and by the Japanese. ,
The pearly shell is used in inlaying, for jewellery, and,
when polished, as mantel ornaments. Coarsely pulverized,
it is used for decorating letters in ornamental sign-painting.

Another shell much used for its opal tints, its glistening
colours of light and dark green, soft yellow, and bright and
beautiful pink blended together, is the Tjcrbo olcariiis or
marvioratus, which passes in commerce under the name of
the "green snail." These shells used to form the royal

400 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

drinking-cups of the Scandinavian monarchs, and they may
often be met with, elegantly mounted in silver and set with
jewels, in museums. Small shells of another species, the
Turk's cap {Turbo sannaticus), are sometimes set as pipe-
bowls, and sections are much used for making little fancy
boxes, purses, caskets, scent-bottles, postage-stamp cases,
tablet-covers, small baskets with metallic handles, buttons,
earrings, ring-trays, brooches, etc.

The beautiful effects presented by the nacreous portion
of shells is produced, as we have seen, by the disposition
of single membranaceous layers in folds or plaits, lying
more or less obliquely to the general surface. The tints of
many shells are concealed during life by a dull external
coat, and the pearly halls of the nautilus are seen by no
other eyes than ours. This shell, when bisected, displays
the pearly chambers for which the genus is celebrated.
Fine specimens of the nautilus are often converted by the
inhabitants of the East into drinking-cups, on the surface
of which they engrave various devices and ornaments.
When the outer coating (which is usually ot a dingy white
colour) is entirely removed, the beautiful pearly appearance
of the shell becomes visible. Sometimes the nautilus shell
is mounted as a stand for flowers on the table or mantel-
piece.

Pearl shells are often employed for ornamentation in
the papier-mache manufacture work, which, though it has
gone much out of fashion in this country, is still in exten-
sive demand in America and on the continent. The
articles chiefly made are small fancy tables, chairs, trays,
portfolio covers, and such like. There are two ways of
employing the pieces of pearl shell. When a considerable
number of pieces of thin shell are required of the same
size and pattern, they are cemented together with glue,

MotJier-of- Pearl and its Uses. 401

and the device or figure drawn upon the outer plate. They
are then held in a vice or clamp, and cut out as one plate
with a fine saw, or wrought into form with files; drilling tools
can be employed to assist in the operation. To separate
the pieces, the cemented shells are thrown into warm water,
which softens the glue and divides them. Cast or sheet
iron and papier-mache are the materials upon which pearl is
generally fixed or inlaid. The process is as follows : —

If the article be of cast iron, it is well cleaned from the
sand which usually adheres to the casting, and is blackened
with a coat of varnish and lamp-black. When this is
thoroughly dried, another coat of japan or black varnish
is spread evenly upon it. Before the varnish becomes too
dry, pieces of pearl cut in the form of leaves, roses, or such
flowers as the fancy of the artist may dictate or the
character of the article may require, are laid upon it, and
pressed down with the finger, and they immediately ad-
here to the varnished surface. The work is then placed
in a heated oven, and kept there for several hours, or until
the varnish is perfectly dried. It is then taken from the
oven, and another coat of varnish applied indiscriminately
on the surface of the pearl and the previous coating, and
again placed in the oven till dry. This process is repeated
several times. The varnish is then scraped off the pearl
with a knife, and the surface of the pearl and the varnish
around it is found to be quite even. The pearl is then
polished with a piece of pumice-stone and water, and the
surface of the varnish is rubbed smooth with powdered
pumice-stone, moistened with water. It is in this un-
finished state that the pearl has the appearance of being
inlaid, and from which it derives its name. Its final
beauty and finish depend altogether on the skill of the
artist Avho now receives it.

18

402 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

CHAPTER III.

PEARLS AND THE PP:aRL FISHERIES.

Great demand for pearls — Mode of formation — Large and valuable pearls —
Shells on which they are formed — Statistics of the Ceylon pearl fisheries —
Mode of prosecuting the fishery — Classification of pearls — Value of pearls
imported into England — Persian Gulf fishery — Panama fishery — Pacific
fisheries — Pearls from river mussels — Celebrated pearls.

Having treated of mother-of-pearl and its applications, we
are necessarily led next to the consideration of the much-
prized pearls themselves, which are held in such high esti-
mation for personal decoration by ladies, and even by the
stronger-minded sex in the East, where Indian princes are
radiant in pearls, and the trappings of their elephants are
profusely covered with these gems of the ocean. The
native princes, in their interview a few years ago with the
Viceroy of India at Barwal, had their elephants beautifully
caparisoned with masses of pearls on the head. Holkar
had his chest, completely covered with strings of pearls and
emeralds. This much-admired ornament is appreciated
in all parts of Eastern Asia, from the Himalayas to the
Pacific, and from Manchuria to the Straits, being in requisi-
tion for the decorations of shoes, girdles, earrings, neck-
laces, and head-dresses, and for the embellishment of
popular divinities. The frequent mention of pearls in
Chinese history shows the value set upon them by the

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries. 403

Imperial court, and by all who were ambitious of adorning
their persons. Pearls of two and three inches in circum-
ference are spoken of Mingti, a Chinese monarch of the
early part of the tenth century, celebrated for his extrava-
gance, had such a profusion of pearls ornamenting his
canopy, the trappings of his horses and chariots, and
decorating his person and the persons of his nobles, that
the road was often strewn with the gems which the gorgeous
cortege dropped in its train. A custom was prevalent,
termed "scattering in the palace," in which embassies from
tributary States strewed pearls about in abundance; indeed,
on one occasion, a garment composed of strings of pearls
was thus presented.

It is debatable ground whether pearls come strictly
under the term " gems," but they are, at least, very precious
in price and general estimation. The value of the pearls
owned in Europe, America, and India must be consider-
able, if we consider what have been the accumulation of
ages, how eagerly the search for them is still prosecuted,
and how anxious those having wealth at command are to
possess the choicest of their kind. We have but very im-
perfect data on which to frame any reliable estimate of the
Western commerce in pearls. A large dealer has assured
me that from i^ioo,000 to ^120,000 is about the annual
value of those received here. If we examine the official
Board of Trade returns we find that the declared and
computed value of the pearls, set or unset, imported into
the United Kingdom in the 18 years ending with 1870,
exceeded iJ^ 1,000,000 sterling.

This, be it remembered, is much under the true value,
and relates only to Great Britain, whilst quantities are
brought in unrecorded. If we consider also how many are
sent to the East, , and are sold on the continent and in

404 The Conunercial Products of the Sea.

America, we may be able to form a slight conception of
the great importance of pearls in an artistic and commercial
point of view. The 10 fisheries for pearls carried on, on
the coast of Ceylon, between 1833 and 1863, brought in to
the Ceylon Government ;^300,ooo, but what the speculators
made by the pearls they obtained it is quite impossible
to state.

The ordinary pearls of commerce are an excretion of
superimposed concentric laminae, of a peculiarly fine and
dense nacreous substance, consisting of membrane and
carbonate of lime. The best are obtained from bivalves,
but some are formed by univalves, which are more curious
than valuable.

In the class of moUusca which inhabit the seas and
fresh waters, most of those with shells secrete a horny and
calcareous substance, that is, combined animal and mineral,
formed on the interior of the shell during their growth, and-
they also form that admired substance known as mother-of-
pearl. The superabundance of this secretion is often pro-
duced in drops, balls, or tuberosities, adhering to the in-
terior of the valves, or lodged in the fleshy part of the
animal. In the latter instance they are of a spherical
shape, and increased annually by a layer of pearly matter ;
they remain brilliant, translucid, and hard.

At the Maritime International Exhibition which was
held at .Naples in 1871, the various ocean treasures em-
ployed in art were displayed in great profusion and
magnificence. Even the Italian journals became poetical
and enthusiastic upon the manifold attractions of the hall
of pearls and coral. Marchisini, of Florence, showed a
wonderful collection of pearls ; among others, a brown
pearl, valued at ;^5000, and three necklaces of large white
oriental pearls, finished and ornamented with brilliants, etc.

Peai'ls and the Pearl Fisheries. 405

To this exhibitor was awarded the great gold medal, net
for finish as works of art (for those of Franconini and
R. Phillips, of London, which were far superior, were passed
over), but merely as the most rare and valuable collection
of pearls shown.

Bellega has a high reputation for Italian jewellery. His
collection at Naples also received a medal from the jury,
and included a diadem of pearls, turquoises, and brilliants,
and a variety of other objects.

Phillips Brothers, of Cockspur Street, exhibited a very
large and curious-shaped pearl, tastefully mounted and set
as a triton.

The best pearls are of a clear, bright whiteness, free
from spot or stain, with the surface naturally smooth and
glossy. Those of a round form are preferred, but the
larger pear-shaped ones are esteemed for earrings. Ac-
'cording to the position the pearls occupy, they partake of
the character of the shell near which they are formed.
Thus, the pearls from the centre of the nacreous shells are
of the usual pearly structure of those shells, while the pearls
formed on or near the outer coat of the Pinna squamosa
are of the same brown colour and prismatic texture as that
part of the shell. Those from the Placiina placenta are of
a lead colour, while even from the true pearl oysters
{Aviada margaritifera) they are frequently of a light,
semi-transparent straw colour. Those formed on the part
of the common mussel shells are of a bluish colour.

The dark-coloured pearls are usually little esteemed ;
in general they are obtained from the black-edged or smoky
mother-of-pearl shell. Pearls of a considerable size are
sometimes found attached to the shell, and being carefully
removed and filed, are strung with the perfect pearls, as the
convex part of the pearl which was in contact with the

4o6 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

shell is often of the same size and perfect form with the
part which projects beyond the surface of the shell.

Pearls of this description, but not so perfect at the
point of contact with the shell, serve the jeweller equally-
well for the purpose of setting as the perfect pearl. Some
of those on the shell, and others detached, may be seen in
the fine collection of Mr. Beresford Hope at the South
Kensington Museum. Mr. Hope possesses the largest
known pearl, weighing three ounces, or 1800 grains ; its
length is two inches, and its circumference four and a half
inches. The drawers and cabinet of pearls of Messrs. Hunt
and Roskell, of London, are an attractive sight to inspect.

The Duke of Abercorn has a wonderfully fine pearl
drop. The beautiful /^rz/rrj of pearls of the Countess of
Dudley won the admiration of the thousands who visited
the London Exhibition of 1872. One necklace alone of
singularly fine pearls was valued at £'})0,000. Many other
remarkable sets of pearl ornaments belonging to the nobility
and gentry were also shown there.

Although fine pearls are for the most part strung pure
and simple, requiring nothing to add to their intrinsic value
and beauty, yet occasionally the taste and art of the
jeweller are called in to combine them into graceful forms
of ornament, with the addition of diamonds, for earrings,
brooches, coronets, and other head-ornaments.

Very often, in purchasing job lots and miscellaneous
collections of rough pearls, some extraordinary finds are
made. Thus, among some apparently of small value from
Australia, bought by Messrs. Hunt and Roskell, one was
discovered which sold for j^^Soo ; and several fine large
pearls had been destroyed in colour and value from the
aborigines having roasted the oysters which contained them.
Frequently a very fine pearl will be found attached to the

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries. 407

mother-of-pearl shells, which the pearl workers purchase
at the London sales in bulk. When carefully detached,
high prices have thus been frequently obtained. The natives,
when the oysters are collected, generally drill a hole in the
mother-of-pearl shell, or break it up to get out any real
pearls there may be in it ; but occasionally they miss one,
and Mr. Wright, a pearl-button manufacturer, states that
about 15 years ago a workman in Birmingham found,
in one of the shells he was employed upon, a very large
and perfectly formed pearl, which he disposed of for £i\o,
and which was afterwards resold for i^200. Small pearls
are frequently found in this way, some perfect, and others
only of irregular formation. In the instance referred to,
the pearl was perfect in form, and of the shape and size of
a small damson.

The jeweller will often split a pearl, which serves for
setting solid. The Scotch river pearls are very frequently
set with a solid mass of gold.

The Russian Cabinet, which purchases largely for the
Czar, possesses a magnificent and valuable collection of
pearls. The late emperor shared with his wife a fancy for
choice and fine pearls, and had them sought for all over
the world. They had to fulfil two conditions rarely to be
met with. They must be perfect spheres, and they must
be virgin pearls, for he would buy none that had been
worn by others. After 25 years' search, he at last suc-
ceeded in presenting his consort with a necklace such as
the world had never seen before. The Crown Prince of
Prussia presented his bride at her marriage with a splendid
necklace, of ■^G fine pearls, which excited the envy of
many a lady who saw it. This admiration for fine pearls
has been a common weakness in all ages and in all
countries.

4o8 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

It was long supposed that pearls were only formed in
bivalve shells, and it was therefore difficult to understand
what shell it was that yielded the pink pearl, for no known
bivalve of any size has such a coloured inner surface. It
is now ascertained that the pink pearl is produced, among
others, by one of the porcelaneous or chank shells {Ttir-
binella scolyinus). All doubt on this head is set at rest
by a specimen of this shell in the British Museum, where
a fine large pink pearl has been caught and embedded in
the shell, near its aperture, just as it was about to escape.
The pearl is exactly like the internal surface of that shell.
These pink pearls are also produced by the common
fountain-shell of the West Indies {Stronibus gigns), and
are known in commerce as conch pearls. Some very fine
pink pearls were shown from the Bahamas at the London
International Exhibition of 1862. These pearls, however,
fade, as do the pink cameo brooches. The giant clam
(Tridacna gigas), the common oyster {Ostrea ediilis), the
horse-mussel {Modiola vulgaris), and many other bivalves,
yield pearls, but they are generally opaque and valueless.

Small seed-pearls are obtained in the Eastern seas from
the semi-transparent molluscous shell, P lacuna placenta or
orbicularis, and are chiefly used for medicinal purposes in
China. Some of the finer ones are selected as jewellers'
pearls, but these are of a different character and lustre to
the pearls produced by the Avictda inargaritifcra and the
Meleagrina inargaritifcra, which is abundant in the Sulu
Archipelago.

Although pearls are obtained in the seas and rivers of
many parts of the world, yet the fisheries have been prose-
cuted on a large scale, for the purposes of commerce, in
only three or four localities — in the Gulf of Manaar, on
the pearl banks of Ceylon, Aripoo, and Tuticorin in

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries. 409

Southern India ; in the Persian Gulf, off the island of
Bahrein ; in the Bay of Panama, and the Gulf of California,
and on the shores of Australia about the Pacific Islands.

The revenue derived from the pearl fishery in Ceylon is
uncertain and precarious, but worth fostering The Dutch
had no fishery for 27 years, from 1768 to 1796, and they
were equally unsuccessful from 1732 till 1746. Under the
British Government, the right of pearl fishing was let to
Mr. John Jervis, a merchant of the East India Company ;
but Mr. Jervis got nervous, and allowed some natives to go
in for the chances at £6o,QOO, who are said to have cleared
three times the amount by this adventure. The fishery
right, in 1797, was purchased by Candappa Chetty, a native
of Jaffna, for £\\o,oqo ; but the fishery was prolonged, and
on counting up, the net profits were found to be ;{^ 144,000.
The same renter purchased the fishery of 1798 for ^140,000.
The fishery was again prolonged, and yielded a clear
revenue (including other gains) of ^T 192,000. The banks
having been exhausted, the proceeds of the fishery in 17C9
fell to ^30,000. From 1799 till 1802 inclusive, the average
yearly produce ranged from ;^ 12,000 to ;^5 5,000 per
annum; in 1806, ^^35,000; but in 1814 the proceeds were
^^"105,187. There was no fishery from 1820 to 1827. In
the next five years, from 1828 to 1833, it averaged about
^^30,000. In 1834 there was no fishery. In 1835 it brought
in upwards of ^^"40,000. In the next two years it declined
to i5"25,8oo and i^io,6oo respectively, and then the fishery
was not resumed until 1855, when about i^i 1,000 was
realized.

The pearl fishery of i860 was, as regards revenue to the
Government, nearly the most successful that has taken place
since the fisheries were resumed. It realized ^^"48,2 16; and
but for the change of weather which set in at the end of

4IO The Commercial Products of the Sea.

March and the outbreak of cholera which ensued, there is
every reason to believe that the proceeds would have
reached ^60,000. The great increase in the selling price of
the oysters was owing to the profit (which could not have
been less than 300 per cent.) made by the speculators in
1858. The fame of this brought all India into the field as
competitors. Money was as plentiful as buyers, and the
same oysters which averaged £\ \<^s. per looo in 1858, in
1859 produced an average of £\ \os., the highest rate paid
being no less than £Z 8j". The two later fisheries realized
still higher prices. There is no reason to doubt that, even
at these prices, large profits were made.

The fishery of i860 produced ^^"36,682 to the Govern-
ment, the average price paid per lOOO for the oysters
being as much as i5"i3 ^y., the highest price given being
iJ'iS per 1000. In the fishery of 1863 the sum realized was
a little over i5"5 1,000, the average price paid for oysters
by speculators being £6 14^". per 1000.

Ceylon has, during the last 80 years, derived from her
pearl fisheries more than a million of money, namely : —

1st series, 179610 1809

^"517,481

2nd ,, 1814 to 1820

89,909

3rd ,, 1S28 to 1837

227,132

4th ,, 1855 to i860

117,454

Fishery of 1863

51,018

1874

10,120

1877

18,952

1,032,066

In the last-named year 1527 boats were employed fish-
ing on 30 days, the number of oysters obtained being
6,849,720.

Experience has shown that but few pearls, and those
of but slight value, can be looked for in oysters under five

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries.

411

years old ; from the fifth to the sixth year, however, the
pearl oyster doubles in value, and again doubles should
it survive to the seventh year. If removed too soon the
pearls are imperfectly formed, and, on the other hand, if
allowed to remain too long, the fish dies and is lost.

The Ceylon pearl fishery usually lasts for a month or

Fig. 29.

I. Meleagrina margaritifera, the mother-of-pearl shell. 2. Aiiodonta
herculea, the Chinese pearl mussel.

six weeks, commencing about the second week in March,
and is carried on to the middle or end of April, when the
sea is usually calm and the currents least perceptible. The
following is from an account of the fishery which I pub-
lished in my " Technologist," vol. ii. p. 546 :— " The boats
employed are divided into two squadrons, each consisting

^^. 1 2 The C ommei^cial Prodiicis of the Sea.

generally of 60 or 70 boats. The squadrons fish alternately.
Each boat has its company, five diving-stones, and two
divers to each stone. All the men are numbered as well
as the boat, and in the Government shed or platform there
are divisions with corresponding numbers, so that each
boat knows the precise spot where its oysters are to be
deposited.

"The squadron starts usually between 11 and 12 at
night, so as to reach the fishing ground by sunrise. The
banks are about 12 miles from the shore. As soon as the
boats have arrived the signal is given, and the diving-stones
go over the sides of the boats with a low rumbling noise.
One diver goes down with each. The other holds the
signal rope, watches the motions of his comrade, draws up
first the stone, then the net in which the oysters are lodged
as torn from the bank, and then the diver himself. Each
pair of divers keep their oysters separate from the rest in
large nets or baskets, so that luck and labour determine the
remuneration of the pair.

" When one man is tired the other takes his place ; but
they do not dive alternately, as too much time would
be lost by changing. The man who has been down, after
remaining a minute or so upon the surface, during which
he either floats without apparent exertion or holds on by
a rope, descends again, and repeats the process, until he
requires rest, when he takes his turn on board. This con-
tinues without interruption for six hours. Indeed, the
stimulus of self-interest brought to bear upon all is so
great, that as the time approaches for striking work, the
efforts of the men increase, and there is never so much
activity as when the heat is most intense, the sky without
a cloud, the sun glaring frightfully, and the sea like molten
lead. At last the second gun is fired ; every stone goes

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries, 413

down simultaneously for one more haul, and then every
hand is employed in making sail, and each boat has her
head to the shore. When they reach the beach, in an
instant the divers are in the water, and each pair carries
the results of a day's work to the shed. Then they divide
the oysters into four heaps. In two hours the whole of the
boats are unloaded, unless delayed by contrary winds. The
divers' share is removed, and the three-fourths belonging
to Government left in the shed, divided into heaps of looo
each, the doors are locked, guards stationed, and everything
is in readiness for the public sale.

" This system appears peculiarly well suited to the
country, and to the objects in view, by bringing to bear
upon the daily results of the fishery the largest amount of
private interests and the smallest amount of Government
control. No man could be forced into doing what the
divers do voluntarily. No fixed payment would induce
them to dive so often in the day, or to unload their boats
with equal despatch."

The market is a curious sight, always full of people
bargaining, purchasing and selling a variety of things.
Spectacled Moormen from the coasts of India, with tiny
scales and weights before them, and brass pans for sizing
the pearls, looking at one strangely from their little huts as
he passes by, with that expression of cunning and clever-
ness at driving a bargain so characteristic amongst their
class. Money-changers and petty shopkeepers, with their
money and wares spread out on white cloth, line the
streets.

The Tuticorin fishery, on the Madras side of the Strait,
yielded, in 1861, about ^10,000 revenue. In the middle of
the last century the fishery here brought in to the Dutch
East India Company a yearly tribute of i^20,ooo. On the

414 l^f^^ Commercial Products of the Sea.

Tinnevelly side the Dutch fisheries were also incessant,
almost annual. After the English occupation of Tuticorin
there was a fishery in 1822, which yielded a profit of
;^ 1 3,000 to the Indian revenue. Another in 1830 netted
^10,000.

The pearl oyster appears inclined to bid farewell to the
shores of Tinnevelly for ever, and various reasons are being
alleged as to the cause of its gradual but sure disappear-
ance. We do not pretend to be able to solve the problem,
but it is well known that fish cannot live in water beyond a
certain density, or be exposed to a pressure of more than
three atmospheres, and it is also known that marine animals
derive from the water the solid matter which forms their
shells. Now, the disgusting filth which the returning tide
carries twice in the 24 hours from the beach at Tuticorin,
to say nothing of the contribution from the shipping, is
sufficient to contaminate the water to such an extent that
mollusca less delicate than the pearl oyster might, without
exaggeration, be supposed to flee the polluted waters.

Between 1830 and 1856 there were 13 examinations of
the banks, and on each occasion it was found that there
was not a sufficient number of grown oysters to yield a
profitable fishery, and none was attempted again until i860.
In that year the sale of the Government share of oysters
by public auction began at 15 rupees, and gradually rose to
40 rupees (;^4) per 1000. As many as 15,874,500 shells
were sold, realizing upwards of ^20,000 as the net result to
Government, exclusive of all expenses and of the shares
allowed to the divers. In 1861 the results of the fishery
were equally satisfactory. The price began at £"/ to £^
per 1000 shells, and afterwards sank to £4., £t„ and 34$-.
In 1862 the banks were found to be in a most unpromising
state, and no fishery was attempted till 1874.

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries. 415

The net revenue derived from the Ceylon fishery for
the nine years prior to 1834 was ^^145,000 ; In 1835 it pro-
duced ;^40,ooo. In 1837 there was a small fishery which
realized only ^^10,631. There was no fishery again until
1855, when about the same amount was obtained. In i860
the fishery was resumed, and brought in over ^36,000.

In 1877, after two years' rest, the pearl oyster beds
were again thrown open to the divers. The result of the
limited period of fishing was looked forward to with con-
siderable interest, as upon its success depend the hopes of
the restoration of this decaying industry, and the nature of
the treatment to which the beds will in future be subjected.
Pearl oysters — or rather mussels, for the bivalve that yields
the precious gems is not a real oyster, but a variety of the
mussel — produce the largest pearls when they have attained
a growth of about four years, and it is consequently the aim
of the divers to secure only those which have reached that
age. It has consequently been the policy of the authorities
in Ceylon to permit the fishing of different beds only once
every four years, leaving a comparatively small number of
molluscs to replenish the stock. But the objections to that
system are that, owing to the numerous enemies by which
the shell-fish are surrounded, and other circumstances con-
nected with their development, banks of oysters have been
known almost totally to disappear within a single year,
when left unfished for more than three or four years ; so
that, though the temptation to leave the beds untouched
for that period, in the hope of securing a supply of large
pearls, is very great, the danger that the whole produce
may be lost more than counterbalances it. The object,
therefore, which the Government has in view in the present
operations is to see what is the proper length of time which
ought to elapse between different fishings in the same beds.

41 6 The Commercial Pi'odiLcts of the Sea.

Experimental divings made during the last few years
showed there was on the banks which are now being fished
a harvest of some 10,000,000 oysters. The average number
of pearls to be expected from this quantity of oysters is
about two per cent. The average value per 1000 oysters
depends, of course, upon the size of the gems. The theory
is that pearl oysters in the last year of their existence
double their value all round. If 1000 oysters produce
pearls — large and small together — worth ^20, the catch is
considered a very good one. A hundred tiny pearls the
size of a pin's head are not worth one of the size of a small
dried pea, so that the fishing is practically a lottery, in
which the prizes are very few and the blanks may be
numbered by millions. Indeed, the manner in which the
boats are selected, and the order in which they fish, are
arranged by lots, the boats being placed in divisions of
about 50 each, and sent out one division at a time, till all
have had an equal number of chances. About 250 boats
are generally employed in the actual fishing operations,
and no fewer than 10,000 people are directly or indirectly
engaged in the industry. In the great fishery in 1874
the number of oysters taken in one bank alone was
1,250,000, which sold for about 101,200 rupees, or ;f 10,120.
These figures will give some idea of the importance of
the fishery, and the desirability of restoring, if possible, its
productive powers, since the Government, as well as the
divers themselves, derive a considerable revenue from the
sale of the pearls.

After the pearls are collected they are classed, weighed,
and valued. The method of classing them is by passing
them through a succession of brass cullenders, called
baskets, of the size and shape of large saucers. There
are lO, and sometimes 12, of these cullenders : the first has

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries. 417

20 holes in it, and the pearls that do not pass through
these holes, after being well shaken, are called of the
twentieth basket. The succeeding baskets have 30, 50, 80,
100, 200, 400, 600, 800, 1000 holes ; each basket giving the
name, corresponding with its number of holes, to the pearls
that do not pass through ; so that there are pearls of
twentieth, thirtieth, fiftieth, and so on, to the thousandth
basket. The pearls which do not pass through the eleventh
or twelfth baskets, when they are used, are called masie.
The pearls having been sorted into lo or 12 sizes by means
of the baskets, are carefully examined in regard to their
beauty of shape and colour, and each size, except the masie,
is susceptible of seven distinct descriptions. After being
classed, they are weighed and valued according to their
respective qualities. The price of pearls is expressed at a
certain rate per cJioiv, which term has reference to the
quality ascertained from the size, the form, the colour, and
the weight.

The number of pearls which are valuable as gems, and
permanently retained as such, is limited ; the larger pro-
portion of the small seed pearls, and of the defective ones,
are used as ingredients of a highly prized native electuary ;
and occasionally the extravagance is committed of reducing
them to chunaiii, or lime, to be used with betel-leaf and
areca-nut as a masticatory. The pearl-powder of the
apothecary was even a sovereign remedy for many diseases
in this country a century ago ; but whether it were made of
pearls is questionable.

Declared Value of the Pearls imported into the United

KiNGDO.M.

1853 ^60,735

1854 ... ... ... ... 41,001

1855 30,476

41 8 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

1856

1S57
1858
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870

;^56,l62

62,805

78,559
56,236

45,789
51,816
38,096
36,079
45,403
16,675

No later official returns have been published.

The average annual imports of pearls into France are
thus given in the French official tables : —

Grammes. VaUie in francs.

82,100 ... 1,265,951

155,300 ... 2,620,863

118,078 ... 2,007,333

Ten years ending 1856
„ „ 1S66

„ „ 1876

The next large Eastern fishery is that in the Persian
Gulf. Colonel Pelly, in an official report to the Bombay
Government in 1863, stated that the pearl oyster beds ex-
tend at intervals almost along the entire length of the
Arabian coast of the Gulf. No person other than the coast
Arabs is considered to have any right of diving ; and it is
probable that any intrusion on the part of foreigners would
create a general ferment along the coast line. The richest
banks are those of the islands of Bahrein. They are found
at all depths, from a little below high-water mark down to
17 and 18 fathoms. It is probable that there are beds at a
much greater depth. It is held as a rule here that the lustre
of the pearl depends on the depth of the water — the greater
the depth, the finer the lustre. There does not .seem to be
any known law governing the more or less sphericity of
the pearl.

The diving period is from the warm spring in April to
the end of the hot summer months of August and Sep-
tember. There are generally from 4000 to 5000 fishing

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries. 419

boats along the entire coast, each boat containing from
10, 20, to 32 men. Of the above number of boats about
1500 will belong to Bahrein.

A large number of the boats employed in the Persian
Gulf fishery are in the hands of pearl merchants, Avhether
Hindoo or other, who reside in the towns of the littoral.
These agents make advances of moneys to the divers during
the non-diving season. As a rule, the diving may be in
water of four to seven fathoms in depth. The crew is told
off into divers and rope-holders, the former diving, while
the latter keep the boat and stand by to haul the diver up.

The value of the Persian Gulf fishery has been usually
estimated at ;:^400,ooo a-year. Lieutenant Whitelocke,
Lieutenant Wellsted, and other well-informed authorities,
give this amount, and Colonel Pelly confirms it recently ;
for he says the annual out-turn of this pearl fishery is
assumed to be as follows: — The Bahrein pearl div^ers,
;^200,000; divers from the Arab littoral of the Persian Gulf,
others than Bahrein, ;£"200,ooo ; total, ;^400,ooo. The great
bulk of the best pearls is sent to the Bombay market,
where fancy prices are often given for good pearls. A large
number of pearls is sent towards Bagdad. As a rule,
the Bombay market seeks the pearl of yellowish hue and
perfect sphericity ; while the Bagdad market prefers the
white pearl. The small seed-pearls go principally to Bag-
dad also. The value of the pearls imported into Bagdad
from Bahrein was, in 1865, about^30,ooo; in i866,;^25,ooo ;
in 1 867, ;^ 1 8,000 ; but in the two following years the annual
imports did not average ^8,000.

The next fishery of any importance is in Central
America, on the Atlantic and Pacific sides ; but even here,
from over-fishing, the pearls have become exhausted, the
oysters not being allowed to reach maturity.

420 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

In the lower part of the Bay of Muleg^e, in the Gulf of
California, near Los Coyetes, pearls have been found of rare
value and astonishing brilliancy. It was in this bay that
Jeremiah Evans, an Englishman, towards the close of the
last century, obtained those magnificent pearls, of which
the collar was made for the Queen of Spain, and which
evoked so much admiration at St. Cloud and Windsor
Castle. In the time of the Jesuit missionaries, the pearl
fishery was actively carried on, and produced great wealth
to the people of Lower California.

A very choice large pearl, of a perfect pear shape, and
of the finest water, was found a few years ago in the Bay
of Panama.

The average annual value of the pearls collected from
the Panama fishery has been about ^25,000. It is, how-
ever, difficult to arrive with any degree of accuracy at the
total value, as the trade is conducted with great secrecy,
in consequence of jealousies, not only am.ongst the pearl-
merchants, but even between the divers, who offer their
property to the dealer with all mystery and every reserva-
tion. From the official statement of exports, pearls to the
value of ^28,100 were shipped from Panama in 1865, and
;^23,iiO in 1867. In 1869 we imported pearls of the
value of about ^40,000 from New Granada, the Atlantic
ports of America, and St. Thomas. The pearl fisheries
on the Panama side, having been exhausted, are now sus-
pended.

It was from the island of Margarita, off" the Colombian
coast, that Philip II. of Spain obtained, in 1579, a mag-
nificent pear-shaped pearl, weighing 250 carats, which was
valued at ;^ 30,000.

In the Gulf of Mexico, when Columbus first discovered
some of the islands, he found Indians fishing for pearl

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries. 421

oysters. The necks of the females were adorned with
strings of pearls, which they were induced to exchange for
the more attractive novelties of fragments of porcelain ware
painted and adorned with gaudy colours. The natives
entertain the old fanciful notion which the earlier natu-
ralists did : they suppose the pearls formed from petrified
dewdrops in connection with sunbeams. We can, there-
fore, well credit the astonishment of Columbus and his
mariners when, in the Gulf of Paria, they first found oysters
{Dendrostrca, Swai.) clinging to the branches of trees, their
shells gaping open, ready, as was supposed, to receive the
dew, which was afterwards to be transformed to pearls.

The Hindoos poetically ascribe their production to drops
of dew, which fall into the shells of the fish in which they
are formed. A Brahmin told Mr. Le Beck that the mollusc
rises to the surface of the sea in the month of May, to
catch the drops in his shell, and that he thus received the
germ of a pearl, which is then impregnated by the heat of
the sun.

Pliny had probably some version of this Indian idea,
and, as usual, he improved the story by the addition of
something of his own. He says : " The pearls vary accord-
ing to quality of the dew of which they are formed ; if that
be clear, they are also clear; if turbid, they are turbid ; if
the weather be cloudy when the precious drop is received
into the shell, the pearl will be pale-coloured ; if the shell
has received a good supply, the pearl will be large ; but
lightning may cause it to close too suddenly, and then the
pearl will be very small ; when it thunders during the
reception of the drop, the pearl thence resulting will be a
mere hollow shell of no consistency."

In 1 87 1 the Government of Guayaquil granted per-
mission to the owner of an American schooner to dive for

42 2 The Commercial Pivdiicts of the Sea.

I pearls on that coast, on condition that one-fifth of the
I amount was to be dehvered to the Government. There
I seems to be an abundance of pearls of very good quality,
' and the owner of the schooner was quite content with the
trial ; 35 ounces, valued at ^20 an ounce, were shipped
from there in 1871.
\ Perforated pearls, destined to serve as beads, often form

a part of the contents of ancient North American mounds.
Squier and Davis found them on the hearths of five distinct
groups of mounds in Ohio, and sometimes in such abun-
dance that they could be gathered by the hundred. Most
of them had greatly suffered by the action of fire, being in
many cases so calcined that they crumbled when handled ;
yet several hundreds were found sufficiently well preserved
to permit of their being strung. The pearls in question
are generally of irregular form, mostly pear-shaped, though
perfectly round ones are also amongst them. The smaller
specimens measure about one-fourth of an inch in diameter,
but the largest has a diameter of no less than three-fourths
of an inch. According to Squier and Davis, pearl-bearing
shells occur in the rivers of the region whose antiquities
they describe, but not in such abundance that they could
£i;have furnished the amount discovered in the tumuli ; and
jf ' ,the pearls of the fluviatile shells, moreover, are said to
^ jJ>^ be far inferior in size to those recovered from the altars.
^r\l (Mthe latter, they think, were derived from the Atlantic coast
. ^''j^Aand from that of the Mexican Gulf. It is a fact that the
\^^ Indians, who inhabited the present Southern States of the
va^>^ Union, made an extensive use of pearls for ornamental pur-
poses. This is attested by the earliest accounts, and more
especially by the chroniclers of De Soto's expedition (the
* anonymous Portuguese gentleman and Garcilasso de la

Vega), who speak of almost fabulous quantities of pearls

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries. 423

which that daring leader and his followers saw among the
Indians of the parts traversed by them. Pearls, however,
belonged to the things most desired by the Spaniards, and
the accounts relating to them, perhaps, may be somewhat
exaggerated. The following passage from Garcilasso de la
Vega is of particular interest : —

" While De Soto sojourned in the province of Ichiaha,
the cacique visited him one day, and gave him a string of
pearls about two fathoms {deux brasses) long. This present
might have been considered a valuable one, if the pearls
had not been pierced ; for they were all of equal size and
as large as hazel nuts. Soto acknowledged this favour by
presenting the Indian with some pieces of velvet and cloth,
which were highly appreciated by the latter. He then
asked him concerning the pearl fishing, upon which he
replied that this was done in his province ; a great number
of pearls were stored in the temple of the town of Ichiaha,
where his ancestors were buried, and he might take as
many of them as he pleased. The general expressed his
obligation, but observed that he would take away nothing
from the temple, and that he had accepted his present only
to please him. He wished to learn, however, in what
manner the pearls were extracted from the shells. The
cacique replied that he would send people out to fish for
pearls all night, and on the following day at eight o'clock
{sic) his wish should be gratified. He ordered at once four
boats to be despatched for pearl fishing, which should be
back in the morning. In the mean time much wood was
burned on the bank, producing a large quantity of glowing
coals. When the boats had returned, the shells were placed
on the hot coals, and they opened in consequence of the
heat. In the very first, 10 or 12 pearls of the size of a pea
were found, and handed to the cacique and the general,

424 The Cominercial Products of the Sea.

who were present. They thought them very fine, though
the fire had partly deprived them of their lustre. When
the general had satisfied his curiosity, he retired to take
his dinner. While thus engaged, a soldier came in, who
told him that, in eating some of the oysters caught by the
Indians, a very fine and brilliant pearl had got between his
teeth, and he begged him to accept it as a present for the
Governess of Cuba. Soto very civilly refused the present,
but assured the soldier that he was just as much obliged to
him as though he had accepted his gift ; he would try to
reward him one day for his kindness and for the regard for
his wife. He advised him to keep his (intended) present,
and to buy horses for it at Havana. The Spaniards who
were with the general at that moment, examined the pearl
of this soldier, and some who considered themselves as
experts in the matter of jewellery, thought it was worth
400 ducats. It had retained its original lustre, not having
been extracted by means of fire."

Pearls are obtained in some parts of the Eastern Archi-
pelago. Those from the Sulu Islands are very fine. A
companion of Magellan mentions having seen two pearls,
in the possession of the Rajah of Borneo, as large as
pullets' eggs.

From the island of Labuan pearls are sometimes sent
to Singapore to the value of about £1 1,000 in a year. In
1867, 1990 taels of pearls, worth ;^ 10,450, were exported,
as against 3853 taels in 1868, worth i^i 1,554. I" 1869 the
shipments were only to the value of ^2329 ; and in 1870,
to ;^S686.

About the Society Islands, where the pearl fishery is
carried on, pearls are most frequently found in oysters of
medium size, and frequently very fine ones are obtained.
M. Cuzent, in his account of Tahiti, published in i860,

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries. 425

states that during his residence there, for one owned by the
queen a German merchant had offered iJ^i200. Pearls to
the value of ^1600 were shipped from the Navigator's
Islands in 1858. The pearls are there classed under four
grades : —

1. Those of a regular form and without faults.

2. Those of a round form, white, and of a good lustre.

3. Pearls of irregular form, not free from faults or
spots.

4. Knots of pearl, or those which have adhered to the
shell.

The average value of these kinds, according to Aveight,
ranges as follows : —

1st Class. — -Pearls weighing the tenth part of a gramme
are worth about 3^-. And so on through the intermediate
weights up to those weighing \\\.Q 2\ grammes, which are
valued at i^ioo to ^140.

2nd Class. —Thirty grammes of pearl, containing 800
pearls, would be worth only £df ; whilst the same weight
in 50 pearls would be worth ^60.

3rd Class. — Thirty grammes of pearls of this kind
would be worth from £^ to ^^"4, according as the pearls
were more or less tarnished by black blemishes or dulness
in the lustre.

4th Class. — Thirty grammes would be worth 30i'. to £2,
according to their regularity of form and brilliancy.

The commerce in pearls in the Society Islands is esti-
mated at about ^^4000 a year. Some are of remarkable
beauty ; and among others may be noted one belonging to
the Queen of the Gambiers, which is of a brilliant orient,
and of the size of a pigeon's q^^. The large pearls found
are, of course, of an arbitrary value ; the small, or seed-
pearls, are sold at £2 to £1 the pound at Tahiti.
19

426 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

In the Gambler Islands magnificent pearls are found,
and also at the Paomotu Isles.

Of all the substances employed in jewellery, the pearl
is the one whose value it is the most difficult to establish,
because it depends upon so many variable conditions of
size, form, and colour. A pearl of the first quality should
possess, above all things, a fine " orient," or water. By this
expression is meant a pure whiteness, joined to a lovely lustre
that sparkles in the light. There are pearls, too, which,
with a white colour, show a delicate reflection of azure.
These are the most highly esteemed. The second quality
of a fine pearl is that it should be perfectly spherical, or
regularly pear-shaped. There are a great number of pearls
whose colour has a yellowish tinge. This alone is a mark
of inferior quality. The following table was made by a
celebrated West End jeweller to compare the price of
pearls of the first choice in 1865 and 1867 : —

£

J.

d.

£

s.

d

A pearl

of 3 grains

0

17

0 to 0

19

0

4

I

6

0 ,

, I

12

0

5

I

7

0 .

» 2

7

0

6

3

5

0 >

3

15

0

8

4

12

0 ,

5

14

0

10

10

2

0 ,

. II

2

0

12

14

2

0 ,

, 16

I

0

14

18

2

0 ,

, 20

3

0

16

20

3

0 ,

. 30

5

0

18

30

5

0 )

, 40

4

0

20

40

4

0 ,

. 50

8

0

24

60

10

0 ,

, 72

12

0

30

85

13

0 ,

, 100

17

0

Besides the individual value which pearls possess in
common with all other precious stones, and which is ex-
pressed in the preceding table, they have another very
important one, which we may call associative value. Thus
it happens that two pearls of the same form, the same size,

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries. 427

the same colour, etc., are worth a much higher price if sold
together than when sold apart. A necklace in which the
pearls have been chosen from a great number will be held
at double the value of a necklace where the pearls have
been picked from a smaller number, even when the indi-
vidual value of the pearls is identical in both. In the first
place the harmony will be complete, while in the second
case the eye will detect a break in the shades in passing
from one pearl -to another.

Some mother-of-pearl shells are fished in Torres Straits.
It seems that women are there the best divers for the shell.
They are more dependable. The pearl-shell oyster is a
magnificent mollusc ; weighing three to six pounds, and
sometimes ten pounds. Divers come up with one under
each arm. They are opened at once, the fish used as food,
and the pearls, which are few and small, carefully pre-
served. The shells sell at Sydney for ^^150 to £\^o per
ton, and a schooner will carry 30 to 40 tons.

The pearl fisheries of Western Australia seem to become
more productive yearly ; the value of shells exported in
1872 was ;^25, 890, against ;;{^ 1 2,895 worth exported in the
previous year, and the estimated value of pearl shells sent
from the colony in 1873, representing the take of the
season 1872-73, was about ^50,000. The value of the pearl
shell exported in 1874 was ^^ 58,928, and of pearls ;^6ooo,
which is probably much below the mark. The natives are
employed as divers, and work for a mere subsistence ; but,
owing to the stringent laws existing for the protection of
the aborigines, most of the pearling craft— in fact, all who
can— employ Malays, whom they bring, under agreement
for a term of years, from the Coromandel coast and Java.
These men are paid at a rate varying from ^i to £2
per month, and are kept free of charge. A diver will

428 The Co77imercial Products of the Sea.

frequently bring up about 30 lbs. weight of shells after one
dive. The value of the shells in the colony averages from
i^7 to ;^8 per cwt. These shells, the home of the Melea-
grina margaritifera, weigh on the average about two
pounds per pair, and measure from six to ten inches in
diameter. It is to their intrinsic commercial value, rather
than to the pearls they contain, that the north-west fisheries
owe their importance.

Another lucrative fishery exists in Shark's Bay, a large
inlet, extending in a south-easterly direction from Dirk
Hartog's Island, about the twenty-fifth degree of south
latitude, to a distance of 150 miles. The shells found in
this region are those of the true pearl oyster, the Aviaua
margaritifera^ an oyster only slightly larger than its Euro-
pean congener, and valuable for the pearls it bears. The
shells themselves have no commercial value.

A large pearl was found a year or two ago on the north-
west coast. It is pear-shaped, weighs 1 59 grains, is of a very
fine texture, and has an excellent lustre. Its size is about
equal to that of a common acorn, though it is of course
different in shape. There are one or two specks on the
smaller end, which is also scarcely perfect in its outline,
but the thick end is superb, and is not marred by the
slightest defect. No fair estimate of its value could be
made locally, as there is no Australian market for such
gems. The pearl was found by a pearling expedition fitted
out from the port of Melbourne.

The subject of marine pearls can scarcely be dealt with
without a brief allusion to the river pearls which are
obtained from the Alaniodon, Anodonta, Unios, and other
shells, in different countries.

Many of the fresh-water mussels produce pearls in the
mountain-streams of Britain, Lapland, and Canada ; but

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries. 429

they are generally inferior in lustre and value to the
marine pearls. Some worth ;^3 to £\ each have, however,
been frequently obtained, and specimens of great individual
value have ranged from ;^5o up to ;^ioo. It has long been
known to naturalists and antiquaries that pearls of great
beauty and size have been found from time to time in the
Scotch streams.

Tytler, in his " History of Scotland," states that, so
early as the twelfth century, there was a demand for Scotch
pearls abroad. Those in the possession of Alexander I.,
he says, were celebrated for their size and beauty. In
1355 Scotch pearls are referred to in a statute of the
Parisian goldsmiths, by which it was enacted that no
worker in gold or silver should set them with oriental
pearls, except in large ornaments or jewels for churches.
They are noticed again in the reign of Charles I., when the
Scotch pearl trade was considered of sufficient importance
to be worthy of the attention of Parliament. The following
extract from " An Accompt Current betwixt Scotland and
England," by John Spruel, Edinburgh, 1705, shows that
they were then well known : — " If a Scotch pearl be of a
fine transparent colour and perfectly round, and of any
great bigness, it may be worth 15, 20, 30, 40, to 50 rix-
doUars ; yea, I have given 100 rix-dollars {^£\6 c^s. 2d) for
one, but that is rarely to get such. ... I have dealt in
pearls these 40 years and more, and yet, to this day, I
could never sell a necklace of fine Scots pearl in Scotland,
nor yet fine pendants, the generality seeking for oriental
pearls, because farther fetched. At this very day I can
show some of our own Scots pearl as fine, more hard and
transparent, than any oriental. It is true that the oriental
can be easier matched, because they are all of a yellow
water, yet foreigners covet Scots pearl."

430 TJie Commercial Products of the Sea.

These British pearls were well known to the Romans,
who,. nevertheless, complained that they were small and
ill-coloured. History has preserved the tradition that it
was this source of wealth that tempted the Romans to our
shores, and more than one ancient writer refers to the
shield, studded with British pearls, which Caesar suspended
as an offering in the temple of Venus, at Rome. Tacitus
mentions pearls among the products of our island, but adds
that they were generally of a dusky, livid hue. This, he
suggests, was owing to the carelessness and inexperience of
the persons who collected them, who did not pluck the
shell-fish alive from the rocks, but were content to gather
what the waves cast on the beach. Pliny and others also
describe them as inferior, on account of their dulness and
cloudiness, to the jewels of the East. Coming down to
times less remote, we find Hector Boece, in the sixteenth
century, expatiating upon the pearls of Caledonia with much
enthusiasm. They were, he says, very valuable, " bright,
light, and round, and sometimes of the quantity of the nail
of one's little finger."

It seems known that Sir Richard Wynn, chamberlain
to the queen of Charles H., presented her Majesty with a
pearl taken from the river Conway, which, it is affirmed,
is still honoured with a place in the regal crown. In the
sixteenth century, several of great size were fished from
the Irish rivers. One that weighed 36 carats was valued at
£\o, and other single pearls were sold at from £,^ \os. up
to ^10. This last was disposed of a second time to Lady
Glenlealy, who put it into a necklace and refused ^80 for
it from the Duchess of Ormond (" Philos. Trans. Abr.,"

p. 83).

Oliver Goldsmith, in his " Natural History," refers to a
pearl fishery rented on the Tay ; and Hugh Miller has

Pearls and the Pearl Fishe7'ies. 431

spoken of rivers in the north famous for their pearls. As a
branch of industry, however, the Scotch pearl fishery seems
to have been well-nigh forgotten, when, in i860, M. Moritz
Unger, a foreigner then in Edinburgh, conceived the idea
of making a tour through the districts where the pearl
mussel was known to abound. He discovered that pearl
fishing was not altogether forgotten, and found pearls in
various parts of the country, in the hands of people who
did not estimate their value. He purchased all he could
procure. The consequence was that, in the following year,
many persons — colliers, masons, labourers, and others —
began to devote their leisure to pearl fishing, and some of
them were so successful as, during the summer months, to
make as much as ^^8 to ^10 weekly. Between the years
1761 and 1764, ^10,000 worth of pearls were sent to
London from the rivers Tay and Isla, but the trade carried
on in the corresponding years of this century was far more
than double that amount. M. Unger estimated the pearls
found in 1865 to be of the value of about ^^ 12,000. In the
summer of 1S62, which was dry and favourable to fishing
operations, more pearls were produced than during any
previous year in Scotland, and at that time the average
price of a Scotch pearl was £2 6s. to ^os. ; ^^5 was con-
sidered a high price. Since the fisheries were revived, their
price has rapidly risen, and they now fetch prices ranging
from ;^5 to ^20. One Scotch pearl was bought by Her
Majesty for 40 guineas. The Duchess of Hamilton and
the Empress of the French also purchased fine specimens
at high prices, and M. Unger had in his possession a neck-
lace of Scotch pearls, which he valued at ^350.

A good pearl should be either globular or pear-shaped ;
according to Jeffries, a celebrated jeweller, " their com-
plexion must be milk-white, not of a dead and lifeless, but

432 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

of a clear and lively hue, free from stains, fouls, spots,
specks, or roughness." He condemns all coloured pearls,
although the Hindoos prefer a yellow tinge, and some
nations admire the red. He values them according to their
weight, in the following manner : — A pearl of one carat
(three grains and one-fifth) is valued at Zs. ; one of two
carats at four times that amount ; one of three carats at
nine times, and so on in a square proportion, multiplying
the number of carats by itself and the product by 8^-.
But the price set upon some pearls of ancient days exceeds
this estimate enormously ; and even now a pearl of very
extraordinary beauty would most probably receive a
valuation upon other grounds than its weight.

The enormous value attached in ancient times to some
extraordinary pearls seems to be almost fabulous. Much of
this must, of course, be attributed to the caprice which will
pay any price, however excessive, for whatever is unique of
its kind, the possession of which may be an object of com-
petition ; and the manufacture of artificial pearls had not
then lowered the price of the real jewel. But though no
lono-er so extravagantly valued, the pearl must always be a
favourite ; its delicate and silvery lustre, in the words of an
admirer, " relieves the eye of gazing at the brilliancy of the
diamond, as the soft brightness of the moon after the
dazzling fire of the sun."

There were the often-mentioned pearls of Cleopatra, one
of which that celebrated queen drank dissolved in vinegar
before Marc Antony, while the other, saved from a similar
fate, was slit into halves to form earrings for the statue
of Venus in the Pantheon. Julius Caesar presented to
Servilia a pearl valued at 6,000,000 sesterces, or nearly
^50,000. Clodius, the glutton, swallowed one worth
;^8ooo.

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries. 433

The example of Cleopatra found an imitator even in
sober England, Sir Thomas Gresham, not otherwise
famous for acts of folly, still so mistook the meaning of
loyalty that he ground a pearl, which had cost him £ 1 5,000,
into a cup of wine in order thus fitly to drink the health of
his great queen !

The pearl belonging to the Shah of Persia, seen by
Tavernius in 1633, was valued at 32,000 tomans, equal at
that time to double the number of pounds sterling. It
is said to have been obtained at Catifa, in Arabia, where
a pearl fishery existed in the time of Pliny. It was pear-
shaped, perfect in all respects, and nearly three inches
long. This pearl is believed to be the one which was in
possession of the late King of Persia, Fateh Ali Shah.

A pearl presented by the republic of Venice to Soliman,
the Emperor of the Turks, was valued at .^16,000. The large
pearl in the crown of the Emperor Rudolph II. weighed 30
carats, and was the size of a pear. (?) Pope Leo X. bought
a pearl of a Venetian jeweller for the sum of ^^ 14,000. A
lady in Madrid, in the year 1605, wore an American pearl
which cost 31,000 ducats.

A large Java pearl, curiously set, was shown at Madrid
a few years ago. It was made to represent a siren, or
mermaid, dressing her hair ; her body was formed of the
pearl, which was of a long oval form, and beautifully pure
white ; the head and arms were of white enamel, and the
lower extremity, forming the fish, of green enamel. The
whole was finely carved, and on the girdle were the
following words : " Fallunt aspectus cantusque syrenis."

The most beautiful pearl known is in the Museum of
Zosima, in Moscow. It weighs very nearly 28 carats. It is
perfectly globular, and so beautifully brilliant that at first
sight it appears transparent. It was bought by Zosima at

434 ^-^^^ Commercial Pj^oducts of the Sea.

Leghorn, of a captain of an East India ship. This splendid
pearl, which has been named the Pellegrina, is one of the
objects of a visit to Moscow.

In the French crown jewels there are some veiy fine
pearls. Among others, a collection of 408 pearls, each
weighing 16 grammes, of a perfect white, round, and of a
magnificent orient. They are valued at ;^ 20,000. Also a
pearl as large as a pigeon's egg, of a very beautiful quality,
valued at ;^i6oo, and others of less value.

" As this admiration for fine pearls has been the common

^yeakness of man in all ages and in all countries, we need

not wonder at their playing a prominent part in religious

writings. The Talmud has a pretty story, teaching us that

those who believe in it esteemed but one object in nature

of higher value than pearls. When Abraham approached

Egypt, the book tells us, he locked Sara in a chest that

none might behold her dangerous beauty. But when he

was come to the place of paying custom, the officer said,

' Pay custom.' And he said, ' I will pay the custom.'

They said to him, * Thou carriest clothes.' And he said,

' I will pay for clothes. Then they said to him, * Thou

carriest gold.' And he answered them, ' I will pay for

gold.' On this they further said, ' Surely, thou bearest

the fine silk.' He replied, ' I will pay custom for the

finest silk.' Then they said, ' Surely, it must be pearls

that thou takest with thee.' And he only answered, ' I will

pay for pearls." Seeing that they could name nothing of

value for which the patriarch was not willing to pay

custom, they said, " It cannot be but thou open the box

and let us see what is within." So they opened the box,

and the whole land of Egypt was illumined by the lustre 01

Sara's beauty — far exceeding even that of pearls.

"Hence pearls are repeatedly used in Holy Writ also for

Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries. 435

the most solemn comparisons, and to denote the highest
degree of perfection. In the Old Testament wisdom is
praised as above pearls ; and in the New Testament the
kingdom of heaven is compared to a pearl of great price,
which, when a merchant had found it, he went and sold all
that he had, and bought it. Even the New Jerusalem was
revealed to St. John under the figure of an edifice with
twelve doors, each of which was a single pearl." *

* ** Putnam's Magazine.''

43^ The Commercial Products of the Sea.

CHAPTER IV.

CORAL AND THE CORAL FISHERIES.

Scientific description of coral — Varieties of— Commercial classifications of coral
— Statistics of trade in France and England — Seats of manufacture in
Italy — Various coral fisheries in the Mediterranean — Statistics of boats
employed — British imports of coral — Indian trade in coral.

Science and commerce frequently work hand in hand, and
materially aid each other ; but in some instances commerce
has been in advance of science, and this may be said of
the search for coral and its application for ornament, which
have been prosecuted for ages by the uninformed, whilst
learned naturalists have been debating many moot points
as to the growth, formation, and special localities of the
coral varieties.

Our scientific men are busy dredging and exploring the
great depths of the ocean, but they have as yet thrown
little light on those questions which are of paramount
importance to the fishers for and workers in coral — as, for
instance, why the important banks of good coral are limited
to the Mediterranean Sea, and what are the requirements ot
these polypes for the aggregation and formation of this now
much sought for article of commerce. As I remarked in a
lecture delivered before the Society of Arts a few years
ago, we are still ignorant on many points of the highest

Coral and the Coral Fisheries.

437

importance relating to the production and collection of this
handsome substance. The little that we do know, however,
leads to the belief that the growth of coral is rapid ; that

Fig. 30.

Covallium nobilis, or red coral ; with a piece magnified, showing the polypes.

43S The Com7nercial Pi'oducts of the Sea.

its development is simple, and accommodates itself to very
varied circumstances ; that detached fragments from the
bunch or principal stem have a vitality, and will volun-
tarily attach themselves to certain fixed substances, for
continuing their development and forming new trunks ; in
fact, objects thrown into the sea in the vicinity of coral
banks will infallibly be found covered with coral in a few
months. But what is most valuable to be known in regu-
lating the search for coral, and for rendering the return
more productive and more certain, is to ascertain at what
age coral attains its largest size ; how long it takes for an
exhausted coral bank to again become rich and flourishing.
at what period the eggs are laid ; how are the products
disseminated ; at what period does the budding take place,
and how long does it last ? These are most important
questions, on the solving of which rests the complete
regeneration and progressive increase of the coral fisher}',
and they are questions as yet unsolved by naturalists.

Professor Lacaze-Duthiers, who was charged with a
mission to the coast of Algeria to report upon this zoophyte,
has given us the results of his investigation and curious
experience : —

" To describe correctly," he says, " a branch of coral
we must bear in mind the peculiar property of germination
which belongs to the immense class of zoophytes, and we
can then consider it as a colony of individuals derived
from one zoophyte, itself originating from an ovum or

" The stem of the coral is divisible into two constant
and distinct parts : a central axis, hard and brittle, like
stone, which is the part used in commerce, and a soft cover-
ing or epidermis, which easily yields to the nail when it is
fresh, but is friable or brittle when dry.

Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 439

"This epidermis appears indented by small cavities
upon its surface, and we can often perceive radiated pores
corresponding to these cavities. In observing the live coral,
we see that out of these holes protrude the little flowers
that the naturalists Maligny and Peissonnel recognized
as the animals, and which they compared to small sea-
nettles.

"Nothing can equal the delicacy and graceful disposition
of these little milk-white rosettes, which contrast admirably
with the brilliant red of the coral.

" Their arms, which surround their mouths, are ciliated,
or covered with fine fringes, which, ever moving and
agitating the water, create a circular current that carries
to the centre, and consequently into their mouths, the
minute matters that sustain them.

" The epidermis is composed of a very delicate white
tissue, and presents through its whole thickness the long
cavities of the polypes. It is traversed by canals, which
are very numerous, and establish a solidity between all
parts, sprinkled with small calcareous corpuscles, hard,
resisting, and all armed with unassailable bundles of points,
having a special form.

" The structure of the animals is otherwise very simple ;
they present the appearance of a pocket or of an open
purse. The mouth is surrounded with arms, and conducts
to the central or penetrating cavity the food, and there we
find eight lamillse radiating towards the centre."

There are various kinds of coral, so-called, to be met
with in the shops of shell-dealers and naturalists sold
under the name of fan coral, brush coral, brainstones, etc.,
which serve for ornamenting chimney-pieces, cabinets,
museums, drawing-room tables, aquaria, etc. Such, for
instance, as the white coral, formerly called Madrepora

440 ^-^^ Com7nercial Products of the Sea.

virginea, and now named Oailina virgiiiea, the brainstone
coxd\{Mendrina ccreh'iforfnis) , the: black coral {G.Antipatkes),
and the organ-pipe coral {Tubipora intisica), which takes its
name from the regular arrangement of its cylindrical dark
crimson tubes side by side. Being much cheaper than the
ordinary solid red coral, this last kind is frequently used
as a representative of coral in cabinets of economic
products.

But it is with jeweller's coral that we have to deal,
which is alone used for articles of personal decoration and
works of art. Occasionally the re^' coral is found white,

Varieties of coral.

or without any colouring matter ; the tips are bored, and
the pieces are threaded into negligees, or they are cut into
links for forming chains. At the Naples Maritime Inter-
national Exhibition a magnificent branch of black coral
from Trapani was shown, which formed a finish to the
trophy of aboriginal arms and weapons exhibited from the
Pacific. At Jedda there is a black coral fishery which
extends fifty miles north and south. From taking a fine
polish, the black is fashioned into beads and mouth-pieces

Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 441

for cigars. The dull white is not quite so hard, and from
not polishing well is sold cheaper. It is often deteriorated
by being worm-eaten.

Coral is, after pearls, the handsomest and most valuable
production obtained from the sea. Naturalists range it, in
the animal kingdom, at the head of zoophytes or animal-
plants. It presents to the fisherman the appearance of a
branching shrub without leaves, of a red or rose colour,
compact and solid. Coral has the hardness and brilliancy
of agate ; it polishes like gems and shines like garnet, with
the tints of the ruby. The larger branches are used for
carving, and as the material is durable, well suited to give
definite outlines to the sculptor's work, great labour and
ingenuity are frequently expended on objects of art wrought
in this material. The Chinese, Hindoos, and Singalese
have all tried their skill in carving coral, but the finest and
most artistic work emanates from the Italian workshops of
Naples, Genoa, and Leghorn.

Large, perfect, well-shaped beads are by far the most
valuable form of coral, and these have greatly increased
in estimation of late years. Many of the finest are sent to
China, where they are in demand for the mandarin's red
button of rank worn on the cap. Some of the natives of
India have a preference for what may be called worm-
eaten beads, and tons of these, which would not find
favour in Europe, go to the East, where they are esteemed
from a superstitious belief that gods dwell in the little
recesses or cavities of this coral.

The Chinese, who are most patient and skilful in all
their work, used to prepare strings of small rows of seed-
coral beads for embroidery, the boring of which was most
minute. The practice or art would seem to have become
obsolete, for I have only met with strings of them in the

442 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

collection of Messrs. Phillips, Cockspur Street, London,
where they are shown as a great curiosity.

A large part of the coral is wasted in the process of
grinding and filing to convert it into uniform well-shaped
beads, and this, of course, adds greatly to the cost. It is
not every one who can obtain and possess such a magnifi-
cent row of coral beads as the well-known necklace be-
longing to Mrs. Edward Baring.

Much of the manufacturing process — grinding, drilling,
and polishing the coral — is carried on by women. The
working of beads consists of three different operations —
cutting, piercing, and rounding — and is principally executed
by the females of the Val du Bisagno, in Italy. The manner
in which it is distributed among the different communes
affords a striking example of the principle of subdivision of
labour.

All the operatives employed in cutting belong to about
100 families in the commune of Assio ; those in piercing
and rounding to about 6o families living in other parts of
the valley. Every village works exclusively at beads of a
fixed size. In Genoa each manufacturer employs from lo
to 20 or more women, who submit the coral to a preparatory
process before it is given to the workers of Bisagno. Thirty
or 40 men and women are employed in their own homes
in cutting coral into facets. There are also about 30 en-
gravers of coral and cameos. In all from 5000 to 6000
persons gain their livelihood in the province of Genoa
either by fishing for, working on, or selling coral, and this
craft produces a revenue of ;^8o,000. Exports of coral
are made from Genoa to Austria, Hungary, Poland,
England, Aleppo, Madras, and Calcutta.

Those who are connoisseurs of coral know that of late
years it has risen considerably in the estimation of the fair

Coral and the Coral Fisheries.. 443

sex. A somewhat arbitrary standard of beauty has, how-
ever, been established in regard to the colour. We must
no more think of a choice piece of coral when we talk of
"coral lips," than we must of a bigarreaii when we speak
of " cherry lips." Coral, to be rare and valuable, must be
of a delicate pinkish, flesh-like hue, uniform in tint through-
out, and in large pieces.

The principal commercial varieties distinguished are
red, subdivided into deep crimson red, pale red, and
vermilion, which is rare ; black, clear white, and dull white,
which is the most common. The delicate rose or flesh-
coloured, which is the most prized, is sold at very high
prices, as it is entirely a fancy article.

Red coral is classified by some dealers into twelve
shades of colour, besides the white and pink coral.

In some countries red coral is classified into the fol-
lowing five commercial grades : — i, froth of blood ; 2,
flower of blood ; 3, 4, 5, blood of first, second, and third
qualities.

Madrepore and other shov.y corals are used for orna-
mental purposes. The horny axis of black flexible coral
{Plesaiira crassa) is used for canes and whips in the Ber-
mudas, and the axis of fan coral {RJiipidogorgid) for
skimmers in the same islands. Coral is used for building
purposes in the Pacific islands, Mauritius, the Seychelles,
and other places. Coral rock of recent formation {Coquina)
is employed in Florida in the manufacture of ornamental
vases and earrings. Calcined coral is used for dentrifices.
as an antacid, etc. Lime is also made by calcining coral
and coral rock.

The dealers and workers in coral recognize rough tips
and polished tips, fragments, roots of branches, suitable
for making earrings, and coral tulips for shaping into

444 "^^^^ Commercial Products of the Sea.

ornaments. The branches of coral assume the espalier shape
and other forms. Negligee, eollettc, and olive-shaped beads
are made.

Coral is valued according to its bulk, colour, sound-
ness and freedom from defects. Certain rare kinds, of
pale tints, are worth 20 times their weight in pure gold.

The ornamental applications of coral are very varied, —
negligees, beads {biihls and boiitons), bracelets, brooches,
ear-drops, tiaras, combs, hair-pins, chains, crosses, links ;
studs, and scarf-pins for gentlemen, settings for rings,
charms, pendants, parasol garnitures, cameos, and foliage ;
coral and bells for children ; and watch-cases are some-
times inlaid with pale rose-colour coral.

The Romans used to hang beads of red coral on the
cradles and round the necks of infants, to " preserve and
fasten their teeth," and save them from the " falling
sickness." In modern days they are used to prevent the
skin of the neck from chafing, and the child's coral and
bells is not yet obsolete.

The general use of coral dates back to the fifteenth
century, under Francis I. Naples, Genoa, and Leghorn
have been from old times the three great centres to which
the rav/ material has been carried, and where skilful arti-
ficers have established themselves in order to work at its
transformation into ornaments. In the four principal manu-
factories, and at several second-rate establishments for
working on coral in Leghorn, there are more than 1000
women employed preparing about 50,000 lbs. weight of
coral into little beads, round, egg-shaped, smooth and cut
into facets, etc. The greater part is sent to India ; a
large portion is exported to Germany, especially for
necklaces of an inferior quality destined to serve as funeral
ornaments, and some to Russia, where coral is in great

Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 445

demand. France does not use much coral for ornaments,
but the fashion there is reviving.

The average annual imports of rough coral into France
have been as follows : —

Kilogrammes.

Value in francs

In the ten years ending 1856

.. 10,450 ...

253,804

„ „ i8t)6

... 19,960 ..

1,418,976

1876

... 21,596 ..

1,890,356

The imports of worked coral, unmounted, in the same
period was as follows : —

1856 ...
1806

Kilogrammes.
tl,t)00 ...

11,831 ...

Value in francs
... 1,125,805
... 3,060,010

1876 ...

... 14,553 ...

... 5,078,062

In America and the West Indies the black population
have a great fancy for coral. Morocco buys largely, and
so does India. The caravans transport bijous and jewels
fashioned of it to the interior. There, according to
religious custom, the dead carry with them to the tomb
the ornaments they have worn in their lifetime, and each
year sees buried a quantity of coral, more or less consider-
able, which has to be replaced. Coral manufactories em-
ploying a large number of workmen exist at Marseilles.
The exports of manufactured coral from Europe were stated
in 1862 to be of the value of 15,000,000 francs (i^6oo,ooo),
of which Marseilles made about 2,000,000 francs.

As few persons have access to the bulky returns con-
stituting the Blue Books of the Board of Trade, which
give the statistics of the annual imports of various articles
mto the United Kingdom, it may be desirable to condense
the figures as regards coral, so as to furnish a retrospect
of the commerce in this marine product. The three items
enumerated in the returns are " Coral in fragments," " Coral,
whole, polished or unpolished," and '* Coral nc^li^e'es."

446 The Coni7nercial Products of the Sea.

Coral beads are also imported done up into strings of
assorted sizes, making five necklaces, also in large bundles
of 36 strings assorted, weighing 135 ounces troy. A most
objectionable procedure in the coral trade is the practice
of attaching to the beads great masses of raw silk and
cotton at the ends, amounting to fully 30 per cent, of the
weight, and as coral is sold by the ounce, this is an absolute
fraud on the buyer. The official statements of the imports
of coral into the kingdom are no reliable criterion of the
actual value of the trade, because it is chiefly the
coarse and rough coral that is entered at the Custom
House ; merchants, jewellers, and, indeed, private indi-
viduals, who purchase in the Mediterranean the finer kinds
of coral, and jewellery made of it, do not trust it in cases
as merchandise, but bring it in their personal baggage.
The aggregate net value of all the coral imported, ac-
cording to the Customs returns, never reaches ^50,000 in
the year, and, indeed, in the last years of which we have
any official record it was under i^ 18,000 or i^20,ooo; but
this is a very fallacious statement, for probably the value
of the coral exceeds i^ 100,000 a year. Taking, however,
only the computed official value of that entered at the
Customs, there was received in England, between i860
and 1870, coral of different kinds valued at upwards of
^^300,000.

In weight the quantity of the several kinds imported
varies considerably. Thus, of coral in fragments, some-
times, as in 1856 and 1861, 14,000 to 16,000 lbs. weight
are received, — in ordinary years the average is not half
that amount. Of whole, or perfect pieces, the quantity
ranges from 400 to lOOO lbs. Of negligees, the quantity
has declined considerably. In 1859 about 3000 lbs. weight
came in, but the last few years it has only averaged

Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 447

500 to 600 lbs. In beads there is the same fluctation in
the quantity. Some years from 3000 to 4000 lbs. come in ;
of late years there is only an average of 1000 lbs. These
figures represent merely the merchant's coral for re-export,
and furnish no estimate whatever of the choice coral of
fashion, which depends for its value entirely on the gold-
smith's and jeweller's art in arranging and setting, variety,
form and style, and represents a value far surpassing all
that has been quoted. It comprises articles of beauty
and imagination which defy any detailed description, and
which even illustration could not do justice to.

Coral beads were always favourite ornaments in this
country. In the inventory of one John Post (who died in
1524), "late y^ king's servant," in the churchwarden's
accompts of St. Mary-at-Hill, London, we find the following
items: '^ i\ oz. of corall, 2s. 6d. ; jewels for her body, a
pair of corall bedes, gaudyed with gaudes of silver and
gilt, 10 oz. at 3^-. 4.d., £1 it^s. 4d" — a goodly price in those
days.

Various handsome panires of coral have been shown
from time to time at the different International Exhibi-
tions. Some very fine specimens of red coral in the
natural state were exhibited in the Algerian Court at the
London Exhibition in 1862. The Ionian Islands also
e.xhibited some small specimens of coral from Ithaca.
From New Caledonia a substance having some resem-
blance to coral was also shown under the name of "rose
coral."

A set of pink coral shown at the Dublin Exhibition
in 1865, consisting of a tiara, bracelets, solitaires, comb,
earrings, brooch, necklace, and pendant, was valued at
;^iOOO, though the value was represented almost alone by
the coral. Signor Gismondi, the designer and carver of

448 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

the set of ornaments had, it was stated, been 20 years
collecting the pieces inserted therein. Of the carving of
the coral into flowers and foliage, it need only be said that
it was as delicate as it was bold and deep, and sustained
the reputation of the Italians for skill in glyptics.

Guiseppe Martucci, of Naples, also showed at the
Dublin International Exhibition in 1865 an arabesque
coral handle for a parasol, eight inches long, carved in
relief out of a single piece, with fruit, animals, leaves, etc.,
valued at £j2.

The International Maritime Exhibition held in 1871
at Naples, the head-quarters of the coral dredging and
working operations, afforded an admirable opportunity for
displaying some of the finest specimens of natural and
artistic productions. On that occasion the leading coral
workers and jewellers sent magnificent examples. Mr.
Phillips, being a commissioner, was placed hors concoiirs.
Casalta and Morabito exhibited coral sets valued at from
9000 to 16,000 Italian lire or francs ; but their best work was
a walking-stick, with a carved handle of coral weighing 100
grammes, and a fine string of pale white coral. Some of
the carving and workmanship shown by Michele Piscione
and others were very fine. Ascioni Brothers had a magni-
ficent collection of works in pink and white coral, and
especially the carved hilt of a dagger.

At the Paris Exhibition of 1878, in the Italian section,
magnificent carvings in pink coral were shown by Luigi
Casalta, Giacinto Melillo, Nicolo Piscione, Guiseppe
Giojuzzi, and Rocco Morabito, of Naples.

The value of ordinary red coral fluctuates much at the
seat of the fisheries. In 1867 it was only worth 305-. the
pound, and occasionally it is worth £2 the pound. The
variation in price arises in some degree from the different

Co7'al and the Coral Fisheries. 449

qualities of the coral, but also from special circumstances
which the markets of distant countries cause, the sale of
coral being much smaller in Europe than elsewhere. The
fishermen, however, have attained to a degree of shrewd-
ness and overreaching which is very remarkable. If, for
instance, they are successful in finding a fine branch of the
coveted pale rose coral, they will not dispose of it alone,
but make it the medium for getting rid of their whole
stock, covenanting that the purchaser shall take the entire
lot for some fixed sum. The purchase of coral by the
dealer becomes, therefore, quite a lottery ; for until the
bark, as it is technically termed, is removed, he knows not
what is the condition of the coral. Much of it may be
rotten or worm-eaten, and only very little of it solid and of
a useful character for working up.

The most ancient seat of exploration for coral was
Sicily. In the time of Cosmo I. of Medici, it was intro-
duced by this prince at Pisa, where Sicilian workmen were
located, and where, up to the present day, as well as in
Leghorn, there is a certain trade in coral.

Trapani has, however, always been the great seat of art
manufacture in coral, and some masterly pieces of work,
mythological and religious subjects, have been turned out
there. Indeed, a royal coral factory was established and
encouraged at Portici, near Naples, by Murat, during his
sovereignty.

His Grace the Duke of St. Albans possesses a fine
carved head in coral, evidently of Greek workmanship,
which proves that this material for artistic purposes is of
very ancient origin.

The value of the coral annually obtained from Sardinia
is about ^60,000, which, after deducting all expenses,
leaves a net profit of ^^ 13,000. The quantity exported

20

450 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

ranges from 200,000 to 250,000 lbs. It is chiefly found
in the shallow waters near Carloforte, Alghero, a province
situated on the west coast, and the island of Maddalena. At
Alghero, where the growth of coral is the most plentiful,
about 190 vessels, manned by 1930 sailors, are employed
in the fishery from March till October.

This industry annually acquires larger importance,
and the fishing is prosecuted with increased energy. The
greater part of the boats employed are Italian, and they
take to Genoa, Leghorn, and Naples their produce, which
forms one of the principal branches of the trade of the
peninsula.

The barks sent to the fishing are solid and well adapted
for the labour ; their rig is a great lateen sail and a jib or
stay-sail. The stern is reserved for the capstan, the fishers,
and the crew. The fore part of the vessel is fitted for the
requirements of the patron or master.

The lines, wood, and irons employed in the coral
fisheries are called the engme. It consists of a cross of
wood formed of two bars, strongly lashed or bolted
together at their centre ; below this a great stone is
attached which bears the lines, arranged in the form of
a sack. These lines have great meshes, loosely knotted
together, resembling the well-known swab. The apparatus
carries 30 of these sacks, which are intended to grapple all
they come in contact with at the bottom of the sea. They
are spread out in all directions by the movement of the
boat. The coral is known to attach itself to the summit of
a rock and to develop itself, forming banks there, and it is
to these rocks that the swab attaches itself so as to tear up
the precious harvest. Experience, which in time becomes
almost intuitive, guides the Italian fisher in discovering the
coral banks. The craft employed in the great fishery have

Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 45 1

a " patron " or captain, the bark having a poop, with a crew
of eight or ten sailors ; and, in the season, the fishery is
continued night and day.

When the patron thinks that he has reached a coral
bank he throws his engine overboard. As soon as the
apparatus is attached, the speed of the vessel is retarded,
the capstan is manned by six or eight rren, while the
others guide the helm or trim the sails. Two forces are
thus brought to act upon the lines — the horizontal action of
the vessel and the vertical action of the capstan. In con-
sequence of the many inequalities of the rocky bottom, the
engine advances by jerks ; the vessel yielding more or less,
according to the concussion caused by the action of the
capstan or sail. The engine seizes upon the rugged rocks
at the bottom and raises them to let them fall again. In
this manner the swab, floating about, penetrates beneath
the rocks where the coral is found, and is hooked on to it.
To fix the lines upon the coral and bring them hom.e is a
work of unheard-of labour. The engine long resists the
most energetic and repeated efforts of the crew, who, ex-
posed almost naked to the burning sun of the Mediter-
ranean, work the capstan to which the cable and engine
are attached, while the patron urges and excites them to
increased exertion, and the sailors trim the sail and
sing, with a slow and monotonous tone, a song the
words of which improvise in a sort of psalmody the names
of the saints most revered among the seafaring Italian
population.

The lines are finally brought home, tearing and breaking
blocks of rocks, sometimes of enormous size, which are
brought on board. The cross is now placed on the side of
the vessel, the lines are arranged on the deck, and the crew
occupy themselves in collecting the results of their labour.

452 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

The coral is gathered together ; the branches of precious
zoophyte are cleansed and divested of the shells and other
parasitic products which accompany them ; finally, the
produce is carried to and sold in the ports of Messina,
Naples, Genoa, and Leghorn, where the workers in jewellery
purchase them.

The boats employed are of two classes. One kind, by
far the most numerous, is composed of vessels of from
II to i6 tons burden, with crews of 12 to 14 men. They
are all fitted out at Torre del Greco, under the Italian flag,
and fish during the months of February and March. The
second class includes craft of from three to six tons burden,
under the French flag, although they are almost entirely
manned by Italian seamen. Their crews consist of five or
six men, and they continue at sea most part of the year.
The boats fish on the coasts of Africa and Sardinia, at a
distance of 15 to 30 miles from shore, only returning to
port in case of urgent necessity. They work night and
day without intermission ; half of the crew relieve the other
half every six hours. The larger class of vessels is fast
superseding the small, and it is calculated that there are
now about 200 of the larger vessels employed, with 2400
men. The seamen receive from ;^20 to ^24 each per
annum, and the masters about twice that amount. The
entire value and equipage of a large boat, including drag-
nets, stores, and six months' wages, may be estimated at
about i^550. Such a boat may probably collect from 650
to 850 lbs. of coral in the season.

Hitherto the fishery has been conducted on the old
primitive method of the drag-net or rough dredge, formed
of a cross of wood with a quantity of hemp attached, to
tear up the coral. One would have supposed, with the
enhanced value which coral now commands, some efforts

Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 453

would have been made to improve the processes for pro-
curing the branches from the sea bottom.

The diving-bell has been attempted for coral fishing,
but, like the pearl fisheries, it does not succeed. An Italian
named Foseli has, however, been lately experimenting with
a submarine vessel of his invention intended for coral
fishing. It was tried satisfactorily at Boza, in the Bay of
Naples, in the presence of leading men of the Italian
naval, scientific, and civil service. The invention consists
of wrought-iron plates divided into three compartments,
of which the lowest contains looo lbs. of ballast ; the
second or middle chamber is prepared to accommodate two
persons ; the third or uppermost chamber is filled with
compressed air. This compressed air, by means of in-
genious machinery, is capable of supplying means sufficient
to sustain the life of two persons for 50 hours. At one of
the late experiments, this vessel descended to a distance of
38 fathoms below the surface of the water, and remained
submerged for 22|- minutes, without the slightest discomfort
being experienced by the navigators. The specific gravity
of the ballast serves to retain the vessel in an upright
position, and peculiarly simple machinery enables it to
move in any direction. An attached illuminating arrange-
ment renders objects within a large area perfectly visible.
Other varieties of the machine, for sponge and pearl fish-
ing, requiring a deeper descent, are designed by the
inventor.

The Spanish fishermen collect, off the Cape Verde
Islands, about 24,760 lbs. of coral, of the value of i^20,ooo.

On the south coast of Corsica, coral of various qualities
is found in large quantities. The coral fishery is entirely
in the hands of the Italians. About 60 boats are employed
annually ; each boat, fishing on an average for six months,

454 ^-^^ Cotnmercial Proditcts of the Sea.

obtains from four to six hundredweight of coral in the
rough, which is at once carried over to Italy.

Coral is found in more or less abundance along the
coast of the Regency of Tunis, Algiers, and the shores of
Morocco. The French Government, between 1806 and
1824, made repeated attempts to renew its engagements
with Tunis for a monopoly of the coral fishing, but it was
not until 1852 that France obtained the exclusive privilege
over the coral fisheries in the Tunisian waters for the
annual payment of ;^355-

The coral found on the Barbary coast is principally red,
but white and black, as well as the much-prized pink, also
exist. The latter kind is most frequently obtained on the
Galita and Fratelli rock banks. There are about 90 coral
fishing-boats at La Calle and 20 at Bona, chiefly owned by
Italians, three or four only being the property of IMaltese,
who reside permanently in Algeria. From 80 to 100
vessels fitted out at Torre del Greco arrive yearly at the
proper season at La Calle, and 50 or 60 make Biserta their
fishing station. The coral fishery is but little practised by
the French, although a few boats follow this industry in the
Mediterranean ; several of them use the diving apparatus
to collect the coral. The exports from Algeria are valued
annually at about ;!^8o,ooo. There are about 6000
Italians and Spaniards engaged in the Algerian fishery.
The French sailors do not like the hard work and short
food.

On the Algerian coast the number of boats engaged
in this fishery has averaged of late years about 300, more
than two-thirds of which are Italian. The quantity o,
coral obtained it is difficult to state precisely, but according
to the declarations of the fishermen it would appear to
average 35,000 kilogrammes.

Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 455

The coral is here divided on arrival into several cate-
gories, of which the following are the principal : —

1. Dead or rotten coral. In this class is included the
roots adhering to the rock and covered with stony particles
and vegetable encrustations. The value ranges from 5 to
20 francs the kilogramme.

2. Black coral. This kind, with a polished black tint, is
employed for making mourning jewellery ; if of good quality
it fetches from 1 2 to 15 francs the kilogramme, or more.

3. Coral in case. This name is given to coral which
has been assorted and cleaned when taken from the sea,
and consists of branches of all sizes. It is worth from
45 to 70 francs the kilogramme.

4. Choice coral. This is the finest selected coral, in
large branches, which the fishermen sell separately as high
as 400 or 500 francs the kilogramme, according as the stems
are more or less straight, and of handsome appearance.

The expenses and returns from the coral fishery in this
locality are thus estimated by M. Lacaze-Duthiers :* — A
large boat of 15 or 16 tons, manned by 12 men, involves
on an average an outlay of 11,000 francs for a season of
six months. A boat which obtains in the season 250 kilo-
grammes of coral, at 50 francs, covers its expenses. A
boat which obtains 300 kilogrammes realizes, according to
the quality of the coral, a profit of 2000 to 3000 francs.
The fishery with the diving-bell is much more advanta-
geous.

The same author estimates the annual yield of the coral
fishery on the coasts of Algiers and Tunis at 2,500,000
francs, and the value of the produce when worked up at
12,000,000 francs; so that the fishery, the working, and

* " Natural History of Coral," i vol., large 8vo., coloured plates. Paris,
J. Bailliere and Son. 1864.

456 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

the sale of coral gives employment to a good deal of
capital.

A year or two ago a new coral reef was discovered on
the coast of Palmi in Calabria, and the local sailors fished
up a large quantity of rose-coloured coral of good quality,
and many pieces of considerable size were obtained. The
reputation of the bank soon drew the attention of the bold
fishers of Torre del Greco, and three boats were forthwith
equipped and sent there, and did well.

Imitations of coral have been tried, but with not very
great success. A few years ago coraline, a tolerably cheap
substitute, was very common for beads, bracelets, etc., and
might be seen in the galleries of the Palais Royal, Paris,
and other shops where cheap jewellery is sold. Although it
imitated tolerably well the rose-pink coral, yet the artificial
beads were too regular, smooth, and uniform to pass
muster among those who had any knowledge of the true
marine product, and it is scarcely seen now. Even the
natives of the East, who are thought to be shrewd and well-
informed on all matters of gems and jewellery, may occa-
sionally be imposed upon. Strings of large coral beads
of uniform size, 100 on a string, are in great demand for
chaplets in parts of Asia, and a visit was once paid to the
shop of Messrs. Phillips by a number of distinguished
foreigners, who admired the beauty and proportions of the
chaplets submitted to them, but expressed unbounded
astonishment at the price asked. Not long after their de-
parture they came back, expressing great indignation at
the imposition attempted to be practised on them, declaring
that they had purchased a similar article for one-tenth or
one-twelfth the price asked, and they exposed numerous
strings of coraline. They were asked to put the two
articles to the test with a knife, and the true coral was, of

Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 457

course, unassailable, while the artificial composition splin-
tered and broke. The result was an appeal to the police
court for redress for the fraud that had been practised on
them.

Ivory beads are sometimes dyed to imitate coral ; but
this seems a sad waste of good material, the natural ivory
being preferable to the tinted.

A coral bank of superior quality was discovered, in the
middle of May, 1875, by a Sicilian fisherman, in the waters
of Sciacca. As the fishermen there were not familiar with
this mode of fishing, they invited the fishermen of Torre del
Greco and of tiie port of Empedocle to come over and
instruct them, at the same time offering them a share of the
profits. Soon all the boats of the neighbouring coasts
arrived at the bank, which caused such frays that the
authorities judged it necessary to station a man-of-war
there.

The bank, about 550 yards in length in the direction of
west-south-west by east-north-east, and about 30 yards in
thickness, yielded at first rich supplies : a small boat with
eight men collected from 30 to 40 lbs. of coral a day ; the
coral sold at i \s. per lb., less five per cent, tare, so that each
boat showed a daily gain of i^20. But the bank was gradually
exhausted, and the coral diminished in value ; by the 15th
of July it had fallen to Js. per lb., with eight per cent, tare,
and towards the end it did not sell for more than 2s. 6d.
per lb., with ten per cent. tare. It was estimated that from
the 1st of June to the 31st of August, 1875, the quantity of
coral fished up amounted to 264,000 lbs. The coral sold
at an average price of "js. per lb., therefore the total fishery
brought in ^^92,400.

It is well to note that the fisherman who discovered the
bank only received the small sum of ;^io as reward, and

458 The Commercial Pi^odiicts of the Sea.

this he had to collect halfpenny by halfpenny from the
fishermen.

Mr. Herrics, in a report of 1868 on the industrial con-
dition of Italy, stated that there were then 365 boats
employed in the coral fishery, of which 267 belonged to
Naples, and the rest to Leghorn and other places on the
Genoese coasts. These boats employed 2699 men and
boys. The value of the produce ranged from ;^28o to
;^320 for each boat during the season.

About 160 tons of coral are annually brought into Italy,
and the articles made of coral, exported, are valued at
nearly ^^"50)0,000.

At the Maritime Exhibition held at Naples in 1871, the
following statistics were published respecting the Italian
coral fishery : —

No. of boats.
Torre del Greco ... ... ... 300

Leghorn ... ... ... ... 60

Liguria and Sardinia ... ... ... 100

460

The value of the large boats was £\(iO, and of the
smaller ones £%0\ the collective capital, ^71,000. There
were from 6 to 12 men employed in each boat, making a
total of about 4000, The wages paid was about iJ^8o,ooo,
and the provisions came to half as much more. The coral
fishery gave employment to some 6000 persons. Each
boat, in order to defray the necessary expenses dis-
bursed for outfit, provisions, wages, etc., ought to obtain
200 kilogrammes of coral, which, at an average of £2 8j.
the kilogramme, would yield .^480. The coral received in
the kingdom of Italy was stated to amount to 160,000
kilogrammes, worth about ;^38o,ooo.

The shops working on coral were stated to be — at Torre

Coital and the Coral Fisheries.

459

del Greco, 24 ; Leghorn, 1 5 ; Genoa, 20. Later statistics
make the boats engaged in the fishery from Torre del
Greco 329, and the workshops there, 40. The workmen
employed were about 6000, who gained ^200,000, or an
average of a little more than 35 francs annually.

There were 239 boats engaged in the fishery on the
Alghero banks, Italy, in 1873, and 159 in 1874. The
coral obtained was as follows : — •

Red coral.

White coral.

Total.

Value.

1873
1874

Kilogrammes.
25,384
12,260

Kilogrammes.
9536
6758

Kilogrammes.
34,920
20,018

;^i6o,o8o
93,960

The coral fishery of Cagliari gave employment in 1875
to 180 boats, and the produce was below 1,000,000 francs,
against 2,350,000 francs obtained in 1874.

The manufactured articles sell, of course, at much higher
prices than when in the rough state, so that coral is by
no means an inconsiderable source of emolument to the
Italians.

Great quantities, when manufactured, are expcrted to
India, and in Leghorn and Genoa several establishments
work exclusively for that distant market, where blood-red
coral, the colour of which harmonizes with the dark com-
plexions of the native ladies, is particularly in demand.
Coral beads of a large size are in high estimation through-
out Hindostan, and are usually sold for their weight in
silver. Manufactured coral to the value of ,^208,000 was
sent from Brindisi to Egypt in 1873.

The following return furnishes the official quantity and
value of the imports of coral and coral articles into the

460 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

United Kingdom for a series of years. The returns can-
not be carried down later than 1870, as the Board of Trade
has ceased to enumerate coral specially : —

Imports of Coral into the United Kingdom, of different kinds,
IN pounds weight.

Year.

Fragments.

Whole.

Negligees.

Beads.

Total.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

1855

2,172

285

I718

—

—

1856

13-270

308

2780

—

—

1857

28

218

1872

—

—

1858

645

397

1840

—

—

1859

1,255

621

2955

—

—

i860

338

"34

1633

3568

6,673

1861

15,639

84

602

3654

19,979

1862

1,458

50

1224

1427

4,169

1863

183

318

586

1829

2,916

1864

3,617

758

446

3000

7,821

1865

2,914

391

258

994

4,557

1866

4,439

276

232

1385

6,332

1867

7,539

225

"5

2543

10,422

1868

7,120

262

724

4375

12,481

1869

5,332

786

411

1210

—

1S70

1,600

418

652

958

—

Computed Net Value of Coral imported-
Beads, etc.

■Rough, Negligees,

i860

... ;^3S,892

I86I

.

". 33,403

1862

... 20,163

1863

22,657

1864

... 37,659

1865

... 13,970

1866

... 17,899

1867

..

... 29,487

1868

..

... 45,395

1869

.

... 18,834

1870

14,878

ake the v

/eight of coral

imported, we n

Coral ajtd the Coral Fisheries.

461

fluctuations in the annual quantity received. The following
are the comparative annual figures : —

1855
1856

1857
1858

1859
i860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870

lbs.

4,17.";
16,358
2,118
2,882
4,831
3,105
16,385
2,742
1,087
4,821
3.563
4.947
7.879
8,106

6,529
2,670

The Indian trade in coral in 1875 shows a very slight
decrease on that of 1873-74, when it amounted to £66,6^c) ;
but it is slowly recovering from the depression of previous
years, that depression having, it is believed, been partly
caused by the imposition of a duty of 'j\ per cent, in April,
1870. The value of the imports was as follows : —

1868-69

;^93,I26

1869-70

65,285

1870-71

... 45.441

1871-72

54.894

1872-73

... 40,013

1873-74

66,689

1874-75

53.558

Though the imposition of the duty probably had an
immediate effect in reducing the importations, it must be
remarked that the trade is of a variable and fluctuating
nature. It is mainly in the hands of a few foreign firms,
from whom natives purchase the coral for sale in the
interior at great fairs and religious gatherings. Coral forms

462 The Commercial Products oj the Sea.

a favourite adornment for native children, as well as for
adults, in certain classes of the population. The demand
for coral depends upon the out-turn of the crops of the
year. After an abundant harvest rupees will be freely
exchanged for a string of corals to be added to those
already worn as a necklace, but in a poor year the coral
merchant will find his stock almost unsaleable at any price,
and his next importations will consequently be on a very
reduced scale.

Coral forms a large item of the Indian exports to
Thibet. The preference is for round grains pierced, or oval
grains with the ends truncated and pierced through the
length. A piece as large as a pea fetches its weight in
gold, and the price augments with the size. The darkest
colours are the most esteemed.

In China coral constitutes an important article of trade.
Various sorts are imported from Singapore, Sumatra, and
the Samar Islands. Red coral is termed sJian-hii, the
white variety shih-hwa, but the black is more esteemed
than any other colour. This is wrought into official
buttons and beads, the inferior kinds being made into ear
and finger rings. It is powdered and used there in medi-
cine and in ophthalmia. Various madrepores and polypes
have also a medicinal reputation in China.

A bank of coral of great richness is stated to have been
discovered on the coasts of Japan. The coral collected is
said to possess this peculiarity, that it is white in the centre
and at all the lateral points, which are numerous on the
branches. It is not, however, likely to prove usefulfor work-
ing up, as it appears to scale or break off. But a small
quantity has yet been brought up. The principal fishery was
to commence shortly, when more inform.ation will be
obtained, but it does not appear likely to compete with
the coral fished from the coasts of Italy and Sicily.

CHAPTER VI.

AMRER AND THE AMBER FISHERIES.

Source of amber — Chemical composition of the resin — Uses and application —
Statistics of imports — Diving and fishing for amber — Prussian coasts of
the Baltic the chief source of supply — Statistics of the trade — Large speci-
mens found— Roumanian amber.

Having dealt with tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, pearls,
and coral, we come now to consider a product of a some-
what amphibious character, and which, unlike those already
treated of, is vegetable in its origin. Still it is largely-
dredged and fished for on the seashores, and as the
greater part is obtained from the sea, it properly comes
under the section of " Marine Contributions to Art."

Amber is a resinous exudation from an extinct species
of conifer, called by Goppert Pinites succinifer. The source
of amber was long uncertain ; by some it was considered a
carbonaceous mineral.

Professor Zaddach shows that the trees which yielded
the amber must have grown upon the greensand beds of
the cretaceous period, flourishing luxuriantly on the marshy
coast which then surrounded the great continent of
Northern Europe. Probably the temperature was much
higher than it is now; and this even at that epoch ex-
tended to the now frost-bound Arctic regions, a fact

464 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

which has been proved by the remarkable plant-remains of
temperate climes which have been recently discovered there.
The amber flora of the Baltic area under review contains
northern forms associated with plants of more temperate
zones ; thus camphor-trees {Cinnamomum) occur with
willows, birches, beech, and numerous oaks. A species of
Thuya, very similar to the American Thuya occidcnialis, is
the most abundant tree amongst the conifers ; next in
abundance Widdriugtonia, a great variety of pines and
firs, including the amber-pine. Thousands of these, it is
supposed by the professor, might have perished, and while
the wood decayed, the resin with which the stem and
branches were loaded might have been accumulated in
large quantities, in bogs and lakes, in the soil of the forest.
If the coast at that time was gradually sinking, the sea
would cover the land, and in due course carry away the
amber and masses of vegetable detritus into the ocean,
where it was deposited amidst the marine animals which
inhabit it. But in higher districts the amber-pine would
still flourish, and so amber still continues to be washed
into the sea and deposited in the later formed greensand
and still later overlying formation of the brown coal.

Reboux states that at the eocene epoch the bed of the
Baltic Sea was occupied by an immense forest, which
spread over nearly the whole northern continent. Dredg-
ing carried on at a depth of 64 feet below the sea bottom
has brought to light thereby two species of conifers, a
poplar, a chestnut, and various other trees. From the
conifers, the author thinks, ran the resin which, through
being buried in the earth, has become changed into amber.
The largest quantity of the gum appears to have been
derived from the Pinus succinus. More than 200 speci-
mens of objects have been found embedded in the gum,

Amber and the A77iber Fisheries. 465

including insects, reptiles, plants, leaves, grains, shells,
fruit, etc.

The density of natural amber varies from roQ to rii.
Its analysis, according to Schrotter, is : Carbon, 78'82 ;
hydrogen, iO'23 ; oxygen, lO'QO.

Amber is harder than most resins, and is susceptible of
a good polish. It was known to the ancients, and called
"electrum," on account of its electrical susceptibility; it
was also engraved and used by the ancients for seals.

It occurs abundantly on the Prussian coast of the
Baltic, from Dantzic to Memel. It is also found on the
coast of Denmark and Sweden ; in Gallicia, Poland,
Moravia, the Ural ; Switzerland, near Basle ; France, near
Paris ; near London ; in various parts of Asia, and in the
greensand of New Jersey ; also in Japan. It is chiefly
obtained from Prussia, and is not very abundant in other
countries.

With it are found fragments of lignite, and it frequently
contains insects of extinct species embedded in its sub-
stance ; it is also marked with the impression of branches
and bark. It is sometimes thrown up in great quantities
after storms. It contains a volatile oil, two resins (soluble
in alcohol and ether), succinic acid, and an insoluble bitu-
minous substance.

For ages amber has been valued for ornamental pur-
poses, such as necklaces, bracelets, brooches, crosses, ear-
drops, silver links, and the like. It was also formerly much
used for inlaying cabinets and ladies' jewel-cases, and a
large picture frame inlaid with it was shown at the Naples
Maritime Exhibition. The cloudy or milk-white amber,
not that which is clear, is held in the highest esteem. The
light-green variety, and that which is of one perfectly
uniform colour throughout, are exceptions to this rule.

466 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

The beauty and hardness of amber have caused it to be
long esteemed by smokers for mouthpieces of pipes and
tubes for cigar-holders. In tlie fine and extensive collec-
tion of pipes, etc., belonging to W. Bragge, Esq., shown at
the London Exhibition, South Kensington, in 1872, there
were some very large amber mouth-pieces for hookahs,
both clouded and clear ; also in the case of Mr. F. Kapp,
of 62, Dean Street, Soho. In Turkey, as much as £'^00
has been given for a very fine mouthpiece. I recently saw
at the shop of Messrs. Phillips, Cockspur Street, a magni-
ficent pair of amber tubes or mouth-pieces attached to
hookahs.

The Turks esteem amber for mouthpieces, in the belief
that no infectious disease can be communicated through
it ; the Germans now prefer it for its rich colour and
its soft, waxy feeling in the mouth. Its value differs
greatly, according to its tint and opacity, and herein a
novice would be easily deceived. The bright yellow trans-
parent amber is least valuable, however it may catch the
eye. Dark, nearly opaque yellow has a much higher value,
and the best of all is the opaque lemon-coloured. Mr. J. J.
Jeans, the British vice-consul at Catania, showed at the
Dublin International Exhibition in 1865 an amber neck-
lace, consisting of 21 large flattened beads and 22 small
ones. The ornament was of considerable mineralogical
interest, the amber being found on the banks of the Simeto,
a little river watering the plain of Catania. The specimen
showed various colours of this rare substance — bright red,
wine red, reddish yellow, and bluish.

According to recent accounts, one of the Shah of
Persia's most esteemed talismans or amulets is a cube of
amber reported to have fallen from heaven in Mahomet's
time. It is worn round his neck, and is supposed to render

A7nbe7' and the Amber Fisheries. 467

him invulnerable. The small and waste pieces of amber
form the base of an excellent varnish, and the source of
succinic acid. The trade in amber to this country would
appear to be largely on the increase. In the five years
ending 1853, our imports of rough amber averaged about
43 cwts. ; in 1867 they reached 60 cwts., and in 1870
had risen to 329 cwts. Besides this, we import a consider-
able quantity of manufactured amber in beads, mouthpieces,
etc. The average annual value of the amber, as declared
in the last six years, is about ;^2,400, but this is far below
its real value. Amber beads, again, are mixed with the
general item " Beads " in the official imports.

Amber often contains insects, flies, ants, spiders, etc.,
embedded in the resin, some of which are so delicately
formed that they could not have been thus enclosed except
in a fluid mass, such as a volatile oil or natural balsam.
They occur also frequently in the courbaril resin of South
America, in Indian dammar and anime, and in copal from
Accra, West Africa.

Amber is found in primary deposits on the coast of
East Prussia. The amber-bearing stratum, which lies partly
below the sea level, partly above, is a bluish-green colour,
and consists of a coarse-grained sand, whose particles have
a yellow coating. In this blue earth is found the amber to
the amount of one kilogramme per 20 cubic feet. The
pieces of amber found are generally weathered, but have
retained their original shape, showing that the sea has had
but little action on them. The colour is far from constant,
being of all shades of yellow and brown.

The amber-dredging establishment at Schwarzort, on
the Curish Haff (near to Memel), produces about 80,000 to
90,000 lbs. of amber every year, and is still in the hands of
a Konigsberg firm, which keeps its transactions very secret.

468 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Four steam-dredges are employed for the collection of the
amber, as well as a considerable number of dredges worked
by hand. The amber is found almost uniformly in separate
nodules, with lignite, disseminated in the sand, at a depth
of from 10 to 12 feet. The dredging is carried on day and
night, by "shifts" of men, working eight hours each. About
400 persons are so employed, and their wages are, on the
average, 2s. 6d. per shift. The quantity of amber collected
is considerable, amounting to about 288 lbs. per shift, and
for six days' work 51,184 lbs. The sand, after being
dredged up, is sent on shore, where it is washed, in order to
find the amber.

The method of obtaining amber from its ocean place
of deposit in other parts is much on the principle of the
ordinary submarine diving-dress. A woollen garment
covers the entire body of the diver. This is again encom-
passed by an india-rubber dress, made in one piece, but
differing in shape from the old-fashioned diving-dress, and
allowing the diver to lie at full length. The helmet, also,
is of a novel construction. Firmly fastened to it, and rest-
ing on the shoulders, is a small air-chest, made of sheet-
iron. This last is connected with the air-pump in the boat
above by an india-rubber tubing, 40 feet long, and with the
diver's lungs by another india-rubber tube, the mouthpiece
of which is held by the diver between his teeth ; the whole
apparatus being scientifically arranged so as to admit a
sufficient supply of pure air from above, and means of exit
for the expired breath. The helmet is provided with three
openings, covered with glass and protected by wire, for the
use of the eyes and mouth. When this contrivance has been
screwed on to the person of the diver, a rope tied round his
waist, and half a hundred-weight of lead attached to his feet,
shoulders, and helmet, he is ready for his plunge. Down,

Amber and the Amber Fisheries. 469

fathoms deep, he descends into the amber world. He stays
there, maybe, for five hours at a time, hooking, dragging,
tearing the amber from its bed with his heavy two-pronged
fork. Often it resists his utmost efforts. However cold
the weather may be, these men of iron strength will come
up from their submarine labours streaming with perspira-
tion. The overseer stands in the boat to receive the amber
from their pockets. In case he should wish to ascend
before the usual time, the diver has to close his mouth and
breathe five or six times through his nostrils, by this means
filling the apparatus with air, which will bring him to the
surface without other assistance.

The diving-boats are manned by eight men each — two
divers, two pairs of men who work the air-pumps alter-
nately, with their eyes fixed on a dial-plate, by which the
supply of air is nicely indicated, one man to hold the
safety-rope attached round the diver's body, and haul him
at the slightest sign from below, and the overseer.

At the Vienna Exhibition, 1873, some interesting
diving apparatus was shown, as used on the eastern coast
of Prussia, for obtaining amber. This apparatus, which
received a gold medal at the Moscow Exhibition of 1872,
is constructed on the system of MM. Rouxquayrol-Denay-
roux ; some alterations and improvements having, however,
been introduced, so as to give greater safety. The air is
transmitted to the diver through long india-rubber tubes,
by means of an easily transportable air-pump, with two
cylinders. These tubes, which are strengthened by spiral
wires, conduct the air to a regulator carried on the diver's
back. The completely air and water tight dress of the
diver is connected by an india-rubber ring with a copper
helmet, or also with a mask, the helmet and mask being
provided with strongly grated windows. The helmet is

470 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

used for works under water in which the head of the diver
has to be kept upright (repairing ships, for instance), while
the mask is adopted for researches and examinations on
the sea bottom.

A great advantage of this arrangement is that the diver
has always a certain reserve quantity of air in the regulator,
so that a falling off in the supply of air is not connected
with immediate danger or disadvantages for him. The
supply of air to the diver is regulated by a peculiarly con-
structed valve, by means of which the pressure, under which
the air is supplied, corresponds always with the depth of
the water in which the diver is acting.

The air coming from the diver is not allowed to mix
with the fresh supply of air, but escapes to the surface
through a side-port closed by an india-rubber valve. The
diver is able to increase or diminish his specific weight by
simply altering the volume of air between his dress and
body ; and, in this manner, it is in his power to ascend or
descend as he likes.

Amber constitutes an important article of trade on the
Dantzic coast, and it is exported, both in pieces and
worked, to Austria, France, and the East. This trade is
completely in the hands of a few families. The principal
deposit is found on the coast of Samland, from Pillau to
Gross Hubnicken. In this space of three miles the ex-
traction of amber is farmed by the Government. The
annual yield is about 200,000 lbs. The produce is classed
into six qualities, according to the size and quality of the
pieces.

The largest piece known is 13! inches long by eight and
a half inches wide, and three to six inches thick. It weighs
13I lbs., and is in the Berlin Museum. At the Great
Exhibition of 185 1, two pieces were shown, for beauty and

Amber and the Amber Fisheries. 471

size, from Konigsberg, weighing respectively four and a
half and six pounds. In 1854 a bed of yellow amber of
considerable extent was discovered at Prague, in sinking
a well, and pieces weighing two and three pounds were
extracted.

The trade in this article is annually increasing in im-
portance, and as a very large part of all the amber appear-
ing in the various markets of the world is supplied by the
province of Prussia, including the neighbouring district of
Memel, it may be interesting to give a short account of its
appearance in that part of Germany.

Mr. Ward, the British vice-consul at Memel, in a recent
official report, furnishes some full details as to the trade.

In the western portion of the province of Prussia amber
is found, not only on the seashore, but also in the moun-
tainous ranges of the interior. Excepting, however, in rare
cases of its appearance in so-called " nests," amber is only
to be met with in isolated pieces in the latter localities, so
that the profit arising from the amber diggings amongst
the hills is but a very moderate one, and may be estimated
at about double the amount paid by the proprietors for the
wages of the diggers. In East Prussia, however, and
especially in that part called the Samland, amber is more
abundant, and, during the prevalence of certain winds, is
frequently thrown upon the shore by the sea in large quan-
tities. It is collected there as well as fished for in the surf,
as also dug out of the sand hillocks running along the
seacoast. In these sand hillocks regular beds of amber
are found enclosed in a soil of blue clay, which is to be
met with at an average depth of about 100 feet, in a thick-
ness of 25 to 30 feet. It is stated that out of some
diggings established in those parts, 4500 lbs. of amber
were raised in the course of four months of the year 1869.

472 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

Diggings of this kind exist at present in various spots of
the Samland, more especially at Wanzen, Sassan, Gros-
kuhren, Kleinkuhren, Kraxtepellen, Kreislacken, and Hub-
nicken. Besides these works there are other establishments
at Brusterort, where amber is obtained by divers from the
bottom of the sea, and at Schwarzort, near Memel, where it
is raised by dredging for it at the bottom of the Curish
Haff. Its importance and size have of late years increased
considerably, and at present about 80,000 lbs. of amber are
annually obtained by it.

The total amount of amber obtained during the year
1869 was about 150,000 lbs., the value of which may
be taken at about ;!f82,500. The quantity collected (by
fishing for it) in the sea and upon the shore is about equal
to that raised by the digging and dredging works. Accord-
ing to the opinion of competent persons, the produce of
the diggings could be increased considerably by working
them upon a regular mining system. Apart from the fact
that no certain knowledge has hitherto been arrived at as
to the actual extent of the amber-fields in the blue clay —
and these fields exist, most probably, not only in the
vicinity of the seacoast, but also in the interior of the
Samland, and even beyond that district and the frontiers
of Eastern Prussia — it is most likely that below the stratum
of clay to which the diggings are at present confined, there
are other strata in which amber would be met with. This
supposition is based upon the circumstance that consider-
able quantities of amber have been found amongst the soil
washed away by the sea, during heavy gales, from shore
portions of the coastal sand-hills which lie below the layer
of blue clay first alluded to.

The prices of the principal kinds of amber are stated by
an official report to be about as follows : —

Amber and the Amber Fisher

ies.

s.

,i.

I lb. of 9 pieces

for pipe

nioutlipieces

66

0

M i8 „

>»

45

0

„ 40 „

>>

30

0

„ 60 „

>>

19

6

,, 100 ,,

,,

12

0

,, 200 ,,

,,

9

0

„ 30 ,.

beads

...

30

0

M 60 „

,,

...

18

0

,, 100 ,,

,,

...

12

0

473

The prices of larger (so-called cabinet) pieces are sub-
ject to great fluctuations, and are fixed by the increase or
decrease of demand from the East ; and the prices of the
commoner kinds seldom vary more than about 10 per
cent.

The chief seat of the retail amber trade is Dantzic ; the
wholesale trade is at present in the hands of only two or
three firms in the province of Prussia. The working of the
Prussian amber into mouthpieces, beads, etc., is likewise
carried on at Dantzic, but also in other large cities.

Amber is sent chiefly to Vienna, London, Paris, Moscow,
and New York, in all of which cities the Prussian merchants
keep agents, who are supplied with stocks of this article,
assorted according to the requirements of the place. Great
progress has lately been made with regard to the sorting
of the various kinds of amber. There are now no less than
50 distinct kinds, difi"ering in size, colour, hardness, and
clearness. It is owing partly to this circumstance, and
partly to the growing extent of the demand, that an in-
crease in the sale of amber continues to take place. The
demand from South Germany, Russia, the Danubian princi-
palities, and the East in general, as compared with the
comparatively limited amount hitherto obtainable, will, it is
thought, prevent any increase of production from actmg pre-
judicially on the gross profits of the trade in this article.
21

474 ^^^ Comme7xial Products of the Sea.

Considering, moreover, the almost entire absence of mineral
products in this part of Prussia, and the importance of
opening additional channels of employment for the inhab-
itants, the Konigsberg Chamber of Commerce strongly
recommends the introduction of the system above alluded
to, by which the amber diggings might be extended, and
worked upon a regular mining principle.

Amber is found in beds of lignite in various other coun-
tries, more particularly in the Adriatic, on the Sicilian shore.

In oriental commerce it is carried into India from
Japan, the Philippines, and Madagascar. A considerable
quantity of false amber, or copal, is imported into Canton
annually, the imports averaging about 187 cwts. per quarter.
The greater portion comes from the eastern coast of Africa.
Its value in China was formerly very great for incense and
for making ornaments. Transparent yellow pieces are
considered the best by the Chinese ; but the colour ranges
from black and yellow through red and white. The price
in the East, as here, varies according to size and quality.

In Prussia amber is divided into two classes, Fliesen
and the Erd Bernstein ; the former being found in water
and the latter in mines. The Erd Bernstein amber is
the most valuable, being hard and of a uniform colour.

Amber is manufactured at Trinley, a village within two
miles of the English coast, and distant ten miles from
Ipswich. It is there made into crosses, bracelets, and other
personal ornaments, and one family has been engaged in
it for the last 30 years. The amber is procured by poor
persons, who pick it up after wintry storms on the coast
between Landguard Fort and Aldeburgh. Mr. J. Wiggin,
of Ipswich, has a piece four ounces in weight, procured
from this source, and has also purchased many pounds of
it at various times.

Amber and the Amber Fisheries. 475

The late Mr. D. Alexander's famous piece, said to be
the largest in England, is believed to have been picked up
in the same locality. Her Majesty the Queen has, I
believe, a very fine large piece of amber.

There are many imitations of this beautiful resin, but
none are so hard and enduring as the genuine article. The
uninformed are, however, frequently deceived and taken in
by pieces of anime, copal, or gum kowrie.

Mr. Consul Hertslet, in his report on the trade of
Konigsberg for 1870, stated that the production of amber
was less than in former years — 1415 cwt, against 1710 cwt.
in 1869; and the war annihilated the trade with France
for raw and manufactured amber. A demand came un-
expectedly from China, but soon dropped again.

The dredging at Schwarzort brought 740 cwt. ; the
diving at Brusterort, 300 cwt. ; the diggings in Samland,
55 cwt.; the fishing, etc., along the coast, 320 cwt. ; total,
141 5 cwt, of the estimated total value of 500,000 rix
thalers.

The Prussian Amber Company Limited, Konigsberg,
employs 2350 persons and 19 steam-engines in this trade,
and sold in 1871 amber, obtained by divers and dredging
on the coasts of the Baltic, to the value of ;^ 5 3,000. A
diploma of honour was awarded at the Vienna Inter-
national Exhibition to this company for the extent of its
trade and the excellence of its amber.

The extent of the amber-fields in Germany may be
seen from the fact that 22 dredges, 2 tug-boats, 100 barges,
and 1000 labourers are engaged in the industry. The area
of the amber-field is extensive, and the Government derive
from it a yearly rent of 72,200 thalers.

The trade, which had languished in 1868 and 1869,
regained much activity in 1871. England, France, and

47^ The Commercial Products of the Sea,

Austria took large quantities in the rough state to be
worked up. The demands of Japan and China were also
considerable, and the clear amber sought for by those
countries became deficient, notwithstanding the develop-
ment given to the extraction. They were not content with
collecting amber formerly rejected on the shore. At
Konigsberg, pits of 300 feet depth were dug ; 500 work-
men, steam-engines, and 100 carts were engaged in the
works. In other localities, divers and drags were employed.
At Munich steam-engines were also used to work the mud.

The production of amber in 1874 amounted to 363,000
lbs., of all sizes and qualities, which was sent to different
parts of the world.

C. A. Wisephal, manufacturer of articles of amber at
Stolf, Pomerania, showed at the London Exhibition of
1862 a fine set of opaque amber of the oriental style ;
a fine set of cut pale transparent amber ; three strings
of opaque beads for African trade, one, two, and three
strings to the pound ; 100 strings, assorted, valued at ;^230 ;
two strings of transparent beads, eight strings going to the
pound, at £■}, per string ; 19 other strings at ijs. the
string ; specimens of cigar-holders, pipe mouthpieces, etc.,
of different shapes and sizes ; also transparent cut olive
beads and transparent smooth beads.

Mr. F. Nissi, of Dantzic, showed four pieces of raw
amber, one weighing if lb., priced at ^^13 ioj-., and the
others priced at ^^13 los., £\2, and ^9 \^s.

Mr. H. L. Perlbach, an amber-bead merchant of Dantzic,
showed a rare piece of amber in point of size, form,
and colour, three inches thick and 14 inches in circum-
ference, weighing 12 lbs., valued at ;^6oo, and two pieces
weighing four pounds and two pounds respectively. The
large piece was found in an amber mine in the village of
Gluckau, near Dantzic.

Amber and the Ajjiber Fisheries. 477

Amber is found in the mountains of Sibicio, situated in
the valley of Bugeo, Roumania. This amber is of a brown
colour, with a great variety of shades, passing from orange
yellow or red to black, with green tints. It is extracted in
small quantities, and large pieces are rare. It is used for
different objects of marquetry, the mouthpieces of pipes,
beads for necklaces, and other small articles of luxury.
The dust, or refuse, is used, when burned, to perfume rooms,
the scent being very fragrant.

Roumanian amber differs totally from the German
amber found on the shores of the Baltic Sea, Both are
the fossil resins of antediluvian trees, and agree in chemical
composition, but differ in colour. German amber is found
only of light colours — yellow, white, and pink — while
Roum.anian amber is red, pink, brown, blue, green, and
black. These colours are frequently found mixed in a
single piece, and we also have lumps with silver-coloured
veins and gold specks. On account of this variety of
colours, the Roumanian amber is highly esteemed, and the
darker and more beautiful pieces are more costly than
yellow amber, especially as they are more rare.

German amber is found in the sea or in alluvial earth ; the
Roumanian amber is only found in mountainous places and
highlands, where it is sought and dug out by the peasants.
The collection of amber there languishes, or, more properly
speaking, is never conducted in a rational manner. The
peasants being ignorant, and led only by instinct, dig here
and there, wherever they guess that amber is to be found.
Formerly, this amber was found in greater quantities, and
also in much larger pieces than at present. If the search
for amber and its collection were carried on in a scientific
manner, by competent judges, it would prove remunerative.

North Burmah v/ould seem to be rich in deposits of

478 The Commercial Products of the Sea.

amber. It is procured in its rough state by digging holes
about three feet in diameter, and occasionally 40 feet in
depth. The mines are at an elevation of about 1050 feet,
to the south-west of the Mein Khoom plain in the Hukong
Valley. Fifteen to 20 feet of the superficial soil is clayey and
red, the remainder consisting of a greyish-black carbo-
naceous earth. The amber is made into Buddhist rosaries,
finger-rings, pipe mouthpieces, etc. The dark sherry-
coloured amber is most highly valued there.

INDEX.

A.

Agar-agar, 324, 325

Alva, uses of, 313

Amber, description of, 463
beads, 467

dredging and diving for, 468
in Burmah, 478
large blocks of, 470
relative prices of, 473
trade, Dantzic the chief seat

of, 473
two classes of, 474
uses of, 465

Anchovies, exports from Norway, 21

Anchovy fishery, 81
French, 17

Artificial pearls, 266

Abalones, 399

B.

Baccalau,another name for klip-fish, 32
Bahamas sponge fisheries, 174

statistics of export, 177
Balachong, 264
Balolo, 126
Basking shark, 229
Beadlemer seal, 202
Beche de-mer, 106
Beluga, or white whale, 20S
Benitiers of shells, 293
Berried hen, definition of, 94
Black coral, 440

helmet shell, 275
Bladder-wrack, 313
Bleaching sponges, 177

Blubber, 202, 205
Boalee fish, 257
Boat sponge, 175
Bombay pearl shells, 377
Bounty, French, on fisheries, 4
Brainstone coral, 440
Brazilian isinglass, 250
Bull's mouth shell, 273
Bultow fishing, definition of, 27
Burtah, definition of, 243
Byssus, uses of, 307

of pearl oyster, 389

Cameo-cutting, 273
Capelin fishery, 127
Cape lobster, lor

Colony, fisheries of, 15
Carrageen moss, 318
Carry-way, a kind of boat, 223
Cat-fish oil, 216

Caviare, value of the imports, 21
Cephalopods as food, 116
Ceylon, imports of fish, 15

pearl fishery, statistics of, 409,
410
Chank shells, 2S8
China fisheries, 16
Chinese isinglass, 253
Chunam or shell lime, 285
Clam shell, 281
Clams, varieties of, 146
Classing and value of pearls, 425
Clovisses, 147
Cockle shells, uses of, 299

48c

Index.

Codfish, mode of catching, by hand-
lines, set lines, and nets, 34
process of curing, 29
Cod fisheries, numljer of French

vessels employed in, 39
Cod fishery, French, at Newfound-
land, 17
Iceland, 17
of Ireland, 26
of Newfoundland, 26
of Scotland, quantity
cured, 25
Cod -liver oil, 213

value of the imports, 21
Cod oil, 213

Cod tongues and sounds, 31
Combou or kombou, 329, 334
Commercial products, variety ob-
tained from the sea, I
Conch pearls, 408
shells, 273
Cones, uses of, 294
Coral, Algeria, 454

beads, 442, 447, 456
classification of, 455
commercial varieties of, 443
composition of, 438
exports from Sardinia, 449
imports into England, 446
France, 445
United Kingdom,
460
Indian trade in, 461
value of the imports, 21
Coral fishery, 450

boats employed in, 458
Cornish sardines, 64
Cowries, African trade in, 269
as currency, 279
commercial uses of, 277
value of the imports, 21
Crab-pots, 93
Crabs, how sold, 93

in Norway, lOI
Crin vegetal, 313
Crustaceans, 90

" Crown full," definition of, 47
Cummelmums, 264
Cup-shaped sponges, 168
Cuttle-fish dried, 116, 120
bone, 121

D.

Diving-bells for sponge fishing, 190
Diving for pearls, 427

for pearl shells in the Pacific,
386. 394
Dog-fish skins, 262
Drift-nets, 49
Dugong oil, 209
Dulse, 336
Dun-fish, 31

Dutch herring fishery, 54
Dyes from the mollusca, 303

E.

Ear-shells, 372, 398
Egyptian pearl shells, 378

Fish as food, 9
bones, 257

fresh-water, sold in Paris, 18
flour, 264
guano, 154
hooks of shell, 297
inexhaustible supply of, 5
maws, eastern trade in, 256
number of species kno\\Ti, 3

oils, 153, 212

oil soap, 224

parts of, employed in arts and

manufactures, 2
paste, 264
products and their uses, 257,

264
scales, uses of, 154
skins, uses of, 153
supply to London, 7
value of imports in the United
Kingdom, 21
Fish skin, applications of, 259

leather, 259
Fisheries, French, 17
Irish, 12

of North America, 13
value of exports of British,

II
statistics of those of foreign
countries, 21

Index.

481

Fishery products, imports of, in 1870,
21

Frencli fisheries, value of, 1 7
herring fishery, 57
fishery, boats employed, 18

Fur seal, 203

G.

Gall of the carp used as a dye, 152

Galuchat, 263

Garoon shell, 286

Garuni, 265

Gelose, or seaweed isinglass, 324,

327, 328, 335
Gilbackre isinglass, 251
Glove sponge, 159
Green snail shell of commerce, 293,

399
Grotto shells, 299
Guanine, 266

H.

Make, 251

Halibut, 128

Hard head sponge, 175

Hard-shell clam, 146

Harp seal, 202

Helmet shells, 273

Herring brands, definitions of, 47

fishery of France, 56

of Holland, 54

of Norfolk, 47

of North America, 58

of Norway, 58

of Scotland, 43

oil, 218
Herrings, exports from Norway, 21
statistics of cure and export

from Scotland, 46
weight of, sent per Great
Eastern, 5 1
Hood seal, 202

I.

Iceland fisheries, 36, 38

Imports of the fisheries, statistics of, il

Indian fish oils, 216

Indian isinglass, 243
Iodine, 313

Isinglass, description and preparation
of, 238
value of our imports, 21

J.

Japan seaweeds, 329
Ju-ka, 254

K.

Kabiljauw, 256
Kelp weed, 322
Keratosa, 160
King-crab, 90
Kippered herrings, 51
Klipfish (dried cod), exports from
Norway, 21

L.

Last of herrings, definition of, 52
Laver, 336

Leather from fish skins, 153
Lobster canning, or tins, 96
pots, 97

spawn, use of, 94
fishery in Norway, 99
of America, 95
Lobsters, curious names for, 92
British, 91

exports from Norway, 21
statistics of exports from
Norway, 100
Lofoden fisheries, 36
London, fish supply to, 7, lO
Louar oil, 217

M.

Maara shells,' 387
Machorian isinglass, 251
Mackerel, commeixial classification
of, 72

fishery, British, 67

French, 17, 68

North American, 69

Norway, 68

482

Index.

Madiagwe, definition of, 89
Madrepore for paving and building,

152

Manatus, 209

Manila pearl shells, 378, 385
Marine salt, 339
silk, 306
Matanza, definition of, 86
Maties, definition of, 47
Medicinal uses of shells, 302, 303
Menhaden fish preserved in oil, 81

oil, 221
Moss-bunker, or menhaden, 81
Mother-of-pearl, applications of, in
China, 397
articles made of, 37 ^
British imports, 3S2
Mother-of-pearl shells, commercial
varieties of, 377
from Western Aus-
tralia, 395
value of our imports,
21
Mussel fishery of France, i8
shells, uses of, 298

N.

Nautilus shells, 296, 301

Nets, size and kind of, 49

Newfoundland cod fishery, 26

Norfolk herring fishery, 48

North American fisheries, 13, 14

herring fishery, 58
isinglass, 251

Norway cod fishery, 32

herring fishery, 58

Nuoc-mam, 265

o.

Octopods, 117
Oils, fish, 153

from marine mammals, 198
Opercula, uses of, 302
Orchella weed, value of the imports, 21
Organ-pipe coral, 440
Ormer shell, 39S
Ottoman sponge fishery, 183
Oolachan oil, 154, 219
Oyster fisheries, American, 139
British, 131

Oyster fisheries of France, 18, 135,

138
Oysters of Australia, 144

Painter's mussel, 269
Paires doubles, 147
Palolo, 121

Panama pearl fishery, 420
pearl shells, 378
Papier-mache work, 381, 40O
Paris, consumption of fish in, 19

of oysters in, 135
Pearl buttons, 372
Pearl fisheries, 402

of Western Australia,

427.
of Persian Gulf, 418
of Ceylon, 409
of Panama, 420
Pearl inlaying, 38 1

mussel, Chinese, 411
Pearls, commerce in, in England, 403
classification of, 417
imported into France, 418
from Labuan, 424
from Pacific Islands, 424
quantities of, 405
used by the North American

Indians, 420
value of the imports, 21, 418
various colours of, 405
Pilchard fishery, 60
Pilchards cured in oil as sardines, 64
statistics of catch and ex-
ports, 63
Pilgrim shells, 398
Pink pearls, 408
Piracuru fish, 250
Poggies, a kind of fsh bait, 71
Polypi, 117
Pomfret, 130
Porgy, a name for the menhaden fish,

221
Porpoise oil, 208
Prussian amber, 465

Queen conch shell, 273, 293

Index.

483

R.

Rau-cau, 325

Ray skin, 262

Razor clam, 146

Reef or fine toilet sponge, 175

Ribbon isinglass, 251

River pearls, 428

Rouen oil, 154

Roumanian amber, 477

Round clam, 146

Russian isinglass, 24I

Saddle Rock oyster, 142
Salmon, aggregate value of British
and Irish fisheries, 74
as food, 6

in British Columbia, 76
statistics of London sales, 74
Salmon fishery, 73

in New Brunswick, 75
in Norway, 75
Salt in Australia, 348
in Austria, 344
in California, 344
in Cochin China, 347
in India, 346
in Portugal, 345
in the United States, 344
manufacture in France, 339
Sandre oil, 215
Sankka or shell bracelet, 291
Sardine fishery of France, 17, 77

oil, 217
Sardines, American, 8r

used as manure in Japan, 8 1
Sawfish, oil from, 2it)
Scabeccio, definition of, 87
Scales of fish, uses of, 258
Scallop shells, uses of, 298
Scotch pearls, 429
Seal fishery, 199

oil, 200
Seal skins, 202

exported from Norway, 21
value of the imports, 21
Sea-urchins, 121
Seaweed and its uses, 311

collection of, in France, 317
in Japan, 317

Seaweed for manure, 314

as food, 321
Seer fish, 130
Seine nets, ()2
Sephen skin, 262
Sepia, 303

Shad fishery in North America, 60
Shagreen, 263
Shank or chank shell, 2S9
Shark skin, 261
Shark fins, 235, 237

fishery, 226
Sharks, varieties of, 226
Sheep-wool sponge, 176
Shell bangles or bracelets, 2SS
cameos, 274
fish-hooks, 297
sand, 2S5
Shells as currency, 278, 281
calcined, 270
composition of, 268
domestic uses of, 297
sales of, in London, 271
useful applications of, 270
value of British imports, 287
Shrimp fishery, English, 102
Shrimps, dried, trade in, 104
Silicious sponges, 194
Singapore, imports of fish, 15
Slips, a name for soles, 129
Snoods, definition of, 27
Soles, 129

South Sea pearl shells, 377
Spent fish, definition of, 47
Spermaceti or head matter, 205
Sponge, chemical analysis of, 17S
descriptions of, 155
fishery of Tunis, 190
for stuffing beds, 178
value of imports, 21
Sponge fisheries, American, 170

of the Bahamas, 1 74
Sponges, commercial grades of, 159
cultivation of, 182
French classification of, 193
imports of, from the Mediter

ranean, 192
scientific divisions of, 156
of the Mediterranean, 183
Soft clam, 146
Spring herrings, 52
Squids for fish bait, 120
Stockfish or round-fish, 32

484

Index.

Sturgeon, 240, 253
Suleah fish, 243
Sulu pearl shells, 377
Swordfish, 118

T.

Tangle, 336

Tiger cowry, 279

Tinned lobsters, 96

Tongues, a name for soles, 1 29

Tortoiseshell boats, 360
combs, 358
British imports, 363
description of, 351
imports into France, 364
manufacture, 354
value of the imports, 21

Train oil and blubber, 205

exported from Norway, 21

Trawlers, number of, in the British
seas, 8

Tree oysters, 421

Trepang fishery, 105

mode of curing, 1 1 2
varieties of, 107, loS, II4

Trumpet shells, 2S0, 299

Turbo shells, 300

Turk's cap shell, 294, 400

Tunny fishery, 83
oil, 85, 218
Turbot, 130
Turtle, edible or green,

3^

Turtle eggs, 368

modes of cooking, 366
Tuticorin pearl fishery, 413
Tyrian purple, 304

V.

Velvet sponge, 175
Venetian shells, 277
Vesiga, definition of, 242
Vog, definition of, 36

w.

Walrus, 204

Wampum, 28 1

Whalebone or fins, imports of, 206

Whale fishery, 204

or train oil, value of imports,
21
Western Australian pear! fisheries, 427
West Indian isinglass, 251
Wool sponge, 159

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Revolutionary Epoch.

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HENRI VAN LAUN,

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A New Vohime of the ^^International Scientific Series.'*

A H ISTORY

Growth of the Steam - Engine,

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COIsTTKNTS.

I. THE STEAM-ENGINE AS A SIMPLE MACHINE.
II. THE STEAM-ENGINE AS A TRAIN OF MECHANISM.

III. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODEEN STEAM-ENGINE.

IV. and V. THE MODEEN STEAM-ENGINE.
VL THE STEAM-ENGINE OF TO-DAY.

VIL and VIII. THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.

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RAMBLES IN WONDERLAND;

OR,

Up the Yellowstone, and among the Geysers and other Curiosities of the
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By EDWIN J. STANLEY.
WITH MAP AND TWELVE ILLUSTRATIONS.

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