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.VI67

OKIE'S

TROPICAL

READERS

BOOK \NI) ii

WORTI.l '>

BLACKJI \^D SON LIMIT!

<A COMTANJOU^ TO
BLACKIE'S

TROPICAL READERS

BOOKS I AND II

Containing Suggestions for

Experiments and Practical JVork

BY

E. J. WORTLEY, F.C.S.

LIBRARY
Ni &>

Bv CAL

QARDt

BLACKIE AND SON LIMITED

50 OLD BAILEY LONDON

GLASGOW AND BOMBAY
1911

. -* -_•;/ ^

NOTE

The publication of the Tropical Eeaders was a notable
effort to make our Elementary Education more practical,
by using, in the instruction of children dwelling in the
tropics, what is familiar to them in animal, vegetable,
and social life, and so arousing interest and stimulating
observation. The books serve their purpose admirably,
and it is some testimony to their success that a need
for amplification in some directions has been felt. This
Supplement will go far to supply this need. It will
help to build the bridge — one of the most necessary
and difficult of bridges — between schoolroom and text-
book teaching on the one hand, and on the other, the
outside things on which children need to be trained to
exercise observation for the development of their facul-
ties as well as for the increase of their knowledge.
There is nothing more common in Inspectors' Reports
than the complaint that the "Science Teaching" (which
is simple, and liable to be misunderstood by being so
grandly named) "needs better practical illustration".
This Supplement will greatly assist teachers to meet
this demand, by showing how many illustrative experi-
ments can be performed with the limited appliances
within the reach and management of Elementary

IV COMPANION TO TROPICAL PvEADERS

Schools, how many appliances can be improvised out of
articles of daily and domestic use, what are the guiding
points to be kept in view in such experiments, and how
collections of specimens are to be planned in order to
give them real educational value. Mr. Wortley's ex-
perience in the teaching of Elementary School Teachers
is a guarantee that he appreciates their needs, and he
will receive the thanks of all who realize the importance
of their work for the very valuable help he has thus
placed at their disposal.

Kingston, Jamaica,
December, 1910.

J. E. WILLIAMS,

Superintending Inspector of Schools.

PREFACE

For some time past it has seemed desirable that notes
should be prepared amplifying the subject-matter of
Blackie's Tropical Readers, and setting out clearly a
number of specific examples of what a pupil should
draw, collect, prove by experiment, observe, or record.
The present Supplement has been written with this in
view, and it is hoped that it will prove a lever to the
self-activity of the children, and that it will be a means
of guiding their work on right lines.

Study of the Jamaica Code will show that no new
work is suggested, but that an endeavour is being made
to enable teachers to comply more easily with the re-
quirements of the Education Department. The follow-
ing quotations from the Code will reveal the manner in
which it is intended that the "Science Work " should be
taught : —

"The lessons must, whenever possible, be illustrated
by actual objects, specimens, pictures, diagrams, black-
board drawings, or clay models."

" Children should be encouraged to bring with them
to the lesson illustrative specimens which they have
collected or obtained from friends."

" Children should be encouraged to make simple
drawings illustrative of their observations. Those in
the Upper Division should be required to write brief
weekly compositions in which they may express, in a
written form, the ideas which they have acquired
through observations and oral instruction, and also
through reading."

VI COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

"Plants in pots, boxes, or glasses, should be grown
in the schoolroom for illustrative purposes. As far as
possible, knowledge respecting plants should be gained
through practical illustrations and simple experiments."

Much has been written and said about the true aim
of education, and it has long been generally conceded
that the child is not to be crammed with facts, but
rather that his reasoning powers are to be developed.
A good teacher will make all subjects educational in the
highest sense of the word, but it is claimed, with con-
viction, that the subjects under the head of Science come
facile princeps as a means of developing a child's faculties.
The mental discipline derived from such training should
produce men and women determined to take pains, and
capable of doing so — efficient and cheerful workers, able
to adapt themselves to new circumstances.

This may seem a great deal to claim for any subject,
but there is sufficient evidence to warrant such hopes.
Further, it has long been noticed that the teacher who
habitually pays special attention to " Science ': and
" Nature Study " will form the habit of devoting more
time to orderly thought about, and careful preparation
for, all his subjects.

There are difficulties in the way of carrying out the
suggestions made — difficulties that are not peculiar to
Jamaica, — but they will disappear when serious and per-
sistent endeavours are made to overcome them, as has
been already proved in some cases.

I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to those
who have assisted me in preparing this little work.

E. JOCELYN WOETLEY.

Government Farm School,
Kingston, Jamaica.

CONTENTS

Companion.

Blackie's Tropi-

cal Readers.

Experi-
ments.

Page

I. Introduction

Hints to Teachers.

—

—

9

Hints to Pupils.

—

—

10

The Use of Apparatus.

—

—

12

II. Study of Animal [
Life ]

Bk. 1, Pt. I.

)

19

Bk. 2, Pt, I.

1

III. Study of Economic I
Plants \

Bk. 1, Pt. II.
Bk. 2, Pt. III.

i

24

IV. Experiments and

Practical Work

1. Animal Life.

Bk. 1, Pt. I.

—

30

2. Plant Life.

Bk. 1, Pt. II.

Plants.

Page 68.

1-5

30

Roots, I and II.

» 72.

6-16

31

Stems and Shoots, I and II.

„ 78.

17-32

33

Leaves, I and II.

„ 86.

33-41

38

Flowers, I, II, and III.

„ 93.

42-48

42

Fruits.

„ 101.

49-55

43

Seeds.

„ 105.

56-59

46

The Bamboo, Corn, &c.

„ 108.

—

46

V. Experiments and

Practical Work

1. Animal IJfe.

Bk. 2. Pt. I.

—

47

Vlll

CONTENTS

'

Companion.

Blackie

's Tropi-

cai ±tea

Experi-
ments.

Page

2. Plant Life and Soils.

Bk. 2,

Pt. II.

The Parts of a Flower.

Page 53.

60-63

47

Flowers and Seeds (Ferti-
lization), I and II.

}

55

56.

64-71

49

Seeds and Seedlings, land II.

5)

62.

72-76

51

How a Plant Feeds, I and II.

?)

68.

77-80

53

How Plants are Reared, I
and II.

I
J

)J

74.

81-93

57

How Soils are Formed.

)?

80.

94-100

60

Kinds of Soil.

J»

83.

101-107

62

More about the Soil.

M

87.

108-111

63

Tillage.

J)

89.

112-117

64

Drainage.

J1

92.

118-122

65

How We Rob the Soil.

5»

95.

123-126

66

How We Help to Feed the
Plants.

}

»J

99.

127-132

67

Climate and Plant Life.

5?

101.

133-137

68

Insect Pests.

1?

103.

138-147

69

3. Cultivation of Crops.

Bk. 2,

Pt. III.

—

72

4. Health.

Bk. 2,

Pt. IV.

Why We Eat.

Page 136.

148-150

72

Heat-giving Foods.

J»

140.

151-157

73

Flesh-forming Foods.

5)

144.

158-163

74

A Few Common Foods.

>1

147.

164-166

74

The Best Kind of Diet.

5)

150.

167-169

75

Water, I and II.

J?

153.

170-181

76

Other Beverages.

)1

160.

182-185

78

What Becomes of Our Food.

■'

163.

186-189

79

The Air We Breathe.

J1

166.

190-194

79

Why the Wind Blows.

»»

169.

195-198

81

Ventilation.

5?

171.

199-203

82

The Clothes We Wear.

?»

171.

204-207

83

Soil and Climate ; or, Where
to Live, I and II.

I

»

178.

208

83

Insects that Carry Disease.

2C9-224

84

VI. The School Garden

—

88

VII. Appendix

The Names of Plants.

■ —

95

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A COMPANION TO BLACKIE'S

TROPICAL READERS

I. INTRODUCTION

HINTS TO TEACHERS

1. Let the children work through the experiments
systematically, though some of them may be omitted
or postponed if thought desirable. The less-advanced
children should be allowed to do portions of experi-
ments.

2. Each child's note-book, with the record of the ex-
periments, should be examined frequently by the teacher,
and initialled.

3. A shelf, cupboard, or table should be reserved for
apparatus and specimens used in connection with this
work. Wooden boxes and cloth bags will be found
useful.

4. A stock set of apparatus (e.g. glasses, funnels)
should be kept, and lent to the children when required.

5. The first step in work of this sort is invariably the
hardest.

6. Whenever there are difficulties in the way, do the
best possible.

10 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

7. Create a spirit of healthy rivalry among the chil-
dren. Variety, too, will help to make the work a
pleasure.

8. In experiments, never tell a child what he can be
led to findj out for himself.

9. Some of the experiments will best be done by the
teacher aided by the children.

10. Large diagrams (drawn with coloured crayons on
cloth) should be prepared, and may be hung about the
schoolroom.

11. Reference should be made throughout the work
to the corresponding lessons in the Tropical Readers.

12. Teachers should visit one another's schools, and
exchange ideas.

HINTS TO PUPILS

1. All work should be recorded in a notebook. The
writing should be neat and tidy, and the language clear,
brief, and simple. All important facts must be recorded
in as few words as possible.

2. Number the pages of the note-book, and leave a
wide margin for side notes and headings.

3. Two lines should be left between the end of one
experiment and the beginning of another.

4. Record the date on which the work done is written
up.

5. In many of the experiments it would be well to
divide the record into three paragraphs: (i) Object of
Experiment, (ii) What I Did, (iii) What I Saw.

6. Drawings should be made to illustrate the speci-
mens collected, the apparatus used, &c

7. Such drawings should be very simple, but should
show clearly and correctly what they are intended to

INTRODUCTION

11

illustrate (fig. 1). Do not make small figures cramped
in between writing.

8. All practical work should be done thoroughly; quality
should come before quantity. It is better to do a few
things well than to do many carelessly.

-Apex

Leaf? Bkzdt

v*

VM171S

Midrib

Axil

7?etw2e

Node

Fig. 1. — Diagram of a Leaf, showing how drawings in pupil's note-
book should be made

9. Pleasure should be taken in overcoming any diffi-
culties that may be found in the work suggested.

10. Children often think that it is quite impossible
for them to do a certain task, but find on trying that it
is really quite easy.

11. If you think you do not know how to do a certain
thing, try and find out by yourself how to do it before
asking the teacher to help you.

12 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

12. Take a pride in your notebooks, your collections,
your experiments, and your school garden.

THE USE OF APPARATUS

In order that all the practical experiments outlined
in this Companion should be satisfactorily carried out,
teachers will have to make use of some chemical appa-
ratus and of some reagents. It will often be found that
interesting experiments can be successfully performed
with simple appliances and with chemical substances in
common use, and it is indeed preferable to make use
of familiar articles whenever possible.

Any experiment that the teacher proposes to do for
the benefit of his class should be tried beforehand. This
is important, and will safeguard against annoyance of
the teacher and disappointment of the scholars. It has
been said of the famous chemist Faraday that in pre-
paring for his lectures he always tried the stoppers of
the bottles he intended to use, in order to make sure
that they could easily be taken out.

Teachers often extend their work in chemistry beyond
the limits of the experiments suggested by the text
matter of the Tropical Headers, and the notes given
here will, it is hoped, enable them to do such further
demonstrations as they may desire.

The necessary manipulation will be found quite easy.
The following notes are intended for those teachers who
have had no training in practical chemistry: —

Folding Filter Paper. — The paper should be first
folded in half and the centre creased; this should
then be doubled over again (as shown in fig. 2), and
opened out so that a funnel is formed with three folds
of paper on one side and one on the other.

INTRODUCTION

13

Filtration. — Matter in suspension can be readily sepa-
rated from the liquid in which it is suspended, by

Fig. 2

a, Circular Filter Paper ; b, do. folded once ; c, do. folded twice ;
d, opened out into cone

filtration. A funnel is fitted with filter paper, folded
as explained above; the mixture is then poured on to
the funnel (fig. 3), and the liquid (with any matter

in solution) passes through. The
use of a glass rod down which the
liquid may run will be found a help
in pouring out the liquid.

Funnel and Filter
Stand

A, Filter paper folded into proper shape ;

B, filter paper placed inside glass funnel

Fig. 3

Decantation. — This is a means of separating fine
particles of matter in suspension from heavier sub-
stances also insoluble. Thus, if a mixture of soil and

14 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

water is stirred rapidly and the water poured off, the
clay in suspension is carried away with the water, while
the sand settles at the bottom of the vessel (fig. 4).

Fig. 4. — Decantation

xe>

Evaporation. — A liquid may be driven off in the form
of a vapour by exposing it to the influence of the sun's
heat. The change may be more rapidly brought about
by putting the vessel over a fire.

Heating". — The problem of obtaining a satisfactory
source of heat may prove troublesome. A spirit lamp
will be convenient, but will not give sufficient heat for
all experiments. The writer believes that a small and
inexpensive " fireplace ", neatly built with a few bricks,
in a corner of the schoolground, will prove useful. The
cover of a kerosene tin may be put across the top to
support whatever is to be heated.

Cutting Glass Tubing. — Draw one edge of a file
sharply across the tubing to be cut, at the required
length. Take hold of the tubing with both hands,
keeping the thumbs near to the mark made by the file;
snap sharply across.

Bending Glass Tubing. — Hold the glass tubing in the

INTRODUCTION 15

flame, turning it round and seeing that it is gradually
heated. When the tube shows signs of softening, slowly
bend it as desired. Larger sizes of tubing cannot be
bent in the flame of a spirit lamp.

Care of Apparatus and Chemicals. — Special precau-
tions have to be taken by teachers who undertake work
of this nature. Some of the reagents are highly corro-
sive, e.g. nitric acid, sulphuric acid; phosphorus takes
fire when exposed to the air; sodium is highly dangerous
if put into water in too large quantities; and hydrogen
and oxygen make an explosive mixture. Further, many
chemicals are poisonous, and the greatest care has to be
exercised in storing them. Children should never be
allowed to handle them by themselves, and they are
best kept under lock and key. Glassware should be
gently handled to avoid breakage.

Cost. — If full use be made of such substitutes as can
be obtained, the cost of this work will amount to very
little. Five shillings, it is estimated, will enable the
teacher to buy sufficient apparatus to keep the work
going, while for ten shillings he can be thoroughly
equipped. If there were a regular demand for appa-
ratus some local firm of importers would doubtless be
willing to make arrangements to keep a stock of just
what teachers might require.

IQ

n fi nt n

«> «> » <s ^

Fig. 5.— Chemical Apparatus
16

( C 282 )

Fig. b.—a, Glass flask; b, c, glass beakers; d, test-
glass on foot; e, thistle funnel; /, stoppered bell jar;
g, gas jar; h, detonating bottle (for exploding gases);
k, rose-top; I, Bunsen burner; m, Woulffs bottle;
7i, crucible ; o, o, pestle and mortar ; p, cork borer ;
q, test-tube stand ; r, deflagrating spoon.

Fig. 6. — s, Stoppered retort; t, test-tube holder;
u, scales; v, tripod; w, evaporating dish; x, test-
tube brush; y, crucible tongs; z, funnel.

(C282)

Fig. 6.— Chemical Apparatus
17

18

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

APPARATUS AND SUBSTITUTES

(See Figs. 5 and 6.)

Apparatus.

Proposed Substitute.

Retort stand.1

Spirit lamp.
Furnace.1
Wire gauze.

Common kitchen lamp, used with alcohol.
Brick fireplace.
Squares of tin sheeting.

Pipeclay triangle.

Similar triangle made with bits of clay pipes
and wire.

Evaporating basins.
Funnels (glass).

Enamelware saucers, tin saucers, yabbas.
Tin funnels.

Filter paper.
Test tubes.

Blotting paper cut to size.

Test-tube stand.

Block of wood with auger holes.

Test-tube brush.

Pointed stick with cloth attached.

Thistle funnel.
Woulff's bottle.1

Clay pipe.

Cork borer.

Knife with long-pointed blade and a rat-
tail file.

Triangular file.
Retort.1

Flask.

Glasses and enamelware jugs to stand heat.

Pneumatic trough.

Toilet basin.

Beehive shelf.

Two bricks.

Glass jars.

Jam pots, wide-mouthed bottles.

Glass plates.

Small squares of window-pane glass.

Deflagrating spoon.
Corks.

Small tin spoon bent at right angles.

Glass tubing.
Bell jar.

Small bamboo joints.
Bottle with bottom cut off.

Pestle and mortar.

Stones.

Tripod stand.

Home-made article of stout wire.

i Not absolutely necessary.

II. STUDY OF ANIMAL LIFE

There does not appear to be any necessity for dealing
separately with the thirty-three lessons on animal life
that are to be found in the Tropical Headers (Book I,
Part I; Book II, Part I). The lines to be adopted in
teaching this section will be very similar for each animal.
The teacher's object will naturally be to ensure the chil-
dren's taking a lively interest in the subject, and this
can best be done by encouraging them to make and
record their own observations.

KINDNESS TO ANIMALS

The modern trend of this branch of education is to
insist on the study of animals in their natural haunts
rather than to destroy them for the purpose of examin-
ing their dead bodies. It is not thought at all desirable
that children should be encouraged to collect and kill
specimens such as birds, insects, &c, nor should they
be allowed to keep live animals in captivity. Much
good will be done if no opportunity is lost of impressing
on the pupils the necessity of kindness to all animals.

Birds, insects, spiders, and other creatures should not
be kept confined in boxes or cages. They should never
be handled roughly. Their homes or nests should not
be destroyed or interfered with. The children should
be made to realize the necessity of taking the greatest
care of animals belonging to them, of giving them a
liberal and regular supply of food and of water, and
of cleaning their cages, nests, stables, &c.

19

20 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

OBSERVATION OF HABITS OF ANIMALS

Children should be led to observe and record such
details as the following: —

1. The seasons at which birds, butterflies, ticks, &c.
are most plentiful.

2. The flowers that certain birds, butterflies, moths,
&c, visit for food.

3. The insects eaten by birds, frogs, lizards, &c.

4. The weeds eaten by domestic and other animals,
e.g. Spanish needle by rabbits.

5. The fruits eaten by bats, e.g. duppy cherry, nase-
berry, guava, &c.

6. Different insects and other pests attacking crops.

7. The adaptation of organs of animals for functions
they have to perform, e.g. teeth of a horse, the fringe on
the bill of a duck, the tongue of the humming bird, &c.

8. Powers of self-defence and self-preservation, e.g.
horns of cow, evil smell of green-bug, sting of scorpion
and wasp, colouring of lizards, structure of stick-insects.

PRACTICAL WORK AND EXPERIMENTS

As the teacher reads through the lessons on animal
life he will readily see that most of them can be illus-
trated with objects brought in by the children, e.g.: —

1. Bees: Pollen, honey, wax, flowers with nectar.

2. The Coii)\ Milk, leather, bone, candles.

In some cases interesting experiments may be under-
taken.

1. Milk may be separated into its constituents.
Allow to stand, and the/?/ will rise; add limejuice, and
proteids will coagulate; if the remaining whey is evapo-
rated sugar will be left; and ash will be produced by
burning the residue.

Fig. 7

External View of Stomachs of Cow. Internal Structure of Stomachs

a, Paunch; (b) honeycomb bag ; c, many- of Cow

plies ; d, true stomach.

Fig. 8

21

99

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

NOTES FOR A LESSON ON THE COW

(See Figs. 7 and 8.)

Facts to be " drawn out " of chil-
dren by direct and indirect ques-
tions (educere, to draw out).

1. Description of the Cow.

Size, large.

Hair, short, similar to horse.

Skin, tough, thick.

Legs, four.

Hoofs, two toes.

Horns, on front of head.

Tail, long, with hair at end.

Stomach, four parts.

Teeth.

Different breeds.

2. Habits of the Cow.

(Gentle domestic animal.)
Eats grass.
Chews cud.
Lies down.
Yields milk.

3. Uses of the Living Cow.

Cows yield milk.
Oxen plough fields, and draw
heavy wagons.

4. Uses of the various Parts of
the Cow when Dead.

Beef.

Veal, from calf.

Tallow candles, from fat.

Glue, from horns and hoofs, by

boiling.
Handles of knircs, buttons, dec.,

from horns.
Leather, from hide, by tanning.
Mortar, mixed with hair.

Methods of teaching ; specimens,
drawings, experiments, &c.

1. Description of the Cow.

It is desirable to obtain the
use of a cow for demonstration,
and to point out the different
parts while the children are
standing around the animal.

Make an incomplete drawing
of a cow on the blackboard, and
let the children fill in the horns,
toes, tail, &c.

Draw a diagram on the board,
showing the four parts of a cow's
stomach.

2. Habits of the Cow.

Let children observe how the
cow eats grass and afterwards
chews its cud.

4. Arrange beforehand for chil-
dren to bring in specimens.

STUDY OF ANIMAL LIFE

23

Notes for a Lesson on the Cow. — (Cont.)

Facts to be " drawn out" of chil-
dren by direct and indirect ques-
tions (educere, to draw out).

Methods of teaching; specimens,
drawings, experiments, &c.

5. Composition of Milk.
Milk is a liquid containing :

1. Fat (in suspension).

2. Albumen (in solution).

3. Sugar „

4. Mineral matter „

5. Composition of Milk.

Articles Required.
Milk.

Two glasses.
Butter.

Cloth strainer.
Cheese.

Enamel evaporating dish.
Limejuice.

1. Fat. — (a) Let children ex-
amine. Hold a glass of milk to
the light, and observe the fat
globules.

(6) Show children a glass of
milk that has been standing for
some hours, and let them point
out that the fat has risen to the
surface.

2. Albumen. — Pour some lime-
juice into a glass of milk, and
observe that it curdles. The
solid matter, consisting of albu-
men, is known as curd, while
the liquid left is whey.

3. Sugar. — Separate the curd
and the whey by straining
through a cloth. The liquid
which goes through contains
sugar and mineral matter.

4. Mineral Matter. — Evapo-
rate the solution in an enamel
dish over a fire. It will be
noticed that the residue left after
the liquid passes off will soon
begin to darken in colour. This
is the sugar burning. Continue
heating until only the mineral
matter is left behind in the
form of ash.

III. STUDY OF ECONOMIC

PLANTS

Space would not permit of notes being given on each
plant dealt with in the Tropical Readers. The teacher
can, however, adapt the general plan to suit each lesson.
It is desirable to arouse more interest in the children in
the study of the plants seen in the fields and gardens
among which they live. Their powers of observation
should be trained, while every endeavour should be
made to awaken them to a keener appreciation of the
value of improved agricultural methods.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT

Part of the time devoted to the study of a plant will
naturally be spent describing the structure of its parts.
The teacher should insist on leaves, flowers, fruits, &c,
being brought in, and should, by direct and indirect
questions, obtain information about the specimens from
the pupils. These lessons will enable him to note the
degree of accuracy shown, and the power of observation
possessed, by different members of his class. Discretion
will have to be exercised as to how far botanical terms
should be used; but it will be well, anyhow, to consider
the different details according to some such scheme as
the following: —

24

STUDY OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

25

Roots. — Tap, fibrous, tuberous, aerial, woody, fleshy.

Stem. —

Woody, fleshy, herbaceous,

spiny.
Colour.

Leaf. —

Simple or compound.

Shape.

With or without leaf-stalk.

Veins.

Flowers. —

Number borne together.

Shape.

Size.

Colour.

Fruit. —

Size.
Colour.

Seed. —

Number in fruit.
Size.

Surface.

Method of growth.

Special forms.

Margin.

Arrangement on stem.
Persistent or falling off.

Description of calyx.
Description of corolla.
Season of year borne.
Insect visitors.

Texture of skin.
Kind of pulp.

Nature of seed-coat.
Number of cotyledons.

CULTIVATION

The text matter of the Tropical Readers should be
practically illustrated by growing such economic plants
as convenient in the School Garden.

Correct methods of culture can then be more satis-
factorily impressed on the children. Let each child do
as much as can possibly be arranged. Work should
cover the following grounds: —

Situation and soil.
Preparation of land.

26 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

Selection of seed.

Propagation.

Cultivation.

Tillage, drainage, watering, weeding.

Control of insect pests.

Harvesting.

Preparation for marketing.

USES

Special attention must be drawn to the uses made of
various portions of the plants studied ; for example : —

COCONUT
Fruit. —

(a) Water. — A drink.

(b) Meat. — Oil, confectionery, food for animals.

(c) Husk. — Coir . mats, coir fibre, mattresses, rope,
floor brushes, other brushes.

(d) Shell. — Ornamental vases, spoons, drinking vessels.

Leaf. — Baskets, sails, mats, hats, thatch, fencing,
booths.

Stem. — Posts for house-building, ornamental wood
used for cabinet work, walking-sticks.

PREPARATION FOR MARKET

When the product has to be cured or manufactured
for market, the process should be carefully explained
to the children. Notes or drawings should be made
on the blackboard showing each step, and at the same
time specimens should be exhibited illustrating the
various stages from the raw to the manufactured
article. Special attention should be drawn to faulty
methods that affect the value of our exports.

STUDY OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

27

Fig. 9

NOTES FOR A LESSON ON THE SUGAR CANE

(See fig. 9.)
PREPARATION FOR LESSON

Blackboard Drawings

Plant.
Flower.

Stem cut through.
Stages in manufacture of
sugar.

Specimens

Cane plant.

Flower-spike.

Corn.

Grass-spike.

Molasses.

Muscovado sugar.

Albion sugar.

28

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

Notes for a Lesson on the Sugar Cane. — (Cont.)

Pictures

Cane mill.
Sugar estate.

Apparatus and Chemicals

Evaporating dish.
Spirit lamp or fireplace.
Temper lime.

Facts to be " drawn out " of chil-
dren by direct and indirect ques-
tions (educere, to draw out).

1. Description of Sugar Cane.

Plant, like a tall grass with
stout stems, 8 to 12 ft. high.

Roots, fibrous.

Stem, thick, jointed, sweet.

Leaves, large, narrow, and
pointed; veins parallel.

Floicers, large clusters of small
flowers, called "cane-flags".

2. Countries.

West Indies, Java, Demerara,
India.

3. Parishes in Jamaica.

Clarendon, Westmorland, Tre-
lawney, St. James, Hanover, St.
Thomas, St. Catherine.

4. Method of Cultivation.

1. Suitable land selected.

2. Land cleared.

3. Land ploughed and
rowed.

4. Cane tops planted.

5. Young canes moulded up
from time to time.

6. Canes weeded, mulched,
manured.

Methods of teaching; specimens,
drawings, experiments, &c.

1. Description of Sugar Cane.

Compare stems and leaves of
grass, corn, and cane, all of which
are members of the Grass Family.

Exhibit a cane plant with roots
to illustrate the description of the
plant.

2. Countries.

Point to su*mr-£rowin£ coun-
tries on a map of the world.

3. Parishes in Jamaica.

Fill in sugar districts on blank
map of Jamaica.

4. Method of Cultivation.

In the School Garden devote
a plot to canes ;rown in the most
approved manner, and there de-
monstrate how the plant should
be cultivated.

STUDY OF ECONOMIC PLANTS

29

Notes for a Lesson on the Sugar Cane. — (Cont.)

Facts to be " drawn out " of chil-
dren by direct and indirect ques-
tions (educere, to draw out).

7. Canes " trashed ".

8. Ripe canes cut.

9. Next year's plants spring
from stools known as ratoons.

5. Manufacture of Sugar.
Order of process.

1. Ripe canes cut.

2. Crushed in mill.

3. Cane juice heated, "limed",
and skimmed.

4. Boiled thick until syrup is
formed.

5. Syrup allowed to cool, sugar
crystallizing out and molasses
draining off.

6. Sugar crystals refined in
centrifugal.

Manufacture of Rum

1. Molasses (see fifth staere

• • •

above) mixed with the skim-
mings and allowed to ferment.

2. Transferred to still.

3. Wash distilled.

4. White wines collected

in

receiver.

5. White wines coloured with

burnt sugar.

Methods of teaching; specimens,
drawings, experiments, &c.

5. Manufacture of Sugar.

On the blackboard make rough
drawings illustrating in order the
stages of manufacture and the
type of machinery used.

Prepare a solution of sugar
and water, evaporate and obtain
the sugar. Prepare sugar from
cane juice in an evaporating
basin.

Exhibit cane juice, molasses,
wet sugar, Muscovado sugar,
Albion sugar.

Put some yeast in a solution
of sugar and water; observe the
change that takes place in a few
days, and notice the smell of al-
cohol.

Put the residue from above in
a retort and distil. Collect the
liquid that condenses first; test
its alcoholic character by smell
and by its inflammability.

IV. EXPERIMENTS AND PRAC-
TICAL WORK

I. Animal Life

For general notes on Animal Life see pp. 19-23 of
this Companion.

II. Plant Life

PLANTS

(See Tropical Readers, Book I, pp. 68-71.)

Expt. 1. How a Plant Lives and Feeds. — Make a
drawing of a growing plant, directing attention to the
following facts by side notes: —

(1) The leaves are in the air, and take in carbon
dioxide as food.

(2) The roots are in the soil, and absorb their food in
the form of solution.

Expt. 2. Some Roots do not Grow in the Soil. —
Collect four plants with roots that do not grow entirely
in the soil, or that never reach the soil at all; e.g. wild
pine, mangrove, screw pine.

Expt. 3. Some Plants never have Flowers. — Collect
four plants that do not bear flowers, e.g. ferns, mosses.

Expt. 4. Animals Feed on Plants. — Make a col-
lection of six plants upon which you have observed

30

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK

31

animals feeding, e.g. horses upon guinea grass, birds
on oranges and guavas, caterpillars on lilies.

Expt. 5. Useful Plants. — Collect four specimens each
of plants made use of, as follows: —

Food — e.g. cassava, yam.

Drink — e.g. coconut, cocoa.

House-building — e.g. cedar, broadleaf.

Dyes — e.g. logwood, fustic.

Medicines — e.g. Jack-in-the-bush, leaf-of-life.

ROOTS— I

(See Tropical Readers, Book I, pp. 72-74.)

Expt. 6. Tap-roots. — Collect ten plants with tap-roots
(e.g. coffee, cocoa, orange, carrot, turnip, cassava, broom-
weed) and put those that are fleshy together.

Expt. 7. Fibrous Roots. — Collect
six plants with fibrous roots (e.g. guinea
grass, cane, corn, red lily).

Expt. 8. Root-cap (fig. 10).— Ex-
amine roots of the water hyacinth
and mangrove, and observe that the
root-caps at the tip are so much de-
veloped as to be visible to the naked
eye.

Expt. 9. Growing Portion of a
Root is near Tip. — To show that
only the lower portion of a root grows
longer, put a seedling, the root of
which has been marked with Indian
ink or tied with bands of thread at
intervals of about \ in. in a funnel (see fig. 11), and
keep moist by surrounding with damp cotton wool
or blotting paper. A copy should first be made on

^»

Fig. 10. — Longitu-
dinal Section through
the Apex of a Root

a, Axis ; r, cortex ;
gp, growing-point; cc,
root-cap.

32

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

paper to show the exact position of the marks put on
the root. In three or four days compare the root

with the copy, and observe that
the marks are farthest apart
towards the end of the root. In
recording this experiment make
drawings.

Expt. 10. Development of Roots
from Radicle of Bean Seed. —
Grow a number of bean seedlings,
germinating the seeds on damp
blotting paper, in moist sawdust,
and in the soil itself. Make six
drawings from observations, show-
ing the radicle from the time it
was dormant until it had de-
veloped into a root system two
months old.

Expt. 11. Development of Roots
from Radicle of Corn Seed. —
Fig. li.— Experiment to Repeat Experiment 10, examin-

detennine the Growing ., .-. e

Point of a Root mg the growth of roots in corn

seedlings instead. Observe that
the radicle dies back after a time, and numerous fibrous
roots take its place.

ROOTS— II

(See Tropical Readers, Book I, pp. 75-78.)

Expt. 12. Storage of Food in Roots. — Keep carrots
and turnips growing until they produce flowers and
seeds; observe that the fleshy roots get much smaller.

Expt. 13. Aerial or Adventitious Roots. — Make
drawings of the aerial or adventitious roots, which

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 33

grow partly or entirely above ground, on six plants,
e.g. screw pine, mangrove, orchid, sugar cane.

Expt. 14. Necessity for Roots. — Cut the roots off a
weed ; plant it in the soil ; support it by a stake. Note
whether it grows or not.

Expt. 15. Root-hairs. — Grow some radish seedlings
on a piece of flannel and observe the tiny root-hairs.

Expt. 16. Tuberous Roots and Tubers. — Examine
the tuberous root of the cassava and compare it with
the tuber of a yam; put both aside in a moist place,
and observe that the latter readily develops shoots
from its " eyes ".

STEMS AND SHOOTS— I

(See Tropical Readers, Book I, pp. 78-82.)

Expt. 17. Food Solution travels up Stem from
Roots. — Cut through the stem of a plant growing
vigorously, about 6 in. from the ground, and note the
" bleeding " due to the escape of food in solution going
up the stem from the roots. Do not confuse with
gummy matter given off by plants in order to heal
wounds.

Expt. 18. Food Solution travels up through Woody
Portion of Stem. — Put a branch (e.g. of a rose tree)
with leaves to stand in water coloured with red ink.
Expose in the sunlight for three or four hours. Observe
that the red ink has travelled up into the leaves, and,
by cutting across the stem and also peeling down a
piece of the bark, note that it has passed through the
woody portion of the stem only; the pith, cambium
layer, and bark will not have been reddened.

Expt. 19. Underground Stems. — Collect and make

drawings of rhizomes of the ginger and iris; tubers of
( C 282 ) 3

34

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

the white yam, coco (tania), and Irish potato; and of
bulbs of the onion, garlic, and red lily. Observe that
all these underground stems possess " eyes " or buds
from which shoots may grow.

Fig. 12.— The Potato Plant, showing tubers

Expt. 20. Edible Portion of Cassava. — Observe that
the tuberous or fleshy root of the cassava has no buds,
and is therefore a root.

Expt. 21. Edible Portion of Sweet Potato. — Deter-
mine by examination and experiment whether the edible
portion of a sweet potato plant is a tuber or a fleshy
root.

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK

35

m 2

Fig. 13.— Rootstock, or Rhizome, of Iris

Expt. 22. Cuttings in Water. — Put two or three
cuttings of crotons in water and observe that roots
develop at the base.

Exit. 23. Food does not
travel down a Stem if the
Cambium Layer is Injured.
— Get three cuttings as in
the experiment above, but
remove a ring of bark about
2 in. wide and about 1 in.
from the base. Scrape the
exposed portion roughly and
place in water. Observe
that in the case of these cut-
tings the roots arise above
the ring, showing that the
ring prevented the carriage
of food to the lower portion ins leaves; st> steni'> s> brown stale

... L leaves; K, roots. (Stem 2 will be-

01 the Cutting. come next year's corm.)

Fig. 14 — Longitudinal Section of
Conn of Crocus

L, Leaves; F, flower; sh, sheath-

36

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

Expt. 24. Corms and Bulbs. — Compare the under-
ground stem of the crocus or snowdrop (a corm) with

Fig. 15.— Section of Bulb

L, Foliage leaves; In, inflorescence; s, fleshy scale leaves; B, brown
scale leaves ; St, stem ; R, roots.

that of the onion (a bulb), cutting both across and
making drawings of the sections.

STEMS AND SHOOTS— II

(See Tropical Readers, Book I, pp. 82-86.)

Expt. 25. Tendrils. — Collect shoots of the grape vine,
sweet cup, cerasse, chocho, and four other plants that
possess tendrils with which they climb.

Expt. 26. Coiled Tendrils. — Closely examine the ten-
dril of a chocho or grape vine, and observe that it has
a straight portion in the middle of the coiled part; this
prevents its kinking when drawn tight, and reduces the
chance of its being broken by strong winds.

Expt. 27. Twining Plants (fig. 16). — Observe how
the yam vine twines round its support. AVind a piece
of string spirally round a stick to represent the direction

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK

37

taken by the yam. Note whether the yampie is also a
twiner or not, and, if it is, in what direction it grows.

Expt. 28. Shapes and Coverings
of Stems. — Collect :

(a) Six round (cylindrical) stems,
e.g. soursop, genip.

(b) Four three-sided (triangular)
stems, e.g. bine -pear, Jerusalem
candlestick.

(c) Four four-sided (quadrangular)
stems, e.g. granadilla.

(d) Six stems with smooth sur-
faces, e.g. mango, sweet potato.

(e) Four stems with hairs, e.g.
cowitch.

( /) Four stems with hollow joints,
e.g. bamboo, wild cane.

Expt. 29. Protective Hairs and
Prickles. — What purpose does it
seem likely that the hairs on the
cowitch (which should not be
handled) and the prickles of the
prickly pear serve? Make drawings of hairs and
prickles.

Expt. 30. Layers of Bark, Wood, and Pith. — Examine
young plants of broomweed, and note that the pith gets
smaller while the woody part enlarges.

Expt. 31. Heartwood and Sapwood. — Examine logs
of wood cut from branches of large trees, and observe
that there are two layers of wood — the hard and darker-
coloured heartwood in the centre and the outer layer
of sapwood.

Expt. 32. Stems of Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.
— Get portions of the stem of the corn, mango, cane,
and sunflower plants; saw across, and make drawings

Fig. 16.— Twining Stem

38 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

with coloured crayons of the sections; state which are
similar in structure to one another.

LEAVES— I and II

(See Tropical Readers, Book I, pp. 86-93.)

Expt. 33. Simple and Compound Leaves. — Collect
and make drawings of —

(a) Ten simple undivided leaves, e.g. orange, mango,
sweet-sop.

(b) Six simple leaves that are divided or lobed, e.g.
bread-fruit, castor oil.

(c) Twelve compound pinnate leaves, e.g. logwood,
tamarind, Barbados pride, poinciana.

(d) Six compound digitate leaves, e.g. silk-cotton (Ceiba),
choya (Cleome).

Expt. 34. Leaf Stalks. — Examine the stalks of leaves,
and collect four belonging to each of the under-mentioned
classes : —

(a) Petiolate leaves, e.g. mango, custard apple.

(b) Sessile (without stalks), e.g. wandering Jew, to-
bacco, French cotton, monkey fiddle.

(c) Stipulate, e.g. rose, gungo, rattle-bush.

(d) Sheathing, e.g. sugar cane, Indian shot, guinea
grass.

Expt. 35. Shapes of Leaves (fig. 17). — Collect simple
leaves or leaflets that are the following shapes : —

(a) Linear, e.g. guinea grass, crocus.

(b) Oval, e.g. guava, pimento.

(c) Egg-shaped {ovate), e.g. dumb cane, four o'clock,
arrowroot, clammy cherry (scarlet).

(d) Egg-shaped upside down (obovate), e.g. cashew, lignum-
vitre (leaflet).

(e) Elliptical, e.g. grape fruit, star apple, aralia (leaflet).

Fig. 17.— Simple Leaves illustrating variety in Shapes and Edges

1, Line-like; 2, lance-shaped; 3, elliptic; 4, egg-shaped; 5, egg-shape re-
versed; 6, heart-shaped ; 7, kidney-shaped ; S, heart-shape reversed ; 9, wedge-
shaped; 10, with "winged" stalk; 11, arrow shaped; 12, halbert-shaped ; 13,
awl-shaped ; 14, needle-shaped ; 15, 16, 17, leaves with deeply divided edges.

40

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

(/) Heart-shaped (cordate), e.g. mahoe, corallila (white),
edcloe, bleeding heart (caladium), anatta.

(g) Spoon-shaped (spathidate), e.g. forget-me-not.

(h) Lance-shaped (lanceolate), e.g. mango, bamboo, dag-
ger plant, roseapple.

(i) Draw one example each of the eight different
classes mentioned above, and at the side of each draw
the object after which it has been named. For example,
draw the heart-shaped leaf of the anatta, and next to it
draw a heart.

Parallel-veined Leaf

Net- veined Leaf

Fig. 18

Expt. 36. Veins (fig. 18). — Collect six kinds of leaves
that are —

(a) Parallel-veined, e.g. corn, lily, ginger, banana.

(b) Net-veined, e.g. pumpkin, yam, golden apple.

(c) Prepare " skeleton " leaves of both types by soak-
ing in water until the blade softens and the fleshy part
can be torn away, leaving the veins intact.

EXPT. 37. Margins of Leaves.— Collect four leaves
in each of the following classes, distinguished by their

margins

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 41

(a) Even or entire, e.g. mango, sour-sop, golden apple,
pimento.

(b) Serrate (sawlike), e.g. rose, acalypha.

(c) Spiny, e.g. pineapple, penguin.

(d) Dentate (like teeth), e.g. Jack-in-the-bush, water lily
(Xelumbium).

(e) Cremate, e.g. leaf-of-life, geranium.

(/) Ciliate (with hairs), e.g. rex begonias.

Expt. 38. Surfaces of Leaves. — Collect four leaves
in each of the following classes, distinguished by their
surfaces —

(a) Smooth, e.g. pimento, mangrove, allamanda.

(b) Rough, e.g. petrea, chocho.

(c) Hairy, e.g. nettle, turnip, tobacco, velvet leaf.

(d) Prickly, e.g. wild thistle.

(e) Waxy, e.g. wild plantain, wax plant, French cotton.
Put a waxy leaf in cold water; note film of air; take out
and observe that leaf is not wet; rub oft" wax with soft
cloth and warm water; put back into cold water and
observe that leaf now gets wet.

Expt. 39. Deciduous and Persistent Leaves.

(a) Whenever you observe a plant bare of leaves (e.g.
red plum, cedar, genip, silk-cotton) record its name, to-
gether with a note of the time of the year at which it
regularly sheds its leaves.

(b) Make a list of twelve trees that do not shed all
their leaves at regular seasons, e.g. lignum-vita?, mango,
lime, bread-fruit, sweet-sop.

Expt. 40. General Collection. — Make a large and
general collection of leaves, and sort them into the
following classes: —

(a) Simple and compound leaves.

(b) Undivided simple and lobed simple leaves.

(c) Parallel- and net-veined leaves.

42

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

Expt. 41. Full Description of Leaves. — Draw any

three leaves, describing the nature of the various parts
(shape, petiole, veins, margin, &c).

FLOWERS— I, II, and III

(See Tropical Readers, Book I, pp. 93-101.)

Expt. 42. Description of Flower. — Collect and describe
the different parts of three flowers, e.g. orange, guava.

Fig. 19.— Forms of Corolla

Expt. 43. Drawings. — Make careful drawings of any
three flowers, naming the various parts.

Expt. 44. United Petals. — Collect twelve flowers in
which the petals are more or less united, giving the

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 43

flower the shape of a bell, funnel, &c. (fig. 19), e.g.
guava, orange.

Expt. 45. Sepals. — Collect twelve flowers with green
sepals and four with coloured sepals, e.g. poinciana,
orchids.

Expt. 46. Number of Petals. — Observe and record
the number of petals usually found in —

(a) Monocotyledonous plants, e.g. red lily, ginger lily.

(b) Dicotyledonous plants, e.g. hibiscus, orange.

Expt. 47. Insect - pollinated Flowers. — Examine
flowers that are visited by bees (e.g. logwood, genip,
lignum-vitae) ; look for the sweet liquid (nectar) and
taste it.

Expt. 48. Pollen found on Stamens of Flowers. —
Examine four fully opened flowers, and see if you can
get pollen from the stamens to adhere to your finger.

FRUITS

(See Tropical Readers, Book I, pp. 101-105.)

Expt. 49. Development of Fruit from Flower.

(a) Trace the development of a fruit from the flower
bud to the mature fruit, and observe which parts of the
flower fall off and which enlarge.

(b) Select a tree on which all stages may be found at
the same time, e.g. pomegranate, lime; collect a series
and arrange in gradation, putting first the bud, next the
flower, &c.

(c) Select a particular flower on a tree and record,
with drawings, the changes that take place until the
fruit is ripe.

Expt. 50. Berries. — Examine the following berries,
and observe that they all possess an outer skin that en-

44

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

closes a juicy pulp, in which are seeds: Grape, orange,
cucumber. Collect four other berries.
Expt. 51. Drupe or Stone Fruits.

(a) The Mango is a Drupe. — Cut a mango across with
a sharp stroke of a cutlass or hatchet, and observe that
the real seed is surrounded by (1) an outer skin, (2) a
fibrous juicy pulp, and (3) a hard woody covering.

(b) The Mango Seed. — Cut open the "stone" of a
mango and note the real seed inside with its own cover-
ings. The part of a mango thrown away, and spoken of
as the "seed" or "stone", is, in reality, the seed covered
with the third or hard layer of the fruit itself.

(c) The Coconut is a Fibrous
Drupe. — Make a drawing of
a cross section of a coconut,
colouring the different parts
and explaining, by compar-
ing it with a mango, why it
is correct to call it a fibrous
drupe.

Expt. 52. Legumes or Pods.
— Observe that pods (e.g. red
pea, Barbados pride, rattle-
bush, butterfly plant) are
made of one cell only, and
that they possess two seams
siiiqua by which they open and
Fig. 20 scatter their seeds. Collect

pods, closed and open, from
ten different kinds of plants.

Expt. 53. Capsules (fig. 21).— Collect and examine
fruits of the sand-box, anatta, and okra, and of three
other plants with capsules; particularly observe any
that are split open and have shed their seeds. Kecord
the number of divisions in each fruit.

Legume

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK

45

Fig. 21.— Capsules

Expt. 54. Scattering of Seeds.

(a) Eecord the greatest distance from the parent plant
that you have known of seeds being scattered by natural
means.

(b) Pick several pods or capsules that are nearly ready
to split open; put near a fire or in bright sunshine and
observe the result.

Expt. 55. Compound Fruits.

(a) Observe by watching from time to time that a
number of separate flowers go to form the fruits of the
pine-apple, bread-fruit, and jack-fruit.

(b) Compare the flowers of the pine-apple and penguin,
and also their fruits. Make drawings, showing the
number of flowers that go to an individual fruit in
each case.

46 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

SEEDS

(See Tropical Readers, Book I, pp. 105-108.)

Expt. 56. Examination of Parts of a Bean Seed. —
Soak some bean seeds for two or three hours in a saucer
containing water, or keep them on damp flannel until
they start to grow; observe how the seeds absorb water
and swell, and how the seed coat crinkles and splits.
The two seed leaves (cotyledons) should now be gently
pulled apart and the baby plant, which may be separated
with a needle, can be examined. Make drawings.

Expt. 57. Examination of Parts of a Corn Seed. —
Examine corn seeds in a similar manner, noting that
they have but one seed-leaf, and that the reserve of
food is not in the seed-leaf but around it. Make
drawings.

Expt. 58. How the Store of Food for the Embryo is
Used. — Plant some corn and bean seeds, and, when they
are seedlings about a week old, examine and observe
that the food supply has in both cases largely de-
creased.

Expt. 59. Number of Seed Leaves (Cotyledons). —
Plant seeds of six different kinds of plants (e.g. Indian
shot, iris lily, mango, coffee, cocoa, castor oil, corn), and
observe whether they possess one or two seed-leaves.

THE BAMBOO, CORN, ETC.

For general notes on the Study of Economic Plants,
see pp. 24-29 of this Companion.

V. EXPERIMENTS AND PRAC-
TICAL WORK

I. Animal Life

General notes on Animal Life will be found on pp.
19-23 of this Companion.

II. Plant Life and Soils

THE PARTS OF A FLOWER

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 53-56.)

Expt. 60. Description of Flowers. — Collect blossoms
of the orange, guava, or any other simple flower; ex-
amine carefully and describe the various parts on the
following plan: —

The floiver as a whole: Mention general shape, size and
diameter, colour and perfume; state whether borne
singly or in clusters.

Calyx: Mention the number of sepals or lobes, shape,
and colour.

Corolla: Mention number of petals or lobes of corolla,
their shape and colour.

Stamens: If a few, give exact number, if many, say
indefinite; mention colour and length of filament and
colour of pollen dust.

47

48

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

Pistil: Mention number of carpels, length of .style,
and state whether stigma is divided or not.

Expt. 61. Drawings of Flowers.— Make careful draw-
ings, preferably in coloured crayons, of any three flowers;
name the parts, and put notes opposite stating the func-
tion of each of the parts, viz. calyx, corolla, stamens,
pistil.

Expt. 62. Ovaries and Seed Eggs (fig. 22).— Pull off
the outer whorls of a pea flower, of an orange flower,

St.

8

Fig. 22.— Pistils, showing ovaries
o, Ovary ; s, style ; st, stigma ; ov, ovules.

and of two other flowers, leaving the pistils intact; in
each case cut across the ovary with a needle or sharp
knife, and observe if it is divided into a number of cells
or not; record the number of cells in each flower, and
observe the small "seed eggs", or ovules, that, after
fertilization, develop into seeds.

Expt. 63. Irregular Flowers.— Examine and make
drawings of the following flowers which, in some respect
or other, are irregular in form: —

(a) Lilies : There are no regular sepals.

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 49

(b) Coco or caladium: There are a number of male and
female flowers without sepals or petals.

(c) Corn: Staminate or pollen - bearing flowers are
borne on the tassel near the top of the plant, while the
pistillate flowers which change into the ear are separate
and are situated lower down.

(d) Sunflower and other Compositce : In reality a number
of small flowers are borne together on a " head ".

(e) Poinsettia: or "six months red and six months green":
A large, conspicuous, and brightly coloured floral bract
surrounds the true flowers.

(/) Swan flower or Dutchman's pipe: Constructed so as
to attract flies and to keep them in captivity until ferti-
lization has taken place.

(g) Orchids: Varied forms, having one of the three
petals more conspicuous than the other two.

FLOWERS AND SEEDS (FERTILIZATION)—

I AND II

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 56-62.)

Expt. 64. Fertilization is due to Ripe Pollen coming"
in contact with Mature Stigma.

(a) Pollinated Pistils develop Fruit. — Examine the pistils
of a number of flowers that have been open for a day or
two, and record whether the stigmas are tipped with
pollen or not; observe which develop into fruits.

(b) Flowers not Pollinated do not produce Fruit. — Cover
over the female flowers on a pumpkin or cucumber vine
with a paper bag or with one of fine muslin before they
open; observe that fruit will not develop from those
flowers, as pollen cannot get at them.

(c) Effect of removing Stamens. — Carefully pull apart
the whorls of any bud bearing both stamens and pistils

( C 282 ) 4

50 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

just before it opens; remove the stamens; put a paper
cover over the plant, and observe that seeds will not
be produced.

Expt. 65. How Plants prevent Self-fertilization.

(a) Stamens and Pistils on Different Flowers. — Examine
and make a list of six plants that have been found, on
examination, to possess stamens and pistils on different
flowers, e.g. begonia, pumpkin, corn, melon.

(b) Different Sexes on Separate Plants. — Make a list of
four plants, the staminate flowers of which are on dif-
ferent trees from the pistillate flowers, e.g. nutmeg,
genip.

Expt. 66. Flowers with Honey. — Make a collection
of ten flowers in which honey or nectar may be found,
e.g. logwood, genip, silk - cotton, mangrove, ebony,
mango.

Expt. 67. Nectaries or Special Receptacles for
Honey. — Make drawings of three flowers that have
specially developed nectaries, e.g. nasturtium.

Expt. 68. Pollen carried by Insects. — Examine a
number of bees visiting flowers and observe how pollen
adheres to them.

Expt. 69. Flowers visited by Birds and Insects. —
Make a list of flowers that you have observed being
visited by —

(a) Hwmming birds: e.g. poinciana, monkey fiddle,
hibiscus ;

(b) Bees: e.g. genip, logwood, ebony, "six months
green and six months red";

(c) Butterflies: e.g. Barbados pride, vervain, sage;

(d) Moths at night: e.g. ragged lily, tiger lily, wild
ginger, evening glory.

Expt. 70. How Flowers attract Insects.
(a) Collect six flowers with brightly coloured petals, e.g.
Bauhinia, ebony, lignum-vitae.

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 51

(b) Collect four flowers with brightly coloured sepals,
e.g. orchids, poinciana.

(c) Collect four flowers with brightly coloured "honey
guides " (i.e. distinct bright lines down the petals), e.g.
morning glory, celandra.

(d) Collect four flowers that have a strong scent, e.g.
stephanotis, Cape jessamine, frangipanni, trumpet flower.

Expt. 71. The Characteristics of Wind -pollinated
Flowers. —

(a) Inconspicuous Colouring. — Examine four wind-polli-
nated flowers and observe their inconspicuous colouring,
e.g. sugar cane, corn.

(b) Exposed Stigmas. — Examine the tassel of a young
ear of corn and observe that the thread-like styles are
sticky, and that they extend beyond the sheath, thus
permitting of their being pollinated by wind -borne
pollen.

(c) Extended Anthers. — Collect some wind-pollinated
flower (e.g. grass) and observe that its anthers hang
out from the flower, so that the wind may easily blow
the pollen to another plant.

SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS— I and II

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. G2-67.)

Expt. 72. Seed Coats. — Soak seeds of corn, broad-
bean, and castor-oil plants, together with three other
kinds of seeds in water. After they have become
swollen, remove the coverings and examine the parts.

Expt. 73. Parts of Corn and Bean Seeds. — After
soaking corn and bean seeds in water, examine and
make drawings of their parts, showing the nature of
the seed coats, the number of the cotyledons, the posi-
tion of the embryo, and the food reserve.

02 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

Expt. 74. Food Stored in Seeds.

(a) Starch in Cotyledons. — Test the cotyledons of the
mango, red pea, and genip for starch, by pouring on a
few drops of iodine solution and observing the dark-
purple colour produced. Compare with result obtained
by adding solution to pure starch.

(b) Starch in Endosperm.— Cut a grain of corn or a
castor-oil seed in two, and test with iodine for starch.

(c) Manufacture of Starch. — Prepare starch from mango
or corn seeds by grating or crushing and washing
with water.

(d) Oil in Seeds. — Prepare oil from coconut, castor-oil,
and two other kinds of seeds by grating or crushing,
boiling with water, and then skimming off the oil that
rises.

Expt. 75. Conditions necessary for Germination.

(a) Water for Germination. — Show that moisture is
necessary for the germination of seeds by putting six
red pea seeds in a dry bottle and six in a bottle with
damp blotting paper at the bottom. Observe and record
which grow.

(b) Air for Germination, — Show that air is necessary
by putting corn seeds in two bottles of water. In one
case use ordinary water; in the other use water that
has been boiled and to which has been added a layer
of sweet oil to prevent the access of fresh air. Record
if there is any difference in the germination of the
seeds.

(c) Warmth for Germination, — Too great heat and too
great cold prevent germination. Put six bean seeds in
a tin, and heat strongly over a fire (without scorching)
for half an hour. Try to germinate. Put another lot
in a pot and keep packed in ice (if obtainable) and
covered with paper.

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK

53

Expt. 76. Development of Seedlings (figs. 23, 24).
(a) Changes that take

Plumule

2)lace as Embryo grows. —
Plant about twelve bean or
corn seeds, and by taking
them up at intervals of two
days observe the changes
that take place. Make
drawings of about six
different stages, showing
how the radicle and
plumule develop.

(b) Position of Seed-coats.
— Grow seedlings of any
six kinds of plants (e.g. coty-
cocoa, coffee, corn, red pea),
and record in which cases
the seed-coats remain be-
low ground and in which
they are brought above it.

(c) Modified Cotyledons.
— Examine seedlings of
the red pea and observe

that the lowest pair of leaves (in reality the cotyledons)
differ from the real leaves higher up.

ledons

..article

Fig. 23.— Germinating Bean

HOW A PLANT FEEDS— I and II

(See Tropical Headers, Book II, pp. 68-74.)

Expt. 77. Roots absorb Mineral Matter in Solution
from the Soil.

(a) Soluble Matter in the Soil. — Shake up a handful of
soil repeatedly in a bottle with about twice its own
volume of water; filter and evaporate the filtrate. The

1, A Dry Seed, showing the ridge corresponding to the
radicle within. 2, A Moistened Seed surrounded by its
swollen, mucilaginous seed-coat. 3, A Seedling, showing
the radicle, root-hairs, and the seed-leaves, not yet freed
from the seed-coat (testa = T). 4, A Seedling before
the lobes of the seed-leaves are quite expanded. 5, A
Seedling, showing the plumule (P), and with the seed-
leaves (c) expanded and ready to work. R = radicle.

Fig. 24
54

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 55

deposit shows that the soil contains mineral matter that
may be dissolved.

(b) Hoots absorb Matter in Solution. — Take up a small
plant carefully and put its roots into a vessel of water
coloured with red ink; after four hours' exposure to
sunlight, examine and note that the red ink has travelled
into the veins of the leaves; pull a portion of the bark
down and cut the stem across, observing that the ink
has travelled up the woody portion only.

(c) Boots cannot absorb Particles in Suspension. — Repeat
the foregoing experiment, colouring the solution with
carmine instead of red ink. In this case no colouring
matter will be absorbed, as the red of the carmine is due
to the small particles that are in suspension and not in
solution.

Expt. 78. Plants get rid of the Surplus of Water by-
Evaporation through their Leaves.

(</) Collection of Water evaporated from a Quango Tree. —
On the morning of a sunn}7 day insert a bunch of leaves
of a guango tree in a wide-mouthed bottle; tie the bottle
to the branch and tightly plug the bottle with a piece
of cloth or cotton wool. Examine in the afternoon and
pour out the water collected.

(b) Collection of Water evaporated from a Cashew Tree.
— Try the same experiment on a cashew tree, the small
leaflets of which are specially adapted to growth in a
dry district, and note that less water will be collected.

(c) Plants unable to secure a Sufficient Supply of Water
will wilt. — Examine the soil in which a growing plant is
wilting; note if it is dry or wet.

(d) Leaves possess Small Openings (Stomata). — Put a leaf
from any tree (e.g. sour-sop, orange) into hot water that
has only just ceased boiling, and note the air bubbles
due to the heated air escaping through the stomata.
The bubbles are chiefly on the under sides.

56

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

Expt. 79. Plants take in Carbon Dioxide, split it
up, retain the Carbon, and give off the Oxygen.

(a) Carbon Dioxide is present in the Air. — Expose some
freshly prepared lime-water in a saucer and observe
the thin white film formed on the surface owing to the
action of carbon dioxide.

(b) Carbon Dioxide gets into the Air by the Breathing of
Animals. — Breathe into lime-water and the same preci-
pitate as found above will be formed, though in larger

quantities.

(c) Plants take in Carbon
Dioxide, forming Starch.

1. Assimilation. — Pick
a green leaf in the after-
noon of a day that has
been sunny, and test with
iodine.1 Starch will be
found.

2. Assimilation will not
take place- in the Dark. —
Put a pot plant in a dark
cupboard for twenty-four
hours. Test with iodine;
no starch will be found.

3. If Stomata are closed, no Assimilation will take place.
— In the morning vaseline both sides of a leaf; pick it
in the afternoon; test with iodine, and observe that no
starch will be found.

(d) Plants give off Oxygen from the Carbon Dioxide taken
in. — Put some watercress or duckweed in a vessel of

^Iodine Test for Starch in Leaves.— After the leaf has been picked, it should
be put in boiling water for two or three minutes. It should then be bleached
by soaking in alcohol. Put the leaf, when more or less colourless, in a solu-
tion of iodine, prepared by dissolving a few crystals of iodine in alcohol or in
a solution of potassium iodide. If starch is present the leaf will be coloured
dark purplish.

Fig. 25.— Plant giving off Oxygen

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 57

water; place it in the sunshine, and notice the rise of
bubbles of oxygen. This gas may be collected by put-
ting a funnel over the leaves and inserting a test tube
with water (see fig. 25). Test for oxygen by carefully
removing the test tube and inserting a glowing taper.

Expt. 80. Plants take in Oxygen and give out Car-
bon Dioxide. — Put some growing shoots in a bottle con-
taining a little water; cork tightly and put in the dark.
In about twenty-four hours test with lime-water and
observe the precipitate due to the carbon dioxide given
out by the young shoots.

HOW PLANTS ARE REARED— I and II

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 74-79.)

Expt. 81. Necessity for Selection of Seed. — Select
seeds from the best fruit of four trees that have been
noticed to bear well. Plant in a suitable position and
well-prepared soil about your home.

Expt. 82. Sowing of Large Seeds. — Plant mango,
pear, cocoa, and orange seeds in a nursery bed in the
School Garden.

Expt. 83. Sowing of Small Seeds. — Plant tobacco,
lettuce, and cabbage seeds in boxes protected from ants;
plant some of each thickly, and others thinly, and in
regular furrows; note that those sown thinly and regu-
larly produce much stronger seedlings and are more
easily transplanted.

Expt. 84. Careful Watering of Seedlings. — Regu-
larly water the seedlings without damaging them.

Expt. 85. Transplanting Seedlings. — When they are
sufficiently grown, move the seedlings, with as much
earth as possible around the roots; plant out in beds.

58

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

Expt. 86. Propagation by Tubers.

(a) Obtain some tubers (e.g. white yam and Irish
potato), cut them into pieces and plant; note the de-
velopment of eyes and the growth of new plants.

(b) Get a glass jam-pot and put a sweet-potato tuber
into it with the uppermost end protruding, fill the vessel
with water, and note the bud that develops.

Expt. 87. Propagation by Bulbs.

(a) Cut the bulb of a red lily or onion in two and look
for the bud from which a new plant may be produced.

(b) Plant a bulb in a pot of soil or in the ground, and
record what growth takes place.

jEpidetrnzb.

Hoot
..Wood

Position o,

%cd '

J&o?

. Calliu)

CorJc

Fig. 26.— Section of the Base of a Woody Cutting

Expt. 88. Cuttings in Soil. — Plant six cuttings each
of hibiscus, sweet potato, and rose. At intervals take
up some of the growing cuttings and observe the forma-
tion of callus and the development of roots (fig. 26).

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK

59

Expt. 89. Cuttings in Water. — Put some croton or
oleander cuttings in water and note the formation of
roots; plant in the soil.

Expt. 90. Layering the Rose. — Layer a branch of
a rose plant by bending it to the ground as shown in
fig. 27. If carefully done this
will be a sure means of propa-
gating roses.

Fig. 27.— Layering
a, Branch to be layered ; b, hooked peg ; c, stick to keep shoot upright.

Expt. 91. Plants that will not grow from Cuttings.
— Discover by experiment three plants that cannot be
grown by cuttings (e.g. orange).

Expt. 92. Budding. — Practise budding on the follow-
ing plants: —

1. Orange.

2. Mango.

3. Rose.

4. Hibiscus.

5. Susumber (use buds of an egg-plant).

Expt. 93. Grafting by Approach. — Raise two grafted
mangoes from a specially good tree by this method of
grafting.

60

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

HOW SOILS ARE FORMED

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 80-83.)

Expt. 94. How Water aids in the Formation of
Soils. — By a riverside or gully observe that —

(a) The water has worn a course for itself over the
land.

(b) Many of the rocks have become broken off and
are still rough.

(c) Rocks that have been rubbed against one another
are smooth.

(d) Sand has been formed as a result of the breaking
up of rocks.

(e) Boulders have been brought down by the river or
gully when in flood.

Expt. 95. Collection of Rough and Smooth Stones.—

Collect eight stones showing various stages in the break-
ing up of rough rocks and the making of the smooth
river stone.

Expt. 96. How Alluvial Soils are formed. —

(a) Observe that in rainy weather
the river is discoloured, owing to
clay and vegetable matter in sus-
pension, and that this is deposited
in the form of silt and mud where
the water flows slowly.

(b) Collect a vessel of discoloured
water from a river (small children
should not be told to do this) or
drainage trench along the roadside,
and allow it to stand for twenty-
four hours (tig. 28). Pour off the water and examine
the residue.

Fig. 28.— Sediment in
River water

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 61

Expt. 97. Action of Water containing Carbon Di-
oxide.— Observe that if pure water is poured on lime-
stone no change takes place, but that if muriatic acid,
vinegar, or limejuice is poured on it it is gradually
dissolved. In a similar manner water, after it has
travelled through the soil, takes up carbon dioxide, and
is then able to dissolve carbonates slowly.

Expt. 98. Animals play an Important Part in mak-
ing' and improving' Soils. —

(a) Observe that remains of animals gradually decom-
pose and form part of the humus in the soil.

(b) Excreta of Animals. — Put some cow or other
manure on a worn-out plot of land, and observe what
beneficial effect it has on the soil.

(c) Value of Bones. — Break up some old bones into as
small pieces as possible, and use as manure.

(d) Work of Earthworms. — Collect some earthworm
casts, crush, and observe the good texture of the
material continually being brought to the surface of
the soil.

Expt. 99. How Vegetation forms and enriches
Soil—

(a) Humus. — Observe that in undisturbed positions
a rich vegetable mould is found under trees from the
decay of leaves and branches that have fallen from
above.

(b) Roots occasionally split Bocks. — Record any instance
that you have seen of the roots of a plant splitting open
a rock.

Expt. 100. How Air aids in the Formation of Soil. —
Examine the surface of rocks exposed to the action of
the air, and observe by scratching that the surface is
softer than the inside.

62 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

KINDS OF SOIL

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 83-86.)

Expt. 101. Sand, Clay, and Vegetable Matter in
Soils. — Put a handful of soil in water, stir with a stick,
and notice that —

(a) The sand it contains settles at the bottom.

(b) The clay remains in suspension.

(c) The vegetable matter rises and floats.

Expt. 102. Lime in Soils. — Add muriatic acid to
samples of different soils, and those containing lime
will effervesce.

Expt. 103. Proportion of Organic Matter in Soils. —
Weigh 1 lb. of soil; place it on a tin sheet; heat it over
a strong fire for two hours, and when cool weigh it
again. The loss of weight is due to the organic matter
burnt, and to the water driven off in the form of vapour.

Expt. 104. Leaves become Decomposed and form
Humus. — Collect fresh leaves and leaves in various
states of decay, showing stages in the formation of
leaf mould and humus.

Expt. 105. Humus becomes Darker in Colour when
Wet. — Dry some leaf mould in the sun; wet it, and
observe that it becomes darker in colour.

Expt. 106. Pure Sand contains no Plant Food. —
Prepare sufficient pure sand to fill a medium-sized pot
by repeatedly washing ordinary sand with water until
no discoloration of the water used is noticed; spread the
clean sand out on an old shovel and heat it on a fire
for half an hour. When cool, plant some bean seeds
in the sand; observe that they grow readily at first,
having sufficient nourishment in the seed, but soon die,
owing to lack of food in the sand.

Expt. 107. Different Kinds of Soil. — By mixing the

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 63

constituents together in the proper proportions, make
different types of soil. Label and put away —

(a) A sandy soil.

(b) A loam.

(c) A clayey soil.

(d) A marl.

MORE ABOUT THE SOIL

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 87 and 88.)

Expt. 108. Available Plant Food. — liepeat Experi-
ment 77, showing that the soil has plant food in
solution.

Expt. 109. The Finer the Tube the Higher the
Liquid rises. — Put two glass tubes of different bore
in a vessel of water coloured with red ink. Note that
the water rises higher in the smaller tube.

Expt. 110. Rise of Water through Porous Sub-
stances.— Put the end of a piece of chalk into some
ink, and note the rise of the ink; show similar action
with three other substances, e.g. blotting paper.

Expt. 111. Rise of Water through Soil. —

(a) Put some soil into a glass tube or into a lamp
chimney; tie a piece of cloth over the bottom and put
it to stand in a vessel containing about 1 in. of water.
Examine after some hours, and notice that the water
has worked its way up through the soil, which has
become moist some distance above the level of the
water.

(b) Make a drawing representing a section of soil,
and showing surface soil, impervious strata, and water
level; draw a kerosene lamp, lighted, and make notes
showing the similarity of evaporation of water from the
surface of the soil to loss of oil from a burning wick.

64 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

TILLAGE

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 89-92.)

Expt. 112. Value of Tillage. — Prepare a bed in the
School Garden, with one half well tilled and the other
hard and untilled. Grow an equal number of similar
plants (say fifty corn plants) in each half, and observe
the better growth and larger yield from the plants in
the tilled soil.

Expt. 113. Roots develop more extensively in a
Well-tilled Soil. — Carefully uproot young plants from
the tilled and untilled portions of the bed mentioned
above and observe the larger development of roots
on those in the former. Make drawings of the root
systems, showing the comparative extent of growth in
each instance.

Expt. 114. Water is more readily absorbed in a
Well-tilled Soil. — Pour a bucket of water on to a
hardened roadway, and observe how much of it runs
off; pour another bucket of water on to a well-tilled
bed, and observe that it is readily absorbed.

Expt. 115. A Loose Surface (or Earth Mulch) aids
in retaining Water in the Soil. —

(a) Notice that on a sunny afternoon the surface of
a well-prepared bed always looks dry. This is due to
the fact that there is little escape of moisture from
underground.

(b) To show that there is water below the dry-
looking surface, step firmly on the middle of the bed.
Return in two hours, and observe that where the soil
was compressed the conditions were made suitable for
the rise of water (by capillary action), and the soil
has become damp.

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 65

Expt. 116. Methods of Tillage.—

(a) Preparation of Bed, — In the School Garden prepare
a thoroughly loosened and well-forked bed.

(b) Cultivation. — Loosen the soil around a growing
plant without injury to the roots.

(c) Earth Mulch. — Keep the surface of the beds in the
School Garden with a layer of well-tilled soil at the
surface — especially if drought is feared.

Expt. 117. Tools. — Make drawings of ten tools,
briefly writing opposite to each its most important use.

DRAINAGE

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 92-95.)

Expt. 118. Drainage a Necessity. — Dig up a
growing weed carefully and plant it in a pan that has
no drainage holes; keep the soil moist, and the plant
will soon die owing to excess of water.

Expt. 119. Water is found Below the Surface of
the Soil.—

(a) Dig deep holes in three different kinds of soils and
note the depth at which the soil shows signs of being moist.

(b) Make a list of any wells that there are in the
district and the depth at which water is obtained.

Expt. 120. To detect whether Drainage is Neces-
sary.— Select a portion of soil and —

(a) Examine surface soil and subsoil, noting if it is
clayey and wet,

(b) Push a stick into the soil and observe if water
is found in the hole when the stick is taken out.

(c) Note if soil sticks to tools.

(d) Try an experiment on a portion of land in the
School Garden to discover whether drainage trenches
improve the return.

( C 282 ) 5

66 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

Expt. 121. Removal of Water by Artificial Drain-
age.—

(a) Observe how the shallow gutters at the side of
the road carry off the excess of water that falls during
a heavy rain.

(b) Examine deep drainage trenches in cultivated
land, especially near the sea. Water may often be
noticed running continually in them, even in dry
weather.

Expt. 122. Lime as an Aid to Free Drainage. —

(a) Bore some holes in a pan and nearly fill it with
powdered clay; pour water in, and notice how slowly it
drains through.

(b) At the same time get another pan and put in it a
mixture of powdered clay and " white lime ". It will be
observed that in this case the water drains through much
more freely.

HOW WE ROB THE SOIL

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 95-98.)

Expt. 123. Under Natural Conditions Plants return
Matter taken from the Soil. — Collect and examine some
of the surface soil in an uncultivated woodland, and ob-
serve that it is dark in colour and composed of decayed
leaves and vegetable matter. On the ground will be
found leaves from the trees above in various stages of
decomposition.

Expt. 124. Soils become Exhausted when Con-
tinually Cropped. — In the School Garden grow plants
repeatedly on one plot without adding manure; observe
that after a time the plants grown there become weakly
and yield poor crops.

Expt. 125. One Reason for practising Rotation of
Crops. — Examine the root system of a turnip and of

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 67

a corn plant; observe that the roots gather food at
different depths.

Expt. 126. Nature teaches that New Plants should
start at a Distance from the Parent. —

(a) Examine a clump of bananas and observe that
the suckers grow outwards and away from the parent.

(b) Collect six kinds of seeds scattered by wind, e.g.
French cotton, logwood, wild allamanda.

(c) Collect four kinds of seeds distributed by animals:
burr-grass, devil's horsewhip, wild plumbago.

(d) Collect four kinds of seeds that are water-borne,
e.g. coconut, antidote cacoon.

HOW WE HELP TO FEED THE PLANTS

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 99-101.)

Expt. 127. General and Special Manures. — Make a
collection of general manures (e.g. stable manure) and of
special manures (e.g. lime and bones).

Expt. 128. Value of Different Kinds of Manure-
Try experiments in the School Garden in order to
show the value of —

(a) Stable manure. (d) Lime.

(b) Cow-peas vine. (e) Wood ashes.

(c) General weeds.

Expt. 129. Plants that gather Nitrogen from the
Air. — Very carefully root up plants of cow-peas, red
peas, shame -lady, rattle - bush, or any other legume,
and observe the wart-like nodules on their roots. The
presence of the nodules is a sign that valuable plant
food (viz. nitrogen) is being taken in from the air.

Expt. 130. The Guango gathers Nitrogen from the
Air and enriches the Soil. — Observe how much greener
the grass generally is under a guango tree.

68 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

Expt. 131. Vegetable Manures improve the Tex-
ture of a Clayey Soil. — Get some clay and powder it,
divide it into two parts, mix one-half with some stable
manure, and put the lots into two tins with holes
bored at the bottom. Put these over two glasses and
pour into each an equal quantity of water. Observe
that the water passes more readily through the clay
that is mixed with manure.

Expt. 132. Vegetable Matter makes Sand Less
Porous. — Try an experiment similar to the one above,
using sand instead of clay, and observe that the mixture
of sand and stable manure is less porous than the pure
sand.

CLIMATE AND PLANT LIFE

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 101-103.)

Expt. 133. Crops of the World. — Make a blank map
of the world, putting in the more important crops grown
in the different countries.

Expt. 134. Crops of Jamaica. — Make a map of
Jamaica, showing the districts in which coffee, sugar
cane, ginger, and bananas are principally grown.

Expt. 135. Study of Plants in District around
School. — Draw a map of the country surrounding the
school for about 4 miles. Fill in different types of
plants that may be seen.

Expt. 136. Plants on the Hills and on the Plains. —
Record any differences that you have noticed between
the plants growing on the hills and those on the plains
known to you.

Expt. 137. Plant Societies. — Collect specimens of
plants characteristic of —

(a) The seashore. (c) The roadsides.

(b) Inland swamps and marshes. (d) Pastures.

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK

69

INSECT PESTS

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 103-106.)

Expt. 138. Collection of Damaged Specimens. —
(a) Collect roots of two different kinds of plants

attacked by insect pests, e.g. root of rose by macacca

worm, root of cocoa by fiddler beetle.

(h) Collect damaged leaves of three different kinds of

plants attacked by caterpillars, e.g. cabbage, tobacco,

sweet potato.

(c) Collect injured
stems of two kinds of
plants attacked by in-
sect borers, e.g. sugar
cane, wild cassada.

(d) Collect a sam-
ple of seeds attacked
by small beetles, e.g.
corn, peas, tamarind.

Expt. 139. Draw-
ing of Insect Pests.
— Make drawings of
three destructive in-
sects, recording what
they damage; colour
with crayon.

Expt. HO. Scale
Insects. — Collect
four different kinds
of scale insects, exam-
ining such plants as

oleanders, oranges, hibiscuses.
Expt. 141. How the Caterpillar changes its Form.

— In a breeding cage (fig. 29), made as shown in the

Fig. 29.

-Breeding Cage for Caterpillars

70

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

figure, put a caterpillar, with some leaves of the plant
on which it was found feeding. Give it as much food
as it will eat from day to day, and watch. Record the
date on which it turns into a chrysalis, and also when
the adult insect (butterfly or moth) emerges (fig. 30).

EGGS (ova)

CHRYSALIS ( PUPA)

CATERPILLAR (LARVA)

MOTH (IMACO)

Fig. 30.— Development of a Moth (the eggs on the left of the leaf are

highly magnified)

Expt. 142. Damage done to Corn by Grub inside.
— Open some grains of corn attacked by the corn weevil,
and observe the white grub inside that does the damage.

Expt. 143. List of Insect Pests in District. — Compile
a tabulated list of plants that are attacked by insects.
Record —

(a) Name of plant.

(b) Name of pest.

(c) Nature of damage.

(d) Remedy found effectual.

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 71

The list should be added to from time to time, and it is
suggested that the teacher should compile the list, and
should encourage the children to report pests noticed by
them.

Expt. 144. Remedies. —

(a) Handpicking. — Each child should take part in hand-
picking caterpillars, beetles, &c, which attack plants in
the School Garden or at home.

(b) Spraying with Paris Green for Biting Insects. — The
teacher may himself show the elder children how Paris
green should be used if a suitable occasion offers. As
this remedy for caterpillars and other foliage-eaters is a
deadly poison, it should only be used where the utmost
precautions are possible and will be taken.

(c) Kerosene Emulsion1 for Sucking Insects. — Wash the
portions of a plant badly covered with scale insects, or
with thrips, with kerosene emulsion. Kepeat treatment
in twelve days.

Expt. 145. Natural Enemies of Insects. — Make a list
of any birds, reptiles, or any other animals that you have
seen catching insects.

Expt. 146. Parasites upon Animals. — Make a list of
any small parasites that you have observed living on
domestic animals.

Expt. 147. Ticks.

(a) Collect as many different kinds of ticks as you
can, and make drawings of them.

(b) Put a large engorged silver tick in a well-corked
bottle, and leave until she has laid her eggs. Keep
until the eggs hatch into grass-lice. Kill all with boil-
ing water.

1¥ot preparation of insecticides, see Suggestions for School Gardens, p. 144.

72 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

III. Cultivation of Crops

For general notes on the study of Economic Plants
see pp. 24-29 of this Companion.

IV. Health

WHY WE EAT

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 136-140.)

Expt. 148. Functions of Foods. — In a tabular form
set out the functions of foods. In the first column put
the names of the different types, in the second, examples
of each class, and in the third column their functions.

Expt. 149. Kinds of Foods. — Collect two samples
each of the different kinds of foods:

(a) Carbonaceous, e.g. starch, sugar.

(b) Nitrogenous, e.g. lean meat, white of egg.

(c) Mineral, e.g. salt.

Expt. 150. Carbon and Nitrogen in Foods. — To

illustrate the presence of these important elements in
foods —

(a) Carbon: Heat meat and bread, and the carbon will
be noticed as they char.

(b) Nitrogen: Powder cheese, and mix it with lime;
apply heat, and test for ammonia with a piece of mois-
tened litmus or turmeric paper. (Red litmus will be
turned blue, and yellow turmeric will be reddened, if
ammonia is present.)

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 73

HEAT-GIVING FOODS

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 140-144.)

Expt. 151. Heat-giving Foods. — Collect small samples
of five heat-giving foods, e.g. arrowroot, rice, corn, yam.

Expt. 152. Many Foods contain Starch. —

(a) Prepare starch from yam, corn, potato, and rice,
by grating or pounding, putting on a piece of muslin,
washing and squeezing through the cloth into a vessel;
allow the fine grains of starch which pass through to
settle.

(b) Pour iodine on to a slice of Irish potato, and ob-
serve the dark-blue coloration, due to the presence of
starch.

Expt. 153. Sugar found in Plants.

(a) Prepare sugar from cane juice by adding lime
(about one tablespoonful to a quart), skimming, and
evaporating a small quantity.

(b) Squeeze some juice from an orange or pineapple,
put it in a vessel, and evaporate it; observe the sugar.

Expt. 154. Oils obtained from Plants.

(a) Coconut Oil. — Find out how coconut oil is pre-
pared, and write an account of the method.

(b) Oil in Citrus Fruits. — Squeeze the fresh rind of a
tangerine or shaddock into a candle flame, and observe
how the oil takes fire.

Expt. 155. Effect of Heat on Starch. — Soak some rice
grains in hot water, and note how quickly they swell.

Expt. 156. Fat is a better Heat - producer than
Meat. — Put a lighted match to a bit of lean meat and
to a piece of fat, and observe which burns more readily.

Expt. 157. Tapioca. — Obtain some tapioca, and write
an account of how it is made.

74 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

FLESH-FORMING FOODS

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 144-147.)

Expt. 158. Flesh -formers. — Collect three foods of
animal origin containing albuminoids, e.g. white of egg,
lean meat.

Expt. 159. Casein from Milk. — Add vinegar (acetic
acid) or lime-juice (citric acid) to milk, and stir; when
the curd, consisting largely of casein, is formed, pour on
to a filter paper.

Expt. 160. Gluten from Corn and Wheat. — Prove
that gluten may be got from both corn and wheat by
pounding them to fine white powder in separate cloth
bags ; rub under water between the fingers. The starch
will pass through into the water, and the gluten will be
left behind as a sticky mass.

Expt. 161. ^Gluten cannot be got from Rice. — Repeat
the above experiment, using rice instead of corn, and it
will be found that no gluten will be obtained.

Expt. 162. Fibrin from Blood. — Stir some fresh blood
with a bit of stick, and observe that the fibrin in it soon
forms a semi-solid substance ; wash clean with water.

Expt. 163. Albumen in White of Eggs. — Pour some
white of egg in a bottle ; pour on some water, and cork ;
thoroughly shake up for about four minutes; filter, and
heat the filtrate; observe that the albumen coagulates.

A FEW COMMON FOODS

0

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 147-150.)

Expt. 164. Composition of some Common Foods. —
(a) Yam. — Determine the amount of starch found in
1 lb. of yam by grating it finely, mixing with water,

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 75

straining through a coarse cloth into a clean vessel,
and allowing to settle; weigh the dried starch.

Weigh 1 oz. of yam, cut it into small pieces, and
put it into a tin partly immersed in boiling water.
Weigh the yam after four hours, and calculate the
amount of water that has been lost.

Burn 2 oz. of yam, and observe the mineral matter,
or ash, that is left.

(b) Sweet Potato. — Treat an equal quantity of the
sweet-potato tuber in the same way.

(c) Coin. — Prepare starch, oil, and gluten from a
sample of native corn. Collect samples of various pre-
parations made from corn.

(d) Bice. — Powder 1 oz. of rice, wash in a muslin bag,
allowing the starch to pass into a tin in which it can
settle; pour off the water; dry and weigh the starch.

(e) Beans. — Dry some beans in the sun; powder and
mix with lime; heat and test for ammonia with mois-
tened litmus paper (see Experiment 1505).

Expt. 165. Ripe and Unripe Bananas. — Taste ripe
and unripe bananas, and record which are sweeter; find
out if cooking a green banana makes it taste any
sweeter.

Expt. 166. Animal Foods. — Collect small portions of
eight different kinds of animal food, e.g. milk, pork,
beef. Observe the extent to which fat is present in the
samples collected.

THE BEST KIND OF DIET

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 150-153.)

Expt. 167. Too many Heat-giving Foods. — Collect
samples of foods commonly eaten that do not contain
a sufficient quantity of albuminoids, e.g. yam, sweet
potato, bread-fruit.

76 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

Expt. 168. Necessity for a Mixed Diet. — Collect
small samples of different foods, some of which consist
principally of carbonaceous matter, and others of which
are rich in nitrogen. Put them together so as to form
a satisfactory mixture of heat-giving and flesh-forming
foods, e.g. rice and peas, salt fish and akee.

Expt. 169. Milk a Mixed Food.—

(a) Albumen. — Pour some lime-juice on milk, and ob-
serve that the albumen coagulates in the form of curd.

(b) Fat. — This may be observed by allowing a glass
of milk to stand for some time.

(c) Sugar is contained in the whey. Evaporate the
whey on an enamel dish over the fire; it will soon char.

(d) Ash. — Continue burning, and the residue will be
mineral matter.

WATER— I and II

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 153-160.)

Expt. 170. Properties of Water. — Examine some
water and observe that —

(a) It is a clear, tasteless, inodorous liquid.

(b) It is colourless in small quantities, but in large
quantities it has a bluish tint.

Expt. 171. Three States of Water. — Get a lump of
ice; allow it to melt; boil the water so formed until it
has all passed off as steam.

Expt. 172. Water dissolves Solids. — Put some com-
mon salt or some magnesium sulphate in water, stir until
dissolved; taste the liquid to prove the presence of the
substances in solution.

Expt. 173. Difference in Rain-, River-, and Sea-
water. — Evaporate equal quantities of rain-water, river-

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 77

water, and sea-water. Eecord the relative quantity of
residue in each case, and taste that from sea-water.

Expt. 174. Softness of Rainwater. — Show that soap-
suds are easily formed in rain-water; rain-water is there-
fore called soft.

Expt. 175. How to make Rain-water Hard. — Get a
quart of rain-water; through a glass tube or bit of small
bamboo breathe into it so as to supply it with carbon
dioxide; add J lb. of marl or powdered chalk; allow it
to soak for twenty-four hours, stirring and breathing
into it occasionally. Test with soap, and note that
soapsuds are not so easily formed as in the case of
the rain-water.

Expt. 176. Water also contains Gases. — Shake up a
vessel of water, put over a fire, and observe that bubbles
of air pass off long before the water boils.

Expt. 177. Weight of Water. — Discover by experi-
ment the weight of 1 gallon of water.

Expt. 178. Formation of Water by Combination of
Oxygen and Hydrogen. — Invert a tumbler over a burn-
ing candle, and observe drops of water formed by the
combination of the oxygen of the air and the hydrogen
of the candle.

Expt. 179. Presence of Sewage Matter. — Shake a
mixture of water and a little stable manure in a bottle;
observe the dark appearance. Pour into a dilute solu-
tion of permanganate of potash, and observe that the
sewage destroys the colour of the permanganate.

Expt. 180. Contamination of Ponds. — Make a draw-
ing of a pond, showing how the water in it may get
contaminated.

Expt. 181. The Best Means of purifying Water for
Drinking Purposes. — Boil some water, and note that
water should never be drunk unless it has been boiled.

78 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

OTHER BEVERAGES

(See Tropical Headers, Book II, pp. 160-162.)

Expt. 182. Cocoa is a Nutritious Food containing
the following: —

(a) Fat. — (i) Prepare "cocoa butter" from some
cured pods.

(ii) Draw a cup of chocolate from native cocoa, and
observe the fat globules.

(b) Starch. — (i) Grate some cured cocoa beans, and
wash in a muslin bag over a vessel.

(ii) Test with iodine, and observe the dark-blue
coloration due to starch.

(c) Gluten. — Grate some nuts, tie in a small muslin
bag, and wash under water. The sticky substance left
is partly gluten.

Expt. 183. A Good Cup of Coffee. — Divide a pint
of coffee into three portions. Parch one portion too
much, another too little, and the rest properly. Draw
a cup of coffee with each, and observe that only that
which has been correctly parched is palatable.

Expt. 184. Preparation of a Cup of Tea. —

(a) Prepare a cup of tea by pouring boiling water on
to the leaves and letting it stand for two minutes. Pour
off, and observe clear colour and palatable taste.

(b) Compare tea as drawn above with tea that has
been put in warm water and boiled for ten minutes.
Observe bitter taste and dark colour due to tannin.

Expt. 185. Beverages. --Make rough drawings of
eight fruits from which beverages are obtained, e.g.
coffee, lime, coconut.

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 79

WHAT BECOMES OF OUR FOOD

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 163-166.)

Expt. 186. Flow of Saliva. — Observe that as a bit of
bread or any food is chewed, saliva accumulates in the
mouth.

Expt. 187. Saliva changes Starch into Sugar. — Keep
some starch in the mouth for a little time, and observe
that it becomes sweetish to the taste. The change is
more easily noticed by putting a second lot of starch
in the mouth and observing the contrast.

Expt. 188. Sweetbread. — Obtain a "sweetbread" from
a butcher and make a drawing of it.

Expt. 189. Diagram of Digestive Organs and Juices.
— Copy the diagram of the digestive organs on page 164,
and show the position of the mouth, the gullet, the
stomach, and the intestines. In the diagram made by
you, show where the saliva, the gastric juice, the bile,
and the pancreatic juice meet the food in its course
through the body.

THE AIR WE BREATHE

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 166-169.)

Expt. 190. Composition of the Atmosphere. — Show
the presence of the following in the air: —

(a) Oxygen. — Fan some smouldering coals, and note
that the fresh supply of oxygen thus brought to the
coals causes them to burn more brightly.

(b) Nitrogen. — Burn a small bit of phosphorus (less
than half the size of a red pea) under a bell jar standing
in water (fig. 31). Observe that the gas forms four-
fifths of the air, and by testing it with a lighted taper

80

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

Fig. 31.— Preparation of
Nitrogen

show that it will neither support combustion nor take

fire.

(c) Carbon Dioxide. — Expose a saucer (preferably a

blue one) containing some freshly-
made lime-water to the air for a
number of hours. Observe the
milky precipitate found on the
surface.

(d) Water Vapour. — Put a glass
of cold water in a warm room.
Observe the drops of water con-
densing on the outer side of the
vessel.

(e) Impurities. — Note the par-
ticles seen floating in the path
of a sunbeam. Shake a dusty

coat or cushion near by and see how the number in-
creases.

Expt. 191. Plants and Animals depend on one
another for the Gases they breathe.

(a) Animals require Oxygen. — If an insect be put in
a jar containing no oxygen it will soon die.

(b) Plants give out Oxygen. — Put some shoots of water-
cress or other water plant in a vessel of water; observe
the bubbles of oxygen rising. Collect as shown in
fig. 25, and test for oxygen by carefully removing the
test tube and inserting a glowing match.

(c) Plants require Carbon Dioxide. — Char a bit of wood,
proving the presence of carbon in plants.

(d) Animals give off Carbon Dioxide. — Breathe through
a tube into lime-water, and observe the heavy precipi-
tate, proving the presence of carbon dioxide in the
gases breathed out.

Expt. 192. Oxygen necessary for Combustion. — Put
a lighted candle in a wide-mouthed bottle or jar, cover

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK

81

over, and notice that the candle goes out as the oxygen
is used up.

Expt. 193. Burning Substances add Carbon Dioxide
to the Air. — After observing that the candle goes out
in the experiment above, add lime-water and shake. A
milky precipitate will be noticed.

Expt. 194. Where the Water Vapour in the Air
conies from.

(a) Plants. — Tie a wide-mouthed bottle on to a branch
of a guango tree, and observe that water condenses in-
side. The mouth of the bottle should be closed.

(b) Animals. — Breathe against a piece of glass, and
observe the moisture deposited.

(c) Water Surfaces. — Observe how water exposed in a
saucer evaporates into the air. In a similar way water
in the sea, rivers, ponds, &c, is always passing ofl' into
the air in the form of vapour.

WHY THE WIND BLOWS

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 169-171.)

Expt. 195. Air expands when
Heated. — Fit up a flask as shown in
fig. 32; heat gently, and observe that
the hot air expands as shown by the
rising of the drop of water.

Expt. 196. Warm Air rises. — Put
light bits of paper or small feathers
above a fire, in a chimney for example,
and observe how they rise with the
warm air.

Expt. 197. How a Balloon may be
made. — Make a balloon about 2 ft. in

(C282)

Fig. 32. — Expansion
of Air when heated

6

82 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

diameter by pasting paper over a very light framework;
put two fine wires crossing one another at the opening
at the bottom; tie a sponge where the wires meet, and
saturate it with alcohol; set fire to the sponge and the
balloon will rise. This experiment should only be done
by the teacher.

Expt. 198. Soil both absorbs and gives out Heat
more quickly than Water. — Heat at the same time
over the same fire a tin filled with soil and another
of equal size filled with water, for five to ten minutes;
observe which gets hotter. Allow both to cool, and
observe which cools first, remembering that the soil was
the hotter.

VENTILATION

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 171-174.)

Expt. 199. A well -ventilated Building.— Write a
description of any building that you consider well ven-
tilated.

Expt. 200. A badly-ventilated Building. — Write a
description of any building that you consider to be
badly ventilated.

Expt. 201. Small Quantity of Carbon Dioxide in Air
taken into Lungs. — Leave a vessel of lime water ex-
posed to the air. Observe that it turns milky, but very
slowly, as there is only 0-04 per cent of carbon dioxide
present in the air which is taken into the lungs.

Expt. 202. Larger Quantity of Carbon Dioxide (about
4 7 per cent) found in Air breathed out. — Breathe
through a glass tube or small bamboo into a vessel of
lime water. A heavy milky precipitate will be formed.

Expt. 203. Carbon Dioxide on Floor of Sleeping-
room. — Put a saucer with lime-water on the floor of

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 83

a badly ventilated room in which a number of persons
sleep. Observe the precipitate on the surface of the
lime-water.

THE CLOTHES WE WEAR

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 174-178.)

Expt. 204. Sources of Materials used for Clothing.
— Make drawings of the plants or animals from which
the materials used for clothing may be obtained.

Expt. 205. Collection of Materials used for Clothing.
— Make a collection of the different classes of materials
used for clothing, and to each attach a label, with its
name and a note about its special uses.

Expt. 206. Effect of Heat on Different Colours.—
Expose bits of white and black cloth of the same size
and material in the sun on a hot day. Observe which
gets hotter first.

Expt. 207. Flannel is very absorbent of Moisture. —
Observe that a flannel shirt absorbs more perspiration
than a linen or cotton one.

SOIL AND CLIMATE, OR WHERE TO LIVE—

I AND II

(See Tropical Readers, Book II, pp. 178-183.)

Expt. 208. Healthy and Unhealthy Sites for Houses.

(a) Notice the nature of the country around the
school, and decide on a position that you think would
be a healthy site for a house. Record the reasons for
your selection.

84 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

(b) Notice the nature of the country around the
school, and decide on a position that you think would
be an unhealthy site for a house. Record the reasons for
your selection.

(c) Make a drawing showing a desirable situation for a
house ; indicate the elevation, prevailing winds, character
of soil and subsoil, &c.

(d) Make a rough drawing showing an undesirable
situation for a house; indicate elevation, nature of soil
and subsoil, neighbouring swamps, &c.

INSECTS THAT CARRY DISEASE

Investigations, made since the preparation of the
Tropical Readers have shown conclusively the important
part played by insects in conveying diseases from one
person to another, and attention is therefore here drawn
to the subject. The value of health is generally recog-
nized, and the benefit to the community generally will
be great if each teacher makes his school a medium for
spreading information as to how the dangers of infection
through the agency of insects may be lessened. Mos-
quitoes, flies, fleas, and bugs are amongst our worst
foes, and the illustration shows the diseases for which
they are responsible.

MOSQUITOES

Expt. 209. Connection between Breeding Places of
Mosquitoes and Malarial Fever. — Make a list of dis-
tricts where people suffer commonly from malaria. In
each case state if there are swamps near by, and if mos-
quitoes are plentiful.

Expt. 210. Search should always be made for likely
Breeding Places of Mosquitoes. — Look for any likely

MOSQUITO

(enlarged)

Carrier of
Malaria, yellow fever, filaria.

Breeds in
Stagnant water.

Prevention:
Remove breeding places.

HOUSE FLY

(a little larger than natural size)

Carrier of
Typhoid and skin diseases.

Breeds in

Stable manure, garbage, etc.

Prevention:

Bury manure, burn rubbish,
use disinfectants.

Remedies:
Traps, fly papers.

(much enlarged)

Carrier of
Bubonic plague.

Breeds on
Rats and other animals.

Prevention :
Cleanliness.

Remedies:

Trap and poison rats; clean
floors with Jeyes' and Cyllin.

BED-BUG

(line shows natural size)

( 'arrier of
Yaws and other skin diseases.

Breeds in
Crevices of beds, etc.

Prevention :
Cleanliness.

Remedies :

Boiling water, Keating's,

kerosene oil.

C282

INSECTS THAT CARRY DISEASES

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 85

breeding places (pools, empty tins, broken bottles, &c.)
to be found at home or near the school.

Expt. 211. Stagnant Pools of Water should be
filled up.— Fill up any stagnant pools of water found
near your home, and likely to form suitable places in
which mosquitoes may lay their eggs.

Expt. 212. Empty Cans and Half-broken Bottles
likely to collect Water should be removed. — From
time to time collect empty tins and half-broken bottles
left lying about, and bury them so as to prevent their
becoming breeding places for mosquitoes.

Expt. 213. Mosquitoes often breed in Places used
for storing Water. — Constantly examine barrels and
other vessels in which water is stored for use.

Expt. 214. Kerosene Oil kills Wrigglers if poured
on to the Water in which they are found. — Pour some
water containing wrigglers into a glass; observe that the
wrigglers come to the surface to breathe. Pour some oil
on the surface of the water, and note that the wrigglers
soon die, because the oil prevents their getting air.

Expt. 215. Common Wrigglers found in Water
change into Mosquitoes. — Put some wrigglers into a
bottle not quite filled with water, and covered over
with a cloth bag. Notice the wrigglers from day to
day, and observe the changes that take place until the
adult mosquitoes are produced.

Expt. 216. How to detect Wrigglers of the Malaria
Mosquitoes. — Observe that- these rest in a horizontal
position when they are breathing at the surface of the
water.

Expt. 217. How to detect the Malarial Mosquitoes.

— Carefully watch mosquitoes as they bite, and observe
that in malarial districts some stand with their bodies

86 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

almost upright; these are the kind that cause malarial
fever.

FLIES

Expt. 218. Dirty Habits of Flies. — Observe that flies
crawl over animal excreta, and over decomposed vege-
table matter; observe, also, that they often fly direct on
to food for human consumption.

Expt. 219. How to trap Flies. — Three-quarters fill
a tin or glass with strong soap water; take a piece of
bread or thick paper, make a small hole in the centre,
and put a circle of jam or molasses around the hole on
one side of the bread. Now place the bread over the
mouth of the glass, having its hole over the centre of
the glass, and the circle of jam on the under side next to
the soapsuds. Expose where flies are common.

Expt. 220. To prevent Flies breeding. — Burn all
rubbish, and have stable manure buried or removed.
Keep closets constantly disinfected with earth, lime,
and ashes.

FLEAS AND BUGS

Expt. 221. Fleas on different Animals. — Catch fleas
from as many animals as you can.

Expt. 222. Fleas breed in Dirty Rooms. — Observe
that fleas are most common in rooms that have been left
unclean for a long time.

Expt. 223. How to destroy Fleas. — If opportunity
arises, try the following methods of destroying fleas: —

(a) Clean floors with Cjdlin, Jeyes, tobacco decoction,
or dumb-cane.

(b) Wash pet animals (e.g. dogs) with tobacco decoc-
tion and soap; hand-pick and kill fleas while they are
still stupefied after the washing.

EXPERIMENTS AND PRACTICAL WORK 87

Expt. 224. How to destroy Bed Bugs. — If one is

seen, immediately search diligently in all likely cre-
vices for eggs and young ones, destroying with boiling
water or kerosene oil on a feather. Never let one pass,
as they breed rapidly, and are dangerous to health.

VI. THE SCHOOL GARDEN

ESTABLISHMENT OF A SCHOOL GARDEN

The establishment and care of a School Garden should
be regarded as one of the most important duties of a
teacher in any part of the country. Full information
on such important points as the following may be ob-
tained from the book, Suggestions for School Gardens,
by the Hon. J. R. Williams, M.A., our present Super-
intending Inspector of Schools: —

Selection of plot.
Tools.

Clearing the ground.
Fencing.

Plan of the garden.

Laying out the garden: Paths, beds, trenches.
Soil, tillage, drainage, manure.
Seed beds and seed boxes.
Seedlings, potting.
Care of plants : Weeding, pruning.
Propagation of plants.
Rotation of crops and catch crops.
Friends and enemies of the garden : Insect pests.
Cultivation of vegetables.

Cultivation of economic crops — The following have
been dealt with: Cocoa, coffee, ginger, pine-

88

THE SCHOOL GARDEN 89

apple, tobacco, banana, cotton, orange, guinea
corn, sarsaparilla, pindars, vanilla, grapes.
Some insecticides.

Work in a School Garden offers great possibilities,
although it presents many difficulties. Teachers will
find that forethought and preparation for the various
branches of the work are absolutely necessary to pre-
vent many of the children, if not the majority, wasting
their time.

Putting monitors in charge -of small groups, and telling
them very definitely beforehand what is expected of
them, will be found a useful practice. Pupils should
be given certain tasks for various periods of time. It
might be one child's duty for a month to keep the
garden free of bits of paper, dead leaves, &c. ; another
might for a week have to water certain plants, and a
third have charge of the walks.

OBJECTS OF WORK

What the main object of work in a School Garden
should be is still disputed by educationalists and others
interested in the subject. Some would insist that the
training of a child's powers of observation is the only
object to be attained, and that it would be both out of
place and useless, owing to the age at which children
leave the public elementary schools, to endeavour to
inculcate practices and to teach facts that would be of
direct use in after life.

School Garden work may be considered to serve three
distinct purposes, and although complete realization of
these cannot be hoped for, much of value may be accom-
plished in each class.

90 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

The main objects are —

(1) Practical illustration of the agricultural principles
taught in the schoolroom.

(2) Development — and creation, if need be — of the
child's interest in gardening and nature study.

(3) The teaching of facts and training in practices
likely to be of direct agricultural value to the child later.

I. PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATION OF PRINCIPLES OF

AGRICULTURE

Attention is drawn throughout the chapters of the
Tropical Reader to many of the principles on which
successful cultivation is based. The School Garden
will be the means of giving the children an opportu-
nity of putting these into practice, with the result
that the lessons taught will be better understood, and
will be more likely to be of permanent value. When-
ever it is possible the experiments should be carried
out in the School Garden, and in many cases this can
be done. A list of those experiments specially suitable
is given below. Each has been described fully in an
earlier part of this Companion.

Experiments and Practical Work

Roots, I. —

10. Development of roots from radicle of bean seed.

11. Development of roots from radicle of corn seed.

Roots, II. —

12. Storage of food in roots.
14. Necessity for roots.

16. Tuberous roots and tubers.

Stems and Shoots, I. —

17. Food solution travels up stem from roots.

18. Food solution travels up through woody portion
of stem.

THE SCHOOL GARDEN 91

22. Cuttings in water.

23. Food does not travel down the stem if the
cambium layer is injured.

24. Corms and bulbs.

Fruits. —

49. Development of fruit from flowers.

Seeds. —

58. How the store of food for the embryo is used.

59. Number of seed leaves.

Flowers and Seeds. —

64 b. Flowers not pollinated do not produce fruit.
64 c. Effect of removing stamens.

Seeds and Seedlings. —
76 b. Position of seed coats.
76 c. Modified cotyledons.

How Plants are reared. —

82. Sowing of large seeds.

83. Sowing of small seeds.

86. Propagation by tubers.

87. Propagation by bulbs.

88. Cuttings in soil.

89. Cuttings in water.

90. Layering a rose.

91. Plants that will not grow from cuttings.

92. Budding.

93. Approach grafting.

How Soils are formed. —

98. Animals play an important part in making and
improving soil.

Kinds of Soil. —

101. Sand, clay, and vegetable matter in soils.

102. Lime in soils.

92 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

103. Proportion of organic matter in soils.

104. Leaves become decomposed and form humus.

105. Humus becomes darker in colour when wet.

106. Pure sand contains no plant food.

107. Different kinds of soil.

Tillage.—

112. Value of tillage.

113. Roots develop more extensively in a well-tilled
soil.

114. Water is more readily absorbed in a well-tilled
soil.

115. A loose surface aids in retaining water in the
soil.

116. Methods of tillage.

Drainage.—

118. Drainage a necessity.

119. Water is found below the surface of the soil.

120. To detect whether drainage is necessary.
122. Lime as an aid to free drainage.

How we rob the Soil. —

1 24. Soils become exhausted when continually cropped.

125. One reason for practising rotation of crops.

Insect Pests. —

144 a. Hand-picking.

144 b. Spraying for biting insects with Paris green.

144 c. Kerosene emulsion for sucking insects.

II. DEVELOPMENT OF INTEREST IN GARDENING

This is an important side of the subject, and one
affecting the future prosperity of the island.

Teachers will have to exercise tact, and though the
children must do a reasonable amount of work, they

THE SCHOOL GARDEN 93

must be made to regard such labour with pleasure and
to look forward to it.

Give the children a difficult task and make them feel
a sense of responsibility; arouse their interest by ex-
citing rivalry; let them understand the reason for what
they have to do; let them participate, even to a small
extent, in any profit there may be.

Interest created in their work as pupils will doubtless
react to their benefit when they leave school, and may
lead to their cultivating the soil for benefit and profit.

III. TEACHING OF FACTS OF AGRICULTURAL

VALUE

The third function of a School Garden has special
reference to the elder children, who should be taught
to perform carefully the tasks mentioned below. The
teacher might give the boys certificates of competency
when they prove themselves efficient at such work, but
care should be taken to insist on a high standard of
reliability and workmanship.

It is beyond the scope of this Supplement to give
details as to how the work should be done, and refer-
ence must be made to Suggestions for School Gardens,
already referred to, and to other manuals. Teachers
who have attended the annual course of practical train-
ing in agriculture will be best qualified to undertake
this work.

The following are suggested tasks that the children
should be able to do before leaving school: —

1. Lining Out a Bed. — To line out a bed of uniform
width, making use of a cord, pegs, and measurements.

2. Preparation of Soil. — To prepare the soil thor-
oughly and make a neat bed.

3. Holes for Plants. — To make a deep and wide hole
for the reception of a plant.

94 COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

4. Filling and Draining of Pots. — To fill a pot or
box for plants, making provision for free drainage.

5. Pathways and Borders. — To make a neat edge
to a pathway and keep the path free of weeds and
dead leaves.

6. Propagation by Seeds. — To sow small seeds in
regular furrows and cover them to a correct depth.

7. Protection of Seeds from Ants. — To protect a box
in which seeds are to be sown so that ants cannot get at
them.

8. Careful Watering. — To water seeds sown, seedlings,
and delicate plants without damaging them.

9. Propagation by Cuttings.— To make, set, and care
for cuttings.

10. Transplanting. — To transplant seedlings, as well
as established plants, with an intact ball of soil.

11. Removal of Weeds. — To remove weeds from a
garden bed or pathway be/ore they seed.

12. Insect Pests. — To search plants regularly for
pests likely to attack them.

13. Soil Cultivation. — To loosen the soil around the
roots of a growing plant without injuring them.

14. Application of Manure. — To fork in well-rotted
stable manure round the roots of a plant.

15. Care of Tools. — To keep tools in good working
order, sharp, and with well-fitting handles, and to put
them away in one place after use.

16. General Tidiness. — To keep a garden tidy, re-
moving bits of paper, dead branches, withered flowers,
&c.

APPENDIX

THE NAMES OF PLANTS

As many of the common weeds and other plants
referred to in this Companion have different names in
different parts of the island, the botanical names of such
plants are given below. Should doubt arise in any case
as to identification, the matter should be referred to a
botanist.

The fruit and important shade trees are so well
known throughout the West Indies that it is not con-
sidered necessarv to include their scientific names.

Common Name.

Botanical Name.

Acalypha.
Allamanda, wild.

Acalypha marginata.
Tecoma stans.

Aralia.

Barbados pride.
Bine-pear.
Broom -weed.

Aralia Guilfoylei.
Caesalpinia pulcherrima.
Hylocereus triangularis.
Sida carpinifolia.

Burr-grass.
Butterfly plant.
Cerasee.

Cenchrus (two species).
Bauhinia variegata.
Momordica balsamina.

Choya (Cleome).
Clammy cherry.
Coralilla.

Cleome pungens.
Cordia Collococca.
Porana paniculata.

Cowitch.

Mucuna pruriens.

Crocus (snowdrop).
Dagger plant.

Zephyranthes (several species).
Yucca aloifolia.

95

96

COMPANION TO TROPICAL READERS

Common Name.

Botanical Name.

Devil's-horsewhip.

Duck-weed.

Dumb-cane.

Duppy- cherry.

Dutchman's pipe.

Eddoe.

Four o'clock.

French cotton.

Jack-in-the-bush.

Jerusalem candlestick.

Leaf-of-life.

Monkey fiddle.

Nettle.

Penguin.

Plumbago, wild.

Prickly-pear.

Rattle-bush.

Sand-box tree.

Silk-cotton (Ceiba).

Tania.

Velvet leaf.

Wandering Jew.

Water- cress.

Water-hyacinth.

Water-lily.

Wax plant.

Wild cassada.

Wild ginger.

Wild thistle.

Achyranthes aspera.
Lemna minor.
Dieffenbachia Seguine.
Ehretia tinifolia.
Aristolochia (several species).
Zanthosoma esculenta.
Mirabilis Jalapa.
Calatropis procei*a.
Cordia cylindrostachya.
Euphorbia lactea.
Bryophyllum calycinum.
Pedilanthus (two species).
Tragia volubilis.
Bromelia Pinguin.
Plumbago scandens.
Opuntia Tuna.
Crotalaria (several species).
Hura crepitans.
Eriodendron anfractuosum.
Zanthosoma esculenta.
Cissampalos Pareira.
Zebrina pendula.
Nasturtium fontanum.
Eichhornia speciosa.
Nelumbium jamaicensis.
Hoya carnosa.
Turpinia occidentalis.
Hedychium coronarium.
Argemone mexicana.

New York Botanical Garden Library

QH55 .W67 )uv

Wortley, E. J. /A companion to Blackie s

3 5

85 00043 5592